{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T07:23:39Z","timestamp":1777965819073,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["72125009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["72125009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFF1203000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFF1203000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020BD004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020BD004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62102008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62102008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers in Biology and Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T05:54:13Z","timestamp":1678859653000},"page":"106778","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Self-sovereign identity empowered non-fungible patient tokenization for health information exchange using blockchain technology"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"157","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1245-7203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Zhuang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9197-9522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chi-Ren","family":"Shyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7521-5127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shenda","family":"Hong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Luxia","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"14","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.2252","article-title":"Data breaches of protected health information in the United States","volume":"313","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib2","first-page":"133","volume":"8","author":"Seh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Healthcare Data Breache: Insight. Implicate."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dss.2018.02.007","article-title":"Cyber-analytics: modeling factors associated with healthcare data breaches","volume":"108","author":"McLeod","year":"2018","journal-title":"Decis. Support Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib4","series-title":"Book Notice to the Secretary of HHS Breach of Unsecured Protected Health Information Affecting 500 or More Individuals. United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)","article-title":"Notice to the Secretary of HHS breach of unsecured protected health information affecting 500 or more individuals. United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)","author":"Breach","year":"2022"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5787","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26110-4","article-title":"The growing need for controlled data access models in clinical proteomics and metabolomics","volume":"12","author":"Keane","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib6","volume":"24","author":"Mandel","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib7","first-page":"1e","article-title":"Why patient matching is a challenge: research on master patient index (MPI) data discrepancies in key identifying fields","volume":"13","author":"Just","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Health Inf. Manag."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1136\/amiajnl-2010-000021","article-title":"Health-information exchange: why are we doing it, and what are we doing?","volume":"18","author":"Kuperman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Inf. Assoc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2022.102007","article-title":"Identification of barriers affecting the use of health information exchange (HIE) in clinicians' practices: an empirical study in the United States","volume":"70","author":"Esmaeilzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib10","series-title":"Book Medical Record System Using Blockchain, Big Data and Tokenization","first-page":"254","article-title":"Medical record system using blockchain, big data and tokenization","author":"Liu","year":"2016"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2169","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2020.2993072","article-title":"A patient-centric health information exchange framework using blockchain technology","volume":"24","author":"Zhuang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Biomed. Health Informatic."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocx068","article-title":"Blockchain distributed ledger technologies for biomedical and health care applications","volume":"24","author":"Kuo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Inf. Assoc."},{"issue":"14","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11475","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-020-05519-w","article-title":"Blockchain for healthcare data management: opportunities, challenges, and future recommendations","volume":"34","author":"Yaqoob","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neural Comput. Appl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2018.07.004","article-title":"FHIRChain: applying blockchain to securely and scalably share clinical data","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2196\/36774","article-title":"Re-Engineering a clinical trial management system using blockchain technology: system design, development, and case studies","volume":"24","author":"Zhuang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.1049\/cmu2.12488","article-title":"Blockchain for applications of clinical trials: Taxonomy, challenges, and future directions","volume":"16","author":"Hang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10163","DOI":"10.2196\/10163","article-title":"Blockchain technology for detecting falsified and substandard drugs in distribution: pharmaceutical supply chain intervention","volume":"7","author":"Sylim","year":"2018","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Protoc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib18","article-title":"Quorum-based model learning on a blockchain hierarchical clinical research network using smart contracts","author":"Kuo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Inf."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib19","first-page":"1167","article-title":"Applying blockchain technology for health information exchange and persistent monitoring for clinical trials","volume":"2018","author":"Zhuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"AMIA Annu. Symp. Proc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib20","series-title":"Non-fungible Token (NFT): Overview, Evaluation, Opportunities and Challenges","author":"Wang","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00053-8","article-title":"Mapping the NFT revolution: market trends, trade networks, and visual features","volume":"11","author":"Nadini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib22","series-title":"Blockchain Technology and Innovations in Business Processes","first-page":"189","article-title":"The feasibility and significance of employing blockchain-based identity solutions in health care","author":"Zhang","year":"2021"},{"issue":"6580","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm2004","article-title":"How NFTs could transform health information exchange","volume":"375","author":"Kostick-Quenet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2008.15","article-title":"Pseudo trust: zero-knowledge authentication in anonymous P2Ps","volume":"19","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Parallel Distr. Syst."},{"issue":"15","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.06.030","article-title":"Establishing a blockchain-enabled Indigenous data sovereignty framework for genomic data","volume":"185","author":"Mackey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2018.10.002","article-title":"A survey on essential components of a self-sovereign identity","volume":"30","author":"M\u00fchle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib27","volume":"vol. 29","author":"Tobin","year":"2016"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2000473","article-title":"A survey on zero-knowledge proof in blockchain","volume":"35","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOMSTD.001.1900029","article-title":"The trust over ip stack","volume":"3","author":"Davie","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Standard Magazine."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2018.06.003","article-title":"Blockchain technology for healthcare: facilitating the transition to patient-driven interoperability","volume":"16","author":"Gordon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2020.102731","article-title":"Blockchain-based identity management systems: A review","volume":"166","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib32","first-page":"45","volume":"126","author":"Feng","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib33","series-title":"Book Travel Identity of the Future\u2013White Paper","article-title":"Travel identity of the future\u2013white paper","author":"ShoCard","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib34","series-title":"Uport: A Platform for Self-Sovereign Identity","author":"Lundkvist","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib35","first-page":"18","volume":"29","author":"Tobin","year":"2016"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ooaa073","DOI":"10.1093\/jamiaopen\/ooaa073","article-title":"Designing and testing a blockchain application for patient identity management in healthcare","volume":"4","author":"Khurshid","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMIA Open"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib37","series-title":"Performance Evaluation of the Quorum Blockchain Platform","author":"Baliga","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib38","series-title":"Blockchain Consensus Protocols in the Wild","author":"Cachin","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib39","series-title":"Book Ethanos: Efficient Bootstrapping for Full Nodes on Account-Based Blockchain","first-page":"99","article-title":"Ethanos: efficient bootstrapping for full nodes on account-based blockchain","author":"Kim","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib40","series-title":"2017 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), Boston, MA, USA","first-page":"2652","article-title":"An improved P2P file system scheme based on IPFS and Blockchain","author":"Chen","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib41","series-title":"Proceedings of the 3rd ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"31","article-title":"Diffie-Hellman key distribution extended to group communication","author":"Michael","year":"1996"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dss.2011.01.005","article-title":"Cost and benefit analysis of authentication systems","volume":"51","author":"Altinkemer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Decis. Support Syst."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-022-01815-8","article-title":"Benefits and concerns associated with blockchain-based health information exchange (HIE): a qualitative study from physicians' perspectives","volume":"22","author":"Esmaeilzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inf. Decis. Making"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778_bib44","series-title":"Book National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2018 National Summary Tables","article-title":"National summary tables","author":"\u2018National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey","year":"2018"}],"container-title":["Computers in Biology and Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0010482523002433?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0010482523002433?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,2]],"date-time":"2025-11-02T20:56:10Z","timestamp":1762116970000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0010482523002433"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["S0010482523002433"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778","relation":{},"ISSN":["0010-4825"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0010-4825","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Self-sovereign identity empowered non-fungible patient tokenization for health information exchange using blockchain technology","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers in Biology and Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106778","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"106778"}}