METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Elizabeth
Data
Types of data:
Primary data: data which are collected
afresh and for the first time.
Secondary data: those which have already
been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the
statistical process.
Sources of secondary data.
Government publications, websites,
books, journal articles, internal
records.
What is data collection?
The process by which the researcher collects
the information needed to answer the
research problem.
In collecting the data, the researcher
must decide:
Which data to collect
How to collect the data
Who will collect the data
When to collect the data
The selection of data collection
method should be based on the
following:
The identified hypothesis or research
problem
The research design
The information gathered about the
variables
RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Instrument or a Tool
Described as a device used to collect the
data or facilitate variable observation and
measurement.
eg. Questionnaire, interview schedule,
checklist etc
The type of instrument used by the researcher
depends on the data collection method
selected.
“Instrument development requires a high
degree of research expertise, as the instrument
Ways of Searching for Research Instruments
Read professional journals to learn what
kind of instruments are being used for
similar studies, their format, style, and how
they are used by the writers.
Read books that provide a description or an
actual copy of various instruments for the
reader.
Talk with other researchers who may
know of certain tools they have developed for
themselves, or may have used tools
developed by others.
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
The instrument must be suitable for its
function.
The research tool will only be effective
only as it relates to its particular purpose.
The instrument must be based on the
theoretical framework selected for the
study.
The instrument should be valid.
The content of the instrument must be
appropriate to test the hypothesis or
answer the question being studied.
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
The instrument should be reliable.
The devised research tool should provide
comparable data every time the subject uses
the instrument.
An instrument should include an item that
directly asks the hypothesis.
The research tool should be designed and
constructed in such a way that cheating is
minimized.
The instrument should be free of bias.
A good instrument is free of build-in clues.
The instrument should not contain measures
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
The researcher may need to read
extensively to identify which aspects of the
theory are appropriate for investigation.
The researcher, through the instrument,
must be able to gather data that are
appropriate in order to test the hypothesis
or to answer the question under
investigation.
The researcher should gather a group of
items from such sources.
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
The researcher should gather a group of
items from such sources as persons
knowledgeable in the field, accepted
theories or hypotheses, personal
experience, or material from studies
reported in books and professional
journals.
The response given by each respondent in
the research study should solely be his
own. There should be no contamination
through outside influences, such as
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
Therefore, the respondent who agrees
to participate in a study is responsible
for supplying information or for
exhibiting behavior that is truly his
own.
Types of
Research
Instruments
Types of Research Instruments
1.Questionnaire
2. Checklist
3.Distribution
4.Interview
5.Observation
6.Records
7.Experimental
Approach
8.Survey Approach
Types of Research Instruments
Questionnaire
A series of questions designed to elicit
information, which is filled in by all
participants in the sample.
This can be gathered either by oral
interview or by written questionnaire.
This is the most common type of
research instrument.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
1.Relatively simple method of obtaining
data.
2.Less time is consumed.
3.Researcher is able to gather data
from a widely scattered sample.
4.There is low cost even when the
universe is large
5.It is free from the bias of the
interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
6.Respondents, who are not easily
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
1.Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
2.Respondent may omit or disregard any item
he chooses.
3.Some items may force the subject to select
responses that are not his actual choice.
4.Length of the questionnaire is limited
according to the respondent’s interest.
5.Printing may be costly especially if it is
lengthy.
6.Data are limited to the information that is
voluntarily supplied by the respondents.
7.Some items maybe misunderstood.
Techniques for Developing Questionnaire
Researcher may read literatures about the
topic look through available questionnaires
or obtain help from experts.
Open - ended questions are preferable than
closed questions since they reflect
respondent’s attitudes, feelings, which are
expressed in his own words.
If yes - no questions are used; additional
information may be gained by leaving space
for respondent’s own idea.
The possibility of a middle ground statement
is also important.
Every item in a questionnaire should relate
Criteria of a Good
Questionnaire
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
Clarity of Language
It must meet the level of understanding of
the respondents in order to generate needed
responses.
Singleness of Objective
An item must have one and only one answer
One-to-One Correspondence
The questionnaire as a whole must
correspond with the objectives of the study
Correct Grammar, Spelling, and Construction
The questionnaire must be constructed
observing grammatically correct sentences,
Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
1.Well-stated title
2.Has statement of purpose
3.It assures the respondents about the
confidentiality of responses
4.It is designed to achieve the objectives of
the study
5.It has a clear direction
6.There are no double-negative questions
7.It avoids double barreled questions
8.The design corresponds to an easy
tabulation of data
Degree of Structure Questions
Open-ended questions
This gives the respondents the ability
to respond in their own words.
Close-ended or fixed alternative
This allows the subject to choose
one of the given alternatives.
Specific Types of Closed-ended Question:
1. Dichotomous questions
This requires the respondent to make a choice between
two responses such as yes/no, male/female, or
married/unmarried. Example: Have you been ligated?
___ Yes
___ No 2.
2. Multiple questions
This offers more than one choice. Example: How
favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this time?
___ Very favorable
___ Favorable
___ Not sure
___ Unfavorable
___ Very unfavorable
3. Cafeteria questions
A special type of multiple-choice question. The
respondents are asked to select a response according
to their own point of view.
Example:
People have different views on “family planning”,
which of the following best represent your views?
___1. Family planning is necessary to quality
life.
___2. Family planning is immoral and should be
totally banned.
___3. Family planning has undesirable side
effects that suggest need for
caution.
___4. Family planning has beneficial effects that
merit its practice.
___5. Family planning is moral and should be
4. Rank-Order questions
The respondents are asked to choose a response from
the “most” to the “least”.
Example: Why must family planning be practiced?
Rank your answers from the 1-most reasonable to 5-
least reasonable?
___Limits maternal disabilities.
___Gives parents more time to meet family needs.
___Helps maintain financial viability of the family.
___Affords more working hours for couples.
___Ensures family capability to educate all the
children in the future.
5. Rating questions
The respondents are asked to judge something along an
ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points
specifying the opposite extremes of a continuum.
Example:
On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly disagree
and 5 means strongly agree, the Health Center in
Barangay A provides you the necessary services.
Scale
___ 5 - Strongly agree
___ 4 – Agree
___ 3 - Uncertain
___ 2 - Disagree
___ 1 - Strongly disagree
2. Checklist
Checklist
These are items that comprise several
questions on a topic and require the
same response format.
Example:
Here are some characteristics of birth-control
devices that are of varying importance to
different people. How important are the
following in choosing a birth-control method
Of very
great Of great Of some Of no
importance importance importance
characeristics of birth Importance
control device
Comfrot
Cost
Ease of use
Effectiveness
Non interference with
spontenity
Safety
safety to partner
3. Interview
Interview
This involves either structure or
unstructured verbal communication
between the researcher and subject,
during which information is obtained
for a study.
Types of Interview
Unstructured Interviews
more conversational
long sometimes (hours)
conducted in a usual situation.
This allows the researcher flexibility in questioning the
subject
Structured Interviews
always operates within formal written instrument
referred as interview schedule.
researcher designed the questions to be asked prior to
interview including the order of the questions.
The questions are asked orally in either face to face or
telephone format.
Advantages of Interview
1. Data from interview are usable
2. Depth of response can be assured
3. In an exploratory study, the interview
technique provides basis for the formulation
of questionnaire
4. Clarification is possible
5. No items are overlooked
6. Higher proportion of responses is obtained
7. Greater amount of flexibility is allowed
Disadvantages of Interview
8. Time element
9. Biases may result
10.Costly
Observation
Observation
Most commonly used in qualitative research.
Types of Observation
1. Unstructured observation
a method of collecting research data that has
both opponents and proponents.
2. Structured observation
preparation of record-keeping forms such
as category systems, checklists and rating
scales.
researcher typically has some prior
knowledge about the behavior or event of
interest
Advantages of Observation
1. Produces large quantities of data w/
relative case.
2. All data obtained from observation are
usable.
3. Relatively inexpensive.
4. All subjects are potential respondents.
5. Subjects are usually available.
6. The observation technique can be
stopped or begun at any time.
7. Observation may be recorded at the
Disadvantages of Observation
1. Accurate prediction of a situation or
event to be observed is unlikely.
2. Interviewing selected subjects may
provide more information, economically,
than waiting for the spontaneous
occurrence of the situation.
3. The presence of an observer gives the
subjects a quality normally absent.
4. Observed events are subject to biases.
5. Extensive training is needed
Records
Records
A record refers to all the numbers and
statistics that institutions, organizations and
people keep as a record of their activities.
Sources
1. Census data
2. Educational records
3. Hospital/clinic records
Advantages of Records
1. Records are unbiased
2. Records often cover a long period of time
3. Inexpensive
Disadvantages of Records
4. All the researcher can have is what is there.
If the record is incomplete, there is no way it
can be completed.
5. No one can be sure of the conditions under
which the records were collected.
6. There is no assurance of the accuracy of the
records
Experimental Approach
Experimental Approach
A powerful design for testing hypothesis of
causal relationships among variables.
Researcher controls the independent variable &
watches the effect on the dependent variable.
Two Groups of Experimental Approach
1. Treatment / Experimental group
2. Control group
Disadvantages of Experimental Approach
1. It is difficult to minimize all the variables in
which the control and experimental groups
might differ.
2. Causal relationships are difficult if not
impossible to establish
3. The time element may confound the results of
experimental research.
4. In an experimental laboratory setting it may
be difficult to obtain subjects, especially
subjects who are unaware of the experiment
Survey Approach
Survey Approach
Non-experimental type in which the
researcher investigates a community or a
group of people.
Another name is FORMULATIVE OR
EXPLORATORY research.
Advantages of Survey Approach
1. Can provide information about the
possibilities of undertaking different types of
research methods.
2. Provides data about the present.
3. Has a high degree of representativeness.
Disadvantages of Survey Approach
1. Yields a low degree of control over
extraneous variables.
2. Verbal behavior is quite unreliable and
that people
MEASUREMENT OF
VARIABLES
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Measurement is the process by which
the researcher assigns specific number
to the collected data
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal level (the lowest level)
A system of assigning number symbols to
events in order to label them.
“ASSIGNING A CODE TO LABEL”
has no arithmetic origin.
Nominal data are counted data.
Example:
In relation to marital status,
0 might represent single and 1 married.
Nominal level variables include sex, marital
status and health status
2. Ordinal level (the second lowest level)
The ordinal scale places events in order, but
there is no attempt to make the intervals of
the scale equal in terms of some rule.
Data are categorized and ranked, ordered
from “most” to “least: according to frequency
of occurrence
represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.)
Read on :
1. Likert scale
2. Guttman scale
3. Graphic Rating
Scale
4. Semantic
Differential Scale
Levels of Measurement
3. Interval level (the second highest level)
This occurs when the researcher can specify
both the rank- ordering of objects attribute
and the distance between those objects.
The intervals are adjusted in terms of some
rule that has been established as a basis for
making the units equal.
do not have an absolute or rational zero point.
Use of mode, median, mean
Example:
Fahrenheit and centigrade temperatures
anxiety levels measured on a Likert scale
Levels of Measurement
4. Ratio level (the highest level)
The ratio level has a rational, meaningful
zero.
RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY OF
MEASUREMENT
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
Reliability
means the degree of consistency and
accuracy with which an instrument
measures a variable.
Validity
refers to the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is designed to measure.
Testing Validity
of Data
Collection
Testing Validity of Data Collection
There are two categories of testing the
validity of a data collection instrument.
1. Self-evident measures
2. Pragmatic Measures
Self-evident measures
refers to the fact that the instrument appears what it
is supposed to measure.
1.1 Face validity (VALIDITY OF THE OBSERVER)
most basic level, when little or nothing is known
about the variable being measured
the researcher typically verifies face validity by
asking experts to evaluate the instrument’s intent.
1.2 Content validity
relies on the assurance that you can demonstrate an
adequate coverage of the known field.
The researcher typically verifies this by conducting a
literature review to determine which content should
be covered and by asking experts to evaluate the
instrument’s representativeness of the content.
Pragmatic Measures
the procedure essentially tests the practical
value of a particular research instrument or
tool
Thus attempting to answer the question,
“Does it work?”
1. Concurrent validity
2. Predictive validity
3. Construct validity
1. Concurrent validity
refers to the extent to which an instrument
can accurately identify subjects that differ
with respect to a given characteristic.
Researcher typically validates concurrent
validity by using the instrument in
conjunction with a second instrument already
known to be valid.
Ex. a measure of job satisfaction might be
correlated with work performance.
Note that with concurrent validity, the two
measures are taken at the same time.
2. Predictive validity
Usefulness of the test in predicting some
future occurrences.
the researcher commonly validates this
by using the instrument, then comparing
the results with some future outcomes.
3. Construct validity
useful mainly for measuring the traits or
feelings such as generosity, grief or
satisfaction.
is related to the theoretical ideas behind
the personality trait under consideration
Testing the
Reliability of
Research
Instrument
Testing the Reliability of Research
Instrument
Stability
The best indicator of an instrument’s
reliability.
This refers to the extent to which the same
results are obtained with repeated use of an
instrument
There are two categories for tests of
stability:
Testing the Reliability of Research
Instrument
1. Internal consistency
This refers to the extent to which all parts
of the measurement techniques are
measuring the same concept.
2. Test of Equivalence
This refers to the consistency of the results
by different investigators or similar tests at
the same time.
Sources of Error in Measurement
Respondent: At times the respondent may be
reluctant to express strong negative feelings or
it is just possible that he may have very little
knowledge but may not admit his ignorance
Situation: Any condition which places a strain
on interview.
Measurer: The interviewer can distort
responses by rewording or reordering
questions.
His behaviour, style and looks may
encourage or discourage certain replies
from respondents.
Careless mechanical processing may distort
Instrument:
defective measuring instrument.
use of complex words, beyond the
comprehension of the respondent,
ambiguous meanings, poor printing,
inadequate space for replies,
response choice omissions
poor sampling of the universe of
items of concern.
