Work Motivation

D Chao PhD
 Motivation
• The word “motivation” was derived from the Latin
word “movere”, which means “to move”. It can be
defined as how behaviour starts, energized,
sustained, directed and stopped.

• Motivation is defined as the process that initiates,

guides, and maintains the goal oriented
behaviours. Motivation is what causes us to act,
whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce our
thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge
• Motivation also refers to the arousal, directions,
and persistence of behavior.

• Interest in human motivation can be traced as

far back as historical records go, and what
motivates human continues to intrigue us.
The concept of Motivation involves the biological, emotional,
social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday
usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a
person does something. For example, you might say that a
student is so motivated to get into a MCA program that she
spends every night studying.
 Importance of Motivation at Work
Place
• 1. Puts Human Resources into Action
Every concern employee requires physical, financial and human resources
(HR) to accomplish the goals. It is through motivation that the HR can be
utilized by making full use of it. This can be done by building willingness in
employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best possible
utilization of resources.

• 2. Improves Level of Efficiency

• The level of an employee does not only depend upon his qualifications
and abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap between
ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the level of
performance.
This will lead to:
• Increase in productivity,
• Reducing cost of operations, and
• Improving overall efficiency.
• 3. Leads to Attainment of Organizational Goals
• Organizational goals can be achieved only when the following
factors take place:-
• There is best possible utilization of resources,
• There is a co-operative work environment,
• The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner,
• Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place
simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.

4. Building Friendly Relationships

Motivation is an important factor which brings employees
satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an
incentive plan for the benefit of the employees. This could initiate
the following things:
• Monetary and non-monetary incentives,
• Promotion opportunities for employees,
• Disincentives for inefficient employees.
4. Builds Friendly Relationship (cont.)

• In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a

concern, a manager should take steps to help in:

• Effective co-operation which brings stability,

• Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce,
• The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be
no resistance to the change,
• This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which
individual interests will coincide with the organizational interests,
• This will result in profit maximization through increased
productivity.
 5. Leads to Stability of Work
Force
Stability of workforce is very important for reputation and
goodwill.
Employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when
they have a feeling of participation in the management.
The skills and efficiency of employers will always be of
advantage to employees as well as employers. This will
lead to a good public image in the market which will
attract competent and qualified people into a concern.
Motivation is Important at the
Individual Level
1. Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.

2. If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.

3. Motivation will help in self-development of individual.

4. An individual would always gain by working with a

dynamic team.
Motivation is important at the
Organizational Level

1. The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered

the team is.

2. The more is the empowered team work and individual employee

contribution, more profitable and successful is the business.

3. During period of transition and management of diversity, there

will be more adaptability and creativity.

4. Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at

work place.
Incentives
• Incentive is an act or promise for greater positive action. It is also called
as a stimulus to greater action. E.g., additional remuneration or benefit
to an employee in recognition of achievement or better work.
1. Incentives provide a spur or zeal in the employees for better
performance.
2. It is a natural thing that nobody acts without a purpose behind.
Therefore, a hope for a reward is a powerful incentive to motivate
employees.
3. Besides monetary incentive, there are some other stimuli which can
drive a person to better such as job satisfaction, job security, job
promotion, and pride for accomplishment.
The effects of incentives can be as
under:
• To increase productivity,
• To drive or arouse a stimulus work,
• To enhance commitment in work performance,
• To psychologically satisfy a person which leads to job
satisfaction,
• To shape the behavior or outlook of subordinate
towards work,
• To inculcate zeal and enthusiasm towards work,
• To get the maximum of their capabilities so that they
are exploited and utilized maximally.
 Types of Incentives
Management has to offer the following two categories of
incentives to motivate employees:

1. Monetary Incentives: These are which satisfy the employees

by providing them rewards in terms of pay.
Money has been recognized as a chief source of satisfying the
needs of people.
Money is also helpful to satisfy the social needs by possessing
various material items. Therefore, money not only satisfies
physiological needs but also the security and social needs.
Therefore, in many organizations, various wage plans and
bonus schemes are introduced to motivate and stimulate the
people to work.
Non-Monetary Incentives
There are certain non-financial incentives which can satisfy the
ego and self- actualization needs of employees.
These incentives cannot be measured in terms of money are
under the category of “Non- monetary incentives”. Whenever a
manager has to satisfy the psychological needs of the
subordinates, he makes use of non-financial incentives. Non-
financial incentives can be of different types.

Besides the monetary incentives, there are certain non-financial

incentives which can satisfy the ego and self- actualization needs
of employees. The incentives which cannot be measured in
terms of money are under the category of “Non- monetary
incentives”. Whenever a manager has to satisfy the psychological
needs of the subordinates, he makes use of non-financial
incentives. Non- financial incentives can be of the following
types:-
Types of Non-Financial Incentives
1. Promotion opportunities- Promotion is an effective tool to
increase the spirit to work in a organization. If the employees are
provided opportunities for the advancement and growth, they
feel satisfied and contented and they become more committed
to the organization.

2. Security of Service- Job security is another incentive which

provides for motivation to employees. If his job is secured, he
will put maximum efforts to achieve the objectives of the
enterprise. This also helps since he is very far off from mental
tension and he can give his best to the enterprise

3. Praise or Recognition- Praise or recognition is another non-

financial incentive which satisfies the ego needs of the
employees. Sometimes praise becomes more effective than any
other incentive. The employees will respond more to praise and
try to give the best of their abilities to a concern.
 Types of Non-Financial Incentives (Cont.)
4. Suggestion Scheme- The organization should look forward to taking suggestions
and inviting suggestion schemes from the subordinates.
This inculcates a spirit of participation in the employees.
This can be done :
a. publishing company magazines where employees can write their opinions to
improve the work environment. This also is helpful to motivate the employees
to feel important and they can also be in search for innovative methods which
can be applied for better work methods. This ultimately helps in growing a
concern and adapting new methods of operations.

5. Job Enrichment- Job enrichment is another non- monetary incentive in which

the job of a worker can be enriched. This can be done by increasing his
responsibilities, giving him an important designation, increasing the content and
nature of the work which are best fit to their knowledge, skills, abilities and others.
This way efficient worker can get challenging jobs in which they can prove their
worth. This also helps in the greatest motivation of the efficient employees.
• The above non- financial tools can be framed
effectively by giving due consideration to the
role of employees. A combination of financial
and non- financial incentives help together in
bringing motivation and zeal to work in a
concern.
•Positive Incentives
Positive incentives are those incentives which provide a
positive assurance for fulfilling the needs and wants. Positive
incentives generally have an optimistic attitude behind and
they are generally given to satisfy the psychological
requirements of employees. For example-promotion, praise,
recognition, perks and allowances, etc. It is positive by nature.

• Negative Incentives:
Negative incentives are those whose purpose is to correct the
mistakes or defaults of employees. The purpose is to rectify
mistakes in order to get effective results. Negative incentive is
generally resorted to when positive incentive does not works
and a psychological set back has to be given to employees. It
is negative by nature. For example - demotion, transfer, fines,
penalties.
Tips for motivating the employees in
an organization:
1. Evaluate Yourself- In order to motivate, encourage and control
your staff’s behaviour, it is essential to understand, encourage
and control your own behaviour as a manager. Work upon
utilizing your strengths and opportunities to neutralize and lower
the negative impact of your weaknesses and organizational
threats. The manager should adopt the approach “You’re OK - I’m
OK”.

2. Familiar with your employees - The manager should be well

acquainted with his staff. The more and the better he knows his
staff, the simpler it is to get them involved in the job as well as in
achieving the team and organizational goals. This will also invite
staff’s commitment and loyalty. A cordial superior-subordinate
relationship is a key factor in job-satisfaction.
 Tips for motivating the employees
in an organization (cont.):
3. Provide benefits to your employees - Give your staff some financial and
other benefits. Give them bonuses, pay them for overtime, and give them
health and family insurance benefits. Make sure they get breaks from work. Let
them enjoy vacations and holidays.

4. Participate in new employees induction programme- At this point of time,

the potential entrants start creating their own impressions and desires about
the job and the organization. The manner in which the selection is conducted
and the consequent recruitment process will either build or damage the
impression about the job and organization. Thus, the manager must have a say
in framing the advertisement and also in the selection and recruitment
process. After the decision about the candidate is made, the manager must
take personal interest in the selected joinee’s joining date, the family relocation
issues, cost of removal, etc. Being observed by the new recruit and your entire
team / staff to be involved completely, will ensure a persuasive entry in the
organization.
Tips for motivating the employees in an organization (cont.):

5.Provide feedback constantly- The staff members are keen to know how they
are performing. Try giving a regular and constructive feedback to your staff.
This will be more acceptable by the staff. Do not base the feedback on
assumptions, but on facts and personal observations. Do not indulge in
favouritism or comparing the employee with some one else. Sit with your staff
on daily or weekly basis and make sure that feedback happens. This will help in
boosting employee’s morale and will thus motivate the staff.

6. Acknowledge your employees on their achievements - A pat on the back,

some words of praise, and giving a note of credit to the employee / staff
member at personal level with some form of broad publicity can motivate the
staff a lot. Make it a point to mention the staff’s outstanding achievements in
official newsletters or organization’s journal. Not only acknowledge the
employee with highest contribution, but also acknowledge the employee who
meets and over exceeds the targets.
Tips for motivating the employees in an
organization (cont.):
7. Ensure effective time management- Having control over time ensures that
things are done in right manner. Motivate your staff to have “closed” times,
i.e., few hours when there are no interruptions for the staff in performing their
job role so that they can concentrate on the job, and “open” times when the
staff freely communicate and interact. Plan one to one sessions of interaction
with your staff where they can ask their queries and also can get your
attention and, thereby, they will not feel neglected. This all will work in long
run to motivate the staff.

8. Have stress management techniques in your organization- Create an

environment in which you and your staff can work within optimum pressure
levels. Ensure an optimistic attitude towards stress in the workplace. Have
training sessions on stress management, and ensure a follow-up with group
meetings on the manner stress can be lowered at work. Give your staff
autonomy in work. Identify the stress symptom in the employees and try to
deal with them.
Tips for motivating the employees
in an organization (cont.):
9. Provide counselling services- The employees’ / staff feelings
towards the work, their peer, their superiors and towards the future
can be effectively dealt through the staff counseling. Counselling
provides an environment, incentive and support which enable the
employee to achieve his identity.

10.Give the employees learning opportunities- Employees should

consistently learn new skills on the job. It has been well said by
someone that with people hopping jobs more often than required and
organizations no longer giving job security to employees, the young
blood employees specifically realize that continuing learning is the best
way to remain employable. Opportunities should be given to the
employees to develop their skills and competencies and to make best
use of their skills. Link the staff goals with the organizational goals.
 Tips for motivating the employees
in an organization (cont.):
12. Set an example for your - Be a role model for your staff. The staff would
learn from what you do and not from what you say / claim. The way you
interact with your clients / customers and how do you react later after the
interaction is over have an impact upon the staff. The staff more closely
observes your non-verbal communication (gestures, body language). Being
unpunctual, wasting the organization’s capital, mismanaging organization’s
physical equipments, asking the staff to do your personal work, etc. all have a
negative impact on the staff. Try setting an example for your staff to follow.

13. Smile often- Smiling can have a tremendous effect on boosting the morale
of the staff. A smiling superior creates an optimistic and motivating work
environment. Smiling is an essential component of the body language of
confidence, acceptance and boldness. Smile consistently, naturally and often,
to demonstrate that you feel good and positive about the staff who works for
you. It encourages new ideas and feedback from the staff. The staff does not
feel hesitant and threatened to discuss their views this way.
Tips for motivating the employees in
an organization (cont.):
14. Listen effectively- Listening attentively is a form of recognizing and
appreciating the person who is talking. Reciprocal / Mutual listening develops
cordial and healthy personal relationships on which the employee / staff
development rests. If the managers do not listen attentively to the
subordinates, the morale of the subordinates lowers down and they do not feel
like sharing their ideas or giving their views. Effective listening by the manager
boosts up the employees’ morale and thus motivates them.

15. Ensure effective communication- In order to motivate your staff, indulge in

effective communication such as avoid using anger expressions, utilize questioning
techniques to know staff’s mindset and analysis rather than ordering the staff what
to do, base your judgements on facts and not on assumptions, use relaxed and
steady tone of voice, listen effectively and be positive and helpful in your responses.
Share your views with the staff.
 Tips for motivating the employees
in an organization (cont.):
16. Develop and encourage creativity- The staff should be encouraged to
develop the creativity skills so as to solve organizational problems. Give them
time and resources for developing creativity. Let them hold constant
brainstorming sessions. Invite ideas and suggestions from the staff. They may
turn out to be very productive.

17. Be flexible- Introduce flexibility in work. Allow for flexible working hours if
possible. Let the employees work at home occasionally if need arises. Do not
be rigid in accepting ideas from your staff. Stimulate flexible attitudes in the
employees who are accountable to you by asking what changes they would like
to bring about if given a chance.

18. Adopt job enrichment- Job enrichment implies giving room for a better
quality of working life. It means facilitating people to achieve self-development,
fame and success through a more challenging and interesting job which
provides more promotional and advancement opportunities. Give employees
more freedom in job, involve them in decision-making process, show them
loyalty and celebrate their achievements.
Tips for motivating the employees in an
organization (cont.):
19. Respect your team- Respect not only the employees’ rights to share
and express their views, and to be themselves, but their time too. This will
ensure that the employees respect you and your time. Make the staff feel
that they are respected not just as employees / workers but as individuals
too.

20. Link Rewards directly to Performance- Organization should adopt a fair

reward structure which provides incentive to the most deserving
employee. Have an incentive structure in place doesn’t solve the problem...
what makes it workable is the employees trust in the system and believe
that they will be rewarded if they perform well.

21. Compliment employees- Even though an employee’s name has not

appeared in the list of people getting incentives, go ahead and compliment
that employee for a job well done - no matter how small. There is nothing
more satisfying to an employee than a pat on his back.
What Needs to be Done for Effective
Motivation at Workplace?
1. Be transparent- While there may be some strategic decisions
which you might want to share with the employees at a later
stage, make sure employees do not give in to the rumours. Stay
in touch with the employees.
2. Work on your PDP- Every employee is responsible for his own
career. He should work towards his ’Personal Development Plan’
[PDP] as discussed and agreed by his manager. Find out what are
the training company offers and which is best suited to his
development needs. How this will motivate you - remember
training always increase your marketability and enhance your
career.
3. Participate & Network- Employees - Remember you work for a
company where a one-on-one attention might not be possible.
Do not wait for an invitation to participate in a discussion. If you
are a part of a forum, then you have full right to express your
opinion and be a part of the process. Expressing yourself is a
good way of motivating yourself.
Techniques for Self Motivation
1. Communicate get Motivated: Communicating with someone
can boost up your energy and make you go on track. Talk with
optimistic and motivated individuals. They can be your
colleagues, friends, wife, or any one with whom you can share
your ideas.
2. Remain Optimistic: When facing hurdles; we always make
efforts to find how to overcome them. Also, one should
understand the good in bad.
3. Discover your Interest Area: If you lack interest in current task,
you should not proceed and continue with it. If an individual
has no interest in the task, but if it is essential to perform, he
should correlate it with a bigger ultimate goal.
4. Self-Acknowledgement: One should know when his motivation
level is saturated and he feels like on top of the world. There
will be a blueprint that once an individual acknowledge, he can
proceed with his job and can grow.
 Techniques for Self Motivation (cont.)
5. Monitor Your Success: Maintain a success bar for the assignments you are
currently working on. When you observe any progress, you will obviously
want to foster it.

6. Uplift Energy Level: Energy is very essential for self-motivation. Do regular

exercises. Have proper sleep. Have tea/coffee during breaks to refresh you.

7. Assist, Support & Motivate Others: Discuss and share your views and ideas
with your friends and peers and assist them in getting motivated. When we
observe others performing good, it will keep us motivated too. Invite
feedback from others on your achievements.

8. Encourage Learning: Always encourage learning. Read and grasp the logic
and gist of the reading. Learning makes an individual more confident in
commencing new assignments.
9. Break Your Bigger Goals into Smaller Goals: Set a short time deadline for
each smaller goal so as to achieve bigger goal on time.
Tips for Effective Team Motivation
1. The team’s objective should well align and synchronize with the team
members needs and requirements.

2. Give in written the team’s mission and ensure that all understand it (as
mission is a foundation based on which the team performs).

3. For maintaining motivation, the team should be given challenges (which

must be difficult but achievable) consistently.
4. Giving a team responsibility accompanied by authority can also be a good
motivator for the team to perform.

5. The team should be provided with growth opportunities. The team’s

motivation level is high when the team members feel that they are being
promoted, their skills and competencies are being enhanced, and they are
learning new things consistently.
 Tips for Effective Team Motivation (cont.)
6. Effective and true leaders can develop environment for the team to motivate
itself. They provide spur for self- actualization behaviours of team members.

7. Devote quality/productive time to your team. Have an optimistic and good

relation with your team members. This will make you more acquainted with them
and you can get knowledge of how well they are performing their job. Welcome
their views and ideas as they may be fruitful and it will also boost their morale.
8. Motivation is all about empowerment. The skills and competencies of the team
members should be fully utilized. Empowering the team members makes them
accountable for their own actions.

9. Provide feedback to the team consistently. Become their mentor. Give the team
recognition for good and outstanding performance. Give the team a constructive
and not negative feedback.

10. Discover and offset the factors which discourage team spirit such as too many
conflicts, lethargy, team members’ escape from responsibilities, lack of job
satisfaction, etc.
 Challenges to Motivate Employees
1. One of the main reasons of motivation being a challenging job is due to
the changing workforce. The employees become a part of their
organization with various needs and expectations. Different employees
have different beliefs, attitudes, values, backgrounds and thinking. But all
the organizations are not aware of the diversity in their workforce and
thus are not aware and clear about different ways of motivating their
diverse workforce.

2. Employees motives cannot be seen, they can only be presumed. Suppose,

there are two employees in a team showing varying performance despite
being of same age group, having same educational qualifications and same
work experience. The reason being what motivates one employee may not
seem motivating to other.
 Challenges to Motivate
Employees (cont.)
3. Motivation of employees becomes challenging especially when the
organizations have considerably changed the job role of the employees, or
have lessened the hierarchy levels of hierarchy, or have chucked out a
significant number of employees in the name of down-sizing or right-sizing.
Certain firms have chosen to hire and fire and paying for performance
strategies nearly giving up motivational efforts. These strategies are
unsuccessful in making an individual overreach himself.

4. The vigorous nature of needs also pose challenge to a manager in

motivating his subordinates. This is because an employee at a certain point of
time has diverse needs and expectations. Also, these needs and expectations
keep on changing and might also clash with each other. For instance-the
employees who spend extra time at work for meeting their needs for
accomplishment might discover that the extra time spent by them clash with
their social needs and with the need for affiliation.
 Theories of Motivation
1. What is a theory?
A theory is a creatively constructed set of prepositions
about the aspect of reality, such as work behaviour.
A theory has two components:

2. A set of basic assumptions

3. A set of definitions used to translate these assumptions
into elements of real behaviour (these are operational
definitions).
 Psychological Theories
• Psychological Theories appears in two forms:
1. Broad and general theories: attempts to address
any kind of behavioral events. They cover the full
range of motivational issues.

2. Specific Theories: These theories limited to

specific aspects of behaviours. For example work
motivational theories which focus on the specific
aspects of motivation to work.
Types of Work Motivation
Theories
1. Content Theories of Motivation: Theories that
explain work motivation in terms of what arouses,
energizes, or initiates employee behavior.

2. Process Theories of Motivation: Theories that

explain work motivation by how employee
behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted
Theories of Work Motivation

1. Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

2. Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
3. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
4. McClelland’s Achievement Theory
5. Expectancy Theory
6. Goal Setting Theory
7. Equity Theory
8. Reinforcement Theory
Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Theory
• Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and
shelter. In other words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of
life.

• Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety
and protection. For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from
animals, family security, health security, etc.

• Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care,
belongingness, and friendship.
• Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self-
respect, confidence, competence, achievement and freedom) and external
esteem needs (recognition, power, status, attention and admiration).

• Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of
becoming / what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for
growth and self-contentment. It also includes desire for gaining more knowledge,
social- service, creativity and being aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are
never fully satiable. As an individual grows psychologically, opportunities keep
cropping up to continue growing.
Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Theory
Individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. When each need is
satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped
the five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order
needs.

The physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order

needs. These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally (extrinsic
needs).

The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs constituted the higher-

order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfied internally,
(intrinsic needs) i.e., within an individual. Thus, we can conclude that
during boom period, the employees lower-order needs are significantly
met.
 Implications of Maslow’s Theory for
Managers
1. Physiological needs: Appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities
of life. Breaks and eating opportunities should be given to employees.

2.Safety needs: Job security, safe and hygienic work environment, and
retirement benefits so as to retain them.
3. Social Needs :Teamwork and organize social events.

4.Esteem Needs: Appreciation and reward on accomplishing and exceeding

their targets. Promotion to deserved employee higher job rank/position in the
organization.

5. Self-actualization Needs: Challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills

and competencies are fully utilized. Growth opportunities be given so that
they can reach the peak.
Limitations of Maslow’s Theory
1. It is essential to note that not all employees are
governed by same set of needs. Different individuals
may be driven by different needs at same point of
time. It is always the most powerful unsatisfied need
that motivates an individual.

2. The theory is not empirically supported.

3. The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist

as even if the artist’s basic needs are not satisfied, he
will still strive for recognition and achievement.
 2. Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist

proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene
theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job
factors that result in satisfaction while there are other
job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.

According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is

“No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is
“No Dissatisfaction”.
Hygiene Factors
1. Factors which are essential for existence of motivation at
workplace, but do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term.

2. If these factors are absent from workplace, then they lead to

dissatisfaction. when adequate / reasonable in a job, pacify the
employees and do not make them dissatisfied.

3. These factors are also called as Dissatisfiers or Maintenance

Factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction.

4. These factors describe the job environment / scenario.

5. The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which

the individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled.
Hygiene Factors
1. Pay: The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be
equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.

2. Company Policies and Administrative Policies: The company policies should not be
too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress
code, breaks, vacation, etc.

3. Fringe Benefits: The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim),
benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
4. Physical Working conditions: The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipment should be updated and well-maintained.

5. Status: The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.

6. Interpersonal relations: The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors
and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or
humiliation element present.

7. Job Security: The organization must provide job security to the employees.
Motivation Factors
1. The motivation factors yield positive satisfaction and are
inherent to work.

2. These factors motivate the employees for a superior

performance.

3. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved

in performing the job.

4.Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding.

5. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were

perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:
Motivation Factors
1. Recognition- The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.

2. Sense of achievement- The employees must have a sense of achievement. This

depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.

3. Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and

advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.
4. Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work.
The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize
control but retain accountability.

5. Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful, interesting

and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.
 Limitations
1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But his

researches stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.

3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The
raters may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find
his job acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.

5. This theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction at work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors
such as salary structure, company policies and peer relationship. Also, the
employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.

6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s

Two-Factor theory is acceptable broadly.
Implications
The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress
upon guaranteeing the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid
employee dissatisfaction.

Managers must make sure that the work is stimulating and

rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and
perform harder and better.

This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the

employees.

The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the
maximum.

Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality.

3. Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor, 1960)

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and

Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human behaviour
at work, or in other words, two different views of
individuals (employees): one of which is negative,
called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called
as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of
managers on the nature of individuals is based on
various assumptions.
 Assumptions of Theory X
1. An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to
escape it whenever possible.

2. Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded,

compelled, or warned with punishment so as to achieve organizational
goals. A close supervision is required on part of managers. The managers
adopt a more dictatorial style.

3. Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no
aspiration/ ambition.

4. Employees generally dislike responsibilities.

5. Employees resist change.

6. An average employee needs formal direction.

 Assumptions of Theory Y
1. Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise
their physical and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.

2. Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to
work, but they can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated
and sincere to achieve the organizational objectives.

3. If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’

loyalty and commitment to organization.

4. An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility.

In fact, he can even learn to obtain responsibility.

5. The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities

should be fully utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and
innovative potentiality of the employees can be utilized to solve
organizational problems.
 Theory X and Theory Y (Cont.)

• Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’

nature and behaviour at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view
of the employees’ nature and behaviour at work. If correlate it with
Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that
the employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs;
while Theory Y is based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem
needs and the self-actualization needs dominate the employees.
 Implications
1.Hardly a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X
encourages use of tight control and supervision. It implies that
employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus, it does
not encourage innovation.

2. Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y

implies that the managers should create and encourage a work
environment which provides opportunities to employees to take
initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given
opportunities to contribute to organizational well-being. Theory Y
encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork and
participative decision making in an organization. Theory Y searches
and discovers the ways in which an employee can make significant
contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and matches
employees’ needs and aspirations with organizational needs and
aspirations.
4. Achievement Theory: David
McClelland (1953)
• McClelland and colleagues studied the behavioral effects of three
needs:
• Need for Achievement
• Need for Power
• Need for Affiliation

• Emphasized the Need for Achievement, although they investigated

all three needs
• Product of an impressive long-running research program.
• Controversy over measurement methods
• Recent study shows the validity of different measures
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• According to David McClelland, an individual with high need for

achievement wants to have high ability for certain activities. These
activities include such that:

1. There is a standard for excellence and

2. The person can succeed or fail.

• Strong need for achievement people:

• Take responsibility for results of behavior

• Willing to take calculated risks
• Set moderate achievement goals
• Prefer to set performance standards for themselves
• Prefer non-routine tasks to routine assignments
• Welcome feedback about how well they are doing
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
Theory (Cont.)

• Acquire the Need for Achievement through socialization

to cultural values.

• Presence of Need for Achievement themes in folklore,

mythology, art,

• Need for Achievement societies had high levels of

economic development,
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
Theory (Cont.)
Strong Need for Power people:
• Focuses on "controlling the means of influencing the
behavior of another person”

• Having strong effects on other people

• Means of influence: anything available to the person to

control the behavior of another

• Actively searches for means of influence

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
Theory (Cont.)
Two ways of expressing the Need for Power

• Dominance, physical aggression, exploitation

A. View situations from a win-lose perspective
B. Must win and the other party must lose

• Did not feel such power behavior resulted in the type of

leadership required by organizations
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
(Cont.)
Persuasion and interpersonal influence
• Tries to arouse confidence in those he or she wants to
influence

• Clarifies group’s goals and persuades members to achieve

those goals

• Emphasizes group members’ ability to reach goals

• Tries to develop a competence belief in group members

McClelland felt this type of power behavior characterized effective leaders

in organizations
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Strong Need for Affiliation people

• Focuses on "establishing, maintaining, and restoring positive

affective relations with others"

• Want close, warm interpersonal relationships

• Seek the approval of others, especially those about whom they

care

• Like other people, want other people to like them, and want to
be in the company of others
 McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for achievement and behavior

• Money: important to both high and low achievers, but for different reasons:

1. High achiever wants concrete feedback about performance

2. Making a profit, or receiving a bonus, is a statement about success or

failure

3. Symbol of success and feedback about job performance

4. High achiever wants a challenging job and responsibility for work

5. Want to feel successful at doing something over which they have

control
6.Low achiever views monetary reward as an end in itself

7. Get increased performance from low Need for Achievement person

by rewarding with money
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
Theory (Cont.)
• Managers and executives usually have a stronger Need
for Achievement than people in other occupations

• Evidence points to strong Need for Achievement as an

entrepreneur characteristic

• Nature of Need for Achievement behavior fits well with

such role demands
 McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory (Cont.)
Need for Achievement and Need for Power: some relationships

• Strong Need for Achievement persons are:

• Task centered
• Future oriented
• Performs to internal standard of excellence

• Strong Need for Power person

• Draws attention
• Risk taking
• Present oriented
• Assesses situations for change potential
• Both types of people important for successful organizations

• Strong Need for Achievement managers keep an organization going

• Strong Need for Power people bring dramatic change and

Achievement Theory Predictions of Individuals with a
Need to Gain Success or to Avoid Failure

Objective Nature of Personal Value of Achievement

Achievement
Difficulty of Probability Value of For Person with For Persons with
Tasks of Success Outcome Need to Gain Need to Avoid
Success Failure
Difficulty Low High Low High

Moderate Moderate Moderat High Low

e

Easy High Low Low High

 Expectancy Theory (Victor
Vroom, 1964)
• The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom
of Yale School of Management in 1964. Vroom stresses
and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike
Maslow and Herzberg. The theory states that the
intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular
manner is dependent on the intensity of an expectation
that the performance will be followed by a definite
outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to the
individual.
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)

• The Expectancy theory states that employee’s

motivation is an outcome of how much an
individual wants a reward (Valence), the belief that
the performance will lead to reward
(Instrumentality), and the assessment that the
likelihood that the effort will lead to expected
performance (Expectancy). Therefore this theory is
also known as VIE Theory.
 Valence, Instrumentality and
Expectancy
• Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the
expected outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction
that an employee expects to receive after achieving the goals.

• Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid

outcome will be there. Instrumentality is affected by factors such as
believe in the people who decides, who receives what outcome, the
simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and
clarity of relationship between performance and outcomes.

• Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better

performance. Expectancy is influenced by factors such as possession
of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability of right
resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required
support for completing the job.
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)

•According to Expectancy Theory

Motivation Force = Valence X Instrumentality X

Expectancy
 Three Relationships
1. Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the
individual’s effort be recognized in his performance appraisal?

2. Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to

which the employee believes that getting a good performance
appraisal leads to organizational rewards.

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the

attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual.
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)

Vroom was of view that employees consciously

decide whether to perform or not at the job. This
decision solely depended on the employee’s
motivation level which in turn depends on three
factors of expectancy, valence and instrumentality.
High Motivational Force Towards Performing the
Task
E: High Expectancy of a Task Success

I: High Perceived Instrumentality of

Success for Outcome Capture FORCE TASK OUTCOME
V: Highly Desirable Outcome

E: Low Expectancy of a Task Success

I: High Perceived Instrumentality of

Success for Outcome Capture FORCE TASK OUTCOME
V: Highly Desirable Outcome
 Low Force Toward Performance the Task Due to
Perceived Low Instrumentality of Task Success for the
Outcome
E: High Expectancy of a Task Success

I: Low Perceived Instrumentality of

Success for Outcome Capture FORCE TASK OUTCOME
V: Highly Desirable Outcome

E: High Expectancy of a Task

Success
I: High Perceived Instrumentality of
Success for Outcome Capture FORCE TASK OUTCOME
V: Undesirable Outcome
• Advantages
• It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve maximum
satisfaction and who wants to minimize dissatisfaction.
• This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and
actual is immaterial.
• It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.
• It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective of individual is
to attain maximum pleasure and least pain.

• Disadvantage
• The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals
perceive high degree correlation between performance and rewards.

• The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated

with performance in many organizations. It is related to other parameters
also such as position, effort, responsibility, education, etc.
 Implications

1. The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the

aimed performance levels.
2. The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve
the aimed performance levels.
3. The deserving employees must be rewarded for their
exceptional performance.
4. The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.
5. Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and
challenging jobs.
6. The employee’s motivation level should be continually
assessed through various techniques such as questionnaire,
personal interviews, etc.
 Goal Setting Theory
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Stephen R Covey
(2004 “Begin with the End in Mind”

The HP Way, David Packard (2005),

• “We thought if we could get everyone to agree on what our

objectives were and to understand what we were trying to so,
then we could turn them loose and they would move in a
common direction.“

This is Goal Setting

 Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
• In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting
theory of motivation. This theory states that goal
setting is essentially linked to task performance. It
states that specific and challenging goals along with
appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better
task performance. In simple words, goals indicate and
give direction to an employee about what needs to be
done and how much efforts are required to be put in.
The important features of goal-setting theory are as
follows:
 Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
• Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish through his
or her behavior and actions.

• Goal Setting Theory: A theory that focuses on identifying the

types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels
of motivation and performance and why goals have these
effects.

• Goal setting can operate to enhance both intrinsic motivation

(in the absence of any extrinsic rewards) and extrinsic
motivation (when workers are given extrinsic rewards for
achieving their goals).
 Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
Solid Goal Characteristics
S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Achievable
R – Result – based
T – Time specific

• Major Dimensions of Goal Setting according to Research

The Importance of Specific Goals

The Importance of Difficult and Challenging Goals

Goal Acceptance, Participation, and Commitment

Self-Efficacy and Goals

 Characteristics of Motivating Goals
Specificity: Often quantitative
Difficulty : Should be hard but not impossible for most
workers to achieve
Acceptability : Especially important when managers set goals
for subordinates
Feedback: So that workers know how well they are doing

Specific, difficult goals affect motivation and performance

by:
• Directing workers’ attention and action toward goal-relevant
activities
• Causing workers to exert higher levels of effort
• Causing workers to develop action plans to achieve their
goals
• Causing workers to persist in the face of obstacles or
difficulties
 Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
• The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main
source of job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goals are
greater motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.

• Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better

performance. Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals
accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids
misunderstanding.

• Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an

individual a feeling of pride and triumph when he attains them,
and sets him up for attainment of next goal. The more
challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the
more is the passion for achieving it.
Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
• Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee
behaviour and contributes to higher performance than absence of
feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making
clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work
with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.

• Employees’ participation in goal is not always desirable.

• Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable and

leads to more involvement.
 Goal setting theory has certain eventualities such as:
• Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and
faith that he has potential of performing the task. Higher the level of
self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by the individual when
they face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of self-efficiency, less
will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while
meeting challenges.

• Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is

committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal
commitment is dependent on the following factors:
• Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.
• Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated.
• Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and
vision.
Advantages of Goal Setting
Theory
• Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for
employees to complete work quickly and effectively.

• Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation

and efforts, but also through increasing and improving the feedback
quality.
 Limitations of Goal Setting Theory
• At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal
conflict has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible
action drift.

• Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.

• If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for
goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.

• There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

o There are two circumstances under which setting specific, difficult goals will not
lead to high motivation and performance:

o When workers lack the skills and abilities needed to perform at a high
level. (never forget: performance = ability * motivation * support)

o When workers are given complicated and difficult tasks that require all of
their attention and require a considerable amount of learning.
 Management By Objectives (MBO)
• A goal-setting process in which a manager meets with his or her
supervisor to set goals and evaluate the extent to which previously
set goals have been achieved.

• Although less common, MBO can also be used as a motivational

tool for non-managers.

• Necessary characteristics for MBO success:

Set goals should contribute to organizational effectiveness.
Goals should be specific and difficult.
A certain amount of trust and rapport must exist between
managers and their supervisors.
 Develop your Goals
• Take a moment and think about something you want to accomplish
in the next 6 months. Can be personal, work, school, whatever
domain is salient. Make it YOUR goal, something that REALLY
matters to you.

• Write it down

• “Frame” it in the following ways:

• Reasonably difficult- some chance of failure
• Approach vs. avoidance (something to do; not something to avoid)
• Clearly measurable
• Clearly noting what success looks like (specific, time bound)
 Develop Your Goals
• List 3-5 milestones or “sub-goals” that you will need to
accomplish along the way. Maybe draw it in a sequence if
you wish.

• Take a moment and think about what will prevent you

from accomplishing the goal. These are obstacles.
• Write down 3-5 of these obstacles.
• Write down what you will do to overcome the obstacles

• Write down who you can have hold you accountable and
share this plan with them.
 Equity Theory (Adams Stacy
1965)
• The Theory is based on the Cognitive Dissonance Theory given by
Festinger in 1950s.

• Cognitive dissonance is an inconsistency in the cognitive structure

that produces tensions, which in turn motivates action to restore
consistency and reduce tensions.

• A version of discrepancy theory of job satisfaction focusing on the

discrepancies between what one has on the job and what one
thinks is fair - what one should have.
Equity Theory (cont.)
Equity Theory (cont.): Justice
and Equity
Equity Theory (cont.)
 Equity Theory (cont.)
• Social comparison takes place
• Perceived discrepancies between ratios may
produce tension or dissonance
• Amount of discrepancy corresponds to the
amount of tension the individual experiences
• Amount of tension corresponds to the amount of
energy an individual expends to alleviate the
discrepancy
 Equity Theory (cont.)
• Inputs
- factors considered by the individual that contribute
to their work - knowledge, skills and abilities

• Outcomes
- factors considered by the individual to have personal value
- money, promotion, praise, etc.
 Equity Theory (cont.)
I/O < I/O (Underpay)
5/10 10/10 Inequity

I/O = I/O (Equity)

10/10 = 10/10

I/O > I/O (Overpay

5/10 10/10 Inequity
 Equity Theory (cont.)

• Strengths
- predicts behavior in underpayment conditions

• Weakness
- does not predict overpayment conditions
- does not account for individual differences impact
upon equity
 Equity Theory (cont.): Implications

• Guide the study of pay and motivation, particularly in

terms of changes in the quality and quantity of
performance.
• It predicted the effects of underpayment and
performances (Campbell & Pitchard, 1976)
• Decreased production among the underpaid employees
for hourly/monthly employees.
• Increased coupled with decreased work quality among the
underpaid piece rate employees.
• Effect of Overpaid also predicted.
 Equity Theory (cont.)

• Summers and DiNishi (1990) observed that

employees generally felt either underpaid or fairly
paid but not overpaid:
1. Overpayment is not a perceptual reality
2. Feeling of overpayment are continually dispelled
by cognitive reevaluation or rethinking
3. Payments includes things that are not covered in
the research.
Advices 1:
• Performance-pay contingencies should be made explicit
and process of evaluating performance should be
communicated clearly.
• Employees need to know what inputs lead to what
outcomes.
• Increased in workload such as in those of downsizing,
should be instituted cautiously.

• Advice 2:
• The company should make an efforts to let the employees
know what other employees actually do in the work place.
 Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his
associates which states that individual’s behaviour is a function of its
consequences. It is based on “law of effect”, i.e., individual’s behaviour with
positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behaviour with
negative consequences tends not to be repeated.

• Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of

individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by
Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when
he takes some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment
of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to
motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling
mechanism for individual’s behaviour. However, it does not focus on the
causes of individual’s behaviour.
Reinforcement Theory (cont.)

Managers use the following methods for

controlling the behaviour of the employees:
 The managers use the following methods for
controlling the behaviour of the employees
(cont.):
• Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an
individual shows positive and required behaviour. For example - Immediately
praising an employee for coming early for job. This will increase probability of
outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily. If and only if the employees’ behaviour improves, reward can said
to be a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a
behaviour. It must be noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward,
the greater reinforcement value it has.

• Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing

negative/undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement
can be used for increasing desirable/ required behaviour.

• Punishment: It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the

probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words,
punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing
undesirable behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking
the organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive
reinforcement from alternative source.
The managers use the following methods for
controlling the behaviour of the employees
(cont.):

• Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words,

extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by
removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance - if an employee
no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel
that his behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may
unintentionally lower desirable behaviour.

Limitations of Reinforcement Theory:

Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns
behaviour. Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees
must ensure that they do not reward all employees simultaneously. They
must tell the employees what they are not doing correct. They must tell
the employees how they can achieve positive reinforcement.
 Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1976) developed the model of
Job Characteristics, which was evolved over several years. This model
is the outcome of after many researches (eg., Tuner & Lawrence
1965, proposed the concept of Requisite Task Attributes – which was
essentially a set of job dimensions that they believed to be
motivating employees).

JCM mediates linkages between job characteristics and outcomes

and by specifying moderators of individuals differences and
addressing to the deficiency in motivators-hygiene factors theory by
Frederick Herzberg.

JCM recognizes that certain job characteristics contributes to certain

psychological states and that the strength of employees’ need for
growth has an important moderating effects (Luthans, 2011).
 CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
CORE JOB DIMENSIONS STATES OUTCOMES

SKILL VARIETY

TASK IDENTITY EXPERIENCED

1.High Motivation
MEANINGFULNESS
2. Quality work
TASK SIGNIFICANCE Performance
3.High Job
Satisfaction
FELT RESPONSIBILITY 4. Low Turn Over
AUTONOMY
5. Low
Absenteeism
KNOWLEDGE OF
FEEBACK
RESULT

Moderated by Employees
Growth Need Strength
1. Skill Variety
It is the extend to which a job requires that an employees must use many
different skills, abilities as well as a wide range of knowledge. Example, an
employee who utilizes;
A. Quantitative Skills to prepare budgets
B. Interpersonal Skills to manage conflicts
C. Analytical Skills to develop long term strategic plans

2. Task Identity
It is the extend to which a job requires that a person must complete a whole
identifiable piece of work (from start to end) as oppose to a small fragment of
it.
Example, a research on AIDS – which requires the person to involve from the
beginning till the ends.

2. Task Significance
It is the degree to which job is important and counts for something.
For example, task significance for a research scientist studying AIDS is higher
than a person working in BPO.
4. Autonomy
It refers to job independence. It is the degree to which employees has
control, discretion, and freedom over things such as how they perform their
job tasks and schedules their own works.
For example; a college professor represents with an extremely high level of
autonomy rather than telemarketing employees who are instructed not to
deviate from the explicit instructions given to them.

4. Feedback
It represents the extent to which performing a job provides information
about the performance of job incumbent and its progress.
As a rule, comedians knows very quickly whether their audience considered a
particular jokes funny.
 CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES
1. Experienced Meaningfulness: That labour has meaning to you,
something that you can relate to, and does not occur just as a set of
movements to be repeated. This is fundamental to intrinsic motivation,
i.e. that work is motivating in an of itself (as opposed to motivating
only as a means to an end).

2. Responsibility: That you have been given the opportunity to be a

success or failure at your job because sufficient freedom of action has
given you. This would include the ability to make changes and
incorporate the learning you gain whilst doing the job.

3. Knowledge of Results: This is important for two reasons. Firstly to

provide the person knowledge on how successful their work has been,
which in turn enables them to learn from mistakes. The second is to
connect them emotionally to the customer of their outputs, thus giving
further purpose to the work (e.g. I may only work on a production line,
but I know that the food rations I produce are used to help people in
disaster areas, saving many lives).
The more these three psychological states are present, the more employees
will feel good about themselves when they perform well.

Hackman states “ the model postulates that internal rewards are obtained by
an individual when he learns (knowledge of results) that he personally
(experienced responsibility) has performed well on a task that he cares about
(experienced meaningfulness)”.

Growth Need as a Moderator

Final aspect of the role of Growth Needs Strength which represents the extent
to which employees see their job as a mechanism for satisfying “GROWTH
Needs” such as personal achievement and self actualization.

Job Diagnostic Survey

To justify their model, Hackman and Oldham developed an instrument called
JDS. It measures most aspects of the model including job characteristics;
psychological states, and outcomes, specially internal motivation, and
satisfaction and growth need strength as a moderator.
Motivating Potential Score
(MPS)

It is possible to combine the five characteristics into a single index that

reflects the overall motivating potential of a job. The propensity of
each job to be motivating can be assessed by using the formulae;
 Evaluation of the Model
1. Researches (Renn &Vandenberg, 1995, Fried &Ferris, 1987) found that
all the job dimensions were found to be related to outcomes such as
job satisfaction, motivation, absenteeism and turnover.

2. Correlation between the Core Job Dimensions and Psychological States

is not stronger than with outcomes (Fried &Ferris, 1987).

3. Champous (1991) observed and found through Canonical correlational

analysis that both the causal flow of the model and the moderating
effects of growth needs strength.

4. However, many subsequent researches found to have less supportive of

the moderative effects of growth need strengths (Evans & Ondrack, 1991;
Johns, Xie, & Fang, 1992; Tiegs, Tetrick, & Fried, 1992).

5. The JDS does not empirically establish the five distinct core dimensions
as theorized.