WORK

MOTIVATION
Ms. Kriti
 Motivation
Pinder (1998) offered this definition:
Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate
work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration. (p. 11)
There are three noteworthy components to this definition.
• First, direction addresses the choice of activities we make in expending effort. That is, we might choose to work
diligently at some tasks and not at others.
• Second, intensity implies we have the potential to exert various levels of effort, depending on how much we need to
expend.
• Third, duration reflects persistence of motivation over time, as opposed to a one-time choice between courses of action
(direction) or high levels of effort aimed at a single task (intensity).
Dimensions of motivation:
Motivation can be conceptualized along three dimensions: direction, intensity, and persistence. Each dimension has its
associated issues and concerns. In an employment context, each dimension is highly relevant to both the organization and
the individual.
1. Direction pertains to those activities in life to which you direct your energy. Organizations want employees who will
direct themselves to their work responsibilities, and many employees want jobs that will inspire their motivation and
commitment.
2. Intensity pertains to the amount of motivation that is expended in pursuit of an activity. Organizations want
employees who will exhibit high levels of energy. Such people are often referred to as “self-starters” or “self-
motivated” individuals, implying that they bring a high level of energy to the job and do not require organizational
inducements to work hard. Likewise, many employees hope to find jobs that are sufficiently appealing to invite large
commitments of energy.
3. The third dimension, persistence, pertains to sustained energy over time. It is concerned with how long the energy
will be expended. Researchers know the least about this dimension, but it is the focus of more recent motivational
theories. You can think of a career as an interrelated series of jobs through which individuals manifest their energies
over a working lifetime. Organizations want employees who will persevere through good times and bad. Likewise,
employees want jobs that will sustain their interests over the long haul.
Each of the three dimensions of motivation has direct implications for both organizations and individuals
 KEY CONCEPTS IN MOTIVATION
Behavior. Behavior is the action from which we infer motivation. The behavior in question may be typing speed, firing a rifle at a target,
or performing any of a broad constellation of human activities.
Performance. Performance entails some evaluation of behavior. The basic unit of observation is behavior, but coupled with the behavior
is an assessment of the behavior as judged against some standard. If the behavior is typing 60 words per minute, a judgment can be made
as to whether this level of performance is adequate or inadequate to hold a job. Thus the behavior is appraised within some organizational
context, and 60 words per minute might represent adequate performance in some jobs and inadequate performance in others. Most
organizational theories tend to be concerned with performance, not just behavior. Performance, however, is determined by factors that
transcend behavior.
Ability. Ability is one of three determinants of behavior. It is generally regarded as fairly stable within individuals and may be represented
by a broad construct like intelligence or a more specific construct like physical coordination.
Situational constraints. Situational constraints are the second determinant of behavior. They are environmental factors and opportunities
that facilitate or retard behavior (and ultimately performance). Examples include tools, equipment, procedures, and the like, which if
present, facilitate behavior, and if absent, diminish it. If no situational constraints are present, it is possible to maximize behavior.
Individual behavior manifests itself in some environmental or situational context that influences the conduct of behavior but is beyond the
control of the individual.
Motivation. Motivation is the third determinant of behavior. You can think of ability as reflecting what you can do, motivation as what
you will do (given your ability), and the situational constraints as what you are allowed to do.
Each of the three determinants is critical to the manifestation of behavior. Behavior is at a maximum when a person has high ability,
exhibits high motivation, and is in an environment that is supportive of such behavior.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
 Maslow’s Need-Hierarchy Theory

It was first introduced by Abraham Maslow in 1943.

Need hierarchy theory of motivation: A theory of motivation based on a sequential ordering of human needs that
individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression, starting with physiological needs and culminating in the need for self-
actualization.

According to Maslow (1987), the source of motivation is certain needs. Needs are biological or instinctive; they
characterize humans in general and have a genetic base. They often influence behavior unconsciously. What causes
people to behave as they do is the process of satisfying these needs. After a need is satisfied, it no longer dominates
behavior, and another need rises to take its place. Need fulfillment is never ending. Life is thus a quest to satisfy needs.
Maslow proposed five types of needs:
1. Physiological needs are the most basic; their fulfillment is necessary for survival. They include the need for air, water,
and food.
2. Safety needs include freedom from threat, danger, and deprivation. They involve self preservation. Today most of our
safety needs are met, but people experiencing disasters like hurricanes or riots have their safety needs threatened.
3. Social needs include the desire for association, belonging, and companionship. These needs involve an individual’s
ability to exist in harmony with others.
4. Self-esteem needs include self-confidence, recognition, appreciation, and the respect of one’s peers. Satisfaction of
these needs results in a sense of adequacy; their thwarting produces feelings of inferiority and helplessness.
5. The last type of need is self-actualization, the best known and least understood in Maslow’s scheme. Self-actualization
is the realization of one’s full potential—in Maslow’s words, “to become more and more what one is, to become
everything that one is capable of becoming.”
According to Maslow, they exist in a hierarchy. At the base are the physiological needs, which must be met first and
continuously. The remaining needs are placed in order, culminating with the highest need, self-actualization. Physiological
and safety needs are referred to as basic needs; social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs are higher-order needs
Maslow made these propositions about the need hierarchy:
1. Behavior is dominated and determined by the needs that are unfulfilled: After a need is fulfilled, it no longer
motivates behavior. A hungry person seeks food, but once the hunger is satisfied, it does not dominate behavior.
2. An individual will systematically satisfy his or her needs by starting with the most basic and working up the
hierarchy: This second proposition involves fulfillment progression. A person progresses through the needs in order,
moving on to the next one only after the preceding one has been fulfilled. We all spend our lives trying to fulfill these
needs because, according to Maslow, only a small percentage of people have fulfilled the self-actualization need.
Maslow also said this need can never be fully satisfied.
3. Basic needs take precedence over all those higher in the hierarchy: This third proposition stresses that the needs
basic to survival always have a higher priority.
 Need Hierarchy In Work:
Maslow’s theory has several implications for work behavior:-
When pay and security are poor, employees will focus on those aspects of work necessary to fulfill their basic needs. As conditions
improve, the behavior of supervisors and their relationship with the individual take on increased importance. Finally, with a much
improved environment, the supervisor’s role diminishes and the nature of the work reemerges. Work is now important for self-
actualization and not to fulfill basic needs.
The theory also predicts that as people move up in the management hierarchy, they are motivated by increasingly higher-level needs; thus
managers at various levels should be treated differently. Additionally, employees can be expected to always want more. The organization
can never give enough in terms of individual growth and development. It is the nature of the self-actualization need that once it is
activated and satisfied, it stimulates an even greater desire for satisfaction. Thus, it is a continuing source of motivation
Empirical Tests of the Theory:
Betz (1984) found mixed support for the theory. On the negative side, she found that need importance was not related to need
deficiency. Yet, as the theory predicts, Betz found a positive correlation between need fulfillment and life satisfaction.
Wahba and Bridwell (1976) reviewed all earlier research on Maslow’s theory and concluded that it has received little clear or consistent
support. Some of Maslow’s propositions were totally rejected; others received mixed or questionable support. The most support was for
the importance of meeting the basic needs; the least evidence was for the higher-level needs. The number of needs appeared
questionable, as did the idea of fulfillment progression

Evaluation of Needs-Hierarchy theory: Pg, 386 of Muchinskey

 EQUITY THEORY
The Equity Theory of Motivation was proposed by John Stacey Adams in 1963.
This theory suggests that individuals' motivation is influenced by their perception of whether the rewards they receive (outputs) are in line
with their contributions (inputs) compared to others in the organization.
Adams (1965) proposed a theory of work motivation drawn from the principle of social comparison. How hard a person is willing to work
is a function of comparisons with the efforts of others. The theory has perceptual and social bases because motivation is a function of how
a person sees himself or herself in comparison with others. Adams suggested that motivation has a social rather than a biological origin.
Equity theory has four major parts:
1. Because it is a perceptually based theory, the individual perceives himself or herself in comparison with others. The person who does
the perceiving is called Person.
2. It is postulated that Person compares himself or herself with another individual. This other person is called Other.
3. All of the assets Person brings to the job are the third component; collectively these assets are referred to as Inputs. Inputs include
Person’s education, intelligence, experience, skill, seniority, effort level, health, and so on. They are anything of perceived value or
importance that Person brings to the job.
4. All of the benefits Person derives from the job are the fourth component, collectively referred to as Outcomes. Outcomes include pay,
benefits, working conditions, status symbols, seniority benefits, and so forth. They are those factors Person perceives as being derived
from employment.
 The theory suggests that employee motivation is largely driven by a perception of fairness, where individuals compare their input-output ratio with others.
If an employee feels their efforts and rewards are not proportionate compared to their peers, they may become demotivated. This theory emphasizes the
importance of maintaining a balance between what employees contribute (inputs) and what they receive (outputs) to foster a sense of equity.
Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her outcomes to inputs and the ratio of a relevant other’s outcomes to inputs are unequal.
Schematically, this is represented as follows:

Equity as an Explanation of Work Motivation:

If the person’s perceived ratio is not equal to the other’s, he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This “striving” to restore equity is used as the
explanation of work motivation. The strength of this motivation is in direct proportion to the perceived inequity that exists.
Adams suggests that such motivation may be expressed in several forms. To restore equity, the person may alter the inputs or outcomes, cognitively
distort the inputs or outcomes, leave the field, act on the other, or change the other. It is important to note that inequity does not come about only when the
person feels cheated. For example, Adams has studied the impact that perceived overpayment has on equity. His findings suggest that workers prefer
equitable payment to overpayment. Workers on a piece-rate incentive system who feel overpaid will reduce their productivity in order to restore equity.
More common, however, is the case of people who feel underpaid (outcome) or overworked (input) in relation to others in the workplace. In the latter
case, there would be motivation to restore equity in a way that may be dysfunctional from an organizational standpoint. For example, the owner of an
appliance store in Oakland, California, allowed his employees to set their own wages. Interestingly, none of the employees took an increase in pay, and
one service technician actually settled on lower pay because he did not want to work as hard as the others.
How individuals respond to perceived inequity:
 Changing inputs: Individuals may work harder or less, depending on whether they feel under-rewarded or over-rewarded.
 Changing outputs: Individuals may negotiate for better rewards or seek other benefits.
 Distorting perceptions: Individuals may rationalize the inequity or change their perception of their own inputs or outputs.
 Changing the comparison object: Individuals may compare themselves to different people or groups.
 Leaving the organization: If inequity is severe, individuals may choose to leave the job.

Implications for organizations:

 Fair compensation: Ensuring that employees are fairly compensated for their contributions is crucial for maintaining motivation.
 Clear communication: Organizations should communicate clearly about performance expectations, reward systems, and promotion
opportunities.
 Feedback and recognition: Providing regular feedback and recognizing employees' contributions can help to improve perceptions of
fairness.
 Promoting a culture of equity: Organizations can foster a culture of equity by valuing diversity, promoting equal opportunities, and
ensuring that all employees are treated with respect.
 Motivator-Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory
The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation, also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, was proposed by Frederick
Herzberg in 1959.
This theory suggests that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two separate factors: motivators and
hygiene factors.
According to Herzberg, there are two sets of needs: the motivator needs, which produce job satisfaction, and the hygiene
needs, which produce job dissatisfaction.

 The motivator needs (the higher needs) motivate employees to high job performance. Motivator needs are internal to
the work itself. They include the nature of the individual job tasks and the worker's level of responsibility, achievement,
recognition, advancement, and career development and growth. The motivator needs are similar to Maslow's self-
actualization need. They can be satisfied by stimulating, challenging, and absorbing work. When these conditions are met,
job satisfaction will result. However, when these conditions are not met—when work is not challenging—the result is not
necessarily job dissatisfaction.

 Job dissatisfaction is produced by the hygiene needs (the lower needs). The word hygiene relates to the promotion and
maintenance of health. Hygiene needs are external to the tasks of a particular job and involve features of the work
environment, such as company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary and benefits.
When the hygiene needs are not satisfied, the result is job dissatisfaction. However, when the hygiene needs are satisfied, the
result is not necessarily job satisfaction, merely an absence of dissatisfaction. The hygiene needs are similar to Maslow's
physiological, safety, and belonging needs. Both Maslow and Herzberg insisted that these lower needs be satisfied before a
person can be motivated by higher needs.
Herzberg's theory focused attention on the importance of internal job factors as motivating forces for employees. If the motivator needs
stimulate employees to perform at their best and to develop a positive attitude toward the job, then why not redesign the job to maximize
opportunities to satisfy motivator needs? This effort, called job enrichment, expands jobs to give employees a greater role in planning,
performing, and evaluating their work, thus providing the chance to satisfy their motivator needs. Herzberg suggested the following ways
of enriching a job:
1. Remove some management controls over employees and increase their accountability and responsibility for their work, thus increasing
employee autonomy, authority, and freedom.
2. Create complete or natural work units where possible—for example, allow employees to produce a whole unit instead of one
component of that unit. This policy increases the likelihood that employees will regard their work as meaningful within the total
organizational process.
3. Provide regular and continuous feedback on productivity and job performance directly to employees instead of through their
supervisors.
4. Encourage employees to take on new, challenging tasks and to become experts in a particular task or operation.
All these proposals have the same goals of increasing personal growth, fulfilling the needs for achievement and responsibility, and
providing recognition. Proper job enrichment, therefore, involves more than simply giving the workers extra tasks to perform. It means
expanding the level of knowledge and skills needed to perform the job.
Research: This was demonstrated in a study involving 1,039 employees of a glass manufacturing plant. The research showed that job
enrichment programs significantly increased their sense of self-efficacy—their belief in their ability to do their jobs (Parker, 1998). The
program, which offered opportunities for greater accountability, responsibility, and autonomy, enhanced the employees' feelings of
adequacy, efficiency, and confidence that they were performing their jobs well.
Strengths:
 Focus on Job Enrichment: The theory highlights the importance of job enrichment and providing opportunities for achievement, recognition, and
growth to boost employee motivation.
 Clear Distinction: It provides a clear distinction between factors that prevent dissatisfaction (hygiene) and those that drive satisfaction (motivators).
 Practical Implications: The theory offers practical implications for managers, emphasizing the need to address both hygiene factors and motivators to
create a motivating work environment.
Limitations and Criticisms:
 Methodological Issues: The original study relied on a specific methodology (critical incident technique) that may have been prone to bias and selective
reporting.
 Oversimplification of Motivation: Critics argue that the theory oversimplifies the complexities of human motivation and ignores the role of individual
differences and situational factors.
 Potential for Cultural Bias: The theory may not be universally applicable across different cultures, as cultural values and expectations regarding work
can influence job satisfaction.
 Ignoring External Factors: Some argue that the theory overlooks the importance of external factors (e.g., company culture, leadership style) that can
significantly impact employee satisfaction.
 Conflation of Satisfaction and Productivity: The theory suggests a direct link between satisfaction and productivity, which may not always be true.
 Lack of Consideration for Individual Needs: The theory assumes a homogenous workforce with similar needs and desires, neglecting the fact that
people have different priorities and motivations.
In Conclusion:
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory offers valuable insights into employee motivation, but it is not without its limitations. Managers should consider these
limitations and use the theory as a starting point for understanding the complexities of workplace motivation, rather than a rigid framework.
 Goal Setting Theory
Goal-setting theory was developed by Edwin A. Locke. The American psychologist was a pioneer in goal-setting research. Locke originated the
theory in 1968 with the publication of the article Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives