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1. Biology 3201 Chapters 20 + 21 The Essentials

2. Micro vs. Macro Evolution Micro Evolution Evolution on a smaller scale. This is evolution within a particular species. It is also the change in the gene frequencies of a population over time. Macro Evolution Evolution on a large scale. It includes changes such as the evolution of new species from a common ancestor or the evolution of one species into two.

3. Allele Frequency The number of occurrences of a particular allele in a population divided by the total number of alleles in a population. Ex. 20 copies of t allele, 80 copies of T and t alleles combined 20/80 = 0.25 or 25% gene frequency of t allele • By studying these frequencies you can determine any changes in the genetic variability of a population and thus determine if the population is undergoing micro-evolution. • The frequencies of both alleles and genotypes within a population are called the populations genetic structure.

4. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculations The Hardy-Weinberg principle predicts the expected allele and genotype frequencies in an ideal population which is not subjected to selective pressure Natural populations cannot meet all of the conditions required for it to work, therefore Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can only be met in an artificial environment such as a laboratory, and has no real-world value.

5. Hardy-Weinberg Equation p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p frequency of a dominant allele q frequency of a recessive allele p2 frequency of individuals who are homozygous for the dominant allele. Example: AA 2pq frequency of individuals who are heterozygous for alleles. Example Aa q2 frequency of individuals who are homozygous for the recessive allele. Example aa *** In the Hardy-Weinberg principle, p + q = 1 Read over the example on page 681 in textbook

6. Conditions Required for Hardy-Weinberg to work Understand that many or all of these do not apply to populations in the real world. Numbers 2 and 5 are impossible, while number 1 is highly unlikely. • Random matingMating must be totally random i.e. Females cannot select male mates with a particular genotype • No mutations  There must be no mutations of alleles (genes) in the gene pool of a population. • Isolation  Populations must be isolated from each other so that there is no exchange of genetic material between them. • Large population size  Number of organisms in the population must be very large • No natural selection  There can be no advantage of one genotype over another due to the process of natural selection.

7. Genetic Drift In a small population, the frequencies of particular alleles can be changed drastically by random chance, this is called genetic drift. This is important because it can lead to rapid macroevolution (new species) when small populations become isolated from larger ones.

8. 2 Examples of Genetic Drift you need to know Although most populations are large enough to make the effects of genetic drift negligible, there are two situations which can cause genetic drift within these populations. The Bottleneck Effect Natural disasters as well as human interferences can cause populations to become so small they are almost extinct. The Founder Effect This occurs when a small population of organisms colonize a new area.

10. Founder Effect

11. How is this genetic drift? In both the Bottleneck Effect and the Founder Effect, the new population may not have the same gene frequencies as the original parent population. The offspring of this small population will have an allele frequency which is different from the original population Why? • Small sample size from parent population may not be representative • Non-random mating and inbreeding • new environment which is different from that of the original population, different selective pressures will influence the gene pool of the population

12. Three types of natural selection

13. Three types of natural selection Directional selection favors the phenotypes at one extreme of a range over the other. This type of selection is common during times of environmental change or when a population migrates to a new habitat which has different environmental conditions. Global climate change can also cause directional selection in some populations. Disruptive (Diversifying) selection occurs when the extremes of a phenotypic range are favored over the intermediate phenotypes. This can result in the middle phenotype being eliminated from a population. Stabilizing selection favors a middle phenotype and actually acts against extreme variations of a phenotype. Thus, this type of selection reduces variation within a population so that the population will remain relatively constant.

14. Speciation – How new species form There are two pathways which lead to the formation of a new species Transformation is a process by which one species is transformed into another species as the result of accumulated changes over long periods of time. Divergence is the process in which one or more species arise from a parent species, but the parent species continues to exist. The formation of species, a process called speciation, is a continuous process.

15. Transformation Speciation

16. Divergence Speciation

17. Convergent vs. Divergent Evolution Divergent evolution • Species that were once similar diverge or become increasingly different from each other • Divergent evolution occurs when populations change as they adapt to different environmental conditions. Convergent evolution • Two unrelated species develop similar traits after developing independently in similar environmental conditions.

18. Divergent Evolution

19. Convergent Evolution

20. Biological Barriers to Reproduction Anything that prevents a population from freely moving and reproducing will have an effect on evolution. Why? Genetic mixing is restricted creating populations that will evolve differently because of different local conditions See. P. 709 – 711 for the following types: Pre-zygotic barriers (before fertilization) • Behavioural isolation – ex. Different mating calls • Habitat isolation – ex. Occupying different parts of a region • Temporal isolation – ex. Different mating seasons • Mechanical isolation – ex. Anatomical differences • Gametic isolation – ex. Egg and sperm not compatible Post-zygotic barriers (after fertilization) • Hybrid inviability – hybrid dies • Hybrid sterility – hybrid is unable to reproduce • Hybrid breakdown

21. Geographical Barriers to Reproduction • Like a biological barrier, populations can’t reproduce and therefore evolve differently due to different local conditions. • Keep populations physically isolated from each other. Thus, the organisms from the populations are unable to interbreed with each other. • Examples include: Rivers, mountains, oceans