Human Nature,

the Individual and

Society
Lesson 2: Special Topics in Political
Thought & Methodology

Presented by
Alejandria
and
Mandalihan
Important Topics to be Discussed

Nature vs. Nurture ● Intellect vs. Instinct ●

HUMAN NATURE Competition vs. Cooperation

Individualism ● Individual and Community ● The

THE INDIVIDUAL Individual in Politics

SOCIETY Collectivism ● Theories of Society ● Social Cleavages

Objective Outcomes

01 02 03
Define human nature Understand the Ascertain the
and analyze the concept of the relationship of the
encompassing political individual and examine individual towards the
debates and criticisms against community and its role
controversies individualism in politics
04 05 06
Analyze society and Identify the different Realize the effect of
collectivism as theories of society social cleavages
interrelated terms towards the society
 Natur
e
Intell vs. Nurtu
ect v re
Instin s.
c
Comp t
etitio
C oop n
eratio vs.
n

01
Human
Are human beings the product of innate or

Nature
biological factors, or are they fashioned by
education and social experience?
What is Human Nature?
Human nature refers to the essential and immutable character of all
human beings. It highlights what is innate and ‘natural’ about
human life, as opposed to what human beings have gained from
education or through social experience.

 On the other hand, some thinkers believe that human behavior is

shaped more by society. This very assertion is based on clear
assumptions about innate human qualities that it is indeed
shaped or molded by external factors. For instance, despite
abundant evidence of greedy and selfish behavior, socialists still
hold to the belief that human beings are cooperative and
sociable, arguing that such behavior is socially conditioned and
not natural.
 This means that human nature is not descriptive or scientific
 French existentialist philosopher,
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80),
1905- argued that there was no such
80 thing as a given ‘human nature’
determining how people act or
behave. He believes that
existence comes before essence
which means that human beings
enjoy the freedom to define
themselves through their own
actions and deeds in which such
assertion of any concept of
human nature is an affront to
that freedom.
 The most recurrent, and perhaps most
fundamental, debate about human nature
Nature
relates to what factors or forces shape it. Is
the essential core of human nature fixed or
Vs . given, fashioned by nature, or is it molded or
e
Nurtur structured by the influence of social
experience or ‘nurture’
 Nature Vs. Nurture

Nature Nurture
○ Stands for biological or ○ Refers to the
genetic factors, environmental factors,
suggesting that there is experiences and
an established and influences that shape an
unchanging human core. individual's development,
behavior, and
characteristics.
 Biological Ideas
According to the British scientist Charles Darwin (1809–82) in On the Origin of Species
([1859] 1986). He believes that each species developed through a series of random
genetic mutations, some of which fit the species to survive and prosper, while other, less
fortunate species become extinct.

Herbert Spencer (see p. 19) in The Man Versus the State ([1884] 1940). Spencer coined
the term ‘the survival of the fittest’ to describe what he believed to be an endless struggle
among human beings, through which those best fitted by nature to survive rise to the top,
and those less favored by nature sink to the bottom.

Konrad Lorenz (1903–89) and Niko Tinbergen (1907–88) advanced theories about human
behavior on the basis of detailed studies of animal behavior. In On Aggression ([1963]
2002), Lorenz suggested that as aggression is a form of biologically adapted behavior
which has developed though the process of evolution, it is a natural drive found in all
species, including the human species. Such ideas had considerable impact on explanations
of war and social violence by presenting such behavior as instinctual and territorial.
What do all these biological ideas share in
common?
These biological theories embrace universalism that
human beings share a common or universal character,
based on their genetic inheritance.
 Emphasis on the Concept of Nurture
In contrast, other theories of human nature place greater
emphasis on the concept of nurture which is the influence of
the social environment or experience on the human character.
Clearly, such views play down the importance of fixed and
unchanging biological factors, emphasizing instead the
malleable quality of human nature.
 The picture of human nature as
essentially malleable, shaped by
social factors, has also been
endorsed by behavioral
psychologists, such as I. V. Pavlov
(1849–1936), John Watson (1878–
1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–90).
They argued that human behavior
is explicable simply in terms of
conditioned reactions or reflexes,
for which reason human nature
bears the imprint of its
environment. Pavlov, for instance,
demonstrated how animals could
learn through a strict process of
conditioning, by being rewarded
 Intellect Vs. Instinct
The second debate centers on the role of rationality in human
life. This does not, however, come down to a choice between
rationalism and irrationalism. The real issue is the degree to
which the reasoning mind influences human conduct,
suggesting a distinction between those who emphasize
thinking, analysis and rational calculation, and those who
highlight the role of impulse, instincts or other non-rational
drives.
 Intellect Vs. Instinct
Intellect refers to the capacity for Instinct refers to innate, automatic, and
reasoning, logic, and conscious instinctual responses to stimuli. It is a
thought. It involves cognitive abilities natural, unlearned behavior that is present
such as problem-solving, critical from birth or developed through evolution.
thinking, and analysis. Intellect is Instincts are often related to survival and
developed through education, learning, fulfilling basic needs. They are hardwired
and acquiring knowledge and skills. It responses that help ensure the individual's
involves the application of acquired safety, reproduction, or well-being.
knowledge to make informed decisions. Instinctual responses are typically quick,
Intellect can override or modify automatic, and do not involve conscious
instinctual responses. It allows thought or reasoning. They are immediate
individuals to consider long-term reactions to stimuli, such as fight or flight
consequences, societal norms, and responses. Instincts are shaped by
ethical considerations when making evolution and passed down through
decisions. generations. They are adaptive behaviors
that have helped species survive and
reproduce.
 During the Enlightenment, the so-called Age of Reason, in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, philosophers and
political thinkers turned away from religious dogmas and
faith, and instead based their ideas on rationalism. (The
belief that the workings of the physical and social world can
be explained by the exercise of reason alone).

 In this view, human beings are essentially rational creatures,

guided by intellect and a process of argument, analysis and
debate.
 French philosopher, René Descartes
(1596–1650). In declaring ‘Cogito ergo
sum [I think, therefore I am]’, Descartes in
effect portrayed human beings as thinking
machines, implying that the mind is quite
distinct from the body. Rationalism implies
that human beings possess the capacity
to fashion their own lives and their own
worlds. If human beings are reason-driven
creatures they clearly enjoy free will and
self-determination. (people are what they
choose to make of themselves. Rationalist
1596- theories of human nature therefore tend
1650 to underline the importance of individual
freedom and autonomy

The earliest rationalist Plato, argued that

the best possible form of government
 Criticisms
 This vision of human beings as thinking machines has, however,
attracted growing criticism since the late nineteenth century. The
Enlightenment dream of an ordered, rational and tolerant world was
badly dented by the persistence of conflict and social deprivation and
the emergence of powerful and seemingly nonrational forces such as
nationalism and racialism. This led to growing interest in the influence
which emotion, instinct and other psychological drives exert on
politics. In some respects, however, this development built on an
established tradition, found mainly among conservative thinkers, that
had always disparaged the mania for rationalism.

 Conservative theorists were among the first to acknowledge the

power of the non-rational.
 the intellectual imperfection of
human beings, especially when
they are confronted by the
1729- almost infinite complexity of
1797 social life. In short, the world is
unfathomable, too intricate and
too confusing for the human
mind fully to unravel. Burke also
emphasized the degree to which
unreasoned sentiments and even
prejudice play a role in
structuring social life. While what
he called ‘naked reason’ offers
little guidance, prejudice, being
born of natural instincts, provides
people with security and a sense
of social identity.
Thomas Hobbes (see p. 111), for
instance, believed in the power
of human reason, but only as a
means to an end. In his view,
human beings are driven by non- 1588-
rational appetites: aversions, 1679
fears, hopes and desires, the
strongest of which is the desire to
exercise power over others. This
essentially pessimistic view of
human nature led Hobbes to
conclude that only strong,
autocratic government can
prevent society descending into
chaos and disorder.
 Competition Vs. Cooperation

The third area of disagreement centers on whether

human beings are essentially self-seeking and
egoistical, or naturally sociable and cooperative.
 Competition
 Competition refers to a process or situation where individuals, groups, or
entities strive to outperform or surpass others in a particular activity or
endeavor. It involves the pursuit of a goal or desired outcome, often with
the aim of achieving superiority, recognition, or rewards. Competition
involves rivalry and the existence of multiple participants who are vying
for the same goal or limited resources. It typically implies a comparison
or comparison between competitors based on performance, skills, or
achievements. However, it's important to note that competition can also
have potential downsides, such as creating stress, fostering a win-at-all-
costs mentality, or perpetuating inequalities.
 According to Darwin on his evolutionary ideas, survival is the result of
struggle and competition.
 According to Lorenz ([1963] 2002), each individual member of a species
is biologically programmed to ensure the survival of the species itself.
 Dawkins (2006), on the other hand, argued that every gene, including
 Competition
 In contrast to this, a view suggests that animals, including human
beings, ultimately act ‘for the good of the species’, an idea reflected
in the willingness of a mother to sacrifice herself in the hope of
protecting her young. In other words, individuals will exhibit
cooperative and sociable behavior to the extent that they put the
species before themselves.
 Secular theories have also attempted to draw attention to the ‘social
essence’ of human nature. These have traditionally stressed the
importance of social being, drawing attention to the fact that
individuals both live and work collectively, as members of a
community. Selfishness and competition are in no way ‘natural’;
rather, they have been cultivated by a capitalist society that rewards
and encourages self-striving
 Competition
 Secular theories have also attempted to draw attention to the ‘social
essence’ of human nature. These have traditionally stressed the
importance of social being, drawing attention to the fact that
individuals both live and work collectively, as members of a
community. Selfishness and competition are in no way ‘natural’;
rather, they have been cultivated by a capitalist society that rewards
and encourages self-striving
 Although Dawkins accepted that individuals are ‘born selfish’, he
emphasized that such behavior can be modified if we ‘teach
generosity and altruism’.
  One of the few attempts to develop a scientific theory of
human nature along the lines of sociability and
cooperativeness was undertaken by Peter Kropotkin.
l
Mutua  In Mutual Aid of Kropotkin suggested that what
Aid distinguishes the human species from less successful
species is its highly developed capacity for cooperation
or ‘mutual aid’. Cooperation is therefore not merely an
ethical or religious ideal, it is a practical necessity which
the evolutionary process has made an essential part of
human nature.
 Indivi
d
Indivi ualism
dual
comm and
Indivi un ity
dual
politi in
cs

02
The Individual
 What is an individual?
The term ‘the individual’ is so widely used in everyday
language that its implications and political significance are
often ignored. In the most obvious sense, an individual is a
single human being.
Implications of the Concept “Individual”
1. First, it implies that the single human being is an independent and
meaningful entity, possessing an identity in himself or herself. In
other words, to talk of people as individuals is to suggest that they
are autonomous creatures, acting according to personal choice
rather than as members of a social group or collective body.

2. Second, individuals are not merely independent; they are also

distinct, even unique. To see society as a collection of individuals is
therefore to understand human beings in personal terms and to
judge them according to their particular qualities, such as character,
personality, talents, skills and so on
Implications of the Concept “Individual”
3. Third, to understand human beings as individuals is usually to believe
in universalism, to accept that human beings everywhere share certain
fundamental characteristics. In that sense, individuals are not defined
by social background, race, religion, gender or any other ‘accident of
birth’, but by what they share with people everywhere: their moral
worth, their personal identity and their uniqueness. Moreover, no
political thinker sees the individual as entirely self-reliant; all
acknowledge that, to some degree, social factors sustain and influence
the individual. It raised questions about the balance between the
individual and the community. Is politics, in reality, shaped by the
decisions and actions of separate individuals, or do only social groups,
organizations and institutions matter? In short, can the individual make
a difference?
 Individualism
 Refers to a belief in the primacy of the individual over any
social group or collective body, suggesting that the
individual is central to any political theory or social
explanation.

 All individualist doctrines extol the intrinsic value of the

individual, emphasizing the dignity, personal worth, even
sacredness, of each human being.
 Individualism
 Early liberals expressed their individualism in the doctrine of natural
rights, which holds that the purpose of social organization is to
protect the inalienable rights of the individual.

 American individualists such as Henry David Thoreau and Benjamin

Tucker believed that no individual should sacrifice his or her
conscience to the judgement of politicians, elected or otherwise, a
position which denies that government can ever exercise rightful
authority over the individual.

 Such individualism has also been closely linked to the assumption

that individual human beings are self-reliant and self-interested. C.B.
Macpherson termed this as “possessive individualism ”.
 Other Views in Individualism
T.H. Green and L.T. Hobhouse used individualism to construct arguments in
favor of social welfare and state intervention. They saw the individual not as
narrowly self-interested, but as socially responsible, above all, in this view,
individuals have the ability to grow or flourish, the capacity to achieve fulfillment
and realize whatever potential they may possess.

French socialist Jean Jaures proclaimed that ‘socialism is the logical completion
of individualism. So the so-called ‘third-way’ thinkers such as Anthony Giddens,
have attempted a similar reconciliation in embracing the idea of ‘new
individualism’.
Individualism as a Methodological Device
 With this, social or political theories have been constructed on the
basis of a pre-established model of the human individual, taking
account of whatever needs, drives, aspirations, and so forth the
individual is thought to possess.

 This ‘methodological individualism’ was employed to construct social

contract theories and became the basis of rational choice models of
political science.

 The individualist method underpinned classical and neo-classical

economic theories, such as Friedrich Hayek. In each case,
conclusions have been drawn from assumptions about a ‘fixed’ or
‘given’ human nature, usually highlighting the capacity for rationally
 The individual and
Community
Political thought is deeply divided
about the relationship between the
individual and the community: should
the individual encouraged to be
independent and self-reliant, or will
this make social solidarity impossible
and leave
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individualism
 The Anglo-American tradition of
individualism, is described by US President
Herbert Hoover as ‘rugged individualism’.
This tradition can be thought of as an
extreme form of individualism, its roots
being found in classical liberalism. It sees
On the individual as almost entirely separate
from society, and so discounts or
Individualism: downgrades the importance of community.
It is based on the belief that individuals not
only possess the capacity for self-reliance
and hard work, but also that individual effort
is the source of moral and personal
development. Not only can individuals look
after themselves, but they should do.
 The seminal work of this individualist
tradition is Samuel Smiles' Self-Help
([1859] 2008), which proclaimed that, ‘The
On spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine
growth in the individual’. Smiles (1812–
Individualism: 1904) extolled the Victorian virtues of
enterprise, application and perseverance,
underpinned by the belief that ‘energy
accomplishes more than genius’.
 Such ideas have had considerable impact
on New Right thinking, and in particular on
its attitude towards the welfare state.
Stridently advanced during the 1980s

On through Reaganism in the USA and

Thatcherism in the UK, the New Right

Individualism: attacked the ‘dependency culture’ which

over-generous welfare support had
supposedly created. The poor,
disadvantaged and unemployed had been
turned into ‘welfare junkies’, robbed of the
desire to work and denied dignity and self-
respect.
In most cases, anti-
individualism is based on a
commitment to the
importance of community and
the belief that self-help and
:On Anti-
individual responsibility are a Individualism
threat to social solidarity.
Community’ may refer, very loosely, to a collection of people in a given
location, as when the populations of a particular town, city or nation are
described as a community. However, in social and political thought the
term usually has deeper implications, suggesting a social group, a
neighborhood, town, region, group of workers or whatever, within which
there are strong ties and a collective identity.

m u n it
Com
y
 Criticisms Against Individualism
Among the modern critics of liberal Individualism has also been regarded with
individualism have been communitarian suspicion by many conservative theorists.
theorists (see p. 33) who dismiss the very From their point of view, unrestrained
idea of the ‘unencumbered self ’, arguing individualism is destructive of the social
that the self is always constituted through fabric. Individuals are timid and insecure
the community. Not surprisingly, socialists creatures, who seek the rootedness and
have also taken up the cause of stability which only a community identity
community, seeing it as a means of can provide. If individualism promotes a
strengthening social responsibility and philosophy of ‘each for his own’ it will
harnessing collective energies. simply lead to ‘atomism’, and produce a
society of vulnerable and isolated
individuals. This has, for example,
encouraged conservative thinkers, such as
Irving Kristol (see p. 259) in the USA and
Roger Scruton (2001) in the UK, to
distance themselves from the free-market
enthusiasms of the liberal New Right.
Community life which develop within traditional or rural
societies Vs Those found in modern urban societies:
The Gemeinschaft (Community) and Gesellschaft (Association)
Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936)

 Tönnies suggested that Gemeinschaft relationships, typically found in

rural communities, are based on the strong bonds of natural
affection and mutual respect. This traditional sense of ‘community’
was, however, threatened by the spread of industrialization and
urbanization, both of which encouraged a growth of egoism and
competition.

 The Gesellschaft relationships which develop in urban societies are,

by contrast, artificial and contractual; they reflect the desire for
personal gain rather than any meaningful social loyalty.
 The French sociologist Émile
Durkheim (1858–1917) also
contributed to the understanding
1858- of community by developing the
1917 concept of anomie to denote a
condition in which the framework
of social codes and norms breaks
down entirely. In Suicide ([1897]
1951), Durkheim argued that,
since human desires are
unlimited, the breakdown of
community, weakening social
and moral norms about which
forms of behavior are acceptable
and which are not, is likely to
lead to greater unhappiness and,
ultimately, more suicides.
What happens if community is considered
over the individual?
Putting the community over the individual can lead to
individual rights and liberties being violated in the name of the
community or collective body. This was most graphically
demonstrated through the experience of fascist rule. In many
ways, fascism is the antithesis of individualism: in its German
form it proclaimed the supreme importance of the
Volksgemeinschaft or ‘national community’, and aimed to
dissolve individuality, and indeed personal existence, within the
social whole.
 The individual in Politics
Political analysis as focused on
the aspirations, convictions Political Analysis as focused on
and deeds of leading the ‘impersonal forces’ that
individuals structure individual behavior

 The first approach sees politics  The second approach discounts

entirely in personal terms. It the individual altogether. History
holds that history is made by is shaped by social, economic and
human individuals who, in effect, other factors, meaning that
impress their own wills on the individual actors are either
political process. Such an irrelevant or merely act as
approach is evident in the puppets. An example of this
emphasis on ‘great men’ and approach to politics was found in
their deeds. From this the crude and mechanical Marxist
perspective, political analysis theories that developed in the
boils down to little more than Soviet Union and other
 An Emphasis on the Balance Between
Personal and Impersonal Factors
The relationship between
individuals and their cultural
This can be best defined through inheritance
three important points:

The relationship between

individuals and institutions

The individual's relationship

with society
 C ol l e
cti
Theo vism
ries o
So f
Socia ciety
l Clea
vage
s

03
Society
 What is Society?
In its most general sense, ‘society’ denotes a collection of
people occupying the same territorial area. Not just any group
of people, however, constitutes a society. Societies are
characterized by regular patterns of social interaction,
suggesting the existence of some kind of social ‘structure’.
Moreover, ‘social’ relationships involve mutual awareness and
at least some measure of cooperation.
 Collectivism
For some, Others use In addition, collectivism
collectivism refers to collectivism to refer to is sometimes used as a
the actions of the communitarianism, a synonym for socialism,
preference for though, to confuse
state and reached its matters further, this is
highest form of community action
rather than self- done by critics of
development in the socialism to highlight
striving, an idea that
centrally planned what they see as its
has had libertarian, statist tendencies, while
economies of even anarchist,
orthodox communist socialists themselves
implications, as in the employ the term to
states, so-called ‘collectivist anarchism’ underline their
‘state collectivism’. of Michael Bakunin commitment to the
(1814–76). shared or collective
interests of humanity.
 Two Main Points on Collectivism
1. All forms of collectivism subscribe to the notion that human
beings are social animals, identifying with fellow human
beings and bound together by a collective identity.

2. All forms of collectivism are therefore at odds with the

extreme form of individualism that portrays human beings
as independent and self-striving creatures.
 Theories of Society
Theories Based on Individualist Conception of Society

 These assume that society is a human artifact, constructed

by individuals to serve their interests or purposes. In its
extreme form this can lead to the belief, often associated
with Margaret Thatcher, but based on the ideas of Jeremy
Bentham (see p. 363), that ‘there is no such thing as
society’.
 The clearest example of such a theory is found in classical
liberalism, which is committed to the goal of achieving the
greatest possible individual freedom.
 Theories of Society
Theories Based on an Organic Analogy

 Instead of being constructed by rational individuals to satisfy

their personal interests, society may operate as an ‘organic
whole’, exhibiting properties more normally associated with
living organisms – a human being or plant. This suggests a
holistic approach to society, emphasizing that societies are
complex networks of relationships which ultimately exist to
maintain the whole: the whole is more important than its
individual parts.
 The organic analogy was first used by Ancient Greek thinkers
who referred to the ‘body politic’.
While both individualist and organic theories of society
suggest the existence of an underlying social consensus,
rival theories such as the following, highlight the role of
conflict:
● Pluralist theory of society

● Elite theories of society

● Marxism
 A ‘social cleavage’ is a split or
division in society, reflecting the
diversity of social formations within
it. Such cleavages are born out of
an unequal distribution of political
influence, economic power or
social status. To interpret politics in
terms of social cleavages is to
Social recognize particular social bonds,
Cleavage be they economic, racial, religious,
s cultural or sexual, as politically
important, and to treat the group
concerned as a major political
actor.
 Social Social class is the cleavage that has
traditionally been most closely
Cleavages in associated with politics. Class reflects
economic and social divisions, based
Relation to on an unequal distribution of wealth,
income or social status. A ‘social class’
Identity Politics: is therefore a group of people who
share a similar economic and social
position, and who are thus united by a
common economic interest.
Marxists have regarded class
as the most fundamental of
social cleavages and
politically the most significant.
Marxists understand class in
terms of economic power, the
ownership of the means of :Class as the
production. The ‘bourgeoisie’
is the capitalist class, the Fundamentals of
owners of capital or
productive wealth; while the Social
‘proletariat’, which owns no
wealth, is forced to sell its
Cleavages
labor power to survive, its
members being reduced to
the status of ‘wage slaves’.
 Racial Ethnic Cleavages
 Racial or ethnic cleavages have  Very different forms of racial ethnic
influenced political thought in politics have also developed out of
radically different ways. The first the struggle against colonialism in
racially based political theories particular, and against racial
emerged in the nineteenth century, discrimination in general. Ethnic
against the background of European minorities in many Western
imperialism. Works such as societies are excluded from
Gobineau’s Essay on the Inequality
political influence and suffer from
of Human Races ([1855] 1970) and
H. S. Chamberlain’s Foundations of disadvantage in both the
the Nineteenth Century ([1899] 1913) workplace and public life. This has
provided a pseudo-scientific generated new styles of political
justification for the dominance of the acitivism.les of political activism.
‘white’ European races over the
‘black’, ‘brown’ and ‘yellow’ peoples
of Africa and Asia.
 Religion can also be a
social cleavage
The emergence of new, and often more
assertive, forms of religiosity, the
increasing impact of religious
movements, and, most importantly, a
closer relationship between religion and
politics, especially since the 1970s, has
confounded the so-called ‘secularization
thesis’.
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Special Topics in Political Thought &
Methodology

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