National Academy of Sciences
I
FIRE RESEARCH ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Robert M. Fristrom, Editor
Geraldine A. Fristrom. Associate Editor
The Committee on Fire Research
C\ri W. Walter. Chairman
Harvard Medical School
Harvard University
.1. S. Barrows
College of Forestry and Natural Resources
Colorado State University
William .1. Christian
Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.
Irving N. Einiiorn
College of Engineering
University of Utah
Roberi M. Fristrom
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University
James W. Ki rr
Emergency Operations Systems Division
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency
Leonard Marks
Fire Service Extension
University of Maryland
Anne W. Phii.i ips
School of Medicine
Harvard University
Gordon W. Shorter
Head, Fire Section
National Research Council of Canada
Richard E. Stevens
Director of Engineering Services
National Fire Protection Association
Pali S. Symonds
Professor of Engineering
Brown University
Ni l son T. GrisaMori Executive Secretary
FIRE RESEARCH ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS will abstract papers pub-
lished in scientific journals, progress reports of sponsored research, patents, and
research reports from technical laboratories. At intervals, reviews on subjects of
particular importance w ill be published. 1 he coverage w ill be limited to articles of
significance in fire research, centered on the quantitative understanding of fire and
its spread.
Editor: Robert M. Fristrom. Applied Physics Laboratory
Lhe Johns Hopkins University, Laurel. Maryland
Editorial Stall: Geraldine A. Fristrom. Joan M. Sieber
Volume 16
Numbers I. 2. 3
Fire Research
Abstracts and Reviews
*/
NATIONAL. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Washington. D. C.
1974
w
FIRE RESEARCH ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS is published by the Com-
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Research Council. It is supported by the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, the
U.S. Department of Agriculture through the Forest Service, the National Science
Foundation, and the National Bureau of Standards. The opinions expressed by
contributors are their own and are not necessarily those of the Committee on Fire
Research.
Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the
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FOREWORD
The state of fire research is chaotic, although the situation is probably neither
more nor less confusing than that of the rest of the world. At the present reading
(November 1975) FRAR is significantly behind schedule. To remedy this situation
we are publishing V olume 1 6 as a single issue, and we plan to use the same approach
for Volume 17. With the completion of these two volumes, we expect to be able to
reestablish our currentness with improved coverage. This may cause some minor
anachronisms in these two volumes, which we hope the reader will forgive.
The new Administration for the Prevention and Control of Fires is now
established as a branch of the federal government under the Department of
Commerce. Its charter was passed by the 93rd Congress and signed by the
President. The Administration has broad powers under an Administrator and
Deputy Administrator, who report directly to the Secretary of Commerce. The
President nominated, and the Congress confirmed, Mr. Howard Tipton as
Administrator and Mr. David Lucht as Deputy Administrator. The reader will
recall that Mr. Tipton was the Executive Secretary of the Presidential Commission
on Fire Prevention and Control, which published the influential report, “America
Burning.” Mr. Lucht was Ohio’s State Fire Marshal from April 1974 to January
1975 and initiated a number of important fire prevention and control projects in
Ohio. Your editor and the Committee on Fire Research join the fire community in
wishing Administrators Tipton and Lucht well in their new endeavors. The
Administration will have an enormous influence on the course of fire research in the
coming years. Therefore, we have reprinted the enabling legislation (see p. I) so
that the reader can judge for himself the scope of this new presence in the field.
In November 1974, under a Federal Trade Commission consent order, an
agreement was made to establish an independent nonprofit research trust to be
called the "Products Research Committee.” The objective of the committee is to
further the understanding of the flammability hazards of cellular polymers. The
trust is to be administered by a committee of nine drawn from the government,
industrial, and university communities. They will administer a $5 million budget
over a five-year period; funds will be provided by the 25 plastic manufacturers
through The Society of the Plastics Industry. The nine trustees are;
Walter E. Becker, Jr.
Howard W. Emmons
Robert M. Fristrom
Irvin Glassman
Donald L. Graham
Ralph Long
John Lyons (Chairman)
D. W. McDonald
Herbert G. Nadeau
Mobay Chemical Company
Harvard University
APL/The Johns Hopkins University
Princeton University
Dow Chemical Company
National Science Foundation
National Bureau of Standards ,
Monsanto Company /
Upjohn Company /
J 1 ^
«
ST' .
The Committee chose Lowell R. Perkins of the National Bureau of Standards
as the Executive Director. They plan to support a broad program in the area of fire
and flammability hazards of cellular plastics through grants and contracts to
university, nonprofit, government, and industrial laboratories. Information on the
program can be obtained bv addressing the chairman:
Dr. John Lyons. Chairman
Products Research Committee
National Bureau of Standards
Building 225, Room BI42
Washington. D.C. 20234
This issue begins a new feature edited by Mr. Boris Kuvshinoff of the Applied
Physics Laboratory. The Johns Hopkins University. In the Current Literature
Section he has collected the titles for the year 1974 of major fire research journals.
These titles have been indexed according to subject and author and are collected
here at the end of the section. This approach offers a method of broadening the
coverage of FRAR. We are normally limited by space and monetary constraints so
that many valuable articl^are lost to FRAR. Many of these articles will be
abstracted, but moreihan half would not have been covered. The new feature will
alert the reader to articles that could not otherwise be abstracted. We hope this new
feature will prove useful to the readers of FRAR and, if so, we will try to continue
thi^coverage.
"^Th e issue contains two reviews. A paper by Dr. V. Sjolin discusses fire defense
education in Sweden. This is an area where Sweden has done some excellent work
that we may find useful in this country. A review by Dr. R. Fristrom of the Applied
Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University, covers the problems of flame
sampling.
^ The “Directory of Fire Research in the United States," 7th Edition. 1971-1973.
published by the Committee on Fire Research. National Research Council (ab-
stracted on p. 247), lists the many programs and establishments active in the fire
field. 1 he relntjmvi hrnvrrn the new Fire Prevention and Control Administration
and the federal fir?re3eareh~aggncies are being established. The Fire Center at the
National Bureau of Standard sand tfic+'irc Program of NSF R ANN are beginning
to show the fruits of continuing program*? An impressive summary of the
NSF/RANN work is abstracted on page 243. This bibliography of the NSF/
RANN work to date is available as indicated in the abstract. In future issues we
hope to carry descriptions of a number of the major fire programs and herewith
solicit concise current surveys from large multidisciplinary programs.
Rohi r i M.
Fr is I ROM
Editor
tv
\
I
I
l
Volume 16
CONTENTS
Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974
F1REL1TER— Review of 1974 Fire Related Journal Literature—
B. W. Kuvshinoffand J. B. Jernigan
Fire Technology Education in Sweden — Vilhelm Sjolin
Probe Measurements in Laminar Combustion Systems —
R.M.Fristrom
Page
■ 1
18
99
109
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
A. Prevention of Fires, Safety Measures, and Retardants
Variations in Hydrocarbon Gas Concentration During Supertanker
Cleaning Operations— J. Barstad, J. B. Boler, O. Hjorteland, and
E. Solum 145
A Field Study of Non Fire-Resistive Multiple Dwelling Fires— F. L.
Brannigan 145
Experimc ital Appraisal of an American Sprinkler System for the Pro-
tection of Goods in High Racked Storages N. W. Bridge and R. A.
Young 146
A Comparison between Potential Hazard Reduction from Fabric
Flammability Standards, Ignition Source Improvement and Public
Education B. Buchbinder and A. Vickers 146
Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting from the Atmospheric Dis-
persion of a Leak or Spill— D. Burgess, J. N. Murphy, M, G.
Zabetakis. and H. E. Perlee 146
Minimizing Serious Fires and Explosions in the Distilling Process
W. H. Doyle 147
Safety Aspects of Electrical Engineering Practice in the Petroleum
Industry — H. Edmonds-Brown 147
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Anti-Mist Fuel Additives in the Pre-
vention of Vapor Phase Fire and Explosions G.W. Gandee and
R. G. Clodfelter 148
Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace Test
Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of
v
CONTENTS
Organic Interior Building Materials. Part II. Checks on Factors Con-
cerning the Surface Flame Spread Rate and Smoke Evolution of
Organic Building Materials by Small Inclined Type Test Furnace
T. Handa, H. Suzuki. A. Takahashi.Y. Ikeda, and M.Saito 148
Design Approach to Fire Safety in Buildings T.Z. Harmathy 149
Designers Option: Fire ResistanceorVentilation T.Z. Flarmathy 149
Flame Deflectors T.Z Harmathy 150
The High Rise Fire Problem G. A. Harrison 150
Interruption of Explosions by Flame Arresters: First Report on the
Quenching Ability of Sintered Metals— T. Hayashiand H.Tarumi ... 151
Flammability of Selected Wood Products under Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards — C. A. Holmes 151
Uses and Evaluation of Non-Flammable Elastomeric Materials —
W. Krucke 152
Fire Endurance of Concrete-Protected Steel Columns— T. T. Lie and
T.Z. Harmathy 152
Electrostatic Hazards in Tank Filling Operations— A. R. Lyle and
H. Strawson 153
Respirator Requirements and Practices--.!. R. Lynch 153
Fireproofing of Cellular Polyurethane Materials— M. Mallet 153
Vulnerability Assessment of JP-4 and JP-8 under Vertical Gunfire
Impact Conditions — J.R.Manheim 154
Aerospace Vehicle Hazard Protection Test Program: Detectors;
Materials; Fuel Vulnerability — J. H. O’Neill. D. E. Sommers, and
E. B. Nicholas 154
Calculating the Admission of Nitrogen to Prevent Explosions when
Underground Fires Are Being Sealed Off S. N. Osipov. V. Yu. Gorb,
and A. Ya. Bovsunovskaya 155
The Use of Nitrogen for Extinguishing an Underground Fire— S. N.
Osipov and N.V. Orlov 155
Bibliography on Aircraft Fire Hazards and Safety - J. .1. Pelouch. Jr.
and P. T. Hacker 156
Investigation of Safe Operation of a Radiant Portable LPG Heater —
A. I. Pitt 156
Deficiencies in Safety Schemes which Rely on Stochastically Failing
Protective Equipment— J. H. Powell 156
Some Observations on Building Corridor Fires— J. Quintiere 157
Catalytic Reactor for Inerting of Aircraft FuelTanks J. Rousseau and
G. H. McDonald 157
High Voltage Equipment for Use in Flammable Atmospheres
Safety in Mines Research Establishment 158
Gas Detection with Semiconductor Metal Oxides Safety in Mines
Research Establishment 158
Synthetic Hydrocarbon Fluid is Fire Resistant. Safer than 5606 Oil
H. Schwenkerand .1. J. Sullivan 158
CONTENTS Vii
Efficient Extraction of Smoke from a Thin Layer under a Ceiling
D. Sprattand A. J. M. Heselden 158
Fail-safe Earth Fault Detection Device for Battery Supplies— L. E. Virr
and F. K. Pearson 159
Effect of Fire Retardants on Combustible Materials Underground
Y. Watanabe.efa/. 159
Evaluation of the Nuclear Fire Threat to Urban Areas— S. J. Wiersma
and S.’B. Martin 160
The Use of Water Cooling for Protection against Thermal Radiation
from a Nuclear Weapon Detonation— D. M. Wilson. B S. Katz.
andD. Demske 161
The Fire Problems of Pedestrian Precincts, Part 5. A Review of Fires
in Enclosed Shopping Complexes--H. G. H. Wraight 161
B. Ignition of Fires
The Influence of Flow Parameters on Min mum Ignition Energy and
Quenching Distance — D. R. Ballaland A. t.Lefebvre 162
Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting rom the Atmospheric Dis-
persion of a Leak or Spill — D. Burgess, J. N. Murphy, M. G.
Zabetakis, and H. E. Perlee 162
Some Aspects of Ignition by Localized Sources, and of Cylindrical and
Spherical Flames — G. Dixon-Lewis and I. G. Shepherd 162
Effective Heating of Fuel Ahead ofSpreading Fire— W. H. Frandesen. . 163
Critical Conditions of Self-Ignition of a Poly-Dispersed Gas Suspension
of Solid-Fuel Particles — M. A. Gurevich, G. E. Ozerova, and A. M.
Stysanov 163
Examination of the Conditions for the Self-Ignition of Wood: Part II.
Critical Conditions and Anisotropy Effect for the Self-Ignition of
Wood Spheres Compared with Computer Simulation — T. Handa,
H. Suzuki, A. Takahashi.and M. Morita 164
An Evaluation of the Relative Fire Hazards of Jet A and Jet B for
Commercial Flight- R. R. Hibbard and P. T. Hacker 165
Flame Spread over a Porous Surface under an External Radiation
Field— T. Kashiwagi 165
A Radiative Ignition Model of a Solid Fuel— T. Kashiwagi 165
Criteria of Incipient Combustion in Coal Mines J. M. Kuchta,
M. Hertzberg. R. Cato, C. D. Litton, D. Burgess, and R. W. Van
Dolah 166
Initiation of Weak Coal-Dust Explosions in Long Galleries and the
Importance of the Time Dependence of the Explosion Pressure
D . Rae 167
Flammability and Combustion Properties of Polyolefinic Materials
J. R Richard, C. Vovelle, and R. Dclbourgo 167
I hermal Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of Paper Sheets in Air
by Irradiation U K. Shivadevand H. W. Emmons 168
CONTENTS
The Ignition of Corrugated Fibreboard (Cardboard) by Thermal Radia-
tion— H.Wraight 168
C. Detection of Fires
Fire Detection: The State of the Art — R. L. P. Custer and R. G.
Bright 169
Sniffing the Fireand Snuffing It— Electrical Review 169
The Infrared Radiance and the Optical Detection of Fires and Explo-
sions— M. Hertzberg, C. D. Litton, W. F. Donaldson, and D.
Burgess 170
The Relationship between the Testing, Utilization and Assessment of
Fire Detectors — H.Luck 170
Aerospace Vehicle Hazard Protection Test Program: Detectors;
Materials; Fuel Vulnerability — J. H. O’Neill, D. E. Sommers, and
E. B. Nicholas 170
Approvals Criteria for Automatic Fire Detectors and Alarm Systems—
R.W. Pickard 170
Response Characteristics of Smoke Detectors in the Early Stage of
Fire— A. Watanabeand A.Takemoto 171
Automatic Fire Detection Equipment — R. B. Whitehouse 171
D. Propagation of Fires
Fire Spread over Paper— A. S. Campbell 172
Laminar Flame Spread over PMMA Surfaces A. Fernandez-Pello
and F. A. Williams 172
Fire Spread through Porous Fuels from the Conservation of Energy
W.H.Frandsen 172
Effective Heating of Fuel Ahead of a Spreading Fire W.H.Frandsen .. 173
Analysis of the Surface Flame Spread of Organic Building Materials.
Part I. Surface Flame on Plywood "-terials in an Inclined Tunnel
Furnace as a Model of the Initial Cause of Fire T. Handa and
A.Takahashi 173
An Evaluation of the Relative Fire Hazards of Jet A and Jet B for
Commercial Flight— R. R. Hibbard and P. T. Hacker 173
Effects of Radiation and Convection on Gas Velocity and Temperature
Profiles of Flames Spreading over Paper— T. Hiranoand K. Sato 174
Experimental Observation of Flame Spread Characteristics over Se-
lected Carpets— T. Kashiwagi . 174
Flame Spread over a Porous Surface under an External Radiation
Field— T. Kashiwagi 174
A Study of Flame Spread over a Porous Material under External
Radiation Fluxes — T. Kashiwagi 175
Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion of Hydrocarbon-Air
Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles— G. 1. Ksandopulo. B. Ya.
Kolesnikov, V. A. Zavadskii. D. S. Odnorog. and T. P. Elovskaya .... 175
CONTENTS
IX
The Burning of Vertical WoodenS labs— H. Kung 175
Upward Turbulent Fire Spread and Burning of Fuel Surface- -L. Orloff,
J. de Ris, and G. H. Markstein 176
Fire Spread over Liquid Fuels: Liquid Phase Parameters— K. E.
Torranceand R. L. Mahajan 177
Experimental Structural Fires— T. E. Waterman 177
E. Suppression of Fires
The Destruction of High Expansion Fire-Fighting Foam by the Com-
ponents of Fuel Pyrolysis and Combustion. III. Tests of Full Scale
Foam Generators Equipped with Scrubbers R. S. Alger and N. J.
Alvares 178
Development and Evaluation of Practical Self-Help Fire Retardants
A. J. Amaroand A. E. Lipska 178
Flame Structure Studies of CFiBr - Inhibited Methane Flames. 11.
Kinetics and Mechanisms — J. C. Biordi, C. P. Lazzara, and J. F.
Papp 179
Firefighting Effectiveness of Aqueous - Film - Forming - Foam (AFFF)
Agents— G. B.Geyer 180
Recent Research Concerning Extinguishment of Coal Dust Explosions—
J.Grumer 180
Interruption of Explosions by Flame Arresters: First Report on the
Quenching Ability of Sintered Metals— T. Hayashi and H.Turumi ... 181
Cooling Explosive Products from Methane-Air Mixtures in a Slot
between Steel and Plastic Flanges— A. A. Kaimakov and A. N.
Bauer 181
Extinction of Laminar Diffusion Flames for Liquid Fuels— J. H. Kent
and F. A. Williams 181
Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion of Hydrocarbon-Air
Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles— G. 1. Ksandopulo. B. Ya.
Kolesnikov, V. A. Zavadskii. D. S. Odnorog. and T. P. Elovskaya .... 182
Suppression of Evaporation of Hydrocarbon Liquids and Fuels by
Films Containing Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) Concentrate
FC-I96—J. T. Leonard and J. C. Burnett 182
A Summary of Experimental Data on the Maximum Experimental Safe
Gap— G. A. l.unn and H. Phillips 183
Extinguishment of Radiation Augmented Plastic Fires by Water
Sprays— R. S. Mageeand R. D. Reitz 183
Theory of Suppression of Explosions by Narrow Gaps— H. Phillips 184
Extinction Phenomena in Liquids— A. F. Roberts 184
The Mechanism of Flame Inhibition by Sodium Salts K. Sridhar lya.
S. Wollowitz.and W. E. Kaskan \g5
Mine Explosion Suppression Method and Apparatus U S. Patent
3.684,021, August 15. 1972 )86
X
CONTENT S
F. Fires, Damage, and Salvage
Smoke Extraction by Intrainment into a Ducted Water Spray — H. P.
Morganand M. L. Bullen 186
Effects of Decomposition Products of PVC in Fire on Structural Con-
crete— W. A. Morrisand J. S. Hopkinson 186
Smoke Generation from Building Materials — F. Saito 187
G. Combustion Engineering and Tests
A Chromatographic and Interferometric Study of the Diffusion Flame
around a Simulated Fuel Drop— S. I. Abdel-Khalik. T. Tamaru, and
M. M. El-Wakil 187
Further Studies of the Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Columns—
D. E. Allen and T.T. Lie 188
Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part 2. The Measurement of Gas Explosion
Pressures — S. A. Ames 188
A Laboratory Fire Test for Foam Liquids— S. P. Benson, P. R. Bevan.
and J. G. Corrie 189
Further Experiments on Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames— R.W. Bilger
and R.E.. Beck 189
How Fourteen Coating Systems Affected Smoke Yield from Douglas
Fir Plywood — J.J.Brenden 190
Standardization of Halogen Fire Extinguisher Agents— R. Broil 190
Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting from the Atmospheric Disper-
sion of a Leak or Spill — D. Burgess. J. N. Murphy. M. G. Zabetakis.
and H. E. Perlee 190
Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part III. A Rapid Multichannel Automatic
Chromatographic Gas Analysis System- R. N. Butlin. S. A. Ames.
and C. F. J. Berlemont 190
The Role of Buoyancy Direction and Radiation in Turbulent Diffusion
Flames on Surfaces J.deRis and L.Orloff 191
Overall Reaction Rates of NO and N. Formation from Fuel Nitrogen—
G.G. DeSoete 191
Fire Resistance of Solid-Core Wood Flush Doors H .W.Eickner 192
Measurements of the Behavior of Incidental Fires in a Compartment —
J. B. Fang 192
Contribution of Interior Finish Materials to Fire Growth in a Room-
J. B. Fang and D. Gross 193
Fire Spread through Porous Fuels from the Conservation of Energy
W. H.Frandsen 193
The Effect of Pressure on the Flame Structure in the Wake of a Burning
Hydrocarbon Droplet — S. R. Gollahalli and T. A. Brzustowski 193
Critical Conditions of Self-Ignition of a Poly-Dispersed Gas Suspension
of Solid-Fuel Particles M. A. Gurevich. G. E. Ozerova, and A. M.
Stysanov 194
CONTENTS
XI
Polymer Surface Reflectance Absorptance Characteristics .1 R
Hallman, J. R. Welker, and C. M.Sliepcevich 194
Characterization of the Mode of Combustion and Smoke Evolution of
Organic Materials in Fires, Part II. Analysis of the Change in Particle
Size of Polystyrene Smoke Particles Due to Secondary Oxidation
T. Handa, H. Suzuki, and A. Takahashi 195
Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace Test
Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of
Organic Interior Building Materials. Part II. Checks on Factors Con-
cerning the Surface Flame Spread Rate and Smoke Evolution of
Organic Building Materials by Small Inclined Type Test Furnace
T. Handa, H. Suzuki, A. Takahashi, Y. lkeda, and M. Saito 195
Commensurability Problems in Fire Endurance Testing — T. Z.
Harmathv 196
Development of a Radiant Panel l est for Flooring Material— L. G.
Hartzell 196
The Behavior ol Nitrogen Species in Fuel Rich Hydrocarbon Flames —
B. S. Haynes, N. Y. Kirov, and D. Iverach 196
Gas Velocity and Temperature Profiles of a Diffusion Flame Stabilized
in the Stream over Liquid Fuel— T. Hiranoand M. Konoshita 197
Effects of Radiation and Convection on Gas Velocity and Temperature
Profiles of Flames Spreading over Paper— T. Hiranoand K. Sato .... 198
Correlations of ASTM Exposure Tests for Evaluating Durability of
Fire-Retardant Treatments of Wood— C. A. Holmes 198
Flammability of Selected Wood Products under Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards — C. A. Holmes 198
Diffusion Controlled Combustion of Polymers — D. J. Holve and R. F.
Sawyer 198
Predictions of Laminar Flame Speeds in Boron-Oxygen-Nitrogen Dust
Clouds— M. K. King 199
Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion of Hydrocarbon-Air
Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles- -G. I. Ksandopulo, B. Ya.
Kolesnikov, V. A. Zavadskii, D. S. Odnorog, and T. P. Elovskaya .... 199
Fire Endurance of Concrete-Protected Steel Columns— T. T. Lie and
T. Z. Harmathy 200
A Summary of Experimental Data on the Maximum Experimental Safe
Gap G. A. I.unn and H . Phillips 200
Radiative Energy Transfer from Gaseous Diffusion Flames G. H.
Markstein 200
Breakdown of Cyanogen in Fuel Rich H2-N2-O2 Flamcs-J. N.
Mulvihill and L. F. Phillips 200
Aerospace Vehicle Hazard Protection Test Program: Detectors;
Materials; Fuel Vulnerahility— J. H. O'Neill. D. E. Sommers, and
E. B. Nicholas 201
Studies on the Structure of a Spray Combustion Flame Y. Onunta
and M. Ogasawara
202
CONTENTS
xii
Counterflow Diffusion Flame of Ethyl Alcohol— T. P. Pandya and
N. K. Srivastava 202
Fire Build Up in Reduced Size Enclosures— W. J. Parkerand B.T. Lee .. 202
Production of Chemi-lons and Formation of CH and CH; Radicals in
Methane-Oxygen and Ethylene-Oxygen Flames -J. Peeters and
C. Vinckier 203
NO* Emissions from Fluidized - Bed Coal Combustors — F. J. Pereira.
J. M. Beer, B. Gibbs, and A. B. Hedley 204
Theory of Heterogeneous Combustion Instabilities of Spherical
Particles— N. Peters 204
The Use of a Thermal Model of Ignition to Explain Aspects of Flame-
proof Enclosure — H. Phillips 204
An Evaluation of Flame Spread Test Methods for Floor Covering
Materials — J.QuintiereandC. Huggett 205
SomeObservationsonBuildingCorridorFires— J.Quintiere 205
Flammability and Combustion Properties of Polyolefinic Materials- -
J. R. Richard, C. Vovelle, and R. Delbourgo 205
Some Aspects of Fire Behavior in Tunnels — A. F. Roberts 206
Relationship between the Burning Rate of a Mixture and the Chemical
Structure of the Fuel — L. D. Romodanova. V. I. Pepekin, A. Ya.
Apin.and P. F. Pokhil 206
Smoke Generation from Building Materials— F. Saito 206
Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part V. Strain Measurements on the Gas
Explosion Chamber — M. Senior 206
Estimates of the Effect of Flame Size on Radiation from Fires—
M.Sibulkin 207
Smoke and Toxic Gases from Burning Building Materials. I . A Test Rig
for Large Scale Fires— G. W. V. Stark and P. Field 207
The Tranas Fire Tests. Field Studies of Heat Radiation from Fires in a
Timber Structure— 1. Stromdah! 208
Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace Test
Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of
Organic Interior Building Materials. Part 1. Checks on the Factors in
Estimating Fire Hazard of Several Organic Building Materials
H. Suzuki, T. Handa, Y. Ikeda, and M. Saito 211
The Effect of Crib Porosity in Recent CIB Experiments P. H. Thomas . 212
Smoke Producing Characteristics of Materials Y. Tsuchiya and
K. Sumi 212
Effect of Fire Retardants on Combustible Materials Underground —
Y. Watanab c.etal 212
Experimental Structural Fires T. E. Waterman 212
Concentration and Mass Distribution of Charged Species in Sooting
Flames B. L. Wersborg, A. C. Yeung, and J. B. Howard 212
The Smoke Emission Properties of Materials Used in Mines S.
Yamao 213
CONTENTS
xiii
H. Chemical Aspects of Fires
The Destruction of High Expansion Fire-Fighting Foam by the Compo-
nents of Fuel Pyrolysis and Combustion. III. Tests of Full Scale Foam
Generators Equipped with Scrubbers — R. S. Alger and N. J.
Alvares 214
Development and Evaluation of Practical Self-Help Fire Retardants —
A. J. Amaroand A. E. Lipska 214
Flame Structure Studies of CFiBr-lnhibited Methane Flames. 11.
Kinetics and Mechanisms — J. C. Biordi. C. P. Lazzara, and J. F.
Papp 214
Mechanism of Ion and Emitter Formation Due to Cyanogen in
Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Flames M. A. Bredo. P. J. Guillaume.
and P. J. VanTiggelen 214
The Kinetics of Formation of Chloride Ions in Atmospheric-Pressure
Flames by HC1+ e —Cl + H — N. A. Burdett and A. N. Hayhurst .... 215
Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part III. A Rapid Multichannel Automatic
Chromatographic Gas Analysis System R. N. Butlin, S. A. Ames.
and C. F. J. Berlemont 216
NO and NO: Formation in a Turbulent Hydrocarbon-Air Diffusion
Flame — N. P. Cernansky and R. W. Sawyer 216
Overall Reaction Rates of NO and V Formation from Fuel Nitrogen
G.G. DeSoete 216
Reactions in the Recombination Region ol Hydrogen and l.ean Hydro-
carbon Flames— G. Dixon-l.ewis, .1 B. Greenberg, and F. A.
Goldsworthy 216
The Behavior of Nitrogen Species f el Rich Hydrocarbon Flames —
B. S. Haynes and N Y. Kirov 218
Calorimetric Bead Techniques for the Measurement of Kinetic Data for
Solid Heterogeneous Reactions A. Jones. J G. Firth, and T. A.
Jones 218
Structure in Methane-Oxygen Diffusion Names A. Melvin and
J. B. Moss 218
Nitrogen Oxide Formation in Flames: The Roles of NO: and Fuel
Nitrogen — E. 1. Merrymanand A. Levy 219
Breakdown of Cyanogen in Fuel Rich H -\ -O Flames J. N.
Mulvihill and L. F. Phillips 219
Emission of Small Quantities of Gas and Odours in the Spontaneous
Combustion of Coal N. Oda and 1. Naruse 220
Production of Chemi-Ions and Formation of CH and CH.- Radicals in
Methane-Oxygen and Ethylene-Oxygen Flames J. Peeters and
C. Vinckier 220
The Effect of Two Flame Retardants on Particulate and Residue Pro-
duction- C. W. Philpot. C. W. George. A D. Blakely. G. M.
Johnson, and W, H. Wallace 220
The Pyrolysis Products and Thermal Characteristics of Cottonwood and
Its Components C. W, Philpot 221
XIV
CONTENTS
Relationship between the Burning Rate of a Mixture and the Chemical
Structure of the Fuel— L. D. Romodanova, V. I. Pepekin. A. Ya.
Apin, and P. F. Pokhil 221
Catalytic Reactor for Inerting of Aircraft Fuel Tanks— J. Rousseau and
G.H. McDonald 221
Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part V. Strain Measurements on the Gas
Explosion Chamber— M. Senior 222
The Role of Soot in Transport of Hydrogen Chloride from Fires—
J. P. Stone, F. W. Williams, and H. W. Carhart 222
A Study on Nitric Oxide Formation in Turbulent Diffusion Flames
T. Takagi, M. Ogasawara, M. Daizo, and K. Fujii 222
Rate Constant of the Elementary Reaction of Carbon Monoxide with
Hydroxyl Radical — J. Vandooren, J. Peeters, and P. J. Van
Tiggelen 223
Chemical Kinetics of Reactions of Chlorine, Chlorine Oxides and
Hydrogen Chloride in Gas Phase: A Bibliography — F. Westley 223
I. Physical Aspects of Fires
Measuring Methodsfor Determining DropletSize— A. Burkholz 224
Laminar Flame Spread over PMMA Surfaces— A. Fernandez-Pello
and F. A. Williams 224
Influence of Mine Fires on the Ventilation of Underground Mines —
R E. Greuer 224
Polymer Surface Reflectance Absorptance Characteristics— J. R.
Hallman, J. R. Welker, and C. M. Sliepcevich 225
Aerosol Measurement by Laser Doppler Spectroscopy. 1. Theory and
Experimental Results for Aerosols Homogeneous — W. Hinds and
P C. Reist 225
Aerosol Measurement by Laser Doppler Spectroscopy. 11. Operational
Limits, Effects of Polydispersity, and Applications— W. Hinds and
P C. Reist 225
Visibility through Fire Smoke — T. Jin 226
Experimental Study of the Electrification Produced by Dispersion of
Dust into the Air — A. K.Kamra 226
Gross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated Urban Fire — S. L. l.ee
and F.W. Otto 227
Characterization of Dispersed Systems, Particle Size Analysis—
K. Leschonski 227
Radiative Energy Transfer from Gaseous Diffusion Flames— G. H.
Markstein 227
Nonluminous Radiation from Hvdrocarbon-Air Diffusion Flames
A. T. Modak 228
Experiments in Gasdynamics of Explosions A. K. Oppcnheim and
R.I.Soloukin 228
CONTENTS
XV
A Physical Description of Coal Mine Explosions — J. K. Richmond and
I. Liebman 229
Thermal Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of Paper Sheets in Air
by Irradiation — U. K. Shivadevand H. W. Emmons 229
Estimates of the Effect of Flame Size on Radiation from Fires —
M.Sibulkin 229
Experimental Structural Fires— T. E. Waterman 229
J. Meteorological Aspects of Fires
Gross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated Urban Fire— S. L. Lee
and F. W. Otto 229
K. Physiological and Psychological Problems from Fires
Toxicologic Aspects of Flammability and Combustion of Polymeric
Materials — J.Autian 230
Physiological and Toxicological Effects of the Products of Thermal
Decomposition from Polymeric Materials — M.M.Birky 230
A Comparison between Potential Hazard Reduction from Fabric
Flammability Standards, Ignition Source Improvement, and Public
Education — B. Buchbinder and A. Vickers 231
Respirator Requirements and Practices— J. R. Lynch 231
Epidemiology of Burns, the Burn-Prone Patient— J. D. MacArthurand
F. D. Moore 231
Breathing Resistance of Respiratory Apparatus — Safety in Mines
Research Establishment 231
The Role of Soot in Transport of Hydrogen Chloride from Fires—
J. P. Stone. F. W. Williams, and H. W. Carhart 232
Combined Lethal Effect of Temperature, CO, CO: and 0; of Simulated
FireGases— Y.Tsuchiyaand K.Sumi 232
Carbon Monoxide Toxicity in Human Fire Victims— H. A. Zarem,
C. C. Rattenborg.and M. H. Harmel 232
L. Operations Research, Mathematical Methods, and Statistics
COMPF: A Program for Calculation Post Flashover Fire Tempera-
tures— V. Babrauskas 233
A Field Study of Non-Fire Resistive Multiple Dwelling Fires- F. L.
Brannigan 233
Preliminary Analysis of Fire Reports from Fire Brigades in the United
Kingdom. 1973 — S. E. Chandler 233
Predicting the Losses in Sawtimber Volume and Quality from Fires in
Oak-Hickory Forests — R.M. Loomis 233
Fire in Wildland Management Predicting Changes in Chaparral
Flammability R. C. Rothermeland C. W. Philpot 234
h
I XVI CONTENTS
Matches and Lighters in Flammable Fabric Incidents: The Magnitude
of the Problem — J. A. Slater, B. Buchbinder, and H. Tovey 234
Fire Incidents Involving Sleepwear Worn by Children Ages 6-12 —
J. A. Slater 235
Drapery and Curtain Fires - Data Element Summary of Case His-
tories— A. K. Vickers 235
Study on the Fire Spread Formula for Forest Fires— K.Yasuno 236
M. Model Studies and Scaling Laws
Laminar Flame Spread over PMM A Surfaces — A. Fernandez-Pello and
F. A. Williams 236
The Burning ofVertical Wood Slabs— H. Kung 236
Gross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated Urban Fire— S. L. Lee
and F. W. Otto 236
Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace Test
Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of
Organic Interior Building Materials. Part II. Checks on Factors Con-
cerning the Surface Flame Spread Rate and Smoke Evolution of
Organic Building Materials by Small Inclined Type Test Furnace—
T. Handa, H. Suzuki, A. Takahashi, Y. Ikeda, and M. Saito 237
A Sandbox Model Used to Examine the Stress Distribution around a
Simulated Longwall Coal-Face — G. W. Harris 237
Modeling of Pool Fires with a Variety of Polymers— A. Murty
Kanury 237
Fire Build Up in Reduced Size Enclosures — W. J. Parker and B. T.
Lee 238
A Mathematical Model for Predicting Fire Spread in Wildland Fuels —
R. C. Rothermel 238
Fire in Wildland Management Predicting Changes in Chaparral
Flammability— R . C. Rothermel and C. W . Philpot 238
Simulation of Southern California Forest Fires A. E. Stevenson,
D. A. Schermerhorn, and S. C. Miller 238
N. Instrumentation and Fire Equipment
A Mobile Field Laboratory for Fires of Opportunity- R. S. Alger
and J. R. Nichols 239
A Calorimeter for Measuring the Heat Flux from Experimental Fires—
S. P. Benson and J.G.Corrie 239
Development of a Long Duration Flow Facility for Studies of Blast Fire
Interaction — J. H. Boyes. M. P. Kennedy, and C. Wilton 239
An Apparatus Developed to Measure Rate of Heat Release from
Building Materials — J.J.Brenden 240
Laser Anemometer Measurements in Flames with Swirl N. A. Chigier
and K. Dvorak 240
CONTENTS
xvii
Advances in Highspeed Photography — J. S. Courtney-Pratt 241
A Report on the Tenth International Congress on High Speed Photog-
raphy, Nice, 25-30 September, 1972 — C. H. Elmer and L. L.
Endelman 241
Calibration of a Hot-Wire Anemometer for Velocity Perturbation
Measurements— R. Kinns 241
The Response of a Hot-Wire Anemometer in Flows of Gas Mixtures—
J. McQuaid and W. Wright 242
Development of a Heat Release Rate Calorimeter at NBS — W. J. Parker
and M. E. Long 242
Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part I. Experimental Explosion Chamber—
P. S. Tonkin and C. F. J. Berlemont 243
O. Miscellaneous
Bibliography of RANN-Supported Fire Research Literature — B. W.
Kuvshinoff and J. Jemigan 243
The Effect of Structural Characteristics on Dwelling Fire Statistics—
W. J. Christian 245
Directory of Fire Research in the United States 1971-1973. 7th Ed. —
M. Kalas, editor 247
Fire Problems Program: Annual Summary Report, 1 July 1973 - 30
June 1974, Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins
University, Silver Spring, Maryland— A. G. Schulz, R. M. Fristrom
and W. G. Berl 248
Collected Summaries of Fire Research Notes 1973 — L. C. Fowler 252
Attacking the Fire Problem; A Plan for Action— K. Giles and
P. Powell 252
Consequences of LNG Spills on Land— Battelle Columbus Laboratories. 253
Fire Protection Abroad; USSR; Respiration Training of Firemen—
F. Obukhov 254
Bibliography on Aircraft Fire Hazards and Safety — J. J. Pelouch, Jr.
and P. T. Hacker 257
Publications of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental
Station 1953-1973 — M. F. Nickersonand G. E. Brink 257
References to Scientific Literature on Fire, Department of the Environ-
ment and Fire Offices, Joint Fire Research Organization, Boreham-
wood, Herts, England— P. Mealing 257
The Home Fire Project: Semi Annual Progress Reports, June 1974 and
December 1974, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA and Factory
Mutual Research Corporation, Norwood. M A — H. W. Emmons and
R. Friedman 258
BOOKS
Fire Fighting Hydraulics — R . Purington 261
Heat Transfer in Fires: Thermophysics, Social Aspects, Economic
Impact — P. L. Blackshear, Ed 262
Heat Transfer in Flames— N . H. Afganand J. M. Beer, Eds 263
Problems in Combustion and Extinguishment, Collection of Articles —
I. V. Ryabov, A. N. Baratov, and 1. 1. Petrov, Eds 265
PERIODICALS
Flammability News Bulletin 3 — E. E. Stahly, U.S. Editor, S. B. Sello,
Co-editor, J. DiPietro, International Editor 266
MEETINGS
Symposium on Fire Detection for Life Safety, March 3 1 -April 1, 1975,
Committee on Fire Research, National Research Council, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.; Chairman: W. J.
Christian 266
Symposium on Flammability and Burning Characteristics of Materials
and Fuels, Central and Western States Sections, The Combustion
Institute, April 21-22, 1975, San Antonio, Texas; Meeting Chairman:
W. McLain 267
Symposium on Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Combustion
Products, Committee on Fire Research, National Research Council,
National Academy of Sciences and the Flammability Research
Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, March 18-20, 1974;
Chairman: I. N. Einhorn 270
Symposium on Products of Combustion of ( Plastics ) Building Mate-
rials, March 25-26, 1973, Research and Development Center,
Armstrong Cork Company, Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Chairman:
H.J.Roux 273
Second Seminar and Workshop in the Teaching of Fire Sciences,
April 27-28, 1974, Northern Virginia Community College, Annan-
dale, Virginia; Proceedings Editor R. L.Tuve 274
National Science Foundation, Research Applied to National Needs
Conference on Fire Research, May 28-29, 1974, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 275
Symposium on Fire Safety Research, National Bureau of Standards,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, August 22, 1973; Editors M. J. Butler and
J. A. Slater 278
r
m
■■
FEDERAL FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL ACT OF 1974
Public Law 93-498
93rd Congress, S. 1769
October 29, 1974
An Act
To retime lueses ol life anti property. through heller tire prevention aiuleomrol. anti tor oilier put poses.
Be it enacted by the Senate ami House of Representatives oj the L tilled States
of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may be cited as the "Federal Fire-
Prevention and Control Act of 1974.”
FINDINGS
SEC. 2. The Congress finds that
(1) The National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, estab-
lished pursuant to Public Law 90-259. has made an exhaustive and comprehensive
examination ol the Nation's fire problem, has made detailed findings as to the
extent of this problem in terms of human suffering and loss of life and property . and
has made ninety thoughtful recommendations.
(2) I he I nited States today has the highest per capita rate ol death and
property loss front fire of all the major industrialized nations in the world.
(3) Fire is an undue burden affecting all Americans, and fire also con-
stitutes a public health and safety problem ol great dimensions. Fire kills 12.000
and scars and injures 300.000 Americans each year, including 50.000 individuals
who require extended hospitalization. Almost S3 billion worth ol piopertv is
destroyed annually by fire, and the total economic cost of destructive fire in the
l 'nited States is estimated conservatively to be SI 1.000.000.000 per year. File-
lighting is the Nation's most ha/ardous profession.
(4) Such losses , it lite and property Irom fire are unacceptable to the
Congress.
t5i " Idle fire prevention and control is and should remain a State and
local responsibility, the I cderal Government must help il a significant reduction in
lire losses is to he achieved.
(f'l I he lire service and the civil dclense program in each locahtv would
both benefit Irom closer cooperation.
l'l I he Nation's lire problem is exacerbated h\
I \i the indillerence with which some \mericans conliont t he
siibice i.
i If I the Nation's lailtue to undertake enough reseaieh and develop-
ment into I ii e and lire-iclatcd problems.
I
2
HRE RESEARCH
(C) the scarcity of reliable data and information:
(I )) the fact that designers and purchasers of buildings and products
generally give insufficient attention to fire safety:
(1 ) the fact that many communities lack adequate building and lire
prevention codes; and
( 1 I the tact that local fire departments spend about 95 cents of every
dollar appropriated to the fire services on efforts to extinguish fires and only about
5 cents on fire prevention.
(8) there is a need for improved professional training and education
oriented toward improving the effectiveness ol the lire services, including an
increased emphasis on preventing fires and on reducing injuries to firefighters
(9) A national system for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of
lire data is needed to help local fire serv ices establish research and action priorities.
(10) The number of specialized medical centers which arc properly
equipped and stalled for the treatment ol burns and the rehabilitation ol v ictims ol
tires is inadequate.
(11) The unacceptably high rates ol death, injury, and property loss from
fire can be reduced if the federal ( iov eminent establishes a coordinated program to
support and reinforce the fire prevention and control activities ol State and local
governments.
PURPOSES
SEC. 3. It is declared to be the purpose of Congress in this Act to —
( 1 ) reduce the Nation's losses caused by fire through better fire preven-
tion and control;
(2) supplement existing programs of research, training, and education,
and to encourage new and improved programs and activities by State and local
governments;
(3) establish the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration
and the Fire Research Center within the Department of Commerce; and
(4) establish an intensified program of research into the treatment of
burn and smoke injuries and the rehabilitation of victims of fires within the
National Institutes of Health.
DEFINITIONS
SFC. 4. As used in this Act. the term
(1) "Academy" means the National Academy for Fire Prevention and
Control:
(2) “Administration" means the National Fire Prevention and Control
Administration established pursuant to section 5 of this Act:
(3) “Administrator” means the Administrator of the National Fire
Prevention and Control Administration:
(4) “fire service” means any organization in any State consisting of
personnel, apparatus, and equipment w hich has as its purpose protecting property
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
3
and maintaining the safety and welfare of the public from the dangers of fire,
including a private fire-fighting brigade. The personnel of any such organization
may be paid employees or unpaid volunteers or any combination thereof. The
location of any such organization and its responsibility for extinguishment and
suppression of fires may include, but need not be limited to, a Federal installation, a
State, city, town, borough, parish, county, fire district, fire protection district, rural
fire district, or other special district. The terms “fire prevention”, “firefighting”, and
“firecontrol” relate to activities conducted by a fire service;
(5) “local” means of or pertaining to any city, town, county, special
purpose district, unincorporated territory, or other political subdivision of a State;
(6) “Secretary” means the Secretary of Commerce; and
(7) “State" means any State, the District of Columbia, the Common-
wealth of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Canal Zone. Guam. American
Samoa, the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and any other territory or
possession of the United States.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL FIRE PREVENTION
AND CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
SEC. 5. (a) Establishment of Administration. — There is .hereby established
in the Department of Commerce an agency which shall be known as the National
Fire Prevention and Control Administration.
(b) Administrator.— There shall be at ‘he head of the Administration the
Administrator of the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration. The
Administrator shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, and shall be compensated at the rate now or hereafter
provided for level IV of the Executive Schedule pay rates (5 U.S.C. 5315). The
Administrator shall report and be responsible to the Secretary.
(c) Deputy Administrator.— There shall be in the Administration a Deputy
Administrator of the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration who
shall be appointed by the President, bv and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, and who shall be compensated at the rate now or hereafter provided for
level V of the Executive Schedule pay rates (5 U.S.C. 5316). The Deputy Adminis-
trator shall perform such functions as the Administrator shall from time to time
assign or delegate, and shall act as Administrator during the absence or disability of
the Administrator or in the event of a vacancy in the office of Administrator.
PUBLIC EDUCATION
SEC. 6. The Administrator is authorized to take all steps necessary to
educate the public and to overcome public indifference as to fire and fire preven-
tion. Such steps may include, hut are not limited to. publications, audio-visual
presentations, and demonstrations. Such public education efforts shall include
programs to provide specialized information for those groups of individuals who
are particularly vulnerable to fire hazards, such as the young and the elderly. The
Administrator shall sponsor and encourage research, testing, and experimentation
to determine the most effective means of such public education.
V
4
FIRE RESEARCH
NATIONAL ACADEMY FOR FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
SEC. 7. (a) Establishment — The Secretary shall establish, at the earliest
practicable date, a National Academy for Fire Prevention and Control. The
purpose of the Academy shall be to advance the professional development of fire
service personnel and of other persons engaged in fire prevention and control
activities.
(b) Superintendent.— The Academy shall be headed by a Superintendent,
who shall be appointed by the Secretary. In exercising the powers and authority
contained in this section the Superintendent shall be subject to the direction of the
Administrator.
(c) Powers of Superintendent. — The Superintendent is authorized to
(1) develop and revise curricula, standards for admission and perfor-
mance. and criteria for the awarding of degrees and certifications;
(2) appoint such teaching staff and other personnel as he determines to be
necessary or appropriate;
(3) conduct courses and programs of training and education, as defined
in subsection (d) of this section;
(4) appoint faculty members and consultants without regard to the
provisions of title 5, United States Code, governing appointments in the competi-
tive service, and. with respect to temporary and intermittent services, to make
appointments to the same extent as is authorized by section 3109 of title 5. United
States Code;
(5) establish fees and other charges for attendance at. and subscription
to. courses and programs offered by the Academy. Such fees may be modified or
waived as determined by the Superintendent:
(6) conduct short courses, seminars, workshops, conferences, and similar
education and training activities in all parts and localities of the United States;
(7) enter into such contracts and take such other actions as may be
necessary in carrying out the purposes of the Academy; and
(8) consult with officials of the lire services and other interested persons
in the exercise of the foregoing powers.
(d) Program of the Academy. - The Superintendent is authorized to
(1) train fire service personnel in such skills and knowledge as may be
useful to advance their ability to prevent and control fires, including, but not
limited to—
(A) techniques of fire prevention, fire inspection, firefighting, and
fire and arson investigation;
( B) tactics and command of firefighting for present and future fire
. chiefs and commanders;
(C) administration and management of fire services;
(I)) tactical training in the specialized field of aircraft fire control
and crash rescue;
(E) tactical training in the specialized field of fire control and rescue
aboard waterborne vessels: and
(F) the training of present and future instructors in the aforemen-
tioned subjects:
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 5
(2) develop model curricula, training programs, and other educational
materials suitable for use at other educational institutions, and to make such
materials available without charge;
(3) develop and administer a program of correspondence courses to
advance the knowledge and skills of fire service personnel;
(4) develop and distribute to appropriate officials model questions
suitable for use in conducting entrance and promotional examinations for fire
service personnel; and
(5) encourage the inclusion of fire prevention and detection technology
and practices in the education and professional practice of architects, builders, city
planners, and others engaged in design and planning affected by fire safety
problems.
(e) Technical Assistance. — The Administrator is authorized, to the extent
that he determines it necessary to meet the needs of the Nation, to encourage new
programs and to strengthen existing programs of education and training by local
fire services, units, and departments. State and local governments, and private
institutions, by providing technical assistance and advice to
(1) vocational training programs in techniques of fire prevention, fire
inspection, firefighting, and fire and arson investigation;
(2) fire training courses and programs at junior colleges; and
(3) four-year degree programs in fire engineering at colleges and
universities.
(0 Assistance. — The Administrator is authorized to provide assistance to
State and local fire service training programs through grants, contracts, or other-
wise. Such assistance shall not exceed 4 per centum of the amount authorized to be
appropriated in each fiscal year pursuant to section P of this Net.
(g) Site Selection. — I he Academy shall be located on such site as the Secre-
tary selects, subject to the following provisions:
(1) The Secretary is authorized to appoint a Site Selection Hoard con-
sisting of the Academe Superintendent and two other members to survey the most
suitable sites for the location of the Academy and to make recommendations to
the Secreta. ..
(2) The Site Selection Board in making its recommendations and the
Secretary in making his final selection, shall give consideration to the training and
facility needs of the Academy, environmental effects, the possibility ot using a
surplus Government facility, and such other factors as are deemed important and
relevant. I he Secretary shall make a final site selection not latet than 2 years after
the date of enactment of this Act.
l hi ( (instruction Costs. Of the sums authorized to be appropriated for the
purpose of implementing the programs of the Administration, not more than
Sh.OOO.OOO shall be available for the construction of facilities ot the Academy on the
site selected under subsection (g) of this section. Such sums for such construction
shall remain available until expended.
(i) l ihii annual and Professional Assistance. I he Administrator is autho-
rized to
(I) provide stipends to students attending Academv courses and pro-
grams, in amounts up to 75 per centum ol the expense ol attendance, as established
by the Superintendent:
(2) provide stipends to students attending courses and non-degree
training programs approved by the Superintendent at universities, colleges, and
liinior colleges, in amounts up to 50 per centum ol the cost oi tuition:
(3) make or enter into contracts to make payments to institutions ol
higher education for loans, not to exceed S2.500 per academic year for any
individual who is enrolled on a full-time basis in an undergraduate or graduate
program of fire research or engineering which is certified by the Superintendent.
Loans under this paragraph shall be made on such terms and subject to such
conditions as the Superintendent and each institution involved may jointly
determine: and
(4) establish and maintain a placement and promotion opportunities
center in cooperation with the fire services, for firefighters w ho wish to learn and
take advantage of different or better career opportunities. Such center shall not
limit such assistance to students and graduates of the Academy, but shall undertake
to assist all fire service personnel.
(j) Board of Visitors.— Upon establishment of the Academy, the Secretary
shall establish a procedure for the selection of professionals in the field of fire
safety, fire prevention, fire control, research and development in fire protection,
treatment and rehabilitation of fire victims, or local government services
management to serve as members of a Board of Visitors for the Academy. Pursuant
to such procedure, the Secretary shall select eight such persons to serve as members
of such Board of Visitors to serve such terms as the Secretary may prescribe. The
function of such Board shall be to review annually the program of the Academy and
to make comments and recommendations to the Secretary regarding the operation
of the Academy and any improvements therein which such Board deems
appropriate. Each member of such Board shall be reimbursed for any expenses
actually incurred by him in the performance of his duties as a member of such
Board.
(k) Accreditation. The Superintendent is authorized to establish a
Committee on Fire Training and Education which shall inquire into and make
recommendations regarding the desirability of establishing a mechanism for
accreditation of fire training and education programs and courses, and the role
which the Academy should play if such a mechanism is recommended. The
Committee shall consist of the Superintendent as Chairman and eighteen other
members appointed by the Administrator from among individuals and
organizations possessing special knowledge and experience in the field of fire
training and education or related lields. I he Committee shall submit to the
Administrator within two years after its appointment a full andcomplete report of
its findings and recommendations. Upon the submission of such report, the
Committee shall cease to exist. Each appointed member of the Committee shall be
reimbursed lor expenses actually incurred in the performance of his duties as a
member.
(l) Admission. 1 he Superintendent isauthorizedtoadmittothecoursesand
programs of the Academy mdiv iduals w ho are members ol the liretighting. rescue.
ABSTRACTS AN!' REVIEWS
and civil defense forces of the Nation and such other individuals, including
candidates for membership in these forces, as he determines can benefit from
attendance. Students shall be admitted from any State, with due rcgaid inadequate
representation in the student body of all geographic regions of the Nation. In
selecting students, the Superintendent may seek nominations and advice from the
fire services and other organizations which wish to send students to the Academy
F1RF. TECHNOLOGY
SEC. 8. (a) Technology Development Program. The Administrator shall
conduct a continuing program of development, testing, and evaluation of
equipment for use by the Nation’s fire, rescue, and civil defense services, with the
aim of making available improved suppression, protective, auxiliary, and warning
devices incorporating the latest technology. Attention shall be given to the
standardization, compatibility, and interchangeability of such equipment. Such
development, testing, and evaluation activities shall include, but need not be
limited to —
(1) safer, less cumbersome articles of protective clothing, including
helmets, boots, and coats;
(2) breathing apparatus with the necessary duration of service, reliability,
low weight, and ease of operation for practical use;
(3) safe and reliable auxiliary equipment for use in fire prevention,
detection, and control, such as fire location detectors, visual and audio
communications equipment, and mobile equipment;
(4) special clothing and equipment needed for forest fires, brush fires, oil
and gasoline fires, aircraft fires and crash rescue, fires occurring aboard waterborne
vessels, and in other special firefighting situations;
(5) fire detectors and related equipment for residential use with high
sensitivity and reliability, and which are sufficiently inexpensive to purchase,
install, and maintain to insure wide acceptance and use;
(6) in-place fire prevention systems of low cost and of increased reliability
and effectiveness;
(7) methods of testing fire alarms and fire protection devices and systems
on a non-interference basis;
(8) the development of purchase specifications, standards, and accep-
tance and validation test procedures for all such equipment and devices; and
(9) operation tests, demonstration projects, and fire investigations in
support of the activities set forth in this section.
(b) Limit at ion. —The Administration shall not engage in the manufacture or
sale of any equipment or device developed pursuant to this section, except to the
extent that it deems it necessary to adequately develop, test, or evaluate such
equipment or device.
(c) Management Studies. — (I) The Administrator is authorized to conduct,
directly or through contracts or grants, studies of the operations and management
aspects of fire services, utilizing quantitative techniques, such as operations
8
F I R f RESEARt H
research, management economics, cost effectiveness studies, and such other
techniques and methods as may be applicable and useful. Such studies shall
include, but need not be limited to, the allocation of resources, the optimum
location of fire stations, the optimum geographical area for an integrated fire
service, the manner of responding to alarms, the operation of citywide and regional
fire dispatch centers, firefighting under conditions of civil disturbance, and the
effectiveness, frequency, and methods of building inspections.
(2) The Administrator is authorized to conduct, directly or through
contracts or grants, research concerning the productivity and efficiency of fire
service personnel, the job categories and skills required by fire services under
varying conditions, the reduction of injuries to fire service personnel, the most
effective fire prevention programs and activities, and techniques for accurately
measuring and analyzing the foregoing.
(3) The Administrator is authorized to conduct, directly or through
contracts, grants, or other forms of assistance, development, testing, and
demonstration projects to the extent deemed necessary to introduce and to
encourage the acceptance of new technology, standards, operating methods,
command techniques, and management systems for utilization by the fire services.
(4) The Administrator is authorized to assist the Nation's fire services,
directly or through contracts, grants, or other forms of assistance, to measure and
evaluate, on a cost-benefit basis, the effectiveness of the programs and activities of
each fire service and the predictable consequences on the applicable local fire
services of coordination or combination, in whole or in part, in a regional,
metropolitan, or statewide fire service.
(d) Rural Assistance. The Administrator is authorized to assist the
Nation’s fire services, directly or through contracts, grants, or other forms of
assistance, to sponsor and encourage research into approaches, techniques,
systems, and equipment to improve fire prevention and control in the rural and
remote areas of the Nation.
(e) Coordination. — In establishing and conducting programs under this
section, the Administrator shall take full advantage of applicable technological
developments made by other departments and agencies of the Federal
Government, by State and local governments, and by business, industry, and
nonprofit associations.
NATIONAL FIRE DATA CENTER
SEC. 9. (a) General. The Administrator shall operate, directly or through
contracts or grants, an integrated, comprehensive National Fire Data Center for
the selection, analysis, publication, and dissemination of information related to the
prevention, occurrence, control, and results of fires of all types The program of
such Data Center shall be designed to ( I ) provide an accurate nationwide analysis
of the fire problem. (2) identify major problem areas, (3) assist in setting priorities.
(4) determine possible solutions to problems, and (5) monitor the progress of
programs to reduce fire losses. To carry out these functions, the Data Center shall
gather and analyze
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
9
( 1 ) information on the frequency, causes, spread, and extinguishment of
fires:
(2) information on the number of injuriesand deaths resulting from fires,
including the maximum available information on the specific causes and nature of
such injuries and deaths, and information on property losses;
(3) information on the occupational hazards faced by firefighters,
including the causes of deaths and injuries arising, directly and indirectly, from
firefighting activities;
(4) information on all types of firefighting activities, including inspection
practices:
(5) technical information related to building construction, fire properties
of materials, and similar information;
(6) information on fire prevention and control laws, systems, methods,
techniques, ar.d administrative structures used in foreign nations:
(7) information on the causes, behavior, and best method of control of
other types of fire, including, but not limited to. forest fires, brush fires, fire
underground, oil blow-out fires, and waterborne fires; and
(8) such other information and data as is deemed useful and applicable.
(b) Methods. In carrying out the program of the Data Center, the Adminis-
trator is authorized to
(1) develop standardized data reporting methods;
(2) encourage and assist State, local, and other agencies, public and
private, in developing and reporting information: and
(3) make full use of existing data gathering and analysis organizations,
both public and private.
( c) Dissemination.— The Administrator shall insure dissemination to the
maximum extent possible of fire data collected and developed by the Data Center,
and shall make such data, information, and analy sis available in appropriate form
to Federal agencies. State and local governments, private organizations, industry,
business, and other interested persons.
MASTKR PLANS
SEC. 10. (a) General. The establishment of master plans for fire prevention
and control are the responsibility of the States and the political subdivisions
thereof. The Administrator is authorized to encourage and assist such S.ates and
political subdivisions in such planning activities, consistent with his powers and
duties under this Act.
(b) Report. Four years after the date of enactment of this Act. the Secretary
shall submit to the Congress a report on the establishment and effectiveness ol
master plans in the field of fire prevention and control throughout the Nation. Such
report shall include, hut need not be limited to
(Da summary of the extent and quality ol master planning activities;
(2) a summary and evaluation of master plans that have been prepared by
States, and political subdivisions thereol. Such summary and evaluation shall
consider, with respect to each such plan
10 FIRE RESEARCH
(A) the characteristics of the jurisdiction adopting it. including, but
not limited to. density and distribution of population; ratio of volunteer versus paid
lire services; geographic location, topography, and climate; per capita rate of death
and property loss from fire; size and characteristics of political subdivisions of the
governmental units thereof; and socio-economic composition; and
( B) the approach to development and implementation of the master
plans;
(3) an evaluation of the best approach to the development and
implementation of master plans (e.g.. central planning bv a State agency,
regionalized planning within a State coordinated by a State agency, or local
planning supplemented and coordinated by a State agency);
(4) an assessment of the costs and benefits of master plans;
(5) a recommendation to Congress on whether Federal financial
assistance should be authorized in order that master plans can be developed in all
States; and
(6) a model master plan or plans suitable for State and local
implementation.
(c) Definition. For the purposes of this section, a “master plan" is one w hich
w ill result in the planning and implementation in the area involved of a general
program of action for fire prevention and control. Such master plan is reasonably
expected to include
( 1 ) a survey of the resources and personnel of existing fire services and an
analysis of the effectiveness of the fire and building codes in such area;
(2) an analysis of short and longterm fire prevention and control needs in
such area:
(3) a plan to meet the fire prevention and control needs in such area; and
(4) an estimate of cost and realistic plans for financing the implementa-
tion of the plan and operation on a continuing basis and a summary of problems
that are anticipated in implementinc such master plan.
REIMBURSEMENT FOR COSTS OF FIRFFK.H TING ON
FFDFRAI, PROPERTY
Sf U II (a) Claim. Each fire service that engages in the fighting of a fire on
property which is under the jurisdiction of the United States may file a claim with
the Administrator for the amount of direct expenses and direct losses incurred b\
such lire service as a result of fighting such fire. I he claim shall include such
supporting information as the Administrator may prescribe.
I bl Determination. Upon receipt of a claim filed under. subsection (a) ot this
section, the Administrator shall determine
( I) what payments, il any . to the fire service or its parent jurisdiction,
including taxes or pay ments in lieu of taxes, the United States has made tor the
support of fire services on the property in question;
(2) the extent to which the fire service incurred additional firefighting
costs over and above its normal operating costs, in connection with the fire vv Inch is
the subiect of the claim: and
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
II
(3) the amount, if any. of the additional costs referred to in paragraph (2)
of this subsection which were not adequately covered by the payments referred to in
paragraph (I) ot this subsection.
(c) Payment. T he Secretary shall forward the claim and a copy of the
Administrator's determination under subsection (b) (3) of this section to the
Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury shall, upon receipt of the
claim and determination, pay such fire service or its parent jurisdiction, from an>
moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated but subject to reimbursement
(from any appropriations which may be available or which may be made available
for the purpose) by the Federal department or agency under whose jurisdiction the
fire occurred, a sum no greater than the amount determined with respect to the
claim under subsection (b) (.3) of this section.
(d) Aitjudiiation. In the case of a dispute arising in connection with a claim
under this section, the Court of Claims of the United States shall have jurisdiction
to adjudicate the claim and enter judgment accordingly.
REVIEW OK CODES
SEC. 12. The Administrator is authorized to review, evaluate, and suggest
improvements in State and local tire prevention codes, building codes, and any
relevant Federal or private codes and regulations. In evaluating any such code or
codes, the Administrator shall consider the human impact of all code requirements,
standards, or provisions in terms of comfort and habitahilitv for residents or
employees, as well as the fire prevention and control value or potential of each such
requirement, standard, or provision.
FIRE SAFETY EFFECTIVENESS STATEMENTS
SEC. 13. I he Administrator is authorized to encourage owners and
managers ol residential multiple-unit, commercial, industrial, and transportation
structures to prepare Fire Safety Effectiveness Statements, pursuant to standards,
forms, rules, and regulations to be developed and issued by the Administrator.
ANNI AI, CONFERENCE
SEC. 14. I he Administrator is authorized to organize, or to participate in
organizing, an annual conference on fire prevention and control. He may pay. in
whole or in part, the cost ol such conference and the expenses ol some or all of the
participants. All ol the Nation's fire services shall beeligible to send representatives
to each such conference to discuss, exchange ideas on. and participate in
educational programs on new techniques in lire prevention and control. Slid,
conferences shall be open to the public.
PUBLIC SAFETY AW ARDS
SI C . 15. (a) Establishment. There are hereby established two classes ol
12
EIRE RESEARCH
honorary awards for ihe recognition of outstanding and distinguished service by
public safety officers
(1) the President's Award For Outstanding Public Safety Service
("President's Award") and
(2) the Secretary's Award For Distinguished Public Safety Ser'ice
(“Secretary’s Award”).
(b) Description. (I) The President’s Award shall be presented by the
President ol the United States to public safety officers forextraordinary valor in the
line of duty or for outstanding contribution to public safety.
(2) The Secretary's Award shall be presented by the Secretary, the
Secretary of Defense, or by the Attorney General to public safety officers for
distinguished service in the field of public safety.
(c) Selection. The Secretary, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney-
General shall adv ise and assist the President in the selection ol individuals to w hom
the President’s Award shall be tendered and in the course ol performing such duties
they shall seek and review nominations lor such awards which are submitted to
them hv Federal. State, county, and local government officials. 1 hey shall annually
transmit to the President the names of those individuals determined by them to
merit the award, together with the reasons therefor. Recipients of the President's
Award shall be selected by the President.
(d) Limitation. ( 1 ) There shall not be presented in any one calendar year in
excess of twelve President’s Awards.
(2) There shall be no limitation on the number ol Secretary's Awards
presented.
(e) Award (I) Each President's Award shall consist of
(A) a medal suitably inscribed, bearing such devices and emblems,
and struck from such material as the Secretary of the Treasury , after consulta-
tion with the Secretary, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney General deems
appropriate. T he Secretary of the Treasury shall cause the medal to be struck and
furnished to the President; and
(B) an appropriate citation.
(2) Each Secretary’s Award shall consist of an appropriate citation.
(f) Regulations. — The Secretary, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney
General are authorized and directed to issue jointly such regulations as may be
necessary to carry out this section.
(g) Definitions. As used in this section, the term “public safety officer"
means a person serving a public agency, with or without compensation, as
(1) a firefighter;
(2) a law enforcement officer, including a corrections or court officer; or
(3) a civil defense officer.
ANNUAL REPORT
SEC. 16. T he Secretary shall report to the Congress and the President not
later than Tune 30 of the year follow ing the date of enactment ol this Act and each
vear thereafter on all activities relating to lire prevention and control, and all
. .
abstracts and reviews
13
measures taken to implement and carry out this Act during the preceding calendar
year. Such report shall include, but need not be limited to
(a) a thorough appraisal, including statistical analysis, estimates, and long-
term projections ol the human and economic losses due to fire;
(b) a survey and summary, in Mich detail as is deemed advisable, of the
research and technology program undertaken or sponsored pursuant to this Act;
(c) a summary of the activities ol the Academy for the preceding 12 months,
including, but not limited to
( 1 ) an explanation of the curriculum of study;
(2) a description of the standards of admission and performance;
(.3) the criteria for the awarding of degrees and certificates; and
(4) a statistical compilation of the number of students attending the
Academy and receiv ing degrees or certificates;
(d) a summary of the activ ities undertaken to assist the Nation’s fire services;
(e) a summary of the public education programs undertaken;
(0 an analysis ol the extent ol participation in preparingand submitting lire
Safety Effectiveness Statements;
(g) a summary of outstanding problems confronting the administration of this
Act. in order ol priority;
(h) such recommendations for additional legislation as are deemed necessary
or appropriate: and
(i) a summary of reviews, evaluations, and suggested improvements in State
and local fire prevention and building codes, fire serv ices, and any relevant Federal
or private codes, regulations, and fire services.
A ITU OR I/. AT ION OE APPROPRIATIONS
SEC. 17. There are authorized to be appropriated to carry out the foregoing
provisions ol this Act. except section i I ol this Act. such sums as are necessary . not
to exceed S 10.000.000 for the fiscal yc.u ending June 30. 1975. and not to exceed
SI5.000.000 lor the fiscal year ending June 30. 1976.
EIRE RE>E \R( H ( ENTER
SI C IX. The \ct ol March J.'iii| i 15 l SC. 27S >. is amended by striking
out sections 1 6 and 1 7 (as added by title I ol the Eire Prevention and Control Act ol
I96M and by inserting in lieu thereof the following new section:
"SIC 16. lal I here is hereby established within the Department of
( ommcrcc a Eire Research ( enter winch shall have the mission of performing and
supporting research on all aspects ol iuc with the aim ol providing scientific and
technical know ledge applicable to the p- event ion and control ol fires. I he content
and priorities ol the research program -Coll be determined in consultation withthe
Vdministratoi ol the National Eire Pievention and Control Administration. In
implementing this section, the Secretary is authorized to conduct, directly cr
thiough contracts ot grants, a lire research program, including
••(ll basic and applied fire research for the purpose of arriving at an
I
14
FIRE RESEARCH
1
understanding of the fundamental processes underlying all aspects of lire. Such
research shall include scientific investigations ol
“(A) the physics and chemistry ol combustion processes;
"(B) the dynamics of- flame ignition, flame spread, and flame
extinguishment;
“(C) the composition of combustion products developed by various
sources and under various environmental conditions;
"(D) the early stages of fires in buildings and other structures,
structural subsystems and structural components in all other types of fires, includ-
ing. but not limited to. forest fires, brush fires, fires underground, oil blowout
fires, and waterborne fires, with the aim of improving early detection capability;
“(E) the behavior of fires involv ing all ty pes of buildings and other
structures and their contents (including mobile homes and highrise buildings,
construction materials, floor and wall coverings, coatings, furnishings, and other
combustible materials), and all other types of fires, including forest fires, brush
fires, fires underground, oil blowout fires, and waterborne fires;
“( F) the unique fire hazards arising from the transportation and use.
in industrial and professional practices, of combustible gases, fluids, and materials;
“(G) design concepts for providing increased fire safety consistent
with habitability, comfort, and human impact in buildings and other structures;
and
“( H ) such other aspects of the fire process as may be deemed useful
m pursuing the objectives of the fire research program;
"(2) research into the biological, physiological, and psychological factors
affecting human v ictims of fire, and the performance of indiv idual members of fire
services, including
“(A) the biological and physiological effects of toxic substances
encountered in fires;
“(B) the trauma, cardiac conditions, and other hazards resulting
Irom exposure to fire;
"(C) the development of simpleand reliable tests for determining the
cause of death from fires;
“(D) improved methods of providing first aid to victims of fires;
"(E) psychological and motivational characteristics of persons w ho
engage in arson, and the prediction and cure ol such behavior:
"(F) the conditions of stress encountered h\ firef ighters, the effects
.i, such stress, and the alleviation and reduction ol such conditions; and
"(G) such other biological, psychological, and physiological effects
o! fire as have signif icance for purposes of control or prevention of fires; and
"(3) operation tests, demonstration projects, and fire investigations in
support of the activities set forth in this section.
"I lie Secretary shall insure that the results and advances arising from the work
o' the research program arc disseminated btoadly He shall encourage the
incorporation, to the extent applicable and practicable, ol such results and
advances in building codes, lire codes, and other relevant codes, test methods, tire
service operations and training, and standards. I he Secretary is authorized to
A
T
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 15
encourage and assist in the development and adoption of uniform codes, test
methods, and standards aimed at reducing fire losses and costs of fire protection.
"(b) For the purposes of this section there is authorized to be appropriated not
to exceed $3. 500.000 for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1975 and not to exceed
S4.000.000 for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1976.”
VICTIMS OF FIRE
SEC. 19. (a) Program. The Secretary of Health. Education, and Welfare
shall establish, within the National Institutes of Health and in cooperation w ith the
Secretary, an expanded program of research on burns, treatment of burn injuries,
and rehabilitation of victims of fires. The National Institutes of Health shall
( 1) sponsor and encourage the establishment throughout the Nation of
twenty-five additional burn centers, which shall comprise separate hospital
lacilities prov iding spe.iali? d tu rn treatment and including research and teaching
programs, and twenty-five additional burn units, which shall comprise specialized
facilities in general hospitals used only for burn victims;
(2) provide training and continuing support of specialists to staff the new
burn centers and burn units;
(3) sponsor and encourage the establishment of ninety burn programs in
general hospitals which comprise staffs of burn injury specialists;
(4) provide special training in emergency care for burn victims;
(5) augment sponsorship of research on burns and burn treatment;
(6) administer and support a systematic program of research concerning
smoke inhalation injuries; and
(7) sponsor and support other research and training programs in the
treatment and rehabilitation of burn injury victims.
(b) Authorization of Appropriation. For purposes of this section, there are
authorized to be appropriated not to exceed S5.(XX).(MX) for the liscal year ending
June 30. 1975 and not to exceed SXJXX).O(X) for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1976.
ri BI.IC ACCESS TO INFORMATION
SEC. 20. Copies of any document, report, statement, or information received
or sent bv the Secretary or the Administrator shall be made available to the public
pursuant to the provisions of section 552 ol title 5. United States Code; Provided.
That, notwithstanding the provisions ol subsection (b) of such section and of
section 1905 of title IX. United States Code, the Secretary may disclose information
which concerns or relates to a trade secret
(1) upon request, to other Federal Government departments and
agencies for official use;
(2) upon request, to any committee ol Congress having jurisdiction over
the subject matter to which the information relates;
(3) in anv judicial proceeding under a court order formulated to preserve
the confidentiality ol such information without impairing the proceedings; and
(4) to the public when he determines such disclosure to be necessary in
1
16
HRE RESEARCH
order to protect health and safety after notice and opportunity for comment in
writing or for discussion in closed session w ithin fifteen days by the party to w hich
the information pertains (if the delay resulting from such notice and opportunity,
for comment would not be detrimental to health and salety).
ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS
SEC. 21. (a) Assistance. Each department. agenc>. and instrumentality ol
the executive branch of the Federal Government and each independent regulators
agencv of the United States is authorized and directed to furnish to the Adminis-
trator upon written request, on a reimbursable basis or otherw ise, such assistance
as the Administrator deems necessary to carry out his functions and duties
pursuant to this Act. including, but not limited to. transfer ol personnel with their
consent and without prejudice to their position and ratings.
(b) Powers. With respect to this Act. the Administrator is authorized to
(1) enter into, without regard to section 3709 ol the Revised Statutes, as
amended (41 U.S.C. 5) such contracts, grants, leases, cooperative agreements, or
other transactions as may be necessary to carry out the provisions ol this Act:
(2) accept gilts and voluntary and uncompensated services,
notwithstanding the provisions of section 3679 ol the Revised Statutes ( 3 1 U.S.C
665(b));
(3) purchase, lease, or otherwise acquire, own. hold, improve, use. ordeal
in and with any property (real, personal, or mixed, tangible or intangible), or
interest in property, wherever situated: and sell convex, mortgage, pledge, lease,
exchange, or otherwise dispose ol property and assets:
(4) procure temporary and intermittent services to the same extent as is
authorized under section 3109 ol title 5. I nited States l ode. Hut at rates not to
exceed SI 00 a day for qualified experts; and
(5) establish such rules, regulations, and procedures as are necessary to
carry out the provisions of this Act.
(c) Audit. The Secretarx and the Comptroller General ot the United States,
or any of their duly authorized representative, shall haxe access to anx books,
documents, papers, and records ol the recipients ol contracts, grants, or other
forms of assistance that are pertinent to its actix ities under this Act for the purpose
of audit or to determine if a proposed actix itx is in the public interest.
(d) Inventions and Discoveries. All propertv rights with respect to
inventions and discoveries, which are made in the course o! or under contract w it h
any government agency pursuant to this Act. shall be subject to the basic policies set
forth in the President’s Statement of Government Patent Policy issued August 23.
1971. or such revisions of that statement of policy as may subsequently be
promulgated and published in the Federal Register.
(c) Coordination. I o the extent practicable, the Administrator shall utilize
existing programs, data, information, and facilities already available in other
Federal Government departments and agencies and. where appropriate, existing
research organizations, centers, and universities. I he Ydmiiiistutoi shall piovide
liaison at an appropriate organizational lex el to assure coordination ol his actix ities
A
I
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS 17
with State and local government agencies, departments, bureaus, or offices
concerned with any matter related to programs of fire prevention and control and
with private and other Federal organizations and offices so concerned.
ASSISTANCE TO CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSION
SEC. 22. Upon request, the Administrator shall assist the Consumer
Product Safety Commission in the development of fire safety standards or codes
for consum -r products, as defined in the Consumer Product Safety Act ( 1 5 U .S.C.
2051 et scq ).
CONFORMING AMENDMENTS
SEC. 23. Section 12 of the Act of February 14, 1903, as amended ( 15 U.S.C.
1511), is amended to read as follows:
“BUREAUS IN DEPARTMENT
“SEC. 12. The following named bureaus, administrations, services, offices,
and programs of the public service, and all that pertains thereto, shall be under the
jurisdiction and subject to the control of the Secretary of Commerce:
"(a) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
“(b) United States Travel Service;
“(c) Maritime Administration;
“(d) National Bureau of Standards;
“(e) Patent Office;
“(0 Bureau of the Census;
"(g) National Fire Pievention and Control Administration; and
“(h) such other bureaus or other organizational units as the Secretary of
Commerce may from time to time establish in accordance with law."
Approved October 29. 1974
FIRELITER— REVIEW OF 1974 FIRE RELATED
JOURNAL LITERATURE
(Indexing Fire Articles from Titles)
B. W. Kuvshinoff
J. B. Jfrnigan
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University
The FIRELITER feature following this article is a collection of 1974 tables of
contents of several journals that are prominent in fire science and technology.
A subject index has been prepared from individual words and word strings in the
titles. FIRELITER is the result of an effort on the part of the editorial staff of
FRAR to broaden the coverage of the journal. If this feature proves as useful as we
anticipate, it will be repeated for the 1975 fire journal literature. We encourage
readers to comment on the result.
At this stage, the effort to bring the contents of current literature to the atten-
tion of the FRAR readership is experimental. FIRELITER is essentially an
attempt to develop an economical means of access to recent journal articles dealing
with fire. Our aim was to produce the best index possible at the least cost and with
the least effort.
Indexing a thousand or so articles is not a trivial task, no matter how it is done.
So to make the work as easy as possible, we chose to use either the KW1C (Key
Word In Context) or the KWOC (Key Word Out of Context) method. Wiih the
programs we used, either of these indexes can be generated from the identical
input file. For either index, article titles are entered into a computer file and the
program selects words from the titles, displays them in alphabetical order, and
prints the entire title and its reference. In the KW1C v ersion, the alphabetized words
are arranged down the center of the page, and the remainder of the title is printed
to the right. If the title cannot fit into the space at the right of the alphabetized
word, it is continued on the same line at the left. If the title is too long to fit on one
line, it is often truncated. Some KWIC programs allow a second line for the con-
tinuation ol long titles. In the KWOC version, the indiv idual words in the title are
displayed at the left margin on the page, and the entire title and reference is printed
below. In effect, the result is a two-level index in which the title sen es to explicate
the displayed term.
On the surface, the only work required lor either ol these indexes is key-
boarding the titles and references into a computer tile and the program does the
rest.
is
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
14
For the first index we wanted to include a representative sample of periodical
fire literature. Our selection thus includes US, British, and Soviet journals, as well
as scientific, technical, and news-type publications. Our final list contained 18
titles, for a total of 104 issues. All of these together form what we believe to be a
reasonable cross-section. We have included complete tables of contents of the
scientific journals, but only selected titles from the news-oriented publications.
We consistently omitted brief, nonsubstantive and ephemeral articles.
After having selected the journals to be included, we designed a simple coding
system and keyboarded several tables of contents, whereupon we ran a test print-
out. We elected to use the KWOC version, since it appears to be somewhat more
orderly than KWIC and is a bit more conservative of space. As we anticipated, the
index was peppered with meaningless terms: articles, prepositions, verbs, pro-
nouns. and the like. Also there were a number of high-frequency words such as
METHOD. TECHNIQUE, and SYSTEM that had little 'index value. Curiously,
but understandably, words such as COMBUSTION. FI AME. and the like begin
to lose their meanings in an index devoted primarily to these subjects.
Since many of the useless words are four letters or less, we instructed the
program to ignore all words with less than five letters. In order not to lose im-
portant 2-, 3-, or 4-letter words, we simply coupled them to an adjacent term with
a non-printing character. The hyphen also was used as a coupling device; other
punctuation marks were ignored by the program. Useless indexing terms of 5 letters
and more were stopped by entering them on a stop list. The final stop list contained
about 800 words. In many cases singular and plural versions of the same word had
to be stopped. Words such as DETERMINED. DETERMINATION. DETER-
MINING. DETERMINES, and DETERMINE contributed significantly to the
size of the stop list.
At the beginning we were concerned about how freely we could add to the stop
list, since stopping a term for any title would stop it for all titles. This turned out to
be needless worry. Examination of the final stop list showed that a decision to stop
a word in any title was generally valid for all titles. It should be noted that anv
change in spelling or orthography causes the program to treat a word as entirely
different. For example, if the w ord ‘firelighter' is in the stop list. ‘Firefighter and
■fire-fighter" remain valid index terms because of the initial capital and the hyphen
Desirable terms of less than 5 characters were preserved for printing in the index
by lengthening them with hyphens or nonprinting characters.
From the initial test runs it soon became evident that even when all of the
nonsignificant words were stopped, the repeated printing of entire titles below
each entry fattened the page count enormously. It was therefore deicded to try
KWANC (Key Word And No Context). In this version, indexing terms are dis-
played with references only. A reader has to look up the reference in the tables
of contents themselves to read the title and determine whether the context fits his
interest.
While the page count of the KWANC index decreased to almost hall that ol
KWOC. the indexing value of many of the terms fell even more. Although some
terms seemed to lose little, others, such as ACCIDENT. DYNAMICS, and
INS I RUMEN I suflered almost total loss of meaning as index pointers. More-
20
HRI: RESEARCH
over, there was a noticeable change in user behav ior. W hereas the eye tended to
drop down to the title to read explications in K WOC . in KWANC . ha/y entries
tended to be passed over and ignored.
It would serve little purpose on these pages to discuss index preparation in
depth; nevertheless, we would like to share some ot the highlights of our experience
and insights that we gained from the exercise.
We all know that single words take on different meanings from associations
with other words. Thus, two words as a rule are more meaningful than one. and
three more than two. As more and more w ords are combined, they acquire increas-
ing specificity from each other. In some cases, however, special terms or expres-
sions can acquire extrinsic meaning. Author names, for example, are useful index
entries because users can often contribute meaning to a name. Knowledge of a
particular author's work or knowing that a specific paper is attributed to a giv en
author is sufficient to specify an article uniquely. An author entry is thus identified
extrinsically in two ways: either by foreknowledge of his work, or because he has
authored a particular paper.
In the case of a subject index, the situation is not as straightforward. True,
some individual terms have a high degree of specificity due to rarity or reader's
foreknowledge. CONFLAGRATION and H.IXBOROUGH serve as examples.
How frequently do conflagrations occur? And under what circumstances would
Flixborough be featured in the fire literature?
The majority of single terms, however, tend to be ambiguous to one degree or
another, and are. therefore, either useless or marginal as index entries.
Term coupling in general serv es to increase specificity, and, therefore, reduces
ambiguity, but other problems arise. For example, the terms FIRE. SI R\ It 1
and EDUCATION by themselves exhibit unique dimensions of ambiguity. I 1R1 is
unacceptably vague in an index devoted largely to fire, and SERVICE is It '
specific than EDUCATION. The three terms coupled together, however, make
up an adequately specific index entry .
Permutation of these terms can be used to illustrate how meaning fluctuate'
with word order. Consider such combinations as FIRE SERVICE. EIRE 11)1
CATION, EDUCATION SERVICE. SERVICE FIRE. etc. In using titles as
sources of index terms, one is obliged to accept the word order as it exists li an
article dealing with fire sen ice education has these three terms in proper sequence
in the title, one merely needs to couple them to obtain a legitimate index entry
But what if another term intrudes.’ (e.g.. EIRE SI R VICE PROMO 1 1 S EDU-
CATION). Suddenly. EIRE SERVICE and I 1)1 CATION take on different
nuances of meaning. We have three alternatives: we can couple all of them together
to make one entry; we can couple the first two words and stop PROMO! ES. to
make two index entries; or we can stop the first three words and pnm EDUCA-
TION alone in the index.
Anv >1 these alternatives might be acceptable if it were not for other similar
articles with quite different titles It turns out that some articles on fire service
education fall in the index under terms other than FIRE SERVICE and I DE C A-
TION This particular problem is aggravated by normal usage, which places
modifiers ahead of nouns. thus uc have plain "nozzles." “automatic nozzles.''
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
21
"radio-controlled nozzles.” as well as many other kinds. We found it impossible,
in our experience, to treat such terms consistently. Consider also the use of para-
phrastic expressions - phrases used instead of simpler terms. The variations we
encountered in free language titles were simply too numerous to deal with expe-
ditiously.
As a result, we can either give up the use of titles and prepare a true index or
ask the reader to search every entry point he can think of in order to find w hat he is
looking for. In a very real sense a user of a title index must learn how to read and
interpret it properly.
A problem with similar consequences arises from svnonomy. Quite similar
articles may contain synonyms or near synonyms in their titles; e.g.. CLOTHING.
GARMENTS, APPAREL, and so on. Moreov er, relevant articles may be indexed
under more remote headings, such as LEXT1LES. FABRICS. CLOTH: or even
under COATS, SLEEPWEAR. DRESSING GOWNS, and any number of other
less obvious terms. The reader must, therefore, summon a great deal of ingenuity to
think of all the possible rubrics under which his topic might be cited.
This problem may be mitigated by suitable cross-references, and a few have
been supplied.
A good index enables one to approach any item from at least two directions.
Using the earlier example, it would be useful to generate the two strings: FIRE
SERVICE EDUCATION and EDUCATION FIRE SERVICE. An index
taken directly from titles does not permit this. One must be content with the word
order as it appears.
Another cumbersome problem occurs when two or more subjects are treated
in the same title or when the same subject has two or more specifications. Consider
the title: "Thermal Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of Paper Sheets in Air
by Irradiation." which has elements of both characteristics. An unconstrained
indexer would probably make each concept: “Thermal Degradation." "Spon-
taneous Ignition.” "Ignition.” “Paper Sheets.” and “Irradiation." suitably modi-
fied. a separate entry in an index. This is not possible in the KWANC index without
modifying the title itself or enriching it with appropriately permuted terms. The
word order problem and the absence of the remainder of the title are the two
features that distinguish KWANC from KWIC and KWOC and which make
KWANC so much more difficult to prepare and use.
The significance of this should be apparent. Whereas KWIC and KWOC
make no pretense of being anything more than crude substitutes lor an index
prepared by a human indexer. KWANC wears a disguise: it looks like an index
that has been prepared through intellectual effort. In fact, however, if left un-
touched and unaided. KWANC is poorer than KWIC or KWOC. which perform
much better under much looser conditions.
In a few instances we modified titles where wording made it conv enient to do
so. For the sake of uniformity we modified terms such as “highrise” and “fire-
fighter," writing them as one word regardless of how they were written in the
original title. In these and other instances, we sometimes supplied additional
indexing terms as described below.
As we coupled terms into more meaningful pairs, triplets, and longer strings.
I I K I RESEARCH
we encountered another kind of problem. A number of titles simply made no sense
when separated from the articles they headed. For example, "Father’s Cast-Off
Apparatus" deals with the renovation and return to service of used equipment.
“Suddenly, You'-e Dead" is an article on first aid. "Firefighters Get Moving"
concerns fire prevention and burns treatment. “A New Image- -A New Role"
describes delivery of emergency health care services. In such cases we felt obliged
to add a few words in parentheses to make the title more meaningful. In other cases
we embedded nonprinting index terms in the titles for printing only in the index.
The final K.WANC index to the 1974 fire journal article titles turned out to
be a hybrid: largely a title index, but also containing intellectual intervention. It
is thus not as bad as the one might be. nor as good as the other usually is
The cost and effort invested in producing the improved KWANC is about
half that needed for an index prepared by a human indexer. Under present circum-
stances a title index is feasible, whereas a true index is not. owing to the lack ol
experienced indexing manpower.
We are well aware that whatever has been saved in indexing time and effort
is false in one respect. What is saved in indexing is undoubtedly spent many times
over by the collective users. The so-called "bottom-line." therefore, is whether a
title-generated index is better than no index at all. We conclude that it is. despite
its faults.
The references in the indexes consist of a mnemonic abbreviation of the
journal title, volume number, issue number in parentheses, and page number.
For example, ComFla22( 1 ) 1 refers to Combustion and Flame. Volume 22. No. 1 .
page I .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
Vol. 22, No. 1 26
Vol. 22, No. 2 27
Vol. 22, No. 3 27
Vol. 23, No. I 28
Vol. 23, No. 2 29
Vol. 23, No. 3 29
COMBUSTION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 9, Nos. 1-2 30
Vol. 9. Nos. 3^1 30
Vol. 9, Nos. 5-6 31
FIRE CHIEF MAGAZINE
Vol. 18, No. I 32
Vol. 18. No. 2 32
Vol. 18, No. 3 32
Vol. 18. No. 4 32
Vol. 18. No. 5 32
Vol. 18. No. 6 33
Vol. 18. No. 7 33
Vol. 18. No. 8 33
Vol. 18. No. 9 33
Vol. 18. No. 10 33
Vol. 18. No. II 34
Vol. 18. No. 12 34
FIRF COMMAND!
Vol. 41. No. I 34
Vol. 41. No. 2 34
Vol. 41. No. 3 34
Vol. 41. No. 4 35
Vol. 41. No. 5 35
Vol. 41. No. 6 35
Vol. 41. No. 7 35
Vol. 41. No. 8 36
Vol. 41. No. 9 36
Vol. 41. No. 10 36
Vol. 41. No II 36
Vol. 41. No. 12 36
24
CONTENTS
FIRE ENGINEERING
Vol. 127. No. I 36
Vol. 127. No. 2 37
Vol. 127. No. 3 37
Vol. 127. No. 4 37
Vo!. 127. No. 5 37
Vol. 127. No. 6 37
Vol. 127. No. 7 38
Vol. 127. No. 8 38
Vol. 127. No. 9 38
Vol. 127. No. 10 38
Vol. 127. No. II 39
Vol. 127. No. 12 39
FIRE ENGINEERS JOURNAL
Vol. 34. No. 93 39
Vol. 34. No. 94 40
Vol. 34. No. 95 40
Vol. 34. No. 96 40
FIRE INTERNATIONAL
Vol. 4. No. 43 40
Vol. 4. No. 44 41
Vol. 4, No. 45 41
Vol. 4. No. 46 41
FIRE JOURNAL
Vol. 68. No. I 41
Vol. 68. No. 2 42
Vol. 68. No. 3 42
Vol. 68. No. 4 42
Vol. 68. No. 5 43
Vol. 68, No. 6 43
FIRF PREVENTION SCIFNCE AND TECHNOLOGY
No. 8 44
No. 9 44
FIRE PROTECTION REVIEW
Vol. 37. No. 398 44
Vol. 37. No. 399 44
Vol. 37. No. 400 44
Vol. 37. No. 401 44
Vol. 37. No. 402 45
Vol. 37. No. 403 45
Vol. 37. No. 404 45
Vol. 37. No. 405 45
Vol. 37. No. 406 45
Vol. 37. No. 40 7 45
Vol. 37. No. 408 46
CONTENTS
25
FIRE TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 10, No. I
Vol. 10. No. 2
Vol. 10. No. 3
Vol. 10. No. 4
JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY
Vol. 5, No. I
Vol. 5. No. 2
Vol. 5. No. 3
Vol. 5, No. 4
JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FL AMMABILITY COMBUSTION
COLOGY SUPPLEMENT
Vol. I, No. I
Vol. I. No. 2
Vol. I. No. 3
Vol. I, No. 4
.... 46
.... 46
.... 46
. ... 47
. ... 47
. ... 47
. ... 48
. ... 48
70X1-
48
48
49
JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY CONSUMER PRODUCT
FLAMMABILITY
Vol. I, No. I 49
Vol. I. No. 2 49
Vol. I. No. 3 50
Vol. I. No. 4 50
JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FL AMMABILITY FIRE RETARDANT
CHEMISTRY
Vol. I. No. I 50
Vol. 1. No. 2 50
Vol. 1. No. 3 51
Vol. I. No. 4 51
LAB DATA
Vol 5. No. I 51
Vol. 5. No. 2 51
Vol. 5. No. 3 51
Vol. 5. No. 4 52
NATIONAL SAFETY NEWS
Vol. 109. No. 6 52
PHYSICS OF COMBUS7 ION AND EXPI OSION
Vol 10. No. I 52
Vol. 10. No. 2 54
Vol. 10. No. 3 55
Vol. 10. No. 4 56
Vol. 10. No. 5 5"?
Vol. 10. No. 6 59
INDEX IT) AUTHORS 62
INDEX IO \R I ICIT 1 17 I IS '4
L.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
Vol. 22, No. 1 February 1974
The Role of Surface Reactions in Hypergolic Ignition of Liquid-Solid Systems
Bernard ML.Cointot A. Auzanneau M. S/tal E 1
Comments on the Equation of State of the Products of High Density Explosives
Bracco FV 9
The Thermal Decomposition of 1 , 3,5 Trinitro Hexahydro 1.3.5 Tria/inet RDX)-
Part 1. The Productsand Physical Parameters/ Cosgrove JD. Owen AJ 13
The Thermal Decomposition of 1 , 3. 5 Trinitro Hexahydro 1,3.5 Tria/inet RDX)-
Part 11: The Effects of the Products, CosgroveJD. Owen AJ 19
A Model Relating Extinction of the Opposed Flow Diffusion Flame to Reaction
Kinetics AblowCM. Wise H 23
Physical Factors in the Study of the Spontaneous Ignition of Hydrocarbons in
Static Systems/ Barnard J A. Harwood BA 35
The Effects of Electrical Fields upon Electron Energy Exchanges in Flame Gases
Bradley D. Ibrahim SM A 43
Initiation Patterns Produced in Explosives by Low Pressure. Long Duration
Shock Waves W'alker FE, Wasley RJ 53
A Model for the Combustion and Extinction of Composite Solid Propellants
during Depressurization Mong HC, Ambs II 59
Effect of Composition and Temperature on the Burning Velocity of Nitric Oxide -
Hydrogen Flame Magnus AJ. Chintapalli PS. VanPee M 71
Catalytic Effect of Ferrous Oxide on Burning Rate of Condensed Mixtures
Bakhman NN. Nikiforov VS. Avdyunin VI, Fogel'zang AYe. Kichin YuS 77
Laminar Burning Velocities and Weak Flammability Limits under Engine-Like
Conditions Halstead M P. Pye DB. Quinn CP 89
The Uniform Distortion of a Turbulent Flame C'homiak .1 99
The Ignition of Gases by Rapidly Heated Surfaces Cutler DP 105
Studies in theTransition from Deflagration to Detonation in Granular Explosives-
1: Experimental Arrangement and Behavior of Explosiv es Which Fail to Exhibit
Detonation Bernecker RR. Price D Ill
Studies in theTransition from Deflagration to Detonation in Granular Explosives -
11: Transitional Characteristics and Mechanisms Observ ed in 91 9 RDX-W'a.x
Bernecker RR. Price D 119
Brief Communications
Cool FlameQuench Distances Reason PR. Hirsch I 131
C2 Band Emission from Diffusion Flames ol Alkali Metals and Halogenaled
Methanes Hsu CJ. Palmer HE. Aten CF 133
ABSTRACTS AND RFVIFW'S
27
Vol. 22, No. 2 April 1974
Electromagnetically Induced Motion of Spark Ignition Kernels Bradley D.
Critchley 1L 143
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Formaldahyde Oxidation - II Vardanyan IA.
Sachyan GA, Philiposyan AG, Nalbandyan AB 153
Studies in the T ransition from Deflagration to Detonation in Granular Explosives -
111: Proposed Mechanisms forTransition and Comparison with other Proposals
in the Literature, Bernecker RR, Price D 161
Theoretical Investigation of Hybrid Rocket Combustion by Numerical Methods
Helman D. Wolfshtein M. Manheirner-Timnat Y 171
An Investigation of Iron and Rhenium Additives in Unseeded and Potassium
Seeded Hydrogen-Oxygen Flames FarberM. Harris SP.Srivastava RD. ... 191
The Measurement of Heat-Loss Rates from a Stirred Reactor Using a Thermo-
chemical Method/GriffithsJF.Gray P 197
Inhibition of Gas-Phase Oxidation Reactions by Aliphatic Amines and Related
Compounds/ Jones PW. Selby K.Tidball MF. Waddington DJ 209
Burning Velocity Measurement by Bomb Method Nair MRS, Gupta MC 219
Thermal Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of PaperSheets in Airby Irradia-
tion'Shivadev UK. Emmons HW 223
Population Inversion in Blast Waves Propagating in Hydrogen-Fluorine-Helium
Mixtures Guenoche H, Lee JHS. SedesC 237
Observation of C (3) O (2) (Carbon Suboxide) during Atmospheric Reentry
SheahenTP 243
Turbulent Mixing and NOx Formation in Gas Turbine Combustors
Vranos A 253
Brief Communications
Low Nitric Oxide Emissions Via Unsteady Combustion Peters B. Borman G . . 259
A Note on Electromagnetically Induced Motion of Spark Ignition Kernels
Harrison AJ. Weinberg FJ 263
Influence of Electric Fields on Burning Velociu Fox JS. Mirchandani I 267
Detonation Calculations with a Percus-Yevick Equation of State Edwards .1C.
Chaikin RF 269
Ignition Waves in PY RO Propellant Soper WG 273
Effect of Recirculated Products on Burning Velociu and Critical Velociu
Gradient Putnam AA 281
Vol. 22. No. 3 June 1974
I he Ignition Front of a Fuel. let Flame Stabilized by a Step Kawamura I 283
Observations on the Role ol Lead Modifiers in Super-Rate Burning of Nitro-
cellulose Propellants Stih NP. Adams GF. I enehitzC 289
I he Temperature Dependence of Some Third-Order Reactions of Atomic I cad -
Ph(6'(Ol) Husain D. I itt lot JGF 295
Rate Constrained Partial Equilibrium Models ot the Formation of Nitric Oxide
28
hrf; research
from Organic FuelNitrogen Hagan RC'.GalantS. Appleton .IP 299
Flame Length in the Wake of u Burning Hydrocarbon Drop Gollahalli SR,
Brzustowski fA 213
Ignition Characteristics of Gasless Reactions Phung PV. Hardt AP 323
The Electronic Excitation of Nitrogen and Burning Velocity Measurements in
Low-Pressure. Pre-Mixed Ammonia-Fluorine Flames Cashin KD.
Chintapalli PS. VanPee M. Vidaud P 337
Quenched Carbon Monoxide in Fuel-Lean Name Gas Fenimore CP.
Moore J 343
Postulations of Flame Spread Mechanisms Hirano T. Noreikis SE.
Waterman TE 353
A Theory for Spherical and Cylindrical Laminar Premixed Flames Vance GM.
Krier H 365
Burning of Fuel Droplets in Pressures Greater than Atmospheric Rush JH.
Krier H 377
Combustion of Magnesium Particles in Oxygen-Inert Atmospheres Law CK.
Williams FA 383
The Influence of Additives on the Burning of Clouds of Coal Particles in Shocked
Gases Nettleton MA 407
Brief Communications
The Measure of the Inhibition of Quenched Premixed Flames lya KS.
Wollowit/ S. Kaskan WE 4 1 5
Vol. 23. No. I August 1974
The Measurement and Use of Oxygen Index Abbott C I
Dynamics of Droplets in Burning and Isothermal Kerosene Sprays Chigier NA.
McCreath CG. Makepeace RW II
Exact Solution to the One-Dimensional Stationary Energy Equation for a Self-
Heating Slab Shouman AR. Donaldson AB. IxaoH't 17
Study of the Electric Conductivity of Plasma of Combustion Products with
Seedings in the U-02 MHD Generator Channel and on a Laboratory Installa-
tion,'Gaponot IM. Pobere/hsky IP. Chernov YuG 29
The Heat and Products of Detonation in a Calorimeter of C-N-O. H-N-O.
C-H-N-O. C-H-N-O-F. and C-H-N-O-Si Explosix es Orncllas 1)1 37
Electron Spin Resonance Studies of Gas-Phase Oxidation Reactions I lie
Hydrogen-Oxygen System at Atmospheric Pressure \gkpo A. Sochet I R 47
Velocity Measurements in the Recirculation Region of an Industrial Burner Flame
by Laser Anemometrv with I ight Frequence Shifting Baker R.l. Hutchinson P.
Whitelaw JH ' 57
Molecular Beam Mass Spectrometry Applied to Determining the Kinetics of
Reactions in Flames. I. Empirical Characterization of Flame Perturbation h\
Molecular Beam Sampling Probes Biordi JC. I azzara CP. Papp JF "r3
Measured Velocity Profiles and temperature Profiles near Flames Spreading o\et
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 29
a I hinCombustibleSolid HiranoT. NoreikisSE. Waterman IE S3
On the Explosion. Glow, and Oscillation Phenomena in the Oxidation of Carbon
Monoxide Yang CH 97
The "Point Source” Technique Using Upstream Sampling for Rate Constant
Determinations in Flame Gases Hart LW. GrunfelderC. Fristrom RM 109
loni/ation Associated with Solid Particles in Flames II. Electron Number Density
Page FM, Woolley DF 121
Brief Communications
Time-Resolved Spectra of Bulk Titanium Combustion Runyon CC. Moulder JC,
Clark AF 129
Vol. 23, No. 2
October 1973
Combustion in Swirling Flows: A Review Syred N, Beer JM 143
An Investigation of the Minimum Ignition Energies of Some C(1 ) to C(7) Hydro-
carbons Moorhouse J. Williams A. MaddisonTE 203
An Evaluation of the Rate Data for the Reaction CO + OH - CC (2) + H
Baulch DL. Drvsdale DD 215
The Emission Spectra and Burning Velocity of the Premixed Cyanogen-Fluorine
Flame VanPee M. Vidaud P.CashinKD 227
Kinetics of Oxygen Atom Formation during the Oxidation of Methane behind
ShockWaves Jachimowski CJ 233
A Stochastic Model of Turbulent Mixing with Chemical Reaction: Nitric Oxide
Formation ina Plug-Flow Burner Flagan RC. Appleton JP 249
A Simple Premixed Flame Model including an Application to Hydrogen-Air
Flames Brown VI. Fristrom RM. Sawver RF 269
Brief Communications
Nitric Oxide Formation during the Combustion ol Coal Haynes BS.
Kirov NY ' 277
Vol. 23. No. 3
December 1974
An Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of I urbulent Mixing in a Cylindri-
cal Furnace I ockwood EC. El-Mahalowv EM. Spalding DB 2S3
I ow- I emperature Oxidation in a Stirred-Flow Reactor - I Propane Grav Bl
Felton PG 295
Investigating the Flame with the Aid ol Sell-Reversed Contours ol Spectral
I ines Vasilieva I A. Deputatova I V. Nefedov AP 305
I he Interaction of Hot Spots ZaturskaMB. 313
Sell-Heating in Exothermic Reactions: Electrical Calibration ol Heat I osscs trom
a Stirred Reactor I hompson D. Gray P . 319
On the Problem ol 1 bcrmal Instability of Explosive Materials Bailev PB 329
l iquid Fuel Fires in (he l aminar Flame Region Nakakuki A 337
FIRE RESEARCH
.10
Studies of the Spontaneous Ignition in Air of Binary Hydrocarbon Mixtures
CullisCF, Foster CD 347
Heats of Reaction of Pyrotechnic Compositions Containing Potassium Chlorate
Scanes FS, Martin RAM 357
Thermal Analysis of Pyrotechnic Compositions Containing Potassium Chlorate
and Lactose/ Scanes FS 363
Discrete Simulation Methods in Combustion Kinetics/ Bunker DL. Garrett B,
Kleindienst T, Long III GS 373
Solid Propellant Burning Rate Measurement in a Closed Bomb/Celmins A. . . 381
Brief Communications
Thermal Diffusion and Fiame Stoichiometry Barnes M H, Fletcher E A 399
COMBUSTION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 9. Nos. 1-2 1974
On the Flame Spreading over a Polymer Surface/ Ohki Y. Tsugze S I
Flame Retardants and Particulate from Wood Fires PhilpotCW 13
Role of Turbulent Fluctuations in NO Formations Gouldin FC 17
Concentration Fluctuations in Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames Bilger RW.
Kent .IH 25
Mass Regression in the Pyrolysis of Pine Wood Macrocylinders in A Nitrogen
Atmosphere -An Experimental Study Kanury AM 31
A Theoretical Criterion for Dynamic Extinction of Solid Propellants by Fast
Depressurization/ T'ien JS 37
Radiant Heating from a Cylindrical Fire Column Dayan A. lien CL 41
Measurements of Wall Heat I ransfer in the Presence of Large Amplitude
Combustion-Driven Oscillations Perry EH 49
Ignition of Cellulose Nitrate by High Velocity Particles Grossmann ED.
Rele PJ 55
Effect of Metallic Additives on the NOx Emissions from a Small Oil Burner
Alt wicker ER. ShenTT 61
Short Communications
Blow-Off and Flame Spread in Liquid Fuel Fires Nakakuki A 7 1
Effect of Orientation and External Flow Velocity on Flame Spreading over
Thermally Thin Paper Strips Sibulkin M. Ketelhut W. Feldman S 75
Vol. 4. Nos. 3-4 1974
Determinations ol the Rate Constants lor the Reaction O+NO-N +02 Hanson RK.
Flower WI. Kruger CH ^9
The Reactivity of a Porous Brown Coal Char between 630 and 1812 K
Smith IW. Tyler R.l ^
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Further Considerations on the Interaction of Sound and How in Rocket Motors
and T-Burners Coates RL. Horton MD 95
Aerodynamics of a Confined Burning Jet Guru/ AG. Guru/ Hk. Osuwan S.
Steward FR 103
Mixing Processes in a Free T urbulent Diffusion Flame Chigier N'A. Strokin V.lll
Hybrid Gas Phase Two Phase Detonations/' Pierced H. Nicholls JA 119
Variation of Atomic Hydrogen Density in a Propane-Oxygen Flame as a Function
of Chamber Pressure Collins LW. Downs WR 129
Low Emission Combustors for Gas Turbine Powerplants Spadaccini IJ 133
Flame Propagation Measurements and Energy Feedback Analysis for Burning
Cylinders/ Sibulkin M. Lee CK 137
Rocket Propellant Combustion Studies in a Constant Volume Bomb
Mukunda HS, Raghurandan BN 149
The Refractive Indices of Isolated and of Aggregated Soot Particles
Graham SC 159
Short Communications
Spray Combustion from an Air-Assist Nozzle. Mellor AM 165
Ignition of Cellulosic Solids; Minimum Surface Temperature Criterion
Kanury AM 171
Flame Spreading from a Point Source of Ignition on a Vertical Fuel Surface
Hansen A. Sibulkin M 173
On Premixed Turbulent Flames Basu P, Bhaduri D 177
Vol. 9, Nos. 5-6
1974
Temperature Sensitivity of the Burning Rate of Composite Solid Propellants
Cohen-Nir E I S3
Comment on Solid Propellant Burning Rate during a Transient krier H.
Ben-Reuven M 195
Flame Propagation in a One-Dimensional Liquid Fuel Spray Polymeropoulos
CE 197
Analytic Scaling of Flowfield and Nitric Oxide in Combustors Quan \ .
Kliegel JR. De Volo NB. Teixeira DP 209
The Role of Energy-Releasing Kinetics in NOx Formation: Fuel-1 can. Jet-
Stirred CO-Air Combustion Malte PC. Pratt DT 221
Ignition ot Partialis Shattered Liquid Fuel Drops in a Reflected Shock Wave
Env ironment Wierzba AS. Kauffman CW. Nicholls J A . . 233
The Formation and Combustion of Iso-Octane Sprays in Hoi Gases
Dombrowski N. Borne W. Williams A 247
Pressurization with Nitrogen asan Extinguishant lor Fires in Contincd Spaces II
Cellulosic Fuels and Fabric F uels Tatem PA.Gann RG.Carhart HW 255
Nitrogen Dioxide Formation in Gas Turbine Engines Measurements and Mea-
surement Methods I uttle.lH. Shisler RA. Mellor AM 2M
FIRE RESEARCH
12
Short Communications
Exact and Mean Beam Length Calculations lor Radiative Heat I ransfer in Gases
Mandell DA 273
FIRE CHIEF MAGAZINE
Vol. 18. No. 1 January 1974
New Fire Retardant Emulsion Pearson TF 36
Eire Prevention Starts on the Draw ing Board Buresh RJ 41
Helicopter Response to Medical Emergencies Rosenhan AK 44
Vol 18. No. 2 February 1974
Pre Eire Science Training for High School Students 24
Apparatus Designed lor Firefighter Safety LoebDl 26
Eire in Garden Apartment under Construction Rankin JL 32
Communications System Reduces Response Time for Volunteers 34
Vol. 18. No. 3 March 1974
Public Safety in Durham/ Ulrich Rl 28
Human Behavior in Highrise Fires; Phillips AW 30
Foam Kills Fire in Old Saw Mill, Flaherty JR 32
Use Surfboards for Sea Rescue 34
Fire Department Leads the Way in Developing City Highrise Code, Stinchcomb
HR 36
Vol. IS. No. 4 April 1974
Should the Fire Department Provide Full Emergency Medical Service? 34
Emergency Medical Care and the Fire Servce WatersJM 37
I wo Physicians Discuss Fire Department Emergency Care Kreymborg OC.
Irwin CW 41
Public Safety in Durham Ulrich Rl 46
A Look at the New Automatic No/Hex Loeb Dl SO
Vol. IS, No. 5 Ma\ l«D4
Planning Fire Protection for Fxpo-74 30
All Out Effort Prevents Conflagration 35
Army Aids Volunteers in Firefighting I raining 34
A Look at the New Automatic Nozzles LoebDl 42
Public Salety in Durham Ulrich Rl 45
^ A
ABNl R ACTS AND RFV1FWS
D
Vol. IX, No. 6 June 1974
Students Against FiresCompetition(SCORE) 30
Bomb Explosion in Rail Yard KlehsJW, Pieracci E 32
Lhe Volunteer Fire Department Secretary Lundy SP 35
Safe Streets Act Flelps Fund Alarm System 37
A Look at New Automatic Nozzles/ Loeb DL 40
Vol. 18, No. 7 July 1974
Fire Department Operations Involving Radioactive Materials Purington RG .16
A Fire Department Training Reorganization Plan Waide DC 21
Labor Department Hearings on Overtime Requirements for Fire Fighters 24
Fire in Amusement Park 27
Vol. 18. No. 8
August 1974
A Master Plan for Fire Protection/ Jensen GS 48
Anti-Discrimination Suits - A Complex Issue for Fire Departments 50
Fire Department Operations Involving Radioactive Materials Purington RG . . 53
Modernizinga Fireand Rescue System for Cost-Effectiveness Waters JM 58
What Fire Chiefs Should Know About General Revenue Sharing Atkisson
JrCT 64
Johns Hopkins Conference on Fireground Command 64
Vol. 18. No. 9 September 1974
The Women of the Hartfield Volunteer FireCompanv Loeb Dl 20
Volunteer Photo Team Aids County Fire Department Training and Fire Depart-
ment Publicity Carpenter DJ 22
Modernizinga Fireand Rescue System for Cost-Effectiveness Waters JM 26
College ROTC Cadets Form Fire Brigade 32
Vol. 18. No, 10 October 1974
Syracuse Lpdated - A Look at the Mini-Maxi Pumper Concept in Action
Loeb Dl 27
A Seminar for Volunteer Administrativ e Officers Weldon WC 31
Pre-Fire Planning Pays Off Kotowski RC. Daveler 111 JP 34
A Rung Testing Dev ice You Can Build Huber W 36
Father's Cast Off Apparatus Loeb Dl 38
Modernizinga Fireand Rescue System for Cost-Effectiveness Waters.lM 4?
r
FIR I RESEARCH
34
Vol. 18, No. 1 1 November 1974
When Seconds Count . . . Computer Finds Water Fast/ Redden JM 24
Volunteers Fight Gas Well Fire - Learn from the Experience McNeight N 27
Syracuse Updated - A Look at the Mini-Maxi Pumper Concept in Action/
Loeb DL 29
7000 Gallon Tanker RosenhanAK 39
Vol. 18. No. 12 December 1974
A Report: The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 23
High School Fire Science Course Prepares Tomorrow's Fire Fighters
Verburg D 26
Montgomery County's Modern Fire Training Center Isman WE 30
Volunteer Fire Department in Retirement Community 33
FIRE COMMAND!
Vol. 41, No, 1 January 1974
FIF1 and the Fire Service! Eire Service Education) 12
Elk Grove Village, Illinois Fire Department 16
Kumamoto, Japan Department Store Fire 18
Fitness and. the Fire Fighter 20
Federal Vehicle Standards 20
Vol. 41, No. 2 February 1974
Propane Cloud and a Lot of Luck Ellis II 18
Ten Die in Wavne. Pennsylvania Nursing Home Fire Sharry JA 24
National Professional Qualifications Board for the Fire Service 26
Tactics foraTough Chemical Processing Plant Fire ConionJP 28
UFIRS-TheNew Management Tool for Chiefs Peterson CF 30
Vol. 41, No, 3 March 1974
Flammable Liquids and Combustible Liquids 8
Research Analysis - Conflagration Fire Behavior The 1973 Chelsea. Massachu-
setts Fire 12
High Expansion Foam 15
Central Fire Station in Stamford 26
Kit for Highrise Buildings 19
Fire Sen ice Management Fxercises 20
Natural Gas Explosion 22
A Quick Rundown on the Ele\ ating Platform 28
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
35
Vol. 41. No. 4
April 1974
Hazardous Materials Transportation Accidents
Suddenly You're Dead (First Aid) 30
What About Burn Injuries? 31
Fire Fighters - Get Moving (Fire Prevention and Burn Treatment) 32
No A-Bomb - Just Paint and Chemicals 34
W'hat Causes Firefighter Fatalities? 35
The Psychology of the Fire Fighter 36
Air Cushions in Vehicles- What Are the Firefighting Aspects? 38
Tse of Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus at Pressures Greater than Atmos-
pheric 40
• Ho* Dependable Is Your Electrical Ground? 42
Standards-Making Revised 47
Volunteer hire Department Uses Radio-Controlled Pumper 50
Safety First a Management Challenge 52
Abrasive Saw Blades - A Cautionary Note 60
Delivery System for Air Drops ( Helicopter) 68
Tank Truck Fire in Richmond. Virginia 70
i
Vol. 41, No. 5 May 1974
The Terrible Blast of a Bleve: Firefighter Casualties in LP-Gas Tank Rupture
Incidents 14
Hazard Reduction during Emergency Response 20
Visibility of Fire Fighters 22
Vol. 41. No. 6 June 1974
Allentown's New Emergency Communications Center 22
New Communications Center Improves Command-Control in Orlando. Florida
Fire Department 28
Communications Center 36
Hotel Fires Test Mutual Aid Operations (Twice) 40
How Do You Match Men and Performance? 42
Vol 41, No. 7 Julv 1974
“Small" Fire in Highrise BuildingOne Million Dollar Toss 16
A New Image - A New Role (How long Beach Emergence Health Care is
Delivered) 20
How Canonsburg Designed Its New Pumper 26
Occupational Emotional Stress and the Eire Fighter 2"
Radio Fire Alarm Box 31
I IK! RESEARCH
.16
Vol. 41. No. 8
Fire Fighters Injured in 1 P-Gas Bleve
Hazardous Cargo
Fire Combat
Color of Fire Apparatus
Heart Test
How Do We Justify Driver Training?
Emergency Medical Service and the Fire Service
Vol. 41, No. 9 September 1974
Fire Tactics Training 13
Seattle’s Spectacular Fire 18
Fast Spread in Polyester Polyurethane 20
L P-Gas Plus Gasoline 22
Some Twentieth Century Fire Service Problems 28
Multiple Problems during Jet Plane Fire 31
Vol. 41, No. 10 September 1974
Trauma in Westwood 16
Fireground Procedures: Information Systems for Decision Making 18
Tank Car Explosion 21
Marina Fire 22
Fire Prevention: A Real Ho Hummer 24
Vol, 41, No. II November 1974
Firefighters Self-Image. Projected Image, and Public Image 26
Calgary Tries 5-lnch Hose 28
How Do You Load the Hose? 30
Mutual Aid for Merchantile Fire 31
Vol. 41. No. 12 December 1974
The Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 16
Interview: Paramedics in West Allis 20
Applied Imagination: An Articulated Pumper 22
Marine Gas Hazards Fire Control 26
FIRE ENGINEERING
Vol 127, No I January 1974
Heavy Streams Save Exposure as Fire Levels Old Warehouse 45
NASA Develops Breathing l nit for Full 30 Minutes ol Fireground Work l7
ABSI R ACTS AND REVIEWS 37
Vol. 127, No. 2 February 1974
Radio-Controlled Mutual Aid Speeds Tornado Rescue Work 26
Amphibian Converted to Fireboat 29
Precautions Can Avert Death in Manhole Rescues. Tunnel Rescues 35
Chemical Plants with HazardstoSpare 37
Drill Motor, Cylinder Jig Are Key toOpening Locked Doors 41
Teletypwriter Alarm System 42
Vol. r-. No. 3 March 1974
Disaster on Fireground a Lesson in Identifying Victims 40
80-Hour Basic T raining Program Developed in Kentucky 41
Polyurethane Insulation Bla/es Explosively. Ruins Steel Warehouse 44
Angled Truck-Bays Solve Fire Station Site Problem 45
Fire Protection Facilities Get Star Billingat Disney World 48
Attendance Rules Set for Qualifications Board 54
Department of Transportation Adopts Star of Life for Medical Aid Vehicles .... 57
Vol. 127, No. 4 April 1974
Fireground Control Improved by Spacing Multiple Alarms 49
Education Tradition Continues at Site of New York State Fire Academy 51
Denver Fire Department Uses 5-Inch Hose as Supply Lines to Engines 52
Fire Line for Camper 53
Readiness for Aircraft Incidents Demands Pre-Fire Planning 54
Rescue Work at Fire Limits Nursing Home Death Toll to 14 55
Women Volunteers Win Respect as Fire Fighters 59
Prepare for Incidents Involv ing Hazardous Materials in Transit 61
63
New Air Tanker System Passes Tests by Fire 64
Fire Protection for Superdome 66
Radio Teleprinter Dispatching in Worcester. Massachusetts 68
Incentive Pay Plan for Education in Upland. California Fire Department 69
Vol 127, No. 5 May 1974
Tool Cuts Holes in Concrete Floors lor Hose Stream Access 32
Flow Meters Hailed for Easing Pressure on Pump Operators 44
College Program in New Jersey 51
VoL 127. No_6_ June 1974
Warehouse Fire Jumps Street. I hreatens I.P-Cias lank Farm (Camden. New
Jersey ) 20
HRI RI . SI ARCH
38
Old Trailer Becomes Mobile Unit for Breathing Apparatus Training 26
Performance Appraisal Systems - Advantages and Weaknesses 28
Air Conditioner Magnifies Smoke Damage of TV Fire 52
Code of Ethics Developed by Fire Service Instructors 58
Vol. 127, No. 7 July 1974
Sao Paulo. Brazil Adds to Highrise Fire History 18
Seattle Fire Department Gets Federal Grant to Study Marine Fire Protection ... 28
SOP for 4-lnch Supply Hose. 2-Inch Hand Lines Speeds Attack 32
Long Beach Builds AFFF Units 34
Propane Tank Blast Kills Four 35
Fire Fighters Learn to Handle Gas Line Incidents in Philadelphia 38
Fire Service Urged to Accept Greater Role in NBS Research 38
Proposed Standard for Coats Offered for Review by N BS 45
Bay State Touches Off Drive to Cool Increase in Arson 54
Vol. 127. No. 8 August 1474
HI System Nears Adoption by Department of Transportation for Identifying
Hazardous Materials 43
Higher Pressure Compressors and Breathing Air 46
Keeping State OS HA Plan Records 53
Field-Testing Stage Reached by NASA Breathing Apparatus Project 68
State Firefighters Certified at City Training Center 46
Federal Communications Commission Allocates UHF Bands tor Medical
Services 164
Carbon Dioxide Use Saves Wheat in Elev ator Fire 170
Night Vision Systems May Extend Use of Helicopters on Wildfires 178
Ultrahigh-Speed Fire Detection Used at Army Ammunition Plant 181
Vol. 127. No. 9 September 1974
School Activ itiesCan Get Pupils Excited About Fire Prevention 18
The 4 Fs of Fire Prevention 22
What to Look for in TV Fires - Part I . 33
Weight. Quantity of Water on Floor Determined by Using 2 Formulas 38
8-A.xle Vehicle in 2 Parts Built for Wildfire Fighting 42
Evaluating Foam Characteristics 48
Vol. 127, No. 10 __ Oct o bet (974
39-Hour Pump Operators Course Combines T heory. Practical Work 18
80-Hour Blaze in Tunnelafter Freight I rain Derails 24
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS »
Specifying Efficiency without Frills Can Put Lid on Apparatus Costs 27
Grading Schedule Demands Eased for Fire Service. Water Supplies 30
What to Look for ir, TV Fires - Part 2 40
Fort Worth Modernizes Dispatching. Radio System 46
Women Drive Apparatus. Assist Men on Fireground 50
Relationship of Alarm Bell to Heart Disease Studied 52
Vol, 127, No. II November 1974
Emergency Medical Care in Miami Today 24
Tornado Hits Xenia, Ohio. Leaves 33 Dead. 1 .000 Hurt 30
Paramedic Sendee Is Established with Aid of Public in City of 75.000 34
Training, Fire Service, Funding is Life Blood of Emergency Medical Sen ice in
Delaware 38
Car Door Locks Opened Quickly with Air Chisel 50
Pump Operated from Distance with Hand Held Radio Control 52
Houston Electrocardiogram Telemetry System 56
Latch Straps Keep Self-Locking Doors Open, Mark Search Areas 68
Vol. 127. No. 12 December 1974
Blast Peels Skin off Highrise Building 18
Going to the Dogs Safely (Unfriendly Dogs) 22
Volunteers Develop Cliff Rescue Equipment 28
Firefighting Strategy 31
Inflatable Smoke Barriers to Enclose Stairs. Halls 36
High School Fire Science Course 40
Management Development Program Proposed bv II. Fire Chiefs 42
FIRE ENGINEERS JOURNAL
(Selected Titles)
Vol. 34. No. 03 March 1074
Three Causes of Fire - Men. Women, and Children 15
The Government's Dilemma in Framing 1 egislation 18
The Cost Effectiveness of Salvage Operations 22
Fire Strategy Essential to Cut Industrial Losses 25
Applications for Batch. On Line, and Real Time Processing 30
Mobilizing by Computer 35
Computer Application to Fire Prevention 38
Fire Prevention and Administrative Uses of the Computer and Business
Machines 39
Operational Use of Computers in the Fire Service .41
40
HR1 RI SI ARt H
Fire Prevention in Hamburg 41
Fire Protection Standards in the U K 47
Vol. 34. No. 44 June 1974
A Forward Look at Fire Protection 22
Preplanning for Fire Emergencies in the Chemical Industry 24
Accidents. Injuries, and Illnesses to Firemen in Great Britain 32
Hydraulic Calculations for Sprinkler Installations 40
Incident Involving Oleum L eakage from Road Tanker 47
Vol. 34. No, 95 September 1974
Closed Circuit Television 10
Digital T ransmission of Automatic Fire Alarms 15
The Management of Information 16
Recruiting and Recruits T raining 20
Automatic Fire Ventilation 22
Report on the IFE 1974 Examinations 27
Hospital Fire Statistics 44
Disasters - Past and Future 46
Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems as a Fire Hazard 56
Vol. 34, No, 96 December 1974
The Summerland Fire and Inquiry 8
New Chemical Textbook from the IFF 14
IFE Annual Conference 17
EIRE INTERNATIONAL
Vol. 4. No, 43 March 1974
Eire Protection in Large Aircraft Hangars deQuerosAB 18
Fire Safety on Merchant Vessels 36
Fire Rages through City: 360 Buildings Destroyed (in Chelsea. MA) 45
Protecting Open Air Parking Structures 49
Foamed Plastics: the Hazards that Face the Fire Fighter W atters P 55
Danish Hotel F'i re Kills 35 Ammitzboll .1 60
Deck Cargo Problems as British Fire Crews Fight Blaze in Canadian Bulk
Carrier 69
Singapore Department Store Fire: 9 Found Dead in I lit "4
The Flammability ot Plastics an I valuation >1 the I Ol lest German Standards
Association 7g
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
4
Medical Aid: a Worldwide Emergency Service (France) 85
Fabric Flammability Tests to be Studied (US) 91
Vol. 4, No. 44 June 1974
Why 50 People Died at a Leisure Centei 18
Sao Paulo, Brazil -the Tragedy that Cost 187 Lives 24
Actuators: Their Potential in Fire Engineering Medlock l.E 29
Flangar Protection at the New Paris Airport 36
Smoke Control in FI ighrise Buildings AnghinettiJR 49
German Fire Brigades: Their Aims and Organization Seegerer K 65
Danish Firemen Tackle Ship Fire 91
Vol. 4. No. 45 September 1974
Experts Differ on Possible Cause of Flixborough Explosion 18
Oil Bulk Ore Carrier: Why Explosions May Occur 25
Using Synthetic Foam Compound with Low Induction Rates 34
Some Case Histories of Hydrocarbon Fires 45
Base Injection with Fluoroprotein Foam 57
Fire Engineering in Relation to Process Plant Design 69
Industrial F ire Protection with High-Pressure Installations 79
New Monitor is Mounted on Tracks 87
Vol. 4. No. 46 December 1974
The Fire Protection of Russian Power Stations 18
Fires in Electric Cables 41
Industrial Role for Aircraft Fire Extinguishing Agent 50
Fire Research and Regulations in Europe 61
Inflatable Smoke Shutter from Japan 73
Smoke Extraction Systems and Heat Extraction Systems: A Critical Look at
Dimensions Problems 85
FIRE JOURNAL
Vol. 68, No. I
Eight Fatality Mobile Home Fire. Jerry City. Ohio Sharrv JA
Smoke, \tnum. and Stairways Boyd H
I he Upstairs lounge Fire. New Orleans. Louisiana Willey AE
I he Effect of Structural Characteristics on Dwelling
Christian W.I
I P-Cias Distribution Plant Fire Sharrv JA. Walls W J
42
FIRE RESEARCH
Office Building: Sprinklers Considered Too Costly - Fire Loss $565,000
Stone WR 61
Safer Electrical Installations for Residential Occupancies Stone WR 71
Vol, 68. No. 2 March 1974
Motel Fire Kills Two, Injures Eleven Shirry JA. Stone WR 5
Accidental Power Cross Results in Improved Alarm System Design
Jacobsen ER 7
School’s “Haunted House” Burns. One Killed. Two injured Sharry JA.
Stone WR 14
Space-Age Contribution to Residential Fire Safety (Full-Scale Fire Tests of
Bedroom Furnishings) 18
Fatal Hotel Fire. Bath, Maine. Stone WR 31
Development of Flammability Specifications for F urnishings Schafran E 36
Limitations of Smokeproof Towers in Highrise Buildings Fabiani AD 46
Life Safety in the Santa Clara County Office Buildings Bocook BH 65
Sprinklers Control High-Piled Tire Warehouse Fire Proudfoot EN 70
Standards for Refuse-Handling in Apartment Houses Schulz JF 82
Vol. 68. No. 3
Mav 1974
Military Personnel Records Center Fire Sharry JA. Culver C. Crist R.
Hillelson JP 5
Another Pennsylvania Nursing Home Fire Sharry JA II
Light Fixtures for Use in Spray Booths 14
The Burning of Chelsea 17
Apartment Fire. Indianapolis. Indiana Sharry JA 37
Taiyo Department Store Fire. Kumamoto. Japan 42
Materials First Ignited in Residential Fires 56
Multiple-Death Fires. 1973 69
Field Investigation of Natural Gas Pipeline Accident. Canterbury Woods.
Annandale. Virginia Beausoliel RW. Phillips CW. Snell JE 77
Safe Use and Hazards of Coal and Wood Stoves Stone WR 87
Vol. 68. No. 4
lulv 1974
One of Several TV Set Fires. Motel. PineCastle. Florida Sharry JA 5
Gasoline Service Station Explosion. Saint John. New Brunswick. Canada
Lathrop JK 10
Group Fire, Indianapolis. Indiana Sharry JA 13
Human Contribution to Fire Origins Ottoson.l 19
South America Burning Sharry JA 23
Military Personnel Records Center Fire. Overland. Missouri (Part 2) Walker E.
Stender WW. Nelson HF ...65
ABSTRACTS ANl> REVIEWS
43
\
1973 Large-Loss Fires. United Statesand Canada 77
Recent Major Floating Roof lank Fires and Their Extinguishment
Herzog GR 93
Sound-Deadening Board Hazard Peterson AO 100
Apartment Fire. Los Angeles, California SharrvJA 105
Vol. 68. No. 5 September 1974
Dwelling Fire. Scotch Plains. New.lersey Sharry JA 5
A New Look at the Hazards of Electric Heat Tape and Cables Smith DC II
Fires Involving LP-Gas Tank Trucks in Repair Garages Lathrop JK.
Walls WL 18
Rest Home Fire Kills Two. Felton, California Sharry JA 22
Household Fire Warning Equipment Laws Gallagher EL 28
Fires and Fire L.osses Classified. 1973 33
Building Under Construction. Westbrook. Maine; Lathrop JK 37
Tavern Fire. Allentown. Pennsylvania, Sharry J A 38
In Quest of an Economical. Automatic Fire Suppression System for Single-Family
Residences/ Foehl JM 42
Sl.RP Analysis of Recommended Protection for Foamed Plastic Wall-Ceiling
Building Insulations Maroni WF 51
vol. o*. ino. o _■ November 1974
Discotheque Fire, Twenty-Four Dead (Port Chester. New York) Lathrop JK ... .5
Escape Planning(A Key to Survival in Dwelling Fires) O'Neill AR 10
Foamed Plastics Fire. Three Million Dollar l.oss Lathrop JK lb
Fire Research into Plastics: A Progress Report Blair J A 23
(ias Explosion. New York. New York Sharry JA 28
One Approach to Fire Safety in Medical Facilities Brown R 33
Automatic Sprinklers: The Past, the Present, and a Glimpse toward the Future
Rhodes J 42
Large-Loss Fires. School Fire. Westport. Connecticut Lathrop JK 50
Day-Care Center. Huntington. West Virginia SharrvJA 54
Selecting a Fire Extinguisher for Your Home 58
International Fire Losses. 1973 67
Recent Advances in Residential Smoke Detection Bright RG 69
Automatic Recall of Elevators bv Smoke Detectors in Highrise Buildings
Chandler LT ’ 79
Fireworks Incidents. 1974 86
The Development of the National Fire Data System Tovey H 91
Testing a Total Flooding Halon 1301 System in a Computer Installation
Brenneman .1.1. Charney M 105
44
FIRE RESEARC H
FIRE PREVENTION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
No. 8 March 1974
The Oxygen Index Test and Its Applications to Laminated Plastics in Buildings
Mead SF 4
Present and Future Design Philosophy for Fire Hazards and Explosion Hazards in
the Chemical Industry Rasbash DJ 16
Base Injection of Foam to Fight Oil-Tank Fires / Evans EM 21
:
No. 9 July 1974
Fire Protection Methods for Extenal Steelwork Cocke GME 4
Fires in Oil-Soaked Lagging Bowes PC 13
Design of Explosion Reliefs, M unday G 23
FIRE PROTECTION REVIEW
Vol. 37. No. 398 January 1974
Jury's Recommendations on Oban Hotel l ire 1
Menace of Fire Damage I
Hazardous Chemicals Blaze 2
Interbild Conference on Fire Risk of Plastics 2
Vol. 37. No. 399 February 1974
Fire Appliance Feature 47
Ship Fire Unit for Merchant Navy I raining 61
Fire Loss Figures 63
Vol 37. No. 4(H) March 1974
Report on Accidents to Firemen 77
Fire Hazards in Shopping Complexes 7X
Straw Burning Kl
Radiation Incident XX
Firefighting - Monnex. Fluorocarbon Surlactants 92
Vol. 37. No. 401 April 1974
Fire Damage in 1973 II?
Emergency l ighting Feature 119
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
45
Propylene Oxide Tanker Trailers 130
Glasgow’s Computer System for Firefighting 139
New Safety Bill 145
Vol. 37. No. 402 May 1974
Pneumatic Puller Rescue Device 162
Explosive Actuators -Sprinkler Fleads 182
Vol. 37. No. 403 June 1974
Fire Service Management 206
New Advance in Fire Protection for Fuel Storage 221
Fire Protection in Europe 223
Vol. 37, No, 404 July 1974
Sut-.m^rland Enquiry 249
Fire Service Technical College 250
Rescue Tenders 267
Vol. 37. No, 405 August 1974
Communications Feature - Mobile Communications Systems 289
The Flixborough Disaster 296
Pollution Control for Industrial Environments 307
Fire Loss Figures 309
Vol 37. No, 406 September 1974
Industrial Society and Fire Disasters 346
Foam I ender for Oil Risks 349
l ire Detector Sy stem for Bodleian Library 351
New Concept for Concorde Fire Protection 355
\ol 37. No, 407 October I9"4
Oil Refinery Firefighting Facilities 382
Industrial Flooring Lire Protection 392
I ire Safety irt I fomestic Dwellings 394
Blind People I vacuation in Fire 39"
46
FIRE RESEARCH
Vol. 37. No. 408
November 1974
Protective Clothing Feature 425
I FE Annual Conference 434
Solvent Factory Fire 442
Australian Fire Detection Device 447
Mobile Casualty Center 449
Vol. 37. No. 409 December 1974
Cost Effectiveness Symposium 463
Domestic Fires Seminar 464
Airliner Protection 483
FIRE TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 10. No. 1 February 1974
Best Choice of Fire Protection: An Airport Stud\ Shpilberg D. de Neuf\ ille R . . 5
Life Support without Combustion Hazards McHale ET 15
Methane Flame Extinguishment with Layered Halon or Carbon Dioxide
S trasser A. Liebman I. Kuchta JM 25
Fire Spread and Smoke Control in Highrise Fires Zinn BT. Bankston CP.
Cassanova RA. Powell EA. Koplon NA 35
Heat Radiation from Fires of Aviation Fuels Fu TT 54
Buoyancy Characteristics of a Fire Heat Source Byram GM. Nelson Jr RM ... 68
Vol. 10, No. 2 May 1974
Explicit Equations for Two-Phase Carbon Dioxide Flow Noronha JA.
Schiffhauer Jr FJ 101
Projections Separating Spandrel Spaces Van Bower Jr .1. Major RW 110
Effluent Fire Product - A Crude Approach to Fire Gas Hazard Assessment
Robertson AF 115
Characteristics of Invisible Particles Generated b\ Precombustion and Com-
bustion VanLuikJrFW . ... 129
Passive and Active Eire Protection - the Optimum Combination Baldwin R.
Thomas PH 140
Calculating Thermal Radiation Hazards in Large I ires Parker RO 14'
Radiative Characteristics ot Eire Lighters' Coat Fabrics (Juinticre.l 153
Vol. 10. No. 3 August |9~4
Application of Release Rate Data to Hazard Load Calculations Smith 1 F .181
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
47
Smoke Development at Different Energy Flux Levels in an NBS Smoke Density
Chamber C'hien WP. Seader JD 1X7
Extinguishment of Selected Metal Fires Using Carbon Microspheroids
McCormick JW, Schmitt CR 197
The Role of Magnesium Oxychloride as a Fire-Resistive Material Montle JF.
Mayhan KG 701
Fire Tests of Building Interior Covering Systems Waksman D. Ferguson JB ..211
False Fire Alarms in Urban Public Schools KroventkaSJ 221
A Discussion of Compartment Fires Magnusson SE. Thelandersson S 228
Closure to Discussion of Compartment Fires Harmathy TZ 247
Vol. 10, No, 4 November I9~4
Na-X. a New Fire Extinguishing Agent for Metal Fires Riley JF 269
A Fire Danger Rating System for Hawaii/ Burgan RE. Fujioka FM.
HiratoGH 275
Two Smoke Test Methods- A Comparison of Data Robertson AF 2X2
A Study - Earlv Warning Fire Detection Performance in the Hospital Patient
Room Waterman TE. Degenkolb JG. Stickney CW 28 •
Mathematical Model for Analyzing the Trade-Offs in Aircralt Hangar Deluge
Sprinkler Systems Design Shpilberg D '04
Characteristic Temperature Curves for Various Fire Severities Lie FT 715
THE JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FLAMMABII ITF
A Schlieren System for Fire Spread Studies Butler PC 4
The Influence of Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres on the Combustion Behavior ol
Polymers Stepnic/ka HE 16
I he Combustion Products from Syntheticand Natural Products O'Mara M M 34
A Unified View of Fire Suppression Williams FA 74
Smoke-Producing Characteristics of Materials Tsuehiya V. Sumi K 64
Determination of the True Decomposition Temperature in Pyrolysis Experiments
Wolf CJ. Levy Rl. Earner Dl '6
Measurement of Flame Spread Velocities 77
Vol. 5. No. 2 LllJ
1 he Piloted Ignition of Cotton Fabrics Rangaprasad V Sliepcevich CM.
Welker JR... |,r
Pyrolysis and Combustion of Cellulose. Part VI. The Chemical Nature ot the
C har Drew s M l. Barker R H 116
7 moke Fvolution rhermoplastics Nelson Gl 12'
4X
FIRE RESEARCH
Oxidation of Methane at Elevated Pressures I Ignition Delay Bauerle Gl.
Lott J 1. Sliepcevich CM 136
Mass Optical Density as a Correlating Parameter for the NBS Smoke Density
Chamber Seader JD, Chien WP 151
Vol. 5, No. 3 1974
Fire Spread over Paper/ Campbell AS 167
Model for Evaluating Fire Hazard Smith EF 179
Oxidation of Methane at Elevated Pressures II. A Reaction Mechanism
Bauerle Gl. Lott JL, Sliepcevich CM 190
The Nature of Various Fire Environments and the Application ot Modern Material
Approaches for Fire Protection of Exterior Structural Steel in Them
Castle Gk 203
Carbon Microspheroids as Extinguishing Agents for Metal Fires Schmitt CR .223
Vol, 5. No, 4 October 1974
Flammability Behavior of Polyester-Cellulosic Fiber Blends Pensa IE. Selio SB.
Brenner W 227
Thermal Oxidative Degradation Studies ot Woods Paciorek KL. Krat/er RH.
Kaufman J, Nakahara J, Hartstein AM 243
An Investigation of the Extinction of Diffusion Flames by Halons Bajpai SN . .255
Carpet Flammability: A Pill Ignition Test Procedure Day M. Mitton MT.
Wiles DM 268
Chemistry. Combustion and Flammability FristromRM 289
Self-Heating of Organic Compounds with Thermal Insulation HiladoCJ 321
JOURNAL OF FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY
COMBUSTION TOXIC OLOGY SUPPLEMENT
Vol. 1. No. I February 1974
Aspects and Methodology for the Evaluation of Toxicological Parameters
during Fire Exposure Kimmeric G 4
Toxicological and Env ironmental Factors Involved in the Selection of Decabro-
modiphenyl Oxide asa Fire Retardant Chemical Norris JM. Fhrmantraut JW.
Gibbons CL. Kociba RJ. Schweiz BA. Rose JO- Humiston CG. Jewett Gl.
C'rummett WB. Gehring PJ. Tirsell JP. BrosierJS 52
Automatic Gas-Chromatographic Monitoring ot Combustion Products
Liebman SA. Ahlstront DH. Sanders Cl. Quinn F.l. Nauman CD 78
Vol 1, No. 2 Max 1974
A Bibliography of Published Information on Combustion Toxicology
HiladoCJ 91
ABS1 RACES AM) REVIEWS
4R
Application of the Ohio State University Release Rate Apparatus to Combustion
Gas Studies Smith EE 95
Toxicities of Combustion Products Kishitani K. Nakamura K 104
1 oxicology of Polymeric Materials Exposed to Heat and Fires Nunez EJ. De SK.
Autian J 124
Vol. I. No. 3 August 1974
A Comparison of Combustion Products Obtained from Various Synthetic
Polymers O'Mara MM 14 1
A Chemieal-Mathematical Model for Predicting the Potential Physiological
Hazard ofa Changing Fire Environment Armstrong GW 157
The Effects of Carbon Monoxide on Man Stewart RD 167
Emission of Smoke and f umes at Temperatures up to 500 C Christopher AJ.
Fear EJP. Fennel TRFW 177
Vol- I. No. 4 November 1974
Mass Life Fire Hazard: Experimental Study of the Life Hazard of Combustion
*Jroducts in Structural Fires Pryor AJ, Fear FA. Wheeler RJ 191
Relative Toxicity of Thermal Decomposition Products of Expanded Polvstyrene
Hofmann HTh, Oettel H 236
Further Investigations into the Relative Toxicity of Decomposition Products
Given Off from Smouldering Plastics Hofmann HTh. Sand H 250
The Production of Free Toly iene Diisocyanate (TD1) from the Thermal Decompo-
sition ol Flexible Polyurethane Foams Woolley WD 259
A Bibliography of Published Information on Combustion Toxicologv HiladoC.I.
Shabdua Cl 26k
JO l RNAI. OF FIRE AND FI.AMMABII IT\
CONSUMER PRODl ( I FI.AMMABII TIA
Vol. I. No. I March I9?4
Human Activity Pattern and Injury Severity in Fire Incidents Involving Apparel
Buchbinder LB 4
Eire Behavior ol Garments on Mannequins Finley EL McDermott EG.
Carter WH 19
Expei imental and Analytical Studies of Floor-Covering Flammability with a
Model Corridor Denyes \V . Quinliere .1 32
k of L No. 2 June I9~4
\ Full-Scale Fire Program to Evaluate New Furnishings and Textile Materials
Hillenbrand I J. Wray JA 115
50
I IKI RESEARCH
Fire Losses and the Consumer YuillC'H I K I
Fire Hazards of Plastics in Furniture and Furnishings: Ignition Studies
Palmer KN. Taylor W 186
Experimental and Analytical Studies of Floor-Covering Flammability with a
Model Corridor/ Denyes W. Quintiere .1 221
Vol. 1 No. 3 September 1974
The Special Case of Textiles in the Flammability of Polymeric Materials
Rebenfeld L. Miller B 225
Meeting the Mattress Flammability Standard FF 4-2 with Boron Treated Cotton
Batting Products Knoepfler NE. Neumeyer JP, Madacsi JP 240
Flammability on Blends of Flame Retardant Fiber lshibashi H. Horiushi C . . . 265
The MVSS-02 Burning Rates of LDPE and Ethylene Copolymers
Johnston NW 295
Vol. 1, No. 4 December 1974
Development of a Radiant Panel Test for Flooring Materials Hart/ell LG 305
The Consumer Product Safety Commission Ryan JV 354
Experimental Observation of Flame Spread Characteristics over Selected Carpets
Kashiwagi T 367
Clothing as a Factor in Combustible Content Hilado CJ. Callison JS 390
JOl'RNAL OF FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY
FIRE RETARDANT CHEMISTRY
Vol I, No 1 February 1974
Mechanism of Flame Inhibition I: The Role of Halogen Larsen ER 4
Alumina Hydrate as a Flame Retardant Filler for Thermoplastics Sobolev I.
Woycheshin EA 13
Flame Retardancy of Styrene Polymers Deets GL 26
I he Effects of Fire Retardants on the Combustion of Rigid l ret ha ne Foams
Birky MM, Einhorn IN, Seader JD. Kanakia MD. Chien WP 31
Vol I. No. 2 May Pm
Flame Retarded U rethane Foams Stepnic/ka HE 61
Fire Retardant and Smoke Suppressant Additives lor Polyvinylchloride
Schwarcz JM 7X
Effect of Fire Retardant Impregnations on \\ ood Charring Rate Schaffer I I 9fi
A Look at I lame Retardants Based on Phosphorus Compounds Drake Jr GL
Chance IH. Reeves W A III)
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Vol. I. No. 3 August 1474
Phosphoi us-Containing Vinyl and Allvl Monomers ir Flame Retardanev
Weil ED 125
Dimethyl Phosphoramidates and Diethyl Phosphoramidates as Flame Retardants
for Cotton Gonzales EJ, Vail SI 142
Effects of Flame Retardant and Smoke Retardant Additives in Polymer Systems
Lindstrom RS. Sidman KR. ShethSG. Howarth J T 152
Vol. 1, No. 4 November 1974
Boron Compounds and Antimony Compounds as Flame Retardants in Rigid
Polyurethane Foam Hilado CJ. Kuryla WC, McLaughlin RW.
Proops WA5 175
Flame Retarding Plastics with Halogen-Containing Compounds Green J.
Versnel J 185
Toxicology of Tris(2,3-Dibromopropyl) Phosphate Korst AF 205
Fire Retardant Bisphenolic Polymers BrzozowskiZK 218
Magnesium Oxychloride as a Fire Retardant Material Montle JF.
Mayhan KG . ' 243
LAB DATA
Vol. 5, No, I Winter 1974
A Large Step in Testing Progress: Development ol UL.'s Small-Scale Furnace
Parks R 1 5
All in a Day's Work: Ul’s Follow-Up Serv ice Department MrukJ 8
Safety in Sight (Exit Signs Visibility) Beyreis JR. Castino TG 14
Vol. 5. No. 2
iring 1974
The National Electrical Code Function and Operation Seelbach RW 4
To Catch a Thief: IT's Jesting of Household Burglar Alarm Warning Systems
Horn I II 6
The Metric Conversion Angonese AN 0
Kindling a Safe Flame: l l's lesting ol Prefabricated Fireplaces and F ireplace
Stoves Feller II .10
Fire Resistance Rating: What's I hat? Malcomson RW 15
(T. Listed Safetv Cars 20
Vol, 5. No. 3 Summer 1 9 “4
\ View trom the I op: L I 's 1 esting ol Root I russes ioi Mobile Homes I cller H 4
52
FIR I RESEARCH
The Engineer and Professional Engineering Carroll JR h
Flammable Gases and Vapors: How Explosive Are They? Alroth ED 9
To Sink or Swim: UE’s Marine Department Testing of Wearable Personal
Flotation Devices Bieloblocki JM I
Vol. 5. No. 4 Fall 1974
The Shape of Things -The Anatomy of a IT lesting Program for Molded Plastic
Parts BogueRJ
Room to Burn: A Report on UL's Gas Burner Facilities and Oil Burner Facilities
Christian WJ W
The National Bureau of Standards - Its Role in the Maintenance of Consumer
Product Safety Hoffman SD 15
With Your Safety in Mind: Flammable Fabric Ignition Requirements Teller H . 17
NATIONAL SAFETY NEWS
Vol. 109. No. 6
I une 1974
Portable Fire Extinguisher Guidelines- Selection. Maintenance, and Operation .57
OSHAct Regulations for Portable Fire Extinguishers 09
Costs of Firefighter Injuries 73
Fire Equipment Traditions: What's Wrong with Red and Black? 79
Pressure Vessels ^0
How Computer Aids Hotel Security
Treatment of Extraneous Electricity in Electric Blasting! Data Sheet 044) 95
Signs and Symbols
A Sign of the Times: Greater Use of Safety Symbols by Industry Predicted 104
The Art of Creating Safety Symbols
06
PHYSIC s ()l C OMBl STION AND EXPLOSION
Vol. 10. No. I January -February 1974
Gasless Combustion of Powder Mixtures of the 1 ransition Metals with Boron
Borovinskava IP. Mer/hanm AG. Novikov N P. I ilonenko \K 4
Spectroscopic Study of Carbon Disulfide-Air Explosions Gordon YeB
Dro/dov MS.Shatrov \ D. Tal rox. \ I
On the Eheorv of Polymerization Front Propagation Khanukavev BB
Kozhushner M A. Yenikolopyan NS t IteehiloNM 32
On the Mechanism ol Gravitational inlluenee on the Combustion td Dispersed
Condensed Substances 3 ukhvid v I. Maksimov I I Mer/hanov \G
Kozlov VS
On the Dispersion Mechanism ot Bui nine C ondensed Substances Konev I A 34
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
53
Analysis of Low-Frequency Vibrations in a Propellant Bui ning in a Semiconfined
Volume Novikov SS. Rya/antsev YuS. I ul'skikh VYe 3K
Effect of Specific Surface and Catalyst Dispersion on the Combustion of I’HA
Mixture Models Demenkova LI, Kundo NN. Kadcchmkova NF 41
Effect of Multicomponent Diffusion on the Normal Gas Mixture Burning Rate
Grishin AM. Zelenskiy YeYe 45
Integral Method lor Calculating Heterogeneous Ignition Characteristics
Ro/enband VI. Bar/ykin VV 52
On Some Mathematical Models of Supersonic Gas Flows with Solid Particles
Ginsburg IP. Ryabinina TN. Shub l.I. Korobkov VA 56
Calculation ol Hydrogen Ignition and Hydrogen Combustion in Air with a Finite
Chemical Reaction Rate Bavev VK. Golovichev VI, Dimitrov VI.
Yasakov VA 65
Ignition Modes of a Reacting Gas Mixture in an Electric Field Grishin AM.
Zelenskiy YeYe. Yakimov AS 74
Study of Flame Front Formation and Flame Front Development in Air Dispersed
Systems 1 odes OM . Gol’tsiker AD. lonushas K K S3
Ignition Limit of Monodispersed Particles Suspended in a Gas Gurevich MA.
Czerova GYe, Stepanov AM SS
Study of a Quasistationary Concentration Method in a Problem ol Cold Flame
Propagation Novozhiiov BV. Posvyanskiv VS 44
Effect of Structural Characteristics of Individual and Mixed Copper Oxide and
Iron Oxide Mixtures on Their Activity in an Ignition Reaction ol Isobutene-
Perchloric Acid Mixtures Bogdanova VV. Komarov VF. Lesnikovich Al.
Sviridov VV
Measurements of Detonation Front Perturbations in Gaseous Mixtures at
Elevated Pressures Manzhaley VI. Mitrofanov VV. Subbotin VA 102
Effect of Low-Dispersed Fillers on Detonation Wave Parameters and Detonation
Wave Structure in Gas Gladilin AM 1 10
High Power Light PulseSource with a Continuous Spectrum Kiselev YuV
Khristoforov BD II*1
Cumulation of Detonation Products of a Hollow Cylindrical Explosive
Lobanov VF. Fadevenko Y ul 11^
Plane Destructive Waves Kuznetsov VM 124
Explosive Destruction ol lubes Ivanov AG. Kochkin LI. Vasilyev |\.
Kustov VS I -
Explosive Hardening of Mild Steel at Different Points in a Detonation Front
Teslenko AG. Didyk RP. Grva/nova I V. I ege/a VN 1-32
Calculations o! Oscillating Characteristics in a Wake SkurinLl 1 3~
Brief Communications
On Remote Ignition ol Explosives through Dense Media \rinichev \ A.
Popova V \. Ryabinin AG . .
Effect ot Inert Additives on Igdanite Detonation Properties Vovk AA.
Gnutov VV. Pluzhnik VI. Parshukov PA 1-34
54
FIRE RESEARCH
Explosive Circuit Breakers Voytenko A Ye, Zherebnenko VI, Zakharenko ID,
Isakov VP, Faleyev VA 145
Vol. 10. No. 2 March-April 1974
Calculation of Diffusion Flame Structure/ Vulis LA, Yarin L.P 151
Heterogeneous System Combustion in a Mass Force Field/ Yukhvid VI,
Maksimov FI, Kozlov VS 162
Effect of Acceleration on the Burning of Metallized Compositions/ Maksimov
YuM, Maksimov El, Vilyunov VN 169
Burning Stability of Heterogeneous Condensed Systems in a Semiconfined
Volume/ Tul’skikh VYe 178
Hydrazine Chloride Combustion Zhevlakov AF, Strunin V A. Manelis GB .... 185
Experimental Studies of the Heterogeneous Ignition Process/Isakov GN,
Grishin AM 191
Effect of Ferrous Oxide and Cobalt Oxide on Propellant Burning Laws/ Denisyuk
AF, Zhevlakov AF, l.obkovskiy VP, Tokarev NP. Shamshina CL 197
Dependence of Product Composition and Burning Rate in Metal-Boron Systems
on Reactant Relationships Novikov NP. Borovinskaya IP, Merzhanov AG .201
Reducer Inhibition of Ammonium Perchlorate Combustion Glazkova AP . . . .206
Metal Parts Ignition man Oxvgen-Rich Atmosphere Rozenband VI 212
Calculation of Diffusive Turbulent Combustion of Premixed Jets and Diffusion
Jets with Concentration Fluctuations by the Integral Method Zimont VI.,
Meshcheryakov YeA 220
On the Effect of Nitric Oxide on Hydrogen Ignition in Air Strokin VN.
Khaylov VM 230
Autoignition of Methane-Oxygen Mixtures at Atmospheric Pressure
Shchemelev GV, Shevchuk VII. Mulyava MP. Moin FB 235
Interaction of Characteristics ol a Turbulent Field and a Hydrogen Diffusion
Flame in a Closed Channel Sokolenko VF. Tyul'Panov RS, Morin OV.
Ignatenko YuV 240
Studies of the K inetics of Tantalum-Oxygen Interaction by the Ignition Method
Gal’chenko Y.uA.Grigor'yev YuM 245
Optimal Characteristics of an Electric Gas Burner Mamina NK. Nefedova MG.
Polonskiy !Ya. Popov VA. Snvatkov Yul 253
Effect of Laser Radiation on Soot Particles in Flames Burakov VS. Zheludok VV.
Stavrov AA 256
Effect of Hammer Rigidity on the Mechanical Heating ol a Fluid Layer
Dubovik AV. BobolevVK 760
Application of an Electrical Junction Effect to Pressure Measurement in a Quasi-
Isentropic Compression Wave Bord/ilov skiy S A. Knrakhanm SM.
Titov VM 2h'
ffsdra/ine A/ide Detonation Velocity Yakovleva GS. Kurbangahna KKh
Stesik I N 27()
Relaxation Wave Velocity in Shocked Porous Sodium Chloride Belinskiy |\
Slruchenko AN, Khristoforov BD 774
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
55
Implosion of Thin-Walled Tubes by Explosive loading Mikhaylov AN.
Gordopolov Y uA. Dremin AN 27?
Studies of Surface Cleanliness in Explosion Welding Gel'man AS. Pervukhin LB.
Tsemakhovich BD 284
Brief Communications
Model Description of the Thermophysical Properties of Non-Ideal Plasma
Kovalev BM. Kulik PP. Lomakin BN.P.yabyy VA. FortovVYe 289
Measurement of Recombination Rale Constants of Charged Particles in Flames
Karachevtsev GV 291
Metal Plate Acceleration by Explosions Bichenkov Yel. Lobanov VA 292
Electrode Erosion by Combustion Products/ Viktorov VN, Nefedova MG.
Popov VA. Mironov F.A 294
Combustion Theorv Seminar - USSR 297
Voi. 10. No. 3
Mav-Junc 1974
Kinetics of Thermodissociation of Diatomic Molecules I. Small Admixtures of
Diatomic Molecules in Monatomic Inert Gas Osipov AI. Stupochenko
YeV 303
On the Theory of Burning of Mixtures Forming Condensed Reaction Products
Aldushin AP. Khaykin B1 313
The Effect ot Catalysts on the Burning of Explosives Gla/kova AP 323
Experimental Study of Nonacoustic Pulsations of Burning Nitroglycerine
Ilyukhin VS . Mysov VG. Nov ikov SS 334
On the Correlation of the Catalytic Effect on the Thermal Decomposition and
Combustion of Propellants Androsov AS. Denisvuk AF. Kuvshinov VM.
Tokarev IP 33g
Nonstationary Propellant Erosion Medvedev Yul. Rev vagin L N 341
Study of the Surface Structure of Catalyzed PNA PMMA Mixtures
Korobeynikov OP. Viktorenko AM. Tereshchenko AG. Kolomevchuk NN 345
On the Stability and I ransitional Processes of Surface Formation with Increased
Local Gasification Rate in a Semiconfmed Volume Bobylev VM. Bril' SV.
Gusachenko IK. Dolmatov GI 354
Calculation ol the Vapor Phase Diffusive Burning Rate of a Metallic Particle
Gurevich VIA. Ozerov YeS. RybinaLS 363
Chain Explosion in Hydrogen Oxidation at High Degrees of Conversion
Babushok VI. Bunev \ \. Babkin VS. Lovachev LA 3^2
Quaxistationarv Concentration Method for Determination ol the Critical Condi-
tions lot Thermal Explosion in the Case ol Branching Chain Reactions
Gontkovskaya V 1 3"T6
Laminar Flame Radiation from Acetylene Decomposition Granovskiv F V
Knorre \ G. 1 esner P V Piskunov BG 383
H igh-f- requeue) Processes in a Spin Detonation Core Denisov YuN 380
Suidv ol Liquid I ranslormations in Shock Waves Manasenkov \\
Voskohovnikov IM, Gogulva ML. Katkov AI '-4'’
56
FIRE RESEARCH
Interaction of a Chemical Peak with a Thin Plate Kuznetsov OA.
Solov-yev VS 401
Excitation of Supercompressed Detonation Waves in Condensed Explosives
Teslenko AG. Didyk RP 405
Surface Effects at Oblique Collisions of Metal Plates Deribas AA.
Zakharenko ID 409
Nickel Hardening by Shock Waves and Nickel Softening by Subsequent
Annealing'Sikorov VN, Pershin SV 421
Shock Wave Effects on Silicon Dioxide 1. Quart/ Anan'in AN Breusov ON.
Dremin AN. Pershin SV.TatsiyVF 426
Medium Behavior in the Destruction Zone of an Explosion Siso\ I A. Spivak A A.
Tsvetkov VM 437
Compression W'aves in Solids due to the Explosion of Shallow Explosives
Spivak AA 440
Brief Communications
Combustion Zones of Self-Propagating Eaves in Refractory Synthesis
Azatyan TS. Mal-tsev VM, Mer/hanov AG. Seleznev VA 445
Autoignition of Premixed Methane-Oxygen in Acetylene Production Processes
and Methane Conversion Kovalivnich AM. Glikin M A. Nu/hda I I 446
Study of Diazo Salt Combustion Fogel'/ang A Ye. Ad/hemyan VYa.
Svetlov BS 449
Studies of Structural Change in Polycrystals by Explosions Gu/'JS.
Peretvat’ko VN. Demina GS 452
Vol. 10. No. 4 July -August 1974
Kinetics ol Fhermal Dissociation of Diatomic Molecules II. Single-Component
System and Mixtures ol Polyatomic Gases Osipov AI.StupochenkoYeV 459
Effects ol Medium Composition and Temperatures on the 1 hernial Excitation
Efficiency in Obtaining Population Inversions by Mixing ina Supersonic Flow
Kroshko VN.Soloukhin Rl. Fomin N A 473
On Diffusion Flame Lengths Bayev VK. Kuznetsov PP. Mogil'ny v I A.
1 refyakov PK. Yasakov V.A 4*5
On a Method ol Gas Sampling in a Supersonic Reacting Flow Rozhitskiy SI.
Strokm VN 492
On the Thermal I heory ol Heterogeneous Ignition Averson AE. Bar/ykin VN
Martemvanova I M 49*
Condensed Media Ignition in the Presence ol Heat 1 osses Vilyunov VN.
KhlevnoySS '•12
Gaslcss Systems Ignition by Combustion Waves Strunma AG. Martemvanova
I M. Bar/ykin VV. Yermakov VI 51k
On an Ignition Mechanism in Heterogeneous Systems Kuznetsov \ I Nlarusin
VP.Skorik At 526
Nonisothermic Thermographic Studies ol Heat-Evolution Kinetics in Hetero-
geneous Reactions RozenbandVI 53(1
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
r
On a Possibility of Quasistationary Approximation for the Calculation of Drop
Ignition Limits Gurevich MA. SirkunenGLStepanov AM 534
Boron Particle Ignition Grigor'vev Al. Sigimov VI, Grigoryeva ID 539
DIN A Propellant Combustion at Atmopsheric Pressure and the Effect of Some
Additives Aleksandrov VV. Tukhtayev R K. Boldyreva AV. Boldyrev VV .543
Study of Condensed Combustion Products of Magnesium Powders. I. Pressure
Dependence Gusachenko Yel. Stesik LN, Fursov VP. Shvetsov VI 548
Changes in Particle Distribution in a Two Phase Solid Propellant Combustion
Flow Kirsanova ZV 554
Detonation Initiation by Shock Waves in Waterfilled Trotil Shvedov KK.
Dremin AN. Krivchenko AL. Murashova N A. Kozlov VS 561
Shock Compression of Porous Cylindrical Solids Deribas AA. Staver AM . . . .568
Effect of Shock Waves on Silicon Dioxide. II Quart/ Glass Anan'in AV. Breusov
ON. Dremin AN. PershinSV. Rogacheva Al. Tatsiy VF 578
Acrylonitrile Physical Properties and Transformation at High Dynamic
Pressure Yakushev VV. Nabotov SS. Yakusheva OV 583
Effect of Shock Waves on Residual Magnetic Properties of Armco Iron and
Nickel Kiselev AN. Sobolenko TM. Teslenko I S 594
Effect of a Jacket on Detonation Velocities in Composite Explosives
Tarasenko N N 598
Plasticity. Destruction, and Seale Effects in Explosion Loading of Steel l ubes
Ivanov AG. Mineyev VN. Tsypkin VI. Kochkin 1.1. Vasil'yev I \ .
Kteshchevnikov OA 603
Brief Communications
Population Inversion of Excited States in Stationary Combustion Kostritsa AA.
Savel'yev VI 60S
Measurement of Normal Burning Velocities of Rich Methane-Oxygen Mixtures
Shohemelev GV. Mulyava MP. Shevchuk VC. Moin EB 612
Radiation of Acetvlene-Air Flames Activated by a D-C Discharge Glushko LN.
Kovalenko IA. Tverdokhlebov VI 614
Boron Oxide Gasification Vovchuk Yal. Zolotko AN. Klyachko I A.
Polishchuk Dl. Shevchuk VG 615
Vol
No. 5
September-Octoher 1974
Laser-Schlieren Method Investigation ol Energy Yield Kinetics in Exothermic
Reactions behind Shock W aves Zaslonko IS. Kogarko SM. Mo/zhukhin YeV.
Mukoseyev YuK 629
I heorv ol Combustion for a Condensed Fuel with a Plane Heat Conducting
Element Rvbanin SS. Stesik LN 634
Polvmcri/ation Front Propagation I heorv Khanukayev BB. Ko/hushner MA.
3 emkolopvan NS 643
Methvlamtnc Perchlorate Combustion \ iktorenko AM. Ivanov G\ .
Ma rko\ OV1 650
58
HRt RESEARCH
Infrared Spectroscopy of Nitroester Combustion Zones in Vacuum Davidchuk
Yel . Mal’tsev VM 656
On the Critical Combustion Diameter of Condensed Substances Kondrikov F.N.
Novozhilov BV 661
Study of Condensed Combustion Products ol Magnesium Powders. II Particle
Si/e Gusachenko Yel. Stesik LN, FursovVP, Shvetso\ VI 669
Effect of Burn-Out on the Ignition Limit of a Single Component Gas Suspension
Gurevich M A. Ozerova GYe 676
Ignition ina Hot Channel ShishkayevSM. Leont’yevAK 684
On the Spherical Combustion Propagation Process in Fuel Air Mixtures at High
Initial Pressuresand Temperatures Podgrebenkov Al. KogarkoSM 691
On the Electrical Field of a Laminar Flame Kindin M. Librovich VB 696
On Probe Measurements of Ionization in Flames Eogoslovskiy VP. Zaychikov
VV. Samoylov IB 705
On the Existence of a Minimum Drop Size in an Oxidizing Gas Flow Necessary for
a Detonation/ Vezhba A 710
Radiated Heat from a Hydrogen Diffusion Flame at M = l Ktalkherman MG,
Mogil’nyy I A. Kharitonova Yal, Kholyavin VS, Yasakov VA 717
Experimental Determination of the Turbulent Characteristics of Supersonic Flow
by the Diffusion Method AlekseyevNM.Tyul’panov RS 727
Compressed Detonation Waves in Condensed Explosives Al’tshuler l.V.
Zubarev VN, Telegin GS 728
On Plane Shock Wave Decay in a Condensed Nonhomogeneous Medium
Romanova VI 732
Studv of Tube Wall Motion under the Effect of the Detonation Products of an
Internal Explosive Charge Tarasenko NN 737
On the Kinematics of Compressed Powdered Materials bv Shock Waves Kuz'min
GYe 746
On the Thermal Wave in Shock Loaded BismuthBismuth-Shock Loaded
Nesterenko VF 752
Investigation of Plane Jet Breakup Mali VI. Pay VV. Skov pin A I 755
Instrument for Studying the Emission Spectrum of the Combustion Products ol
Condensed Particles in the 0.5 to 8 Micron Range Davidchuk Yel..
Mal’tsev VM 762
On Stationary Combustion Extinction of Burning Propellant bv a Radiant Heat
Pulse Gostintsev YuA 764
Soot Formation in Acetylene Detonation Knorre VG. Kopylov MS.
I esner PA 767
Note on the Vibrational Combustion ol falling Drops Podytm.v VN.
Gahidovskiy AG. Serikov VI 772
Interaction ol Explosion Welded Copper-Zirconium at the Contact Boundarv
Staver AM, Sobolenko TM, T eslenko TS 774
Determination of the Electron Distribution Function from 1 heir Energies and
I lame Plasma by the Method of Increments ot the Constant Component of the
Probe Current Zavtsev AS 779
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
On the Feasibility of Experimental Determination of Heating Temperature oi
Porous Bodies during Explosion Loading Pikus IM. RomanOV 7X2
On the Flow Behind a Detonation Wave Front in a Transverse Magnetic Field at
Small Reynolds Numbers Kuznetsov AP. Pleshanov AS 7X4
Vol. 10, No. 6 November-December 1974
Calculation of the Composition and Thermodynamic Functions of the Explosion
Products of Condensed Explosives. Kuznetsov NM. Okunev VYe.
Popov VM .791
Gas Boundary Layer Stability with Chemical Reactions on a Catalytic Surface
Petrov GV 797
Influence of the Polymorphic Transition of Ammonium Perchlorate on the
Catalytic Effect of Some Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Additives in
Thermal Degradation Kaydvmov BE Gavazova VS 801
Burning of Porous Condensed Systems and Propellants Dubovitskiy VF.
Korostelev VG. Korotkov Al. Prolov YuV. Firsov AN. Shkadinskiy KG.
Khomik SV XII
On the Stability Theory of Solid Propellant Burning in a Semi-confined Volume
Gostintsev Yu A. Sukhanov LA 818
Transition to Normal Burning in a Multicomponent Fuel Mixture Grishin AM.
Subbotin AN 82b
Effect of Bouyant Forceson Diffusion Flame Length BavevVK. Yasakov VA .835
Low-Temperature Zone of a Hydrocarbon Flame Front. 1. Propane Oxidation
neara Flame Front KsandopuloGl. Kolesnikov BYa. Odnorog DS 841
Shift of the Inhibited Explosion Limit of Hydrogen due to Inhibitor Consumption
Azatyan VV, Namoradze M A X47
Metal Cutting by Gas Laser Bystrova TV. Koz' n . Kuznetsov VA. lisitsyn VI.
Trishkin VM 857
Measurement of the Electrical Conductivity Profile in a Detonation Front of Con-
densed Explosives Yershov AP. Zubkov PL Luk'yanchikov LA 864
P E T N Burning to Detonation Transition Length Ashchepkov NY.
Sten’gach VV X74
Experimental Study of the Flight Velocity of a Plate Accelerated by the Explosion
Products of Oblique Detonation Dremin AN. Mikhaylov AN 87'
Explosion Acceleration of Plates Kanef Gl. Molodets AM. Vorobyev A A . .884
Fracture Velocity in Solids due to Strong Shock Waves Bobrovskiy SY.
Gogolev VM. Zamyshlyayev BV. lozhkina VP 891
Study of the Thermochemical Cycle of an Explosion Welded Junction Zone
Gel'man AS 898
Eemperaturc Measurements at Metal Interfaces during Shock Loading
Nesterenko VP. Staver AM 404
Method tor Making Vertical Cylindrical Soil Cavities Kmisov VA 90'
Mechanism of Lew Speed Detonation Propagation at I ow Speed m Spark
Initiated P E I \ \ndrevev VV. Luk'vanchikov I A 912
k
«> FIRE RESEARCH
Experimental Study of Weak Shock Waves in Air from Lnconfined Explosions
Smoliy NI. Tseytlin Yal 919 On
Abelian Transformations for Interferometric Holographs ol Point Source
Explosions! Pikalov VV, Preobrazhenskiy NG 923
Brief Communications
Metal Embossing by Shock Waves Deribas AA. Zakharos \ S. Sobolenko I M.
TeslenkoTS 931
Weak Discontinuity Propagation Velocity in a I urbulent Eloss Nikolases
Yu A 933
Laser-Instrument for Determining Explosion Limit I emperature of \ apor-Air
Mixtures of Organic Substances Mullayanov EL Khakimos VS. Akmanos AG.
Varlamov GA 934
Supersonic Flosv of a Nonuniform Reactive Gas around a Wedge Graches VA.
Strokin NV 936
Holography of Shock Waves in Round Tubes Gordeyes VYe. Matveyev YuS.
Ryskin MYe 939
EXPANSIONS OF REFERENCE ABBREVIATIONS
ComFla Combustion and Flame
ComSciT Combustion Science and Technology
FirChf Fire Chief Magazine
FirCom Fire Command
FirEng Fire Engineering
FEngJ Fire Engineers Journal
Firlnt Fire International
FirJrn Eire Journal
E PS I ech Fire Prevention Science and Technology
FPRcv Fire Protection Review
FirTec Fire Technology
JFFLAO Journal of Eire and Flammability
JFFCT IFF Combustion Toxicology Supplement
JFFCPF IFF Consumer Product Flammability Supplement
JFFERC IFF Fire Retardant Chemistry Supplement
LabDat Lab Data
NSNews National Safety News
PhysCE Physics of Combustion and Explosion
M
r
1
INDEX TO AUTHORS
Abbott C
... ComFla23(l)l
Bailey PB ....
.. ComPla23(3 ) 329
A blow CM
.. ComFla22(l)23
BajpaiSN
.. ,IFFLA05(4)255
Adams GF
. ComFla22(3)289
Baker RJ
... ComFla23( 1 ) 57
Adzhemvan VYa
. PhysCE 10(3)449
BakhmanNN ..
... ComFla22( 1)77
Afanasenkos AN
. PhysCE 10(3) 392
Baldwin R
... FirTec 10(2) 140
Agkpo A
.. ComFla23( 1 ) 47
Bankston CP ..
.... FirTec 1 ()( 1 ) 35
AhlstromDH ...
.. JFFCTK 1)78
Barker RH ....
.. .IF1 1 AC>5(2) 1 16
AkmanovAG ...
. PhysCE 10(b) 934
Barnard JA ....
... ComFla22(l ) 35
Al'tshulerLV ...
. PhysCE 10(5) 728
Barnes MH . ...
.. Co.r.Fla23(3)399
Aldushin AP ....
. PhvsCE10(3)3l3
Bar/vkinVV ...
.. PhysCE 10(1) 52.
Aleksandrov VV .
. PhysCE 10(4) 543
. . PhysCF 10(4)498. PhysCE 1 0(4)518
AlekseyevNM ..
. PhysCE 10(5) 723
Basu P
ComSci 19(3-4) 177
Alroth FD
. LabDat5(3)9
BauerleGl ....
. JFFT A05(2) 136.
AltwiekerFR ...
ComSciT9( 1-2)61
. . JFFI A05( 3 ) 190
A mbs 1 1
.. ComFla22(l)59
Bau Ich 1)1
.. ComFla23(2)215
AmmitzbolIJ ...
.... Firlnt4(43)60
BavevVK
.. PhysCF 10(1) 65.
Anan'in AV
. PhvsCE 10(3) 426.
. . PhysCE 10(4)485. PhysCE10(6)835
. PhysCE 10(4) 578
BeausolielRW
.... FirJrn68(3)77
Andrews VV ...
. PhysCE 10(6)9 12
Beer .1 M
.. ComFla23(2) 143
Androsov AS ...
. PhysCEI0(3)338
Belinski\ l\
.. PhysCE 10(2) 274
AnghinettiJR ...
.... E- i r 1 nt4( 44 ) 49
Ben-ReuvenM .
ComSci 1 9(5-6) 195
AngoneseAN ...
.... Labl)at5(2)9
Bernard Ml
.... ComFla22( 1 ) 1
Appleton JP ....
ComFla22(3) 299.
Bernecker R R . .
. ComFla22( 1)111.
. ComFla23(2) 249
. . ComFla22(l) 1 19. ComFla22(2) 161
ArinichevVA ...
. PhysCF. 10(1)142
Bevreis.lR
. ... 1 abl)at5(l) 14
Armstrong GW
.. JFFCf 1(3) 157
Bhaduril)
ComSci 19(3-4) 1 77
AshchepkovNV .
. PhysCE10(6)874
Bichenkov Yel
.. PhysCE 10(2) 292
AtcnC'F
. ComFla22( 1 ) 133
Bieloblocki .IM .
. ... i.abl)at5(3) 17
A* kisson Jr CT ..
... FirChfl 8(8)64
Bilger R W
. ComSci I 9( 1-2) 25
.. JFFCTI(2) 124
Biord i .1C'
... ComFla23( 1)73
Au/anneauM ...
... ComFla22( 1 ) 1
BirkvMM
... JFFFRCU 1)31
AvdvuninVI ....
. . ComFla22( 1 ) 77
Blair. 1 A
.... FirJrn68(6)23
. PhysCE 10(4) 498
Bobolev \ k ...
.. PhvsCE 10(2) 260
A/atvan I S
. PhysCF 10(3)445
Bobrovskiy SV .
.. PhvsCE 10(6) 891
A/atvan VV ....
. PhysCF 10(6)847
BobvIevVM ...
.. PhvsCE 10(3) 354
Bocook BM ...
.... Fir.l rn68(2 ) 65
Babkin VS
. PhysCE 10(3) 372
Bogdanova VV
... PhvsCE I0( 1)99
Babushok VI ....
. PhysCT 10(3)372
Bogoslo\ski\ V P
.. PhysCE 10(5)705
L
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
6)
BogueRJ LabDat5(4)4
Boldyrev VV PhvsCE 10(4) 543
Boldyreva AV PhvsCE 10(4) 543
Bordzilovskiy SA .. PhysCE10(2)2l>5
Borman G ComFla22(2)259
* Borne W ComSciT9(5-6)247
Borovinskaya IP ... PhysCE10(l)4.
'. PhvsCE 10(2) 20 1
Bowes PC FPSTech(9)l3
Bovd H FirJ rn68( 1 ) 9
Bracco EV ComFla22(l)9
Bradley D ComFla22( 1 )43.
C'omFla22(2) 143
BrennemanJJ FirJrn68(6) 105
Brenner W JFFLA05(4)227
Breusov ON Ph vsCE 10(3)426.
PhvsCE 10(4) 578
Bright RG Fir.Irn68(6)69
Bril' SY' PhysCE10(3)354
BrosierJS JFFCTI(1)52
Brown NJ ComFla23(2)
Brown R FirJrn68(6)33
BrzozowskiZK I FFF RC 1 (4) 2 1 8
BrzustowskiTA ... ComFla22(3)313
Buchbindei KB )FFCPF1(I)4
BunevVA PhvsCE 10(3) 372
Bunker 1)1 ComFla23(3)373
Burakov VS PhvsCE 1 0(2) 256
BureshR.I FirChf I8< 1)41
BurganRE Fir Fee 1 0(4) 275
Butler PC JFF1.A05(I)4
BvramGM FirTecl0( I ) 68
BvstrovaTV PhvsCF.10(6)857
Callison.lS IEFCPE 1(4) 390
CampbellAS IE1 I \05(3)I67
t arhart HYY .... ComSci I9i5-6)255
Carpenter I).l FirChl 18(9)22
Carroll IR I uhDai5(3)6
Carter WH IFFCPFK 1 1 19
CashinKI) ComFla22(3)337.
Coml Ia23(2l 227
CassanovaRA FirTecl0( 1 1 35
Castino EG I abDat5( 1 1 14
CastleGK IFF I \O5f3l203
CelminsA Comlla23(3i3M
Chaikin RE Coml Ia22(2)269
Chancel. H IFF! RC 1(2) 1 10
Chandler I T ETrJrn68(6)79
Charney M EirJrn68(6) 105
Chechilo NM PhvsCE KK 1)22
Chernov YuO ComFla23( I )29
ChienWP FtrTecl0(3) 187.
. . . JFFFRCK 1 )31, JFFLA05(2) 151
ChigierNA ComFla23(l ) 1 1,
ComSci 19(3-3) 1 1 1
C'hintapalli PS .... ComFla22( I ) 7 1 .
ComFla22(3) 337
ChomiakJ ComEla22( I ) 99
Christian \Y I FirJrn68( 1 ) 22.
LabDat5(4) 10
Christopher AJ JFFCTI(3)177
Clark AF ComFla23( I ) 129
Coates Rl ComSeiT9(3-3)95
Cohen-NirE .... ComSciT9(5-6) 183
CointotA ComFla22(l)l
Collins LW ComSciT9(3-4) 129
ConlonJP FirCom4 1(2) 28
Cooke GME FPSTech(9)4
Cosgrove. II) ComFla22( I ) 1 3.
ComFla22( 1)19
Crisi R Eir.lt n68(3) 5
Critchlev II ComFla22(2) 143
Crummett \\ B IEFC1 1(1)52
CullisCF ComFla23(3) 347
Culver C FirJrn68(3)5
Cutler OP ComRa22( 1 ) 105
Daveler ill .IP
Davidehuk Yel
Day M
Dayan A
de Neulv ille R
de Queros AB
DeSk
DeVoloNB .
DeetsGI ....
I Jegenkolh JG
Demenkova I I
Demina GS ..
I >cni-ov Y uN
.. FirChf 1 8( 10)34
PhvsCE 10(5) 656.
. PhvsCE 10(5) 762
. JFFLA05(4) 268
CornSci 19(1-2)41
.... FirTec 1 0( 1 ) 5
. . . . Firlnt4(43) 18
.. .IE EC I I ( 2 > 124
ComSciT9(5-6)209
.. JFFFRCK 1)26
FirTeclO(4) 287
.. PhvsCE 10(1)4 1
. \ hysCI 10(3)452
. PhvsCE 10(3)386
64
FIRE RI SE ARCH
Denisyuk AF PhysCE10(3)338
DenisyukAP PhvsCEI0(2) 147
DenyesW JFFCPF1(I )32.
IFFCPFI(2)22 1
DeputatovaLV ... ComFla23(3)305
Deribas AA PhysCE10(3)409.
. . PhysCEI0(4)568, PhysCEI0(6)93l
DidykRP PhysCF.I0( ! ) 132.
PhysCE 10(3) 405
Dimitrov VI PhysCEI0( 1)65
Dolmatov G I PhysCF.10(3)354
DombrowskiN .. ComSciT9(5-6)247
Donaldson AB ComFla23( 1)17
Downs WR ... . ComSciT9(3-4) 129
Drake Jr G I JFFFRCK2) 1 10
DreminAN PhysCE 10(2) 277,
PhysCE 10(3) 426. PhysCE 10(4) 561.
. . PhysCE 10(4) 578. PhysCE10<6)877
Drews MJ JFFLA05(2) 1 16
Dro/dov MS PhysCTE 1 0( 1 ) 15
DrysdaleDD ComFla23(2)2l5
Dubovik AV PhvsCE10(2)260
Dubovitskiy VF ... PhysCE 10(6) 81 1
Edwards JC ComFla22(2)269
Ehrmantraut JW .... JFFCT1( I ) 52
EinhornIN JFFFRCKD3I
El-Mahalowy FM . ComF'la23(3)283
Ellis DL FirCom4l(2) 18
Emmons HW ComFla22(2)223
Evans FM FPSTech(8)2!
.. Fir.lrn68(2)46
PhysCE I ()( 1)119
PhysCFIOl 1 1 145
. .IFF! A05( I ) 76
ComFla22(2) 141
. JFFCI 1(3) 177
. JFFCI 1(4) 141
ComSei 1 9( I -2) 75
Comlla23(3)245
ComFla22(3) 343
. . JFFCI 1(3)177
. I irTeclO(3)2ll
. PhvsCI l()< 1 14
.11 FCPFK 1)14
Fabiani.AD
FadeyenkoYul .. .
Falevev VA
FanterDF
FarberM
Fear EJP
Fear FA
Feldman S
Felton PG
FenimoreCP
Fennel I RFW ....
Ferguson JB ......
1 donenko <\K . . . .
Finley EL
FirsovAN PhysCEI(K6)8il
FlaganRC ComFla22(3)299.
ComFla23(2)249
F.’ahertyJR FirChfl8(3)32
Fletcher EA ComFla23(3)399
Flower Wl ComSei 19(3-4) 79
FoehIJM FirJrn6S(5)42
FogelVang AYe . . . ComFla22( I ) 77.
PhysCE 1 0(3) 449
Fomin NA PhysCE 10(4)473
FortovVYe PhysCE10(2)289
FosterCD ComFIa23(3)347
FoxJS ComFla22(2)267
Fristrom RM .... ComFla23( 1 ) 109.
ComFIa23(2).JFFI.A05(4)289
FrolovYuV PhysCE 10(6) 8 1 1
FuTT FirTeeKX I ) 54
Fujioka FM FirTeclO(4) 275
FursovVP PhysCE 10(4)548.
PhysCE 1 0(5) 669
Gahidovskiy AG .. PhysCE 10(5)772
Gal'chenko YuA ... PinsCt 10(2)245
Galant S Co/nFla22(3)299
Gallagher El 1 irJrn68(5)28
Gann RG ConiSciT9(5-6)255
Gaponov IM ComFla23(l )29
Garrett B ComFla23(3)373
Ciavazova VS PhysCE 1 0(6) 80 1
Gehring P.l IFF'CTK 1)52
Gel'man AS PhysCE 10(2 1 284.
PhysCE 10(6)898
German Standards Association ...
Firl nt4< 43 ) 7S
GibbonsCI JFFCI 1(1)52
GinsburglP PhvsCEIlK I )56
Gladilin AM PhysCl l()( 1)110
Glazkova \P ... PhysCl 10(2)206.
PhysCE 10(3) 323
Glikin MA Pin sC I I 0( 3) 446
Glushko I \ PhvsCF 10(4)614
Gnutov VV PhysCE l(K I ) 144
Gogolev YM I’hvsCI 10(6)84)
Gogulya ME PhvsCI 10(3)392
Gol'tsikerAD PhysCFIOG )83
GollahalliSR ( oml Ia22(3)3l3
ABSTRACTS \Nl) REVIEWS
GolovichevVI ..
... PhvsCE I0( 1 ) 65
HartsteinAM
JFFEA05(4)243
Gontkovskaya VT
. PhysCE10(3)376
hartzellEG
JFFCPFI(4) 305 j
Gonzales EJ . . . .
.. JFFFRCK3) 142
Harwood BA
. ComFla22(l ) 35
GordevevVYe ..
.. PhvsCE 10(6) 939
Haynes BS
C'omFla23(2) 277
Gordon YeH . . . .
... PhvsCE I0( 1)15
Helman D
ComEla22(2) 171
Gordopolov YuA
.. PhvsCE 10(2) 277
Herzog GP
EirJrn68(4)93
Gostintsev YuA .
. PhysCE 10(5) 764.
HiladoCJ
JFFCPF1(4)390.
.. PhysCE 10(6) 81 8
IFFCT 1(2)91. JFFC'1 1(4) 268.
Gouldin FC
. ComSciT9( 1-2) 17
.. JFFFRCK4) 175
. JFFLA05(4)32I
Grachev VA ....
.. PhysCE 10(6) 936
Hillelson.lP
... FirJrn68(3)5
Graham SC
CotnSciT9(3-4) 159
Hillenbrand 1.1 ....
JEFCPFK2) 1 15
Granovskiy EA ..
.. PhysCEIO(3)383
H irano T
ComFla22(3) 353.
Grav BE
.. ComEia23(3) 295
C'omFla23( 1 ) 83
GravP
. ComFla22(2) 197.
HiratoGH
. FirTeclO(4)275
.. ComFla23(3)3l9
Hirsch E
ComFla22(l) 131
Green.)
.. JFEERC1(4) 185
Hoffman SI)
.. LabDat5(4) 15
Griffiths JE
.. ComFla22(2) 197
Hofmann H Eh . . . .
JEEC1 1(4)236.
Grigor’yevAI ...
.. PhysCE 10(4) 539
. J FECI 1(4) 250
Grigoryev Yu M .
.. PhysCE 10(2) 245
HoriushiC
IFFCPEI(3)265
Grigor'yeva ID ..
. . PhysCE 10(4) 539
Horn I H
.. LabDat5(2)6
Grishin AM . . . .
.. PhysCE 10(1)45.
Horton MD
ComSciJ9(3 A)95
. . . PhysCE10( 1 ) 74. PhysCEI0(2j 19 E
Houarth.n
JFFFRCK3) 152
.. PhysCE 10(6) 826
Hsu CM
ComEla22( 1 ) 133
Grossmann ED . .
. ComSciT9( 1-2)55
Hubei W
. EirChfl 8(10)36
GrunfelderC ....
. . ComFla23( 1 ) 109
HumistonCG
.. J EEC I 1(1)52
Grvaznoval.V ..
.. PhysCE 10(1) 132
Husain D
ComEla22(3)295
Guenoche H . . . .
. . ComFla22<2)237
HutchinsonP
ComEla23( 1 1 57
(iupta MC
Gurevich M A ...
.. ComFla22(2)2l9
.. PhysCE 10(1) 88.
Ibrahim SM A
ComEla22( 1 ) 43
. . PhvsCE 1 0< 3 1 363. PhvsCE 10(4) 534.
Ignatenko YuV ...
PhysCE 10(2) 240
. . PhysCE 10(5) 676
Ilyukhin VS
PhysCE 10(3 )334
Guruz AG
ComSci T9( 3-4) 103
lonushaskk
PhysCE I0< 1)83
Guru/HK
ComSciT9(3-4) 103
Irwin C\\
. . EirChf 1 8(4)4 1
Gusachenkol k .
. . PhvsCE 10(3 1354
Isakm CiN
PhysCE 10(2) 191
Gusachenko Yel .
. PhvsCE 10(4) 548.
Isakov VP
PhysCE I0( 1(145
. . PhvsCE 10(5)669
Ishibashi H
JFECPFI<3)265
Guz' IS
. . PhvsCE 10(3)452
Isman WE
. EirChfl8( 12) 30
Halstead MP ....
.. ComFla22( 1 )89
Ivanov AG
PhysCE l()( 1 ) 12'.
PhysCE 10(41603
Hansen A
ComSci 19(34) 173
Ivanov (A
PhysCE 10(5) 650
Hanson K k ....
ComSci I9(3-4i '9
IvakS
t omEla22( 3)4 1 5
Hard! \P
Harmathv 1 / ...
. ComFla22(3) 323
EirTecl0(3) 247
Jachimovvski CJ
CotnEla23(2>233
Harris SP
. ComFla22(2) 191
Jacobsen ER
... Eir.l rn68(2) '
Harrison VI
C om! (a 2 2( 2)26'-
Jensen GS
. EirChfl 8(8)48
Hart 1 W
. ( oniFla23< 1 1 109
Jewett Gl
JEECI 1(1)52
f>6
HRI RESEARCH
Johnston NW IFFCPFI(3) 295
Jones PW ComFla22(2)209
Kadochnikova N F PhysCE 1 0( I ) 4 1
Kanakia MD IFFFRCK 1)31
Kanel'GI PhysCF 10(6)884
Kanurv AM ConiSci I 4( I -2)3 1 .
ComSciT9(3-4) 171
Karachev tsev GV PhysCF10(2)29l
Karakhanov SM PhysCE10(2)265
Kashiwagi I JFFCPF1(4) 367
Kaskan VVB ComFla22(3)415
Katkov A1 PhysCF 10(3) 392
KauffmanCW .. ComSci 19(5-6)233
Kaufman J JFFLA05(4)243
KawamuraT ComFla22(3)283
KaydymovBI .... PhvsCE 1 0(6) 80 1
KentJH ComSciT9( 1-2)25
Ketelhut W ComSciT9( 1-2)75
KhakimovVS ....
KhanukayevBB
Kharitonova Yal ..
KhaykinBl
KhaylovVM
KhlevnovSS
KholyavinVS ....
KhomikSV
Khristoforov BD ..
Kichin YuS
Kimmer! G
KindinNI .
Kirov NY .
Kirsanova ZV ....
Kiselev AN
Kishitani K
Kisilev YuN
KlehsJW
KleindienstT
Kleshchevnikov ()A
PhysCE 10(6 1934
PhysCE 1 0(1) 22.
PhysCE 10(5) 643
PhysCE (0(5) 7(7
PhysCE 10(3) 3 1 3
PhysCE 10(2) 230
PhysCE 10(4) 5 12
PhysCE 10(5 1 7 1 7
PhvsCI 1 ()( 6 1 8 I I
PhysCF. I()( 1)116.
I’hysC El()(2)2'4
ComFla22( 1 1 7^
.1 EEC I 1(1)4
PhysCF 10(5)696
Com Fla23(2)277
PhysCF 10(4) 554
PhysCF 10(4) 594
JFFCTK2) 104
PhysCE l()( I ) 1 16
FirCht’1 8(6) 32
ComFla23(3)373
PhysCE 10(4) 603
KliegclJR ConiSci 19(5-6) 209
Klyachkol A PhvsCI 10(4)615
KnoepIlerNB 11 f CPI 1( 3)240
KnorreVG PhysCEIO(3)383.
PhysCE 10(5) 767
Koch km II PhysCE 100)1 27.
PhysCE 1 0(4) 603
KocibaRJ J FFCT I ( 1 ) 52
KogarkoSM PhysCE 10(5) 629.
PhysCE 10(5) 69 1
Kolesnikov BYa PhysCEI0(6)84I
Kolomeychuk N N . PhysCE 10(3) 345
Komarov VF PhysCEHX I >99
Kondrikov BN . ... PhysCE 10(5)661
Konev EV PhysCF 10(1)34
KoplonNA FirTeclOI I )35
Kopvlov MS PhysCE 10(5) 767
Korobeynikov OP . Phv sCE 10(3) 345
Korobkov V A PhysCEIOl 1 ) 56
Korostelev VG .... PhysCE 10(6)81 1
Korotkov A1 PhysCE 1 0(6) 81 1
KorstAF 1 1 FI RC 1(4) 205
KostritsaAA PhvsCE 10(4/608
Kotowski RC FirChf I8( 10)34
Kovalenko 1 A .... PhvsCI 10(4)614
Kovalev BM PhysCE 10(2) 289
Kovalivnich AM .. PhysCE 1 0(3) 446
Ko/hushner MA ... PhysCE 10(1)22.
PhysCE 1 0(5) 643
Ko/lovGI PhysCE 10(6) 857
Ko/lovVS PhvsCE 10(1)28.
. . . PhvsCI 10(2) 162. PhvsCE 10(4)561
Krat/er RH II El A05(4)243
KreymborgOC Fir C'ht 1 8(4 ) 4 1
KrierH ComFla22(3)365.
ComFla22( 3 ) 37'.
ComSci 1 9(5-6) 195
Knvchenko \1 PhvsCI 10(4)561
KrivisovX \ PhvsCI 10(6)9(1'
Kroshko \ N . . PhvsCI |0(4)4'3
KrovontkaS.I 1 ir I ccl()(3 ) 22 1
Krugci CH ConiSci 1 9(3-4 To
Ksandopulo (il .. PhvsCI 10(61841
Ktalkherman MG PhvsCI l()(5)"l~
Kuchta .IM i irl ec0( I ) 25
Ku!i!s PP PhvsCI 10(2)280
KundoNN PhvsCI I0( 1 141
Kurhangalina RKh PhvsCI I0(2l2~0
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
67
KurylaWC
Kustov VS ...
Kuvshinov VM
Kuz'min GVe .
Kuznetsov AP
Kuznetsov NM
Kuznetsov OA
Kuznetsov PP
Kuznetsov VA
Kuznetsov VM
Kuznetsov VT
JFFFRCK4) 175
PhysCElO(I) 127
PhysCEIO(3)338
PhysCE 10(5) 746
PhysCE 10(5) 784
PhysCE 10(6) 791
PhysCE 10(3) 40 1
PhysCE 10(4)485
PhysCE 1 0(6) 857
PhysCE 10( 1)124
PhysCE 10(4) 526
l.arsen ER JFFFRC1G )4
LathropJK FirJrn68 (4) 10.
FirJrn68(5)I8. FirJrn68(5)37.
FirJrn68(6) 5, FirJrn68(6) 16.
FirJrn68(6)50
Law CK ComFla22(3) 383
LazzaraCP ComFla23(l)73
I.eeCK ComSciT9(3-4) 137
I.ee.lHS ComFla22(2) 237
LegezaVN PhysCE 1()( 1 ) 132
lenchitzC ComFla22(3)289
I.eont’yevAK .... PhysCE 10(5) 684
Lesnikovich A1 .... PhysCE 1()( I )99
Levy R L JFFLA05(1)76
l.ibrovichVB PhysCE 10(5)696
LieTT FirTec!0(4)315
Liebman I FirTec 1()( I ) 25
I iebman S A I FFCT I ( I ) 78
I indstromRS JFFFRCK3) 152
lisitsynVI PhvsCEI0(6)857
I ittler.lGF C'omFla22(3) 295
1 obanov VA PhysCEIO(2)292
Lobanov \'l ... PhysCE 10( I ) 1 19
Lobkovskiv VP ... PhysCE 10(2) 197
I ockwood 1 C .... ( omF la23( 3 ) 283
loebDI Eire hf 18(2)26.
E irC hi 18(4)50. FirC'hf 1 8< 5 » 42.
I irChl 18(6)40. 1 irChl 18(9) 20.
I irCh(l8( 10) 27. FirChfl8( 10) 38.
I irC'ht 1 8( 11)29
I nmakmBN PhysCl 10(2)280
longllIGN ... ComFla23(3)373
I ott .11 II I I \()5(2) 136.
1)11 \( >5(3 1 190
L.ovachev LA PhysCE 10(3) .372
Lozhkina VP PhysCE 10(6) 891
l.uk'vanchikov L A
. . PhysCE 10(6) 864. PhysCE10(6)9l2
Lundy SP FirChfl8(6)35
Madacsi.lP JFFCPF1(3)240
MaddisonTE .... ComFla23(2)203
Magnus A.I ComFla22(l)7I
MagnussonSE FirTec 10(3) 228
Major RW Fir Tecl0(2) IK)
Makepeace RW ComFla23( 1)11
Maksimov F.I PhysCE I ()( 1 ) 28.
. . PhysC'EI0(2) 162. PhysCEI0(2) 169
Maksimov YuM .. PhysCEI0(2) 169
Mal'tsev VM PhysCE10(3)445.
. . PhysCE 10(5) 656. PhysCE 1 0(5) 762
MalcomsonRW LabDat5(2)I5
Mali VI PhysCE 1 0(5) 755
MaltePC ComScil 9(5-6) 22 1
Mamina NK PhysCE 1 0(2 ) 253
Mandell DA .... ComSciT9(5-6)273
ManelisGB PhysCEI0(2) 185
Manheimer-'T imnat Y
ComFla22(2) 171
ManzhaleyVl .... PhysCE 1 0(1) 102
MarkovOM PhysCE 10(5)650
MaroniWF FirJ rn68( 5)51
Martemvanova TM .. PhysCEI0(4),
498. PhysCE 10(4) 5 18
Martin RAM ComFla23(3) 357
MarusinVP PhysCE 1 0(4) 526
Matveyev YuS .... PhysCE 10(6)939
MayhanKG FirTec 1 0(3 ) 201.
JFFFRCI(4) 243
McCormick. 1W .... FT r 1 ecll)(3) 197
McCreathCG ComFla23( I ) 1 1
McDermott FCi JFFCPF 1(1)19
McHale El Fir I ec I ()( I ) 15
McLaughlin RW .. 1FFFRCK4) 175
McNeight N FtrChfl8( 11)27
Mead SI . FPSTech(8)4
Medlock I.E F'irl nt4( 44 ) 29
Medvedev Yul .... PhysCE 1 0(3) 34 1
MellorAM .... ComSci 19(3-4) 165.
ComSci 19(5-6) 26 1
HR! RESEARCH
Merzhanos AG PhysCE10(l)4.
. . PhvsCE 1 0(1(28. PhysCE 10(2)201.
PhysCE 1 0(3 (445
Meshcheryakov YeA
PhysCE 10(2 (220
Mikhaylov AN ... PhysCE 10(2) 277.
PhysCE 10(6)877
Miller B JFFCPF1(3)225
MinevevVN PhysCE 10(4) 60 3
Mirchandanil .... ComFla22(2)267
Mironov EA PhysCE 1 0(2) 294
Mitrofanov VV ... PhysCE 10( 1 ) 102
MittonMT JFFLA05(4)268
Mogil'nyylA PhysCE 10(5) 485
Mogil'nyylA PhysCE 10(5) 71 7
MoinFB PhysCe 10(2) 235.
PhysCEI0(4)612
Molodets AM .... PhysCE 10(6)884
MongHC ComFla22( I ) 59
MontleJF FirTec 1 0( 3 ) 20 1 .
JFFERCI(4) 243
Moore J ComFla22(3) 343
MoorhouseJ ComFla23(2)203
Morin OV PhysCE 10(2) 240
Moulder JC ComFla23( 1 ) 129
MozzhukhinYeV . PhysCEI0(5)629
MrukJ LabDat5(l)8
MukoseyevYuK .. PhysCE 10(5) 629
MukundaHS ... ComSciT9(3-4) 149
MullayanovFI ... PhysCEI0(6)934
MulvavaMP PhysCE 10(2) 235.
PhysCE 10(4)61 2
M unday G FPSTech(9)23
MurashovaNA ... PhvsCE 10(4) 561
MyslovVG PhvsCE 10(3) 334
NahotovSS PhvsCE 10(4) 583
NairMRS ComFla22(2) 219
Nakahara .1 IFFLA05(4)243
Nakakuki A ComFla23(3)337.
ComSciT9( I -2) 7|
Nakamura K JFFCT!(2) 104
Nalbandyan AB ComFla22(2) 153
Namorad/eMA PhvsCE 10(6) 84'
NaumanCI) JFFCT1(1P8
Nefedov A P ComFla23(3)305
Nefedova MG .... PhysCEIO(2)253.
PhvsCE 10(2) 294
Nelson G I JFFLA05(2) 125
Nelson HE EirJrn68(4)65
Nelson Jr RM FirTecl0( 1 )68
Nesterenko VF ... PhysCE 10(5) 752.
PhysCEI0(6)904
NettletonMA .... ComFla22(3)407
N eumeyer J P J FFCPF I ( 3 ) 240
Nicholls JA .... ComSciT9(3-4) 1 19.
ComSciT9(5-6)233
Nikiforov VS ComFla22( I ) 77
NikolayevYuA ... PhysCEI0(6)933
NoreikisSE ComFla22(3) 353.
ComFla23(l)83
NoronhaJA FirTecl0(2) 101
Norris JM JFFCTI(I)52
NovikovNP PhysCEI0( 1 )4,
PhvsCE 10(2) 20 1
NovikovSS PhysCE10(!)38,
PhvsCE 1 0(3) 334
Novozhilov BV .... PhysCEI0(l ) 94.
PhysCEI0<5)66!
Nunez 1J IFFCT!(2)I24
NuzhdaLI PhysCE 10(3)446
O’MaraMM JFFCTI(3) 141 .
JFFLA05( I ) 34
O'Neill AR FirJrn68(6) 10
OdnorogDS PhvsCE 1 0(6) 84 1
OettelH JFFCTI(4)236
OhkiY ComSci 1 9( 1-2)1
OkunevVYe PhysCE10(6)79l
Ornellas Ol ComFla23( 1 ) 37
Osipov A 1 PhvsCE 10(3) 303.
PhvsCE 10(4)459
OsuwanS ComSci 19(3-4) 103
Ottoson.l Fir.lrn68(4) 19
Owen AJ ComFla22( I ) 13.
ComFla22( 1)19
Osuwan S . .
. . t
Ottoson.l
Owen A.I
O/erov YcS
Ozerova GYe ..
Paciorck K I
Page F \1
PhvsCE 10(5)676
,IFFI.A05(4) 243
.. CotnE la23( 1 1
1
ABSTRACTS AM) REVII WS
Palmer HB JFFCPF1(2) 133
Palmer KN JFFCPFI(2) 186
PappJF ComFla23(l)73
Parker RO FirTeclO(2) 147
Parks R I LabDat5(l)5
Parshukov PA .... PhysCE10( I ) 144
Pay VV PhysCE 10(5) 755
Pearson ! F F irChf 1 8(1) 36
PensalE JFFLA05(4)227
Peretyat’ko VN ... PhysCE 10(3) 452
Perry EH ComSciT9( 1-2)49
PershinSV PhysCE 1 0(3) 42 1 ,
. . PhysCE10(3)426. PhysCE 10(4) 578
Pervukhin LB .... PhysCE10(2)284
Peters B C’omFla22(2) 259
Peterson AO FirJrn68(4) 100
Peterson SE FirCom4I(2) 30
Petrov GV PhysCE10(6)797
Philiposyan AG ... ComFla22(2) 153
Phillips AW FirCht 18(3) 30
PhillipsCW FirJrn68(3)77
PhilpotCW ComSciT9( 1-2) 13
PhungPV ComFla22(3)323
PieracciE FirChf 1 8(6) 32
Pierce TH ComSciT9(3-4) 1 19
Pikalov VV PhysCE 10(6) 923
PikuslM PhysCE 10(5) 782
Piskunov BG PhvsCE10(3) 383
Pleshanov AS .... PhysCE 1 0(5) 784
Pluzhnik VI PhvsCE I ()( I ) 144
Price D ComFla22( 1)111.
. . ComFla22( I ) 1 19. C'omFla22(2) 161
ProopsWA5 JFFFRCK4) 175
Proudfoot EN FirJrn68(2)70
Pryor A J JFFC'l 1(4) 191
PuringtonRG FirChll 8(7) 16,
FirChll 8(8) 53
Putnam AA ComFla22(2)281
PyeDB ComFla22(l ) 89
QuanV ComSciT9(5-6) 209
QuinnCP ComFla22( I ) 89
Quinn EJ JFFCT1(1)78
QumtiereJ FirTecl0(2) 153.
... JFFCPFM I )32. JFFCPFI(2)221
Raghunandan BN
Rangaprasad N
Rankin.II ....
Rasbash DJ . .
Rebenfeld L. . .
Redden JM
Reeves W A . .
RelePJ
RevyaginLN .
Rhodes J ....
Riley JF
Robertson AF
Pobere/hsky IP .... ComFla23( I ) 29
Podgrebenkov Al PhysCE10(5)69l
Podvmov VN PhysCE 10(5) 772
Polishchuk Dl ... PhysCE 10(4) 6 1 5
Polonskiy lYa ... PhvsCE 10(2)253
PolymeropoulosCE
ComSci 19(5-6) I97
Popov VA PhvsCE10(2) 253.
PhysCE 1 0(2) 294
Popov VM PhysCE 10(6) 791
Popova VA PhysCEIOl I ) 142
Posvyanskiy ' S PhysCEIOl I ) 94
Powell EA FirTecl0( I ) 35
Pratt 1)1 ( omSci 19(5-6)221
Preobrazhenskiy NG
PhvsCE 1 0(6 1 923
Rogacheva A I
RomanOV
Romanova VI
Rose .IQ
Rosenhan AK
RozenbandVl
.. PhysCE 10(2) 21 2
Ro/hitskiySI
Runyan CC
Rush 111
Ryabina IS
Rvabinin AG
Ryabimna IN ...
Ryabvy VA .
RvanJV
'omSciI9(3-4) 149
JFFLA05(2) 107
.. FirChf 1 8(2) 32
. FPS’I ech(8) 16
JFFCPFI(3)225
. FirChfl8( 1 1 ) 24
JFFFRCI(2) 1 10
ComSciT9( 1-2)55
PhysCEI0(3)341
. . Fir.l rn68(6) 42
. FirTec 10(4) 269
FirTecl0(2) 1 15.
. FirT ecl()(4) 282
Phy sCE 10(4) 578
PhysCE 10(5) 782
PhvsCE10(5)732
.. JFFCT1( 1)52
FirChf 18(1) 44.
. FirChf 18(1 1)39
PhysCE 10(1) 52.
.PhysCE 1 0(4) 530
PhysCE 1 0(4) 492
ComFla23( 1)129
ComFla22(3)377
PhysCE 10(3) 363
PhvsCE I ()( 1 1 142
PhysCEIOl 1 1 56
PhysCE 10(2) 28*)
.11 1 CPI 1(4)354
’0
FIRE RESEARCH
Ryason PR ComFla22( 1)131
Ryazantsev YuS ... PhysCE 10( I ) 38
RvbaninSS PhysCEI0(5)634
RyskinMYe PhysCE 1 0(6) 939
SachvanGA ComFla22(2) 153
SamovlovIB PhvsCE 10(5) 705
SandH JFFCT1(4)250
Sanders Cl JFFCTI(1)78
Savel’yevVL PhysCEI0(4)608
Sawyer RF ComFla23(2)
ScanesFS ComFla23(3)357,
ComFla23(3) 363
Schaffer EL JFFFRCI(2)96
SchafranE FirJ rn68(2) 36
Schiffhauer Jr EJ
FirTecl0(2) 101
Schmitt CR FirTeclO(3) 197.
JFFLA05(3)223
Schulz JF FirJm68(2)82
SchwarczJM JFFFRC1(2) 78
SchwetzBA JFFCT1(I)52
SeaderJD FirTeclO(3) 187.
. . . JFFFRCH 1)31, JFFLA05(2) 151
SedesC ComFla22(2)237
ScegererK Firlnt4(44)65
Seelbach RW LabDat5(2)4
Selby K ComFla22(2) 209
Sele/nevVA PhysCEI0(3)445
SelloSB JFFL.A05(4)227
SerikovVl PhysCEI0(5)772
ShabduaC'l JFFCT!(4)268
ShamshinaOI ... PhysCEI0(2) 197
SharryJA FirCom4l(2) 24.
FirJrn68( 1 )5. FirJrn68( I ) 52.
FirJrn68(2)5. FirJrn68(2) 14
FirJrn68(3)5. FirJrn68(3) I !.
FirJrn68(3) 37. EirJrn68(4)5.
FirJrn68(4) 13. FirJrn68(4)23.
FirJrn68(4) 105. FirJrn68(5)5.
FirJrn68(5) 22. FirJrn68(5)38.
FirJrn68(6) 28. FirJrn68(6) 54
ShatrovVD PhysCEKV 1 ) 15
ShchemelevGV ... PhvsCE I0( 2 ) 235.
PhvsCE 10(4) M2
SheahenTP C’omFla22(2) 243
S hen FT ComSciT9(l-2)6l
ShethSG JFFFRCK3) 152
Shevchuk VG .... PhysCE 10(4) 61 5
Shevchuk VIJ .... PhysCEI0(2)235.
PhvsCE 10(4) 61 2
ShishkayevSM ... PhysCE10(5)684
ShislerRA ComSciT9(5-6)26l
ShivadevUK ComFla22(2) 223
Shkadinskiy KG .. PhvsCE 1 0(6) 8 1 1
ShoumanAR ComFla23( I ) 1 7
ShpilbergD FirTecl0( I )5.
FirTecl0(4)304
Shubl.I PhvsCE 10(1) 56
Shvedov KK PhysCE 10(4) 561
Shvetsov VI PhysCE10(4)548,
PhysCE 1 0(5) 669
Sibulkin M ComSciT9( 1-2)75.
ComSciT9(3-4) 137.
ComSciT9(3-4) 173
SidmanKR JFFFRC1(3) 152
SigimovVI PhysCE 10(4) 539
Sikorov VN PhysCE 1 0(3) 421
SirkunenGl PhysCE10(4)534
SizovlA PhysCE10(3)437
SkorikAl PhysCE 10(4) 526
Skovpin A I PhvsCE 10(5)755
SkurinLl PhysCE 1 0( I ) 137
Sliepcevich CM ... JFFLA05(2) 107,
. . JFFLA05(2) 136. JFFLA05(3) 190
Smith DC FirJ rn68( 5)11
Smith EE FirTecI 0(3) 181.
I FFCT I ( 2 ) 95. .1 FFL A05( 3)179
Smith IW ComSciT9(3-4) 87
SmoliyM PhvsCEI0(6)9l9
Snell. IE FirJ rn68( 3 ) 77
Snyatkov Yul .... PhysCE 10(2) 253
Sobolcnko I M .. PhysCE 10(4) 594.
. . PhysCE 10(5) 774. PhysCE 10(6) 93 1
Sobolev l JFFFRCl(I) 13
SochetI R ComFla23( I ) 47
SokolenkoVF .... PhysCE 10(2) 240
Soloukhin Rl PhysCE10(4)473
Solovyev VS PhysCE 1 0(3)40!
Sopet'WG ComFla22(2)273
Spad.tci.ini I J ComSciT9(3-4) 133
Spaiding MB ComFla23(3) 283
ABSTRACTS AND RFVIEWS
71
Spivak AA
. PhysCE 10(3) 437.
Tarasenko NN ...
. PhysCE 10(4) 598.
. PhvsCE 10(3) 440
. PhysCE 10(5) 737
Srivastava RI) ..
. ComFla22(2) 191
Tatem PA
ComSciT9(5-6)255
Staver AM
. PhysCE 10(4) 568.
TatsiyVF
. PhysCE 10(3)426
. . PhysC'E 1 ()( 5 ) 774. PhysCE 1 0(6) 904
TatsyyVF
. PhysCE10(4) 578
Stavrov AA ....
. PhvsCEI0(2)256
Taylor W
.. JFFCPF1(2) 186
Sten'gach VV . . .
. PhysCEI0(6)874
Teixeira DP
ComSciT9( 5-6 ) 209
StenderWW ...
.... FirJrn68(4)65
Telegin GS
. PhysCE10(5)728
Stepanov AM
.. PhysCE 10(1)88,
Teller)!
... LabDat5(2) 10.
. PhysCE 10(4) 534
LabDat5(3)4. 1.abl)at5(4) 17
Stepniczka HE . .
.. JFFFRC1(2)61 .
Tereshchenko AG
. PhysCE 10(3) 345
.. JFFLA05G) 16
TeslenkoAG ....
. PhysCE I0( 1)132,
Stesik LN
. PhysCEI()(2)27(),
. PhysCE 10(3) 405
. PhysCE 10(4) 548. PhysCE 1 0(5) 634.
TeslenkoTS
. PhysCE 10(4) 594,
PhysCE 10(5) 669
. . PhysCE 10(5) 774, PhysCE 10(6) 931
Steward ER ....
ComSciT9(3-4) 103
Tesner PA
PhysCE 10(3) 383,
Stewart RD
... JFFCTK3) 167
PhysCE 10(5)767
StickneyCW ...
... FirTeclO(4)287
ThelanderssonSE
.. FirTec 10(3) 228
Stinchcomb H R
.... FirChfl 8(3)36
Thomas PH
. FirTec 10(2) 140
Stone WR
. . . Fir.I rn68( 1)61.
Thompson D ....
ComFla23(3)319
FirJrn6H(l)71,Fir.lrn68(2)5.
TidballM.)
ComFla22(2)209
FirJrn68(
2) 14. FirJ rn68(2) 3 1 ,
Tien Cl
ComSciT9( 1-2)41
.... FirJrn68(3)87
TirsellJP
... JFFCTl(I) 52
StrasserA
.... FirTecl0( 1 ) 25
Titov VM
PhysCE 10(2) 265
Strokin NV ....
PhvsCE 10(6) 976
I odes C M
. PhvsCE 10(1) 83
StrokinV
ComSciT 9(3-4) 1 1 1
Tokarev IP
. PhvsCe 10(3) 338
Strokin VN ....
. PhysCE 10(2) 230.
Tokarev NP
PhvsCE 10(2) 197
. PhysCE 10(4) 492
Tovev H
... FirJrn68(6)9!
StruchenkoAN .
. PhysCE 10(2) 274
Tret'yakovPK ...
PhysCE 10(4) 485
StruninVA ....
. PhvsCE 10(2) 185
Irish kin VM . . . .
PhysCE 10(6) 857
Strunina AG ...
. PhysCE 10(4) 518
T sao H Y
. ComFla23( 1)17
Stupochenko YeV
. PhysCE 10(3) 303.
Tsemakhovich BD
PhysCE 10(2) 284
. PhysCE 10(4) 459
TseytlinYal
. PhvsCel0(6)9l9
Subbolin AN . . .
. PhysCE 10(6) 826
TsuchivaY
. JFFLA05( 1)64
SubbotinVA ...
. PhvsCE 10(1) 102
TsugzeS
. ComSciT9( 1-2) 1
SuhNP
. ComFla22(3)289
Tsvetkov VM ....
PhvsCE 10(3) 437
Sukhanov 1 A . .
. PhvsCE 10(6) 8 18
Tsvpkin VI
PhvsCE 10(4) 607
Sumi k
.. JFFLA05(!)64
TukhtayevRK ...
PhysCE 10(4) 543
S\etlo\ PS
. PhysCE 10(3)449
Tul'skikhVYe ...
. PhysCE 10(1) 38.
S\ iridov VV ....
.. PhysCE 10(1) 99
PhysCE 10(2) 178
Svred N
ComFla23(2) 143
TuttleJH
ComScil 9(5-6) 261
S/tal P
. . . ComFla22( 1 ) 1
Tverdokhlebox VI
PhysCE 10(4)614
TvlerP.I
ComScil 9(3-1) 8'
Tien .IS
ComSciT9( 1-2)37
FyuTpanos RS . . .
I’hvsCE 10(2) 240
Ta Prose VI
. . PhvsCE 10(1) 15
PhvsCE 10(5) 723
72
HKI R I SI ARC H
Ulrich Rl FirChf 18(3)28.
FirC'hf 1 8(4 ) 46. FirC hf 1 X(5 ) 45
Vail SI
Van Bowen Jr J
Van l.uik Jr FW
Vance GM ....
VanPeeM ....
.. ComFla22(3)337
Vardanyan 1 A .
Varlamov GA .
Vasil’vevLV ..
Vasilieva 1A
VerburgD .
VersnelJ ..
VezhbaA ..
VidaudP ..
Viktorenko AM
Viktorov VN ..
VilyunovVN ..
Vorob’yevAA ....
Voskoboynikov IM
VovchukYal
VovkAA
Voytenko A Ye
VranosA
VulisI.A
JFFFRCK3) 142
. FirTec 1 ()( 2 ) 1 10
. F i rT ec 1 (>( 2 ) 129
ComFla22(3)365
ComFla22( 1)71.
. ComFla23(2)227
ComFla22(2) 153
PhysCE10(6)934
PhvsCElO(l) 127.
PhysCE 1 0(4 ) 603
ComFla23(3) 305
. FirChll 8( 1 2 ) 26
JFFFRCK4) 185
PhysCE 10(5) 7 10
ComFla22(3) 337.
ComFla23(2)227
PhysCE 1 0(3) 345.
PhysCE 10(5) 650
PhysCE 10(2) 294
PhysCEI0(2) 169.
PhysCE 1 0(4)512
PhysCE 10(6) 884
PhysCE 10(3)392
PhvsCEI0(4)6l 5
PhysCE 1 0( 1)144
PhysCE I ()( I ) 145
... ComFla22(2l
PhysCE 10(2) 151
Waddington 0.1 ... C'omFla22(2) 209
WaideDC FirChfl8(7)2l
Waksman D Eir leclOl 3 1 2 1 I
Walker F FirJrnb8(4)65
Walker FE ComFla22( I (5*
Walls Wl FirJrn68( 1 1 52.
Fir.lrn68(5) 18
Waslev RJ ComFla22( I ) 53
Waterman TE .... Com! Ia22(3)353.
.... ComFla23( I ) 83. Fir Fee 1 0(4 ) 287
Waters JM FirChfl8(4>37.
FirChll 8(8) 58. FirCht 1 8(9 ) 26.
FirCht 18( 10)42
\\ alters P Ftrlnt4(43) 55
Weil FI) JFFFRC1(3) 125
Weinberg F J ComFla22(2) 263
Weldon WC FirChf I8( 10) 31
Welker JR JFFLA05(2) 107
Wheeler RJ JFFCT 1(4) 191
WhitelawJH ComFla23(l)57
WierzbaAS ComSci 19(5-6) 233
Wiles DM JFFl.A05(4)268
Willey AE FirJ rn68( I ) 1 6
W'lliamsA ContHa23(2) 203.
ComSciT9(5-6)247
WilliamsFA ComFla22(3)383.
JFFLA05(I ) 54
Wise H ComFla22( 1 ) 23
WolfCJ JFFLA05( I ) 76
Wolfshtein M .... ComFla22(2) 171
WollowitzS ComFla22(3)415
Woolley DE ComFla23( I )
Woolley WD JFFCTK4) 259
Woycheshin EA ... J E FFRC 1(1) 13
\\ ia\ JA JFFGPFK2) 115
Yakimov AS PhysCE10( I ) 74
Yakovleva GS .... PhysCE 10(2) 270
Yakushev VV PhysCE 10(4) 583
Yakusheva OV ... PhysCEI0<4)583
YangCH ComFla23( I )97
YarinIP PhysCE 10(2) 151
Yasakcn V A PhysCE10( 1 ) 65.
. PhysCE 10(4) 485. PhysCEIO(5)717.
PhysCE 10(6)835
Yenikolopyan NS . . PhysCEl0(l)22.
PhysCE 10(5) 643
Yermakov VI PhvsCEI0(4)518
Yershov \P PhysCE 1 0(6) 864
3 uillCH IFFCPFK2) 181
Yuklnid\| Phv sCE I ()( I ) 28.
PhysCE 10(2 1 162
/akharenkoll) ... PhysCFKH 1 1 145.
Pin sCE 10(3)409
Zakharov \S PhysCE 1 0(6)93 1
Zamyshlvavev B\ Ph\sCEI0(6)89l
ZaslonkolS PhysCl I0(5io29
Zaturska MB . ( omEla2 3t 3 ' I '
Zavchikov \A ... PhvsCl 1 0( 5 1 ~05
73
ZhevlakovAP ..
. . . PhysCEKX2l
197
Zimont\'l
. . PhvsCE 10(21
220
Zinn BT
FirTeclO( 1
1)75
Zolotko AN PhysCE 1 0(4) f> 1 5
Zubarev V\ PhysCel0(5)728
Zubkov PI PhysCe 10(6) 864
INDEX TO 1974 FIRE JOURNAL ARTICLE TITLES
Abelian Transformations
PhysCE10(6)923
Abrasive FirCom41(4)60
Accidents FEngJ 34(94) 32
Accidents to Firemen
FPRev37(400)77
Acetylene-Air Flames
PhysCE10(4)6l4
Acetylene Decomposition
PhysCE 10(3) 383
Acetylene Detonation
PhysCE 10(5) 767
Acetylene Production Processes
PhysCE 1 0(3) 446
Acrylonitrile Physical Properties ....
PhysCE) 0(4) 583
Actuators Firl nt4( 44 ) 29
Additives ComFla22(2) 191 .
. . ComFla22(3)407. JFFFRCK2) 78.
. JFFFRCK3) 152, PhysCE 10(4) 543.
PhysCE 10(6) 801
Admixtures PhysCE 10(3) 303
Aerodynamics . . . ComSciT9(3-4) 103
AFFF Units alsosee: Foam.
FirEng!27(7)34
Air-Assist Nozzle
ComSciT9(3-4) 165
Air Chisel FirEng 1 27( 1 1 ) 50
AirConditioner .... FirEngl27(6)52
Air Conditioning .... FEngJ34(95) 56
AirCushions FirCom4l(4) 38
Air Dispersed Systems
PhysCE 10(1) 83
Air Drops FirCom4l(4)68
Air Tanker System
FirEngl 27(4) f>4
Aircraft Firlnt4(46)50
Aircraft Hangar .... E ir Ecc 10(4 1 304
Aircraft Hangars Firlnt4(43) 18
Aircraft Incidents
FirEng 1 27(4) 54
Airliner Protection
FPRev37(409)483
Airport Firlnt4(44) 36.
Fir Tec 10(1)5
AlarmBell FirEngl 27( 10) 52
Alarm System FirChf 1 8(6) 37.
FirEngl 27(2) 42
Alarm System Design
Fir.lrn68(2) 7
Aliphatic Amines . ComFla22(2) 209
Alkali Metals ComFla22( I ) 133
Allyl Monomers .. JFFFRC 1(3) 125
Alumina Hydrate .. JFFFRCI(1)I3
Ammonia-Fluorine Flames
ComFla22(3)337
Ammonium Perchlorate
PhysCE 10(6) 801
Ammonium Perchlorate Combustion
PhysCE 10(2) 206
Ammunition Plant
FirEng 1 27( 8 ) 181
Amphibian FirEngl27(2)29
Amusement Park .... FirChfl 8(7) 2"7
Analytic Scaling
ComSci I 9(5-6)209
Annealing PhysCE 1 0(3 1 42 1
Anti-Discrimination Suits
FirChfl 8(8) 50
Antimony Compounds
Hli RC 1(4) 175
Apartment Eire EirJrn68(3l3~.
Eir.lrn68(4) 105
\partment Houses
also see (iarden Apartment.
E'i r.l rr»68( 2 1 82
'4
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
75
Apparatus Costs .. FirEngl27( 10) 27
Apparatus Standardization
FPRev(399)47
Apparatus - Used ... FirChf 1 8( 10)38
Apparel JFFCPFI(I)4
Armco Iron and Nickel
PhysCEI0(4)594
Army Aids Volunteers
FirChf 1 8(5) 39
Arson FirEng; 1 27(7) 54
Articulated Pumper
FirCom4l(l2)22
Atmospheric Reentry
' ComFla22(2)243
Atrium FirJrn68(l)9
Attendance Rules .. FirEng 1 27(3) 54
Autoignition PhysCE 10(2) 235.
PhysCE 10(3)446
Automatic Fire Alarms
FEngJ 34(95) 15
Automatic Fire Ventilation
FEngJ 34(95) 22
Automatic Nozzles
FirChf 1 8(4) 50. FirChfl 8(5) 42.
FirChfl 8(6)40
Automatic Recall
also see Elev ators.
.. FirJrn68(6) 79
Automatic Sprinklers
FirJm68(6) 42
A\ iation Fuels FirTecKM I ) 54
Base Injection Firlnt4( 45)57.
FPSJech(K) 2 1
Beam l ength Calculations
ComSci E9(5-6i 273
Bedroom Furnishings
FirJrn68(2) 18
Bibliography IFFCI 1(2)91.
’ JFFCT1(4)268
Bismuth - Shock l oaded
PhysCE 10(5) 752
Bisphenolic Poly mcrs
Bleve FirCom41(5) 14
Blind People Evacuation
FPRev37(407) 397
Blow-Off ComScil 9(1-2)71
Bodleian L ibrary
FPRev37(406)35l
BombExplosion FirChfl 8(6) 32
Bomb Method . ComF!222(2) 2!9
Boron JFFCPF1(3)240.
PhysCE 10(1)4
Boron Compounds JFFFRC1(4) 175
Boron Oxide Gasification
PhysCE10(4)6l5
Boron Particle Ignition
PhysCE 1 0(4) 539
Branching Chain Reactions
PhysCE 10(3) 376
Breathing Air FirEngl27(8)46
Breathing Apparatus also see
Self-Contained Breathing Ap-
paratus. FirEngl27(8)68
Breathing Apparatus Training
FirEngl27(6)26
Breathing Unit FirEngl 27( 1 ) 47
Building Insulations
FirJrn68(5) 5 1
BuildinglnteriorCoveringSvstems . .
FirTecl0(3) 21 1
Building Under Construction
FirJ rn68(5) 37
Buildings Firlnt4(43)45.
FPSTech(8)4
Bulk Carrier Firlnt4(43)69
Buoyancy Characteristics
Fir Fecl0( 1)68
Buoyant Forces ... PhysCE 10(6) 835
Burglar \larm LabDat5(2)6
Burn Injuries FirCom4l(4)3l
Burn-Out PhysCE 10(5)676
Burn I reatment FirCom4l(4) 32
Burner Flame ComFla23( I ) 57
Burning Condensed Substances
Phy sCE 1 0(1) 34
Blast Waves
JPFFRCM4) 218 Burning C\ linder
ComFla22(2)237
ComSci 19(3-4) I 3"
76
HRF RESFARCH
BurningJet ComSciT9(3-4) 103
Burning of Explosives
PhysCE 10(3) 323
Burning Rale ComFla22( I ) 77.
ComSciT9(5-6) 183,
ComSciT9(5-6) ly5.
PhysCE10(2)201
Burning Rate Measurement
ComFla23(3)381
Burning Rates JFFCPFI(3)295
Burning Stability
PhysCE 10(2) 178
Burning to Detonation Transition
Length PhysCE 10(6) 874
Burning Velocities
. . . C omFla22( I ) 89. PhysCE 1 0(4) M2
Burning Velocity ... ComFla22( 1 ) 7 1 .
. ComFla22(2) 267. ComFla22(2) 28 1 .
ComFla23(2)227
Burning Velocity Measurement
ComFla22(2)2I9
Burning Velocity Measurements
ComFla22(3)337
Business Machines .. FEngJ34(93) 39
C-H-N-O ComF!a23(l)37
C-H-N-O-F ComFla23( I ) 37
C-H-N-O-Si ComFla23( I ) 37
C-N-O ComFla23( 1 1 37
C2 Band Emission . ComFla22( I ) 133
Cable- Electrical Fire Hazards
FirJrn68(5| 1 1
Calorimeter ComFla23( I ) 37
Camper FirEngl 27(4) 53
Canterbury Woods ... FirJrn68(3) 77
Carbon Dioxide .. FirEngl 27(8) 1 70.
.... FirTeclOK 1 )25. FirTccl0(2) 101
Carbon Disulfide-Air Explosions ....
PhysCE 1 0(1) 15
Carbon Microspheroids
. . . Fir! eel 0(3) 197. JFFLA05(3) 223
Carbon Monoxide ComFla22(3) 343.
.... ComFla23( I )97. JFFCTK3) 167
Carbon Suboxide . ComFla22(2)243
Cargo Problems Firlnt4(43)69
Carpet Flammability
JFFLA05(4)268
Carpets
also see Floor Covering.
JFFCPFM4) 367
Carpets- Flame Spread
JFFCPFI(4)367
Catalyst Dispersion
PhysCE 10(1)41
Catalysts PhysCE 10(3) 323
Catalytic Effect .... ComFIa22( I ) 77.
. . PhysCE10(3)338, PhysCE 10(6) 801
Catalytic Surface
PhysCE 10(6) 797
Causes of Fire F'Eng.l 34(93 ) 15
Cellulose JFFLA05(2) 1 16
Cellulose Nitrate
Cellulosic Fuels
Cellulosic Solids
Chain Explosion .
Chamber Pressure
ComSciT9( 1-2)55
ComSciT9(5-6)255
ComSciT9(3-4) 1 7 1
. PhysCE 10(3) 372
C'omSciT9(3-4) 129
Char -Cellulose ... .IFFLA05(2) 1 16
Charged Particles
PhysCE 10(2) 291
Chelsea FirCom4l(3) 12.
Firlnt4(43)45. Fir.lrn68(3) 17
Chemical Industry
FEng.l 34( 94 1 24 . F PSTech( 8 ) 1 6
Chemical-Mathematical Model
IFFCTK31 157
Chemical Peak ... PhysCE 10(3)401
Chemical Plants ... FirFngl27(2)3"’
Chemical Processing Plant Fire
FirC'om4l(2)28
Chemical Reaction Rate
PhysC'FI0( I )65
Chemical Reactions
PhysCE 10(6)797
Chemical? extbook . FFng.l34(96) 14
Chemicals .. FirCom4l(4l 34
Chemistry IFFI \()5(4i2Xd
i
I
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Children FEngJ34<93) 15
Circuit Breakers . . PhysCE )0| 1)145
Cliff Rescue Equipment
FirEngl27(l2)28
Closed Bomb ComFla23(3)3KI
Closed Circuit Television
FEngJ 34(95) 10
Clothing also see Garments.
1FFCPE 1(4)390
CO-Air Combustion
ComSciT9(5-6)22l
Coal Char ComSci 19(3-4) 87
Coal -Nitric Oxide Formation
ComFla23(2)277
Coal Particles ComFla22(3)407
Coal Stove Hazards
FirJrn68(3)87
Coat Fabrics FirTecl0(2) 153
Coats FirEngl27(7)45
Cobalt Oxide PhysCE10(2) 197
Code of Ethics FirEng 1 27(6) 58
Cold Flame Propagation
PhysCE 10(1)94
College Program ... FirEngl 27( 5)51
Combustible Content
1FFCPFM4) 390
Combustible Liquids
FirCom4l(3)8
Combustible Solid . ComF'la23(l)83
Combustion ComFla22( 1 ) 59.
. ComFla22(3) 383. ComFla23( 1)129.
. ComFla23(2) 143. ComFla23<2)277.
ComSci 19(5-6) 24"’
. . . FirTeclOi 2 ) 129 IFFC 1 1(4(268.
. . Ill EKCK 1 .31.11 I 1 \05i2i I lb.
. .11 1 I A05(4)289.Ph\s(. 1 10(1)28.
. . PhysCE 10(1 14 1. PhysCE 10(3) 338.
*. PhysCE 10(5)034
Combustion Behavior
IFFl.A05( I ) lb
Combustion Diameter
PhysCl KH5)b6l
(. ombustion-Dnven Oscillations ....
ComSci 1 9( 1-2)49
Combustion 1 xtinction
PtiysCI Itlt5)"’64
77
Combustion Flow . PhysCEI0(4)554
Combustion Gas Studies
JFFCTI(2)95
Combustion Hazards
FirTeclO(l) 15
Combustion Kinetics
ComFla23(3)373
Combustion Products
Comblu2M I >29. JFFC ) l( I > 78
.... JFFCTK2) 104. JFFCT.(3) 141.
.... JFFCTK4) 191 . JFFLA05( 1 )34.
. PhvsCE 10(2) 294. PhysCE 10(4) 548.
PhysCE 10(5) 762
Combustion Theory Seminar- USSR .
PhysCE 10(2)297
Combustion Toxicology
JFFCTI(2)9I
Combustion Waves . PhysCE10(4)5l8
Combustion Zones PhysCE10(3)445
Combustors ComSciT9(3-4) 133,
ComSciT9(5-6)209
Command-Control .. FirC'om4!(6)28
Communications Center
.... FirCom4l(6)22. FirCom4l(6)28,
FirCom4l(6)36
Communications Feature
FPRev.77(405) 289
Communications System
FirChfJ8(2)34
Compartmeni Fires
.... FirTec 1 0(3)228. FirTecl0(3) 247
Composite Explosives
PhysCE 10(4) 598
Compression W ave PhysCE 10(2) 265
Compression W aves
PhysCE 10(3)440
Compressors FirEngl27(8)46
Computer FEng.l34(93) 39.
. . . FirChf 1 8( 11)24. NSNewsl09(6)82
Computer Application
FEngJ 34(93)38
Computer Applications
FEngJ 34(93)30
Computer Installation
FirJrn68(6) 105
Computer System FPRe\37(40l ) 139
I
78
FIRE RESEARCH
Computers FEngJ34(93)4l
Concentration Fluctuations
. ComSciT9(l-2)25, PhysCEI0(2)220
Concorde Fire Protection
FPRev37(406)355
Concrete Floors ... FirEngl27(5)32
Condensed Combustion Products
PhysCE 10(5)669
Condensed Explosives
. PhysCE10(3)405.PhysCE!0(5)728.
. . PhysCE 1 0(6) 79 1 , PhysCE 1 0(6) 864
Condensed Fual .. PhysCE 10(5) 634
Condensed Media Ignition
PhysCE 10(4) 512
Condensed Mixtures
ComFla22(l)77
Condensed Nonhomogeneous Medium
PhysCE10(5)732
Condensed Particles
PhysCEl0(5)762
Condensed Reaction Products
PhysCEIO(3)3l3
Condensed Substances
PhysCE 1 0(5) 66 1
Confined Spaces
ComSciT9(5-6)255
Conflagration FirChf 1 8(5) 35.
FirCom41(3) 12
Constant Volume Bomb
ComSciT9(3-4) 149
Consumer- Fire Losses
JFFCPFK2) 181
Consumer Product Safety
LabDat5<4) 15
Consumer Product Safety Commission
JFFCPF1(4)354
Continuous Spectrum
PhysCE 1 0( 1)116
Cool Flame ComFla22(l) 131
CopperOxide .. .. PhysCE10( 1 )99
Copper-Zirconium PhysCE 1 0(5) 774
Correlating Parameter
JFFLA()5(2) 151
Correlation PhysCE 10(3) 338
Corridor also see Halls.
... JFFCPFK 1)32. JFFCPF 1(2)22!
Cost Effectiveness
FEngJ 34(93)22
Cost-Effectiveness
FirChf 1 8(H) 58. FirChf 1 8(9) 26.
FirChfl8( 10)42
Cost Effectiveness Symposium
FPRev37(409)463
Cotton JFFFRCK3) 142.
JFFLA05(2) 107
Cotton Batting .... JFFCPFI(3)240
Cvanogen-Fluorine Flame
.'. ComFla23(2)227
CylinderJig FirEng 1 27(2)4 1
Cylindrical Furnace
ComFla23(3)283
D-C Discharge ... PhysCE10(4)6l4
Datasheet 644 ... NSNews 109(6) 95
Day-Care Center FirJrn68(6) 54
Decabromodiphenvl Oxide
JFFCTU 1)52
Decision Making ... FirCom4l( 10) 18
Decomposition Products
JFFCTI(4)250
Decomposition Temperature
JFFLA05( 1)76
Deflagration ComFla22( 1 ) 1 1 1.
. . ComFla22(l) I !9.ComFla22(2) 161
Deluge Sprinkler Systems Design
....' '. .. FirTec 10(4)304
Dense Media PhysCE 10(1) 142
Denser Eire Department
FirEng 1 27(4) 52
Department ol I ransportation
.... EirEngl27(3) 5"\ FirEngl27(8)43
Department Store Fire
Eirt. om4h Ills. Firlnt4(43l "4.
FirJrn6X(3)42
Design Philosophs FPSTech(8)l6
Destruction Zone PhysCE 1 0(3 1 437
Detonation ComFla22( 1 1 1 1 1.
. ComFla22< 1)119. ComFla22(2) 161 .
. . . ComF la23( 1 1 3'. PhysCE lot 5 ) ' 10
Detonation Calculations
ComFln22<2)269
Detonation E ront
. . I'hsst I loi 1 1 132. 1’hvsCF 10(6)864
A
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Detonation Front Perturbations
PhysCE 10(1) 102
Detonation Initiation
PhysCE 10(4) 561
Detonation Products
.. PhysCElO(l) 1 19, PhysCE10(5)737
Detonation Propagation
PhysCE10(6)912
Detonation Velocities
PhysCE 10(4) 598
Detonation Velocity
PhysCE 10(2) 270
Detonation Wave Front
PhysCEI0(5)784
Detonation Wave Parameters
PhysCE10(l) 1 10
Detonation Wave Structure
PhysCE 10(1) 1 10
Detonation Waves
.. PhysCEI0(3)405, PhysCE10(5)728
Detonations
also see Explosions,
ComSciT9(3-4) 1 19
Diatomic Molecules
.. PhysCE 10(3) 303. PhysCE10(4)459
Diazo Salt Combustion
PhysCE10(3)449
Diethvl Phosphoramidates
JFFFRCK3) 142
Diffusion Flame . . . ComFia22( 1 ) 23,
ComSciT9(3-4) 1 1 1
Diffusion Flame Length
PhysCE 10(6) 835
Diffusion Flame Lengths
PhysCE 10(4) 485
Diffusion Flame Structure
PhysCE10(2) 151
Diffusion Flames
.. ComFla22(!) 133, JFFLA05t4)255
Diffusion Jets .... PhysCEI0(2)220
Diffusion Method . PhysCE 10(5) 723
Diffusive Turbulent Combustion
PhysCE 10(2) 220
Digital Transmission
FEngJ 34(95) 15
79
Dimethyl Phosphoramidates
JFFFRC1(3) 142
DINA Propellant Combustion
PhysCE 10(4) 543
Disasters FEngJ34(95)46
Discotheque Fire FirJrn68(6)5
Disney World FirEngl27(3)48
Dispatching FirEngl27(4)68,
FirEngI27(IO)46
Dispersed Condensed Substances
PhysCE10(l)28
Dispersion Mechanism
PhysCE10(l)34
Distribution Plant Fire
FirJrn68(l)52
Dogs - U nfriendly at Fires
FirEng 127(1 2)22
Domestic Dwellings
FPRev37(407 ) 394
Domestic Fires Seminar
FPRev37( 409)464
Door Locks FirEngl 27(11) 50
Drill Motor FirEngl27(2)41
Driver Training FirCom41(8)52
Drop Ignition Limits
PhysCEl(X4)534
Drop Size PhysCE 10(5) 7 10
Droplets ComFla23( 1 ) 1 1
Dwelling FirJ rn68( 1 ) 22
Dwelling Fire FirJrn68(5)5
Dwelling Fires
also see Residential Fires.
FirJrn68(6) 10
Dynamics ComFla23( 1)11
Early Warning FirTecl0(4) 287
Education FirEngl27(4)69
FirEngl 27(4) 69
Effluent FirTec)0(2) 1 15
Electric Blasting
NSNewsl09(6)95
Electric Cables Firlnt4(46)4l
Electric Conductivitv
ComFla23( 1 ) 29
Electric Field PhysCE 1 0(1) 74
80
HRE RESEARCH
Electric Fields ComFla22(2)267
Electric Gas Burner
PhysCE 10(2) 253
Electric Heat Tape
FirJrn68(5) 1 1
Electrical Calibration
ComFIa23(3)3l9
Electrical Conductivity Profile
PhysCE 10(6) 864
Electrical Field ... PhysCE10(5)696
Electrical Fields ComFla22(l)43
Electrical Ground ... FirCom4l(4)42
Electrical Installations
FirJrn68(l)7l
Electrical Junction Effect
PhysCE 10(2) 265
E lect roca rd iogra m Tele me t ry S y st em .
FirEngl27(l 1)56
Electrode Erosion
PhysCE 10(2) 294
Electromagnetically Induced Motion .
ComFla22(2) 143,
ComFla22(2)263
Electron Distribution Function
PhysCE 10(5)779
Electron Energy Exchanges
ComFla22( 1 ) 43
Electron Number Density
ComFla23(l)
Electron Spin Resonance
ComFla23(l)47
Electronic Excitation of Nitrogen ....
ComFla22(3)337
Elevating Platform
FirCom4l(3)28
Elevator - Department Store Fire
Firlnt4(43)74
ElevatorFire FirEng 1 27(8 ) 170
Elevators FirJrn68(6) 79
Emergency Care FirChf 1 8(4) 4 1
Emergency Health Care
FirCom4l(7)20
Emergency Lighting Feature
FPRev37(401 ) 1 19
Emergency Medical Care
.... FirChf 18(4) 37. FirEngl27< 11)24
Emergency Medical Service
FirChf 1 8(4) 34, FirCom41 (8) 60,
FirEngl27( 11)38
Emergency Response
FirCom41(5)20
Emergency Service ... Firlnt4(43)85
Emission Spectrum
PhysCE 10(5) 762
Emmission Spectra
ComFla23(2)227
Energy Equation ... ComFla23(l) 17
Energv Feedback Analysis
ComSciT9(3-4) 137
Energy Flux Levels
FirTecl0(3) 187
Energy Yield Kinetics
PhysCE 10(5) 629
Engine-Like Conditions
ComFla22(l)89
Equation of State ... ComFla22(l)9
Escape Planning FirJrn68(6) 10
Ethylene Copolymers
JFFCPF1(3)295
Excitation PhysCE 10(3) 405
Excited States PhysCE 10(4) 608
Exit Signs Visibility
LabDat5(l)l4
Exothermic Reactions
. . ComFla23(3)3I9, PhvsCEI0(5)629
Expanded Polystyrene
JFFCT1(4)236
Explosion ComFla23( I )97.
. PhysCE 10(3)437. PhysCE 1 0(3) 440.
PhysCE 10(5) 774
Explosion Acceleration
PhysCE 10(6) 884
Explosion Hazards .. FPSTech(S) 16
Explosion Limit T emperature
PhysCE 10(6)934
Explosion Loading
. . PhysCE10(4)603. PhysCE10(5)782
Explosion Products
. . PhysCE 1 0(6) 791 . PhysCE 10(6) 877
Explosion Reliefs ... FPSTech(9)23
Explosion Welded Junction Zone ....
PhysCE 10(6) 898
abstracts and reviews
81
Explosion Welding
PhysCE10(2) 284
Explosions
also see Detonations,
.... Firlnt4(45) 25, PhysCE 10(2) 292,
PhysCE10(3)452
Explosive LabDat5(3)9,
PhysCE10(l) 145
Explosive Actuators
FPRev37(402) 182
Explosive Charge . PhysCE 10(5) 737
Explosive Destruction of Tubes
PhysCE 10(1) 127
Explosive Hardening
PhysCE 1 0( 1)132
Explosive Loading
PhysCE10(2)277
Explosive Materials
ComFla23(3>329
Explosives ComFla22(l)9,
.. ComFla22( I ) 53, ComFla22( 1)111,
. ComFla22(l) 1 19, ComFla22(2) 161,
ComFla23(l)37
Expo-74 FirChfl8(5)30
Extinction ComFla22(l)23,
. ComFla22( 1 ) 59, ComSciT9( 1 -2) 37,
JFFLA05(4)255
Extinguishant ... ComSciT9(5-6)255
Extinguishing Agents
JFFLA05(3)223
Extinguishment FirJrn68(4)93,
FirTecl0(3) 197
Extraneous Electricity
NSNewsl09(6)95
Fabric Firlnt4(43 ) 9 1
Fabric Fuels ComSciT9(5-6)255
Fabrics ... also see Flammable Fabric
Textiles JFFLA05(2) 107
Falling Drops PhysCE 10(5) 772
False Fire Alarms
FirTec 10(3) 221
Fatality FirJm68(l)5
Federal Communications Commis-
sion FirEngl 27(8) 164
Federal Grant FirEngl 27(7) 28
Ferrous Oxide ComFla22())77,
PhysCE!0(2) 197
FIFI - Fire Service Education
FirCom41(l ) 12
FireAcademy FirEngl27(4)51
FireAlarmBox FirCom41(7)31
Fire and Rescue System
FirChfl 8(8)58, FirChfl8(9)26,
FirChfl 8(10) 42
Fire Apparatus Color
FirCom41(8)43
Fire Appliance Feature
FPRevt 399)47
FireBehavior FirCom41(3) 12,
JFFCPF1( I) 19
Fire Brigade FirChfl 8(9) 32
Fire Brigades Firlnt4(44)65
FireChiefs FirChfl 8(8) 64
Fire Column ComSciT9( 1-2)41
FireCombat FirCom4!(8)38
Fire Control FirCom41(l2)26
Fire Crews Firlnt4(43)69
Fire Damage FPRev37(398) 12
Fire Damage in 1973
FPRev37(40l ) 1 15
Fire Danger Rating System
FirTeclO(4) 275
Fire Data System FirJrn68(6)9l
Fire Department FirChfl 8(3) 36.
FirChfl 8(4) 34, FirChf 18(4)41.
FirChfl 8(7) 2 l.FirCom41( 1)16.
.... FirCom41(6)28. FirEngl 27(4) 69
Fire Department Operations
FirChfl 8(7) 16, FirChfl 8(8) 53
Fire Department Publicity
FirChfl 8(9) 22
Fire Department Training
FirChfl8(9)22
Fire Departments FirChfl8(8) 50
Fire Detection FirEngl27(8) 181.
FirTeclO(4) 287
Fire Detection Device
FPRev37(408)447
Fire Detector System
FPRcv37(406)35l
Fire Disasters . . . FPRev37(406) 346
L
J
FIRE RESEARCH
#2
Fire Emergencies FEngJ34(94)24
Fire Engineering Firlnt4(44)29,
Firlnt4(45)69
Fire Environment . . . JFFCTK3) 157
Fire Environments JFFLA05(3) 203
Fire Equipment ... NSNewsl09(6) 79
Fire Exposure JFFCTI(I)4
Fire Extinguisher FirJrn68(6)58
Fire Extinguisher Guidelines
NSNews 109(6) 57
Fire Extinguishers
NSNews 1 09(6) 69
Fire Extinguishing Agent
Firlnt4(46) 50, FirTeclO(4) 269
Fire Fatalities FirJrn68(l)22
Fire Fighter FirCom4l(l)20
Fire Gas Hazard FirTecl0(2) 1 15
Fire Hazard FEngJ 34(95) 56,
JFFLA05(3) 179
Fire Hazards FPRev37(400)78,
.... FPSTech(8) 16, JFFCPF!(2) 186
Fire Heat Source FirTecl0( 1)68
Fire Line FirEngl27(4)53
FireLoss FirJrn68(l)61
Fire Loss Figures FPRev(399) 63.
FPRev37(405) 309
Fire Losses FirJrn68(5)33,
FirJrn68(6)67, JFFC'PF1(2) 18!
FireOrigins FirJrn68(4) 19
Fire Prevention .... FEngJ34(93)38.
.... FEngJ 34(93) 39. FEngJ34(93)4l,
FirChf 1 8( 1)41, FirCom4I(4)32,
. . FirCom4l( 10)24. Fir Engl 27(9) 18.
FirEngl27(9)22
Fire Prevention and Control Act of
1974 FirChf 1 8( 1 2) 23,
FirCom41( 12) 16
Fire Prod uct FirTec 1 0( 2) 1 1 5
Fire Program JFFCPFI(2) 1 15
Fire Protection .... FEngJ34(94)22.
FirChfl8(5) 30, FirChf 18(8)48.
FirEngl27(4)66, Firlnt4(43) 18.
Firlnt4(46) 18, FirTec I0< I ) 5.
FirTecl0(2) 140.
FPRev37(403 ) 22 1 .
. . . FPRev37(407)392. FPSTech(9)4.
JFFLAO5(3)203
Fire Protection Facilities
FirEngl27(3)48
Fire Protection in Europe
FPRev37(4G3)223
Fire Protection Standards
FEngJ 34(93)47
Fire Research Firlnt4(46)61,
FirJrn68(6)23
Fire Resistance Rating
LabDat5(2) 15
Fire-Resistive Material
FirTecl0(3)20i
Fire Retardant JFFCT1(1)52,
.. JFFFRC1(2) 78. JFFFRC1(4)2!8,
JFFFRC1(4)243
Fire Retardant Emulsion
FirChf!8( 1)36
Fire Retardant Impregnations
JFFFRC1(2)96
Fire Retardants .... JFFFRCI(I)31
Fire Risk of Plastics
FPRev37(398)25
Fire Safety Firlnt4(43)36,
. . . FirJrn68(6) 33, FPRev37(407) 394
Fire Science Course
. . . FirChf 1 8(12)26. FirEngl 27( 12)40
Fire Science Training
FirChf! 8(2) 24
FireService FEngJ34(93)41.
FirChfl8(4)37, FirCom41(l) 12,
FirCom4l(2)26. FirCom41(8)60.
FirEngl27(7) 38.
FirEngl27( 10) 30.
FirEngl 27(1 1)38
Fire Service Education
FirCom41( 1) 12
Fire Service Instructors
FirEngl 27(6) 58
FireService Management
. . FirCom4l(3)20. FPRev37(403)206
Fire Service Problems
FirCom4l(9)28
Fire Service Technical College
FPRev.J 7(404) 250
Fire Severities FirleclO(4)3l5
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
83
Fire Spread FirTeclO(l)35,
.... JFFLA05(I)4, JFFLA05(3) 167
FireStation FirCom41(3)26
Fire Station Site
FirEngl27(3)45
Fire Strategy FEngJ34(93)25
Fire Suppression ... JFFLA05(1)54
Fire Suppression System
FirJrn68(5)42
Fire Tactics Training
FirCom41(9) 13
FireTests FirJrn68(2) 18,
FirTecl<X3)211
Fire Training Center
FirChf 1 8( 1 2) 30
Fire Warning Equipment
FirJrn68(5)28
Fireboat FirEng 127(2) 29
Firefighter Casualties
FirCom41(5) 14
Firefighter Fatalities
FirCom41(4)35
Firefighter Fitness
FirCom41(l)20
Firefighter Injuries
NSNews 109(6) 73
Firefighter -Overtime
FirChf 18(7) 24
Firefighter- Psychology
FirCom41(4)36
Firefighter Safety
FirChf 1 8(2) 26
Firefighter Stress
FirCom4l(7)27
Firefighter- Visibility
FirCom4l(5)22
Firefighters Certified
FirEngl27(8)96
Firefighters -Coal Fabrics
FirTec 10(2) 153
Firefighters -Education
.... FirChf! 8(1 2) 26, Firing 1 27(4) 69
Firefighters- Esteem
FirCom4l( 1 1)26
Firefighters - Plastics Hazards
Firlnt4(43) 55
Firefighters Self-Image
FirCom41(l 1)26
Firefighters -Training
.... FirEngl27(7)38, FirEng! 27(8) 96
Firefighters- Women
FirEngI27(4)59
Firefighting FPRev 37(400)92,
FPRev37(401) 139
Firefighting Aspects
FirCom4f(4)38
Firefighting Facilities
FPRev37(407)382
Firefighting Strategy
FirEngl 27( 12)31
Firefighting Training
FirChf 1 8(5) 39
Fireground FirEngl27(3)40.
FirEngl 27(10) 50
Fireground Command
FirChf! 8(8) 64
Fireground Control
FirEngl27(4)49
Fireground Procedures
FirCom41(10) 18
Fireground Work .. FirEngl 27( 1 ) 47
Fireplace Stoves LabDat5(2) 10
Fireworks Incidents
FirJrn68(6)86
First Aid FirCom4!(4)30
Fitness FirCom41(l)20
Flame Front PhvsCE10(6)841
Flame Front Development
PhysCEI0( 1)83
Flame Front Formation
PhysCE10( 1)83
Flame Gases ComFla22( 1 ) 43.
ComFla23( 1)109
Flame Inhibition I FFFRC 1(1)4
Flame Length ComFla22(3)3l3
Flame Model ComFla23(2)
Flame Perturbation
ComFla23(l)73
Flame Plasma .... PhysCE 10(5) 779
Flame Propagation
ComSciT9(5-6) 197
J
EIRE RESEARCH
Flame Propagation Measurements . . .
ComSciT9(3-4) 137
Flame Retardancy .. JFFFRCI(I)26,
JFFFRCI(3) 125
Flame Retardant .. JFFFRC1(3) 152
Flame Retardant Fiber
)FFCPF1(3)265
Flame Retardant Filler
JFFFRCl(I) 13
Flame Retardants
ComSciT9( 1 -2) 13,
JFFFRC1(2) 1 10,
. . JFFFRCK3) 142. JFFFRC1(4) 175
Flame Retarded Urethane Foam
JFFFRCI(2)61
Flame Retarding Plastics
JFFFRCI(4) 185
FlameSpread .... ComSciT9(l-2)7l
Flame Spread Characteristics
JFFCPF1(4)367
Flame Spread Mechanisms
ComF!a22(3)353
FlameSpread Velocities
JFFLA05(1)85
Flame Spreading .. ComSciT9(l-2) 1,
ComSciT9( 1-2) 75.
ComSciT9(3-4) 173
Flame Stoichiometry
ComFla23(3) 399
Flames ComFla23( I )83,
. . PhysCE 10(2) 256, PhysC'E 10(2) 29 1
Flames -Temperature Profiles
ComFla23( 1 )83
Flames -Velocity Profiles
ComFla23(l )83
Flammability Firlnt4(43)78,
. . J FFCPFK3) 225. JFFCPFK3) 265.
JFFEA05(4)289
Flammability Behavior
JFFLA05(4)227
Flammability Limits
ComFla22(I ) 89
Flammability Specifications
FirJrn68(2)36
Flammability Tests
Firlnt4(43)91
Flammable Fabric Ignition
LabDat5(4) 17
Flammable Gases LabDat5(3)9
Flammable Liquids ... FirCom4l(3)8
Flight Velocity PhysCE 10(6) 877
Flixborough Disaster
FPRev37(405)296
Flixborough Explosion
Firlnt4(45) 18
Floor FirEngl27(9)38
Floor-Covering Flammability
... JFFCPF!( 1 )32, JFF'CPF1(2) 221
Flooring Materials
JFFCPF1(4)305
Flotation Devices .... LabDat5(3) 17
Flow Meters FirEngl27(5)44
FiowVelocity .... ComSciT9(l-2)75
Flowfield ComSciT9(5-6)209
Fluid Layer PhysCE 10(2) 260
Fluorocarbon Surfactants
FPRev37(400)92
Fluoroprotein Foam
Firlnt4(45)57
Foam Characteristics
FirEng(9)48
Foam Tender .... FPRev37(406)349
Foamed Plastic Fi r J rn68( 5)51
Foamed Plastics Fire
FirJrn68(6) 16
Foams also see Urethane Foams
F'ormaldahvde Oxidation
ComFla22(2) 153
Fort Worth TX Fire Department
Modernization FirF.ng!27(10)46
Fracture Velocity in Solids
PhysCE 10(6) 89 1
FreightTrain FirEngl27(10)24
Fuel Air Mixtures
PhysCE 10(5) 691
Fuel Droplets .... ComF!a22(3)377
FuelJet Flame .... ComFla22(3)283
Fuel-Lean Flame Gas
ComFla22(3)343
Fuel Storage .... FPRev37(403)221
FuelSurface .... ComSciT9(3-4) 173
Fumes JFFCT1(3)177
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
85
Funding FirEngl 27( 11) 38
Furnishings FirJrn68(2)36,
.. JFFCPF1(2) 1 15, JFFCPF1(2) 186
Furniture JFFCPF1(2) 186
Garden Apartment ... FirChf 1 8(2) 32
Garments Also see Clothing,
JFFCPFl(l) 19
Gas Boundary Layer Stability
PhysCE10(6)797
Gas Burner Facilities
LabDat5(4) 10
Gas-Chromatographic Monitoring . . .
JFFCT1(1)78
Gas Explosion FirJrn68(6)28
Gas Laser PhysCE10(6)857
Gas Line Incidents
FirEngl 27(7) 38
Gas Mixture Burning Rate
PhysCE10( 1)45
Gas-Phase ComFla23( 1 ) 47
Gas-Phase Oxidation Reactions
ComFla22(2)209
GasSampling .... PhysCE10(4)492
GasSuspension ... PhysCEI0(5)676
Gas Turbine Combustors
ComFla22(2)
Gas Turbine Engines
ComSciT9(5-6)261
Gas T urbine Powerplants
ComSciT9(3^))I33
Gas Well Fire FirChfl8(l 1)27
Gaseous Mixtures at Elevated Pres-
sures PhysCE 1 0( 1 ) 1 02
Gases ComFla22( 1 ) 105,
ComSciT9(5-6)247,
ComSciT9(5-6)273
Gasification Rate
PhysCE 10(3) 354
Gasless Combustion .. PhysCE! 0(1)4
Gasless Reactions
ComF!a22(3)323
Gasless Systems Ignition
PhysCE 1 0(4) 518
Gasoline FirCom41(9)22.
FirJrn68(4) 10
Governments Dilemma
FEngJ 34(93) 18
Grading Schedule
FirEngl 27(1 0)30
Gravitational Influence
PhysCE 10(1) 28
Group Fire FirJrn68(4) 13
H-N-O ComFla23(l)37
Halls FirEngl 27( 12) 36
Halogen JFFFRC1(1)4
Halogen-Containing Compounds
JFFFRC1(4) 185
Halogenated Methanes
ComFla22( 1)133
Haloi 1301 System
FirJrn68(6) 105
Hale as JFFLA05(4)255
Hammer Rigidity . PhysCE 1 0(2) 260
Hand Lines FirEngl27(7)32
Hangar Protection ... Firlnt4(44) 36
Hangars
also see: Aircraft Hangars
Haunted House FirJrn68(2) 14
Hazard FirJrn68(4) 100
Hazard Load Calculations
FirTecl0(3) 181
Hazard Reduction .. FirCom41(5)20
Hazardous Cargo ... FirCom4l(8)36
Hazardous Chemicals Blaze
FPRev37(398)22
Hazardous Materials
. . . FirCom4l(4) 1 1, FirEngl 27(4) 61 .
FirEngl 27(8) 43
HeartDisease FirEngl 27( 10) 52
Heart Test FirCom4l(8)50
Heat Conducting Element
PhysCE 1 0(5) 634
Heat-Evolution Kinetics
PhysCE 1 0(4) 530
Heat Extraction Systems
Firlnt4(46)85
Heat-Loss Rates .. ComFla22(2) 197
Heat Losses ComFla23(3)319,
PhysCE10(4)5l2
Heat Radiation Fir'I ecl0( 1 ) 54
86
FIRE RESEARCH
Heat Transfer ComSciT9( 1-2)49
Heated Surfaces . . ComFla22( I ) 105
Heating Temperature
PhysCE10(5)782
Heats of Reaction
ComFla23(3)357
Heavy Streams FirEngl27(l)45
Helicopter FirCom41(4)68
Helicopter Response
FirChf 1 8( 1 ) 44
Helicopters FirEng 1 27(8) 178
Heterogeneous Condensed Systems . .
PhysCE 10(2) 178
Heterogeneous Ignition
PhysCE10(4)498
Heterogeneous Ignition Characteristics
PhysCE 10( 1)52
Heterogeneous Ignition Process
PhysCE 10(2) 191
Heterogeneous Reactions
PhysCE10(4) 530
Heterogeneous System Combustion ..
PhysCEI0(2) 162
Heterogeneous Systems
PhysCe 10(4) 526
HI System FirEngl27(8)43
High Expansion Foam
FirCom41(3) 15
High-Frequency Processes
PhysCE 10(3) 386
High-Pressure Installations
Firlnt4(45)79
High School FirChf 1 8( 1 2) 26.
FirEng 127( 12)40
High School Students
FirChf! 8(2) 24
High Velocity Particles
ComSciT9(l-2)55
Highrise Building
. . . FirCom41(7) 16. FirEng 1 27( 12) 18
Highrise Buildings
FirCom4l(3) 19, Firlnt4(44)49.
FirJrn68(2)46, FirJrn68(6)79
HighriseCode FirChfl 8(3) 36
HighriseFire FirEngl 27(7) 18
Highrise Fires FirChfl 8(3) 30,
FirTecl0(l)35
Hollow Cylindrical Explosive
PhysCEIO(I) 1 19
Holography PhysCE 10(6) 939
Hose Lines -5-Inch
FirEngl27(4)52
Hose Loading FirCom4I(l 1)30
Hose Stream FirEngl27(5)32
Hospital Fire Statistics
FEngJ 34(95) 44
Hospital Patient Room
FirTec 10(4) 287
Hot Channel PhysCE 10(5) 684
Hot Spots ComFla23(3)313
Hotel Fire Firlnt4(43) 60,
FirJrn68(2)31, FPRev37(398)8
Hotel Fire FirCom41(6)40
Hotel Security NSNewsl09(6) 82
Human Activity Pattern
JFFCPF1(I)4
Human Behavior FirChfl 8(3) 30
Human Contribution
FirJrn68(4) 19
Hydrant Visibility
FirEngl 27(4) 63
Hydraulic Calculations
FEngJ34(94)40
Hydrazine Azide .. PhysCE 10(2) 270
Hydrazine Chloride Combustion ....
PhysCE 10(2) 185
rdrocarbon Drop . ComFla22(3)3l3
Hydrocarbon Fires ... Firlnt4(45)45
Hydrocarbon Flame Front
PhysCE10(6)84l
Hydrocarbon Mixtures
ComFla23(3)347
Hydrocarbons ComFla22( I ) 35.
ComFla23(2)203
Hydrogen PhysCE10(6)847
Hydrogen-Air Flames . ComFla23(2)
Hvdrogen Combustion
PhysCE10( 1)65
Hydrogen Density
ComSciT9(3-4) 129
b
m*
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
ComSciT9(3-4) 129
Hydrogen Diffusion Flame
.. PhysCE10(2)240,PhysCE10(5)7l7
Hydrogen Flame ComFla22(l) 71
Hydrogen-Fluorine-Helium Mixtures .
ComFla22(2)237
Hydrogen Ignition
... PhysCE10(l)65, PhysCE10(2)230
Hvdrogen Oxidation
PhysCE10(3)372
Hydrogen-Oxygen . ComFla23( 1 )47
Hydrogen-Oxvgen Flames
ComFla22(2) 191
Hypergolic Ignition
ComFla22( 1 ) 1
Identifying Victims
FirEngl27(3)40
IFE 1974 Examinations
FEngJ34(95)27
IFE Annual Conference
. . FEngJ 34(96) 17. FPRev37(408)434
Igdanite Detonation Properties
PhysCElO(l) 144
Ignition . . . also see Piloted Ignition:
Spontaneous Ignition
ComFla22( 1)105,
ComSciT9( 1-2) 55.
ComSciT9(3-4) 171,
ComSciT9(3-4) 173.
ComSciT9(5-6)233,
PhysCE 10(5) 684
Ignition Characteristics
ComF!a22(3)323
Ignition Delay .... JFFLA05(2) 136
Ignition Energies
ComFla23(2)2C3
Ignition Front .... ComFla22(3) 283
Ignition Limit PhysCF.10( I )88,
PhysCF.10(5)676
Ignition Mechanism
PhysCE 10(4) 526
Ignition Method .. PhysCE10(2) 245
Ignition Modes .... PhysCE l()( 1 ) 74
Ignition Reaction .. PhysCE HX I )99
Ignition Studies .... JFFCPFU2) 186
Ignition Waves ... ComFla22(2)273
Illnesses FEngJ34(94)32
Implosion PhysCE10(2)277
Incentive Pay Plan
FirEngl27(4)69
Individual PhysCElO(l) 99
Induction Rates Firlnt4(45)34
Industrial Environments
FPRev37(405) 307
Industrial Fire Protection
Firlnt4(45)79
Industrial Flooring
FPRev37(407)392
Industrial Losses .... FEngJ 34(93) 25
Industrial Society
F P R ev3 7(406 ) 346
Inert Additives ... PhysCEI0( 1 ) 144
Information Systems
FirCom41( 10) 18
Infrared Spectroscopy
PhysCE 10(5) 656
Inhibited Explosion Limit
PhysCE 1 0(6)847
Inhibition ComFla22(2)209,
ComFla22(3)4l 5
Inhibitor Consumption
PhysCE 1 0(6) 847
Initiation Patterns
ComFla22(l)53 '
Injuries FF.ngJ34(94l 32
Injury Severity JFFCPF!(1)4
Instrument PhysCE10(5)762
Inte'bild Conference
FPRev37(398)25
Interferometric Holography
PhysCE 10(6)923 :
Ionization ComFla23(l)
Ionization in Flames
PhysCE 1 0(5) 705
Iron Additive to Hydrogen-Oxygen
Flame ComFla22(2) 191
IronOxide PhysCE I (X I ) 99
Irradiation ComFla22(2)223
Iso-Octane Sprays
ComSciT9(5-6)247
J
88
FIRE RESEARCH
Isobutene-Perchloric Acid Mixtures
PhysCEI0( 1)99
Jet Diffusion Flames
ComSciT9(l-2)25
JetPlaneFire FirCom41(9) 31
Jet-Stirred ComSciT9(5-6)221
Johns Hopkins Conference
FirChf 1 8(8) 64
Kerosene Sprays . . . ComFla23( 1)11
Kinematics PhysCE 10(5) 746
Kinetics ComFla22(2) 153,
ComFla23(2)233,
ComSciJ 9( 5-6) 22 1 ,
. . PhysCE 10(2) 245, PhysCF.10(4)459
Kinetics of Reactions in Flames
ComFla23(l)73
Kinetics of Thermodissociation
PhysCE 10(3) 303
Kumamoto FirCom41( 1 ) 18,
... FirJ rn68( 3 ) 42
Labor Department Hearings
FirChfl8(7)24
Lactose ComFla23(3)363
Laminar Flame ... PhysCE 10(5) 696
Laminar Flame Radiation
PhysCE 10(3) 383
Laminar Flame Region
ComFla23(3)337
Laminar Premixed Flames
ComFla22(3)365
Laminated Plastics ... FPSTech(8)4
Large Fires FirTecl()(2) 147
Large-Loss Fires .... FirJrn68(4)77.
FirJrn68(6)50
Laser Anemometry . ComFIa23( I ) 57
Laser Instrument .. PhysCE 1 0(6) 934
Laser Radiation .. PhysCE 10(2) 256
Laser-Schlieren Method
PhysCE 1 0(5) 629
Latcb Straps FirF.ngl 27( 1 1)68
Layered Halon Fir I ccl()( I ) 25
Lead Modifiers ... ComFla22(3)289
Legislation FEngJ 34(93) 18
LeisureCenter Firlnt4(44) 18
Life Fire Hazard .... JFFCTK4) 191
Life Hazard JFFCT1(4) 191
Life Safety FirJrn68(2)65
Life Support FirTeclOf I ) 15
Light Fixtures FirJrn68(3) 14
Light Frequency Shifting
ComFla23( 1 ) 57
Light Pulse Source PhysCE 1 0( 1 ) 1 1 6
Liquid Fuel Drops
ComSciT9(5-6) 233
Liquid Fuel Fires
. ComFla23(3) 337. ComSciT9( 1-2)71
Liquid Fuel Spray
ComSciT9(5-6) 197
Liquid-Solid Systems
ComFla22( 1 ) 1
Liquid Transformations
PhvsCF.!0(3)392
Locked Doors FirEngl 27(2) 4 J
LOl Test
also see Oxygen Index Test.
Firlnt4(43)78
Lounge Fire FirJrn68( I ) 16
Low-Dispersed Fillers
PhvsCE10( 1)110
Low Frequency Vibrations
PhysCE 1 0(1)38
Low-Temperature Oxidation
ComFla23(3)295
Low-Temperature Zone
PhysCE 10(6) 84 1
l.P-Gas FirCom4l(9)22.
Fir.lrn68( I )52
LP-GasBleve FirCom4 1(8) 34
LP-Gas lank Farm . FirEngl27(6)20
l.P-Gas Tank Rupture
FirC'om4l(5) 14
LP-Gas Tank Trucks
FirJ rn68( 5)18
Macrocvlinders ... ComSciT9( 1-2)31
Magnesium Oxychloride
... FirJ eel 0(3) 201. JFFFRCI(4) 243
Magnesium Particles
ComFla22(3)383
ABS 1 KACTS AND REVIEW'S
K9
Magnesium Powders
. . PhysCE 10(4) 548, PhysCE10(5)669
Magnetic Field ... PhysCE 10(5) 784
Magnetic Properties
PhysCE 10(4) 594
Management FirCom4l(4)52
Management Development Program .
FirEngl27( 12)42
Management of Information
FEngJ 34(95) 16
Management Tool .. FirCom4l(2)30
Manhole Rescues .. FirEngl27(2)35
Mannequins JFFCPF1(1)I9
Marina Fire FirCom41(10)22
Marine Fire Protection
FirEngl27(7)28
Marine Gas Hazards
FirCom41(l2)26
Mass Force Field . . PhysCE 10(2) 162
Mass Regression .. ComSciT9(l-2)3!
Mass Spectrometry . ComFla23(l)73
Master Plan FirChfl8(8)48
Materials First Ignited
FirJrn68(3)56
Mathematical Model . FirTeclO(4) 304
Mathematical Models
PhysCE 10(1) 56
Mattress Flammability
JFFCPF1(3) 240
Mechanical Heating
PhysCEI0(2) 260
Medical Aid Firlnt4(43 ) 85
Medical Aid Vehicles
FirEngl27(3)57
Medical Emergencies
FirChf 1 8( I ) 44
Medical Facilities
FirJrn68(6)33
Medical Services .. FirEngl 27(8) 164
Medium Behavior . PhysCE 1 0(3) 437
Medium Composition
PhysCEI0(4)473
Men and Performance
FirCom4l(6)42
Merchant Navy Training
FPRevf 399)61
Merchant Vessels Firlnt4(43) 36
Merchantile Fire ... FirCom4l(l 1)31
Metal-Boron PhysCE 1 0(2) 201
Metal Cutting .... PhysCE10(6)857
Metal Embossing . PhysCE 1 0(6) 93 1
Metal Fires FirTecl0(3) 197.
... FirTecl0(4)269.JFFLAO5(3)223
Metal Interfaces .. PhysCE 10(6) 904
Metal Parts Ignition
PhysCE 10(2)2 1 2
Metal Plate Acceleration
PhysCE 10(2) 292
Metal Plates PhysCE 10(3)409
Metallic Additives
ComSciT9( 1-2)61
Metallic Particle .. PhysCE 10(3) 363
Metallized Compositions
PhvsCE10(2) 169
Methane ComFla23(2)233.
. . JFFLA05(2) 136. JFFLA05(3) 190
Methane Conversion
PhysCE 1 0(3) 446
Methane Flame Extinguishment
FirTec 1 0( I ) 25
Methane-Oxygen . PhysCE 10(2) 235.
. . PhvsCE10(3)446. PhysCE10(4)612
Methylamine Perchlorate Combustion
PhysCE 1 0(5) 650
Metric Conversion .... LabDat5(2)9
MHDGenerator ... ComFla23( 1 ) 29
Mild Steel PhysCE 10(1) 132
Mini-Maxi Pumper
.... FirChf 1 8( 1 0) 27. FirChf 1 8( 11)29
Mixing Processes
ComSciT9(3-4) 1 1 1
Mixtures PhysCE 1 0(1) 99.
. PhysCE 10(2) 235. PhysCE 1 0(3) 3 1 3.
. . PhysCE 10(4)459. PhvsCEI0(4)6l2
Mobile Casualty Center
FPRe\37(408) 449
Mobile Communications Systems ....
FPRev37(405) 289
Mobile Home Fire .... FirJ rn68( 1)5
90
FIR F RESEARCH
Mobile Homes LabDat5(3)4
Mobile Unit FirEngl27(6) 26
Mobilizing by Computer
FEngJ 34(93) 35
Molecular Beam . . . ComFla23( 1 ) 73
Monatomic Inert Gas
PhysCE 10(3) 303
Monitor Firlnt4(45) 87
Monnex FPRev37(400)92
Monodispersed Particles
PhysCE 1 0(1) 88
Motel FirJrn68(4)5
Motel Fire FirJrn68(2)5
Multicomponent Diffusion
PhysCE10( I )45
Multicomponent Fuel Mixture
PhysCE 10(6) 826
Multiple Alarms ... FirEngI27(4)49
Multiple-Death FirJrn68(3)69
Mutual Aid FirCom41(6)40.
. . . FirCom4l(l 1)31. FirEngl27(2)26
MVSS-02 JFFCPF1(3)295
Na-x Fire Extinguishing Agent
FirTecI0(4) 269
NASA Breathing Apparatus
.... FirEngl27(l)47, FirEngl27(8)68
National Bureau of Standards
LabDat5(4)l5
National Electrical Code
LabDat5(2)4
Natural Gas FirJrn68(3)77
Natural Gas Explosion
FirCom41(3)22
NBS Research FirEngl27(7) 38
Nickel Hardening . PhysCE 10(3) 42 1
Nickel Softening .. PhysCE 1 0( 3) 42 1
Night Vision Systems
FirEng 127(8) 178
NitricOxide ComFla22(l)7l.
. ComFla22(2) 259, ComFla22<3) 299,
ComFla23(2)277.
ComSci T9(5-6) 209.
PhysCE 10(2) 230
NitricOxide Formation
Com Fla 23(2) 249
Nitrocellulose Propellants
ComFla22(3) 289
Nitroester Combustion Zones
PhysCE10(5)656
Nitrogen ComSciT9(5-6)255
Nitrogen Atmosphere
ComSciT9(I-2)3l
Nitrogen Dioxide Formation
ComSciT9(5-6)26l
Nitroglycerine .... PhysCE 10(3) 334
NO Formations ... ComSciT9( 1-2) 17
Non-Ideal Plasma . PhysCE10(2) 289
Nonacoustic Pulsations
PhysCE 10(3) 334
Nonisothermic Thermographic Studies
PhysCE 1 0(4) 530
Nonstationary .... PhysCE 10(3) 34 1
Normal Burning .. PhysCE 10(6) 826
NOxEmissions ... ComSeiT9(l-2)61
NOx Formation ComFla22(2).
ComSciT9(5-6)22l
Nozzles see: Automatic Nozzles
Numerical Methods
ComFla22(2) 171
Nursing FirEng 1 27(4) 55
Nursing Home Fire
. . . FirCom4l(2)24. FirEngl27(4)55.
Fir.lrn68(3) 1 1
0+N0-N+02 ComSciT9(3-4)79
Oblique Collisions PhysCE 10(3) 409
Oblique Detonation
PhysCE 10(6) 877
Occupational Emotional Stress
FirCom4l(7)27
Office Building F i r J r n68( 1)61.
FirJrn68(2)65
Ohio State University
I FFCT 1(2) 95
Oil Bulk Ore Carrier
Firlnt4(45) 25
Oil Burner ComSci 1 9(1-2) 6 1
Oil Burner Facilities
LabDat5(4) 10
Oil Refinery FPRev37(407) 382
Oil Risks FPRev37(406) 349
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
91
Oil-Soaked Lagging . FPSTech(9)13
Oil-Tank Fires FPSTech(8)21
Oleum Leakage FEngJ34(94)47
Optical Density ... JFFLA05(2) 151
Organic Compounds JFFLA05(4) 321
Organic Fuel Nitrogen
ComFla22(3)299
Oscillating Characteristics
PhysCEI0( 1)137
OSHA Plan Records FirEngl27(8)53
OSHAct Regulations
NSNewsl09(6)69
Overtime Requirements
FirChf 1 8(7) 24
Oxidation Reactions
ComFla23( 1 )47
Oxidizing Gas Flow
PhysCE10(5)710
Oxygen Atom Formation
ComFla23(2)233
Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres
JFFLA05( 1)16
Oxygen Index ComFla23(I)l
Oxygen Index Test
alsoseeL01Test,FPSTech(8)4
Oxygen-Inert Atmospheres
ComFla22(3)383
Oxygen-Rich Atmosphere
PhysCE10(2)212
PETN PhysCE 10(6) 874.
PhysCE10(6)9l2
Paint FirC'om4l(4)34
Paper ComFla22(2)223.
. ComSciT9( 1-2) 75. JFFLA05(3) 167
Paramedic Service
FirEngl27( 1 1 )34
Paramedics FirCom4l( 12)20
Parking Structures ... Firlnt4(43)49
Partial Equilibrium Models
ComFla22(3)299
Particle Distribution
PhysCE 10(4) 554
ParticleSi/e PhvsCEI0(5)669
Percus-Yevick Equation
ComFla22(2)269
Performance Appraisal Systems
FirEng 127(6) 28
PH A Mixture Models
PhysCEKX I ) 4 1
Phosphate JFFFRC1(4)205
Phosphorus Compounds
JFFFRCI(2) 1 10
Phosphorus-Containing Vinyl
JFFFRCK3) 125
PhotoTeam FirC'hfl 8(9) 22
Physiological Hazard
JFFCTI(3) 157
Pill IgnitionTest .. JFFLA05(4)268
Piloted Ignition . . . JFFLA05(2) 107
Pine Wood ComSciT9( 1-2)31
Pipeline Accident FirJrn68(3)77
Plane Destructive Waves
PhysCE 1 0( 1)124
Plane Jet Breakup .. PhysCE!0(5)755
Plasma ComFla23( I ) 29
Plastic Parts LabDat5(4)4
Plasticity PhysCE 1 0(4) 603
Plastics
also see Foamed Plastics.
Firlnt4(43) 55. Firlnt4(43)78.
FirJrn68(6)23. JFFCPFI(2) 186
Plate PhysCE 10(6) 877
Plates PhysCE 1 0(6) 884
Plug-Flow Burner . ComFla23(2)249
PNA PMMA Mixtures
PhysCE 10(3) 345
Pneumatic Puller FPRev37(402) 162
Point Source ComFla23(l) 109.
ComSciT9(3-4) 173
Point Source Explosions
PhysCE 10(6)923
Pollution Control
FPRev37(405) 307
Polyatomic Gases . PhysCE 10(4) 459
Polycrystals PhysCE 10(3)452
Polvcster-Cellulosic Fiber Blends ....
JFFLA05(4) 227
Polyester Polyurethane
FirCom4l(9)20
Polymer Surface . ComSciT9( 1-2) 151
Polymer Systems .. JFFFRCK3) 152
92
FIRE RESEARCH
Polymeric Materials
.... JFFCPF1(3)225, JFFCT1(2) 124
Polymerization Front Propagation
PhysCE 10(1) 22
Polymerization Front Propagation
Theory PhysCE 10(5) 643
Polymers JFFLA05(1)I6
Polymorphic Transition
PhysCEI0(6)801
Polyurethane Foam
JFFFRC'1(4) 175
Polyurethane Foams JFFCTH4) 259
Polyurethane Insulation
FirEngl27(3)44
Polyvinylchloride .. JFFFRCI(2)78
Population Inversion
.. ComFla22(2) 237. PhysCE 10(4) 608
Population Inversions
PhysCE 10(4) 473
Porous Bodies .... PhysCE 10(5) 782
Porous Condensed Systems
PhysCE 1 0(6)81 1
Porous Cylindrical Solids
PhysCE 10(4) 568
Potassium ComFla2(2) 191
Potassium Chlorate
. . ComFla23(3) 357, ComFla23(3) 363
Powder Mixtures ... PhysC'E 1 0( 1 ) 4
Powdered Materials
PhysCE10(5) 746
Power PhysCE 1 0( 1 ) 1 16
PowerCross FirJrn68(2)7
PowerStations Firlnt4(46) 18
Pre-Fire Planning
FirChfl8(l)34. FirEng 127(4) 54
Precombustion FirTecl0(2) 129
Prefabricated Fireplaces
LabDat5(2) 10
Premixed Jets .... PhysCE 10(2) 220
Preplanning FEngJ34(94)24
Pressure Dependence
PhysCE 1 0(4) 548
Pressure Measurement
PhysCE 10(2) 265
Pressure Vessels .. NSNews 109(6) 80
ProbeCurrent .... PhysCE 10(5 ) 779
Probe Measurements
PhysCE 10(5) 705
Process Plant Design
Firlnt4(45)69
Product Composition
PhysCE 1 0(2) 201
Professional Engineering
LabDat5(3)6
Professional Qualifications Board . . .
FirCom41(2)26
Propane ComFla23(3) 295
PropaneCloud FirCom4l(2) 18
Propane Oxidation
PhysCE 10(6) 84 1
Propane-Oxygen Flame
ComSciT9(3-4) 129
Propane! ank Blast
FirEngl 27(7) 35
Propellant PhysCE 10(1) 38.
PhysCE10(5) 764
Propellant Burning Laws
PhysCE 10(2) 197
Propellant Erosion
PhysCE 10(3) 34 1
Propellants ComFla22(l)59.
. . PhysCE 10(3) 338. PhysCE 10(6) 81 1
Propylene Oxide . FPRev37(401 ) 130
Protective Clothing Feature
FPRev37(408)425
Psychology FirCom41(4)36
Publiclmage FirCom4l( 1 1 ) 26
Public Safety FirChfl8(3)28.
FirChfl8(4)46. FirChf 1 8(5) 45
PumpOperators ... FirEngl27(5)44
Pump Operators Course
FirEngl 27( 10) 18
Pump- Remote Controlled
FirEng 127(1 1 ) 52
Pumper also see Articulated Pumper:
Mini-Maxi Pumper:
Radio-Controller Pumper.
FirCom4l(7)26
Pupils FirEngl27(9) 18
PYRO Propellant . ComFla22<2)273
Pyrolysis ComSciT9( 1-2)31.
JFFLA05(2) 1 16
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Pyrolysis Experiments
JFFLA05(1)76
Pyrotechnic Compositions
. . ComFla23(3) 357, ComFla23(3) 363
Qualifications Board
FirEngl27(3)54
Quartz PhysCE!0(3)426
Quartz Glass PhysCE 10(4) 578
Quasistationary Approximation
PhysCE10(4)534
Quasistationarv Concentration
Method PhysCE 10(1) 94.
PhysCE10(3) 376
Quench Distances . ComFla22( 1 ) 131
Quenched Premixed Flames
ComFla22(3)415
Radiant Heat Pulse
PhysCE10(5)764
Radiant Heating .. ComSciT9(l-2)41
Radiant Panel Test . JFFCPF1(4)305
Radiated Heat PhysCE10(5)717
Radiation Incident
FPRev37(400)88
Radiative Heat Transfer
ComSciT9(5-6) 273
Radio FirCom41(7)3l
Radio Control .... FirEng 1 27( 11)52
Radio-Controlled Pumper
FirCom4l(4) 50
RadioSystem FirEngl27( 10)46
Radio Teleprinter .. FirEngl27(4)68
Radioactive Materials
FirChf 1 8(7) 16. FirChf 1 8(8) 53
Rail Yard FirChfl8(6) 32
Rate Constant Determinations
ComFla23( 1)109
Rate Constants ... ComSciT9(3-4) 79
Rate Data ComFla23(2)2l5
RDX -T hermal Decomposition
.... ComFia22( 1)13. ComFla22( I ) 19
RDX-Wax ComFla22( 1)119
Reactant Relationships
PhvsCE10(2)20l
Reacting Gas Mixture
PhysCEKK I ) (74)
93
Reaction Kinetics .. ComFla22( I ) 23
Reaction Mechanism
JFFLA05(3) 190
Reactive Gas PhysCE 10(6) 936
Recirculated Products
ComFla22(2)281
Recirculation Region
ComFla23(l)57
Recombination Rate Constants
PhysCE 10(2) 291
Records Center Fire
FirJrn68(3)5,FirJrn68(4)65
Recruiting FEngJ34(95)20
Recruits Training ... FEngJ 34(95) 20
Reducer Inhibition
PhysCE 1 0(2) 206
Refractive Indices
ComSciT9(3-4) 159
Refractory Synthesis
PhysCE10(3)445
Refuse-Handling FirJrn68(2)82
Regulations Firlnt4(46)61
Relaxation Wave Velocity
PhysCE10(2)274
Release Rate Apparatus
JFFCTI(2)95
Release Rate Data ... FirTecl()(3) 181
Remote Ignition of Explosives
PhysCE 10(1) 142
RepairGarages FirJ rn68( 5)18
Rescue Devices .. FPRev37(402) 162
RescueTenders .. FPRev37(404)267
Rescue Work FirEng 1 27(4) 55
Residential Fire Safety
FirJrn68(2) 18
Residential Fires FirJrn68(3)56
Residential Occupancies
F'irJ rn68( 1)71
Response Time FirChfl8(2)34
Rest Home Fire FirJrn68(5)22
Retirement Community
FirChf 1 8( 12)33
Revenue Sharing FirChf 1 8(8) 64
Reynolds Numbers PhysCE 10(5) 784
Rhenium ComFla22(2) 191
Road Tanker FEngJ34<94)47
94
FIRE RESEARCH
Rocket Combustion
ComFla22(2) 171
Rocket Motors ... ComSciT9(34)95
Rocket Propellant Combustion
ComSciT9(3-4) 149
RoofTank Fires FirJrn68(4)93
RoofTrusses LabDat5(3)4
ROTC Cadets FirChfl8(9) 32
RoundTubes PhysCE10(6)939
RungTesting Device
FirChf 1 8( JO) 36
Safe Flame L?bDat5(2) 10
Safe Streets Act FirChf 1 8(6) 37
Safety LabDat5(l) 14,
LabDat5(4)17
Safety Bill FPRev37(401) 145
Safety Cans LabDat5(2)20
Safety First FirCom4l(4)52
Safety Symbols . NSNewsl09(6) 104.
NSNewsl09(6) 106
Salvage Operations .. FEngJ34(93)22
Sampling ComFla23(l) 109
Sampling Probes ... ComFla23(l)73
Sao Paulo Brazil
FirEngl27(7) 18, Firlnt4( 44)24
Saw Blades FirCom41(4)60
Saw Mill Fire FirChf 1 8(3) 32
Scale Effects PhysCE 10(4) 603
Schlieren System JFFLAOS(l)4
School Activities
FirEngl27(9) 18
School Fire Fir.lrn68(6) 50
Schools FirTeclO(3)22l
SCORE FirChf 1 8(6) 30
Sea Rescue FirChfl8(3)34
Search Areas FirEngl27( 1 1 ) 68
Seattle Fire Department
FirEngl27(7)28
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus .
FirCom4l(4)40
Self-Heating ComFla23(3) 319.
JFFLA05(4)321
Self-Heating Slab .. ComFla23(l) 17
Self-Locking Doors
FirEngl27( 11)68
Self-Propagating Eaves
PhysCE 10(3) 445
Self-Reversed Contours
ComFla23(3) 305
Semiconfined V olume
. . PhysCE 10( 1)38. PhysCE 10(2) 1 78.
. . PhysCE 10(3) 354. PhysCE 1 0(6) 8 1 8
Service Station Explosion
FirJrn68(4) 10
Shallow Explosives
PhysCE10(3)440
Ship Fire Firlnt4(44)91
Ship Fire Unit FPRev(399)61
Shock Compression
PhysCE 10(4) 568
Shock Loaded Bismuth
PhysCE 10(5) 752
Shock Loading ... PhysCE10(6)904
ShockWave ComSciT9(5-6) 233
Shock Wave Decay PhysCE 10(5) 732
Shock Wave Effects
PhysCE10(3)426
ShockWaves ComFla22(l)53,
. ComFla23(2)233, PhysCE 10(3) 392.
. PhysCEHK3)421,PhysCEI0(4)561.
. PhysCE 1 0(4) 578. PhysCE 10(4) 594.
. PhysCE 10(5) 629. PhysCE 10(5) 746.
. Phy sCE 1 0( 6 ) 89 1 , Phy sC E 1 0( 6 ) 9 1 9 .
. . PhvsCE10(6)93L PhvsCE10(6)939
ShockedGases ... ComFla22(3)407
ShoppingComplexes
FPRev37(4(x)) 78
Signs NSNewsl09(6) 102
Silicon Dioxide ... PhysCE10(3)426.
PhysCE 10(4) 578
Simulation Methods
ComFla23(3)373
Single-Component System
PhysCE10(4)459
Single-Family Residences
Fir.lrn68(5)42
SLR P Analysis Fir.lrn68(5)51
Small-Scale Furnace . . . LabDat5( 1 ) 5
Smoke FirJrn68( 1)9.
JFFCTI(3) 177
Smoke Barriers ... FirEng 1 27( 12)36
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
95
SmokeControl Firlnt4(44)49,
FirTeclO(l)35
Smoke Damage FirEngJ27(6)52
Smoke Density Chamber
... FirTecI0(3) 187, JFFLA05(2) 151
Smoke Detection .... FirJrn68(6)69
Smoke Detectors FirJrn68(6)79
Smoke Development FirTeclO(3)l87
Smoke Evolution . JFFLA05(2) 125
Smoke Extraction Systems
Firlnt4(46)85
Smoke-Producing Characteristics . . .
JFFLA05(1)64
Smoke Retardant . JFFFRCI(3) 152
Smoke Shutter Firlnt4(46)73
Smoke Suppressant JFFFRC!(2)78
SmokeTest Methods
FirTec 10(4) 282
SmokeproofTowers .. FirJrn68(2)46
Smouldering Plastics
JFFCT1(4)250
Sodium Chloride . . PhysCE10(2)274
Soil Cavities PhysCE 10(6) 907
Solid Particles PhysCE 10(1) 56
Solid Particles in Flames
ComFla23( 1)
Solid Propellant
ComFla23(3)381,
ComSciT9(5-6) 195,
PhysCE 10(4) 554
Solid Propellant Burning
PhysCE10(6)8l8
Solid Propellants
ComSciT9(l-2)37,
ComSciT9(5-6) 183
Solids PhysCEI0(3)440
Solvent Factory Fire
FPRev37(408)442
Soot Formation PhysCE 10(5) 767
Soot Particles .. ComSciT9(3-4) 159.
PhysCE 1 0(2) 256
Sound ComSciT9(3-4)95
Sound and Flow Interaction in Rocket
Motors ComSci 19(3-4)95
Sound-Deadening Board
Fir.lrn68(4) iOO
South America Burning
FirJrn68(4)23
Spandrel Spaces FirTecl0(2) 1 10
Spark PhysCE10(6)9l2
Spark Ignition Kernels
.. ComFla22(2)l43,ComFla22(2)263
Specific Surface PhysCEI0(l)4l
Spectral Lines ComFla23(3)305
Spectroscopic Study
PhysCE 10(1) 15
Spherical Combustion Propagation
Process PhysCE 10(5) 691
Spin Detonation Core
PhysCE 10(3) 386
Spontaneous Ignition
. . ComFla22( 1 ) 35. ComFla22(2) 223,
ComFla23(3) 347
Spray Booths FirJrn68(3) 14
Spray Combustion
ComSciT9(3-4) 165
Sprinkler Heads . FPRev37(402) 182
Sprinkler Installations
FEngJ 34(94) 40
Sprinklers FirJrn68(l)61.
FirJm68(2)70
Stability Theory .. PhysCE10(6)818
Stairs FirEng 1 27( 1 2) 36
Stairways FirJrn68(l)9
Standard FF4-2 ... JFFCPFI(3)240
Standards-Making .. FirCom41(4)47
StarofLife FirEng!27(3)57
Static Systems ComFla22(l)35
Stationary Combustion
PhysCE 10(4) 608
SteelTubcs PhysCEI0(4)603
Steelwork FPSTech(9)4
Stirred-Flow Reactor
ComFla23(3)295
Stirred Reactor ... ComFla22(2) 197.
ComFla23(3)319
Stochastic Model . ComFla23(2)249
Stoves Fir.lrn68(3)87
StrawBurning .... FPRev37(400)8l
Strong PhysCE 1 0(6)89 1
Structural Change
PhysCE 10(3)452
96
FIRE RESEARC H
l
Structural Characteristics
FirJrn68(l)22
Structural Fires JFFCTI(4)I9I
Students Against Fires
FirChfl8(6)30
Studying PhysCE 10(5) 762
Styrene Polymers .. JFFFRC1(1)26
Subsequent PhysCE!0(3)42l
Substances PhysCE 10(6) 934
Summerland Enquiry
FPRev37(404) 249
Summerland Fire FEngJ34(96)8
Super-Rate Burning
ComFla22(3)289
Supercompressed . PhysCF.10(3)405
Superdome FirEngl27(4)66
Supersonic Flow .. PhysCE 10(4) 473.
.. PhysCE 10(5) 723, PhysCE 10(6) 936
Supersonic Gas Flows
PhysCE 10(1) 56
Supersonic Reacting Flow
PhysCE 10(4) 492
Supply Hose FirEngl27(7)32
Supply Lines FirEngl27(4)52
Surface Cleanliness
PhysCE 10(2) 284
Surface Effects ... PhysCE 10(3) 409
Surface Formation PhysCE 1 0(3) 354
Surface Structure . PhysC'E10(3)345
SurfaceTemperature Criterion
ComSciT9(3-4) 171
Surfboards FirChf 1 8(3) 34
Suspended PhysCE 10(1) 88
Swirling Flows ... ComFla23(2) 143
Symbols NSNewsl09(6) 102
Synthetic Foam Compound
Firlnt4(45) 34
Synthetic Polymers .. J F FCT 1(3) 141
Systems PhysCE 10(2) 201
T-Burners ComSciT9(3-4)95
Tactics FirCom4l(2)28
Tank Car Explosion
FirCom4l( 10) 21
Tank Truck Fire FirCom41(4)70
Tanker FirChf 18( 1 1 )39
Tanker Trailers .. FPRev37(401) 130
Tantalum-Oxygen Interaction
PhysCEIO(2)245
Tavern Fire FirJrn68(5) 38
Teletypewriter FirEngl27(2)42
Temperature Curves
FirTecl0(4)315
Temperature Dependence
ComFla22(3)295
Temperature Measurements
PhysCE 10(6) 904
Temperature Profiles
ComFla23(l)83
Temperature Sensitivity
ComSciT9(5-6) 183
Textile Materials ... JFFCPF1(2) 1 15
Textiles also see Fabrics.
JFFCPF1(3)225
Thermal Analysis . ComFla23(3)363
Thermal Decomposition
. . . ComFla22( 1)13. ComFla22( 1)19.
. . . JFFCTI(4)259, PhysCE 10(3) 338
Thermal Decomposition Products . . .
JFFCTI(4)236
Thermal Degradation
. . ComFla22(2)223. PhysCE 10(6) 801
Thermal Diffusion ComFla23(3) 399
Thermal Dissociation
PhysCEKX4)459
Thermal Excitation Efficiency
PhvsCF 10(4)473
Thermal Explosion
PhysCE 10(3) 376
Thermal Instability
’. . ComFla23(3) 329
Thermal Insulation
IFFLA05(4)32I
Thermal Oxidative Degradation
JFFLA05(4) 243
Thermal Radiation Hazards
FirTccl0(2) 147
Thermal Theory PhysCE 10(4)498
Thermal Wave .... PhvsCE 10(5) 752
1
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
97
Thermochemical Cycle
PhysCE 10(6) 898
Thermochemical Method
ComFla22(2) 197
Thermodynamic Functions
PhysCE 10(6) 791
Thermophysical Properties
PhysCE 10(2) 289
Thermoplastics JFFFRCl(l) 13,
JFFLA05(2) 125
Thin Plate PhysCE10(3)401
Thin-Walled Tubes
PhysCEI0(2)277
I'hird-Order Reactions of Atomic Lead
ComFla22(3)295
Tire Warehouse Fire
FirJrn68(2)70
Titanium ComFla23( I ) 129
T olylene Diisocyanate
JFFCTI(4)259
Tornado FirEngl 27( 1 1 ) 30
T ornado Rescue W ork
FirEngl 27(2) 26
Total Flooding FirJrn68(6) 105
Toxicities JFFCT1(2) 104
Toxicity JFFCT1(4)236,
JFFCTI(4)250
Toxicological Parameters
JFFCT1(I)4
Toxicology JFFCTI(2) 124.
. . . JFFCTI(4)268. JFFFRC1(4)205
Trailer FirEngl 27(6) 26
Training FirEng 1 27( 1 1)38
Training Center .... FirEngl27(8)96
Training Program .. FirEng 1 27( 3 ) 4 1
Training Reorganization Plan
FirChf 1 8(7) 2 1
Transition Metals ... PhysCEI0(l)4
Transitional Processes
PhysCE 10(3) 354
Transportation Accidents
FirCom4l(4) 1 1
Trauma FirCom4l( 10) 16
Tria/inc ComFla22(l) 13.
ComFla22( I ) 19
Trot i I PhysCE 1 0(4) 56 1
Truck-Bays FirEngl27(3)45
Tube Wall Motion PhysCE10(5) 737
Tunnel FirEngI27(l0)24
Tunnel Rescues .... FirEngl 27(2) 35
Turbulent Characteristics
PhysCE10(5)723
Turbulent Field ... PhysCE 10(2) 240
Turbulent Flame ... ComFla22(l )99
Turbulent Flames
ComSciT9(3-4) 177
Turbulent Flow ... PhysCE 10(6) 933
Turbulent Fluctuations
ComSciT9( 1-2) 17
Turbulent Mixing ComFla22(2).
.. ComFla23(2) 249, ComFla23(3) 283
TV Fire FirEngl 27(6) 52
TV Fires FirEngl 27(9) 33,
FirEng 1 27(10)40, FirJrn68(4)5
UF1RS FirCom41(2)30
UHF Bands FirEng 127(8) 164
ULs Follow-Up Service
LabDat5(l)8
UL Testing Program ... LabDat5(4)4
Unconfined Explosions
PhysCEI0(6)919
United States FirJrn68(4) 77
Unsteady Combustion
ComFla22(2) 259
Urethane Foams ... JFFFRCI(I)31.
JFFFRCI(2)6I
USSR-PowerStations
Firlnt4(46) 18
Vapor-Air Mixtures
PhysCE 10(6) 934
Vapor Phase Diffusive Burning Rate
PhysCEI0(3) 363
Vapors LabDat5(3)9
Vehicle Standards ... FirCom4!(l)20
Velocity Gradient . ComF!a22(2)28l
Velocity Measurements
’ ComFla23( I ) 57
Velocity Profiles . . . ComFla23( I ) 83
Ventilation Systems
FEngJ 34(95)56
98
HIRE RESEARCH
Vibrational Combustion
PhysCE 10(5) 772
Visibility of Fire FirCom41(5)22
Volunteer Administrative Officers . . .
FirChfl 8(1 0)31
Volunteer Fire Company
FirChfl 8(9) 20
Volunteer Fire Department
FirChfl 8(6) 35. FirChfl 8(1 2) 33,
FirCom41(4)50
Wake - Electron Concentration varia-
tions PhysCE 1 0( 1 ) 1 37
Wall-Ceiling FirJrn68(5)5!
Warehouse Fire .... FirEngl27(l ) 45,
FirEngl27(3)44, FirEngl27(6)20
Warning Systems LabDat5(2)6
Water FirChfl 8(1 1)24,
FirEngl27(9)38
Water -Floor Load
FirEngl27(9)38
WaterSupplies ... FirEng)27(10)30
Weak Discontinuity Propagation
Velocity PhysCE10(6)933
Wedge PhysCE 10(6) 936
Wheat FirEng 127(8) 170
Wildfire Fighting
FirEngl27(9)42
Wildfires FirEngl27(8) 178
Women FEngJ34(93) 15.
.... FirChfl8(9) 20. FirEngl 27( 10) 50
Women Firefighters
FirEng!27(4)59
Women Volunteers . FirEngl27(4) 59
Wood Charring Rate JFFFRC!(2)96
Wood Fires ComSciT9(l-2) 13
Wood Stoves Hazards
FirJrn68(3)87
Woods -Thermal Degradation
JFFl.A05(4)243
FIRE TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION IN SWEDEN
Vilhelm Sjolin*
The National Swedish Institute for Building Research
INTRODUCTION
Sweden covers 0.3% of world land area and is approximately the same size as
California or twice the size of the U nited Kingdom. She is the fourth largest country
in Europe after Russia, France, and Spain, and is about the same latitude as
Alaska. Malmo, in the south, is on a level with Glasgow. Stockholm is beyond
the northern tip of Scotland, while Kiruna. in the north, is above the Arctic Circle.
Sweden enjoys a temperate climate, thanks to the Gulf Stream.
There are two forest districts in the country. Forests cover most of the northern
part of Sweden. There is also a smaller fores', area in the southern part.
In 1969 the total population in the country was 8,013.700. Some 50% of the
population live in four areas in the southern part of the country. Very few people
live in the northern regions.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government
system. Political power is concentrated in the Cabinet and the Parliament and
the role of the monarch is mainly representative and symbolic. There are five
political parties which are active both in national and local politics. The differ-
ences of opinion on practical policy between these parties, the Communists
excepted, are not particularly great.
The public sector of the Swedish economy accounted for about 30% of the
Gross National Product in 1969. The central and local governments accounted
for more than 50% of gross domestic investments and for 25% of total con-
sumption.
DEFENSE
Sweden has not been at war since 1814. The cornerstone of Swedish foreign
policy, supported by all political parties, is that Sweden should not belong to any
military alliance. Sweden’s firm resolve to maintain this policy is backed b\ a
strong military organization. In 1970 the total budget expenditure on defense
was U.S. $1,247,000,000. Swedish defense is based on a system of compulsory
military service for men between the ages of 18 and 47 Sweden has an advanced
•Presently located at FOA. Research Institute ol National Defense. Department of Physics and
Chemist r\. S-10450. Stockholm. SO. Sweden.
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FIRE RESEARCH
domestic weapons industry. Supersonic jet fighters, tanks, naval ships, and
electronic supplies, including computers, are manufactured in the country.
CIVIL DEFENSE
The aim of Swedish civil defense is to protect and save lives. This activity is
headed by the Civil Defense Board. In order to protect the population from heavy
losses from air attacks, preparations have been made to evacuate four million
civilians from urban areas. For people who have to remain in such areas, shelters
have been built to protect three and one half millions. To permit the local civil
defense forces to operate effectively after an air attack, their staff has been trained
in fire Fighting, clearance work, and medical care. Specially trained and equipped
mobile rescue forces are available to reinforce the local civil defense when neces-
sary. About 300,000 men and women are engaged in civil defense work. There is
a main Civil Defense College located some 30 miles from Stockholm and training
centers throughout the country.
SOCIAL WELFARE
Total welfare expenditure in Sweden amounts to about 17% of the Net
National Income. Internationally this is rather high, but by no means an excep-
tionally high percentage. The large expenditure for social welfare purposes is not
only due to high social aims, but also to the large proportion of older people w ho
require increased expenditure, particularly for pensions and health.
INDUSTRY
Sweden’s industry has for centuries been based on the abundant indigenous
resources of timber and iron ore. No significant deposits of coal and oil have ever
been discovered and hydroelectric power is the main domestic source of energy.
The most important sector of Swedish industry is engineering. Swedish
industry is to be found scattered practically throughout the country, with the
exception of the inland areas of Norrland. The forest industry is mainly located in
the coastal areas of Norrland. Steel and metal industries are to be found both
along the coasts and inland. The engineering industry is found in Central and
Southern Sweden, while the chemical industry is based mainly in the southern part
of the country and the armaments industry in the southern part of Central Sweden
and in the west. The motor industry is found both on the west coast and in the
Stockholm region.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
The central administrative boards are concentrated almost entirely in the
capital city. Stockholm. Government agencies, however, are to be found through-
out the country Sweden is divided into 24 counties, each w ith its ow n government.
Each county is divided into a number ol municipalities which, by 1974. will have
been reduced to about 280. They are governed by elected councils.
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
101
KIRK DAMAGE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
In Sweden 125-150 people lose their lives every year as a result of (ires and
the number is constantly increasing. The insurance companies pay out around
U.S. $50 .000 .000 each year in claims for damage directly caused by fire. Somewhere
in the region of 4,000 dwellings are either completely or partly destroyed every
year. The community is also hard hit by the costs incurred by fire damage for which
no compensation is forthcoming, either because the property in question was
under-insured or because it was not insured at all. State-owned buildings are as a
rule not insured and. therefore, do not appear in statistics on fire damage. In
addition to the direct costs, there are also indirect losses due to total breakdown
of operations or temporary interruptions, loss of work, and so on. Moreover, the
transport sector is more and more frequently suffering fires which cause serious
loss of human lives, equipment, and goods. The accumulated costs of fire damage
is estimated to be something approaching U.S.S 1 00,000 .000 per annum.
The costs of measures for fire control in buildings has been assessed as repre-
senting some 2cx of building investments or around U.S.$40.000.000 per annum.
'The fire service, financed both by the State and by the local authorities, costs almost
U.S. $60,000,000. In addition to this there is the amount invested by trade and
industry in industrial fire control, permanent fire extinguishing equipment, etc.
If we add to this the fire insurance companies' administrational costs, the sum
incurred by fire damage, fire insurance, prevention, and extinguishing of fires
has risen to around U.S. $500,000,000.
TECHNICAL PROGRESS AND FIRE CONTROL
Changeover to automated methods and assembly-line manufacture is a fea-
ture of development in industry. Rationalizations result in fewer, but larger and
more vulnerable buildings; i.e.. large warehouses, data processing centers, manu-
facturing plants, etc. Major damages are responsible for the greater part of the
costs incurred by fire damage in Sweden, as indeed is also the case in other indus-
trialized countries. One percent of all the fires in Sweden is responsible for more
than half the total cost of damages. From the international standpoint, the risk of
loss in percentages of the market must be accorded an economic significance
which is not apparent in present statistics.
In the transport sector a transition to larger units is taking place; larger
vehicles, terminals, etc. Also the speeds of different forms of transport are
gradually increasing. Largerand increasingly complex vessels are being introduced
in shipping. Indeed, the technical developments in the field of transport and
distribution call for greater attention from the aspect of fire control.
Development trends in the building field involve a transition to the use of
less reliable structures from the point of view of fire engineering coupled with
the advent of denser building development. Large, wide-spanned buildings
without partition walls, multi-basement story buildings and denser developments
of small timber houses are examples of building design which creates a need for
qualified fire engineering research. Statically indeterminate construction in
buildings of conventional ty pe and new . advanced designs in the form ol shell and
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FIRE RESEARC H
suspended roofs are other examples. New. compound problems such as fire
damage — toxic effect— corrosive effect come to the fore as new materials are
adopted for use.
FIRE RESEARCH
Fire Research has been somewhat neglected in Sweden. Efforts in this field
have been sporadicand the coverage poor. Important contributions have, however,
been made in fire research in connection with building technology, and here
Sweden has played a part which has attracted attention internationally. The
resources available for fire engineering tests of large building units such as walls
and floor slabs are, however, perhaps poorer in Sweden than in any developed
country. The Research Institute of National Defense is in the process of building
up a large fire research department and a new body, the Swedish Fire Research
and Development Council, is now to be established in order to achieve better
coordination of work in fire research.
FOREST FIRE CONTROL AND THE FOREST FIRE-SPOTTING SERV ICE
In view of the fact that 55% of Sweden’s land area is covered with forest, forest
fires should be a major problem. This is not the case. The annual loss due to forest
fires amounts to less than U.S. $400,000. The main reason for this is an extensive
fire control organization of long standing with the local fire brigades as a basis and
a thorough forest fire-spotting service which is now operated with the assistance
of the flying clubs in the forested counties.
ORGANIZATION OF FIRE SERVICES
The legislation concerned with fire means that the responsibility for extin-
guishing fires and for a major part of the preventive aspects of the tire service rests
with the local authorities. The law also accords the owner or the user of a building
a certain measure of responsibility for the prevention of fire. Building legisla-
tion is uniform throughout the country and controls the requirements regarding the
fire-retardant aspects of buildings. The local building committee is the body
responsible for decisions regarding fire-control measures in building construction,
always, however, in consultation with the head of the fire brigade. Surveys of fire
damage and any special inspections are carried out by the officers of the fire brigade
under the provisions of the fire legislation.
At the local level the fire authority is responsible for t.ic fire service. The fire
chief is answerable to this authority, but also has, according to the law,
considerable authority to act independently. Most municipalities have a fire
brigade. If, however, a fire brigade is lacking, the local authority in question will
have assured itself of satisfactory facilities for fire extinguishment b\ means ol
agreements. The fire brigades have both full-time and part-time stall. As a rule, a
brigade will have a small, full-time force on duty which is assisted by a part-time
emergency lorce when the need arises.
Each County Government Board has a Fire Marshal in its employ for the
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
10.1
purpose of ensuring that the municipalities in the county have satisfactory fire
fighting organizations. It is probable that this arrangement will soon be replaced by
another system. The Government in Stockholm has an official organ, the 1 nspector
General of Fire Services, who acts as consultant to the Government and to the local
fire services. This organ has been of great importance to the Swedish fire service. It
is, however, primarily an administrative body and its contribution in the form of
development work is nowadays relatively modest.
Parallel to the trend in trade and industry and in the building field described
above, local authorities are showing greater interest in rationalization in the
municipal fire service. Personnel costs are rising steadily as a result of the general
increase in prosperity and efforts are. therefore, being made to limit staff and to
compensate for this by an increase in the technical resources. As municipal units
merge, the number of fire brigades becomes less and at the same time the size of the
individual fire brigades decreases. On the other hand, the greater size of the areas to
be covered, together with their more and more differentiated business fife and a
rising number of objects with a large fire risk potential, increase the need for an
effective municipal system of fire control.
The local authorities’ own federation, the Swedish Union of Local Authorities,
started a special fire service section some years ago, but this has been mainly
occupied with rationalization projects which have often led to substantial
reductions in the staff of fire brigades. This has produced a controversial situation
where we have, on the one hand, the above agency and. on the other, the Inspector
General of Fire Services, and, above all, the officers of the local fire brigades. It is
true that some of the criticism directed towards the Union's fire service section may
have been misguided, but there is no doubt that the staff of this agency have in a
considerable number of cases not succeeded in achieving a satisfactory balance
between economy and safety in the field of fire control. This situation is one of the
most serious problems faced by the Swedish Fire Service today.
As most of the responsibility for fire fighting service plus a major part of
measures for fire prevention rests with the local authorities, the costs involved are
being covered by the local taxes. The larger municipal units which will be in
existence after 1974 will provide a better basis for municipal fire services than the
considerably smaller municipalities found today. However, the author of this paper
considers an organization like the county fire brigades in Britain, the Tokyo
Metropolitan Fire Board, and the County of Los Angeles Fire Department
superior to a municipally based organization.
The Swedish fire brigades also play an important part in general rescue work.
This aspect of their activities may be described as voluntary as there is at the
moment no law governing the rescue service apart from certain special types of
accidents such as atomic disasters, sea rescues, etc. A proposal was. however, put
forward by a Royal Commission in April 1971 to the effect that the fire brigades
should be made responsible by law for the greater part of the rescue work in cases of
accident This extension of the Fire Service's sphere of responsibility will be
accompanied by an increase in the resources available to the Inspector General ol
Fire Services and it has been suggested that the National Fire Technical College
should also operate training schemes in rescue techniques. T his latter proposal is
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FIRE RESEARCH
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mainly interesting since it will mean that the College will also be responsible lor
basic practical training.
FIRE-FIGHTING FORCES AND FIRE STATIONS
The Swedish fire brigades are small if compared with some to be found abroad.
The same applies with regard to the initial size of the forces sent to the scene of a
fire. The Stockholm Fire Brigade numbers only about 500 men for a city with a
population of 740.000 and this includes both technical maintenance staff and
ambulance men. An ordinary call to a fire in a private home involves a force of
about ten. The Swedish fire brigades do, on the other hand, have fairly good staff
resources for fire prevention. Even towns with populations of no more than 10,000
have a professional fire chief, usually one with a station officer diploma.
Communities with populations of more then 15,000 have without exception a fire
chief with a degree in fire engineering.
The staff of a fire brigade may be either full-time or part-time. Normally, both
types are found. Officers, specialists, and duty officers then constitute the full-time
staff, while the part-time staff forms the second line force. T raining at the national
Fire Technical College is required for all categories except ordinary part-time
firemen.
The Swedish fire brigades cover larger fire fighting areas than is usually the
case in other countries. The number of stations is, therefore, fairly small.
Stockholm has. thus, no more than nine fire stations and Uppsala, with a
population of 110,000, has only one. Fire stations in Sweden are, however,
considerably larger than the normal size of stations in many other countries. A
small station will have 6-8 fire engines, while a larger station may have more than
20. The trend, however, is now to have more fire stations of smaller size: the
problems encountered with traffic jams contribute to an increase in this tendency.
The birth of new suburbs around the towns also leads to a need for more, though
smaller, stations.
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Each fire brigade is in principle free to purchase the fire fighting equipment it
considers appropriate. The equipment to be found in the fire brigades, therefore,
varies widely, although certain main types do occur. Hoses and hose accessories are
standardized, while vehicles and personal equipment varies from brigade to
brigade. The fire engine chassis are as a rule of Swedish. American, or German
manufacture, while the bodywork is. with lew exceptions, of Swedish origin
Pumps and all lightweight ladderequipment are Swedish-made, while the turntable
ladders may be either German or Swedish. In recent years, standard vehicles of
German manufacture have been introduced in Sweden, although in small numbers.
Breathing equipment was previously German, but S wed ish-made equipment is now
predominant. Compressed air apparatus is the main type used. Product
development of fire-fighting material in Sweden has largely become possible,
thanks to the support received from the Swedish Civil Defense Board.
'
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
105
!
FIRE SERVIC E TRAINING
The Government authorities realized at an early stage the importance of giving
lire officers a satisfactory training. The National Fire Technical College was
founded in 1941 . thus replacing the training programs previously operated by the
Swedish Fire Protection Association. The present fire legislation strictly limits the
scope for becoming a fire officer without having attended this college in order to
maintain a high level of competence. Thus, in practice, nothing can replace the
diploma obtained from the National Fire Technical College however long a
person's practical serv ice or however qualified his other training may be. Sweden is.
thus, one of the very few countries in the world where the competence of fire officers
is bound up with a formal course of training in approximately the same way as is the
case for doctors and dentists, etc. There is, of course, no doubt that examples of
outstanding ability are to be found among persons of long practical experience and
natural talent and inclination for self-tuition. We feel, nevertheless, that a suffi-
ciently high average standard can be maintained only by a direct link between
competence and formal training. For this reason the Government takes responsi-
bility for the entire theoretical training of the staff of the local fire brigades. The
training is free of charge and all, with the exception of the future chief officers,
receive a salary and daily expenses during the period they spend at the college.
Four main categories of pupil can be distinguished as regards the nature of the
training received: part-time fire officers of various ranks, full-time chief fire offi-
cers. other full-time fire officers, and full-time firemen. Chimney sweeps as well as
fire fighting staff are also trained at the National Fire Technical College, first by
attending an eight-week course and then, after a certain period of practical work, a
course lasting a further ten weeks. In this case. also, competence is dependent on
this formal training.
It should be noted that all fire officers, with the exception of chief fire officers,
are recruited from the ranks of the firemen. Thus, they have an opportunity of
promotion. The official qualification in which the training culminates does not.
however, limit the holder to a particular fire brigade. When a fireman has com-
pleted training for a certain officer’s rank, he is qualified to hold that rank in anv
fire brigade in the country. A certain amount of transfer of fire officers also takes
place between the different brigades, although primarily in the case of smaller
brigades. The larger brigades recruit as a rule internally. The chief officers, on the
other hand, often move from one fire brigade to another. Naturally, such exchange
of staff also promotes the exchange of ideas, know-how. and experience. On the
other hand, it occasionally gives rise to problems in trying to maintain a state of
continuity when changes take place too often.
TRAINING OF PART-TIME FIRE OFFICERS
Although more and more fire brigades in smaller communities w ill be getting
full-time fire chiefs as a rule, station officers part-time fire officers w ill continue
to exist in Sweden, at least for the foreseeable future. These may be said to corres-
pond to the volunteer fire chiefs found in other countries. The Swedish part-time
fire officers are. however, reimbursed for the hours which they spend on duty.
106
FIRE RESEARCH
Training of these officer categories consists of a combined practical and
theoretical course lasting two weeks, plus an additional one-week course in fire
prevention. The training of fire chiefs and their deputies includes a further eight-
week theoretical course. All these courses are preceded by a correspondence course
for preparatory purposes.
The eight-week training course for part-time fire chiefs comprises 320 lessons,
the main subject studied being theory of fire suppression, fire pretention, and
building science.
TRAINING OF PROFESSIONAL CHIEF FIRE OFFICERS
The training system for chief fire officers which has been in use in Sweden since
1941 is, as far as we know, without parallel in any other country. Swedish legisla-
tion invests the fire officers, and in particular the fire chiefs, with very considerable
powers. As a result of this and also, in view of the highly qualified tasks which the
chief officers are called upon to carry out, this officer category must undergo a
highly qualified course of training. It has not been possible to recruit future chief
fire officers from the ranks of the firemen since the basic knowledge of the latter
is not sufficient for a highly qualified technical course of training. This does not
mean that practical experience is not highly valued. Nevertheless, it cannot replace
training at university level. It is, of course, also true of the reverse and the training
system in use in Sweden represents a compromise in which practical training has
been partly forced to give way to theory. Experience increases as time goes on and
the excellent basic knowledge provides the best conceivable scope for dev elopment
for the individual person. The training system for chief fire officers, culminating in
a formal examination, is thus the only means of obtaining appointments as fire
chiefs, deputy fire chiefs, and assistant fire chiefs in Sweden.
Future chief fire officers are recruited from technical colleges after having
obtained a diploma in engineering. This diploma corresponds to a little less than a
Bachelor's degree in the U.S. After being accepted by the National Fire Technical
College, students first undergo four months of practical fireman training. This
training takes place with the City of Gothenburg Fire Brigade, but completely in
accordance with the training program of the college. The training is kept under
supervision by the college and any student who proves unsuitable is withdrawn
from the course. During these four months the students also take part in the
extinguishing of a very large number of fires.
After the basic fireman training, the theoretical instruction begins at the
National Fire Technical College in Solna just outside Stockholm. This comprises a
total of some 2.200 lessons, lectures, and laboratory tests spread over a period of
three terms.
Subjects devoted the most attention arc the theory of fire extinguishing with
465 lessons, fire prevention with 315. building science with 250. and personnel
management with 150. Other subjects are mathematics, physics, chemistry,
electrical engineering, telecommunications, mechanical engineering, motor
mechanics, civics, and industrial safety and accident prevention. Special emphasis
is laid on various types of municipal activity such as urban planning, formation of
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
107
real estate, water supply and sewage systems, and construction of roads and streets.
Seminars and study visits are also arranged in various subjects, talks by guest
speakers, and physical training programs.
Space is too limited here to be able to go into the curricula in detail. To give a
few brief examples, however, the study of mathematics includes mathematical
statistics and nomography. the theory of fire extinguishing includes the study ol the
rudiments of fire extinguishing techniques, extinguishing equipment, protective
equipment, methods of fire extinguishing, investigation of the causes of fire, fire-
fighting in wartime, and the organization of the fire service in time of war. The
subject of fire prevention covers the study of the causes of fire complete with
statistics, fire pret ention in buildings, fire prevention in heating and ventilation
systems, fire prevention in public buildings, fire insurance, fire prevention in
transport and communications, inflammable and explosive materials, surveying of
fire damage and structural details, including scrutiny of plans. Finally, the study of
mechanical engineering includes internal combustion engines, steam power and
refrigerating techniques, atomic energy, and pumping systems.
The training given at the National Fire Technical College comes under four
main headings; general technology, fire technology, administration, and personnel
management. The training given in the first two fields is of high quality, but that
given in administration is not so advanced. The situation with regard to personnel
management is regrettable. In comparison with many other countries this training
is below standard and it is probable that a commission will be appointed in the near
future to undertake the task of suggesting improvements.
The instruction is organized as follows:
The course begins with the study of basic subjects such as mathematics,
physics, chemistry, etc., plus the basic principles of applied fire engineering
subjects, primarily the theory of fire suppression. At a later stage the study of the
applied technical subjects begins, plus the more qualified fire engineering subjects
such as fire prevention. The training concludes with a concentrated course with
individual instruction in personnel management and leadership. Immediately prior
to the examination the students a'e required to submit a group thesis. Written tests
take place after completing the study of each major block of subjects, and only after
passing all tests can a student obtain his degree. He is thereafter formally qualified
to hold all types of higher posts in the local fire brigades. Naturally, he usually has
to begin w ith a post as deputy chief of a smaller brigade or as assistant l ire chief
third rank in a large brigade. Some students obtain posts with insurance
companies, the Swedish Fire Protection Association. Government authorities, or
private industry on graduation.
The Swedish system has both advantages and disadvantages when compared
with systems in other countries. One of the disadvantages is w ithout doubt the fact
that our chief officer students do not from the very beginning have the years of
practice required for the lower ranks of fire officers in Sweden and for all fire
officers in most other countries. Furthermore, our college exercises control only
over the actual training. The other two. equally important, components which
together with the training course determine the ability of the individual student
that is. experience and talent for the work arc largely outside the college's range ol
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FIRE RESEARCH
influence. On the other hand, our chief officer students receive a general and
applied training in fire engineering on a high level with stiff requirements and strict
control over results. On leaving the National Fire Technical College the students
thus have a high efficiency potential for their future work. 1 he advantages of the
system also include the fact that the Government by prov iding centralized training
guarantees the competence of the fire chiefs as far as this quality is dependent upon
the actual training.
THE NATIONAL FIRE TECHNICAL COLLEGE-
RESOIRCES AND CAPACITY
The college has its main training activity based in Solna. but also operates
regional courses in the provinces. One to two station officer courses, two to three
sub-officer courses, and five to seven fireman courses are held in Solna each year
and a two-year chief officer training course is commenced every other year. In
addition, one to two courses for part-time chief officers are held each year. The
above courses each have places for 30 students, with the exception of the chief
officer course which takes 20 to 24. A large number of special courses are also
arranged in conjunction with other institutions. Courses in protection against
radioactive fall-out are thus arranged in collaboration with the Swedish Nuclear
Research Station and courses in fire-fighting on board ship in collaboration with
the Navy.
The regional courses train an annual total of 500 to 600 part-time fire officers
and approximately the same number are trained for fighting forest fires. This gives
a grand total of between 1 .500 and 1 .800 students per year. However, only 500 to
600 of these receive their training in Solna. Most other training takes place with the
larger fire brigades in accordance with the College training program. All training is
financed by the Government.
The staff of the National Fire Technical College based in Solna is small. A
director. two full-time teachers and about 100 visiting lecturers are responsible for
all the instruction given there. The regional training program, on the other hand,
employs around 200 visiting teachers and instructors. The college in Solna.
however, houses the administrative premises, classrooms, laboratories, special
premises for motor engineering, fire-fighting equipment, telecommunications,
building science, dayrooms for teachers and students, etc. Here also is the
internationally famous hall for tactical practice. It contains extensive audiovisual
equipment which also permits the simulation of the effects of fire and smoke.
VOU NTARY EFFORTS IN THE FIELD OF FIRE C ONTROL
The old volunteer spirit from the time when fire control was a national
movement in miniature has largely disappeared. An organized public serv ice has
arrived to take its place. A considerable contribution is. however, still made hv
organizations not financed through public lunds. A substantial, and in some
respects increasing, need for such assistance does, in fact, exist. The Swedish Fire
Protection Association does very important work, mainlv in the fields ol mass
instruction, propaganda, and technical service.
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PROBE MEASUREMENTS IN LAMINAR
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS#
R. M. Fristrom
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University
INTRODUCTION
One of the most fruitful methods of studying combustion processes has been
the use of measuring probes. In this discussion we will consider the applications,
problems, and limitations of such studies. The introduction of any probe, even an
optical probe* always produces some disturbance and it is a quantitative question
whether the required information is compromised beyond the point of usefulness.
The variables which are required to characterize a combustion system are
velocity, temperature, and composition as a function of position and time. If the
system is steady state and possesses some symmetry, e.g.. bunsen flames or flat
flames, the required number of variables can be greatly reduced For example, one
dimensional premixed or diffusion flames can be realized in the laboratory with this
geometry and known initial flows, the system can be completely determined by
measuring v variables where v is the number of species. This assumes conservation
of mass and an equation of state. In principle the requirement could be reduced to
5-n bv applying conservation constraints toeach atomicspecies individually, w here
n is the number of atomic species involved in the incoming molecules. This is not
usually done because diffusion is so important in combustion that elaborate
calculations are required. Instead the conservation laws can be used to check the
quality of the data (Ref. 1, p. 88). Because this is an over-determined system, it is
often possible to derive a variable which is difficult to measure directly from the
other variables. For example, if absolute composition is known, local density can
be calculated, lemperature can be calculated from density and the molecular
weight using the equation of state. Velocity can be calculated from the inlet mass
(low and local density. Similarly , missing concentrations can be deduced. (See
Table I.)
^Presented by Project SQl II) Workshop on C ombustion Measurements in .let Propulsion Systems.
Purdue I nirersity. May ld7S.
•Optical beams of sufficient intensity can induce reaction, inhibit reaction, liberate heal and even
levitate particles
109
Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company.
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
111
In more complex geometry such as an axially symmetric diffusion flame, a two
dimensional manifold of variables must be measured and. in the general case, a
three dimensional manifold. If it is desired to derive rate of reaction or heat release
information from the data, it is necessary to know not only the local intensive
variables temperature, velocity, and composition, but also their first and second
derivatives and the appropriate diffusion coefficients, thermal conductivities and
coefficients of thermal diffusion. Determining rate of species production and heat
release is difficult in most laboratory systems and virtually impossible in most
practical systems. Therefore, the experimentalist must usually settle for more
modest goals than complete analysis. Much useful information can be obtained
from such measurements arid we will now discuss some techniques which can be
used for such measurements.
VELOCITY PROBES
Local velocity must be known to derive rate processes. Several probing tech-
niques have been used: Pitot probes, particle visualization, etc.1'2.5
Pitot Tube
The pitot tube method of measuring velocity is standard in aerodynamics.4
The principle is simple: if a tube connected to a pressure-measuring device is
directed against a fluid flow, it will register a pressure which is proportional to the
square root of the velocity. In flames these pressures are low. but measurable
(Figure I ). These measurements are difficult to interpret because the probe must be
small compared with the flame front thickness and boundary layer corrections
become important. The measured pressure depends not only on velocity, but also
on the Reynolds number, w hich is. in turn, a complex function of temperature and
probe diameter.4
Flow Visualization with Particles
Another method of studying combustion aerodynamics is flow visualization
with suspended microscopic dust particles. This is a standard aerodynamic
technique.1-2-7
To be suitable for tracer studies a particle must be small, non-volatile, and
non-reactive. Particle introduction disturbs a flame, the degree depends on the
type. size, and number of particles. Particles can be visualized photographicallv
using a timed, repetitive illumination. From such a picture, velocity can be obtained
by direct measurement (Figure 2).
Common sources of error are aceclerational lag. thermomechanical effect, and
the requirement that the particle be very small compared with the flame thickness.
II a precision ot .V', is acceptable, then particle-tracer techniques can be used
for quantitative studies.1
With the advent of lasers, another particle method called laser doppler
velocimctrv has been developed. It is based on the principle that the light scattered
from particles will be shifted in frequency by the doppler effect. By using a suitable
112
EIRE RESEARCH
r
FIGURE I Apparatus for Piti»t tube measurements in (lames with typical profile. (Source
derived from J C . Quinn. Harvard I niver.sin Combustion Aerodynamics Laboraton
Report »5. May 195.1)
114
FIRE RESEARCH
detector and mixer for the scattered and unscattered beam, a beat signal can be
obtained which is proportional to the velocity of the particles. This very powerful
technique is discussed in another presentation at this symposium.'
Other Methods of Measuring Gas Velocity
Many methods of measuring velocity are not applicable to combustion
studies, because of the high temperatures or high spatial resolution required. The
hot wire methods used to study boundary layers and turbulence can give serious
errors because of the temperature gradients. An interesting variant is the pulsed hot
wire of Westenberg and Walker' which uses the heated wake of a pulsed hot wire as
a tracer.
Avoidance of Aerodynamic Measuiements
Aerodynamic measurements are among the most difficult and least precise of
combustion measurements. Therefore, it is desirable to avoid them or minimize the
dependence on aerodynamic parameters. In flames, velocity profiles can be
calculated from area ratio measurements and density determinations can be ob-
tained from thermocouple or pneumatic probe traverses.
PROBE THERMOMETRY
Probes provide the most direct method of determining local temperature.
Probe diameter should be small compared with the product and be rugged enough
to stand the high-temperature corrosive flame environment. Thermocouples have
found the widest usage in combustion studies.
Thermocouple Measurements
Thermocouple measurements make use of the thermoelectrical property of
metals. This potential is reproducible and is a function of the materials chosen for
wires. It is independent of the method of making the junction (wires may be welded,
soldered, or simply twisted together) so long as good electrical contact is main-
tained. and provided there is no appreciable temperature gradient across the joint.
A large number of thermocouple pairs have been studied1-''- but only a few are
suitable for flame use. notably the Pt. Pt-IOrr Rh and Ir. Ir-40r; Rh couples.
The advantages of thermocouple measurements are: (a) they can be made with
high precision; (b) they are small (<0.00 1 cm) and (c) they can withstand high
temperature. (See Table 2.)
The principal source of error is radiation loss. Corrections can be made so that
temperatures reliable to 10 and 20 K. positioned with a resolution of 50 microns,
can be obtained. This error can be eliminated by using the "null method" in
which the thermocouple is heated electrically to balance the radiation loss.
Temperature derivatives are primarily limited by the si/e of the wire used and the
disturbances of the vibration and catalysis, temperature differences as small as
absi racts and reivews
115
1
TAB1.F 2
l imits of some high temperature thermocouples
Couple or
Material
Upper
Temp.
Prob.
Error
Max.
Output
Comments
°C
°C
Milli
Volts
WTa
3.000
±50
23
Inert or Reducing
W.W-SOMo
3.000
50
8
Atmosphere only
W/W-25Mo
3,200
50
5.4
Ta Mo
2.600
50
19.5
W Mo
2.600
50
8.0
’’
W Re
3,200
50
3.4
lr-20Re Re-301 r
2.600
40
11
Air Compatible
Ir Re-30Ir
2.400
35
15
W Ir
2.400
20
41
Inert or Reducing
Mo-lr
2.400
35
33
Atmosphere only
W Pt
2,000
35
30
”
W Rh-40Jr
2.100
35
27
Rh Rh-8Re
2.000
-
7.4
Air Compatible
Pt-20Rh PMORh
1.900
10
5
Pt-6Rh Pt 30 Rh
1.850
10
13.5
Rh Pt-8Re
1.850
_
18
Pt Pt-IORh
1.800
3
19
Pt Rh
1.800
15
30
«
Ir lr-40Rh
15
-
”
Attributed to: V.
Sanders. “Review of High-Temperature
Immersion Thermal Sensing
Devices for In-Flight Engine Control"
Rev. Sci.
Inst. 29 917 (1958).
measurements are satisfactory for determination of derivatives, since the errors
cancel
Thermocouple thermometry is described in the literature and are discussed in
many courses on electrical measurements. The techniques of fabrication of small
noble metai couples and coating them with silica are described in the literature.1-
A thermometer immersed in a gas stream will record a temperature differing
from the true stream temperature due to kinetic energy transfer b> stagnation in
high velocity streams, conduction and radiation losses, and vibrational elteets
These problems can be classified into two groups: the effects of the probe on the
tlame. and direct errors.
I he central problem is the probe effects on the combustion s\ stem I his can be
reduced b\ reducing si/e This approach is limited by practical problems ol
fabrication or the heat transfer difficulties Disturbances can be classified as
116
FIRt RESEARCH
aerodynamic, thermal, and chemical, and are discussed in some detail with respect
to sampling probes.1'7 The significant differences between the actions of probe
thermometers and sampling probes can be summarized as follows.
The principal chemical disturbance of probes is the promotion of catalytic
reactions on the thermometer surface which gives spuriously high temperatures and
hysteresis. This is serious with metal surfaces, but it can usually be reduced by
coating with non-catalytic materials, such as silica.1’ 7'*
The principal aerodynamic effect is the velocity deficient wake behind the
thermometer which to a first approximation can be visualized as a local propa-
gation of the flame front in this region. (See Table 3.)
Errors due to stagnation kinetic energy are negligible for combustion systems
where the velocities lie below Mach 0. 1 . Conduction losses are small in most cases
since the support wires can usually be aligned along isothermals.
Radiation is a major source of error. It is proportional to the fourth power of
the temperature to the emissivity and inversely proportional to diameter (Eq. 1).
These parameters are often not well known. Onecorrection is based on the Nusselt-
Reynolds Number correlation for cylinders.
- 1-25 toT4 , \ * VJ
-w,ad J " —
Based on his measurements for quartz-coated w ires. Kaskan* suggests an t of 0.22.
In this equation t is the emissivity of the wire; a is the Stephan-Bolzmann
constant; A is the thermal conductivity of the gas; c/ is the w ire diameter; andpis the
viscosity of the gas. In these cases the effective constant for a given thermometer
can be determined by putting it in a gas stream at a known temperature and mea-
suring the resulting temperature.
Pneumatic Probe Measurements of Temperature
If the pressure drop across an orifice is sufficiently high (pressure ratio >2.5) a
sonic surface forms in the throat and flow depends only on the upstream pressure,
temperature, molecular weight, and specific heat, with a minor Reynolds number
correction for the effects of boundary layer. If two orifices are in series, the ratio
of the pressure to the upstream pressure is given by Eq. 2.1- '4
7j = 7; (Pi P;T A (Reynolds Number). (2)
This provides a desirable method of temperature measurement since it pro-
vides a connection between composition and temperature studies. Calibration is
required for quantitative work. It is not always necessary to calibrate at high
temperature environment since Reynolds corrections can be evaluated by chang-
ing density through molecular weight. This is important since it is difficult to
provide calibration temperatures above I5()0°K. The orifices must operate in the
continuum flow regime and the radical concentrations should not be high since they
recombine before entering the second orifice, changing the molecular weight and
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
117
^UZZZ
u >
o —
TJ — » W V W
.2 c c c c
73 — o C C
u-. £ ? z' /
73 r, ~
HRF RESEARCH
1 18
ratio of specific heats. It is convenient to make the first orifice a quart/ probe ot the
type used in composition sampling studies: the second orifice is not critical.
It is desirable to minimize the volume between the orifices to minimize
equilibration time. Pressures can be measured by diaphragm gauges or mercury
manometers. McLeod gauges are not satisfactory because flames contain con-
densible gases (Figure 3).
CONCENTRATION PROBES
The composition of combustion gases can be determined by probe sampling
and subsequent analysis. Sampling probes can be divided into two categories.
(1) Isokinetic probes, which remove a sample at stream velocity; and (2) Sonic
probes, which remove the sample at sonic velocity. In the absence of reaction,
isokinetic probes collect flux, while sonic sampling collects local concentration.
If the sample contains reacting gases, the reliability of the sample depends on the
rapidity of quenching. In isokinetic sampling, quenching times are controlled by
the ratio between stream velocity, thermal conductivity, and reaction rate, which
depend upon the probe diameter, reaction rate, effective thermal conductivity, and
the rate at which subsonic gas stream can be accelerated without disturbing the
sampled region. For flames the required heat transfer rates are large so that iso-
kinetic sampling is used principally for slowly reacting systems, such as stack gases,
or very large systems, such as engines or furnaces. T he principal advantage of iso-
kinetic sampling is that it samples flux, and the disturbance of two phase flow is
minimized Thus, if one is interested in particulates, this type of sampling is de-
sirable.
By contrast, sonic sampling radically disturbs the system in the region ot
extraction, but offers the possibility of quenching rapid reactions. Quenching time
varies with orifice diameter. Quenching is accomplished by adiabatic decompres-
sion. which simultaneously lowers pressure and temperature of the sample. In
most such systems the probe walls need not be cooled because of the short residence
time in the hot region of the probe.
Samples can be taken in batches with sample bottles or introduced directly
into the analytical instrument through a continuous flow arrangement (Figure 4).
Batch sampling allows analysis at leisure, but it is difficult to obtain reliable
analyses of absorbant species such as water This can be minimized by use of Teflon
or pol ethylene-lined sample bottles.
Where absorption is a problem a continuous flow system is best. Absorbing
surfaces must ultimately come to equilibrium with the sample and the material
reaching the analytical instrument becomes identical with that entering the probe.
With Teflon lines only a few seconds are required to reach equilibrium with a
typical water ladened sample, while under comparable conditions glass and metal
systems require many minutes. One further precaution is necessary. I he system
must be continuum flow throughout (i.e.. tube diameters large compared w ith the
mean free path), and the pump must be isolated by a choking orifice or by a
capillary of sufficient length so that back diffusion from the pump is negligible 1 Ins
is necessary to avoid molecular separation which occurs at low pressures This
120
FIKE RESEARCH
Diffusion Pump
Burner
FIGURE 4 Batch and continuous flow sampling of flames.
would bias the sample and analysis. A typical flow sampling system used in con-
nection with a mass spectrometer is shown in Figure 4.
The central problem in sampling combustion systems is to obtain a repre-
sentative sample and to interpret it either qualitatively or quantitatively in terms
of the desired information. The withdrawal of a sample should either produce a
quantitatively negligible disturbance of the system or produce one which can be
corrected. Quenching occurs through pressure and temperature drop due to
expansion of the sample. The slowing of reaction is cumulative, and it can be seen
intuitively that if the rate of pressure and temperature drop due to adiabatic
expansion is rapid compared with the reaction rates, the sample composition will
be quenched or "frozen." Bimolecular reactions as short as a lew tens of micro-
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
121
seconds should be frozen by probes. Water cooled probes at stream velocity can be
unsatisfactory because of longer quench times and because flames are disturbed
by bulky cooled surfaces. On the other hand, in engines where the scale is larger,
such probes are very useful.10 A recent bibliography of the field exists."
Species in Combustion Systems
Combustion is usually associated with high temperatures and steep tempera-
ture and concentration gradients. In such systems one finds not only reactants and
products, but also intermediate and excited species such as vibrationally excited
molecules, free radicals and atoms, and ionized species (Table 4). Stable Species are
those species which have lifetimes that are long compared with the sampling pro-
cesses. The limiting time may range from a few milliseconds for fast flow sampling
systems to hours or days for batch sampling. Most species with paired electron
spins are stable, but a few such molecules (e.g.. Oi. H:0:. B. H*) are so reactive that
they must be treated as transient species. Conversely, several radical species with
unpaired spins are stable, notably oxygen and the oxides of nitrogen and chlorine,
which can be treated experimentally as stable species.
Radicals and A toms are important in combustion (Figure 5) since the fuel and
oxidizer do not react directly, but are catalyzed through low activation energy
paths involving radicals. A radical is a molecule (atoms are also considered mole-
cules in this context) which has one or more unpaired electrons. It is not charged
In combustion, common examples are: H-. O-, OH-, and CHe.
Because of their reactivity, particularly with walls, radicals are difficult to
sample, but this can be accomplished in many cases. "
ions are charged species which occur in low but non-equilibrium concentra-
tions in combustion. As a result of chemi-ionization processes, in hydrocarbon
Barnes the initial reaction is O + CH - CHO‘ + e'. Following this, other molecular
ions are rapidly formed by ion-molecule reactions so that a great complexity of
molecular ions are found in Barnes. i:'" Relatively few molecules have stable levels
for extra electrons; therefore, most of the observed ions are positive. Flames are-
neutral overall, and the major negatively charged species in Hames is the electron.
TABLE 4
Typical species distribution in a premixed laminar flame
Typical
Maximum
Concentration
(mole fraction)
Stable Species 10 10
Atoms and Free Radicals 10' 10
Ions 10' 10"
Vibrational-Electronic 10"
Examples
CTL. ()., H O
IF. O :. OH
CHO . H.O
HE*
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
123
Special extraction techniques are required, but since single charged particles can be
detected, it is possible to measure the very low concentration of molecular ions in
llames with satisfactory precision.
Data Interpretation
One is interested both in qualitative information, i.e.. what species are present,
and in quantitative analysis. Further, since combustion systems can have strong
gradients, one is often interested in associating the analysis with a spatial position.
Thus, the usual fruit of such studies is not a simple analysis, but a profile (Figure 5).
Often one wishes to deduce fluxes and rates of chemical reactions. This com-
plex problem is discussed elsew here. 1 Combustion systems contain steep gradients
where substantial differences can occur between local concentration and local flux
of a species (Figure 6). Concentration is the amount of a species in a unit volume
which is an inherently positive scalar quantity. Flux is the amount of material
passing a unit area in a unit time which is a vector quantity and may be positive or
negative. In the absence of concentration and temperature gradients, these
variables are numerically identical when expressed in dimensionless units (e.g..
mole fraction and fractional molar flux).
In the simplest one-dimensional combustion system the reaction rate of a
species is the spatial derivative of the flux vector (Figure 6. Eq. 3).
R = d F dc = d(Xv + DdX dr) dr. (3)*
To obtain rate data it is necessary to associate a composition with a position
and temperature and velocity as well as the first and second derivatives of the com-
position. In combustion systems, where at atmospheric pressure the temperatures
may range from 300" to 2000° K and composition of a species passes from essen-
tially zero to a maximum in a fraction of a millimeter, this is difficult and often not
possible.
Analytical Methods for Stable Species
Once a stable sample has been taken any convenient analytical technique can
be used. The method of choice depends on the availability of equipment and the
complexity of the sample. The two most common methods have been mass spec-
trometry and gas chromatography, but spectroscopic methods such as IR and UV
have also been used. These methods are discussed in standard texts.
Where the sample contains fewer than twelve species the method of choice is
mass spectrometry because of its generality, sensitivity, and rapidity. With more
complex mixtures, such as fuel rich combustion or polymer combustion, gas
chromatography has the advantage of allowing the separation and analysis of com-
plex mixtures. The combination of the two provides a very powerful tool for
*ln t hiN equation H is rate, moles cm see. / is flux. moles cm sec. \ is concentration, moles cm
is velocitv cm sec. ; is distance tcmi. /> is the diffusion coefficient, cm sec
124 FIRE RF.SEARCH
Temperature (°K)
400 500 750 1000 1500 1750 1850 1900 1950
FIGURE 6 Concentration, flux and rate forCFU in a 0.05 atm. CFU -0.08; O - -0.92 flame.
combustion studies. Spectroscopic methods are convenient for following certain
species, such as CO which is difficult to determine in mass spectrometry or gas
chromatography.
I ns table Species
Unstable species can be divided into two general categories: free radicals
li e., unpaired electron species) and ions (i.e . charged species). Different experi-
mental techniques are required for the two types. Unstable species are important
in flame processes, but have not been studied as completely as stable species be-
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
cause of the difficulties involved. They are usually present only in low concentra-
tions (10 2 - 10 8 mole fraction), and are too reactive for conventional sampling
and analytical techniques.
Atoms and Free Radicals
Free radical species play an important role in flame chemistry and these odd
electron molecules enter into most flame reactions. Most radicals are so reactive
that they require special precautions for sampling and analysis. This problem is
not unique to flame studies.
a. Calorimetric Methods
One classic method of determining atom concentrations is by calorimetry.
Calorimetry has a number of advantages: (1) the equipment is moderate in cost;
(2) the method can be absolute; and (3) good spatial resolution can be attained
using thermocouples or other probes. There are certain serious disadvantages:
(I) the method is not selective; (2) the efficiencies of coatings both catalytic and
non-catalytic are not completely satisfactory; and (3) calculation of the effective
sampling region for such a probe is difficult.
In spite of these difficulties, these techniques in the form of a double thermo-
couple have been used to study O atom concentrations1-1 and H atoms15 and the
method has been used by Rossner16 (Figure 7) in supersonic streams. This tech-
nique is satisfactory for simple chemistry.
h. Emission Spectroscopy
Sugden and his co-workers have studied flame radicals using the emission
from traces of alkali metal salts as probes.17-1* They have shown that the intensitv
of emission of the resonance lines which are proportional to the concentration of
3
HCil R 1 ’ Diagram ol catalytic probe tor determining atom concentration'
|26 FIRE RESEARCH
free alkali metals can be related to the concentrations ol the radicals H and OH be-
cause of hydrides and hydroxides existing in equilibrium with the radicals. I his
technique is useful in regions where the metal-radical reactions are rapid compared
with the change in atom or radical concentrations.
Another useful emission for radical studies is the “Oxygen afterglow associ-
ated w ith the reaction O + NO — NO;. This emission is proportional to the oxygen
atom (and NO) concentration and. since NO is regenerated rapidly, it can be
considered to be constant. This can provide a convenient measure of relative
oxygen atom concentration."
c. Exchange Methods
A number of elementary reactions are well enough known that they can he
used to estimate radical concentrations from isotopic exchange rates. The most
commonly used materials are deuterated compounds. H and O concentrations can
be inferred from the rates ol reaction1' o( D;0 and N;0. It should he noted that a
correction should he made for the effect of deuterium substitution on the rate itself,
since the rate may be as much as 409c slower than the corresponding H reaction
H + D;0 — HD + OD. (4)
N20 + 0-2N0. (5)
Since the concentrations of the deuterated compounds must be determined by
sampling and analysis (usually by mass spectrometry), some precautions must be
observed in avoiding wall exchange after sampling.
d. Scavenger Probe Sampling
Radical concentrations can be determined b\ combining microprobe sampling
with chemical scavenging. This assumes that, alter sampling bv a microprobe,
radical concentrations are “frozen" sufficiently long for mixing with a reactant, a
species which quantitatively produces an analy/able product. I wo examples are
the determination of oxygen atoms by the reaction () + NO - — NO • O and methyl
by the reaction C'H, + T — C'Hil + 1.
I he apparatus consists of a cooled quartz microprobe with provision lot
scavenger injection (Eigurc K).
e. ESR Studies
fine to Zeeman transitions m a magnetic field, many common radicals such as
H. (). N. OH. halogen atoms, etc., can be detected with commercial spectrometers
This can be used for the measurement of absolute concentrations when calibrated
against stable paramagnetic gases.
Electron spin resonance 1 1 SR ) has been utilized by allowing a flame to burn
inside the resonant cavity of the spectrometer I here are formidable problems ol
interpretation in this type ol experiment By combining probe sampling with I SR
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 127
Z (cm)
FIGURE 8 Oxygen atom concentration in a methane-oxygen flame determined by sca-
venger probe techniques. (Fristrom, R. M., ‘‘Scavenger Ptobe Sampling: A Method for
Studying Gaseous Free Radicals,” Science, Vol. 140, pp. 297-300(19 April 1963). Copyright
1963 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.)
spectroscopy absolute atom concentration profiles were measured in flames with
the apparatus shown in Figure 9. Gas samples withdrawn from the llame /one were
pumped directly through the ESR detecting cavity21 (Figure 9).
f. Molecular Beam Mass Spectrometry
For species which have a high surface reactivity, collisionless flow inlet systems
provide the only satisfactory inlet. Molecular beam inlet mass spectrometry was
pioneered by Foner to establish the existence and identity of free radicals in flames
and other reactive systems.22 Two types of molecular flow inlet systems exist, the
effusive and the supersonic. Effusive molecular beams are of low intensity and
sample the boundary layer of a system. If wall processes are under studv. are
unimportant. or can be corrected for, this provides a satisfactory sampling system;
otherwise, continuum sampling should be used. Continuum flow beams are
intense, but there are a number of problems They arc supersonic, the velocity
distribution is narrow, and local temperature is low (Figure 10). Vibrationallv and
1
Movable
Screen
Housing ,
Probe Detail
H(it RE 9 H and O atom profiles of eth\ lene-oxypen (Tames by probe sampling and VSR
detection [
Beam Intensity
ABSTRACTS AND RE: VIEWS
Beam Gas Inlet 10 100TQRR
0.5 1.0 1,5 2.0
Velocity (cm/sec x 1 05 )
H(il Kl 10 \ clouts iliMrihunon ol molecules in .1 supersonic molecular beam
EIRE RESEARCH
r
no
electronically excited states are fro/en with the problems associated with cracking
pattern changes.
Several problems are associated with molecular beam mass spectrometry of
flames: (I) mass separation by inlet flow: (2) change of cracking pattern with
temperature due to changes in vibrational distributions; and (3) polymer
formation.2’
For stable species, microprobe sampling coupled with conventional analysis is
usually quantitative except for strongly absorbed species. Molecular beam
sampling is necessary for satisfactory sampling of such species. Free expansion
produces separation due to Mach number focusing.2’ Interference of stable species
with radicals can be reduced by lowering the electron beam energy below’ the
threshold of ionization for stable species or by using magnetic separations. For
trace molecular species the problem is more difficult. Calibration for expansion
may be possible by combining information from a non-reactive trace molecule
comparison with a knowledge of vibrational levels of the sample. Again if the
species is a radical, problems can be reduced by lowering electron beam energy.
One of the major problems with molecular beam inlet mass spectrometry is
that to form a satisfactory molecular beam with molecules w hich have made no wall
collisions one must form a supersonic beam and skim out the center core. This can
only be done by using a very wide angle sampling cone ( > 1 20° ). Such a blunt probe
has a strong perturbing effect on flames (Figure 14). The compromise which has
usually been employed is about a 40 cone.24-25 This does not visually disturb most
flames and does allow beam formation. Such a beam, however, contains many
molecules which have made wall collisions because of unfavorable aerodynamic
configuration.26 This does not invalidate the analysis since the system is
calibrated, however, radicals which do not survive wall collisions may be lost. This
problem requires further study.
A mass spectrometer is not a primary analytical instrument, and for precise
work, standard samples must be used. Stable standards can be prepared, but
calibration can be a problem with strongly absorbed species such as water and
acids. The case of radical species is different and more difficult. These species can-
not be prepared as standard samples because of their reactivity. Three techniques
have been used. ( 1 ) Atoms can be prepared from their diatomic parent by an electric
discharge. Using a knowledge of the total pressure and the cracking pattern of the
parent species one can deduce the calibration factor of the radical species provided
concentrations as high as a few percent can be obtained. (2) A radical or atom can
be titrated or scavenged in a flow system and its concentration compared w ith that
of a stable, known species. (3) One can look at an equilibrium system in which
other species of the equilibrium are known and deduce the sensitivity of the radical
by difference.24 Since ion charges are known, ion sensitivities can be determined
directly provided the collection efficiency of the inlet system can be determined.
Charged Spa ies
The spatial distribution of charged species can be measured by: (1) the
Langmuir probe, which measures d-c resistance: (2) the r-f probe which measures
L a
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 131
energy dissipation in the microwave region; (3) the photographic technique; and
(4) the ion sampling mass spectrometer. The first two techniques measure electron
concentrations; the first and third can measure either electrons or positive ions, but
do not distinguish between positive ions. The fourth technique allows the direct
measurement of individual positive ion concentrations. We will discuss the
Langmuir probe and ion spectrometry. Discussions of the other two methods can
be found elsewhere.1"7
a. The Langmuir Probe
The Langmuir probe was one of the earliest methods for studying ion concen-
trations in flames. It is possible to measure ion or electron concentration and
effective electron temperature.-7 It consists of large area and small area electrodes
(Figure 1 1 ). At a given voltage, current is limited by ions (or electrons) arrival at the
small electrode. The current is proportional to electrode area. If the small electrode
is positive, current is proportional to the electron concentration; if the small elec-
trode is negative, current is proportional to the positive ion current. The area ratio
between small and large electrodes must be very large to make the limiting electrode
positive, because of the high mobility of the electron. Complications stem from the
electrode size which affects the gradient and the plasma potential which develops
around an electrode immersed in a plasma. The technique has been criticized
because of the disturbance to the system being studied; but with reasonable care
useful results can be obtained in systems with spatial resolution which could be
obtained by no other technique (Figure 1 1 ). The techniques are similar to polar-
ography in electrolytes.
The energy from electric fields higher than a few megacycles is absorbed only
by free electrons because ionic particles are too massive to respond This method
for studying electron concentrations has the advantage of not disturbing the
system. Die disadvantages are low spatial resolution and difficulties in determining
exact path lengths and absorption coefficients.
h. Ion Mass Spectrometry
1 he best technique lor identify ing ions is direct mass spectrometry. Reliable
identifications can be made and quantitative studies of ion concentration profiles
are possible. i;- 11
I he apparatus (Figure 12) is similar to the conventional mass spectrometry,
but no electron gun is used A sampling orifice and a set ol focusing electrodes are
required C onsiderable care must be devoted to the design of the sampling inlet and
pumping system It is necessary to maintain low pressure inside the spectrometer
(mean free path large compared with the apparatus) to avoid spurious ions.
M’IM.K \T10\S
Probe sampling has been applied to a large number ol combustion problem
ABSTRACTS AM) RFV1EWS 133
Ion Focusing
— — Entrance Orifice
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance above Burner (cm)
FIGURE 12 Determination of ion concentrations by mass spectrometry [Attributed to
M Calcote. "Ion and Electron Profiles in Flames." \inth Symposium (Inicrnanonah on
Combustion. Williams & W ilkins Co. ('22 (1963) )
134
FIRE RESEARC H
:
We will present several typical examples. Many more examples can be found in the
extensive combustion literature. Useful sources are the biannual International
Combustion Symposium Volumes, some fifteen of which have appeared in print.2*
The first ten volumes are indexed in Volume 10. Other sources are AGARD
publications, NACA reports. Combustion and Flame, Fuel, Fire Research
Abstracts and Reviews, and other combustion journals.
Flame Sampling
Probing has been done extensively in the study of laminar flames and the
techniques are discussed in detail in Fristrom and Westenberg.1 There is a recent
bibliography of the field1 1 and there are several monographs. 2n-29 A typical example
of such a study is given in Figure 5. Diffusion flames present a two or more dimen-
sional problem unless a symmetric system is analyzed. One such analysis is com-
bustion along the stagnation axis of a porous cylinder as in the example50 of
Figure 13. Two dimensional diffusion flames have been studied qualitatively, but
we are unaware of any quantitative analyses.
Combustor Sampling
During the development of jet and rocket propulsion following World War 11
many combustion studies were made using probes. These techniques are docu-
mented in Tine’s survey,10 the references previously cited, and a multitude of
government reports such as the Ramjet Technology Handbook:’1 the Princeton
Series;2 AGARD Publications, etc., many of which are still available. Two
examples are illustrated in Figure 14 using water cooled sonic probe and water
cooled isokinetic probes.” l arge water cooled probes are satisfactory for many
combustor problems because the rapid flow and high heat release make the dis-
turbance offered by the probe negligible. Problems connected with time variation
in such samples will be discussed by Billiger in the following paper in this
symposium.34
Furnace Sampling
In the study of furnaces and low intensity combustors sampling has also been
done with probes of the water cooled variety both with isokinetic sampling and
sonic sampling. A discussion of furnace problems has been given bv 1 hring." An
example of multi-inlet probe used in furnace studies is given in Figure 15.
Rocket Sampling
High pressure sampling presents many problems of stress and high heat flux,
but even in the case of a rocket chamber it has been possible to sample using a
supersonic inlet mass spectrometer"' (Figure 16)
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
135
I?
FIGURE 13 Composition profile along the stagnation axis of a cylindrical diffusion
flame.42
Sample Tube 1/16" O.D. S.S. 1/16" O.D. S.S. Cooling
Water Tube
Sample
0.015"
Aerodynamic Tip
Pt vs Pt ♦ 13% Rh
Thermocouple Junction
ITo Millivolt
Potentiometer
Cooling
Water
S. S. Sheet Metal Straps
3/16" Dia Ceramic
Stem
IKil Kl 14 Prohcs tor studying combustor performance
136
HRE RESEARCH
E'lGURE 15 Multiple inlet water cooled probe lor furnace studies.’5
Supersonic Sampling
Sampling from a supersonic stream offers special problems, because probes
usually produce a bow shock which can alter the sample. Special probes which
swallow the shock have been used and samples analyzed using gas
chromatography.37
Repetitive Phenomena
If a repetitive phenomena is reproducible it is possible to follow both the time
ABSTRACT S AND REVIEWS
O <J
EAI Quad 200
Mass Spectrometer
Beam Detector
|3g HIRE RESEARCH
and space variation of the phenomena by positioning the probe and varying the
phase time of analysis. This has been done in engines'" (Figure 16) and in thestudv
of spark ignition'1' (Figure 17).
Condensed Phase Sampling
Since many combustion processes involve condensed phase fuels, probing may
be a useful technique for studying such combustion processes. Several studies have
addressed this problem, one quenching the solid reaction by blowing out the flame
with inert gas and analyzing the solid by microtone sampling and Neutron
activation analysis40 (Figure 18). The other used a low pressure liquid nitrogen
probe on a moving wire— analysis was by weight and wet chemistry41-4' ( Figure 19).
SUMMARY
Probe sampling has been a versatile, useful tool in combustion problems. It is a
well established technique with an extensive literature. In the future, probing tech-
niques particularly molecular beam inlet systems should continue to be a valuable
tool in combustion studies because of simplicity and relatively low cost. They
should be particularly useful when combined with optical methods which can
establish areas of applicability of probes.
FIRE RESEARCH
FIGURE 19 Apparatus for the study of the ignition of polymers
ABSTRACTS AND K1 MEWS
143
REFERENCES
1. R. M Fristrom and A. A Westenberg. Flame Structure McGraw Hill 424 (1965).
2. B. Lewis, R. N. Pease, and H. S. Taylor; Physical Measurements in Gas Dynamics and
Combustion Princeton University Press, (1956).
3. N. C'higier, "Laser Doppler Velocimetry” This Symposium.
4 J. C. Quinn, "Laminar Flame Front Thickness” Harvard University Combustion
Aerodynamics L.aboratorv Report tt5 May. 1953.
5. A. A Westenberg and R E. Walker. "Absolute Low Speed Anemometer" Rev. Sci.
Inst 27 844 (1956).
6. V. Sanders, "Review of High-Temperature Immersion Thermal Sensing Devices for
In-Flight Engine Control" Rev. Sci. Inst. 2V 917 (1958)
7 R Fristrom, “Experimental Techniques for the Study of Flame Structure” Bumblebee
Report So. 300 Applied Physics Labo. jtory. The Johns Hopkins University, 187
(1963).
8. W E. Kaskan, “The Dependence of Mass Burning Rate on Flame Temperature" Sixth
Symposium (International) on Combustion Reinhold Publishing Co., 134 (1957)
9 D. W. Moore. "A Pneumatic Probe Method for Measuring High l emperature Gases”
Aero. Eng. Rev. 775 (1948).
10. (i. Tine, Gas Sampling and Chemical Analysis in Combustion Processes Agardograph
Pergamon Press. (1961).
11. R. Fristrom. B. Kuvshinoff and M. Robison; "Bibliography of Flame Structure
Studies" Fire Res. Abs. and Rev. lb (1974).
12. J. Deckers and A. Van Tiggelen. “Ion Identification in Flames” Seventh Symposium
(International ) on Combustion Butterworths, 254(1959).
13. H Calcote. "Ion and Electron Profiles in Flames" Ninth Symposium ( International )
on Combustion Williams & Wilkins Co. 622 (1963).
14 A. Smeeton Leah and N. Carpenter. “The Estimation of Atomic Oxygen in Open
Flames" Fourth Symposium ( International) on Combustion William Wilkins and Co.
274 (1953).
15 I Hart. C. Cirunfelder and R Fristrom. “The Point Source Using Upstream Sampling
for Rate Constant Determination in Flame Gases" Combustion and Flame 23 109
(1974).
16 D. E. Rosner. “The Theory of Differential Catalytic Probes for the Determination of
Atom Concentrations in High Speed Non-Equilibrium Streams of Partially Dissoci-
ated Gases" .4 R S. 32 1065 ( 1962).
17. VI, Bulewi/c.C Jamesand I . Sugden. “Photometric Investigations of Alkali Metals in
Hydrogen Flame Gases in the Measurement ot Atomic Concentrations" Proi. Rot.
Soe .4 727 312(1954).
18. P J Pad ley and 1 M Sugden. "Chemiluminescence and Radical Recombination in
Hydrogen Flames" Seventh Symposium ( Internal tonal )on ( ombustion Butterworths.
235 ( 1959).
19. ( G lames and I M Sugden. "1 se ol NO- O continuum in the Estimation ot
Relative Concentrations of () atoms in Flame Gases." Saltire I'S 252 (I4NS)
20 C Femmore. The Chcmistn ol Premised Flames Pergamon Press ( 1964).
21 \ \ \V estenberg and R M Fristrom. “H and O Atom Concentrations Measured by
FSR in C ( 2 » Hydrocarbon-Oxygen Flames" Tenth Symposium (International ; w
( ombustion I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania 473 (I9h5)
22 S ) onei and R Hudson. " I he Detection of Atoms and Radicals m Flames h\ Via—
Specuometric technique-' ./ ( hem Pins 'I (3'4(f954l
144
FIRE RESEARCH
2.3. F. T. Greene (editor). Molecular Beam Sampling Conference Midwest Research
Institute Kansas City, Missouri (1972).
24. J. Peters and G. Mahnen, “Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Constants of Elementary
Steps in Methane-Oxygen Flames” Fourteenth Symposium (International) on ( om-
bustion The Combustion Institute Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1972.
25. J. Biordi, C. Lazzara and J. Papp. “Molecular Beam Mass Spectrometry Applied to
the Determination of the Kinetics of Reactions in Flames 1 Empirical Characterization
of Flame Perturbation by Molecular Beam Sampling Probes” Combust ion ami Flame
23 73 (1974).
26. J. Fenn, Priv. Comm.
27. H Calcote and 1. R. King, "Studies of Ionization in Flames by Means of Langmuir
Probes” Fifth Symposium (International) on Combustion Reinhold Pub Co. 423
(1955).
28. International Symposium on Combustion Vols. 1-14 Biannual after Vol. 4 (1953)
The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
29. A. Gaydon and H Wolfhard, Flames Chapman and Hall 3rd Ed. 392 (1970)
30. H. Tsiji and I. Yamaoka, “Structure of Counter Flow Diffusion Flames” Twelfth
Symposium (International) on Combustion The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania 997 (1969).
31. H Kirk, “Facilities and Testing" Chapt. 13 of RamjetTechnologvavailableas TG6I0-
13, June, I96H Applied Physics Laboratory. The Johns Hopkins l 'ttiversity. Laurel.
Maryland also in Microfiche from NT1S as PB 179067 (June. 1968).
32. J. Surugue (editor), experimental Methods in Combustion Research Agardograph
Pergamon Press (1961 ).
33. R. Sawyer, “Experimental Studies in a Model Gas Turbine” emissions ( W. Cornelius
and W. Agnew. editors) Plenum Press. New York 243 (1972).
34. R. Billiger. “Probes in Turbulent Systems” This Symposium.
35. M. W. Thring, The Science of Flames and Furnaces) . Wiley and Sons. Inc. 416 ( 1952).
36. J. Houseman and W. Young. "Molecular Beam Sampling System for Rocket Combus-
tion Chambers" Molecular Beam Sampling Conference Midwest Research Institute
70 (1972).
37. R Orth, F. Bilig, and S Cirenleski presented in the Symposium on Instrumentation
for Air Breathing Propulsion Sept. 1972 to be published in Prog. Astronaut Aeronaut.
38. E. Knuth, inG. Springer and 1), Patterson (editors): engine emissions Pollutant For-
mation and Measurement Plenum Press. (1973).
39. R. Fristrom, “Flame Sampling for Mass Spectrometry" hit. J. for Mass Spet . and Ion
Physics 16 15 (1975).
40. 1), Steut/. "Basic Principles in Polymer Combustion” Paper #3 “Flammability Charac-
teristics of Polymeric Materials” Symposium Uni', of Ftah Flammability Researc'
Center June 1971 .
41 R Fristrom. "Chemistry. Combustion and Flammability" Journal of Fire ami
Flammability 5 289 (1974).
42. P . Fristrom. “Fire and Flame Studies ( 'tilizing Molecular Beam Sampling" Molecular
Beam Sampling Conference Midwest Research Institute Kansas City. Missouri 55
(1972).
43. K Hoyermann. et al. Thirteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion The
Combustion Institute ( 1971 1
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
A. Prevention of Fires, Safety Measures, and Retardants
Barstad. J„ Boler. J. B.. Hjorteland. ()., and Solum. E. "Variations in Hydro-
carbon Gas Concentration During Supertanker Cleaning Operations." Xaiure
241 (5386). 196-197 (1973)
Subjects: Gas explosion; Hydrocarbon-air concentration; Supertanker cleaning
hazard; Explosion limit hydrocarbon-air mixtures
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 246
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Following recent serious explosions aboard very large crude carriers (VLCC).
interest was initially focused on the problems of cleaning and gas freeing of cargo
tanks, especially with rotating jet svstems and the electrostatic hazards were
reported. A trial of the forced ventilation of cargo tanks beforeand during cleaning
gave good results and was adopted by one company, but then, in December 1969.
three tankers had explosions during c Caning - two of these tankers had used the
too-lean method, the other had used no ventilation belorc or after cleaning. 1 he
authors since 1970 have investigated various aspects of explosion hazards and dis-
cuss some of the results obtained by exact measurements of gas concentrations
aboard a VI CC. noting changes in the composition ol the hydrocarbon gas
mixture. The changes also resulted in variations in the values of the lower and
upper explosion limits of the mixture in air.
Brannigan. E. I.. (Montgomery College, Rockville. Maryland) “A Field Study
of Non Eire-Resistive Multiple Dwelling hires." A ational Bureau of Standards
Special Publication 41 1 . I78 (August 1973)
Subjects: hires. Building codes; Eire walls; Building design
Author's Abstract
A field studv was made ol structural and building design factors contributing to
the spread ol lire in more than 40 non-fire-rcsistive. multiple occupancy dwellings,
typicallv "Garden Apartments" Most deficiencies could be corrected by preserv-
ing the integritv ol a gvpsum board sheath serving as a lire barrier. I samples are
given ol penetrations and openings in lire barriers which permuted substantial
fire spread.
I4S
146
FIRE RESEARCH
Bridge. N. W. and Youn„ K. A. (Joint Eire Research Organization. Boreham-
wood, Herts. England) “Experimental Appraisal ol an American Sprinkler
System for the Protection of Goods in High Racked Storages." Fire Research
Note An. 100.1. Joint Fire Research Organization (February 1974)
Subjects: Sprinklers; High racked storages; N'FP.A 23IC: lests; Pallet storage
Authors' Summary
Six large-scale fire experiments are described, involving goods stored in A six-
level rack, to simulate industrial conditions. For two tests, fourth level central
and face sprinklers and sixth level central sprinklers were used Eor four tests, a
thick plywood harrier was put just above the fourth level and the fourth level
central sprinklers were not used. The arrangements were derived from the NT PA
Standard 231C - 1972 for Rack Storage ol Materials
In four tests the fire was lit in the first level. In two tests involving some poly-
urethane loam it was lit in the second level, (with the first level empty ) simulating a
sy stem repeating ev ery three levels. The rack is considered as the lowest portion . a a
much higher rack and so the effects of ceiling sprinklers are not discussed
It is concluded that the barrier is an effective aid to stopping upward spread, bat
the arrangement of sprinklers is not capable ol extinguishing the lire quickly at
the lower levels. Without the shelf, the fire spread to the top of the rack, except w ith
the half load of goods on each pallet, which would rarely occur in practice
Buchbinder, B. and Vickers. A. (National Bureau of Standards. W ashington. DC i
"A Comparison Between Potential Hazard Reduction from Fabric flamma-
bility Standards. Ignition Source Improvement and Public Education." \ational
Bureau of Standards Special Publication 41 1 . I (August 1973)
Subjects: Fabric fires: Flammability; Ignition sources; Education: Standards
Authors' Abstract
Mandatory standards have been and are being promulgated lor flammable
fabric item types (e.g.. children's sleepwear, mattresses, upholstered furniture)
to reduce the fire hazard inherent in the use of common ignition sources (e g.,
matches, cigarettes, kitchen ranges). Trade-offs should be made between potential
hazard reduction from fabric item standards and from design changes or improved
quality control in ignition source fabrication. Public education is a third approach
to the reduction of certain hazards.
Burgess. D.. Murphy, J. V. Zabetakis. M. G„ and Perlee. H. E.( Bureau ol Mines.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania) “Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting front
the Atmospheric Dispersion of a Leak or Spill." Fifteenth Symposium (Inter
national l on Combustion. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
289 ( 1975 )
Subjects: Flammable mixtures; fuel spills. Dispersion ol Spills I eaks of fuel.
Ignition hazard
ABSTRACTS AMD REVIEWS 147
Authors' Abstract
The investigators of an unconfined gas explosion typically derive some measure
of the air blast, leading to the assignment of a “TNT equivalent." This number is
invariably small, ranging fromO to lOG of the yield that one would have predicted
from the heat of combustion of the fuel. The probable reason for this low value, as
this paper seeks to show, is that only a small fraction of an atmospherically dis-
persed gas mixture can be within a flammable range of concentrations.
This paper draws on measurements of the atmospheric dispersion of natural
gas to test the applicability o( the bivariant Gaussian distribution equation with
standard deviations, o, and o,. derived from the air pollution literature. Three
observations are discussed in relation to the dispersion of flammable gases: ( I ) The
concentrations of interest (flammable limits) are much higher than most critical
pollutant concentrations; (2) concentration peaks may well be an order-of-
magnitude higher than time-averaged concentrations, which are derived from a
statistical treatment; (3) most flammable vapors are heavier than air and form
ground-hugging layers that extend the distances of ignition hazard.
Calculations are presented of the volumes of vapor air mixture w ithin surfaces
of equal concentration. From these figures, it is evident that most of the flammable
vapor is quickly dispersed to concentrations below the lower limit of flammability.
Doyle. W. H. (Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Boston. Massachusetts)
“Minimizing Serious Fires and Explosions in the Distilling Process." Society of
Fire Protection Engineers Technology Report So. 2. Society of Fire Protection
Engineers. Boston. Massachusetts
Subjects: Fire; Explosions; Distillation; Flammables; Industrial Hazards;
Chemical plants
Author's Abstract
Distillation, w hile not normally a hazardous operation, does require precautions
because ol the heating, vaporizing, and condensing of large volumes of flammables.
The suggestions made to reduce the potential for catastrophic fires and explosions
are based on studies ol industrial lires and explosions involving such equipment.
The hazard of explosive vapors outside of the distillation equipment as the result
ol mechanical failure is covered. The problem of the distillation of reactive chemi-
cals such as ( I ) compounds subject to peroxide formation. (2) nitrated compounds.
(3) compounds containing double or triple bonds, and (4) those subject to rapid
polymerization is discussed.
Edmonds-Brown. H. “Safety Aspects of Electrical Engineering Practice in the
Petroleum Industry.” Mining Technology 55. (629). 88-91 (1973)
Subjects: Fire safety: Petroleum industrv safety; Gas detection. Electrical
apparatus dangers
FIRE RESEARCH
r
I4X
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 240
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The author discusses the risk of fire or explosion due to the presence ol flam-
mable gas or vapor air mixtures likely to arise in the petroleum industry. Factors
considered are the vapor conditions of petroleum liquids at various temperatures,
the effect of mixtures of products, potentially hazardous situations, gas detection,
classification of hazardous areas, and electrical apparatus in classified areas
(iandee, G. W. and Clodfelter. R. G. (Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory.
Wright-Patterson Air. Force Base. Ohio) “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of
Anti-Mist Fuel Additives in the Prevention of Vapor Phase Fire and Explo-
sions,” Project Report, December 1972 - March 1973, Air Force Aero Propul-
sion Laboratory Report No. A FA PL-TR-73-1 1 1 (January 1974)
Subjects: Gunfire; Aviation fuel. JP-4. JP-8; Flammability limits; Fuel systems
vulnerability. Aviation safety
Authors' Abstract
A series of vertical gunfire tests was conducted at Wright-Patterson AFB in
order to assess the effectiveness of fuel additives in reduction of the fire and
explosion hazards that can be associated with kerosene (JP8) fuel under gunfire
conditions. This program considered commercial additives which have been
developed for the fire-safe fuel efforts of the FAA. the Army, and the British
Government. The additives were intended to prevent fuel mist or spray during a
crash situation. This effort considered the effectiveness of these additives at a con-
centration of approximately 0.3rj wt. in the prevention of explosions of fuel mist
or spray as a 50 caliber armor piercing incendiary (API) ordnance round passes
through the liquid-vapor interface. Results indicated that additives could be effec-
tive. Two of the four materials evaluated. CONOCO AM-1 and Imperial Chemical
Industries, Ltd. FM-4 reduced average pulse pressure rise to less than 10 psi as
compared to 40 psi rise with neat JP-8. Additives were not effective when evaluated
in JP-4 fuel.
Ilanda. T.. Suzuki, H„ Takahashi. A.. Ikeda. Y..and Saito. M. (Science Lniversitv
of Tokyo) “Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace
Test Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of Organic
Interior Building Materials. Part II. Checks on Factors Concerning the Surface
Flame Spread Rate and Smoke Evolution of Organic Building Materials bv
Small Inclined Type Test Furnace.” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society of
Japan 21 (I) 1971 (2) 1972 44 (Fnglish translation bv 1 rans Sec.. But I end.
Lib. Div . Boston Spa. Wetherbv. Yorkshire. U.K.)
Subjects: Furnace tests; Building materials; Fire hazard; Fire modelling
Authors' Conclusions
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
The flame-spread rate of the macroscopic upward flame is dependent on the gas
(low rate, and when the gas flow is assumed to be laminar, the flame-spread rate
is nearly proportional to cos' 6. where 6 is the inclination angle of the furnace.
The flame spread pre-heats the not-yet-ignited portions by thermal diffusion
through thermal conduction toward the interior of the wood sample and by con-
vection heat transfer along the spreading direction. T his brings about the shift in
ignition point and is decided by heat balance between the heat-evolution rate and
thermal diffusion rate, that is to say. by the balance of flame energy accumulation
together with the combustion along the /-direction and the heat dissipation in the
x-direction. Moreover, the smoke evolution rate corresponds to the flame-spread
rate, and the relation between the flame-spread rate and the heat-evolution rate
and the smoke evolution rate, shows the oscillating phenomena accompanying
heat accumulation or dissipation in the directions including the /-direction.
Harmathy, T. Z. (National Research Council Canada. Ottawa. Canada) “Design
Approach to Fire Safety in Buildings." Progressive Architecture, April 1974.
82-87, Reinhold Publishing Company: Technical Paper So. 419. Division of
Building Research. National Research Council of Canada
Subjects: Fire safety; Building design; Building fires; Fire severity; Fire load;
Equal area compartment fires
Abstracted by G. Fristrom
The author observes that commonly used fire safety measures in building codes
are inadequate and can lead to both overprotected and underprotected situations.
If the building designer had a better understanding of the characteristics of com-
partment fires, he would be in a better position to design for minimal damages and
for special detecting and suppression equipment.
Safety depends on circumstances, but general rules will aid the designer. The
paper outlines the concepts of fire load and the characteristics of compartment
fires. It gives fire severity parameters. The concept of equal areas in fire situations
is explained and applied. The article provides an excellent introductory survey of
fire safety concepts
Harmathy, T. (National Research Council. Ottawa, Canada) “Designers
Option: Fire Resistance or Ventilation.” Technic a! Paper No. 436, Division of
Building Research. National Research Council of Canada ( 1974)
Subjects: Compartment fires: Fire resistance: Ventilation. Fire load
Author's Summary
The inadequacy of the conventional philosophy underlying fire safety provi-
sions is discussed The characteristics ot compartment fires are outlined and three
“fire severity parameters" introduced I hese parameters are shown to depend
primarily on the fire load and compartment ventilation. A new “defensive design
approach" is suggested which, it followed from the earls stages ot architectural
150
FIRE RESEARCH
design, will result in a higher degree of fire safety and often also in considerable
savings in building costs
Harmathy, T. Z. (National Research Council, Ottawa. Canada) "Flame Deflec-
tors,” Bui U1 ini; Research Note No. 96. Division of Building Research. National
Research Council of Canada (October 1974)
Subjects: Fire spread; Flame deflectors; Building fires
Abstract by R. M. Fristrom
The use of flame deflectors to prevent the spread of fires in buildings from one
floor to another is discussed. Several designs are proposed and an estimate of the
additional building cost is made Possible designs for self activating deflectors
are also given.
Harrison, G. A. (National Bureau of Standards, Washington. D C.) “The High
Rise Fire Problem,” CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 4 (4)483
(1974)
Subjects: High rise fires. Fires, high rise; Building fires
Author's Conclusions
The results of this high-rise fire problem study lead to the following conclusions:
1 Many and varying definitions of a high-rise building exist, which suggests
that some confusion or lack of uniformity of thought still exists among building
officials. None of the definitions recognizes the change in life-safety risk as the
building height increases considerably, e g., 10 stories vs HO stories.
2. Historically, the life losses associated with high-rise buildings have been very
low in the United States. Where large life losses have occurred in high-rise build-
ings. well-established traditional fire protection engineering principles were found
to have been violated. Where sprinklers were installed, life losses in high-rises were
virtualiy nonexistent.
3. High-rise buildings in the United States have performed well under serious
fire conditions. American building codes have sufficient structural requirements to
retard the spread of flames. However, the phenomenon of flame spread via the
exterior windows is not being addressed by the codes.
4 The fire experience since I960 shows that fuel loading is changing, both in the
nature of the fuel and in quantity. Plastics are being used in increasing amounts for
construction materials and furnishings in high-rises. The fire experience record
shows that greater heat, smoke, and toxic-gas production potential exists with
certain types of plastics than with traditional materials, and that selected plastics
have contributed to large fires in fire-resistant high-rises. These plastics were in the
form of furnishings and construction materials. The use of plastics has changed the
fuel loading, smoke, and toxic-gas production situations from what they were a
decade ago.
I
abstracts amt reviews
151
1
5. With the advent of central air-conditioning, central-core design concepts, and
general loosening up of the compartmentation concept by allowing a multitude of
holes to be punched through fire-rated barriers for ducts, pipes, cables, etc., in-
creased avenues are available for the passage of heat and smoke. Current code
requirements do not fully address the smoke movement problem within high-rises,
as documented by fire experience records. The predominant movement of smoke
within a high-rise is via egress routes, although an unprotected pipe chase allowed
smoke to claim 21 fatalities in one high-rise fire case.
6. Fire experience reports document the continued attempts of building occu-
pants to utilize elevators during fire emergencies. As designed, elevators do not
serve as safe means of egress in the event of a fire, and numerous persons have
perished as a result of insufficient elevator designs.
7. A research gap exists w ith respect to human behavior as it is affected by stress
conditions created by fires.
8. High-rise buildings pose special problems to fire department operations.
These include difficulties in getting to the fire within a building, ventilation restric-
tions in trying to move smoke, and shielding effects that make voice communica-
tion difficult between the fire fighter and the command post.
Hayashi, T. and Tarumi. H. "Interruption of Explosions by Flame Arresters: First
Report on the Quenching Ability of Sintered Metals." Report of the Research
Institute of Industrial Safety , (Japan). 21 (1) 19p. (November 1 972) ( in Japanese)
Subjects: Explosion interruption; Flame arresters; Quenching ability of sintered
metals; Sintered metals as flame quenchers
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 248
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The sintered metals tested were commercial filters, discs 2 mm thick, with a
diameter of 40 mm. Bronze and stainless steel discs were tested. The disc under test
was fitted tightly into a flange and bolted between the end flanges of steel pipe
enclosures. One enclosure was the explosion chamber, the other the protected
chamber. For the first series of tests the effect of the dimensions of the explosion
chamber on the quenching of the flame was studied; the hydrogen content was kept
at 70' ; by volume in air It was found that, with a constant diameter, increasing
the length of the chamber resulted in more dangerous explosions. With 1 D con-
stant. the larger the diameter of the pipe, the more easily the explosions were
transmitted into the protected chamber. In the other series of experiments the
hvdrogen content was varied between 10 and 60r; bv volume, while the enclosure
was kept constant at one inch diameter pipe. For bronze discs of 1 20 pm filtration
diameter the minimum limiting safe pressure was at the stoichiometric concentra-
tion. for 100 pm disks at a slightly lower concentration. For discs of smaller filtra-
tion diameters and for stainless steel discs the most dangerous mixture was at a
hydrogen content of nearly 2()'V .
Holmes. ( . A. (Forest Products Laboratory. Madison. Wisconsin) “Flammabilitv
is:
HRE RESREARCH
ofSelected Wood Products Under Motor Vehicle Safety Standards,” Journalof
Fire unci Flammability 4. 156-164 ( 1973)
Subjects: Fire test, motor vehicle safety standard No. 302: Wood flammabilit>
Author's Abstract
ABSTRACT: Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 302 specifies the burn-
resistance requirement and the test procedure for materials used in the occupant
compartments of motor vehicles. In this study, the fire performance of some
selected wood and wood-based products, including '/2-inch lumber, veneers, ply-
wood, hardboard, corrugated fiberboard. and kraft paper, were determined under
this standard. Only the 0.0 12-inch-thick kraft paper burned at a rate in excess of the
4 inches per minute limitation of the standard. The other materials had zero or very
low burn rates. Enamel and clear lacquer did not add any flammability by this test
method to '/8-inch birch plywood or hardboard. This study strongly indicated that
wood and wood Fiber products in general will have burn rates less than the4 inches
per minute limitation of Standard No. 302.
Kiucke, W. “Uses and Evaluation of Non-Flammable Elastomeric Materials."
Collcquim: Space Technology - A Mode! for Safety Techniques and Accident
Prevention, lnstitut fur Unfallforschung, Cologne 398-402 (April 1972)
Subject: Non-flammable elastomeric materials
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 389
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The development and application of non-flammable fluoroelastomeric composi-
tions started with the need for materials which would be self-extinguishing in
10 Of! oxygen at 16 psi pressure. Several related fluorocarbon elastomeric compo-
sitions were used in the Apollo Program to make formed components such as hose,
shoe soles, and circuit breaker cases. Coating solution made from one of these
compositions found wide use in the Apollo Program as a non-flammable coating
for fabrics and plastic substrates More recently, the coating solution is being
evaluated and tested as a coating in aircraft applications. Commercial civilian uses
have appeared in electronic equipment, business machines, and fire fighting
equipment.
Lie, T. T. and Harmathy. T. /.. (National Research Council Canada. Ottawa
Canada) “Fire Endurance of Concrete-Protected Steel Columns." Journal of
the American Concrete Institute No. I . Proceedings \ . 71 . 29-32 (January 1974):
Research Paper So. 597. Division of Building Research, \ational Research
Counc il of C anada
Subjects: Columns, supports: Concretes: Fire resistance: Fire tests; Steels:
Structural design
L- J
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
153
Author’s Abstract
An empirical formula is developed for the prediction of the lire endurance of
concrete-protected steel columns. Fire endurance is interpreted as the time during
a standard ftm test required for the temperature of the steel core to reach IOOOF
(538 C). In tl light of numerous fire test results, the accuracy of the formula
appears to be satisfactory. A numerical example is included to show the application
of the formula.
Lyle, A. R. and Strawson, H. “Electrostatic Hazards in lank Filling Operations,”
Fire Prevention Sc ience and Technology (4), 8-12 (1973)
Subjects: Electrostatic hazards; Fuel tank filling hazard
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 443
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The article demonstrates how the generation and accumulation of electrostatic
charges can lead to real hazards when hydrocarbon products are handled, unless
adequate precautions are taken. The precautions may include: the avoidance of
flammable air-fuel mixtures, earthing of all conductors, limiting flow rates to
minimize pipe charginp and increasing the conductivity of the product by means of
an additive.
Lynch, J. R. "Respirator Requirements and Practices," Coal Mine Health Semi-
nar. Joint Staff Conference of the Bureau of Mines and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health. September 1972. U.S. Bureau of Mines Infor-
mation Circular 8568 ( 1972)
Subject: Respirators, law requirements, need, development
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 2b4
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the requirements of law with respect to
non-emergency respirator use. the need for respirators in various situations that
occur in coal mining and the results of a study of the use or non-use of respirators,
together with some comments on the attitudes toward respirators and the reasons
why they are or are not used. Based on this information, the solutions for some of
these problems will be offered. These include the development of respirators w hich
will meet the needs and requirements of law and the development of programs,
standards, and regulations which will provide for and require their use.
Mallet. M. “Fireproofing of Cellular Polyurethane Materials." Revue Generate ties
Caoutchoucs et Plastiques 48 (7-8). 793-797 (1971) (in French)
Subjects: Fire retardant synthetics; Flammability testing; Combustion
phenomenon
154
FIRE RESEARCH
r
Salety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 390
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The phenomenon of combust ion, the various methods of making flame retardant
synthetic materials and methods of testing flammability are reviewed I he methods
adopted to protect cellular polyurethanes are discussed An actual test of the
behavior of a cladded urethane panel in fire is described. It is concluded that
although much progress remains to be made, current techniques, il proper!)
applied, are sufficient to meet the necessary requirements in most cases.
Manheim. J. R. (Air Force Aero Propulsion I aboratory. Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base. Ohio) “Vulnerability Assessment ol .IP-4 and .IP-8 Under Vertical
Gunfire Impact Conditions,” Final Report February 1970 - March 1971. Air
Force Aero Propulsion Labor atorv Report \o 1/ \PL- LR-73-76 ( December
1973)
Subjects: Gunfire: Aviation fuels; Flammability limits; Fuel systems vulnera-
bility; Aircraft safety
Author's Abstract
This report presents results ol tests conducted to determine effects of a fifty-
caliber incendiary projectile penetrating vertically from the bottom into a partially -
filled fuel tank. Fuel types investigated in this program are .IP-4 (high volatility
fuel) and .IP-8 (low volatility fuel). This test program was carried out in two phases:
( I ) "non-equilibrium" tests conducted with a cylindrical tank to determine effects
of fuel temperature, initial ullage pressure, tank volume, fuel depth, venting, etc
and (2) equilibrium tests conducted with various rectangular tank configurations
lo determine effects of initial fuel-air mass ratio of the ullage fuel-air mixtures on
ignition and reaction over-pressures. Results of “non-equilibrium” tests showed
thai both JIM and JP-8 can be ignited over the temperature range of 10 to 130 I
Results also showed that reaction over-pressures resulting from .IP-4 tests were
generally higher than those from .1 P-8 tests. Increasing fuel depth and venting area
tend to decrease reaction over-pressures. Results of tests conducted with equilib-
rium fuel-air mixtures indicated that mixtures with initial fuel-air mass ratios as
low as (H)2 could be ignited. No ignition was observed in fuel-air mixtures with
initial fuel-air mass ratios greater than 0.1 1.
O'Neill. .1. H.. Sommers. I). F.. and Nicholas. F. B. (National Av iation Facilities
Experimental Center. Atlantic City. New Jersey ) “Aerospace Vehicle Hazard
Protection lest Program Detectors: Materials. Fuel Vulnerability,” Final
Report. October 1970 - September 1972. under Contract No. I SAP I 33615-71-
M-5002 for I S \ir Force Systems C ommand ( February 1974): I tr Force Jcro
Propulsion I xiborator\ Report \.< 1/ \P-FR-73-S~
Subjects: Aerospace vehicle lires 1 ires in aerospace vehicles. Detectors
Flammabihtv ol materials. Fuel v ulncrabilnv
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
155
Authors' Abstract
Fire tests were conducted in a turbojet powerplant installation to determine the
effectiveness of an Edison and a Honeywell Ultra-violet l ire Detection System.
The four sensor units for each system were installed on the forward bulkhead of the
engine nacelle's accessory and compressor compartment (Zone II) and provided
surveillance aft to the firewall. Fires having fuel-flow rates of 0.04 and 0.13 gallons
per minute w ere initiated about 1 2 inches forward of the firew all at several locations
around the periphery of the engine.
Both systems provided adequate detection of the 0. 13 gallon per minute fires, but
generally there was limited detection of the small 0.04 gallon per minute fires,
depending on the fire location. Both sy stems provided rapid response time to fires,
w ithin the range of0.2 to 1 .0 seconds after the fuel-to-fire was released. In this test
installation the peripheral disposition of the sensor units on the forward bulkhead
provided overlapping coverage by most units.
A study of flammability and smoke generation characteristics w as performed on
different types of litter pads and pillows. These items were subjected to the follow-
ing tests; Horizontal lest Method No. 5906, Vertical lest Method No. 5903.
Radiant Panel lest Method. AS I M 1-162. and Smoke Measurement lest
Method. AST M SI P No. 442.
Fire resistance tests in a standard 2.000° F flame-test environment were con-
ducted on two flexible self-sealing low pressure Aeroquip hoses and an aluminized
asbestos-faced flexible fiberglass cloth. One hose was coaled with an AVCO C'orp.
intumescent paint identified as Flexible Flame Arrest; the other w as uncoated. I he
hoses were tested while temperature-controlled oil was pumped through the hose.
An investigation of the vulnerability of JIM and .IP-8 fuel, contained in a fuel
tank, to ignition by incendiary gunfire was made, l ests were conducted utilizing a
horizontal, liquid phase test article, either JIM or .1 P-8 fuel and varying the follow-
ing parameters; (1) standoff distance between the fuel cavity and the test article
skin. (2) volume of the standoff cavity . (3) ventilation rate in the standoff space, and
(4) airflow ov er the test article surface \ series of tests was also conducted with an
elevated fuel tank I his test configuration permitted fuel to vapor penetration by
the incendiary projectile fhese tests were conducted with either JP-J or JP-8 fuel
and simulated airflows of 0. 90. 150. and 390 knots over the test article.
Osipov. S. V. (.orb. \ . Yu., and Bovsunovskaya, A. Ya. “Calculating the Admis-
sion of Nitrogen to Prevent Explosions When f nderground f ires Are Being
Sealed Oft." I go/'CAr M ( 1 2). 44-46 ( December 1972) (in Russian)
Subjects: 1 xplosion prevention. b\ nitrogen atmospheres: Mine fire prevention
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 349
Safety In Mines Research Establishment
Osipov . S. N . and Orlov . V \ “ 1 he I se ol N itrogen tor I xtinguishtngan l ' nder-
ground Fire." I gol' 45 (8) 60-62 (August 1970) (in Russian) Sa/c:\ in \ fine'
Research h.siahlishnicnt Translation 5 9b A
156
EIRE RESEARCH
Subjects: hire, underground: hire extinguishment by nitrogen: Nitrogen us lire
extinguishing agent
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 545
Saletv in Mines Research Establishment
In recent times nitrogen has been used to seal off lire /ones in gassy mines, but a
method of determining the amount of nitrogen required has not yet been worked
out. Investigations were carried out during I96X - 1469 to study the movement ol
nitrogen in sealed-off workings and to discover methods of suplying nitrogen which
would ensure rapid filling ol the fire /one. T he results are described and a method
of making the necessary calculations is presented.
Pelouch, J. J., Jr. and Hacker. P. T. (Aerospace Safety Research and Data Insti-
tute. hew is Research Center, Cleveland. Ohio) “Bibliography on Aircraft hire
Hazards and Safety." Volume II - Safety. Part 1. Preliminary Form. 392 pages.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration VI .S 3 /.A/A 71553
Subjects: Aircraft fire safety : hire safety ol aircraft
Pitt, A.l. (Joint hire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. England)
“Investigation of Safe Operation of a Radiant Portable LPG Heater." l ire
Research Note So. 1014, Joint Fire Research Organization { June 1974)
Subjects: Space heater; 1 PCi, I ests; BS2773. 1945
Author's Summary
A portable butane-fired radiant heater of high output was tested in accordance
w ith BS 2773 and BS 1945. 1 he heater failed to comply w ith a number of clauses,
but was not in fact stated to comply. However, recent trends in domestic heating
comfort requirements indicate that a re-appraisal ot current limitations ol heat
output could be justified.
Powell. J. H. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield. England)
“Deficiencies in Safety Schemes which Rely on Stochastically hailing Protective
Equipment." Journal Institute Maths Applies 14 41-56 ( !974)
Subjects: Safety scheme deficiencies; Protective equipment failure
Author's Abstract
Probability theory is used to assess the deficiencies ol safety schemes w hich rely
on devices w hieh can tail either in an undetected manner only . or in both undetected
and detected ways Three quantities are used to express the deficiencies ol these
schemes; the mean period during which devices are ineffective, the proportion ol
time for which they are ineffective and the distribution of the durations of their
ineffective periods. Analytical expressions are derived for these quantities tor a
scheme in which only undetected failures occur and dev ices are replaced at regular
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
157
intervals. Monte Carlo simulation techniques are used to estimate the measures
of deficiency for situations in which both types of failure are possible. Considera-
tion is given to the "cost-benefit" aspects of safety schemes in simple circumstances
in which the rate of occurrence of the hazards involved, and the penalty to be paid
in the event of a catastrophe, are known.
Quintiere, J. (National Bureau of Standards. Gaithersburg. Maryland) “Some
Observations on Building Corridor }- ires.” Fifteenth Symposium ( International)
on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 163 ( 1975)
Subjects: Corridor fires; Fire tests; Building fires; Hazard analysis
Author’s Abstract
Full-scale corridor fire experiments designed to evaluate the potential fire hazard
of floor covering materials exposed to a room fire are described. A phenomeno-
logical account of events leading to rapid fire propagation along the corridor is
presented for one experiment. Mechanisms responsible for the rapid fire propaga-
tion. termed flameover. are explored through measurements and analysis ol a
data. Before flameover the corridor floor is heated by radiation which enah.es
flames to spread into the corridor. On the wood floor considered, flame spread
velocity accelerates from ~IO--ft sec to ~ I ft secfollowing flameover. Causative
factors of flameover appear to be the increase in flame height of the floor fire, and a
reduction ol an supply to the burn room due to a change in flow pattern between
the corridor and burn room. Calculations show that air flow to the burn room
steadily drops as the corridor fire develops, resulting in incomplete combustion for
the room fire.
Rousseau. .1. and McDonald, G. H. (AiResearch Manufacturing Companv.
Torrance, California) “Catalytic Reactor for Inerting of Aircraft Fuel Tanks."
Final Report. June Id7 1 - June IV74. Contract No. F336I5-7 1 C-ld<)l . Air Force
Aero Propulsion laboratory. Air Force Systems Command (June 1974)
Subjects: Fuel tank inerting; Catalytic fuel oxidation
Authors' Abstract
Phis program. Catalytic Reactor for Inerting of Aircraft Fuel lanks. was con-
cerned with the development of a prototype catalytic reactor for the generation of
inert gases through jet fuel combustion in engine bleed air Successful operation of
a flight-configured unit was achieved at very high effectiveness Inert gas oxygen
concentrations below I percent were achieved repeatedly Design data were gener-
ated related t, reactor pcformance under various operating conditions and also
related to thermal and mechanical design of the unit. Corrosion testing ol aircraft
fuel tank construction materials, including metals, coatings, and sealants, was
conducted. I he'.' materials were evaluated in terms of resistance to corrosion b\
NO formed it the fuel oxidation reactor l sing the experimental data generated
under this ptoeram. a complete fuel tank inerting system was svnthcsized. I his
HR I RESEARCH
F
158
system weighs 305 lbs. has an overall envelope ol 19 by 24 by 55 in., and satisfies
all flight conditions, including emergency descent of a large-volume bomber-type
of aircraft.
Safety in Mines Research Establishment, "High Voltage Equipment for use in
Flammable Atmospheres," Safety in Mines Research Digest. Electrical
Hazards - 6 (1973)
Subjects: Electrical equipment; High voltage equipment, for flammable
atmospheres
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 274
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Safety in Mines Research Establishment. “Gas Detection with Semiconductor
Metal Oxides." Safety in Mines Research Establishment Digest. Gas Detection -
6 (1973)
Subjects: Gas detection; Metal oxides as gas detectors
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 322
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
A new type of gas-sensing system has been devised at SMRE and is being
developed for use in instruments. It relies on the changes in electrical conductivitv
that can be produced in many semiconductor metal oxides by the adsorption of
gases on their surfaces. The selection of suitably "doped" oxides and suitable
operating conditions makes it possible, w ith rugged solid-state sensing elements to
detect and measure a w ide range of gases.
Schwenker. H. and Sullivan, J. J. “Synthetic Hydrocarbon Fluid is Fire Resistant.
Safer Than 5606 Oil,” Hydraulics and Pneumatics 25 (7). 99-100 ( 1972)
Subjects: Fire-resistant hydraulic oil; Hydrocarbon oil. fire-resistant
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 258
Salety in Mines Research Establishment
A new formulated synthetic hvdrocarbon-base fluid has significantly improved
fire resistance compared to Mil -H-5606 (B) petroleum base hydraulic fluid-red
oil. The new fluid, designated MIL-H-83282 may be used in the 5606 systems of
aircraft, spacecraft, and support equipment w ithout altering the systems. Charac-
teristics and properties of the fluid are outlined together with some conversion
considerations.
Spratt, D. and Hesclden. A. M. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Boreham-
wood. Herts. England) “Efficient Extraction of Smoke from a Thin I aver under
a Ceiling." Eire Researt It \<ne No. Itltll, Joint Eire Research Organization
(February 1974)
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
159
Subjects: Smoke extraction; Venting; Ceiling smoke
Authors' Summary
A method of smoke control has been advocated in which smoky gases generated
by a fire are extracted at ceiling level from the layer they form there because they
are buoyant. However, too high an extraction rate at a given point will draw up air
from underneath the layer into the extraction duct and this will markedly reduce
the actual amount of smoky gases removed.
This note reports experiments showing that the maximum extraction rate before
air is draw n up depends mainly on the layer depth and temperature and is not sensi-
tive to the area or shape of the extraction opening over the range of areas of major
practical importance. An expression, derived from large and small-scale experi-
ments. is given for this maximum extraction rate
In practice, to achieve a rate of removal of smoke equal to the rate at w hich a fire
is producing it. extraction at a number of well-separated points may be necessary.
A very simple expression has been derived from this work for the maximum si/e
for a vent in the form of a simple opening in a flat roof, if entrainment and hence
inefficient extraction are to be avoided.
Virr. L. E. and Pearson, F. K. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield.
England) “Fail-safe Earth Fault Detection Device for Battery Supplies." Proc.
Inst. Elect r. Eng. 121 (S) 829 ( 1°74)
Subjects: Coal mine locomotives: Earth fault detection; Detection of earth fault
Authors' Abstract
An electronic method for detecting an earth fault on a fully insulated battery
sy stem that fails to safety in the event of supply, component, or connection lailure.
is described. The particular application to battery -driven coal-mine locomotives is
discussed, and a device recently built and tested by the authors for this purpose is
described in detail 1 he dev ice is such that intrinsic salety for methane-air mixtures
may be achieved, it desired, with flameproof enclosure of a minimal number ol
components, and in normal operation even a zero-resistance fault to earth on the
battery to which it is connected cannot cause ignition of hydrogen-ox vgen gas
mixtures.
VVatanabe. ' .. <7 nl "I fleet ol Fire Retardants on Combustible Materials I ndet
ground. " Mining tnul .Soldi Japan IK ( 1 1 1. 1-8 i 19' 2) (in Japanese)
Subjects: Retardants; Mines; I unnels: Combustible materials
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 79
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
I wo kinds ol fire-retardants (I -10 and P-35) coated on wood. coal, and metal
plate , were tested bv means ot apply ing a propane torch or.i furnace which simu-
lated an underground lire I he results obtained showed that both coatings produce
I(>0
I IRE K I SI ARC H
only little poisonous gases and are usable in mines: the P-35 coating, especially, has
a better retardation effect against fire.
Wiersma, S. J. and Martin. S. B. (Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park
California) “Evaluation of the Nuclear Fire Threat to Urban Areas." Annual
Report. August 1972 - September 1973. Contract No. DAHC20-70-C-0219.
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (September 1973)
Subjects: Nuclear fire threat; Dynamic behavior of fires: Structural fires.
response to blast waves: Fire spread in debris: Fire-blast interaction
Authors' Abstract
The nuclear fire threat to urban areas was evaluated in a four-task program.
During three previous years of experiments the dynamic behavior of fires in lull-
scale structures and the nature and magnitude of behavioral changes that result
from variations in both structural and environmental factors were studied. This
year an attempt was made to integrate the present structural fire behavior know-
ledge with blast knowledge and to predict the combined blast-fire responses of an
urban area to a nuclear attack.
In Task I a problem definition and sensitiv its analysis was conducted to identify
the blast damage and fire situations that are important to study and then a descrip-
tion of an attack environment following a nuclear detonation was attempted.
Further analysis of the structural response to blast waves and of the interaction
between blast and fire is found necessary before a reliable description of the attack
environment can be accomplished
In Task 2. three field tests of fire development in full-scale structures were made
in response to questions raised in the problem definition. In the first field test fire
was found not to spread to the interior of a building from a neighboring burning
structure so rapidly as expected because induced ait currents were drawn toward
the initial fire. In the second and third field tests the environment in an improvised
basement shelter beneath a burning building and the fire spread in debris were
measured.
In Task 3. a method of simulating air blast effects on structures was investigated.
The scale model experiment showed promise for simulating room filling by a blast
wave: however, simulating the collapse of a structure by a blast wave using the
vacuum-air bag technique is not feasible.
In Task 4. a blast-fire interaction experiment was attempted to determine the
influence of air blast and its effects on the incendiary responses ol combustible
target areas. At Mixed Company, a 500-ton I N I blast and shock experiment, test
plots of burning liquid lucls contained b\ a series ol pans ol carving lengths were
located at each of three stations at 5-. 2-. and l-psi peak ocet pressures It was
anticipated that the flames on some of the smaller pans would be displaced suf-
ficiently bv the shock wave to extinguish the flames, but that the larger pans at
each station would remain burning and thus the dependence ot the si/c ol threshold
fires that are extinguished bs air shocks on characteristics of shock and (low ;ould
be computed Howes cr. no fire at any ol the three stations was extinguished b\ the
abstracts and reviews
161
shock wave, a resul! that seemingly contradicts the conclusion of a previous
experiment.
Wilson, l). M„ Katz. B. S., and Demske, I). (Naval Ordnance Laboratory. Silver
Spring, Maryland) “The Use of Water Cooling for Protection Against Thermal
Radiation from a Nuclear Weapon Detonation ."Technical Report XOI.TR
74-59. Naval Ordnance Laboratory (April 1974)
Subjects: Water flow cooling; Cooling by water spray; Nuclear weapons effects;
Ship structures
Authors' Abstract
An experimental study was completed to determine the effectiveness of water
cooling plates which are being exposed to the thermal radiation pulse of a nuclear
weapon detonation. Heat transfer rates were measured on heated plates on which
water was either sprayed or allowed to flow dow nward in a thin sheet. The plates in
the experiments where cooling water flows over the plate were simultaneously
heated by igniting a sheet of rocket propellant which had been placed behind the
plate. The plates in the spray cooling experiments were preheated to approximately
300 C and data was taken as the water cooled the plate. One flow rate was used in
the flow cooling test ( 1 .0 GPM foot width) and two flow rates( 1. 10 GPM and 0.25
GPM square foot of area) were used in the spray cooling tests. Heat transfer data
from both the spray cooling and flow cooling tests were used in a computer pro-
gram to compute the effectiveness of water cooling aluminum plates on ships
exposed to the thermal radiation pulse of a nuclear weapon detonation. The v alue
of water cooling is shown by comparing the maximum plate temperatures with
and without cooling for weapon yields of 100 and 1000 kilotons. aluminum plate
thicknesses between and U”, and ship to weapon distances corresponding to
peak airblast overpressures up to 15 psi.
Wraight. H. (.. II. (.loint Lire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts.
England) “ I he Lire Problems of Pedestrian Precincts. Part 5. A Rev iew of f ires
in Enclosed Shopping Complexes." Tire Research Sole Vo. 1012. Joint Tire
Research Organization (June 1974)
Subjects: I ire hazard. Shopping complexes: Pedestrian precincts: hires in
shopping malls
Author's Summary
I his Note describes a number of fire incidents in enclosed shopping complexes
and some other buildings also used for retailing. Factors common to different fires
are compared I he tires described occurred in the USA. the 1 k. Canada, and
Mexico
I he worst hazards are noted and suggestions are made as to how these may he
overcome
r
162 EIRE RESEARCH
B. Ignition of f ires
Ballal. 1). K. and I.efebvre, A. H. (Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranlield.
Bedford. England) “The Influence 'of Flow Parameters on Minimum Ignition
Energy and Quenching Distance,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 1473(1975)
Subjects: Flow effects on ignition; Ignition energy; Quenching distance; I urbu-
lence; Spark ignition
Authors' Abstract
Experiments have been carried out on the effects of pressure, velocity, mixture
strength, turbulence intensity, and turbulence scale on minimum ignition energy
and quenching distance. Tests were conducted at room temperature in a specially
designed closed-circuit tunnel in which a fan was used to drive propane air mix-
tures at subatmospheric pressures through a 9 cm square working section at veloci-
ties up to 50 in sec. Perforated plates located at the upstream end ol the vv urking
section provided near-isotropic turbulence in the ignition zone ranging from I to 22
percent in intensity, with values of turbulence scale up to 0.8 cm. Ignition was
effected using capacitance sparks whose energy and duration could be varied inde-
pendently.
The results of these tests showed that rectangular, arc-type sparks of 60 gscc
duration gave lower than prev iously reported values of ignition energy for both
stagnant and flowing mixtures. It was found that both quenching distance and
minimum ignition energy increased with (a) increase in velocity, (h) reduction in
pressure, (c) departures from stoichiometric fuel air ratio, and (d) increase in
turbulence intensity. Increase in turbulence scale either raised oi lowered ignition
energy, depending on the level of turbulence intensity. Equations based on an
idealized model of the ignition process satisfactorily predicted all the experimental
data on minimum ignition energy.
Burgess. I)., Murphy. .J. IN.. Zahetalsis, M. (4., and Perlee, H. E.( Bureau of Mines.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania) “Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting front the
Atmospheric Dispersion of a Leak or Spill." Fifteenth Symposium (Interna-
tional) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
2X9 ( 1975) See Section A.
Di\on-f rw is. and Shepherd. I. (i. (Houldsworth School of \pplied Science.
I he I diversity. Leeds. England) “Some Aspects of Ignition by Localized
Sources, and ol Cylindrical and Spherical Flames." Fifteenth Symposium
t International) on Combustion, 1 he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsyl-
vania. 14X3 ( 1975)
Subjects: Ignition, localized; Minimum ignition energv . I lame structure; II atom
profiles
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
163
Authors' Abstract
The time dependent conservation equations governing flame propagation in
cylindrical and spherical systems have been set up and solved by finite difference
methods for the case of a 60ft hydrogen air tlame. By this means it is possible
(a) numerically to follow the sequence of events following an “ignition" at the axis
of a cylinder or the center of a sphere, or (b) to investigate the effect ot flame curs a-
ture on burning velocity and other flame properties.
It was found that the minimum ignition energy depended on the form in which
the energy was supplied. For a constant total energy, ignition was facilitated by
increasing the proportion supplied as H atoms rather than as thermal energy
1 he velocities of movement of the freely propagating flames from the ignitions
were found to be slightly different from those of the inward propagating, cylindrical
and spherical stationary flames. The velocities of the latter were independent of the
llame diameter. The effect of curvature on the flame properties is shown to be an
effect on reaction rate distribution, which also leads to differences in H atom con-
centration profiles. Unlike the situation in planar flames, the detailed structure
of freely propagating curved flames may not be the same as that of the correspond-
ing stationary flames, and this may lead to the apparent differences in burning
velocity.
t-randsen. W. H. ( Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station. Ogden.
Utah) “Effective Heating of Fuel Ahead of Spreading Fire." U.S. Department
of Agriculture Forest Service Research Report Paper 1ST - 140 (1973)
Subjects: Fire behavior; Ignition; Forest fire; Fire spread model; Fuel crib
heating
Author's Abstract
An array of thermocouples was implanted in selected members of a fuel crib
(0.6 cm. and 1 .3 cm. in thickness) to obtain the heat absorbed by the fuel members
prior to ignition. T he fraction absorbed compared to the total that would be ab-
sorbed if uniformly heated is the effective heating number. It is represented graph-
ically as decreasing exponentially with the reciprocal of the surface area-to-volume
ratio.
Gurevich. M. A.. Ozerova. G. E., and Stysanov. A. M. ( 1 eningrad) "Critical Con-
ditions of Self-Ignition of a Poly -Dispersed Gas Suspension of Solid-Fuel
Particles." Fizika (joreniva i \ zryva 7(1). 9-19 (March 1971) (in Russian)
Subjects: Ignition of particles; Particle ignition; Self ignition; Critical ignition
conditions
Authors' Conclusions
Translated by l.. Holtschlag
A theoretical analysis is made of simplified configurations of the fuel ignition
164
FIRE RESEARC H
process in order to allow calculation of critical self-ignition conditions for a poly-
dispersed gas suspension of particles, under the following assumptions:
1 . Chemical reaction occurs only on the surface of the particles: the dependence
of the reaction rate on the temperature and oxidi/er content is described by the
Arrhenius formula.
2. The heat liberated during reaction is transmitted to the walls by the gas
surrounding the particles. The gas temperature at any instant is constant over the
whole volume.
3. Mass transfer between the gas suspension and the outer medium is absent,
and the oxidizer content is the same and time-constant over the entire volume.
4. The particles are spherical, constant in size, and without a temperature
gradient. Particles of each size are uniformly distributed in the gas volume
5. The gas density, specific heat, and thermal-conductivity coefficient are con-
stant. Ignition limits are obtained for a gas suspension of particles consisting of two
fractions and for a suspension with a continuous size distribution of particles.
Handa. T., Suzuki. H„ Takahashi. A., and Morifa. M. (Science University of
Tokyo) “Examination of the Conditions for the Self Ignition of Wood: Part II.
Critical Conditions and Anisotropy Effect for the Self Ignition of Wood Spheres
Compared with Computer Simulation,” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society
of Japan 21 (1) 1971 (2) 1972 15 (English translation by Trans. Sec.. Brit lend.
Lib. Div.. Boston Spa Wetherby. Yorkshire, U.k.)
Subjects: Ignition; Sell ignition; Spontaneous ignition; Wood
Authors' Conclusions
As a continuation of our earlier report, we have discussed the possibility of the
self ignition of wood induced by long-term low-temperature heating. Heating
either from one side or from both sides greatly alters the interior temperature distri-
bution pattern, and when the wood is wrapped in some other materials, the nature
of the wrapper, whether an insulator or a good heat conductor, changes the ignition
time and ignition temperature. Moreover, the anisotropy effects of wood fibre
direction must be considered in the search for the cause of self ignition.
The activation energy which controls the thermal decomposition rate of wood
seems to be related to micromolecular parameters in relation to wood structures,
such as oxvgen partial pressure on the internal surface or in the opening, vapor
densitx . etc The nature of the wood, old or new. which determines the activation
energv can be an important factor in fire appraisals concerning ignition points or
ignition times
The tire examples described in our earlier report concerned new materials, and
w hen we considered heating from one side, sell ignition became most improbable
1 he examination of carbonization direction and temperature at the ignition point
is to clarilv the details in the appraisal of heating direction and ignition 1 he
direction and depth of carbonization in this example have already been reported in
the previous report, which excludes the possibility ol sell ignition However, the
problem of heating eonditions and the cracks induced b\ thermal stress related to
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
165
A
the wood fibre direction remain unsolved. The possibility of heated air convection
into the cracks, the oxygen supply, and local ignition of fires must be considered:
however, the cracks decrease the heat accumulation’s effects and the possibility of
self ignition becomes small. The problem of heat evolution per unit weight loss, and
the activation energy concerning the heat evolution rate which were examined at
the end of this report require more detailed investigation.
Hibbard, R. R. and Hacker. P. T. (Lewis Research Center. Cleveland. Ohio) "An
Evaluation of the Relative Fire Hazards of Jet A and Jet B for Commercial
Flight.” National Aeronautic and Space Administration Technical Memor-
andum X-7/437 (October I97J)
Subjects: Fire hazards of fuels; Jet fuels, fire hazard; Fuel ignition; Flame
propagation rate
Authors' Abstract
The relative fire hazards of Jet A and Jet B aircraft fuels are evaluated. The
evaluation is based on a consideration of the presence of and or the generation of
flammable mixtures in fuel systems, the ignition characteristics, and the flame
propagation rates for the two fuel types. Three distinct aircraft operating regimes
where fuel type may be a factor in fire hazards are considered Theseare( 1 (ground
handling and refueling. (2) flight, and (3) crash. The evaluation indicates that the
overall fire hazards for Jet A are less than for Jet B fuel.
Kashiwagi, T. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) "Flame Spread
over a Porous Surface under an External Radiation Field.” National Bureau of
Standards Special Publication 4/1, 97 (August 1973)
Subjects: Carpet flammability; Flame spread. Ignition
Author's Abstract
Flame spread over carpet surfaces was studied under various constant external
radiant fluxes from 0.4 to 1 .2 W cm’. Characteristics of ignition and flame spread
including speed ol spread and net heat release rate were measured. The results
indicate that these values increase rapidly with increasing external radiant flux.
It was also obser ed that there exists a minimum radiant flux necessary to sustain
steady I lame spread lor each carpet. The underlayment of a carpet has a significant
effect on ignition and flame spread speed for nylon carpets due to melting of fibers
before flameover However, this effect is negligible for low pile density acrylic
carpets.
Kashiwagi. 1 . (National Bureau of Standards. Gaithersburg. Maryland) “A Radia-
tive Ignition Model ol a Solid Fuel.” Combustion Science and Technology# 225
(1974)
Subjects: Radiative ignition; Solid fuel ignition; Jgnitability
166
FIRE RESEARCH
Author’s Abstract
A theoretical model describing radiative ignition of a solid fuel is constructed
and is numerically analysed. The model includes the effects of gas phase reaction
and a finite value of the absorption coefficient of the solid (in-dep’h absorption of
incident radiation). It is found that the gas phase reaction must be included in the
model in order to understand radiative ignition of a solid fuel and to find its igni-
tion boundary. The in-depth absorption of the incident radiation by a solid fuel
significantly affects the ignition delay time. The results indicate that there is a finite
range of values for pyrolysis or gas phase reaction activation energy for which
ignition will occur. This finding has a direct bearing on efforts to reduce material
ignitability.
Kuchta. J. M., Hertzberg, M., Cato, R Litton, C. D., Burgess, D„ and Van Dolah,
R. W. (Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) “Criteria of Incipient Com-
bustion in Coal Mines." Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 1 27(1975)
Subjects: Coal; Mines; Incipient combustion; Spontaneous combustion
Authors' Abstract
The formation of carbon monoxide (CO) and other gases by various American
coals was investigated to determine their relevance to spontaneous heating and to
the problem of incipient fire detection. Desorption experiments under constant
volume showed that ground samples of the coals yield CO AO ratios that are
essentially constant for extended explosure periods in air at 25°C and are highest
for coals from mines suspected of having a self-heating hazard; the latter coals also
yield high C'O CO: ratios. These ratios vary with particle size and surface moisture
content and correlate best with the oxygen content of the coal, although the corre-
lation was not always consistent w ith the absolute level of CO production. Similar
experiments in an atmosphere containing the lhO: isotope revealed that the O:
reduction at ambient temperature is most likely due to chemisorption and the CO
and CO: formation is attributable to decarbonylation. decarboxylation, or de-
sorbed products from previous reaction of the coal in its virgin state Results cf flow
experiments at various temperatures indicated that the CO AO: and CO CO
ratios are highly sensitive to temperature. The temperature dependence of the rate
of CO or CO; production between 50° and 1 50" C was approximately comparable
to that derived from the adiabatic self-healing rate for each coal; apparent activ a-
tion energies were between 10 and 20 kcal mole. Below 50° C. the rate data were
meager but supported the assumption that oxidation was not a significant factor
at ambient temperature.
The sensitivity and reliability of combustion product sensors as mine fire detec-
tors were investigated with heated coal samples in Bowing air. Submicron particu-
lates appeared earlier than measurable CO emissions, suggesting that pyrolv sis is a
precursor to rapid oxidation. Data are presented to compare the autoignition
temperature of the coal and the detection threshold temperature as functions ol
particle size of the coal.
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
I(i7
Rae, D. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield. England) "Initiation
of Weak Coal-Dust Explosions in Long Galleries and the Importance of the
Time Dependence of the Explosion Pressure." Fourteenth Symposium (Inter-
national) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
1225 (1973)
Subjects: Coal dust explosions; Ignition; Time dependence of explosion pressure;
Weak coal dust explosions; Long gallery coal dust explosions
Author's Abstract
Weak coal-dust explosions in galleries ( large horizontal tubes) are defined in the
paper as the early stages of what may eventually become a self-sustaining, steads -
state situation, if the scale is large enough. An initiating explosion producing a
pressure rise of at least 12 kPa is needed to start an explosion from any additional
dust that lies beyond the initiating zone: entrainment of this additional dust leads to
the main explosion. In long galleries, initiating explosions in the range I6±2 kPa
are mostly used. The early stages of the main explosion resemble explosions in
which combustion of a very low concentration of coal-dust particles is taking place
over a considerable volume at any given time, rather than explosions in which a
tlame. having a more or less definable front and rear, is propagating through a pre-
formed explosive mixture. The explosions are described in terms of the general
shape of the pressure changes occurring at a point near the outermost extent of the
(lame that is produced by the initiation explosion alone. The initial pressure rise is
determined by the form of the initiating explosion and is followed by a roughly
exponential pressure increase (from atmospheric pressure), whose time constant
depends on the nature of the coal-dust, its dispersion, and the dimensions and
characteristics of the gallery The effects on the development of the explosion of the
presence of short dust deposits, suppressive devices, and the ignition of predis-
persed clouds are briefly discussed. It is concluded that, in weak explosions, propa-
gation results from dust being swept from the floor into the zone of combustion
behind the flame front. However, as pressures increase to above, say lOOkPa. other
mechanisms become responsible and. perhaps, a pre-detonation regime sets in
Richard, J. R.. Vovelle, C., and Delbourgo. R. (Centre de Recherches sur la
Chemit de la Combustion et des Hautes Temperatures CNR S . Orleans la
Source. France) “Flammability and Combustion Properties ol Polvolefinic
Materials." Fifteenth Symposium ( International) on Combustion. I he ( ombus-
tion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 205 (1975)
Subjects: Flammability; Combustion properties. Polyolefin polymers. Oxygen
index; TGA (thermogravimetric analysis): Polystyrene; Char limits;
Pyrolysis; Flame structure
Authors' Abstract
Polyolefin samples were subjected to thermogravimetric analysis, pyrolvsis. and
flame structure studies. Polyethelenes (low and high densits) and polvpropvlcne
168 EIRE RESEARCH
give stable counter-diffusion and diffusion flames for which temperature and
species profiles can be determined with excellent reproducibility. Low oxygen
indices and mass burning rates were measured for these materials, whereas the
tendency of polystyrene to char limits the application of these methods.
Evidence is given for the composition of the gaseous phase generated by the
pyrolysis process. The flames are fed by the llammable mixture produced by the
pyrolysis reaction mixed with traces of oxygen that appear to be present in the
"feeding space" between the flame and the polymer melt. Complete analysis and
profiles are given.
The limitations of the Lou Oxygen Index determination as a piactical test are
discussed and its validity questionned.
Shivadev, U. K. (University of California, San Diego. La Jolla. California) and
Emmons, H. W. ( Harvard University. Cambridge. Massachusetts) "T hermal
Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of Paper Sheets in Air by Irradiation."
Combustion unci Hume 22. 223-236 ( 1974)
Subjects: Irradiation of paper sheets; Thermal degradation of paper; Spontane-
ous ignition of paper
Authors' Abstract
The temperature and surface-density histories of a radiantly heated, thermally
thin filter-paper sheet held freely in air were measured in order to study the dynam-
ics of the ignition of paper. Analyses of these histories indicate that the chemically
complex degradation reactions can be approximately represented for fire dynamics
purposes by two competitive first-order reactions with Arrhenius kinetics as ob-
served by Tang [3], One of these reactions with a preexponential factor 5.9 * KT
sec-1 and an activation energy 26 kcal gm-mole is dominant at less than about
655°K. At higher temperatures, the other reaction with a preexponential factor
1 9 « It)1*1 sec-1 and an activation energy 54 kcal gm-mole is dominant. The heat-
transfer rates to and from the test sheet were measured in order to estimate the
energetics of the reactions. The data were insensitive to the small heat of the low-
temperature reaction. Assuming this heat to be 88 cal g (endothermic), based on
DTA measurements of Tang and Neill [8], the heat of the high-temperature reac-
tion is estimated to be about 444 cal g (exothermic). An approximate formula is
developed to predict the spontaneous ignition of a thermally thin sheet under
known heating and cooling conditions, provided the Arrhenius kinetics and the
heat of a first-order reaction in the sheet are known. Using the measured kinetics
and heat of the high-temperatuie reaction in this formula, the results are compared
with the measured data as well as with Martin's |9] ignition data
\5raight. IL (Joint l ire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. England)
“I he Ignition of Corrugated Eibreboard (Cardboard) h\ I hernial Radiation."
lire Research 'sole Vo. 111(12. Joint Fire Researc h ( >nyant:anon( February 1974)
Subjects: Ignition; Radiation: Eibreboard: Cardboard
ABS I RACES AND REVIEWS
Author’s Summary
The ignition characteristics of corrugated fibreboard (commonly called corru-
gated cardboard) are of considerable interest in \ iew of its widespread use for pack-
ing cases in high stack storage warehouses. Samples ot this material have, therefore,
been tested to determine their ease of ignition by thermal radiation.
The results have been tabulated and displayed for three thicknesses of material
for both spontaneous and pilot ignition and compared with corresponding results
for common softwood.
The minimum irradiance for pilot ignition was 1.5 W cm: - only slightly below
that for European whitewood. but the minimum intensity for spontaneous ignition
was about 1.7 W cm-’, about I 3 of that for European whitewood.
C. Detection of Fires
Custer. R. E. 1’.. and Bright. R. G. (National Bureau of Standards, Washington.
DC.) “Fire Detection: The State of the Art." Final Report No. NASA
CR- 134642. Contract No. NASA Order C-506273. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration. Aerospace Research arid Data Institute (June 1974)
Subjects: Eire detection: Code requirements, for fire detection; Eire detector
testing and star»dards; Eire signatures; Fire detectors
Authors' Abstract
The current state-of-the-art in fire detection technology is reviewed considering
the nature of fire signatures, detection modes used, test methods, performance re-
quirements. and code requirements for fire detection. Present trends in standards
development and recommendations for future work are included. An extensive
bibliography is provided.
Electrical Review “Sniffing the Fire and Snuffing It.” Electrical Review 192 (7)
253-254 (1973)
Subjects: Eire detector: Ionization detector
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 263
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
loni/ation detectors sometimes react to transient peaks of combustion products
where no real danger exists. The article describes a new design of iom/ation lire
detector that overcomes this problem by incorporating an integration period which
enables the dev ice to be set to a finer sensitivity. T he manufacturing company con-
cerned has also developed a new extinguishant which is claimed to be of particular
importance to areas containingclectrical equipment (bromotrifluoremethane) f he
toxicitv is low enough to allow personnel to see and breathe in the area ot the fire
,70 FIRE RESEARCH
Hertzberg, \1., Litton, ( . I).. Donaldson, W. F., and Burgess, I). (Bureau of
Mines, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania) “The Infrared Radiance and The Optical
Detection of Fires and Explosions,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 137 (1975)
Subjects: Fire detector; Explosion detectors; Optical detectors; Detectors for
fire and explosion; Infrared detectors for fire
Authors' Abstract
The optical detection of an explosion or fire event is considered quantitatively in
terms of the source radiance, background, or stray irradiances, and the spectral
responsitivities of the available sensors. The infrared spectral source radiances
from spherical methane-air “ignitions” were measured and the data analyzed. They
served as a basis for the development of a new detector which uses wavelength selec-
tion about the 4.4-pm CO band to detect fires and explosions rapidly and reliably;
and to discriminate effectively against false sources. The data are also of funda-
mental interest, yielding consistent temperatures and spectral grow th patterns. An
equation is derived for the fraction of combustion power radiating to free space
which seems to approach a natural limit for slow explosion of large size.
Typical radiance data from hydrocarbon pool flames are also considered. An
earlier, empirical, linear correlation of large pool burning rate with the ratio.
AH, AHv, is revised and related to radiative transport factors and the limit burning
velocity for quenching bv natural convection at the flammability threshold.
Luck, H. “The Relationship Between the Testing. Utilization and Assessment of
Fire Detectors." Ztsehr. VFDB22 (1). 28-32 (February 1973) (in German)
Subject: Fire Detectors
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 260
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The article describes detectors based on the principles of temperature, smoke,
and flame detection and discusses the control and inspection of detectors.
O'Neill, J. H„ Sommers, I). E„ and Nicholas, K. B. (National Aviation Facilities
Experimental Center. Atlantic City, New Jersey) “Aerospace Vehicle Hazard
Protection lest Program: Detectors; Materials; Fuel Vulnerability. ” Final
Report. October 1970 - September 1972. Contract No. I SAL F336I5-7I-M-
5002. U S. Air Force Systems Command (February 1974). Air Force Aero Pro-
pulsion laboratory Report So. AFAP-TR-73-87. See Section A.
Pickard. R. \\ . "Approvals Criteria for Automatic Eire Detectors and Alarm Sys-
tems." Flectrical Review 192(1). 250-251 (1973)
Subjects: Fire detectors; Alarm systems
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 261
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
171
I
The article deals with the testing and criteria adopted in assessing the perfor-
mance of detector and alarm systems and lists the requirements set in BS 3116:
Part 1: 1970 (Heat sensitive detectors for automatic fire alarm systems in buildings)
and reviews requirements for control and indicating equipment and transmission
of alarm systems.
VVatanabe, A. and Takemoto, A., “Response Characteristics of Smoke Detectors
in the Early Stage of Fire,” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society of Japan 21
(I) 1971 (2) 1972 70 (English translation by Trans. Sec.. Brit. Lend. Lib. Div.,
Boston Spa, Wetherbv, Yorkshire. U.K.)
Subjects: Fire detector response; Smoke detector; Detectors
Authors' Conclusions
The effects of smokes generated from various combustible substances on the
response characteristics of smoke detectors: the light scattering type smoke detec-
tor operated at the rated smoke density for cellulosic smoke. It operated at a density
equal to four times that of the rated density for sooty smokes generated from burn-
ing kerosene and polystyrene, and at intermediate density for smouldering cellu-
losic smoke. Ionization chamber ty pe detectors were sensitive to flaming combus-
tion. insensitive to smouldering smoke. Tests were conducted in a small-sized room
under various conditions of combustion for various combustible substances. How-
ever. additional fire tests in rooms w hich have different space dimensions should be
conducted.
The influence of change in smoke properties w ith the passage of time due to the
smoke movement upon the response characteristics of smoke detectors: the smoke
density at the time of operation increased w ith the increase of distance from the
origin of the fire for both types of smoke detectors.
The fire tests conducted by the authors may serve not only for the asst sment of
detector- the establishment of effective test methods to be conducted at the site of
test fires, the adequate scale for fire detection, and technical assessment for the new
lire detection system, but should also help the optimum choice of smoke detectors.
Consequently, further improvements of methods of maintenance, ignition, and
selection of samples are desired in order to promote reproducibility of the tests.
Whitehouse. R. B “Automatic Fire Detection Equipment" Electrical Review IV2
(7). 248-250 (1973)
Subjects: Fire detectors; Fire systems design
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 259
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The article discusses the design of precaution sy stems ov er and above the require-
ments of legislation - heat sensitive detectors, optical smoke detectors, rate of
temperature rise detectors, and ionization detectors arc covered. The matching of
the various types of circuit to suit the type of detector is discussed.
172
FIRE RESEARCH
D. Propagation of Fires
Campbell, A. S. (University of Maine. Orono. Maine) “Fire Spread Over Paper,"
Journal of Fire ami Flammability-5, 167-178 (1974)
Subjects: Fire Spread: Paper, fire spread
Author's Abstract
An experimental study of the influences of sheet thickness and initial tempera-
ture on the steady state rate of spread of a fire moving downward over filter paper.
The data indicates that a simple relationship exists between rate of spread and heat
flux from the flame.
Fernandez-Pello. A. and Williams, F. A. (University of California, San Diego,
La Jolla, California) “Laminar Flame Spread Over PM M A Surfaces.” Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, 217 (1975)
Subjects: Flame spread: Surface burning: Polymers; PMMA (Polymethyl
Methacrylate); Laminar flames on polymers; Diffusion flame; Model-
ing flame structure
Authors' Abstract
A study is made of the mechanisms by which laminar flames spread over flat sur-
faces of polymethylmethacrylate, in directions ranging from downward to hori-
zontal. Measurements of spread rates, temperature fields, and velocity fields are
reported. Techniques employed include thermocouple probing, photography,
interferometry, radiometer measurements, sampling followed b> gas chromatog-
raphy, and particle-track photography. A simplified theoretical model of the
spread process is developed, involving forward heat conduction through the solid
as the major mode of the energy transfer and thermal runaway of a gas-phase igni-
tion reaction of methylmethacrylate vapor in a boundary layer just upstream from
the point of flame attachment. The extent to which this physical model applies to
other materials w ill depend on the thermal and chemical-kinetic properties of those
materials.
Frandsen, W . H. (Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden,
Utah) “Fire Spread Through Porous Fuels from the Conservation of Energy.”
Combustion and Flame 16. 9-16 ( 1971)
Subjects: Fire spread; Porous fuels: Heat flux: Energy conservation
Author's Abstract
I he rate of spread of fire through a fuel bed in the quasi-steady state was e\ i
ated on an energy flux conservation basis. Another heat flux term, in addit ■ ■
the forward horizontal heat flux, was found to be of significance in the des.
L
AD-/
'IkD-AOAO 714
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL WASHINGTON D C COMMITTEE ON— ETC F/G 13/12
FIRE RESEARCH ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS. VOLUME 16. NUMBERS 1-3. (U)
1974
UNCLASSIFIED
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ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
17.1
of fire propagation. The additional term involves the vertical gradient of the verti-
cal component of the overall forward heat flux and is shown to be dependent on the
shape of the combustion zone interface within the fuel bed.
Frandsen, W. H. (Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden,
Utah) “Effective Heating of Fuel Ahead of a Spreading Fire,” U.S. Department
of Agriculture Forest Service Research Report Paper 1ST - 140 (1973). See
Section B.
Handa, T. and Takahashi, A. (The Science University of Tokyo) “Analysis of the
Surface Flame Spread of Organic Building Materials, Part 1. Surface Flame on
Plywood Materials in an Inclined Tunnel Furnace as a Model of the Initial Cause
of Fire.” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society ofJapan2l ( I ) 1971 (2) 1972 101
(English translation byTrans. Sec., Brit. Lend. Lib. Div.. BostonSpa. Wetherby.
Yorkshire, U.K.)
Subjects: Building materials; Flame spread
Authors’ Conclusions
An inclined tunnel-furnace was used to simulate the actual situation of a flame
propagation which starts from the four corners of the ceiling or walls of a building.
From Experiments and analytical computation of the flame propagation proper-
ties in the inclined tunnel-furnace, it was concluded that: (a) the external driving
force to propagate the flame is attributable to the draught effect induced by the
growth of flame; (b) buoyancy acts inversely proportional to draught, i.e.. the more
the buoyancy increases, the more the draught effect decreases: and (c) the direct
driving force to propagate the flame is considered to be an effect of the remaining
heat quantity derived from a thermal radiation normal to the surface of a sample.
Therefore, the shapes of wall, ceiling, and corners, as well as flame face evolved
along them, arc considered as the decisive factors to determine the flame-spread
velocity at the initial stage of ordinary building fires.
The vibration phenomenon that appeared in flame propagation requires a two-
dimensional analysis regarding heat transmission towards the surface of a sample
as well as heat conduction to the thickness of the sample. The analysis, however,
failed in explaining the velocity fluctuation that appeared in flame propagation. It
has been considered that mass transfer llux also vibrates with time.
An experiment is required to separate the draught effect caused by the intense
hot air flow from the radiation effect, by using a U. L. furnace which controls hot
air flow velocity at inclination angle O-O.
Hibbard. R. R. and Hacker. I’. T. ( I ew is Research Center. C Icveland. Ohio) “An
Evaluation of the Relative Fire Hazards of Jet A and Jet B for Commercial
Flight." National Aeronautii and Space Administration Technical Memoran-
dum X-7I4J7 (October 1973). See Section B.
174
FIRE RESEARCH
Hirano, T. and Sato, K. (Ibaraki University, Ibaraki, Japan) “Effects of Radiation
and Convection on Gas Velocity and Temperature Profiles of Flames Spreading
Over Paper,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Com-
bustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 233 (1975)
Subjects: Radiation; Convection; Gas velocity; Temperature profiles; Flame
structure; Paper
Authors’ Abstract
The effects of radiation and convection on the mechanism of flame spread over a
thin combustible solid have been studied. The gas velocity and temperature profiles
near flames spreading downward over paper were measured using particle tracer
techniques and fine-wire thermocouples.
The air stream moving vertically upward was decelerated as it approached the
leading edge of a stably spreading flame, and a lower velocity region appeared near
the paper surface in front of the leading flame edge. When a low-velocity air stream
flowed vertically downward, vortices appeared near the spreading flame. The tem-
perature profiles near a stably spreading flame indicated that a large amount of heat
flowed to the unburned material in a narrow region adjacent to the pyrolysis front.
When the air flowed vertically downward, hot gas flowed along the paper surface in
front of the pyrolysis front. The increase of the flame spread rate with the increase
of the radiative heat flux was attributed mainly to the increase of the surface tem-
perature due to radiative heating. The flame spread rate was shown to be closely
related to the velocif profile just in front of the leading edge of the spreading flame.
Kashiwagi, T. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) "Experimental
Observation of Flame Spread Characteristics over Selected Carpets." Journal
of Fire amt Flammability - Consumer Product Flammability / 367 (1974)
Subjects: Carpets; Flame spread
Author's Abstract
A small laboratory size experiment was used to observe the characteristics of
flame spread over various carpets under various constant external radiant fluxes
(0.10' 0.27 cal cm sec or 0.4-1 15 w cm ). The results indicate that a minimum
radiant flux is necessary to sustain flame spread over a carpet surface for the carpets
tested. Bv increasing radiant flux, the flame spread velocity increases sharply and
can reach several cm sec. At a high external radiant flux, preheating time is the
controlling factor for flame spread velocity. Ignitability. weight loss, and net heat
release rate were also measured under various radiant fluxes. The effect of an
underlavment on ignitability. flame spread speed, weight loss, and net heat release
rate, was also observed for various carpets.
Kashiwagi. T. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) “Flame Spread
over a Porous Surface under an External Radiation Field." \ational Hun an ot
Standards Special Publication 411, 97 (August 1973). See Section B
J
abstracts and reviews
175
Kashiwagi, T. (National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.) “A Study of
Flame Spread over a Porous Material under External Radiation Fluxes.” Fif-
teenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, 255 (1975)
Subjects: Flame spread; Porous materials; Radiation; Carpets
Author’s Abstract
Characteristics of horizontal flame spread over the surface of a porous material,
a carpet in this study, are studied experimentally and theoretically under various
external radiant fluxes (0. 1 -0.27 cal / cm2sec). It is observed that the size of flame is
increased significantly by increasing the external radiant flux. This increases the
radiative heat feedback from the flame so that it becomes comparable to or greater
than the convective heat feedback. The external radiation can also cause an un-
stable motion of the flame front. This effect is probably due to the production of
volatile pyrolysis products ahead of the flame front instead of under it. The theoret-
ical calculation indicates that the thermal emission loss from the heated sample is
significant and the internal radiation in the porous material must be included in the
model.
Ksandopulo, G. I., Kolesnikov, B. Ya., Zavadskii, V. A. Odnorog, D. S„ and
Elovskaya, T. P. (Alma Ata) “Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion of
Hydrocarbon-Air Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles.” Fizika Goreniya i
Vzryva 7(1). 92-99 (March 1971) (in Russian)
Subjects: Inhibition mechanism; Hydrocarbon-air flames; Powdered inhibitors;
Dispersed particles
Authors’ Conclusions
T ranslated by L. Holtschlag
Samples taken from the flame by a quartz microsampler are analyzed with a mass
spectrometer to determine the profiles of compositions of stable species in the com-
bustion zone of a propane-air mixture inhibited by a potassium iodide mixture. The
premixed propane-air flame was produced in a glass burner w'ith an outerdiameter
of no more than 0.35 mm and a length of 8 mm. The potassium-iodide inhibitor was
in the form of powdered particles 0.006 to 0.008 mm in size; the amount introduced
was 0.5 mg I. The results are presented asgraphs giving the dependence of the con-
centration in the flame gases on the distance along the normal to the flame front.
It is established that the process of inhibition by solid particles reduces to the
accelerated format ion of formaldehyde as well as to the deceleration of the decrease
of formaldehyde by recombination of the OH radical on the surface of the solid par-
ticles. The variation in the efficiency of inhibition is proportional to the total sur-
face area ol the particles and is a function of the nature of the particles, which is a
proof of the heterogeneous mechanism of deceleration of combustion.
Rung. H. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood. Massachusetts)"! lie
176
FIRE RESEARCH
Burning of Vertical Wooden Slabs.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 243 (1975)
Subjects: Wood burning; Vertical wood slabs; Convection, natural; Laminar
burning; Scaling of wood burning
Author’s Abstract
A theoretical treatment is presented on the laminar, natural convective burning
of vertical wooden slabs, coupling both the gas-phase laminar diffusion flame pro-
cesses and the in-depth wood pyrolysis in the solid phase. The problem considered
in this paper is symmetrical with respect to the central plane of the slab. The
mechanisms included in the model for transient solid phase pyrolysis are conduc-
tion and internal convection with variable thermal properties, and a single
Arrhenius decomposition with a heat of decomposition, lr. the gas phase, the fol-
lowing major assumptions are made; (1) unit Lewis number; (2) a single global
chemical reaction; and (3) no radiative emission or absorption by the flame. The
radiant heat flux emitted by the slab surface, however, is considered. Comparisons
with experimental results are quite favorable. Sample computations show that the
maximum burning rate per unit surface area varies very slowly with slab thickness
for slabs with half-thicknesses between 0.1 cm and 0.35 cm (approximately as the
—0.041 power). For slabs of half-thickness greater than 0.4 cm. but smaller than
0.6 cm, the maximum burning rate per unit surface area varies more rapidly
(approximately as the —0.324 power of the half-thicknt ^s). It is also shown that the
maximum total burning rate varies approximately as the 0.625 power of the height
for slabs with half-thicknesses between 0.1 cm and 0.4 cm.
OrlofT, L„ de Ris, J., and Markstein, G. H. (Factory Mutual Research Corpora-
tion, Norwood, Massachusetts) “Upward Turbulent Fire Spread and Burning of
Fuel Surface,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. J'he Com-
bustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 183 (1975)
Subjects: Fire spread; Turbulent fires. Surface combustion; Polymer fires
Authors' Abstract
Two-dimensional upward flame spread and subsequent steady turbulent burning
of a thermally thick vertical fuel surface is examined theoretically and experi-
mentally. The upward spread rate for vertical PMM slabs is observed to increase
exponentially with time. This result is predicted in terms of measured fuel thermo-
phvsical properties, flame heights, and heat feedback to the fuel surface. The local
steady burning rates established after completion of upward spread exhibit a
minimum at a height of 18 cm from the bottom edge and increase continuously
beyond this height, becoming 70*7 larger at a height of 140 cm. This increase is
shown to be entirely attributable to increasing flame radiation.
Individual measurements of the various energy transfer componen's during
steady burning of the PMM slabs are obtained from radiant intensity measure-
ments of (1) the surface alone and (2) flame plus surface. Above 76 cn llame radia-
ABSTRACTS AND RF-VIEWS
177
tion ranges from 75 to 809c of the total (radiation plus convection) heat transfer
from the flames to the fuel surface. Surface heat transfer by convection decreases
slightly with height.
Torrance, K. E. and Mahajan. R. L. (Cornell University, Ithaca. New York) “Fire
Spread Over Liquid Fuels: Liquid Phase Parameters,” Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Penn-
sylvania, 281 (1975)
Subjects: Fire spread; Liquid fires; Margolis effect
Authors’ Abstract
Fire spread over liquid fuels at sub-flash temperatures is known to be controlled
mainly by flows induced in the liquid. The liquid flows are driven by surface tension
and buoyancy forces, and depend upon Prandtl number, fuel depth and flame
speed. The effect of these parameters has been obtained from numerical solutions
of the equations governing the liquid phase and results are reported and summar-
ized in the present paper. The induced surface velocities are found to depend princi-
pally upon surface tension and layer depth, and. therefore, emerge as a property of
a liquid fuel layer. The surface velocity is hypothesized as rate-determining, and is
found to be in good agreement with experimental flame spread rates for hydro-
carbon and alcohol fuels reported by Glassman. Akita, and others.
Waterman, T. E. ( 1 IT Research Institute. Chicago, Illinois) "Experimental Struc-
tural Fires." Final Report, February 1972 - January 1974 Contract So. DAHC
20-72-C-0290. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (July 1974)
Subjects: Structural fires; Full-scale building burns; Fire spread in buildings;
Noxious gas concentrations; Environmental factors in building fires
Author's Abstract
Results of four full-scale building fire experiments are reported. The experiments
were performed by I IT Research Institute for the Defense Civil Preparedness
Agency on residential structures scheduled for removal from the Indiana Dunes
National Lakeshore. Where appropriate comparisons are made with past theoreti-
cal analyses, laboratory experiments, and other field studies.
Data gathered provided further input to a catalog of volumetric fire spread
characterizations. Window flame radiation models were shown to provide reason-
able predictions. The best correlation for roof flames observed was offered b\
NFPA 80- A. Moderate blast damage raised measured radiation above levels char-
acteristic of the undamaged structure. Several modes of firecnhancement(connec-
tive heating, radiant reinforcement, and increased air-flow through structures)
were attributed to interaction of adjacent structures. Limited information on
proximate shelters and firebrands was gathered.
178
FIRE RESEARCH
E. Suppression of Fires
Alger, R. S. (Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring. Maryland) and Alvares,
N. J. (Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park. California) “The Destruction of
High Expansion Fire-Fighting Foam by the Components of Fuel Pyrolysis and
Combustion. Ml. Tests of Full Scale Foam Generators Equipped with Scrub-
bers," Final Report, July 1974, Report No. NOLTR 74-101, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory (1974)
Subjects: Fire fighting foam; High expansion foam; Pyrolysis products; Smoke
products; Defoaming agents
Authors’ Abstract
Parts 1 and 11 of this report series explored the problem of high expansion fire
fighting foam distruction by the pyrolysis and combustion products of the fire. The
most effective foam breakers were identified mechanisms of foam destruction were
determined, and both chemical and physical countermeasures were explored on a
laboratory scale. Physical cooling of the hot gases and removal of the destructive
products with a water spray scrubbing unit were the most effective counter-
measures.
The final phases of the project and the basis of this report involved ( 1 ) pilot tests
of an intermediate scale scrubber-generator unit, (2) development of a full scale
foam supply for a typical ship's engine room, and (3) tests on the scrubber-
generator system with several types of foam under a variety of fire conditions at the
Philadelphia Damage Control Center.
These full scale tests confirmed the previous laboratory observation that regard-
less of the chemical countermeasures, inlet air above 2 1 2° F must be cooled before
foam can be produced. With the degree of cooling and scrubbing achieved in the
pilot tests, a 50 percent reduction in foam yield occurred; therefore, the engine
room system was designed with tw ice the capacity required to achieve the specified
fill rate of three feet per minute. With this safety factor, the system was only mar-
ginally successful. The design fill rate was readily exceeded for spray fires, but only
one of the fresh water foams met the requirements for bilge and bilge plus spray
fires. Either a layer safety factor or improved scrubbing efficiency will be required
for the salt water compatible foams.
Amaro. A. J. and l.ipska, A. E. (Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park. Cal-
ifornia) “Development and Evaluation of Practical Self-Help Fire Retardants."
Annual Report. August 1973. Contract No. DAHC20-70-02I9. Defense Civil
Preparedness Agency (August 1973)
Subjects: Retardants, "self-help": Fire retardants; Cellulose retards. its
Authors' Abstract
A study was conducted to (I) determine whether high molecular weight, high
oxygen containing inorganic additives can be effectively used in developing non-
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEW
179
leachable flame retardants for self-help applications to existing roofs. (2) investi-
gate the kinetics and thermal decompositions of cotton and synthetic polymers, and
(3) modify the Parker-Lipska (P-L) model to more closely predict the empirical
increase in char yield in retardant treated cellulosics. The sprayed-on interstitially
precipitated ammonium phosphomolybdate. ammonium phosphotungstate. and
magnesium ammonium phosphate afford seasonal (no more than 30 inches of rain)
protection against firebrands. These formulations are more weather resistant than
the water-soluble retardants, but because of their shallow penetration they are not
totally weather resistant.
Similarities in the weight-loss kinetics and products of pyrolysis of cotton and
wood-derived cellulose suggest that the guidelines used in the P-L model in choos-
ing retardants might be applied to all cellulosic materials.
There are some similarities in the decomposition mode of the synthetics and cel-
lulosics. However, more work is needed on the details of degradation of the syn-
thetics before suggesting that principles analogous to the P-L model could be
applied to the synthetics in selecting effective fire retardants for these materials.
The modified P L model can now predict more closely the empirical value of
increased char yield. AC|r , in cellulosics to be treated with retardants up to concen-
trations of about I0-4 mol of retardant per gram of cellulosic material.
Biordi, J. C„ Lazzara, C. P and Papp, J. F. (Bureau of Mines. Pittsburgh, Penn-
sylvania) Ha me Structure Studies of CFiBr - Inhibited Methane Flames. II.
Kinetics and Mechanisms,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combus-
tion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 917 (1975)
Subjects: Flame structure; CF,Br inhibition; CH4 - O; flames; Inhibited flames;
Kinetics
Authors' Abstract
Composition profiles for atomic, radical, and stable species, as well as tempera-
ture and area expansion ratio profiles, have been determined for a nearly stoichio-
metric CHj— 0;-Ar flame and for one to which 0.3%CF,Br inhibitor had been
added. Net reaction rate profiles were calculated for all the observed species. For
the normal flame, these and the mole fraction profiles gave rate coefficient informa-
tion about the elementary reactions in the methane flame, viz.,
CH.i+O—HjCO+H, A’4=1.05X10ij cm' mole 1 sec 1
for 1 550< r< 1 725° K ;
CO+OH-CO:+H. Av =4.7X10" cm' mole 1 sec 1
lor 1 350< 7< 1 750° K . Comparison between the inhibited and normal flame showed
that [H] and [C H.) were significantly reduced at the lower temperatures in the in-
hibited flame even though in the hot gas region the [H], [OH], and [O] were the
180
FIRE RESEARCH
same in both flames. The CFjBr disappears very early in the flame, relative to the
fuel, and the reaction primarily responsible for its disappearance is
H+CFiBr— HBr+CFi,
where ki is found to be 2.2X1014 exp(-9460 i RT), 700 1550° K. Reaction of the
inhibitor with methyl radicals provides for the relatively small amounts of CH>Br
observed, but
CHi+Br:— CHiBr+Br
must also occur. The HBr formed reacts rapidly with H atoms to form FL and Br,
but the reaction is soon “balanced" in the flame as demonstrated by calculation of
the equilibrium constant at various temperatures. The fluorocarbon fragment
produced in reaction (7) also reacts rapidly, in part weith methyl radicals to give
the observed elimination product CH;CF:. The magnitude of the net reaction rate
for both HF and F;CO early in the flame indicates that these, too, are formed by
rapid reactions involving C'Fi. Later in the flame, above~ 1400° K. F:CO is formed
from the reaction
CH2CF2+O-F2CO+CH:
and /cm~l.5X10" at I600°K. The rather slow decay of carbonyl fluoride is attri-
buted to reaction with H atoms, and the sequence F;CO+H — HF+FCO and
FCO+H^HF+CO plus reaction (6) provides an additional radical recombination
route in the inhibited flame.
Geyer, G. B. (Department of Transportation. Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C.) “Firefighting Effectiveness of Aqueous - Film - Forming -
Foam (AFFF) Agents,” Final Report, April 1973, Contract No. F336I5-7I-M-
5004, Department of Defense, Ground Fire Suppression and Rescue Office
(April 1973)
Subjects: Aircraft crashes; Extinguishants; Pool fires; Suppression; Foams;
Aqueous film forming foams (AFFF)
Author's Abstract
Information was obtained by conducting laboratory experiments and full-scale
fire-modeling tests which were of value in estimating the firefighting effectiveness
of two aqueous-film-forming-foam (AFFF) agents. Minimum quantities and
application rates were established for each AFFF agent in relation to the si/e and
configuration of simulated aircraft ground fuel-spill fires involving.! P-4.. IP 5. and
aviation gasoline.
Grumer, J. (Bureau of Mines. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania) "Recent Research Con-
cerning Extinguishment of Coal Dust Explosions." Fifteenth Symposium (Inter-
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
181
nation'll) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
103 (1975)
Subjects: Extinguishment: Coal; Dust; Explosions; Quenching
Author's Abstract
Current practices of protection against coal dust explosions propagating
through mines are examined and found to be basically methods of cooling flames
below the temperature limits for flame propagation. Such is the case with rock
(stone) dusting and with passive barriers(extinguishant dispersed by the explosion)
using rock dust or water. Chemical fire extinguishants such as sodium and potas-
sium compounds used in recent research seeking to develop triggered barriers
(extinguishant dispersed by a contained energy source on signal from a flame detec-
tor) do not appear to have a great advantage over thermal quenching agents.
Hayashi. T. andTurumi, H. “Interruption of Explosions b Flame Arresters: First
Report on the Quenching Ability of Sintered Metals.” i Report of the Research
Institute of Industrial Safety) (Japan) 21 (1 ) I9p. (Move iber 1972) (in Japanese)
See Section A.
Kaimakov, A. A. and Bauer. A. N. “Cooling Explosive Products from Methane-
Air Mixtures in a Slot Between Steel and Plastic Flanges,” Trudy Vostochnyi n-i
Institut /to Bezopasnosti Rahot v Gornoi Prom. X. 21 1-217 ( 1967) (in Russian)
Subjects: Flame quenching: Gaps for flame quenching
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 445
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
A general rule was obtained for the reduction in the average temperature of the
products of explosion of a methane-air mixture in a flat slot between steel and
plastic flanges, during ignition with a magneto spark at a distance of20and 10 mm
from the internal edges of the flanges. A general relationship was worked out for
the dependence of the averge temperature of the products of the explosion at the
exit from the slot and the magnitude of the gap. Values for the critical flame-
quenching gaps arc calculated.
Kent. J. II. and Williams. F. A. (University of California. San Diego, l a Jolla.
California) "Extinction ol Laminar Diffusion Flames for I iquid Fuels.” Fif-
teenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. 1 he Combustion Institute.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 315 ( 1975)
Subjects: Extinction; I iquid luel flames: Diffusion flames: Flame structure:
Flame inhibition
Authors' Abstract
A flat, laminar diffusion flame was produced in a stagnation-point boundary
j
182 FIRE RESEARCH
layer by directing an oxidizing gas stream downward onto the surface of a burning
liquid fuel at atmospheric pressure. Fuels studied were mainly n-heptane, but also
n-decane, n-hexadecane, iso-octane and kerosene. Gases were O; mixed with N:,
CO:, He or CFiBr. For stead} burning near extinction, concentration profiles of
major stable species were measured by gas chromatographic analysis of samples
withdrawn through a fine quartz probe. In addition, temperature profiles were
measured with a coated Pt Pt 1 0%Rh thermocouple, and flame temperatures were
recorded as a function of gas velocity in the approach stream, up to the point of
extinction. The gas velocity required for extinction was measured as a function of
the concentration of the additive in the gas stream. Also, visual and photographic
observations of flame structure were made, including streamline shapes shown by
illumination of MgO dust added to the gas. Results help to clarify various aspects
of diffusion-flame extinction and chemical inhibition. In particular, overall rate
parameters are obtained through evaluation of a critical Damkohler number for
extinction from the experimental data.
Ksandopulo, G. I., Kolesnikov, B. Ya., Zavadskii, V. A., Odnorog, D. S„ and
Elovskaya, T. P. (Alma Ata) “Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion of
Hydrocarbon-Air Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles," Fizika Goreniya i
Vzryva 7(1), 92-99 (March 1971) (in Russian). See Section D.
Leonard, J. T. and Burnett, J. (.(Naval Research Laboratory. Washington. D.C. )
“Suppression of Evaporation of Hydrocarbon Liquids and Fuels by Films Con-
taining Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) Concentrate FC-196." Naval
Research Laboratory Interim Report No. 7842 (December 1974)
Subjects: Evaporation: Evaporation suppression; Aqueous fire fighting foams;
Hydrocarbon liquids; Hydrocarbon fuels
Authors’ Abstract
Suppression of evaporation of hydrocarbon liquids and fuels by aqueous films
containing a fluorocarbon surfactant has been examined as a function of film thick-
ness. time, and hydrocarbon type. The hydrocarbon liquids included the homolo-
gous series of n-alkanes from pentane to dodecane. aromatic compounds, motor
and aviation gasolines and jet fuels JIM and JP-5. and Navy distillate fuel. The
surfactant solution used to form the films was a 6 ri solution of Aqueous Film
Forming Foam (AFFF) concentrate FC-196. Films of the surfactant solution,
ranging in thickness from 5 to l(X) gm. were placed on the surface of the hydro-
carbon liquid to test the ability of the Him to suppress evaporation over a l-hr
period. Results indicated that for the n-alkanes and the hvdrocarbon fuels a certain
critical thickness of surfactant solution was required for optimum vapor suppres-
sion Increasing the film thickness beyond this point did not lead to a significant
increase in evaporation suppression, but rather to eventual lailure of the film. The
critical Him thickness for the n-alkanes was found to increase with increasing vola-
tilitv ol the hvdrocarbon
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
IK3
In comparison with the n-alkanes, it was considerably more difficult to suppress
evaporation of the aromatic compounds. For example, the maximum vapor
suppression obtained with benzene was less than 40% as compared with over 90%
for the n-alkanes. The difference was attributed to the greater solubility of the
aromatics in the aqueous film.
Lunn, G. A. and Phillips, H. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield.
England) “A Summary of Experimental Data on the Maximum Experimental
Safe Gap.” Safely in Mines Research Establishment Report No. R2 (1973)
Subjects: Quenching distances; Safe gaps
Authors' Abstract
Since research on the flameproof enclosure of electrical equipment for use in
flammable atmospheres was initiated by Bevling (1906), many organizations have
carried out work to determine maximum experimental safe gaps, with the result
that the data are widely scattered and not always easily available. This report col-
lects together experimental data from a wide range of literature and gives a list of
MESGs for 25.4-mm (I -inch) and 25-mm flanges. The experimental conditions
are described, with information on the numbers of tests and the gap size increments
employed (only data from tests in which the increments were 0.05 mm or less are
included). The two main types of vessel that have been used for MESG determina-
tions are the British 8-litre spherical vessel and its modifications, and the 1EC 20-ml
vessel and its modifications. Earlier determinations in other vessels have been
repeated in one of these ‘standard’ vessels.
Magee, R. S. and Reitz, R. D. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood.
Massachusetts) “Extinguishment of Radiation Augmented Plastic Fires by
Water Sprays." Fifteenth Symposium ( International ) on Combustion. I he
Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 337 (1975)
Subjects: Extinguishment; Radiation augmented flames; Plastic fires; Water
sprays
Authors' Abstract
The extinguishment of plastic Fires by water is investigated experimentally.
Single slabs of four different plastics are subjected to turbulent burning, two as a
vertical wall and all lour as a pool fire. The thicknes, of each specimen is such as to
maintain a thermally thick solid The water is applied as a uniform spray from a
single nozzle. Electrical radiant heaters, directed at the burning surface, are em-
ployed to enhance the burning rate of the plastic, thus simulating real fire con-
dition.
The steady-state burning rates of the various plastics are measuted as a function
of the externally applied radiant flux both with and without water spray. The time
taken to extinguish the tire under suppressive action is also determined as a (line-
184 FIRE RESEARCH
lion of external radiant flux. All steady-state burning rate data are analyzed on the
basis of a steady-state energy balance at the fuel surface.
All data, without water spray, indicate a linear dependence of burning rate on
external radiant flux. The slopes of "these curves are interpreted to represent the
effective heats of gasification of the plastics. The effectiveness of water in suppres-
sing the fire is determined to be primarily a thermal effect, i.e., a cooling of the fuel
surface, for those plastics which do not melt excessively. Finally, for each plastic,
critical conditions for extinguishment are identified.
Phillips, H. “Theory of Suppression of Explosions by Narrow Gaps,” Fourth
Symposium on Chemical Process Hazards with Special Reference to Plant
Design, Industrial Chemical Engineering Symposium Series Vo. 33 (1972)
Subjects: Explosion suppression; Narrow gap theory
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 249
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The safe gap between the flanges of a flameproof enclosure is shown to prevent
the transmission of an explosion by the combined action of the cooling of gas
passing through the flange gap, and cooling by the entrainment of cold gas when
the hot explosion products emerge from the gap. This counteracts the heat release
by burning of the entrained gas. Computer solutions of the equations for heat
transfer, entrainment, and heat release predict the change in jet temperature w ith
time. The final temperature may be either the maximum flame temperature, denot-
ing ignition, or ambient temperature, denoting a failure to ignite, depending on the
initial conditions, one of which is the site of the flange gap. The results enable pre-
diction of the effect on the safe gap of a change in fuel, flange breadth, vessel vol-
ume. ambient pressure, and internal ignition position. The same analysis is also
applied to a flameproof enclosure.
Roberts, A. F. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield. England)
"Extinction Phenomena in Liquids.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 305 (1975)
Subjects: Extinction; Liquid fires; Fire point
Author's Abstract
A burning liquid is extinguished when its surface temperature is reduced to the
fire point of the liquid. The fire point depends on properties of the liquid and of the
atmosphere in which it is burning and a theoretical relationship is given which
describes this dependence. This relationship is used to calculate the variation of fire
point and critical heat loss at extinction of n-butanol w ith the oxygen concentration
of the ambier.* atmosphere. The proximity of heat sinks to the surface of a burning
liquid may cause extinction and this effect was studied experimentally; the data
suggested that liquid layers up to 0.5 mm deep were stationary and heat losses from
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
1X5
the suface to the heat sink took place by conduction. Effects of convection were
apparent for greater liquid depths.
For multi component liquids, mass transfer in the liquid phase also plays a part
in determining extinction behaviour. The effects of the degree of internal recircula-
tion on the relationship between the mean composition of a liquid mixture, the
surface concentration and the composition of the evolved vapour are discussed.
Data illustrating the importance of these effects arc given for the ethanol water
system; the minimum concentration of ethanol which would sustain burning in air
varied from 7 45 %, depending on the degree of recirculation within the liquid.
A burner was developed in which the effects of heat and mass transfer in the
liquid phase and the oxygen concentration of the surrounding atmosphere on the
extinction of a burning liquid could be studied. Some early experiments w ith this
burner are described.
Sridhar Iya, K., Wollowitz, S. and Kaskan, W. E. (State University of New York,
Binghamton, New York) ‘‘The Mechanism of Flame Inhibition by Sodium
Salts," Fifteenth Sy mposium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion
Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, 329 (1975)
Subjects: Inhibition; Sodium salts; Flame structure; Dry chemicals; OH concen-
trations
Authors’ Abstract
A study has been conducted to determine whether the mode of action by the “dry
chemical” flame inhibitors, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium tartrate, was hetero-
geneous or homogeneous. The method used was the correlation of the amount of
inhibitor vaporized in the flame zone with a measure of the degree of inhibition.
For the first. Na atoms were determined by absorption spectroscopy at the end of
the reaction zone of partially quenched premixed CHj air flames burning at atmos-
sphenc pressure on a flat flame burner. The degree of inhibition was indicated by
the extent of the temperature rise of the quenched flame on addition of inhibitor.
Tests were conducted on six "siliconized" and size classified salt fractions, three
each of the two salts. Four of the six powder samples completely evaporated by the
end of the reaction zone. The results for all six fractions can be represented by an
approximately linear relationship between Na concentration at the end of the reac-
tion /one and the temperature rise on inhibition. It is shown that this correlation is
much better than one based on surface area presented to the flame. These results
are interpreted as an essentially conclusive proof of the homogeneous mechanism
In addition, measurements of hydroxyl concentrations have show n that addition
of inhibitor reduces peak OH concentrations and catalyzes radical recombination.
Na atoms are unusually effective in this regard. While a complete mechanism has
not been w orked out. some discussion is given of the limitations on such a scheme
The existance of dipole-induced dipole stabilized complexes between alkali atoms
and water molecules is suggested as a means by which recombination might very
effectively be catalyzed.
<
186
FIRE RESEARCH
U.S. Patent 3,684,021 , August 15 1972"Mine Explosion Suppression Methodand
Apparatus.” Coal Age 77 (12) 114 (1972)
Subjects: Mine explosion, suppression: Fire detector; Fire suppression
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 348
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The apparatus contains sealed containers that are ruptured to release a flame-
suppressing agent. Explosive squibs are detonated in response to UV sensors. The
agent-filled containers also are mounted on the mining machine and are oriented
to release suppressing agent into a discharge zone that is spaced to the tear of the
detection zone optically monitored by the sensors. The longitudinal spacing
between discharges and detection zones compensates for movement of the flame
front during the period required to rupture the containers and fill the discharge
zone with the agent. Thus, the method is effective to prevent potentially cata-
strophic explosions ignited at the face, but ignores harmless sources of radiation.
F. Fires, Damage, and Salvage
Morgan. H. P. and Bullen, M. L. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Boreham-
wood, Herts. England) “Smoke Extraction by Entrainment into a Ducted Water
Spray,” l ire Research Note Mo. 1010. Joint Fire Research Organization (June
1974)
Subjects: Smoke extraction: Entrainment of smoke; Spray extraction of smoke:
Water spray extraction of smoke
Authors' Summary
This report presents a smoke extraction system which has no moving parts in the
hot smoky gases, employing momentum transfer from a high velocity water spray
in a duct to extract smoke. The gas velocity for different duct configurations and
water pressures was measured in an experimental rig. A theory was developed to
explain the experimental results and to enable the performance of practical smoke
extraction systems to be predicted.
Morris. W. A. and Hopkinson, J. S. (Joint Fire Research Organization, Boreham-
wood, Herts. England) “Effects of Decomposition Products of PVC in Fire on
Structural Concrete," Fire Research Note No. 005. Joint Fire Research Organi-
zation (February 1974)
Subjects: Corrosion; PVC fires; Structural concrete: Vinyl Chloride (poly):
Pyrolysis of PVC; Decomposition of PVC
Authors' Summary
Full scale fire tests have been conducted in buildings to compare the effect of
combustion products on concrete building elements when the fire load was totally
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
■
1 87
cellulosic and when 30 per cent of the fire load was PVC. After the fire the buildings
were kept under observation and at intervals concrete roof elements were removed
and loaded to structural failure. Samples of the concrete were then analyzed for
chloride content.
The tests have shown that in fires involving PVC. chloride deposition can occur
on concrete surfaces under both dry and humid conditions. Observations and
analyses of the concrete for periods of up to 1 3 months after the fires showed no
indications that the building suffered structurally because of the effects of the
chloride. Under the conditions of these tests, corrosion is unlikely to be a problem
in dense concrete constructions whether of a reinforced or prestressed nature pro-
vided the relevant British Standard Codes of Practice have been complied with.
Saito, F. ( Building Research Institute. Japanese Ministry of Construction. Tokyo.
Japan) “Smoke Generation from Building Materials,” Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Penn-
sylvania. 269 (1975)
Subjects: Smoke generation; Building materials; Tests on smoke
Author's Abstract
It is very important to determine the characteristics of smoke production from a
burning room. For this purpose the fundamental properties of smoke production
from building materials were studied in a series of experiments based on the mate-
rial test using an electric furnace, and on the model chamber test.
In the material test we found that the quantity of smoke produced is determined
mainly bv the chemical composition of the material and the ambient temperature.
For a burning materials, the relation between weight loss of the material H and
amount of smoke production C, is given by C -AH. where A is a smoke generation
coefficient that expresses the tendency of the material to produce smoke at a given
temperature; A is generally given by A -A BT. where. A and B are constants that
depend on the type of material and on the burning conditions, such as smoldering
or flaming combustion.
The amount of smoke produced in a burning room is determined by the area of
the air inlets and the materials of the interior surface.
The relationship between A and T obtained in the model chamber test agrees
fairly well with that obtained in the electric furnace test.
G. Combustion Fngineering and Tests
Abdrl-khalik. S. I.. Tamaru. T. and Fl-Wakil. M. M.IU niversity of Wisconsin.
Madison. Wisconsin) "A Chromatographic and Interferometric Study of the
Diflusion f lame Around a Simulated Fuel Drop." I'ilteenth Symposium ( Inter-
national) on < omhustton. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsv Ivania.
3X9 ( 1975)
Subjects: Diflusion flames; Chromatographic analysis; Interferometry. Flame
structure; Droplet flames
L ^
188
FIRE RESEARCH
Authors' Abstract
The structure of the diffusion flame surrounding a simulated burning drop of
^-heptane was investigated. The drop was examined while burning at atmospheric
pressure in a uniform air flow field at several air velocities. The composition and
temperature profiles along several radial lines around the drop were determined
by means of gas chromatography and optical interferometry. The composition
analysis yielded concentrations of the fuel vapor as well as O;, CO:, CO, N;, CH4.
C:H:, and C:H4 in dried samples. The composition and temperature profiles were
used to evaluate the mass and heat-flux distributions around the drop. The radia-
tive heat-flux distributions from gas and soot were also evaluated.
It was found that the flame structure varies markedly around the drop and that
the air velocity has a large effect on the temperature profiles. At high air velocities,
double-peaked temperature piofiles were observed in the trailing half of the flame.
Radiation, often ignored in the past, was found to be about 40% of the total heat
transferred to the drop. Gas radiation is about 10% of the total radiation, the re-
mainder being due to soot.
Allen, D. E. and Lie, T.T. (National Research Council. Ottawa, Canada) “Further
Studies of the Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Columns,” Motional
Research Council of Canada Report Mo. 14047 (June 1974)
Subjects: Fire resistance of concrete columns; Critical fire load of concrete-
columns; Concrete columns, stress under fire load
Authors' Abstract
The fire resistance of square, reinforced concrete columns is studied under load
and fire conditions that more closely represent actual conditions than those in
current standard fire tests. Based on calculated temperatureand stress distributions
in the column, the effect of interaction of an interior column with the surrounding
building structure is examined. The influence of fire severity, which depends on the
fire load and ventilation, is also investigated. Results indicate that restraint of an
individual column does not decrease its fire resistance and that the critical fire load,
below which no failure takes place, increases with increased ventilation. If the fire
load is greater than critical, the time to failure decreases considerably with in-
creased ventilation.
Ames, S. A. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. England)
"Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part 2. I he Measurement of Gas Explosion Pres-
sures.” Fire Research Mote Mo. 9S5. Joint Fire Research Organization (Decem-
ber 1973)
Subjects: Gas explosions; Explosion of gas in buildings; Explosion pressures
Author's Summan
Following the Ronan Point disastcrand the report ol the Investigating Tribunal.
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
1X9
it was decided that the Fire Research Station of the Building Research Establish-
ment would undertake a study of gas explosions in large compartments. In particu-
lar, the study would cover the factors affecting the development and severity of
the explosions and the extent to which the pressures obtained could be relieved by
venting.
In the context of the problem as a whole, the study is intended to provide the
basic data on the form and magnitude of the transient stresses likely to be experi-
enced by buildings, in the event of gas explosions involving one or more compart-
ments. This information is required as a guide for safe structural design and for any
re-appraisal of the relevant parts of Building Regulations 1972, Part D, England,
or Building Standards (Scotland) (Consolidation) Regulations 1971.
The study has begun with explosions in a single compartment of realistic dimen-
sions ( 1000 ft'. 28 m') provided with a single opening of simple configuration, the
size of which can be varied and which can be closed with panels having a range of
bursting pressures.
Benson, S. P., Bevan, P. R„ and Come, J. G. (Joint Fire Research Organization.
Borehamwood, Herts, England) “A Laboratory Fire Test for Foam Liquids.”
Fire Research Note So. 1007, Joint Fire Research Organization { April 1974)
Subjects: Foam; Laboratory fire test; Protein; Fluoroprotein; Fluorochemical;
Burn-back
Authors’ Summary
A fire test which can be conducted in the laboratory and which is suitable for the
quality control of foam liquids is described.
The test fire was 56.5 cm dia and 9 litres of fuel were used for each test. The foam
was applied as a jet from a model branchpipe at 3.0 1 m: min. Control and extinc-
tion times were measured and a burn-back resistance test was made.
Test results are given for 17 samples of foam liquid representing all groups.
Duplicate fire tests were made with each foam liquid and three aviation fuels.
Values are proposed for the quality control of protein, fluoroprotein, and fluoro-
chemical foam liquids.
Bilger, R. W. and Beck, R.E. (The University of Sydney. Australia) “Further Ex-
periments on Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames." Fifteenth Symposium (Interna-
tional) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
541 (1975)
Subjects: Diffusion flames; Turbulent jet (lames
Authors' Abstract
The earlier investigation of Kent and Bilger on the turbulent diffusion flame of a
jet of hydrogen in a co-flow ing stream of air is extended to give more detailed mea-
surements of the nitric oxide field in the (lame. Nitric Oxide measurements appear
to be particularly sensitive to the sampling method used and the results obtained
FIRE RESEARCH
with a small slender nosed sampling probe at near isokinetic conditions are con-
sidered to be more reliable than those for the large blunt nosed probe used in the
earlier investigation or those for the sonic sampling probe used by Lavoie and
Schlader. Nitric oxide concentrations are found to peak on the rich side of stoichio-
metric and the mass balance on the centre line indicates maximum nitric oxide pro-
duction also on the fuel rich side.
Experiments were also conducted for a vertical jet diffusion flame into still air at
constant Froude number so that fluid dynamic similarity is obtained. The results
indicate that nitric oxide concentrations peak on the rich side of stoichiometric and
that peak concentrations are not proportional to the bulk or convective time con-
stant of the flow but rather the Kolmogoroff time constant associated with the
smallest eddies in the flow.
Brenden, J. J. (Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin)“How Fourteen
Coating Systems Affected Smoke Yield from Douglas Fir Plywood," U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research Paper FPL 214 (1973)
Subjects: Flaming and nonflaming conditions; Irradiation energy level; Fire
retardant paints; Light transmission; Length of light path
Author's Abstract
Effect of smoke yield of coatings is measured in a closed, instrumented chamber
Broil, R. “Standardization of Halogen Fire Extinguisher Agents." Ztschr. VFDB
22 (1), 12-13 (February 1973) (in German)
Subjects: Fire extinguishers in Germany, requirements; Halogen extinguishing
agents
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 262
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The present official requirements for halogen extinguishing agents in West
Germany are described (craft appeared in Spring 1972 and gave the material
properties and regulations for the use of Halon 1211). The second part of the
standard will give requirements for Halon 1301. The author suggests that test
standards should also be established on a physiological basis.
Burgess, D„ Murphy, J. N„ Zabetakis. M. G„ and Perlee. H. F.( Bureau of Mines.
Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania) “Volume of Flammable Mixture Resulting from the
Atmospheric Dispersion of a Leak or Spill." Fifteenth Symposium (Interna-
tional) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
289 (1975). See Section A.
Butlin, R. N„ Ames, S. A., and Berlemont, C. F. J. (Joint Fire Research Organiza-
tion, Borehamwood, Herts. England) “Gas Explosions in Buildings, Part 111
J 1
ABSTRACTS AND REV1FWS I** I
A Rapid Multichannel Automatic Chromatographic Gas Analysis System." Fire
Research Note No. 986. Joint Fire Research Organization (March 1974)
Subjects: Gas explosions; Explosions of gas in buildings; Gas analysis system
Authors’ Summary
An apparatus is described which has been developed for high-speed analysis of
gas samples taken from different positions in an experimental chamber used for
large-scale gas explosions. The equipment is automatic (with manual override), can
be controlled remotely, gives a quantitative output and is sufficiently versatile to
have many other applications.
de Ris, J. and Orloff, L. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Norwood.
Massachusetts) “The Role of Buoyancy Direction and Radiation in Turbulent
Diffusion Flames on Surfaces.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Com-
bustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 175 (1975)
Subjects: Diffusion flames; Turbulent flames; Radiation
Authors’ Abstract
A large-scale gas-supplied sintered-metal burner was used to study radiation and
spatial orientation effects on steady turbulent fires over a range of mass transfer
driving forces. B. Three principal burning modes are evident: (I) turbulent pool
fires from 0 = Oc to 0 = 15°; (2) upward turbulent burning from 0~I5° to0~168°;
and (3) cellular ceiling fires from 0~168° to 0 = 180°. Steady burning rates de-
crease rapidly with inclination from the horizontal within the pool regime, followed
by a more gradual decrease with inclination within the upward turbulent burning
regime being minimum 0~I68°, i e.. 12° from the horizontal ceiling orientation.
This trend is ascribed to the decreasing direct gravitational generation of turbu-
lent kinetic energy, causing a reduction in the turbulent flame thicknesses with their
reduced radiant fluxes. Previous laminar burning studies showed opposite trends,
with minimum burning rates in the “pool" orientation. Increased cellular flc s
mixing is accompanied by a sharp increase in burning rate as the fuel surface lotates
from 168° to the horizontal ceiling fire.
Radiometer comparison of outward and surface directed radiant flux fora verti-
cal burning surface indicate at least 79i absorption by combustion products and
intermediates near the surface. Radiation is found to exceed convective heat trans-
fer to the fuel surface for B> 1.0. At large B numbers the burning is increasingly
radiation-dominated as convection decreases due to heat blockage.
De Soete, G. G. (Institut Francaisdu Petrole. Rueil-Malmaison. France) "Overall
Reaction Rates of NO and N ■ Formation from Fuel Nitrogen." Fifteenth Sym-
posium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania. 1093(1975)
Subjects: NO formation; Fuel nitrogen; Flame structure; Pollution
192
FIRE RESEARCH
Author’s Abstract
From measurements carried out on flat premixed hydrocarbon/ oxygen argon
(or helium) flames, into which small amounts of ammonia, or cyanogen are added,
overall reaction rates of formation of NO and N: are determined. From similar
measurements effected on nitrogen-diluted ethylene/ oxygen flames, an overall rate
of prompt NO formation is obtained.
The discussion of these rate constants indicates that the relative importance of
HCN molecules as intermediates in the fuel NO mechanism increases according to
the following sequence of primary fuel nitrogen compounds: ammonia, cyanogen,
and molecular nitrogen; this last is found to behave like a true fuel nitrogen com-
pound in the early flame stages.
Experimental values of the total yield of nitric oxide obtained from the added
nitrogen compounds have been determined; they are found to be in good agreement
with yields calculated by numerical integration of the empirical overall reaction
rates of NO and Ni formation, showing almost the same dependence of the NO
yield on temperature, initial fuel nitrogen concentration and oxygen concentration.
Eickner, H. W. (Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin) “Fire Re-
sistance of Solid-Core Wood Flush Doors," Forest Products Journal 23 (4).
38-43 ( 1973)
Subjects: Fire resistant wood doors; “Solid-core” doors; Wood doors
Author’s Abstract
Research was conducted to determine the fire resistance of five types of “solid-
core” 1%-inch wood flush doors as currently produced to the industry standard.
The results of ASTM El 52-66 fire resistance tests showed that four types of doors
successfully withstood 30 minutes of the fire exposure, conducted under a slightly
negative furnace pressure, and then withstood the hose-stream exposure as speci-
fied in the standard . These were framed wood flush doors with ( 1 ) glued wood block
core; (2) glued wood block, drop-in core; (3) nonglued wood block, drop-in core;
and (4) particleboard glued core. The fifth type of door, particleboard with drop-in
core, marginally passed the 30-minute fire exposure condition, but failed the hose
stream test because of excessive warping deflection of a corner of the door. Some
(4- and (4-inch voids intentionally located in the door cores did not cause failure.
Fang. J. B. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) “Measurement1 of
the Behavior of Incidental Fires in a Compartment.’’ Interim Report No. NBSIR
75-679 Department of Housing and Urban Development (February 1973)
Subjects: Building fires: Combustibility of furnishings; Ignition: Smoke:
Thermal radiation
Author’s Abstract
A variety of upholstered chairs and wood cribs were burned within a ventilated
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
19.1
compartment. The experimental measurements of weight loss, smoke concentra-
tion, temperature, and heat flux levels are summarized. A reproducible fire ob-
tained from burning a standardized wood crib array was found to be capable of
representing the essential features of incidental fires of moderate intensity.
Fang, J. B. and Gross, D. (National Bureau of Standards, Washington. DC.)
“Contribution of Interior Finish Materials to Fire Growth in a Room." National
Bureau of Standards Special Publication 411, 125 (August 1073)
Subjects: Flame spread; Room fires; Material ignitibility; Building materials;
Smoke; Heat release
Authors' Abstract
Characterization of the fire environment from the burning of the combustible
contents of wastebaskets, upholstered furniture, and interior finish materials is
important for developing rational tests and establishing design criteria for reduc-
tion of fire hazard in buildings. Some experimental results on the burning charac-
teristics of an upholstered chair, contents of waste receptacles, and wood crib
arrays in a well-ventilated room are presented. A procedure has been developed for
evaluating the contribution to fire growth of wall and ceiling panels in a full-scale
room corner with a standardized wood crib duplicating the conditions produced by
an incidental fire. Results of full-scale and laboratory tests with selected interior
finish materials on ease of ignition, surface flammability, flame penetration, and
smoke and heat generation measurements are presented and compared.
Franosen, W. H. ( Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden.
Utah) “Fire Spread Through Porous Fuels from the Conservation of Energy,"
Combustion and Flame lb. 9-16 1971). See Section D.
Gollahalli. S. R. and Brzustowski, T. A. (University of Waterloo, Waterloo.
Ontario, Canada) “The Effect of Pressure on the Flame Structure in the Wake
of a Burning Hydrocarbon Droplet,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 409 (1975)
Subjects: Droplet burning; Diffusion flames; Flame structure; Pressure de-
pendence of flame structure
Authors' Abstract
Data are presented on the structure of the flame in the wake of a model (6 mm dia
porous sphere) u-heptane droplet burning in air. The following measurements
were made: axial and radial temperature profiles, axial and radial composition
profiles showing H O. CO . N:, O , CO, C-H,„. CH». C H . and (Ml. ) nvelope
flames were studied at pressures up to 40 atm. Wake flames were studied at 5 atm
only I he velocity of transition from the envelope flame to the wake flame was
measured up to 25 atm.
194
HRE RESEARCH
1
The results show that the effect of pressure on flame structure can be explained in
terms of the effect of pressure on the following processes: diffusion and pyrolysis
of fuel in the near-wake zone of the envelope flame, premixed combustion, and
pyrolysis of fuel in the near-wake zoneofthe wake llame. combustion and coagula-
tion of soot in the fai wake zone of both flames. As pressure increases, the in-
creased rale of pyrolysis becomes predominant in the near wake. In the far wake,
the peak temperature diops with increasing pressure and coagulation of soot
becomes important. The data are consistent with the model developed by the
authors to explain the effect of pressure on flame length.
The velocity of transition from an envelope flame to a wake flame increases
approximately as P' :, suggesting overall 3 2 order kinetics for n-heptane and air
at the stagnation point.
Gurevich, M. A., Ozerova, G. E., and Stysanov, A. M. (Leningrad) “Critical Con-
ditions of Self-Ignition of a Poly-Dispersed Gas Suspension of Solid-Fuel Par-
ticles.” Fizika Goreniya i V:ryva 7(1 ), 9-19 (March 1971 ) (in Russian). See Sec-
tion B.
Hallman. J. R„ Welker, J. R„ and Sliepcevich. C. M. (University of Oklahoma
Research Institute, Norman, Oklahoma) “Polymer Surface Reflectance Absorp-
tance Characteristics,” Polymer Engineering and Science 14 (10). ”11 (1074)
Subjects: Polymeric materials, radiant heating: Radiant heating of polymers;
Reflectance-absorptance of polymer surface
Authors' Abstract
. during an investigation of the time for ignition of polymeric materials under the
influence of radiant heating, it was found that the polymer surface reflectance-
absorptance characteristics were a major factor in the variance of the ignition times.
A subsequent research study was made of the reflectance-absorptance characteris-
tics of those polymers used in the ignition testing. Reflectance values were obtained
over the wavelength of 0.3 to 2.5 microns using a double-beam Cary model 14 spec-
trophotometer with an integrating sphere reflectometer and over the wavelengths
of 1.0 to 10.0 microns usinga Gier-Dunkle Hohlraum with a Perkin-Elmerspectro-
photometer. Absorptance values were obtained by means of Kirchoffs Law,
Average absorptances of the polymers over the monochromatic wavelength span of
the heat sources were calculated using the equation
/a, “A,/A
/*; <AdA
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
195
Mathematical analyses were developed and are presented for both the integrating
sphere reflectometer and Gier-Dunkle Hohlraum unit.
Drawings and graphs are included which illustrate the test apparatus and type of
data collected. A table of average absorptances of several polymers are given and
listed according to the particular type of heat source used.
Handa, T., Suzuki, H. and Takahashi, A. (Science University of Tokyo) “Charac-
terization of the Mode of Combustion and Smoke Evolution of Organic Mate-
rials in Fires. Part 11. Analysis of the Change in Particle Siz.e of Polystyrene
Smoke Particles Due to Secondary Oxidation,” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention
Society of Japan 21 (I) 1971 (2) 1972 58 (English translation by Trans. Sec., Brit.
Lend. Lib. Div., Boston Spa, Wetherby, Yorkshire, U.K.)
Subjects: Smoke; Particles; Soot
Authors’ Conclusions
The experimental results obtained from measurements using the dissymmetry
factor method are summarized as follows:
( 1 ) The change in radius of smoke particles at the initial stage of evolution before
the smoke particles condense to become so called “sooty smokes” has hardly been
recognized in the microphotographic observations shown in the previous report.
(2) The change in dissymmetry factor Z has been recognized to be sensitive to
the change in radius of smoke particles, as shown in Fig. 6. Consequently, the
smoke concentration C2 is considered to show the number of smoke particles which
relate to the weight loss in the sample, and its particle size at the final stage stored in
the smoke box indicates the mean radius of a smoke particle generated from or-
ganic substances, which depends on the type of sample.
(3) The partial pressure of oxygen exercised a logarithm-type influence on the
activation energy induced by the secondary oxidation of smoke particles in a hot
bath (radiation temperature). It is considered that the oxidation reaction rate in-
crease with the increase of the oxygen partial pressure in a high temperature en-
vironment has led to the lowering of the reduction rate of particle size due to
insufficient amount of oxygen.
Details on the problem of smoke colorization which depends on the temperature,
the air flow velocity around the smoke particle due to the temperature rise, the
effect of oxygen partial pressure, and the chemical reaction which is considered to
proceed on the particle surface as well as the change in particle size at the initial
stage of smoke evolution will be reported later.
Handa. T.. Suzuki, H., Takahashi, A.. Ikeda. Y. , and Saito, M.( Science I niversity
of Tokyo) “Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace
Test Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of Organic
Interior Building Materials Part II. Checkso.n Factors Concerning the Surface
Flame Spread Rate and Smoxe Evolution of Organic Building Materials by
Small Inclined Type Test Furnace,” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society of
196
FIRE RESEARCH
Japan 21 ( I) 1971 (2) 1972 44 (English translation by Trans. Sec.. Brit. Lib. Div.,
Boston Spa, Wetherby. Yorkshire, U.K.). See Section A.
Harmathy, T. Z. ( National Research Council of Canada Division of Building Re-
search, Ottawa, Canada) "Commensurability Problems in Fire Endurance Test-
ing," Fire Study Mo. 31. Division of Building Research, National Research
Council of Canada (November 1973)
Subjects: Fire endurance testing; Fire testing; Furnace design; Commensurability
in fire testing
Author's Abstract
A simple method is described by which characteristics of the performance of fire
test furnaces can be determined more conveniently and accurately than with
methods so far employed. The commensurability of the results of fire tests obtained
by furnaces of different design is discussed and a possible solution to putting the
fire test procedure on a more realistic basis is described.
Hartzell. L. G. (National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.) "Development
of a Radiant Panel Test for Flooring Material," Final Report No. NBS1R
74-4V5. National Bureau of Standards (May 1974)
Subjects: Fire tests; Flammability; Ignition; Flooring: Radiant panel
Author's Abstract
This paper summarizes the work of a year long program to continue the develop-
ment of a radiant panel type test for flooring materials, the original concept of
which was developed at the Armstrong Cork Company’s Research and Develop-
ment Center in Lancaster. Pennsylvania. This program at the National Bureau of
Standards had as its goal the further development of the test for possible adoption
as a standard ASTM test method.
The program work was divided into five phases. During the first phase, an
attempt was made to duplicate the performance of the original apparatus in a simi-
lar one at the National Bureau of Standards laboratory. The proof of this duplica-
tion was shown in replicate testing using a wide range of llooringon bothapparati.
In the second phase of the program, a new set of test conditions were found in an
attempt to eliminate some of the more serious equipment and procedural problems
ol the test. These new conditions provided the test with the ability to rate flooring
materials according to their ability to resist the surface spread (lames.
Under the third and fourth phases of the program, the effects of changes in some
test parameters was investigated and other test characteristics were measured.
Phase V, the data analysis and report, concluded the program.
Haynes, B. S„ Kirov, N. Y. (University of New South Wales. Kensington.
Australia) and lverach, D. (Air Pollution Control Branch. State Pollution
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
197
Control Commission, Lidcombe, Australia) “The Behavior of Nitrogen Species
in Fuel Rich Hydrocarbon Flames,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1 103(1975)
Subjects: Nitrous oxide; CN species; NH species; Hydrocarbon flames; Flame
structure
Authors' Abstract
Measurements of NO, CN-species and NH-species are made in a number of fuel-
rich hydrocarbon flames, with and without the addition of pyridine. Concentra-
tions of all these species in excess of equilibrium are found even in the absence of
pyridine.
Formation of cyano-species (mainly HCN) is related to decay of hydrocarbons
and in very rich flames occurs well into the post-flame gas. I n the absence of hydro-
carbons the cyano-pool is found to decay via the CN radical:
CN+CO.-OCN+CO
with k = (3.7 ± 0.4) X 10i: cm'/mole-sec in the range 1830° to 2400° K..
Both formation and decay of NO are observed and the results are consistent with
a mechanism of the type
I+CX-NO+ (21)
l+NO-N:+- • • (22)
where I is a nitrogeneous intermediate, and O, is an oxidant (probably OH). In
some cases NO formation can be predicted from measured HCN decay on the basis
of reactions (21) and (22).
In the presence of sufficient pyridine added to the flame, NO decreases in the
post-flame gases to a constant value, characteristic of the flame, regardless of the
level of pyridine added.
The behavior of NH, species is not as clear as that of HCN. although it is possible
that there is a relation between NH formation and HCN decay, and the NH ,-system
may be the identity of the intermediate I.
Hirano, T. and Konoshita, M. (Ibaraki University, Ibaraki. Japan) “Gas Velocity
and Temperature Profiles of a Diffusion Flame Stabilized in the Stream over
Liquid Fuel," Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Com-
bustion Institute. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 379 (1975)
Subjects: Flame structure; Diffusion flames; Velocity of gas; Temperature pro-
files
Authors' Abstract
fhe gas velocity and temperature profiles across the laminar boundary layer with
198
FIRE RESEARCH
T
a diffusion flame established over methanol or ethanol were measured with the free
stream of air parallel to the liquid-fuel surface. The flame stabilizing mechanism
and fuel consumption rate are discussed.
The results show that the maximum velocity appearing near the blue-name/one.
where the gas stream is accelerated, increases downstream and exceeds the free-
stream velocity at a point about 0.2 cm from the leading edge of the fuel vessel. The
temperature at the blue-flame zone is found to increase downstream about 1 .5 cm
from the leading edge of the fuel vessel and then to decrease slightly still farther
downstream. The fuel consumption rate is observed to increase monotonically with
the increase of the free-stream velocity. It is shown that in order to elucidate the
flame stabilizing mechanism, the velocity profile change due to the flame reaction
must be taken into account. The diffusion flame over the liquid fuel can be con-
sidered to remain stable until the leading flame edge shifts beyond the leading edge
of the fuel vessel due to the increase of the free stream velocity.
Hi rano, T. and Sato, K. (Ibaraki University, Ibaraki, Japan) “Effects of Radiation
and Convection on Gas Velocity and Temperature Profiles of Flames Spreading
over Paper,” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Com-
bustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, 233 (1975). See Section D.
Holmes, C. A. (Forest Products Laboratory, Madison. Wisconsin) “Correlations
of ASTM Exposure Tests for Evaluating Durability of Fire-Retardant Treat-
ments of Wood.” L.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research
Paper FPl, 194 (1973)
Subjects: Fire retardant ASTM exposure test; Durability of wood
Author's Abstract
Describes comparability of two methods of exposure testing provided in ASTM
D2898-70T. Results show overall exposure by either method can provide condi-
tions to differentiate between leach-resistant and nonleach-resistant treatments.
Holmes, C. A. (Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin) “Flammability
of Selected Wood Products Under Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.” Journal of
Fire and Flammability 4. 156-164 ( 1973). See Section A.
Holve. D. .1. and Sawyer, R. F. (University of California. Berkeley. California)
"Diffusion Controlled Combustion of Polymers.” Fifteenth Symposium (Inter-
national) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
351 (1975)
Subjects: Polymer combustion; Diffusion controlled combustion; Opposed flow
diffusion flames; Regression rate; Flame structure
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
199
Authors’ Abstract
A theoretical anti experimental studs ol polymer combustion in an opposed flow
diffusion (lame (OFDF) is presented. An algebraic formula is derived, expressing
the burning rate as a function of the fluid mechanic and thermodynamic v ariables
A polymer sample feed system has been developed which continuously positions
the burning polymer surface within ±0.01 mm of a given set point, allowing ac-
curate regression rate and detailed solid and gas phase flame structure measure-
ments. Regression rate measurements of twelve commercial polymers as a function
of oxygen concentration and oxidi/er flowrate are reported. From these measure-
ments and the theory . values of the Spalding transfer number. B. are derived and
can serve as a useful flammability index for these materials. The OFDF technique
also prov ides a quantitative method for evaluating the effectiveness of flame retar-
dants Solid and gas phase temperature profiles for charring and non-charring
polymers under various oxygen concentrations and oxidi/er flow conditions indi-
cate markedly different chemical reaction mechanisms lor charring and non-
charring polymers.
King. M. K. (Atlantic Research Corporation. Alexandria. Virginia) "Predictions
of Laminar Flame Speeds in Boron - Oxygen - Nitrogen Dust Clouds." Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania. 467 (1475)
Subjects: Dust flames: Flame speed; Boron flames
Author's Abstract
A detailed model of boron oxygen nitrogen dust-cloud flames, including con-
sideration of the details of boron particle ignition and the effects of oxygen deple-
tion. has been developed and used for prediction of flame speeds as functions of
numerous parameters. Reasonably good agreement between measured flame
speeds lor the only two data points available on laminar boron dust cloud com-
bustion and those predicted by this mode! has been obtained, although uncertainty
concerning details ol the experimental parameters results in this agreement being
somewhat inconclusive. In addition, a simplified elosed-lorm flame speed expres-
sion has been developed and the effects on predicted flame speeds of the various
assumptions used in its development have been examined. I he models have been
used to study the effects of initial temperature, pressure, initial oxygen mole Irac-
tion. weight traction particles, initial particle si/e. initial thickness of the oxide
coating on the particles, radiation feedback from the post-flame /one. and Nusselt
Number. Mechanisms leading to the predicted dependencies are discussed
Ksandopulo. (., I.. Kolesnikov. B. Ya.. /.avadskii. \ . A.. Odnorog. D. S.. and
Klovskaya, T. P. ( Alma Ata) "Mechanism of the Inhibition of Combustion ot
llvdrocarbon- Nil Mixtures by Finely Dispersed Particles." / tztka ( ion-nna i
I owa "lli 42-44 (March 1471) (in Russian) See Section D
k
«
t
v
FIRE RESEARC H
200
l.ie. T. T. and Harmathy, T. Z. (National Research Council ol Canada. Ottawa.
Canada) "hire Endurance of Concrete- Protected Steel Columns." Journal ol the
American Concrete Institute No. I. Proceedings V. 71. 29-32 (January 1974):
Research Paper No. 597, Division of Building Research, \ational Research
Council of Canada. See Section A.
I.unn. (C A. and Phillips, H. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield.
England) “A Summary of Experimental Data on the Maximum Experimental
Safe Gap," Safely in Mines Establishment Report So. R2 ( 1973). See Section E.
Markstein. G. H. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood. Massachu-
setts) "Radiative Energy Transfer from Gaseous Diffusion Flames,” f ifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion. Ehe Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, 1285 (1975)
Subjects: Radiation: Diffusion flames; Emission: Adsorption; Energy transport
Author's Abstract
Emission and absorption measurements were performed with an array ol ten
laminar-diffusion-flame burners. The radiative properties ol the flames ol various
gaseous hydrocarbon fuels were determined by varying the number ol ignited
burners, and thus the optical depth of the flames. I he results for the luelsot highest
tendenev for soot formation, propviene. isobuty lene, and 1 .3-butadiene, could be
represented by a grey-gas model. The data tor the less sooty flames ol aliphatic
hvdrocarbons and of ethylene required a representation as the sum ol two weighted
grav-gas terms. Radiance values for one llame. V . ranged from 0.1 5b \V cm-’sr for
methane to 0.801 W cm-’sr for 1 . 3-butadiene, while values extrapolated to an
infinite number of (lames. A . ranged from 5 18 W em’sr for methane to I GO
W cm-’sr for ethylene.
Mulvihill, J. N. and Phillips. I.. F. (University of Canterbury . Christchurch. New
Zealand) “Breakdown of Cyanogen in Fuel Rich II - V -() Flames." Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion. I he Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania. 1113 ( 1975)
Subjects: Flame structure; H - N -O flames;C N breakdown: Fuel rich flames
Authors' Abstract
I he reactions involved in the breakdow n ol C N in a llame of un burnt composi-
tion H N- 0 =45 8 I have been investigated experimentally by mass spee-
trometrv of the burnt gases and theoretically bv computer simulation. I xperi-
mentallv we find that the C N is converted. h\ passage through the reaction /one
.■I the llame into approximately equal amounts ol lit N and C < » CO mixtmc
I hi' implies that the main primary reaction
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
201
r
i
>
H+C N -HCN+CN
is followed almost exclusively bv
CN+O-NCO+O
(Hi
(15)
rather than h\
CN+H -HCN+H (14)
CO is assumed to be produced from NCO by
NCO+O— CO+NO (16)
and
NCO+H-CO+NH (26)
I he low yield ot NO when C.N alone is introduced, and the observed consump-
tion ol NO in the reaction /one when both ( N and NO are added, are attributed
to the reaction
NH-*-NO— products (27)
I he main alternative reaction
CN+NO-N +CO (21)
is too slow to account for removal of NO at the temperature of the early reaction
/one. I he rate constant for reaction (21 ) at the temperature of the burnt gas has
been determined by measuring the rate of disappearance of HCN above .lie reac-
tion /one vv it h both ( A and NO added, the concentration of CN in this part ot the
llame being governed bv the equilibrium constant ol reaction 14 We find k = 7.3
XIO' m kg mol sec at 1500 k I heoretical concentration profiles ot CO and
HCN in the reaction /one are consistent with the experimental observations, pro-
vided the rate constant lot reaction (14) is allowed to increase only slowlv with
temperature so that it cannot compete effectively with reaction (15) 1 he computer
program allows useful numerical predictions to be made concerning the effect ol
additives such as C N on radical concentrations and burning velocitv
O'Neill. .1. H.. Sommers. I). F... and Nicholas. F. B. (National Av lation Facilities
Experimental Center. Atlantic City. New Jersey) “Aerospace Vehicle Hazard
Protection lest Program: Detectors. Materials: Fuel Vulnerability." Final
Report. October 1420 . September 1472. Contract No. I SAI I 3361 5-" I -M-
5002. I S Air Force Systems Command ( February 1474). hr I <n\ < 1 ero /Vo
f)iil\n>n l.ahnniiiir i Report Vo 4 /I 7/f-7J-A7 .See Section V
202
FIRE RESEARCH
Onuma, Y. and Ogasawara, M. (Osaka University, Osaka. Japan) "Studies on the
Structure of a Spray Combustion Flame," Fifteenth Symposium ( International)
on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 453
(1975)
Subjects: Flame structure. Spray flames
Authors’ Abstract
To clarify the flame structure of a spray burner, the following experiments and
analysis were carried out. ( I ) Droplet and temperature distributions, flow velocity,
and gas composition were measured in the flame of an air-atomizing burner. It was
found that the region where the droplets exist is limited to a small area above the
burner nozzle. From the correlation between the above various distributions, it was
concluded that most of the droplets in the flame do notburn individually, but that
vuel vapor from the droplets concentrates and burns like a gas diffusion flame.
(2) Various measurements were then made on a spray combustion (lame and a
turbulent gas diffusion flame under the same conditions. Comparing the two sets
of data, it was found that the flames are similar in structure. (3) Assuming that the
droplets evaporate in the flame, their behavior was analyzed by making use of the
knowledge which has been obtained for a single droplet. The calculated results were
in fairly close agreement with the experimental results.
The above facts suggest the possibility that the spray combustion flame could be
treated theoretically by applying the information for a single droplet and for a
turbulent gas diffusion flame.
Pandya. T. P. and Srivastava, N. K. (L ucknow University. India) "Counterflow
Diffusion Flame of Ethyl Alcohol." Combustion Science and Technology 5.
83-88 (1972)
Subjects: Diffusion (lames; Counterllow diffusion (lames: Opposed jet diffusion
flames
Authors' Abstract
A method for stabilizing diffusion flames of liquid fuels has been described.
Results are presented for the thermal structure of such a flame of ethyl alcohol as
determined by an interferometric study.
Parker. W. J. and Fee. B. T. (National Bureau ol Standards. Washington. D C.)
“Fire Build Up in Reduced Size Enclosures.” \ational bureau of Standards
Special Publication 41 1 . 139 (August 1973)
Subjects: Fire tests; Flashover: Heat release rate; Scale models: 1 hernial
radiation
Authors' Abstract
A 30 x 30 * 32 inch enclosure was constructed to studv the lire build-up process
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
20.1
in a room. Conductive and radiative heat flux, temperature, air velocity, fuel supplv
rate, and oxygen concentration were measured. In order to relate the phenomena
observed in the small enclosure to that in a full si/e room, the possibility of small-
scale modeling with combustible walls was examined. I his was done on a prelimi-
nary basis by comparing the results of some corner fire tests conducted both in the
model and in a lull si/e room. A preliminary examination was also made of the
effect of the fuel flow rate and the location of the burner on the temperature and
oxygen profiles in the enclosure. Since the ceiling temperature closely follows the
upper air temperature the latter is a suitable measure ol the degree ol lire build-up
in the room. Any analysis ol the fire build-up process must account tor this tem-
perature.
Peeters, J. and Vinckier, C. (Universite C'atholique de Louvain. I.ouvain-de-
Neuve. Belgium) "Production of C'hemi-lons and Formation of CH and CH,
Radicals in Methane - Oxygen and Ethy lene - Oxygen Flames.” Fifteenth Sym-
posium ( International ) on Combustion. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania. 969 (1975)
Subjects: Chemioni/ation; Flame structure; Ethylene - oxygen flame; Methane -
oxygen flame
Authors' Abstract
The mole fractions of CH. CH.. CH i. O. H. OH. O . and some other species were
measured throughout the reaction /ones of a series of low-pressure flames burning
methane or ethylene in oxygen, diluted by argon. In some flames, the ( atom was
detected; its ionization potential was found to he 1 1 1 7:0.2 eV.
For each flame, the total amount of ions produced in unit time was also deter-
mined. using the saturation current method. The values for all flames were directlv
proportional to the corresponding volume integrals J[CH][0]</e over the whole
reaction /one. It is concluded, therefore, that the reaction CH+O— CHO'+e is
indeed the source of chemi-ions in hydrocarbon flames. The rate constant was
found to be 1.7X10 mole 1 cm sec 1 at / = 2000 2400 k. The ions are formed ina
fairly w ide region, extending f rom about the middle ol the v isible luminous /one to
its outer edge.
It is established that CH is not formed fireetly from CH a instead. CH is derived
from CH via CH + H(OH)— CH+H-lH O). 1 he rate constants of these reactions
were found to be about ten times smaller than the kinetic coefficient ol the impor-
tant CH-rcmoval process C H+H~C"H . which in turn is some twenty times
larger than the rate constant ol CH+O — (products!.
Evidence has been obtained that the predominant source of CH in ethylene
flames is the reaction C Hi*()-( H +CH (). w hich is shown to be only a few times
slower at / 2000 k than the simultaneous process C H4+O— CH -CHO
In methane flames. CH is produced from CH \ la the reaction CH +OH — CH *
If (): its rate constant is nearly three times les^ than that ol the reaction CH - O •
t products), w Inch in fuel-lean flames is the major CH -removal path I he rate con-
stant ol the latter reaction was found to be about 1.2- 10 at / 2000 k
204
HIRE RESEARCH
Pereira, F. J., Beer, J. M., Gibbs, B., and Hedley, A. B. (University of Sheffield.
Sheffield. England) “NO, Emissions from Fluidized - Bed Coal Combustors.”
Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Insti-
tute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, 1149 (1975)
Subjects: Fire structure; Flame structure; NO, ; Coal combustion; Fluidized bed
Authors' Abstract
Measurements of NO emissions from two different fluidized bed coal combus-
tors are reported. In a 30*30 cm bed the emission was found to increase with bed
temperature and excess air; detailed profiles of NO and species concentrations were
obtained from within the bed and the freeboard. The NO concentrations increased
along the center line of the bed (being virtually zero at the distributor plate). The
transverse distributions of NO were ununiform: NO concentrations were higher
near the wall than in the centre region of the combustor.
Experiments carried out with a laboratory size (7.5 cm dia) fluidized bed using
mixtures of argon and oxygen have confirmed that most of the NO results from the
nitrogen in the coal. The relative contributions of the volatiles and char burning to
the total NO emission were assessed by the separation of the two stages of combus-
tion. The char was found to contribute largely at temperatures below' 800°C above
which the NO formed from volatile combustion became the main source. Above
this temperature the formation of thermal NO could also be detected.
Peters, N.(lnstifut fur Thermo- und Fluiddynamik. Techmsche Universitat. Berlin.
Germany) “Theory of Heterogeneous Combustion Instabilities of Spherical
Particles.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Combus-
tion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 363 (1975)
Subjects: Combustion instability: Instabilities: Oscillations: Particle combustion
Author’s Abstract
The linear and nonlinear stability characteristics of the heterogeneous combus-
tion of spherical particles are investigated on the basis of a simplified mathematical
approach using integral relations. A condition for instability is derived which
relates the parameters of the problem in an algebraic inequality and reflects the
influence of internal diffusion and reaction. In a case w here three steady states exist
onlv the lower one was found to be stable to infinitely small and to finite-
disturbances. Calculations of the transient behavior of the combustion ol carbon
particles are able to explain the nature of experimentally observed oscillatory
instabilities. I hev appear to be caused by the unsteady heat exchange between the
surface and the interior of the particle which produces a tune lag \t large values ol
the thermal conductivity inside the particle the oscillations are damped and
stability is obtained.
Phillips. II. (Safety in Mines Research I stablishment. Shellield. 1 nglatull “I he
I
r
i
f
:
[
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 205
Use of a Thermal Model of Ignition to Explain Aspects of Flameproof En-
closure." Combustion and Flame 20. 121-126 ( 1973)
Subjects: Flameproof enclosures: Ignition: Maximum safe experimental gap
(M.S.E.G.); M.S.E.G.; Thermal model of flameproof enclosures
Author's Abstract
In an earlier paper (Combustion and Flame 19. 1X7 ( 1972)) Phillips described the
ignition process that occurs when a transient ol hot inert gas is ejected into a flam-
mable atmosphere through the equatorial flange gap of an 8-litre sphere for the
determination of the Maximum Experimental Safe Gap ( MESG) for flameproof
enclosure. The analysis of the mechanism of ignition is now extended to take into
account changes in flange breadth, vessel volume, internal ignition position,
oxygen concentration, humidity, pressure, and ambient temperature. The results ol
the calculations agree with experimental data.
Quintiere, J. and Huggett, C. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D C.)
“An Evaluation of Flame Spread Test Methods for Floor Covering Materials."
Xational Bureau of Standards Special Publication -til. 59 (August 197.3)
Subjects: Fire test methods; Flame spread: Flammability tests: Corridor fires:
Floor covering flammability
Authors' Abstract
Flammability properties of materials have traditionally been measured by small
scale laboratory, tests. The relationships between test results and performance in
real fires have been largely inferred by intuition or subjective judgement. Flame
spread test methods for floor covering materials are examined Through full-scale
fire experiments and laboratory studies the nature ol the potential flame spread
ha/ard ol flooring materials is presented. The factors promoting flame spread in
each test method are identified. Test method results are compared with relevant
full-scale fire experiments involving floor covering materials in a corridor. An
effort is made to relate test results, where possible, to the potential flame spread
ha/ard of floor covering materials in building corridors and exitways.
Quintiere. .1. (National Bureau of Standards. Gaithersburg. M’ ryland) "Some
Observations on Building Corridor Fires." Fifteenth .S! mposium < International )
on Combustion. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsvlvania. 163
(1975) See Section A.
Richard. .1. R.. Vovelle. ( .. and Delbourgo. R. (Centre de Rccherches sur la
Chemie de la Combustion et des Halites Temperatures C.N.R.S.. Orleans la
Source. France) "Flammability and Combustion Properties ol Polyolefimc
Materials." / iltcenth Si mposium f International) on ( 'ombustton. The Combus-
tion Institute. Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. 205 (1975) See Section B
206
FIRE RESEARC H
Roberts. A. F. "Some Aspects of Fire Behavior in Tunnels." Tunnels and Tunnel-
ling 5 (I), 73-76 (1973)
Subjects: Fire Behavior; Mines; Tunnels; Polymers; Wood
Safety In Mines Abstracts 22 No. 76
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The report discusses fires in ventilated tunnels and their effect on tunnel environ-
ment. The author deals in some detail with factors dete mining the si/e ol a fire
and the behavior of materials such as polyurethane foam, mineral oil. and wood.
Romodanova, L. D„ Pepekin, V. I.. Apin. A. Ya.. and Pokhil. P. F. (Moscow.
USSR) “Relationship Between the Burning Rate of a Mixture and theChemical
Structure of the Fuel." Fizika Goreniya i I zrwa 6 (4). 4 1 9-424 (December 1970)
(in Russian)
Subjects: Burning rate; Chemical structure and burning fuels; Structure and
burning
Authors’ Conclusions
Translated by L. Holtschlag
A study is made of the burning rate of mixtures with an ammonium perchlorate
base and a fuel containing various functionai groupings. The heating capacity, of
these compounds was determined experimentally. The experimental value of the
burning rates were considered from the viewpoint of the heating capacity of the
compounds and the strength of the chemical bonds of the fuel. The following
classes of organic compounds were used as fuels: monobasic and dibasic
unsaturated acids, saturated fatty acids, aromatic hydrocarbons, amines,
nitramines. polynitro compounds, and organometallic compounds. Stoichiometric
compounds with APC were prepared with these fuels. Fhe compounds were
compressed in a 5 mm diameter mold to maximum density . I he particle si/c ol the
APC was less than 100 p. f he compounds were ignited in a bomb under nitrogen
pressure, the burning rate was determined by a photorecorder. 1 he results indicate
that the burning rate docs not depend on the calorif c value of the compounds, hut
is governed by the strength of the weakest bond in the fuel molecule.
Saito. F. (Building Research Institute. Japanese Ministry of Construction. I okyo.
Japan) “Smoke Generation from Building Materials." Fi/reenth Symposium
(Iniernanonal) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Penn-
sylvania. 269 ( 1975). See Section 1
Senior. M. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. I ngland)
“Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part \ Strain Measurements on the Gas I xplo-
sion ( hamber." Fire Researi h 'sole So V.V ./< i ini I ire Reseats h ( irganizaiu > n
(March 1974)
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
207
Subjects: Gas explosions; Explosions of gas in buildings; Strain measurement
in explosion
Author's Summary
This paper describes the methods employed for the measurement of the dynamic
strains occurring in the structure of the large scale explosion test chamber at
C'ardington. during gas explosions produced within the chamber
The general considerations for the measurement of strain are discussed and
particular reference is made to the choice of resistance foil gauges. Single active
element, self temperature compensated gauges have been adopted for use in the
experimental work. A limited number of results are presented for illustrative
purposes; more comprehensive results will be the subject of a later report. Strains
produced within the structure have been extremely small for explosions ol non-
stoichiometric gas mixtures and vent covers of low bursting strength; much larger
values have been obtained for stoichiometric gas mixtures.
Modifications are at present in hand to increase the overall sensitivity of the
system.
Sibulkin. VI. (Brown University. Providence. Rhode Island) “Estimates of the
Effect of Flame Si/e on Radiation from Fires." Combustion Science ant! Tech-
nology 7, 141-143 (1973)
Subjects: Radiation form fires; Flame si/e effect on radiation
Author's Abstract
The effect of flame size on the relative contributions of luminous (soot) radiation
and nonluminous (molecular band) radiation is calculated for typical combustion
conditions. It is found that for small flames nonluminous radiation is dominant
while for larger flames both luminous and nonluminous radiation are important.
Estimates of the fraction of the energy released by combustion which is emitted as
radiation Q A, Q( are made. It is shown that^/Cj increases w ith increasing burner
dimension </. For two particular types of fires, a simple power law dependence is
obtained.
Stark. G. V\ . V. and Field. P. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood.
Herts. England) “Smoke and Ioxic Gases from Burning Building Materials I
A lest Rig for Large Scale Fires." Fire Research \oie Vo. I0l\ .hunt lire Re-
search Organization { July 1974)
Subjects: Smoke: Ioxic gases: Building materials: I ire tests
Authors' Summaty
A test rig. consisting of a room communicating with a corridor, has been con-
structed for examining the products of combustion arising from tires in the
compartment or corridor. I ests with wood fuel have shown that thermally
reproducible fires are obtained from a given weight of fuel in the compartment and
a given arrangement ol ventilation.
208
FIRE RESEARCH
Under the conditions of ventilation used, the smoke produced from relatively
small loads of wood (14.5 to 29 kg m:) was sufficiently dense to impede escape,
even when the smoke and fire gases were diluted with cool air to a temperature that
could be borne for a short time during which an attempt to escape could be made.
The concentration of the principal toxic gas. carbon monoxide, in the fire gases is
primarily dependent upon the weight of the lire load of wood. Dilution of the fire
gases with cool air to a temperature that could be borne for a short time during
escape produced atmospheres with fire gases from the greater weight of wood that
were hazardous for short exposure, whereas those from the lesser weights were not
so.
The production of carbon monoxide from the tests with the greatest degree of
ventilation examined rose and fell simply during fires, whereas tests with the less. ;
degrees of ventilation resulted in periodic variations in concentration. The former
test condition is more amenable to calculations concerning toxic gas evolution.
Stromdahl, I. (Fire Engineering Laboratory, National Swedish Institute for
Materials Testing, Stockholm. Sweden) “The Tranas Fire Tests. Field Studies of
Fleat Radiation from Fires in a Timber Structure." National Swedish Building
Research Summaries, Document 1)3:1972. Swedish Council for Building Re-
search. 72 pages (in English). Available from Svensk Byggtjanst. Box 1403.
S-l 1 1 84 Stockholm, Sweden, cost 20 Sw. Kr.
Subjects: Fleat radiation: Temperature curve; Fire load; Fire cell; l imber struc-
ture fire
Author’s Summary
This report has a hearing on an earlier report by the same author: Stromdahl.
1971), Fire risks and fire precautions in dense developments of wooden houses.
Swedish Fire Protection Association. The present report describes and compares
two lull-scale fire tests conducted in two idential dwellings in the same building.
The dwellings had the same fire load and opening factors and each corresponded to
a modern terraced dwelling with a floor area of SO m:. In one of the tests, walls and
ceilings were given an internal fire-retardant finish. Records were obtained of heat
radiation, temperatures and the appearance of the flames with the aid of radiation
pyrometers, thermocouples, a Thermovision camera and colour film. The results
confirm previous assumptions regarding the radiation from a burning dwelling
given an internal finish of fire-retardant material: in the case of a non-firc-retardant
finish no such confirmation was obtained because of a technical mishap
Background and aims
A question of particular interest for modern fire engineering is that ol the
temperatures and levels of radiation prevailing in a lire in a one-lamil\ dwelling
forming part ofan up-to-date dense development ol wooden houses I heauthorol
the present report was commissioned b\ the National Board ol Urban Planning to
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
209
carry out a problems analysis in order to pros ide a basis for its coming directives on
this subject. It was hoped that by conducting full-scale fire tests it would be possible
to see the extent to which the accepted hypotheses fitted in w ith actual conditions.
With the assistance of the Tranas fire brigade, tests were carried out in the autumn
ot 1969 under the direction of the National Swedish Institute of Materials Testing.
I he site of the tests was a buildingin the center of Tranas scheduled fordemolition.
The building was a two-storey, timber structure with plastered external linish
and an outside staircase. It was judged suitable as an object for two comparative
tests, one to be conducted on the upper storey and the other on the lower. Each
storey was made to represent a modern, one-storey terraced house w ith a floorarea
of SO m-’. I he two dwellings were rendered identical as regards room layout, the
portable part of the lire load (furniture and loose fittings) and opening factor. The
only difference was that the dwelling on the upper storey was given an internal
finish ot fire-retardant material while the dwelling on the lower storey lacked this
Preparation of the test building
The building was occupied up to the time when alterations were begun. Changes
were made in order to simulate the open-plan character of a modern one-family
house. Window openings were made only in the gables of the building in order to
minimize the effect ol wind direction. The floor of the upper storey was covered
with sheets of fibreboard in order to delay the spread of fire to the lower storey
Sawdust insulation between the joists in the loft floor was also replaced by mineral
wool. The fire-retardant material used as a finish on the walls and ceilings of the
upper storey consisted of 13 mm plasterboard.
Air spaces in partition walls exposed due to the making of new doorways were
filled with mineral wool. Existing windows on the longitudinal walls plus the
original entrances were blocked w ith mineral wool on the inside and then covered
with plasterboard. Window openings in gable walls were shielded with mineral
wool and then covered in plastic sheeting. Ventilation ducts and holes left by f ormer
pipes for water supply and waste were blocked with mineral wool Pasteboard on
the ceilings of both storeys was removed
Characteristics of the fire cells
Each of the dwellings represented a fire cell in which the area ot the openings was
equal to the sum of t he areas ol the windows in the gable walls. I he opening factor
for each storey was 0.04 nV calculated according to Swedish Building Standard
(Sv click Byggnorm).
In the dwelling on the upper storey the volume of masonry present represented
.3.1' f ot the total volume of the tire cell and the surface area of this masonry lb 5’ ,
ol the area ol the surfaces enclosing the fire cell I he corresponding values for the
lower storey were 3 0 and 9 5', respectively. I hese values are high for a modern
wooden house
I he lire load was composed ol furniture, linoleum, a source ot lire I ignition
210
FIRE RESEARCH
decive). lightweight partition walls and enclosing surfaces ol combustible material.
I he furniture was some 20 30 years old. dry and in good condition. I he source of
fire consisted of a pile of spruce lalhs over a metal container lor the methylated
spirits. The position of this ignition device was the same in both tests.
The tests
Both the test building and the storage premises housing the furniture for the tests
were heated during the alterations period. On September 9th. the day of the tests,
the weather was fair and warm and the w ind force 2 5nt s.
Temperatures were recorded with the help ol thermocouples mounted 25 cm
below the ceilings of all rooms and in window openings. During fest II
thermocouples were also mounted on a water-cooled stand outside window
openings.
I wo pyrometers were used to determine heat radiation. I hese were positioned I I
and 1 3.5 m from the gables. Simultaneous tests of the distribution of heat radiation
in window openings and escaping flames were made using the Ihermovision
system. I he fire was also documented by a series ol colour photographs taken at
one minute intervals.
In both tests, flash-over occurred 13 minutes after ignition. I Extinguishing
operations after Test I proved extremely time-consuming due to a mishap with a
pressurized fan. This in its turn meant it could not be prevented that considerable
amounts of water were sprayed on to the structure. It was nevertheless still possible
to conduct the second test.
Results
Temperature curves were the same for both fire cells during the initial phase
showingan increase of around Kit) C some 6 8 minutes after ignition, followed by
a fall in temperature to 50 C'. Removal of the plastic sheeting from window
openings was followed by flashover and a rapid rise in the temperature ol the lire
cell to 600 In lest I. the temperature continued to rise until it had reached
approximately 750 C after 18 minutes. In the ease ol I est II. the temperature of the
lire cell was still only 6()0‘ C after 33 minutes f he tests were discontinued following
upward spread of the fire 20 minutes after Hash-over before the temperature curve
had reached its natural peak.
On the basis of observations of the destruction wrought by the fire on furniture
and fittings and also in view of the depth to which the fire had penetrated ceiling
structures, it was possible to estimate the rates of combustion. In I est I. this was
calculated to be 70 kg of wood min. and in lest If 100 kg of wood min
The low value of the opening factor and the unusually large volume of masonry
probablv reduced the rate of combustion and temperature of lire cell li was not
possible to determine whether these factors affected temperatuics in window
openings and thus the intensity of radiation
A maximum rise in temperature of 1000 ( on the windward side and '810 < on
a
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 21 1
the leeward side was recorded in Test I. In Test II the figures were 850 950°C and
750°C respectively. Thus, higher temperatures were recorded in window openings
than inside the fire cells; 200 300° C on the windward side and 100° C on the
leeward. The heat radiation escaping from a burning building should thus not be
determined on the basis of the temperature in the fire cell as is now normally the
case.
I hermograms and colour photographs made it possible to establish the ratio of
heat radiation from flames round window openings to radiation from the openings
themselves. This varied between 0.3:1 and 5:1.
Su/uki. H.. Handa. T., Ikeda, Y. and Saito, M. (Science University of Tokyo)
“Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace Test Based
on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification of Organic Interior
Building Materials. Part 1. Checks on the Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard of
Several Organic Building Materials." Bulletin of the hire Prevention Society of
Japan 2/(1) 1971 (2) 1972 I (Fnglish translation bv Trans. Sec.. Brit. Lend. Lib.
Piv.. Boston Spa. Wetherby, Yorkshire, U.K.)
Subjects: Tests; Fire hazard; Furnace tests: Building material tests
Authors' Conclusions
\s a tire-simulation for the initial stage of fire, comparisons of the dependence of
wall ignition properties on the variation in the size of the fire source between the
new IIS A 1321 furnace and the ex-.llS A 1321 lurnace have been conducted.
\n equation has been give, to hold for the weight loss of the sample, which
decreases linearly as the sample thickness increases and is determined mainly by the
Nusselt number in the convex, on period and by l/o in radiation. The coincidence
of the rates in these two tests has been found at about 10-mm thickness for the wood
samples.
In the present IIS A 1321 lurnace, where the eflect of radiation is predominant,
the covering ol the wood surfaces with light metals such as aluminum foil or the
like or the coating of foaming paint and the like gives the materials temporary
resistance to the intense radiation. However, their long-term mechanical strength,
appearance, and stability remain unsatisfactory. Especially with aluminum foil-
covered materials, there is a danger of quick flame ignition at the crack in the
junction caused by thermal shrinkage. This makes some new technical
developments in the joint very necessary.
In the fire-modelling test, an increase in radiation intensity is necessary for the
tests of fire-resistant buildings, but it must be followed by some solution to the
everyday problems So we suggest here that a better testing method for organic
material's fire hazard might lie in an examination of the initial fire-simulating
pattern and changes in the radiation intensity according to the actual places where
the materials are used; namely, for floors, walls, ceilings and partitions. That is. we
must have some auxiliary testing methods which take into account the
characteristics and classification of the materials used.
I
212
hi RE RESEARC H
Thomas. P. H. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. Fngland)
“The Effect of Crib Porosity in Recent CIB Experiments." Fire Research Vote
\'o. 999. Joint Fire Research Organization ( February 1974)
Subjects: Crib fires; Porosity in crib fires; Compartment 1 ires
Author's Summarv
Some of the data obtained in the CIB program on lulls developed fires refer to
fires controlled by crib poiositv. An approximate criterion, based on Nilsson's
experiments is suggested for identifying them and so excluding them Irom general
correlations based on fuel surface area and compartment properties.
Tsuchiva, Y. and Sumi. K. (Division of Building Research. National Research
Council. Ottawa. Canada) “Smoke Producing Characteristics ol Materials."
Journal Fire ami Flammability 5 64 ( 1974)
Subjects: Smoke generation; Combustion; Polymeric materials
Authors' Abstract
The various methods available for the determination of the smoke-producing
characteristics of materials have been critic illy reviewed 1 hese eharactei isties
depend on both the material and the conditions under which smoke is poulticed.
Two important factors are o.xvgcn concetiiiaiion and temperature Most ol the
existint! methods represent combustion under a limited set ol environmental condi-
tions that exist at actual fires. As a result the validity ol the determination is limited
to the specific conditions defined by the test, different tests may produce conflicting
results. The rate of smoke generation depends on two factors; rate ot combustion
and smoke generation coefficient or the amount ol smoke produced Irom a unit
weight of materials. These two factors have ditlcrent characteristics \ method to
determine the smoke generation coellicient alone is needed in order to obtain data
lor a better understanding of smoke production A method to meet this need has
been developed and the smoke generation coellicient ol various polymeric mate-
rials has been determined under various conditions of temperature and oxygen con-
centration in the atmosphere.
Watanabe. V .. el ill “Effect ot Eire Retardants on Combustible Materials l ndcr-
ground." Mining ami Safet r in Japan /Mill. I-X < !972 ) ( in Japanese). Sec Sec
turn A
W aterman. T. E. (Il l Research Institute. Chicago. Illinois) "I xpc. internal Struc-
tural Fires." Final Report. Fehruart I9~2 - January I9~4. Contrail \o />•!//(
20-72 -( -0290. Pel ense Civil Preparedness 4 gem t (July 19741 See Section I).
W ersborg. B. I ... > rung. A. C.. and Howard. I B. t Massachii'Ctt' Institute ol
I cchnologv . ( am bridge. Massachusetts!' < once titration and Mass I list n but <u
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
213
of Charged Species in Sooting Flames.” Fifteenth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania 1439
(1975)
Subjects:
Ions in flames: Sooting flames; Flame structure; Molecular beam
sampling
Authors’ Abstract
Total concentration and mass distribution of charged species larger than about
300 amu were measured along the centerline of a premixed sooting acetylene
oxygen flat flame at 20 mmllg. Charge concentration was determined by
measuring the electric current delivered to a Faraday cage in the detection chamber
of a staged molecular beam flame sampling instrument having a quenching time of
about 1 gs. Charge mass ratio distributions were measured by the incremental elec-
trical filtration of charged species from the beam. Mass and diameter distributions
were then calculated by assuming unicharged species of density 2 g cm'. The ob-
served species, which include heavy hydrocarbon ions and charged soot particles,
are of positive polarity. Their total concentration at fuel equivalence ratios in the
range 2.1 3.0 and cold gas velocities of 31 and 38 cm s ranges from 10s to 10i:
cm-’, exhibits a distinct peak near the onset of soot formation, increases strongly
with increasing fuel equivalence ratio, and decreases with increasing cold gas
velocity . The mass distribution of charged species peaks sharply at a mass which
increases with increasing height above the burner or time. At a fuel equivalence
ratio of 2.25 and a cold gas velocity of 31 cm s. the peak mass and its equivalent
diameter increase from 1390 amu and 13 A just prior to the onset of v isible soot
formation to 7700 amu and 23 A about 2 ms later. The concentration of heavy
hydrocarbon ions and that of heavy hydrocarbon molecules estimated prev iously
decrease rapidly with the onset of soot formation in a manner that correlates with
the initially fast surface growth of soot particles. Thus the heavy hydrocarbons
appear to include both soot nuclei and surface growth intermediates The
concentrations of heavy hydrocarbon ions are much larger than the peak
concentrations of soot particles. Therefore, ionic nucleation of soot particles is
feasible for these conditions, and a tentative mechanism is described.
Yamao. S. “The Smoke Emission Properties of Materials Used in Mines." Bull.
Sat. Res. Inst. Pol. and Res. 2 (1). 69-84 (1972)
Subjects: Smoke: Tests: Mines
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 75
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
A prototype smoke-measuring apparatus vv hich can simulate mine conditions in
a wide range was developed The apparatus gave satisfactory distinction between
smoke emission indices of test materials. T he number of materials used in the
present tests was fifteen, of w hich low density plastics such as flexible polyurethane
foam and low density rigid polyurethane foam produced much smoke even at the
214
FIRE RESEARCH
I
low temperature 300°C; other plastic materials such as high density rigid polyure-
thane foam, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyvinyl-chloride produced a huge
amount of smoke at the evaluated temperature 700°C; all hydraulic fluids pro-
duced a tremendous amount of smoke throughout all test temperatures compared
with other test materials, whereas phenolic moulding which is applied widely for
electric insulation was fairly stable throughout all test temperatures. The work
described was carried out at SMRE. Buxton in 1970
H. C hemical Aspects of Fires
Alger, R. S. (Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Maryland) and Alvares,
N.J. (Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park, California) "Trie Destruction ol
High Expansion Fire-Fighting Foam by the Components of Fuel Pyrolysis and
Combustion. 111. Tests of Full Scale Foam Generators Equipped with Scrub-
bers,” Final Report, July 1974. Report So. SOl.l R 74-101, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory (1974). See Section E.
Amaro, A. J. and I.ipska. A. E. (Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park. Cali-
fornia) “Development and Evaluation of Practical Self-Help Fire Retardants."
Annual Report. August 1973. Contract So. DA HC 20-70-0219, Defense Civil
Preparedness Agency (August 1973). See Section E.
Biordi, J. C„ Lazzaro. C. P.. and Papp, J. G.( Bureau of Mines. Pittsburgh. Penn-
sylvania) “Flame Structure Studies of CFjBr - Inhibited Methane Flames. 11.
Kinetics and Mechanisms," Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combus-
tion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 917 (1975)
Bredo. M. A.. Guillaume. P. J„ and Van Tiggelen. P. J. (LIniversite Catholique de
Louvain. Louvain-de-Neuve. Belgium) "Mechanism of Ion and Emitter Forma-
tion Due to Cyanogen in Hydrogen -Oxygen - Nitrogen Flames." Fifteenth Sym-
posium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania 1003 (1975)
Subjects: Ions in flames; Chemionization; H - C;N; (lames; Flame structure
Authors' Abstract
A detailed investigation of chemi-ionization and chemi-luminescence in
H: O N;+C:N: flames has led to the following conclusions:
(a) A sigle molecule of C \ is required for the formation of an ion or excited
species such as CN* or NH*.
(b) The very high ionic yield and the large over-all activation energy suggest a
bimolecular process for the primary ionization. The variation of the ionic yield
with pressure shows that the overall order of the ehemi-ionization process is greater
by one than that of the combustion process.
ABSTRACTS AND REVII-'WS
215
(c) Since the thickness ol the flame front depends on the pressure as /’ , the
over-all combustion reaction corresponds to a I 4 order, and therefore a 2.4 appar-
ent order fot the over-all chemi-ioni/ation reaction can be deduced
(d) These results lead us to propose the following mechanism lor the formation
reactions ol the primary ion (NO'):
CN+O— N< n+CO
CN+0-\< /))+CO
N(->)-N(:/»+/iv
N( >)+()■ AO'+c
N( /))+()— NO'+e
Such a mechanism accounts for all our experimental results lor NO" and the other
ionic species detected by mass spectrometry Some data for the excited CN-radical
are also discussed.
Kurdett. N. A. and Hayhurst. A. N.(l niversity of Sheffield. Sheffield. England)
" I he Kinetics of f ormation of Chloride Ions in Atmospheric - Pressure Flames
bv HCI + e —Cl + H." Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion.
I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 979 1)975)
Subjects: Kinetics: Cl formation: Ions: Flame structure: H llantes; Ethylene
flames: HCI in flames
Authors' Abstract
I he production of Cl ions has been studied in atmospheric-pressure premised
llantes ol II orC II vvithO and N over the temperature range ISIO 2750K. Ion
concentrations were measured bv continuously sampling a traction of a flame into
a mass spectrometer. I he observations indicate that the two processes:
HCI+e grCI' + H (It
k-i
account for the production and disappearance ol Cl ions in thesesystems. I here is
clear evidence that the rates ot these two opposing step' arc last enough to equal
one another, so that the overall reaction is equilibrated every where in each flame
I he consequence ol this state of affairs is that reaction ( 1 1 is shifted, as the tempera-
ture tails during llanic sampling, in the direction that Cl ions disappear It proved
possible to measure the extent ol this loss of Cl by reaction ill adjusting to local
conditions during sampling. I Ins in turn enabled the rate constants A and A to he
measured from observations over a wide range of conditions. I he results mdicau
that
A 5 • If) 7 expt 9500 / I
216
EIRE RESEARCH
and
A-i=7±5XI0
each in units of ml molecule-1 s-1.
Butlin, R. N., Ames, S. A., and Berlemont.C. F. J. (Joint Fire Research Organiza-
tion. Borehamwood, Flerts. England) “Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part 111.
A Rapid Multichannel Automatic Chromatographic Gas Analysis System." Fire
Research Note No. 986. Joint Fire Research Organization (March 1974). See
Section G.
Cernansky, N. P. and Sawyer. R. F. (University of California. Berkeley. Cali-
fornia) “NO and NO- Formation in a Turbulent Flydrocarbon - Air Diffusion
Flame.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combust ion. The Combustion
Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania 1039 (1975)
Subjects: Pollution; NO. formation; Turbulent flames; Flame structure; Diffu-
sion flame; Flydrocarbon flames
Authors' Abstract
Experimental results are presented for turbulent diffusion names ol a round jet
of propane in a coflowing mildly swirled,. S-0. 3. stream ol air. I he jet diameter was
8.7 mm and the total flow was confined in a 58 mm diameter combustion tunnel.
Buoyancy effects were found to be negligible. Measurements were made at air
stream to fuel stream velocity ratios of 45. 61. and 75 to I for initial reactant tem-
peratures of 300°. 440°. and 550° K. Measurements inlude the spatial distribution
of nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and temperature as well as the major stable
species: propane, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and carbon
monoxide.
Substantial concentrations of nitrogen dioxide were measured and nitrogen
dioxide appears to peak slightly on the fuel rich side ol the nitric oxide maxima No
completely satisfactory explanation for the existance and peaking behavior ol the
nitrogen dioxide was found.
Nitrogen dioxide formation mechanisms are examined and discussed. It appears
that the formation of nitrogen dioxide occurs through the rapid oxidation of nitric
oxide by radicals found in superequilibrium concentrations.
De Soete. G. G. ( Institut Francaisdu Petrole. Rueil-Malmaison. France! “Overall
Reaction Rates of NO and V 1 ormation Irotn Fuel Nitrogen." Fittccnth Sym-
posium (International) ott ( onthusiion. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania. 1093 (1975). See Section G
Dixon- 1 ewis. G.. Greenberg. .1 B.. and Goldsworthy .1- \ . i Uouldsworth School
r
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
217
of Applied Science. The University. Leeds. England)“Reactions in the Recombi-
nation Region of Hydrogen and Lean Hydrocarbon Names." Fifteenth Sym-
posium ( International) on Combustion. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 717 (1975)
Subjects: Radical reactions; Elementary reactions; Recombination reactions;
Hydrogen flames; Lean hydrocarbon flames; Name structure
Authors' Abstract
A numerical approach which is an extension of the methods discussed by Dixon-
l.ewis4 for the computation of detailed temperature and composition profiles in
flames has been applied to the simulation of recombination in a number of rich and
lean hydrogen nitrogen oxygen flame systems. It is found that the recombination
in all the systems studied can be adequately explained in terms of the reaction mech-
anism previously deduced5-1’ for the main reaction zone of fuel-rich flames. Of the
actual recombination steps
H+0:+M^HO;+M
(iv)
H+H+M=H-+M
(xv)
H+OH+MsH.O+M
(xvi)
H+O+McrOH+M
(xvii)
reaction (xvii) is never of major importance in the systems studied. For reaction
(xv). studies in fuel-rich flames, assuming equal chaperon efficiencies for all mole-
cules, give as an optimum expression (cm mole sec units)
*i5.v=2.04X!0‘T ""
In lean flames, reaction (iv) is the major primary recombination step. The subse-
quent reactions of HO with H. OH. and O are discussed. Experimental informa-
tion from a number of flame and explosion limit systems, using measurements bv
Kaskan. Friswell and Sutton. 4 and Dixon-Lewis. eta/., at temperatures between
500 and 2150 K. lead to somewhat conflicting results w hen attempts are made to
derive a smooth temperature dependence of At. For chaperon efficiencies (relative
to H =1.0) of 0.35. 0.44. and 0.5 for ()_-. N . and II O. the analyses give Aj.ii
(9 I ± 1 .2)X 1 01 ' at 773° K. 7.7XI01' at 1500° k. and 4.2x10 at 2130 k" At 300 k
Bishop and Dortman14 find At ii= (l.7±0.4)X!0 .
Reaction ( xv i) contributes to the recombination in both rich and lean flames not
too far from stoichiometric, but it never dominates the recombination Because of
this the precise estimation of A is not easy. Assuming equal chaperon efficiencies
tor H . V. and O.-. and with At„.h.u = 5Ati..s:. the most satisfactory Arrheniusex-
pression for A appears to be
A . s 3 * 10 exp< +750 / t
218
FIRE RESEARCH
[ his is quite close to the similar expression for
The extension of the mechanism to recombination in lean hydrocarbon flames is
discussed briefly.
Haynes. B. S., Kirov, N. Y. (University of New South Wales. Kensington. Aus-
tralia), and Iverach. D. (Air Pollution Control Branch. State Pollution Control
Commission, Lidcombe. Australia) “The Behavior of Nitrogen Species in Fuel
Rich Hydrocarbon Flames," Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combus-
tion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. NOT (1975). See
Section G.
Jones, A., Firth, J. G„ and Jones, T. A. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment.
Sheffield, England) “Calorimetric Bead Techniques for the Measurement of
Kinetic Data for Gas Solid Heterogeneous Reactions." Journal of Physics F:
Scientific Instruments 8 37 (1975)
Subjects: Calorimetric bead systems; Gas solid kinetics; Kinetics of gas solid
reactions
Authors' Abstract
A critical assessment has been made of present experimental methods using
calorimetric bead systems for the measurement of gas solid catalytic kinetic data.
Two distinct methods, the isothermal and nonisothermal. are identified and their
relative merits are discussed.
Melvin. A. (British Gas Corporation. I ondon Research Station. I.ondon. Eng-
land) and Moss. J. B. ( Department ot Aeronautics and Astronautics. I he Uni-
versity. Southampton. England) "Structure in Methane - Oxygen Diffusion
Flames.” Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion. I he Combus-
tion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 625 (1975)
Subjects: Diffusion flames; Methane-oxygen flame; Flame structure
Authors' Abstract
The fine structure of a methane-oxygen diffusion flame is discussed in the light of
perturbation techniques already developed and applied to hydrogen oxygen
flames. The flame model is supported by a modestly realistic chemical kinetic
scheme comprising ten reactions and is investigated in circumstances of reaction-
broadening. The competition between reaction and mass diffusion which
determines reaction /one structure is revealed to be particularly sensitive to the
choice of reactions describing methy l radical removal. 1 he structure predicted on
the assumption that the reaction between methyl radicals and oxygen atoms
predominates is revealed to be incompatible vv:th concentration measurements of
stable species and radicals made on a Wolfhard-Parker burner In particular,
predictions regarding methyl radical concentration, reaction /one thickness and
w
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
219
[the extent of reaction zone penetration by methane are not substantiated. The
inclusion of reactions of methyl with hydroxyl and molecular oxygen does,
however, lead to diffusion flame structure consistent with experiment and similar in
many respects to that of the hydrogen -oxygen flame. Some ambiguity remains in
respect of some detailed aspects of fuel-rich structure.
Merryman, E. L. and Levy, A.(Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Columbus. Ohio)
"Nitrogen Oxide Formation in Flames: The Roles ofNO; and Fuel Nitrogen,"
Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Insti-
tute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1073 (1975)
Subjects: NO, formation; Pollution; Flame structure; Nitrogenous fuels
Authors’ Abstract
Flat methane flames were probed in the presence and absence of nitrogen- •
containing compounds (referred to as fuel-N). Methylamine. pyridine, and piperi-
dine at about 120 ppm were added to the flames. The data, based on detailed NO
and NO: profiles, for flames with and without the fuel-N additives, indicate a se-
quence of reactions consistent with the following mechanism.
NH and/or CH+0:=NO+OH and or CO (1)
NO+HO:=NO.+OH (2)
N0:+0=N0+0; (3)
Spectroscopic data indicate that NH and CN are present in the visible flame. The
NO produced from the N-containing radicals is rapidly consumed in the visible
flame region by HO: radicals, producing NO: in accordance w'ith step 2 of the
mechanism. The NO HO: kinetics appear to be sufficiently rapid since NO was
detected in the visible flame region only when fuel-N was addedto the flames, i.e..
only after saturation of Reaction 2. This is further supported by the fact that NO
added to methane flames is also rapidly removed in the preflame region. The NO.
produced in the flame was subsequently converted to NO to varying degrees in a
narrow reaction zone in the near postflame region where the O-atom concentration
was rapidly increasing to its maximum level [Reaction (3) ]. The extent to which
NO: was consumed depended on the oxygen content of the flame complete con-
sumption of NO; occurring only in the fuel-rich flames. Profiles of the fuel-N com-
pounds obtained from the probings indicate that methylamine produces more NO.
and NO in the combustion process than pyridine or piperidine. Piperidine, how-
ever, appeared least stable in terms of NO and NO; produced via the preflame
reactions. The relative stability of the three fuel-N compounds in the flames ap-
peared to be pyridine, the most stable, followed by methylamine and piperidine.
The fuel-N materials produce a thermally stable, as yet unidentified, intermediate
during oxidation, which reacts readily with the O-atoms in the flame.
Mulvihill. J. N. and Phillips, I,. F. (University of Canterbury. Christchurch. New
220
FIRE RESEARCH
Zealand) “Breakdown of Cyanogen in Fuel Rich H; - N: -O: Flames,” Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania, 1113 (1975). See Section G.
Oda, N. and Naruse, I. “Emission of Small Quantities of Gas and Odours in the
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal,” Nippon Kogyokai - shi 88 (6), 324-388
(1972) (in Japanese)
Subjects: Spontaneous combustion; Coal; Odors
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 44
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The authors first of all characterize odors by reference to chemical compositions
and review technical literature on the subject. They tabulate and describe odors
that may occur during the various stages of combustion of coal. The progress
recently made in gas chromatography and its application to research on coal com-
bustion is reviewed. They conclude that fly ash produces CO and CO; with increas-
ing temperature. Wood produces CO: even at normal temperature and produces
alcohols with increasing temperature.
Peeters, J. and V inckier, ('.(UniversiteCatholiquedel.ouvain-de-Neuve, Belgium)
“Production of Chemi-lons and Formation of CH andCH Radicals in Methane
- Oxygen and Ethylene - Oxygen Flames." Fifteenth Symposium (International)
on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, 969
(1975). See Section G.
Philpot, C. W„ George, C. W., Blakely, A. D.. Johnson. G. M., and Wallace. W . H.
(Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station. Ogden. Utah) “The
Effect of Two Flame Retardants on Particulate and Residue Production,”
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research Paper INT - 117
(January 1972)
Subjects: Flame retardants; Diammonium phosphate retardant; Ammonium
sulfate retardant; Particle production; Crib fires; Smoke
Authors’ Summary
Two flame retarding chemicals. DAP and AS, reduced the intensity of large
wood crib fires The DAP treatments were somewhat more effective. However.
DAP greatly increased particulate production. The AS treatments had much less
effect on particulate formation. Total organic residue was increased by DAP treat-
ment; it amounted to as much as 14 percent original organic weight.
As conditions for slash burning are presently dictated from a control standpoint,
it is being done at low intensities and at times when weather conditions are not
conducive to minimum air pollution. This burning results in large amounts of
smoke, poor fuel consumption, and public displeasure. It might be possible to con-
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
221
trol intensity during the drier months, keep smoke production down, and insure
more complete combustion by chemically treating the slash. Obviously DAP would
not do the job.
This study supports the possibility that DAP does polymerize the tars and make
them more thermally stable. If these tars become less available to combustion,
they will add to the particulate in the effluent. Apparently, a large amount of the
phosphate ends up as some form of phosphorus in the particulate. The question of
why AS and DAP act differently in particulate formation might partially be
answered by continued study of the effect of phosphate on the tars.
Philpot. C. W. (Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station. Ogden.
Utah) “The Pyrolysis Products and Thermal Characteristics of Cottonwood and
Its Components." U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research
Paper 1ST- 11)7 (September 1971)
Subjects: Pyrolysis of cottonwood: Treated cottonwood, pyrolysis rate
Author’s Abstract
This study was undertaken to determine the thermal properties of. and the
pyrolysis products from, western cottonwood ( Populus rrichocarpa) and two of its
major components: cellulose and xylan. The modifications due to treatment of the
wood and its components w ith an acid and alkali were also documented. Differen-
tial thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). as well as
direct pyrolysis into a temperature-programed gas-liquid chromatograph, were
used in this investigation.
The components of cottonwood were found to generally behave the same in a
thermal environment, both in isolated form and w hen combined in the whole wood.
The hemicellulose, xylan. was completely pyrolyzed prior to the onset of cellulose
pyrolysis. The acid salt treatment decreased pyrolysis rate of wood, cellulose, and
xylan. and increased char, water, and luran compounds while decreasing the major
two and three carbon fragments. The alkali treatment also decreased the pyrolysis
rate and increased the production of char and water, but decreased the furan com-
pounds while increasing the two and three carbon fragments.
Romodanova. I.. D., Pepekin. V. I., Apin. A. Ya., and Pokhil. P. F. (Moscow.
USSR) “Relationship Retween the Burning Rate of a Mixture and the Chemical
Structure of the Fuel." Fizika Goreniya i I’zryva rt (4). 4 1 9-424 (December 1970)
(in Russian). See Section G.
Rousseau. .1. and McDonald. G. H. (AiResearch Manufacturing Company.
1 orrance. California) “Catalytic Reactor for Inerting of Aircraft Fuel Tanks."
Final Report. .tune IV7I - June IV74, Cant rat t So. F336I5-7I C-IVOI . Air Force
Aero Propulsion l.ahorator\ Air Force Systems Command (June 1974) See
Section A.
222 FIRE RESEARCH
Senior, M. (Joint Fire Research Organization, Borehamw ood. Herts. England)
"Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part V. Strain Measurements on the Gas Explo-
sion Chamber." Fire Research Sole No. 9X7, Joint Fire Research Organization
(March 1974). See Section G.
Stone, J. P„ Williams, F. W „ and Carhart. H. W. (Naval Research Laboratory.
Washington. D.C.) “The Role of Soot in Transport of Hydrogen Chloride from
Fires.” Interim Report. April 1974. Nava / Research laboratory Report No.
7723. Naval Ship Systems Command. Department of the Navy (April 1974)
Subjects: Soot; Toxic gas transport; Polyvinyl chloride fires; Soot characteriza-
tion; Polyvinyl chloride soot; Hydrogen chloride adsorption
Authors' Abstract
As predicted by E. A. Ramskill at NRL. soot has been shown to transport HCI in
(ires of polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene, but less HCI is carried by the soot
particles than Ramskill predicted. A nitrogen gas purge of the soot easily removes
19 milligrams of HCI per gram of soot, whereas 23 milligrams of chlorine, tight!)
bound, remains. The spherical, amorphous soot particles formed in the combustion
vary in size from 0.0.7 to 0.1 1 microns. Simple agglomeration theory suggests that
the clusters grow rapidly but remain below 2.5 microns in diameter for an hour.
We estimate that, when exposed to this dense smoke ( 1 .57 grants cubic meter) for
1 hour, a man would retain in his lungs 36 milligrams of easily removed HCI. Our
work implies the importance of water in transport of HCI by soot. In the last
section of the report, we discuss implications for future work.
Takagi. T„ Ogasawara, M„ Daizo. N1. (Osaka l mxersity. Osaka. Japan) and
Fujii, K. (Kawasaki Heavy Industry. Kobe. Japan) "A Study on Nitric Oxide
Formation in Turbulent Diffusion Flames." Fifteenth Symposium (Interna-
tional) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
1051 (1975)
Subject: Pollution; NO, formation; Turbulent diffusion flames: Flame structure
Authors' Abstract
Characteristics of nitric oxide (NO) formation in turbulent diffusion flames ot
hydrogen and propane in air are investigated experimentally and the potential of
the Zeldovich mechanism for predicting NO formation is examined.
It is observed that NO is likely to (orm in the narrow region corresponding
approximately to the flame front where the gas temperature is maximum and in the
region not far from the fuel nozzle.
I i - \( ) formation rate estimated from the experiments is compared with calcu-
lated results applying the well-known extended /eldo\ ich mechanism. It is pointed
out that the NO formation rate cannot be predicted by the 7 Idovich mechanism
lor hvdrogen and propane diffusion flames it the assumption ol the equilibrated
oxygen atom is applied
ABSTRACTS AND reviews
223
Kinetic calculations, including 35 elementary reactions in H O N system, reveal
that the concentration of excess oxygen atom remains high as long as fresh hydro-
gen and air are continuously mixed with each other, and that such a non-
equilibrium oxygen atom concentration is somewhat insensitive to the temperature
level.
Based on the above behavior, the NO formation rate and its temperature depen-
dence may be predicted for hydrogen flames if the oxygen atom overshoot is taken
into account. For propane flames, the NO formation rate seems too fast and its
temperature dependence is too low to be explained by the Zeldovich mechanism,
especially for relatively low temperature flames.
Vandooren, J., Peeters, J„ and Van Tiggelen, P. J. (Universite Catholique de
Louvain. Louvain-de-Neuve. Belgium) "Rate Constant of the Elementary
Reaction of Carbon Monoxide with Hydroxyl Radical,” Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Penn-
sylvania. 754 (1975)
Subjects: Rate constants: Elementary reactions: CO + OH reaction: Flame
structure
Authors' Abstract
Using a supersonic molecular beam sampling technique coupled with a mass
spectrometer, the concentrations of all stable and unstable species have been mea-
sured in the reaction zone of a lean carbon monoxide-hvdrogen-oxygen flame
(9.4%CO. 1 l.4%H , 79.29fO;) burning at 40 Torr.
Reaction ( I ) CO+OH— CO;+H is the main process for CO conversion to CO
From radical concentration profiles, it was determined that reaction (4) CO-rHO
—CO +OH is negligible as compared to (I). The rate constant k, was determined
from the CO; mole fluxes over a large temperature range (400 I800°K).
The experimental data exhibit a marked and significant curvature in the plot of
logA vs I T. From 400; to 800°K. A i (8XI0'"cm'mole s ')increasesonlv slightlv.
but above 1000CK the Arrhenius expression A, = 2.32XI01’ exp ( 5700 RT) cm
mole 1 s ' up to I80(T K. The rate constant of reaction (9) H +OH — HO+H was
determined similarly and found to be 7X|() exp( 4400 RT) cm mole s in the
temperature range of 6()0C to 1300 K. A curvature, less pronounced than for A .
was observed.
West lev, F.( National Bureau of Standards. Washington. DC.) “Chemical Kinetics
ol Reactions of Chlorine. Chlorine Oxides and Hydrogen Chloride in Gas Phase.
A Bibliography." Xational Bureau of Standards List of Publications 7 1 . 22 pages
(December 1973) U.S. Department of Commerce
Subjects: Chemical kinetics: Gas phase reactions; Chlorine: Chlorine oxides:
Hydrogen chloride
224
FIRE RESEARCH
I. Physical Aspects of Fires
Burkholz, A. “Measuring Methods for Determining Droplet Size.” Chemie-Ingr. -
Tech. 45 ( 1), 1-7 (1973) (in German)
Subjects: Particles, sizing of; Droplets, holography
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. IK
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The importance of droplet si/e determination is increasing w ith increasing appli-
cation of liquid atomization. The measuring methods are more difficult and newer
than those used in grain si/e determination and also less accurate. With the excep-
tion of a few special methods, one still has to resort todeposition of thedroplets on
a suitable surface followed by microscopic measurement in the case of raining or
spraying liquids (3,000 to 30 Mm). In contrast, mist is accessible to measuring instru-
ments and fractional collection according to droplet size (cascade impactors. frit
cascades, measuring cyclones). The amounts deposited afford an approximate
measure of the required droplet spectrum on the basis of a single calibration with
droplets of known size. More recent optical methods measure thedroplets without
previous deposition. Commercially available counting equipment registers the
light scattering by the individual droplets. Droplet holography affords an install
taneous record of a could ol droplets. Subsequent three-dimensional reproduction
permits measurement and counting of the droplets,
Fernandez-Pello. A. and Williams, F. A. ( University of California. San Diego. I a
Jolla, California) “Laminar Flame Spread Over PMMA Surfaces." Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania. 217 (1975). See Section D.
Greuer. R. F. (Michigan Technological University. Houghton. Michigan) “Influ-
ence of Mine Fires on the Ventilation of l nderground Mines." Bureau ol Mints
Report OFR-72-73. 179 p. (July 1973)
Subjects: Mine fires; Ventilation tlow. lire interaction
Author's Abstract
A comprehensive report was prepared dealing with the influence ol accidental
fires in underground mines on the ventilation ol underground mines I he primary
objective of the study was to obtain and evaluate all available information ( mostly
from foreign sources) dealing w it h methods ol prediction ol disturbances in a venti-
lation system by a mine lire Particular aspects considered are properties ot mine
fires, temperatures of fumes behind the file zone, lorces developed by lurries,
qualitative and quantitative prediction ol dist ui bailees caused bv fires I he compi-
lation of results indicates that the interaction ol ventilation Hows and fires can be
predicted with more accuracy than was previously assumed
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
225
Mailman. J. K.. Welker. J.R.. and Sliepcevich. C . M. (I mversity ol Oklahoma
Research Institute. Norman. Oklahoma) "Polymer Surface Reflectance Absoi n-
tancc Characteristics." Polymer Engineering tun/ Science 14 (10). 717 (I9~4i
See Section (i.
Minds. H. and Heist. P. ('. "Aerosol Measurement by Laser Doppler Spectros-
copy. I. I heory and Experimental Results for Aerosols Homogeneous.". /< nirnal
of Aerosol Science .1 (6). 501-514 ( 1972)
Subjects: Aerosols; Particle sizing; Doppler sizing of particles; l aser Doppler
spectroscopy
Safety in Mines Abstract 22 No. 20
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
The basic theory, experimental techniques, and results are presented describing
a technique for sizing aerosol particles in situ using laser Doppler spectroscopv
Unlike conventional light scattering procedures which use average intensitv infor-
mation. this technique utilizes the Doppler shifted frequency of the scattered light
produced by the Brownian motion of the aerosol particles to determine particle
diffusion coefficients and size. Experiments were carried out using monodisperse
dibutylpthalate aerosols and monodisperse polystyrene latex spheres, in concen-
trations ranging from 10' to I06 particles per cubic centimeter. Measured parti-
cle sizes were within 10 per cent of the size predicted by conventional light scat-
tering methods for the DBP particles and the reported sizes of the PSL. particles.
Based on these results it is concluded that laser Doppler spectroscopy can be util-
ized to accurately measure aerosol particle size in situ.
Minds. W. and Reist, P. (."Aerosol Measurement by Laser Doppler Spectros-
opy II Operational 1 units. Effects of Polydispersity. and Applications."
Journal of Aerosol Science J (6). 515-527 ( 1972)
Subjects: Aerosols: Particle sizing: Doppler sizing of particles: Laser Doppler
spectroscopy
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 21
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
I he theoretical basis and the results ol a computer simulation are presented
w hich describe the operational limits ol size and concentration for aerosol sizing b\
laser Doppler spectroscopy 1 DS 1 his analysis suggests that a state of the art 1 DS
system has the capability ot sizing 0.03 )im diameter particles when the number
concentration is 10' cm- or greater and 0.2 ium diameter tor concentrations as low
as 100 particles cm- An evaluation ol the effect on the laser Doppler spectroscopv
measurements ol a poly disperse aerosol having a log normal size distribution ts
presented and methods lor combining these measurements with other averaged
measurements to determine both count median diameter (CMD) and geometric
standard dev iation(og) arc proposed F or aerosols hav mg log normal distribution-
226
FIRE RESEARCH
with 0.3 CM I) 3 pm and 1.0 og 2.0, laser Doppler spectroscopy is able to
measure the surface area median diameter within ±15 per cent, independent of
polydispersity. Applications ol I DS to aerosol sizing are evaluated and its advan-
tages and disadvantages relative to other sizing methods are discussed.
Jin, T. (Fire Research Institute of Fire Defense Agency, Ministry of Home Affairs.
Japan) “Visibility Through Fire Smoke." Bulletin of the fire Prevention Society
of Japan 21 (I) 107! (2) 1072 31 (English translation byTrans. Sec.. Brit. Lend
Lib. Div.. Boston Spa. Wetherby. Yorkshire, U.K.)
Subjects: Fire smoke; Smoke, visibility through
Author's Conclusions
The visibility of a black and white sign at the obscurity threshold in smoke gen-
erated from various kinds of building materials under various combustion con-
ditions is found to be calculated with the use of Equation ( ) ). That is to say. for k in
Equation (I). the values tabulated in Tables I and 2 can be used, and as a mean
value, k can be 1.0 for smouldering smoke and 0.5 for black flaming smoke.
Revalue is given in Fig. 8 and. as an average, values of 0.01-0.02 can be adopted.
Values for L in white smoke are given by the measured value without smoke, and
for black smoke L can be calculated from Equation (4).
The smoke particles u hich determine the mean illuminance in smoke arc spheri-
cal w ith diameters little less than I q for smouldering smoke, but flaming smoke
consists mainly of non-spherical particles with a small mixture of spherical ones.
The particle si/e has a wide distribution, but particles with a 1-20 p diametet are
predominant.
kamra. A. K. “Experimental Study of the Electrification Produced by Dispersion
of Dust into the Air.” Journal of Applied Physics 44 ( 1 ), 125-131 ( 1973)
Subjects: Electrostatics; Particles: Dust electrification
Safety in Mines Abstract 22 No. 16
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Some laboratory experiments have been performed to study the electrification
of dust clouds created by blowing different ty pes of dusts into a dust chamber.
I he polarity and magnitude of the space charge in such dust clouds have been
found to be sensitive to the mineral constituents of the dust Even a single dust
cloud, il allowed to settle under grav its, on a field-tree space with no charge added to
it. can have opposite polarities of space charge at different times ol its sedimenta-
tion I he space charge produced increases with an increase in the length of the
surlaee over which the dust is blown It also increases with an increase in the tem-
perature and velocity and a decrease in the relative humidity ol the blowing air.
External electric fields ol up to a few hundred \ cm. applied to the surface from
which the dust is blown, have little effect on the generated space chaige Size dis-
abstracts and reviews
227
tributions of positively and negatively charged particles show a greater abundance
of smaller ( ~3 m) particles compared with those of small neutral particles.
Lee, S. L. and Otto, F. V\ .(State University of New York. Stony Brook. New York)
"Gross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated Urban Fire.” Fifteenth Sym-
posium (International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania. 157(1975)
Subjects: Vortex urban fire model; Model for urban fires; Fire brands; Brands
Authors' Abstract
A report is hereby given to the results of an originally seemingly inconspicuous
burn in a simple simulated urban street arrangement which is inductive to probable
gross vortex formation. These results reveal in vivid details a series of most unusual
and exciting events of gross vortex development and their related fire-brand spot-
ting activ ities. These findings point to a promise of an understanding of. among
other things, some of the strangest fire behaviors observed in large urban t ires
l.eschonski. K. "Characterization of Dispersed Systems. Particle Size Analy sis."
Chemie-lngr. - lech. 45 ( 1 ) 8-18 ( 1973) (in German)
Subjects: Particles; Si/ing of particles; Dust dispersed systems
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No 1 7
Saletv in Mines Research Establishment
1 he article prov ides an introduction and a survey of the principles and measure-
ments involved in particle size analysis. Particular attention has been directed
towards provision of a brief account ol he great variety of measuring methods,
which can prove confusing even for the experienced engineer, although more recent
but not generally available techniques have been largely left unconsidered \n
insight into special fields of particle si/c analy sis is facilitated bv a comprehensive
bibliography.
Markstein. G. U. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood Massachu-
setts) “Radiative f nergy ! ransfer Irom Gaseous Diffusion I lames." Iahn:..il
Report \o. 22356-1. Hastt Research Pepartmcnt. Factory Mutual Rc\canh
C orporation (November |974l
Subjects: Flame radiation; Diffusion flames
Xuthor's \bst act
Emission and absorption measurements were performed with an anav ol i.n
laminar-diffusion-flame burners. I he radiative properties of the flames of various
gaseous hvdrocarbon fuels were determined by varying the number ol ignited
burners, and thus the optical depth of the flames. The results for the fuels ol highest
22K
HRF RESEARCH
tendency for soot formation, propylene, isobutylene, and 1 , 3-butadiene, could be
represented by a grey-gas model. The data for the less sooty flames of aliphatic
hydrocarbons and of ethylene required a representation as the sum of two weighted
grey-gas terms. Radiance values for one flame. N , , ranged from 0. 1 56 W cm-'sr for
methane to 0.801 W cm2sr for 1 . 3-butadiene, while values extrapolated to an infi-
nite number of flames, , ranged from 5.18 W cm-’sr for methane to 16 0
W cm2sr for ethylene.
Modak, A. T. (Factory Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood. Massachusetts)
"Nonluminous Radiation from Hydrocarbon - Air Diffusion Flames." Factory
Mutual Research Corporation Technical Report 22355-1 ( October 1974)
Subjects: Nonluminous radiation; Diffusion flames; Radiation, analytical
solutions
Author's Abstract
Explicit analytical solutions for the radiation from nonluminous regions of
hydrocarbon laminar diffusion (lames are obtained using a wide band model for
nonisothermal. nongray radiation from inhomogeneous mixtures of combustion
gases. The spatial distributions of the reactant species, of the combustion products,
carbon dioxide and water vapor, and of the temperature in these flames are derived
from a one-dimensional model with the Shvab-Zel'dovich assumptions \ wide
band, theoretical closed form expression for the total band absorptance of infrared
radiating gases used in conjunction with wide band correlation parameters, allows
a simple analytical solution for nongray radiation from nonisothermal and non-
uniform distributions of carbon dioxide and water vapor observed in hydrocarbon
laminar diffusion flames. The isothermal limit of this solution not onlv provides
good agreement with experimental isothermal emissivity data for carbon dioxide
but also yields the correct functional dependence on temperature, for both carbon
dioxide and water vapor. Agreement with absolute water vapor emissivity is rea-
sonable. A tentative soot model to compute soot distribution profiles in diffusion
flames is discussed. In the future, the techniques which have been developed here
will be applied to soot containing luminous flames
This work will be presented at the Fall Meeting of the Western States Section.
I he Combustion Institute, in October 1974
Oppenheim, A. K. and Soloukin, R. I. "Experiments in (Jasdynamics of F.xplo
sions." Annual Review of Fluid Met hantes 5. Annual Reviews Inc.. Palo Alto.
California (1973)
Subjects: Explosion gasdynamics: Gasdynamic experiments of explosions
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No 420
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
ABSTRACTS ANI) REVIEWS
::9
Summarizes the work carried out during the period under review on detonation
phenomena, shock-wave research and blast wave studies: the latter two are con-
sidered with special reference to chemically reacting media. Attention is draw n to
the paiticular interest show n by researchers in transient processes and the concomi-
tant progress made in the development of novel experimental means especially
suited for this purpose.
Richmond. J. K. and l.iebman. I. (Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania)
"A Physical Description of Coal Mine Explosions." Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Penn-
sylvania 1 15 ( 1975)
Subjects: Coal; Mines; Explosions, physical model of. in mines; Flammability
index
Authors' Abstract
Among the many hazards of underground coal mining, explosions of natural gas
and coal dust continue to pose a threat, in spite of advances in safety practices.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines has conducted research in the causes and prevention of
coal mine explosions in its Experimental Mine. As a result of extensive instrumen-
tation of this full-scale facility and systematic analysis of results, a physical descrip-
tion of coal mine explosions is presented, with emphasis upon unsteady fluid
dynamics. In a single long entry, useful correlations are shown between flame
speed, particle velocity, and statis pressure rise. How this knowledge may be ap-
plied to the design and application of explosion barriers is presented and the role
of coal volatiles in dust explosions is briefly discussed.
Shivadev. 1. K. U niversity of California, San Diego. L a Jolla. California) and
Emmons, H. V\ . (Harvard University. Cambridge. Massachusetts) “Thermal
Degradation and Spontaneous Ignition of PaperSheets in Air by Irradiation."
Combustion and Flame 22. 223-236 (1974). See Section B.
Nibulkin, M. (Brown University Providence. Rhode Island) “Estimates ol the
Effect of Flame Size on Radiation from Fires.” Combustion Science and Tech-
nology 7. 141-143 (1973). See Section (i
Waterman, T. E. (Il l Research Institute. Chicago. Illinois) “Experimental Struc-
tural Fires." Final Report. February 1972 - January 1974. Contract \o. DAHC
20-72-C4I290. Defense Civil Preparedness Agent i (July I974) Sec Section I)
.1. Meteorological Aspects of Fires
I ee. S. I and Otto. E. " .(State University of New York. Stony Brook New 3 ork)
“Cross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated l rhan I ire" Fifteenth Si m-
230
FIRE RESEARCH
L
posium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania. 157 (1975). See Section 1.
K. Physiological and Psychological Problems from Fires
Autian. J. (University of Tennessee Medical Units. Memphis. Tennessee) "1 oxi-
cologic Aspects of Flammability and Combustion of Polymeric Materials.”
Journal of Fire ant! Flammability 1 , 239-268 ( 1970)
Subjects: Fire toxicology: Toxicity of polymer combustion products: Polymers
combustion, toxicology of
Author's Abstract
Each year fires kill thousands of persons, injur several hundred thousands, and
cause property damage running into the hundreds of millions ol dollars. Since
the advent of synthetic polymers for textiles, house furnishings, construction
material and portions of various types of vehicles, the fire problem has taken on
yet another dimension that of the possible toxic effects from the degradation and
combustion products of new man-made materials. With the trend toward greater
use of these newer polymeric materials for all aspects of life, from clothing to space
vehicles, the toxicity aspects due to fire and heat must be considered as an impor-
tant facet when new materials are to be considered for a specific application. This
article looks at the toxicity problems w hich may results from the burningor heating
of manmade polymetic materials.
Birky, M. VI. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D C.) "Physiological
and Toxicological Effects of the Products of Thermal Decomposition from
Polymeric Materials." Xational Bureau of Standards Special Publication 4 / / .
105 (August 1973)
Subjects: Combustion: Pyrolysis: Polymers; Smoke: Specific optical density:
Toxic gases; Toxicity
Author's Abstract
A program that combines the capabilities of the College of Medicine and the
College of Engineering of The University of Utah has been instituted to evaluate
the physiological and toxicological effects of the products of thermal degradation
and combustion of cellulose, a poly viny l chloride, a flexible polyurethane, and
wood (Douglas fir). The products produced front these materials are being identi-
fied and quantified with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer-computer sys-
tem In addition, a National Bureau of Standards smoke chamber has been modi-
fied with a weight loss transducer to correlate, on a continuous basis, the quantities
of smoke produced with sample weight loss. Extensive studies on the effects of these
degradation products on rats is in progress. The results of exposure of the rats to
carbon monoxide are reported. All of the laboratory results are being correlated
with full-scale fire studies at the National Bureau of Standards
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
231
Buchbinder. B. and Vickers, A. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. [).(')
"A Comparison Between Potential Hazard Reduction from Fabric Flamma-
bility Standards. Ignition Source Improvement, and Public Education." \u-
tional Bureau of Standards Special Publication 411 1 (August 1973). See Sec-
tion A.
Lynch, J. R. "Respirator Requirements and Practices." Coal Mine Health Semi-
nar. Joint Staff Conference of the Bureau of Mines and the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health. September 1972, U.S. Bureau of Mines
Information Circular 8568 (1972). See Section A.
Mac.Arthur. J. I). (Harvard Medical School. Boston. Massachusetts) and Moore,
F. D.. (Peter Bent Brigham Hospital. Boston. Massachusetts) "Epidemiology ot
Burns. The Burn-Prone Patient." Journal of the American Medical Association
231 (3) 259 (1975)
Subjects: Burns, epidemiology of; Burn-prone patients
Authors' Abstract
Predisposition to burning was identified by history, by conversation with the
family, or by physical examination. Factors that decreased the patient's ability to
respond appropriately were considered as predisposing.
A consecutive series of 155 hospitalized, burned, adult patients was reviewed
Approximately 50(7 of the entire series showed predisposition to burning, among
the more severe burns, this fraction was 57 1 i . Among women, predisposition was
more prominent in all categories than among men. Among women, those predis-
posed to burning had larger burns and a greater likelihood of dy ing.
Alcoholism led the list of predisposing factors, with senility, psychiatric dis-
orders. and neurological disease following in order. The patient's own home was
usually the site of the burn in those predisposed, with the initial ignition being in
the patient's hair or clothing, the mattress, bedclothes, or an overstufled chair All
of the burns occurring in hospital or mental institution patients were among those
predisposed to burning.
Safety in Mines Research Establishment. "Breathing Resistance of Respiratory
Apparatus.” Safety m Mints Research Ksiablishnient Digest Respiratorx
Apparatus - / ( 1973)
Subjects: Respirators, design: I esting ot respirators
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No 265
Safety in Mines Research I stahlixhment
Any form ot respiratory apparatus: (a) produces some discomfort and restriction
on the wearer's activities, (hi has some effect on the way in which the wc.tiei
breathes. It is important that the adverse effects should be kept to the minimum so
i
232 EIRE RESEARCH
that I he wearer can work efficiently and without danger. SMRE. working in co-
operation with NCB Physiology Branch, is studying some of these effects w ith the
aim of providing data for use both in improving design and in determining realistic
standards of test.
Stone. J. P„ W illiams. F. W„ and ( arhart. H. W . (Naval Research Laboratory.
Washington. D.C.) “The Role of Soot in T ransport of Hydrogen Chloride from
Fires." Interim Report, April 1974, Nava! Research Laboratory Report \<>.
7723. Naval Ship Systems Command. Department ol the Navy(April 1974) See
Section H.
Tsuchiya, V. and Sumi. K. (National Research Council of Canada. Ottawa.
Canada) "Combined Lethal Effect of Temperature. CO. COj and O- of Simu-
lated Fire Gases.” Journal of Fire anil Flammability 4. 132 (197.3)
Subjects: Lethal fire gases: Fire gases and temperature toxicity
Authors' Abstract
Animal experiments have been used by Pryor et al j 1. 2) in investigating the
hazard connected with combinations of toxic gases (CO and CO-). oxygen deple-
tion. and high temperature that may occur at fires. They report finding a syner-
gistic effect with some combinations. The authors of the present paper have exam-
ined their data in the light of statistical techniques whereby synergistic or antago-
nistic effects are detected as interaction of factors and have found that the efleet of
combinations ot factors is generally additive. Some of the data involv ing combina-
tions of O and CO. O and temperature. CO and temperature, and CO and tem-
perature indicated possible synergism. V ariance analy sis showed that the effect ol
interactions of pairs ol factors was minor in comparison with that ol the main
factors
Zarem. II. \. (Los Angeles. California). Rattenborg. C. ( . (Chicago. Illinois),
and llarmel. VI. II. (Durham. North Carolina) “Carbon Monoxide I oxieity in
Human Fire Victims.” Archives of Surgery 1117, 8 5 1 -8 5 .3 (December |973i
Subjects- C arbon monoxide toxicity: Fire victim carbon monoxide levels; Car-
boxv hemoglobin; Toxicity by carbon monoxide
Authors' Abstract
Arterial blood gases and carbon monoxide hemoglobin analyses were done on
1 .3 patients admitted to the l Diversity ot Chicago H ospitals and Climes emergency
room after exposure to smoke or fire (house fires). Significant levels ol carbon
monoxide hemoglobin in each of the 1.3 patients explained in retrospect the signs
and svmptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning (headache, weakness, contusion,
and reckless behavior) that were present in each patient to varying degrees. The
studv suggests that the surpt isinglv high incidents of carbon monoxide hemoglobin
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
233
in house-fire fictims and firemen warrants oxygen therapy at the site of the fire
when feasible.
L. Operations Research, Mathematical Methods, and Statistics
Babrauskas, V. (University of California. Berkeley. California) "COM PF: A Pro-
gram for Calculation Post Flashover Fire Temperatures.” Report UC'B FRG
75-2. University of California Fire Research Group . National Science Founda-
tion Grant G1 - 43 and Department of Housing and Urban Development and
National Bureau of Standards sponsorship. 51 (January 1975)
Subjects: Fire protection; Fire resistance; Fire tests; Computer programs; Safety
engineering
Authors' Abstract
COMPF is a computer program for calculating gas temperatures in a compart-
ment during the post-fiashover period of a fire. It is intended both for performing
design calculations and for facilitating further research in endurance requirements
for fire-resistive building assemblies. In addition to the capability of performing
calculations for a compartment with completely determined properties, routines
are included for calculating the fire behvaior under certain worst expected condi-
tions. A comprehensive output format is provided which gives gas temperatures,
heat flow terms, and properties of the fire gases. The report includes input instruc-
tions. sample problems, and a listing of the program.
Brannigan, F. L. (Montgomery College. Rockville. Maryland) “A Field Studv of
Non-Fire Resistive Multiple Dwelling Fires.” National Bureau of Standards
Special Publication 411, 178 (August 1973). See Section A.
Chandler, S. E. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. Eng-
land) “Preliminary Analysis of Fire Reports from Fire Brigades in the United
Kingdom. 1973,” Fire Research Note No. lflOS. Joint Fire Research Organiza-
tion (April 1974)
Subjects: Fire reports 1973; U.K. fire reports; Fire brigade reports
Author's Summary
A preliminary analysis shows that there were 322,037 fires attended by local
authority fire brigades in the United Kingdom, the highest ever total recorded.
There were 944 deaths reported in the year of w hich three were fire brigade person-
nel; it is likely that the final figure will exceed 1 .000. There were 6.377 non-fatal
casualties reported in the United Kingdom The direct fire loss was IT 93 .9 M, the
highest figure ever reported.
I.oomis, R. M. (North Central Forest Experimental Station. Saint Paul. Minne-
234
FIRE RESEARCH
sota) “Predicting the Losses in Sawtimber Volume and Quality from Fires in
Oak-Hickory Forests,” US. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research
Paper NC - 104 (1974)
Subjects: Forest fire damage appraisal; Effects of forest fire
Author's Abstract
Presents a method for predicting future sawtimber losses due to fire-caused
wounds. Losses are in terms of: ( 1 ) lumber value in dollars, (2) volume in board feet,
(3) length of defect in feet, and (4) cross sectional area of defect in square inches.
The methods apply to northern red. black, scarlet, white, and chestnut oaks.
Rothermel, R. C. and Philpot. C. W. (Intermountain Forest and Range Experi-
mental Station, Northern Forest Fire Laboratory. Missoula. Montana) “Fire
in Wildland Management Predicting Changes in Chaparral Flammability.”
Journal of Forestry 71 ( 10) ( 1973)
Subjects: Brush fires, fuel model; Flammability of wildland brush
Authors' Abstract
A dynamic fuel model for the chapparal brush fields of southern California
shows that (a) the fire threat for the first few years after a fire primarily is related to
forbs and grasses; and ( b) after 10 to 20 years, the brush fields will sustain very fast-
spreading. high-intensity fires, depending upon the ratio of the live-to-dead fuel.
The mathematical models described permit systematic analysis of the consequences
of fuel treatment and fire control and projection of these consequences for the
future.
Slater, J. A.. Buchbinder. B.. and Tovey, H. (National Bureau of Standards.
Washington. D.C.) “Matches and Lighters in Flammable Fabric Incidents: The
Magnitude of the Problem.” National Bureau of Standards Final Report TN-750
(December 1972)
Subjects: Fabric fires; Fire injuries; Flammable tabrics; Ignition sources;
L.ighters; Matches
Authors’ Abstract
Matches and lighters were a major factor in the I .838 flammable fabric incidents
studied for which ignition sources are know n. They accounted for 430. almost one-
fourth. of the ignitions and led to 375 injuries, of w hich 57 w ere fatal Children and
the elderly were the groups most frequently involved in fires started by matches or
lighters. Nearly half the incidents involved children under age 1 1. and two-thirds
of these were children under age 6. Forty-four of the 57 fatalities were children
under age 1 1 or adults over 65. The highest fatality rate. 57 percent, was experi-
enced by persons over age 65. The home was the predominant location of fires
involving matches and lighters. Of the fabric items ignited bv matches and lighters.
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
235
garments were first to ignite lour times as frequently as non-apparel items such as
furnishings and bedding. Over one-third of the incidents involved intermediary
materials in the ignition sequence. Match ignitions outnumbered lighter ignitions
by 6 to I Among the 430 match and lighter incidents, fires involving children were
overwhelmingly the result of playing with matches and lighters, whereas for per-
sons over age 16. smoking was the single most prevalent activity at the time of
ignition.
Slater, J. A. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) “Fire Incidents
Involving Sleepwear Worn by Children Ages 6 - 12." National Bureau of Stan-
dards Final Report TN - 810 (December 1973)
Subjects: Clothing fires; Burns; Fire deaths. Flammable fabrics: Standards
Author's Abstract
Sleepwear was the first fabric item ignited more frequently than any other item
in over 1.900 fire incidents reported to the National Bureau of Standards Flam-
mable Fabrics Accident Case and Icsting System (FFACTS). Information ac-
quired since promulgation of the current sleepwear flammability standard pro-
tecting children of ages 0-5 indicates a problem of comparable magnitude exists for
children of ages 6-12. Of 316 incidents involving non-contaminated sleepwear that
was first to ignite, about one-fourth involved children 0-5 years old and one-fourth
involved children 6-12 years old. For the 6-12 group, sleepwear ignited first more
often than all other garment items combined. Females outnumbered males 4-to-l in
the 6-12 group, due mostly to the involvement of nightgowns and kitchen ranges,
the most common ignition source for this age group. Five of the 6- 1 2 year old child-
ren died and 52 of 74 victims were hospitalized. Almost all of the first-to-ignite
sleepwear in this group was cotton. Data from Shriners Burns Institute and the
National Burn Information Exchange prov ide further ev idence of the involvement
of children ages 6-12 in garment fires. It is recommended that a new standard be
issued covering sleepwear sizes 7 through 14 to effectively protect 6-12 year old
children
Vickers, A. K.( National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.) “Drapery and
Curtain Fires - Data 1 lement Summary of Case H istories." National Bureau of
Standards Interim Report \o. \BSIR 73-2.U (July 1973)
Subjects: Burns, case histories; Curtain and drapery fires; Fires. Fire deaths;
Flammable fabrics; Statistical fire data; FFACTS
Author's Abstract
A preliminary examination of 1.567 computerized case histories from the NBS
Flammable Fabric Accident Case and Testing Sy stem has found 77 incidents in
which curtains and draperies were involved in fires. This report is a summary of
information relating to these 77 incidents, and includes the location ol incidents.
236
HRE RESEARCH
ignition sources, personal injury, fabrics involved and personal characteristics of
victims. Fifteen people died from these fires and 32 others were injured. ( urtains or
draperies were the first fabric item to ignite in 28 of 55 curtain and drapery incidents
in which the ignition source is known.
Yasuno. K. (Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan) “Study on the Fire Spread Formula
for Forest Fires." Bulletin of the hire Prevention Society of J upon 21 ( I ) 1971
(2) !972 88 (English translation by Trans. Sec.. Brit. Lend. Lib. Div.. Boston Spa
Wetherby. Yorkshire. U K.)
Subjects: Forest fires; Fire spread in forests
Author's Conclusions
The results of the present investigations are summarized as follows:
(a) The fire-spread formula adaptable for forest fires in Kure city has been pre-
sented in formula (1); the formula of adequate number of firemen required for
forest fire fighting has been presented in formula (6); and the formula for adequate-
number of fire engines required for forest fire fighting has been presented in
formula (7). The author considers that these formulae may provide a criterion for
determining fire fighting power against forest fires, and the accuracy of these
formulae can be improved by adding data from other cities.
(b) Jt has been found that insufficient fire fighting activity at the early stage of
the fire permitted the fire to spread Accordingly, the most effective tire defense
system against building fires and forest fires should be established as early as pos-
sible.
(c) The author considers that inadequate fire-fighting power level determined by
the local administration contributes to big fires; therefore, such unscientific detei
mination should be replaced and renovated.
M. Model Studies and Sealing Laws
Fernande7-Pello, A. and W illiams. F. A. (University of California. San Diego.
La Jolla. California) “1 aminar Flame Spread Over PM M A Surfaces.” Fifteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, I he Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania. 217 (1975). See Section D
Kung. H. ( Factors Mutual Research Corporation. Norwood. Massachusetts)" 1 he
Burning of Vertical Wood Slabs.' Fifteenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 243 ( 1975)
See Section D.
Lee. S. L. and Otto. F. W. (State University of New York. Stony Brook. New
York) “Gross Vortex Activities in a Simple Simulated l rban Lire." fifteenth
\ i mposium (International) on C ombustion. I hc Combustion Institute. Pitts-
burgh. Pennsylvania. 157 ( 1975), See Section 1
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
237
Handa. T., Suzuki, H.. Takahashi. A.. Ikeda. Y„ and Saito. M. (Science University
of T okyo) "Characterization of Factors in Estimating Fire Hazard by Furnace
Test Based on Patterns in the Modelling of Fire for the Classification ol Organic
Interior Building Materials. Part II. Checks on Factors Concerning the Surface
Flame Spread Rate and Smoke Evolution of Organic Building Materials by
Small Inclined Type Test Furnace.” Bulletin of the Fire Prevention Society of
Japan 2/(1) 1971 (2) 1972 44 (English translation by Trans. Sec.. Brit. Lib. Div..
Boston Spa. Wetherby. Yorkshire. U.K.). See Section A.
Flarris, G. \Y. (Safety in Mines Research Establishment. Sheffield. England)
“A Sandbox Model Used to Examine the Stress Distribution Around a Simu-
lated 1 ongwall Coal - Face." hit. J. Rock Mech. Min. St i. & Geomech. Ahstr. / /
325-335. Pergamon Press. Great Britain ( 1974)
Subjects: 1. ongwall coal-mine face: Sandbox model: Stress distribution
Authors' Abstract
A box containing sand is used to examine the possible distribution of stress in the
region of coal-mine face workings: the floor of the box represents the top of a coal
seam, and strips of the floor can be lowered successively through a distance equiv a-
lent to the seam thickness to represent an advancing longwall face. The effects of
depth, seam thickness, and two types of sand are also considered.
In the model, the results show that, as the “face" advances, the weight of the
overlying sand is carried by a v ault, the larger abutments of which are in the “rib-
side" areas (rib-side abutments) with smaller abutments ahead of the "face"(front
abutment) and behind the “face starting-line”. A minor arch, an abutment of which
is in the “goaf (rear abutment), is thought to span the “face", its span distance
being a function of depth and its load a function of seam thickness, sand cohesion,
and depth.
[he traditional view postulates a plane strain condition in which the weight is
carried by arching from the front to the rear of the face.
T he relevance of these model results to practical longwall mining conditions is
discussed and some evidence is reviewed.
Kanury, A. Murty (Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park. CalilorniafModel-
ing of Pool Fires with a Variety of Polymers." Fifteenth Symposium (Inter-
national) on Combustion. I he Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsvlvania,
193 (1975)
Subjects: Modeling pool fires: Polymer fires; Diffusion (fames. B-numbers:
Smoke measurement
Author's Abstract
I he experiments reported in this paper dealwith steady turbulent free convective
dilfusional burning of eight different polymeric solids in the geometry of horizontal
circular pools T he measurements include the burning rate, the history, and the
r
238 HRE RESEARCH
thermal radiation emitted by these fires under various ambient air pressures up to
about 40 atnt.
A simple one-dimensional diffusion flame theory is used to correlate the mass
transfer rates, history of burning, and radiant-emission rates. The theory leads to
determination of /^-numbers for the simulated, realistically large, polymer fires
that involve radiation effects in B. These W-numbers are in excellent accord with
other measurements available in the literature.
The tested materials are rated for their flammability (burning intensity) on the
basis of the S-number. They are also rated for their smokiness on the basis of the
radiation measurements. As may be expected, a desirable material on the basis of
flammability is not necessarily so desirable on the basis of smoke potential.
Parker. \\ J., and I.ee. B. T. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. D.C.)
“Fire Build Up in Reduced Si/e Enclosures.” Aationa I Bureau of Standards
Special Publication 411 139 (August 1973). See Section G.
Rothermel. R. C. (Northern Forest Fire Laboratory. Missoula. Montana)
“A Mathematical Model for Predicting Fire Spread in Wildland Fuels." C.S.
Department of Agriculture Purest Service Research Paper 1ST - 115 (1972)
Subjects: Mathematical fire model; Fire spread; Wildland fuels
Author's Abstract
A mathematical fire model for predicting rate of spread and intensity that is
applicable to a wide range of wildland fuels and environment is presented. Methods
of incorporating mixtures of fuel sizes are introduced by weighting input param-
eters by surface area. The input parameters do not require a prior knowledge of the
burning characteristics of the fuel
Rothermel. R. C. and Philpot. C. W. (I ntermountain Forest and Range Experi-
mental Station. Northern Forest Fire I aboratorv. Missoula. Montana) "Fire
in Wildland Management Predicting Changes in Chaparral Flammability."
Journal of Forestry 71 (10), (1973). See Section I
Stevenson. A. E..Schermerhorn.l). A., and Miller. S. C.( 1 he Aerospace Corpora-
tion. El Segundo. California) “Simulation of Southern California Forest Fires."
Fifteenth Symposium f International) on Combustion. I he Combustion Insti-
ture. Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. 147 ( 1 9 "’5 )
Subjects: Forest fires; Simulation ol lores! tires; California wildland fires; Me-
teorology; Model ol lores! tires
Authors' Abstract
Wildland fire spread has been simulated using a computer model. Reasonable
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
239
success has been achieved in matching computed results with the observed fire
perimeters. The model for this effort was based upon existing Foiest Service sub-
models augmented with ancillary programs to process the fuel, terrain, and mete-
orological data collected from the selected fires. Refinements to the model were
made based upon sensitivity studies of the numerous input parameters. The simu-
lation runs performed during this studs gave insight into the improvements re-
quired to employ the model operationally.
N. Instrumentation and Fire Equipment
Alger. K. S. and Nichols, J. R. (Nasal Ordnance Laboratory. Silver Spring. Mary-
land) “A Mobile Field Laboratory for Fires of Opportunity." 5/aval Ordnance
Laboratory Technical Report 73-H7, 105 (October 1975)
Subjects: Mobile field laboratory; Fire measurement sensors; Fire portraits
Authors' Abstract
Techniques for presenting and suppressing large fires can be improved with a
better understanding of fire characteristics and their relationship to the fuel and
environment. The Fires of Opportunities program was designed to pros ide some of
this information by generating portraits of large fires in both planned and un-
planned circumstances. Part of the program involved the procurement or develop-
ment of sensors to measure the appropriate fire parameters and the assembly of an
instTumenl trailer to serve as a mobile field laboratory. This report describes the
present field facilities and some of the techniques developed while acquiring por-
traits of large Class A and B fires.
Benson. S. P. and ( orrie. .1. CL (Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood.
Herts. England)“A Calorimeter for Measuringthe Heat Flux from Experimen-
tal Fires." Tire Research \ote \o. 1005. Joint Fire Research Organization
(April 1974)
Subjects: Calorimeter; f lammable liquid fires; Radiation; Convection
Authors' Summary
The calorimeter w ill be useful for measuring heat flux in the ranged. I - 10 VV cm
from such sources as flammable liquid (ires.
Shortcomings of existing methods are considered, and desirable characteristics
for the new instrument are enumerated. Descriptions of the new calorimeterdesign
and its advantages ate given, together with its construction, performance under
fire-test conditions, and its principal characteristics.
\ further possible development is described which will permit the heal retained
by the calorimeter to be determined in its two component parts - radiation and con-
vection
Bov ex. .1. IF. Kennedy. M. P., and Wilton. C. (IRS Research Company. San
Mateo. California) "Development of a I ong Duration Flow Facility for Studies
240
HRE RESEARCH
Authors' Abstract
The study reports on the conversion of an underground complex into a Long
Duration Flow Facility (L.DFF). the calibration of the facility, and a limited test
program to study the effect of long duration pressure pulses on extinguishing
materials simulated to have been ignited by the coincident thermal pulse (so-called
"blast-fire” interaction). The LDFF is composed of a compression chamber w ith a
volume of approximately 40.000 cubic feet separated by a mechanical diaphragm
from a test room approximately twelve feet by fifteen feet by nine feet high. In
operation, the compression chamber is filled: the diaphragm is then opened and the
flow vents through the test room producing a flow of up to 5 psi and with a duration
of up to 4.000 milliseconds to provide correlation w ith the long duration pressure
pulse of megaton nuclear weapons.
High speed photographic cameras and pressure sensing gauges instrument the
test room. Three blast-fire interaction tests were conducted and it was found that
the blast wave extinguished initial fires, but would not extinguish smoldering fires
in upholstered materials such as mattresses. These tests demonstrated the use! ul-
ness of the facility.
Brenden, .J. J. ( Forest Products Laboratory. Madison. Wisconsin) “An Apparatus
Developed to Measure Rate of Heat Release from Building Materials.” ( V
Department of Agriculture Forest Service Research Paper FPL 217 (1973)
Subjects: Furnace, auxiliary equipment: Rate of heat release: Heat of combus-
tion; Flaming conditions
Author's Abstract
Describes a gas fired, water-jacketed furnace and auxiliary equipment designed
to expose one face of a specimen to controlled flaming conditions
C'higier. V A. and Dvorak. K. (University of Sheffield. Sheffield. England (“laser
Anemometer Measurements in Flames with Swirl.” Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute. Pittsburgh. Pennsyl-
vania. 573 ( 1975)
Subjects: Anemometer, laser: 1 aser anemometer: Velocity measurement: Swirl
Doppler velocitimetry
Authors' Abstract
An experimental study has been made ol flow fields in turbulent swirling jets
under flame and no-flame conditions. Natural gas was supplied separately ti a
ABSTRACTS AND RFVIEWS
241
burner with a divergent exit of 20 T he recirculation /one penetrated into the
diftuser at a ai irl number of 0.3. l ime mean axial, radial and circumferential com-
ponents of velocity, and rms velocity fluctuations were measured. I he laser ane-
mometer operated in the double Doppler mode and frequency shifting was ob-
tained with a rotating diffraction grating. Signal processing was carried out by an
electronic single particle pulse counter. Substantial changes in flow patterns were
detected as a consequence of combustion, and the kinetic energy of turbulence per
unit mass under flame conditions was higher than in the corresponding cold condi-
tions. in almost all regions of the flame.
Courtney-Pratt. .). S. “Advances in ffigh Speed Photography." Journal o f the
Society ol Motion Picture and Television Engineers 82 (3). 167-175 (1973)
Subject: High speed photography
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 569
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Paper presented at the opening of the Tenth International Congress on High-
Speed Photography. Nice. 25-30 Sept. 1972. Describes advances up to the date of
the conference. Among the subjects discussed are the characteristics of streak
cameras, experimental arrangements to photograph laser light pulses in flight,
photography showing the rupture of test specimens, rotating mirror cameras,
image dissection cameras, flash X-rav photography, etc.
Elmer, C. H. and Endelman. I.. L.“A Report on the Tenth International Congress
on High Speed Photography. Nice. 25-30 September. 1972." Journal of the
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers 82 (3). 176-187 (1973)
Subject: High speed photography. Tenth International Congress
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 570
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Summary of proceedings. The papers covered the subjects ofcameras(ultra-high
speed, mechano-optical camera giving 10 million images per second, high-speed
rotating mirror with gas bearings, possibilities of rotating drums), picosecond
cameras, lenticular plate cameras, holography, time resolution, spectrographs,
strobe light sources, propagation of shock waves in fluids, studies of materials and
expl< ivc phenomena (studies of initiation of explosives using IIS photography ,
visualization of the shape and sy mmetry of detonation waves by means of a slit
camera, high-speed camera study of shock-wave propagation. 3-dimentional deto-
nation wav c analv sis using a multi-slit streak camera, automatic accurate lull-range
synchronization ol a light strobe with shutter opening of a fast-framing camera, etc
Kinns. K. "Calibration of a Hot-Wire Anemometer for Velocity Perturbation
Measurements." S. icntilii Instruments 6 (3). 253-256 1 1973)
242
EIRE RESEARC H
Subjects: Hot-wire anemometer: Anemometer calibration: Velocity perturbation
measurements
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22. No 207
Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Mane workers have formulated empirical cooling laws to describe hot-wire
anemometer response, but the highly non-linear response ol the anemometer
makes curve-fitting a difficult exercise which has led to large errors in velocity
perturbation measurements. Recently, it has been suggested that a dynamic cali-
bration is therefore necessary. In this paper, it is shown how the rate of change of
anemometer voltage with windspeed can be accurately computed from coarsely
spaced static calibration data. The calibration of an approximately linearized
anemometer is then discussed and appropriate formats for data presentation are
described. Experimental results from cy Under wakes at the same Reynolds number
demonstrate the validity of the calibration procedure when an analogue lineari/er
is used.
McQuaid. J. and Wright, W. "The Response of a Hot-Wire Anemometer in flows
of Gas Mixtures," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 16 (4).
819-827 (1977)
Subjects: Anemometer response: Hot-wire anemometer: Turbulent flow mea-
surement
Safety in Mines Abstracts 22 No. 206
Saletv in Mines Research Establishment
An investigation of the problem of measuring turbulence quantities in flows of
gas mixtures bv means of hot-wire anemometry is described. In \ iew ol the lack ol a
reliable heat-transfer law for fine wi.es in flows with variable gas properties, an
entirely empirical approach is adopted. Attention is paid initially to the air carbon
dioxide system and it is show n that a simple calibration procedure is possible. An
assessment is made to determine a suitable gas as a marker for flows in which
turbulence measurements are to be made, and it is concluded that argon is to be
preferred to carbon dioxide. The procedure lor measuring turbulence quantities in
air argon mixtures is discussed, the optimum arrangement is a large-diameter wire
operated at low overheat ratio combined with a sinall-diameter wire operated at
high overheat ratio.
Parker. W. J. and l ong, M. E. (National Bureau of Standards. Washington. I>C.)
"Development of a Heat Release Rate Calorimeter at NBS." Ignition. Heat
Release, and Noncombustibility ol Materials. I S / W ,S 'Tl' 502. American
Socteti tor Testing atuf Materials. 175-15/ f/972)
Subjects: Heat flux; Calorimeters. I hernial radiation: Radiant heating:; f la-
tests: Construction materials; ( omhustion
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
24.1
Authors' Abstract
The heat release rate calorimeter being developed at the National Bureau of
Standards measures the rate of heat release for building materials exposed to
radiant fluxes up to 10 W cm; with a response time of a few seconds. The calor-
imeter and its operation are described and preliminary results are presented on the
maximum one minute average heat release rates fora variety of building materials.
Also given is the effect of irradiance on the maximum one minute average heat
release rate of a wood liber insulating board The total heat generated by a pint-
specimen is compared with its heat of combustion measured w ith an oxygen bomb
calorimeter. This heat release rate calorimeter has adequate sensitivity, accuracy,
and time response to prov ide useful information on the heat release characteristics
of building materials in a fire environment.
Tonkin. P. S. and Berlemont. ('. F. J. (Joint Fire Research Organization. Bore-
hamwood. Herts. England) “Gas Explosions in Buildings. Part I. Experimental
Explosion Chamber.” Fire Research Note So. 984, Joint Fire Research Organi-
zation (February 1974)
Subjects: Explosions: Gas explosions; Building explosions; Tests; Explosion
chamber; Pressure of explosions; Chromatography; Strain mea-
surement
Authors' Summarv
An explosion chamber of volume 28.4 m1 (1002 ft’) has been built of 4.8 mm
(3 16 in) thick steel plates in which explosions with natural gas air mixtures can
be carried out.
Provision has been made for the measurement of all relev ant explosion param-
eters as necessary to obtain information on the effects of gas explosions in
buildings.
Satisfactory operating and safety procedures have been established and used
and are described herein.
(). Miscellaneous
Bibliography ol RANN-Supported Fire Research Literature. The Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory Report FPP TR18. compiled bv B. W.
kuvshinoff and J. Jernigan (January 1975)
Subjects: Bibliography on fire research; Fire research. RANN-NSF: RAW
(Research Applied to National Needs) fire program: NSF (National
Science Foundation) RANN fire program
244
FIR! RESEARCH
journal articles, symposium and conference papers, technical reports, theses and
dissertations, and action picture films. Progress reports, talks, and informal memo-
randa are not included. Entries are arranged alphabetically by author under these
general headings for each institution. A list of principal investigators and their
affiliations is included as an appendix.
This bibliography was prepared with the aid of an IBM 360-91 computer, using
1NFC-36C document writing program prepared by APL. Each bibliography entrv
is a unit record in the file. A brief description of the file design, coding, and the
indexing technique used in the preparation of this bibliography is available from
the compilers.
♦Extracted by the editor FRAR
INTRODUCTION
The National Science Foundation’s fire research effort within the Research
Applied to National Needs (R ANN) Program is in its fourth year, and many useful
results have been determined. This bibliography has been assembled at the request
of NSF and gives evidence of the research findings and the accumulated knowledge.
The NSF RANN fire research effort has the objective to reduce deaths and
losses due to hostile fires, and to improve the effectiveness of fire control.
One measure of magnitude is the level of financial support. Currently, the budget
for fiscal year 1975 ( beginning July 1 . 1974) is S 1 .000.000. Past expenditures were
$1,455,000; $2,000,000; and $1,647,000 for fiscal years 1972. 1973. and 1974.
respectively. The projects are in various stages of completion and vary considerably
in size. There are four multidisciplinary projects ( Harvard University. University of
California Berkeley. University of Utah, and The Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory) which are much larger than the others
Another document has been printed which should complement the bibliography,
as it contains brief progress reports on each project It is the proceedings from the
recent "NSF RANN Conference on Fire Research.” which was held at Georgia
Institute of Technology in May 1974 and will be available from the National Tech-
nical Information Service. Department of Commerce. The NSF R ANN Docu-
ment Center. Washington. D.C. 20550. may be contacted for acquisition
information.
These documents represent a means of disseminating information from the
projects to various performers concerned with fire protection and control. It is
hoped that this bibliography will find wide use I he Foundation welcomes com-
ments on the fire research program and related needs.
Ralph H Long. Jr.
Program Manager. Division of
Advanced Environmental Research and Technology
National Science Foundation
Washington. D.C 20550
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 245
COMMENTS
This cumulative bibliography of the National Science Foundation RANN Fire
program is an impressive document. It covers a span ofjust over three years and the
results of some twenty research institutions of broad interests. Some of the pro-
grams are specialized in scientific discipline, some in engineering, some in practical
problems; other programs are multidisciplinary and cover a spectrum of basic and
applied fire problems. All contribute to the understanding of the fire program.
Dr. l.ong is to be congratulated for hating assembled this diverse array of scientific
and engineering talent into a meaningful attack on the fire problem. The reader will
find this a guide to a rich literature on fire problems well worth his study.
Christian. W. J. (Underwriters' Laboratories Inc.. Northbrook. Illinois) "The
Effect of Structural Characteristics on Dwelling Fire Statistics." FireJournal68 .
22-28 (1974)
Subjects: Dwelling fires; Structural characteristics; Statistics of dwelling fires
Review by W. .1 Christian
Estimates by the National Fire Protection Association indicate that over 500.000
fires occur yearly in one- and two-family dwellings, and it is known that these fires
are responsible fora large percentage of the fire fatalities. This paper examines the
role played by structural characteristics, although it is recognized that various
sociological, psychological, and technological factors contribute to these fatalities
Based on published fire statistics, as well as information available from fire testing
and research activities, a number of conclusions can be made.
I. Vulnerability of dwellings to exposure fires is not a significant weakness in the
United States, since the national exposure fire frequency is low . although local
areas of high conflagration risk may exist because of inadequate exposure protec-
tion. Dwelling owners who wish to take measures to make dwellings extra sate from
exposure fires have available a number of options. These are: limitation of the
amount of combustible material surrounding the dwelling; maintenance ol ade-
quate separation distances between buildings; and provision of as much fire resis-
tance as is feasible in the exterior of the dwelling. Inadequate building separation
distances and combustible roof coverings, such as represented by wood shingle or
shake roofs, were contributing factors in a large percentage of the conflagrations
which have occurred in the United States and Canada in this century’ thus these
deserve most attention. Information on recommended building separation dis-
tances’ 4. and on fire resistance of roof coverings' is available.
2 It is combustible contents rather than combustible structural materials that
are the first ignited materials in dwelling fires which cause about 90 percent ot the
fatalities'', thus the role of dwelling structural characteristics in fire fatalities has to
do mainly with the effect that the structure will have on burning contents 1 he
structural characteristics hav mg the greatest effect on life safety during lire are: lire
resistance of interior walls, floors, and ceilings; (ire stopping ot concealed spaces:
[
246
F1RF RESFARCH
interior compartmenlation; and thermal properties and flame spread chareteris-
tics of wall, floor, and ceiling materials.
3. Statistics show that, on the average, the basic fire resistance of dwelling walls,
floors, and supporting structure is such that structural collapse or penetration by
fire is not a significant direct or indirect cause of death7 * '’. This conclusion is sup-
ported by the observation that modern dwelling construction entails relatively
open interiors so that fire may spread extensively through a dwelling without pene-
tration of walls, floors, or ceilings. This indicates that construction practice pre-
dominant in this country does provide adequate protection against collapse and
leads to the suggestion that the standard fire resistance required of interior walls,
floors, and ceilings in dwellings is perhaps 20 min. Experimental data on the maxi-
mum severitv of fire in rooms characteristic of dwelling occupancies reinforce this
conclusion10- 1 l2, ".
4. The presence of open doors and stairways, plus the lack of fire stopping in
concealed spaces, is responsible for spread of fire and smoke in a high percentage
of dwelling fires involving fatalities'1. Fire stopping within wall or floor-ceiling
cavities or within concealed spaces formed by other construction features is appar-
ently absent in many dwelling structures. The trend toward relatively open interiors
in dwellings has all but eliminated the use of doors in many living areas, and most ol
the doors provided are customarily lelt open by occupants for convenience. For this
reason it is practical to consider that the only interior doors that can be counted on
for significant effect on life safety are those separating bedrooms, basements, and
perhaps attached garages from the remainder of the house, or separating indi-
vidual dwelling units. Experimental information shows that a substantial increase
in survival time during a dwelling fire is provided by a closed door, even one of
minor fire resistance, as compared to the same situation w ith an open doorway !J -1*,
5 Combustible finish material contributes to death by fire spread in more than
half of all fatal dwelling fires''. The ultimate in interior finish safety would be associ-
ated with the use of relatively-dense noncombustible interior finish materials, that
is, those w hose standard flame spread indices w ould place them w ithin NEPA Class
A. However, it is probable that the fire hazard associated with interior finished
materials of Class B would not usually be excessive"’1'. The use of large amounts of
Class C materials in a dwelling ought to be discouraged, especially in areas used as
exitwavs and areas particularly subject to rapid development of hot fires Other
than through fire spread, interior finish materials may also contribute to the hazard
through generation smoke and toxic gases. Since there is presently insufficient ex-
perience upon which to base judgments of acceptable materials in this regard, it
appears that limitation of smoke and toxic gas hazards must rely on measures to
control the amount of material that may become involved in the fire
6 A large percentage of fatal dwelling fires involve victims who would have been
unable to escape even if warned in time’' T his suggests that to improve the chances
for survival of such occupants, it would be necessary to limit the rate ol generation
and transmission of toxic fire products within the dwelling, rather than to pros ide
earlier warning times
Items 4 and 5 above identify the principal weaknesses of existing structures rela-
tive to overall dwelling fire deaths in this country open doors, stairways, and
J
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
247
concealed spaces: and combustible interior finish. A purely structural approach
to widespread improvement of life safety in dwellings would have to address these
aspects first. It does appear that the level of fire safety connected w ith other struc
tural features that are now incorporated in most dwellings is sufficient in compari-
son with these weaknesses.
References
1 . NFPA. "Fires and Fire Losses Classified, 1971”. hire Journal. 66 (September.
1972) p. 65.
2. Tryon. G. H. (Editor). "Fire Protection Handbook" Edition 13. NFPA
( Boston. 1969) p. 1-62.
3. Williams-Leir. G.. "Another Approximation for Spatial Separation", hire
Technology. 6 (August. 1970) p. 189.
4 NFPA Pamphlet 80A. "Protection of Buildings from Exterior Fire Expo-
sures”. National Fire Protection Association (Boston, 1970).
5. “Test Method for Fire Resistance of Roof-Covering Materials”. UL. 790.
Underwriters Laboratories Inc.. Chicago. Illinois.
6. Pingree. Daniel. “Material Ignited and Fire Casualties”. Fire Journal 65
(March. 1971) p. 8.
7. Op. eil.. Tryon, pp l-ll.
8. Ihul.. pp. 1-8.
9. Ibid., pp. 1-10.
10. Christian. W. .). and T. E. Waterman. "Characteristics of Full Scale Fires
in Various Occupancies", hire Technology. 7 (August. 1971). p 205.
1 1 . Wiersma, S. J., “Measurements of the Dynamics of Structural Fires". Stanford
Research Institute Project PYU-8150. DCPA Contract DAHC20-70-C-02I9.
Annual Report. August. 1972.
12. Stromdahl. Ingvar. “The Tranas Fire Tests". National Swedish Institute for
Building Research. Document D3:!972.
13. Waterman. T. E.. “Use of Simplified Sprinkler Systems to Protect Wood
Doors". Fire Journal 67 (January. 1973) p 42.
14 Shorter. G. W . et al. “The St. Lawrence Burns". XFPA Quarterly. 53 (April.
I960) p 3(H)
15 Pryor. A. .1.. "Full Scale Fire Tests ot Interior Wall Finish Assemblies", Fire
Journal. 6J (March. 1969) p 14.
16 Christian. W l and I F. Waterman. “Flame Spread in Corridors - Effects of
Material Location and Area ot Wall Finish”, hire Journal. 65 (Julv. 1971)
P. 25.
17. Waterman. I. F.. "Corridor Fire Spread", Fire Journal, 67 (November. 1973)
p 66
Directory of Fire Research in the United States 1971-1973. 7th ed.. M Kalas.
editor. Committee on Fire Research. Division of Engineering. National Re-
search Council. National Academy of Sciences. 2101 Constitution Avenue.
Washington. DC 20418. 361 pages (1975)
J
248
HRE RESEARC H
Subjects: Directory U.S.. fire research; l!.S. fire research directory; Fire research
directory
Abstracted by R. Fristrom
T his biannual directory is an indispensable guide to the multifaceted regime of
Fire Research. As indicated in the introduction, it is intended to be a comprehen-
sive listing of fire research projects in this country. Somewhat over a hundred
different laboratories are represented. This is the only national summary of the field
and protides one of the few measures of the efforts in this country. It is cross in-
dexed according to sponsor and subject.
The chairman of the Committee on Fire Research. Dr. C. Walters, indicated in
his forward to the volume “the mission of the Committee on Fire Research to ad-
vise, recommend, and identify areas of research and development needed lor tire
prevention and control and the alleviation of fire damage" led to the cataloging of
current research as a basis for its deliberations. The Directory of Fire Research in
the United States is thus a by-product that has established itself as a general refer-
ence and resource for interchange of information for a diffuse and worldwide en-
deavor to understand the destructive action of fire.
The Directory is indispensable for an understanding of the present direction of
fire research and the location of the groups working in the area.
Fire Problems Program: Annual Summarv Report. 1 July 1973 - 30 June 1974.
Applied Physics Laboratory. The Johns Hopkins University, Silver Spring.
Maryland, under a grant from the National Science Foundation (RANN pro-
gram Gl-34288x) Program Director: A. G. Schul/; Principal Investigators:
R. M. Fristrom and W. G. Berl
Subjects: Education; Systems analysis; Combustion; Fatalities; Casualties; J oxic
gases: SCORE project; Fire prevention and control hearings; Fire
problems exhibit
Report Summarv
AREA I
Education and Information
I he Education and Information programs have a threefold objective: (al to
strengthen the academic training and resource materials of fire specialists; (h| to
. ontributc to the development of an effective I ire Information Center: and (c) to
bring lire safety information to the attention of the public.
I he unusually rapid expansion of fire science instruction in community colleges
has made it important to assist in strengthening the framework for career education
in the lire sciences, in fire prevention, and in the preparation and enforcement of
adequate codes. I he rapid transfer of research information into practice and the
feedback of practical needs into additional research and development are depen-
dent on the availability of an effective information exchange system that spans the
entire find in detail and breadth of coverage
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
249
The following tasks contribute to this program:
A. Symposia! Workshops! Colloquia on Fire Problems
This long-established series has been continued and extended to cover topics
in depth. Berl. W. G.. Halpin. B. M. Ordway, G. L., Smith. E. G., and
Tuve. R. L.
B. The Teaching of the Fire Sciences
A 2-day seminar and workshop with particular emphasis on course content,
teaching objectives, and innovative teaching methods was held. Berl, W. G.
and Tuve. R. L.
C. Conference on Fireground Command, Control, and Communications
A 2!/; -day conference and workshop with emphasis on fire service problems
was organized and held. Berl. W. G., Halpin. B. M.. and Ordway, G. L.
D. Fire Sciences Dictionary and Source Book ( Revision )
The text of the book, to be published by Wiley interscience, has been essen-
tially completed Kuvshinoff. B. W.
E. Fire Safety Films
Arrangements for wide distribution of the film Don't Get Burned have been
concluded with the National Fire Protection Association. A second film, di-
rected toward inner city problems, is in production. Berl. W.G.. Brubaker. J..
Halpin. B. iVf, Vfandella. M. C.. and Walter. B. S.
F. Fire Information Center
Several projects were continued to clarify the objectives of a Fire Information
Center. Berl. W. Ci. and Kuvshinoff. B. W.
G. Advances in Fire Sciences
Four reviews and bibliographies have been published. Fristrom. R. M..
Kuvshinoff. B W.. and Robison. VI. VI
AREA II
Systems Analysis and Development
One goal of the NSF RAW Fire Program is to improve the effectiveness of
methods of preventing or controlling fires. The Systems Analysis and Development
area of the API Fire Problems Program is addressing this problem by the design
and evaluation of dev ices that w ill improve the fireground effectiveness of fire de-
partments (Task A) and by analysis of the frequency and nature of fire incidents
(Tasks B and C).
A. Fireground Command and Control System
An economical and workable fireground command and control system has
evolved from previously developed components. To record the status and location
of fire-service units or ot fire-suppression aids a Tactics Display Case has been
designed consisting of a box the si/e of an attache case containing aerial photo-
250
FIRE RESEARCH
graphs and magnetically attachable markers to designate apparatus and other
mobile equipment. The case can be used for preplanning operations, training, or
actual fireground command and control. When the I actics Display Case is used in
conjunction with a microfiche viewer for retriev ing stored prefire planning intor-
mation. the configuration is called a Tactics Console. The most lulls developed
configuration is a Mobile Tactical Unit, which consists of the previously described
control aids plus communications and other equipment, all installed in a mobile
van.
In a cooperative project with the Hillandale (Maryland) Volunteer Fire De-
partment. which supplied the vehicle. API. has designed and outfitted such a van.
It was formally turned over to Hillandale in March 1974 and put in active service
to evaluate its effectiveness and utility as a tactical aid on the fireground. Halpin.
B. M.. Hickey, H. E., and Shapiro. D. O.
B. Communications in an Urban Fire Department
Previous studies of alarm rates and communications procedures in the Balti-
more City Fire Department have been extended to include analysis of false-alarm
activity on street boxes and a consideration of various criteria of false-alarm
activity. The dependence of alarm rate on box type was investigated, and the
hypothesis that quick-pull boxes might be associated with a higher alarm rate was
found to be unsubstantiated. Ordway, (i 1
C. Fire Incident Analysis
Data on fire incidents have been gathered in Alexandria. V irginia, since
December 1971 The Uniform Fire Incident Reporting System (IT IRS) has been
extended to include additional variables of possible interest and significance
A cumulative frequency analysis has been made tor fire incident types, actions
taken, property grouping, property types, construction types, and socio-economic
factors, gross accumulations ol events by location on a grid, lalse alarms, and time
analysis. The data have been reduced to a computer-plottable form and can be
displayed on a street map of Alexandria. Hickey. H. F
AREA 111
Combustion Research
The ignition, propagation, and extinction of fires are physico-chemical processes
that are amenable to quantitative understanding. The technology ot fire prevention
and suppression has much to gain from an awareness ol the basic principles in-
volved.
The suppression of fires bv chemical inhibitors generally involves interference
with a few key reaction steps in such a wav that a stable reaction cannot be sustained
and the reaction ceases The combustion of hydrogen-containing substances (such
as hydrocarbons, cellulose, and plastics) is sensitive to halogens which in relatively
small amounts are able to suppress flame propagation To understand the mech-
anisms by which these powerful extinguishing agents exert their influence is the
objective of the ongoing research effort.
i
A Premixed Flame Model
abstracts and reviews
251
A simple model for the prediction of flame velocities and reaction /one condi-
tions in both the absence and the presence of inhibitors has been developed. It is
assumed that the major rate-determining reactions take place in a narrow reaction
zone, preceded and followed by slow events whose influence on the primary /one is
negligible. Predicted and observed effects of hydrogen bromide on the flame speed
of hydrogen-oxygen mixtures are in fairly good agreement. Brown. N. J. and
Fristrom, R. M.
B. Flame Inhibition Chemistry
A novel technique has been developed to measure relative reaction rates of
potential flame inhibitors at elevated temperatures. Small quantities of inhibitors
are injected into a low-pressure flat flame, and concentration changes due to diffu-
sion and reaction are measured. From this, reaction rates of the inhibitor with a
predominant flame component are deduced Hart. L. W., Cirunfelder. C.. and
Fristrom, R. M
AREA IV
Fire Casualty Studies
Foss of life is one of the major disasters in fires. In order to find wavs to reduce
the number of fatalities an understanding of the factors that cause fire deaths is
critically important. Information available at the present time is surprisingly sparse
and unreliable. Therefore, a program to investigate the medical and physical causes
of fire casualties is being carried out with the cooperation of the State of Maryland
Medical Examiner's Office and The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene
and Public Health. The program includes detailed autopsies, blood and urine
analyses, studies of lung tissue of fire victims, and analysis of the physical factors
relating to the fire
The effects of exposure to toxic atmospheres of survivors of a fire is another
problem area in which very little information is available. A program to obtain
definitive data through studies of surviving victims exp d to toxic gases was
implemented.
A. Fire Fatalities Stud i
I o establish the cause of fire fatalities, a systematic study of the causes of such
deaths in Maryland has been carried out. Cooperation among the State of Marv-
land Medical Examiner's Office, f lie Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene
and Public Health, the Mary land State Fire Marshal's Office, and local fire author-
ities allowed a program of autopsies, case studies, and analyses to be undertaken.
IFilpin. B M . Fisher. R A.. C'aplan. Y H . and Radford. F. P
B. Biochemical Studies of Tissues and Fluids of lire I taints
In support of the fire fatality studies, laboratory programs are making special
studies for poisons and other causes of death not ordinarily considered in standard
autopsies. 1 hese studies include methods for examining the tracheal-bronchial tree
and the lung lor the presence ol heavy metals, oranic vapors, and othe toxic mate-
rials Fristrom. (> A . Fristrom. R M . Shapiro. DO. Frazier, J. M.. and Halpin.
B VI
252
FIRE RESEARCH
C. Nonfatal Fire Injury Study
To understand the consequences of exposures to toxic gases and smoke from
fires, a program was implemented to investigate such effects on people with non-
fatal injuries (“overcome" \ictims) and fire department personnel. Blood samples
were taken from civilians and firemen for analysis, and follow-up medical histories
were documented. This program is in cooperation with The Johns Hopkins
Universitv School of Hygiene and Public Health and the Baltimore City f ire
Department. Halpin. B. M. and Radford. E. I’.
AREA V
Miscellaneous Studies and Activities
A. SCORE ( Student Competitions on Relevant Engineering. Inc.)
A competition was sponsored in 1973 1974 by SCORE on the topic "Students
Against Fires.” A project was submitted b> the Student Chapter of the Society of
Fire Protection Engineers (sponsored under the Fire Protection Curriculum.
College of Engineering, University of Maryland) dealing with the design, testing,
and installation of an automatic sprinkler system with novel features. This project
was under the direction of Professor H. E. Hickey. B M. Halpin served asajudge.
B. Hearings. Subcommittee on Science. Research, and Development . IS.
Hours of Representatives, on Fire Prevention and Control (July 25. 2ft. 31;
August I, 2, 1973)
Professor H. E. Hickey, accompanied by Dr. W. G. Bert, presented an invited
statement on the provisions for fire education incorporated in various proposed
legislations and on the established or projected educational programs. A statement
was submitted for the record by Dr. Berl.
C. NSF! API. Exhibit
An exhibit illustrating the fire research activities of the NSF R ANN program
was shown at the First Symposium on RANN: Research Applied to National
Needs. Washington. D C'., 18-20 November 1973. Berl, W G.. Halpin. B. M .
and Simmons, R R
Fowler, L. ( .(Joint Fire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts. England)
“Collected Summaries of Fire Research Notes 1973." Fire Research Note No.
1009. Joint Fire Research Organization (April 1974)
Subject: Fire research, review
Giles, K. and Powell. P., Editors (National Bureau ol Standards, Washington.
D C.) "Attacking the Fire Problem; A Plan for Action." Final Report Vo SR. S
SP4I6. \attonal Bureau of Standards (Ma\ 1975)
Subjects: Building design; Consumer protection; Fire control; Fire detection;
Fire research; Fire spread: Flammabilitv
a
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
253
Editors' Abstract
The mission of the Center for Fire Research is to insure the development of the
technical base for the standards and specifications needed in support of the Nation-
al goal to reduce fire losses by 50% over the next generation. A systems approach to
accomplish this mission is described. The Center consists of three basic programs
in the area of Fire Science and five applied research programs in the area of Fire
Safety Engineering. Each applied program addresses an aspect of the Fire Problem,
using fundamental information supplied by the basic research function. Active
participation by staff members in voluntary standards organizations is the princi-
pal means of making this technology available for codes and standards needed to
reduce the Nation’s fire loss.
"Consequences of LNG Spills on Land," Liquid Sutural Gas Safety Program:
Interim Report on Phase // H'ork, American Gas Association Project IS-3-1.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories (July 1974)
The American Gas Association sponsored the “ENG Safety Program. Phase II.
Consequences of LNG Spills on Land” (designated A.G.A. Project 1S-3-I). with
objectives of developing models capable of predicting the dispersive and the radia-
tive hazards associated with large spills on land and of obtaining data on means to
reduce the hazards T his large experimental and analytical program involved re-
search personnel at Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Arthur D. Little. Inc..
University Engineers. Inc., TRW Systems, Inc.; Professors R C Reid and R O
Parker as consultants; and advisors from the I NG and the cryogenics industries.
T he objectives of Phase I of this program were to define the circumstances of
possible spills, to estimate quantities and rates of possible spills, and to identify
areas of further research. It was found that a very high level of safety and reliability
exists for LNG facilities constructed by present techniques; that if an 1 NG spill
from a large storage tank were to occur it would most likely be caused by some very
improbable event. I he Phase I report recommended the Phase II research pro-
gram.
The Phase 1 1 program was planned to obtain data on dispersion of vapor clouds,
on radiation intensities near LNG fires, and on methods of LNG fire control and
vapor suppression. LNG was spilled into dikes up to 80 feet in diameter. Some
experiments gave data on the dispersion benefits of high dikes and of insulated dike
floors An effort was made to obtain data fora range of wind velocities and weather
classes the classes ranged from neutral to slightly unstable.
Most experimental data were recorded on magnetic tape at several bits per
second from each sensor channel. Dispersion data included gas concentrations and
temperatures in the vapor cloud. LNG depth, dike soil temperatures, weather data,
and others In fire experiments the data included weather variables. 1 NG depth,
dike soil temperatures, radiation intensities from narrow angle and w ide angle ra-
diometers. etc. f ire control and vapor suppression experiments were done with
several dikes up to JO feet by 40 feet These tests included fire control with high
254
URL RESEARCH
expansion foams and with dry chemicals, reduction of radiation by water sprays,
and vapor suppression with high expansion foam.
Analytical models for dispersion and radiation were developed which fit these
data for the 80-foot spills satisfactorily and will predict the hazards for spills into
dikes up to 400-500-feet-diameter. It is possible that the models can be used to
predict the hazards for spills in stable weather conditions, although data were not
obtained for this condition in this program. Experiments verified very significant
reduction of dispersion hazards by insulated dike floors and by high dikes. The
report presents background material, analysis of data, and conclusions. The latter
include predictions of down wind distances of travel of flammable vapors and radia-
tion intensities on targets near fires on soil, in low dikes up to 500-feet-diameter,
and in neutral weather.
CONTENTS
SECTION A
SECTION B
SECTION C.
SECTION D.
SECTION E
SECTION F.
SECTION G.
SECTION H.
SECTION 1
SECTION .1
SUMMARY
BACKGROUND (Battelle)
DISPERSION AND RADIATION EXPERIMENTS (Battelle)
ANALYSIS OF VAPOR DISPERSION EXPERIMENTS
(A.D.L.)
VAPOR DISPERSIONS FROM LNG SPILLS (U.E.)
RADIANT HEATING FROM LNG FIRES (U.E.)
RADIATION FROM LNG FIRES (A.D.L.)
SPECTROSCOPIC RADIATION MEASUREMENTS ON
LNG DIFFUSION FI AMES (T RW )
FIRE CONTROl AND VAPOR SUPPRESSION (l 1
A VAPOR DISPERSION DATA CORRELATION COM
PARED IO A VAPOR DISPERSION MODEl (Parker)
Obukhov, F.“UdSSR; Die Atemschutz - Ausbildunj von Feuerwehrleuten": "Fire
Protection Abroad: USSR: Respiration Training of Firemen.” Brandschutz.
Deutsche Feuerwehr- Zeiturtg 26 ( 2 ) 54 ( 1972)
Subjects: Firemen training; Respiration training; Fire protection of personnel
Translated by I Holtslag
In order to assure the safety of fire-protection personnel in an unbreathable
ambient atmosphere, respiration teams arc being set up in fire brigades in the
USSR with a permanent watch of more than five men In such brigades each man is
equipped with a closed system respirator that is independent of the surrounding
air. Such teams are physically capable of fighting fires under difficult breathing
conditions.
Oxygen circulators are used for the most part at the present time in the Soviet
fire-fighting system. At a number of sites, however, especially in petrochemical
plants, where a respirator may become contaminated with oil. compressed-air
respirators are also used
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
255
As demonstrated by the experience of the Leningrad Fire Department, almost
every fourth or fifth fire requires the respirators. These are usually fires in base-
ments, storehouses, cable conduits, etc., in industrial areas. But also the increasing
use of sy nthetic polymers as covering material in the interior design of buildings as
well as in the manufacture of modern furniture increases the danger that toxic
products may appear when these materials decompose in a fire.
For example, polyurethane foam decomposition is significant even at relatively
low temperatures (180 to 300°C). In this temperature range polyurethane foam
loses 40 to 509c in weight as a result of formation of gaseous decomposition prod-
ucts: the principal decomposition products of polyurethane foam are carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, various hydrocarbon compounds, hydrogen cyanide,
and vaporous toluene diisocyanate (up to 0.233 mg/ 1). Near the center of the fire
the concentration of the last-named decomposition product exceeds the limit con-
centrations permissible under the Soviet labor-protection regulations by a factor
greater than 10.
As a rule, it is necessary to work under respirator conditions in fire fighting only a
short time, on the average only about 10% of the total time. But such work is almost
always strenuous and involves staying in rooms in which temperatures and relative
humidity are high.
During moderately heavy and very heavy work, O; consumption can rise to
2.5 1 min and the pulse rate from 90 to 100 to 140 to 1 60. At the same time the tem-
perature at the point where the fireman is working can. at times, exceed 50 to 60 C
at a relative humidity of 1 009/ Therefore, every fireman assigned to a respirator
team must be given systematic, special training for work with a respirator under
various conditions in order to gain the necessary experience for work and us pre-
vent accidents.
The experience accumulated in the course of thirty years of respirator use in fire
departments, as well as analysis of some experimental results of laboratories for
industrial hygiene and physiology make it possible to set up a number of require-
ments relating to the organization and methods of respirator training and to de-
velop some recommendations.
All command personnel are already schooled in breathing apparatus during their
training at technical schools. The leading fire protection experts of the Republics.
Regions, and Administrative Districts as well as the commanders of large fire de-
partments are recruited from people who have graduated from an institute in the
department of fire fighting technology and safety
Before they are sent out on calls, all firemen are especially trained for work
wearing oxvgcn respirators. This training course lasts forty-one hours and supple-
ments the general basic training program.
Further schooling ot personnel is carried out at the stations during duty hours.
Fverv individual equipped with a respirator goes through a refresher exercise at
least once every quarter year in an ambient atmosphere not suitable tor breathing
(smoke chambers) and at least twice a month in the open air (once within the frame-
work of a fire-extinguishing exercise).
Also, fire-fighting personnel not directly employed in such serv ice and command
personnel of the respirator service (insofar as the personnel are physically fit for
256
FIRE RESEARCH
work wearing breathing apparatus) are trained at least once a month in a smoke
chamber or in the open air.
Command personnel of the fire department are given training sessions with
respirators in a smoke chamber once every quarter year.
A special smoke chamber must be available in every fire department region for
training respirator teams. As a rule it consists of the follow ing sections:
- a main room with room dividers (moveable partitions and rotatable walls),
making it possible to modify the room as desired;
- a heating plant;
- a smoke chamber; and
- a control panel for the safety guard.
According to the most recent designs, provisions are being made for heating
chambers for exercises at very high temperatures (up to 50"' C).
Depending on the particular demands of the region in w hich the fire department
operates, some training areas are additionally equipped with special structures and
installations (ship superstructures, tunnels, aircraft cabins, et al ). in order to per-
mit training for special tasks. The smoke chamber is filled with smoke and heated
by means of a heating plant in the basement of the chamber. The heating system is a
hot-air furnace. The smoke chamber has at least two exits and an emergency venti-
lation system which, if necessary, can clear the interior within one to two minutes.
In order to ensure the team safety during practice, all smoke chamber doors and
partitions are equipped with electrical signal transmitters connected to the control
panel of the safety guard.
Supervision of training in respiration is the responsibility of the respiration chiefs
of the fire department involved and on the fire department chiefs themselves.
A universally binding plan for scheduling the training time has been established
for respiration exercises in the Soviet Union.
- Testing of respirators, instruction in the training problem, donning the respira-
tors: 5 to 10 mins.
- Accommodation exercises in the open air: time required - 5 to 10 mins.
- Execution of exercise according to a fixed training plan in smoke chamber or
in the open air: time required - 45 to 50 mins.
- Removing the respirator, inspection and critique of the exercise: time required
- 5 to 10 mins.
- Inspection, cleaning, and readjustment of respirators after use: time required -
60 mins.
1 he operation problems to be mastered b\ the respirator teams during training
simulate essentially the tasks that come up in actual fire fighting
- Negotiating narrow corridors;
- Climbing down through manholes:
- Handling a play pipe under pressure in restricted areas and working with the
pipe;
- Climbing stairs:
- Handling foam pipes and finding loam-covered pockets of lire;
- f inding a fire source in the smoke chamber;
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
257
- Finding and carrying a "smoke-inhalation casualty" (a dummy);
- Self-rescue and rescue using a grapple and rope;
- Transportation of casualties on the level and up and down stairs;
- First aid for a fireman, victim of a respiration accident;
- Learning signal codes, the use of transmitters, the duties of a safety guard:
- Emplacement of smoke ejectors and construction of air ducts:
- Dismantling of components;
- Changing the oxygen flask of a respirator while in the smoke chamber.
This respiration training is scheduled in the training plan of the fire brigade.
Before carrying out each exercise the trainer determines how well the accident
regulations are known, the level of first-aid skills, and the capability of the men
carrving respirators to recognize and eliminate possible troubles in the respirator
itself. The exercises are carried out in such a way that phy sical exertion is gradually
increased.
Practice for already-trained teams in the solution of tactical problems is carried
out at plants w here strong formation or the liberation of toxic gases and vapors can
occur during a lire. But training in the smoke chamber is also adapted as much as
possible to severe-case conditions Such training is carried out only if the trainee
has firmly mastered handling ol the respirator and the basic accident-prevention
rules. I he physical condition of the participants in the exercises is continuously
checked by the respiration trainer
After all practice sessions the behas ior of the participants is discussed thorough-
ly. During this discussion the trainee is to be indoctrinated with the importance of
the rules for working with respirators. A “training critique" is held immediately in
the training area or in the classroom following each training exercise.
Pelouch, J. J„ Jr., and Hacker, P. T. ( Aerospace Safety Research and Data Insti-
tute, Lewis Research Center. Cleveland, Ohio) “Bibliography on Aircraft Fire
Hazards and Safety ." Volume I - Hazards. Part I . Preliminary Form. 267 pages.
Xational Aeronautics am l Space Administration N A .S'. 4 TMX 71553
Subjects: Aircraft fire hazards; Fire hazards of aircraft
Publications of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station
1953 - 1973. I ..S'. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service General Technical
Report R\l - ft. compiled b\ \1. F . Nickerson and G. E. Brink (September 1974):
Available Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station. Forest
Service. I S Department ol Agriculture. Fort Collins. Colorado 80521.
References to Scientific 1 iterature on Fire. Department of the Environment and
Fire Offices. Joint Tire Research Organization. Borehamwood. Herts, England,
compiled bv P. Mealing. Part 24 A Januarv - June 1973. 132 pages (published
April !974)andPart 24B.luly - Decembei 1973. IKS pages (published July 1974)
Bibliography Topics
258
FIRE RESEARCH
A. Occurrence of fire: Fire losses and statistics; arson; incidents
B. Fire hazards and fire precautions: Industries and materials
C. Initiation and development of combustion: Theory and experimental studies:
flammability tests
D. Fire resistance: (including structural protection) Structures; building mate-
rials; fire retardant treatments and coatings
E. Fire detection and extinction: Appliances; equipment, including technique;
extinguishing media; personnel protection; flammable gas detectors; salvage
F. Nuclear energy
G. General
The Home Fire Project: Semi Annual Progress Reports. June 1974 and December
1974, Harvard University, Cambridge. Massachusetts, and Factory Mutual
Research Corporation. Norwood. Massachusetts, under a grant from the
National Science Foundation (RANN program G1 - 34734) Program Directors;
H. W. Emmons and R. Friedman
Subjects: Fire dynamics; Pyrolysis; Ignition; Extinguishment: Fire destruction
rate
Contents June 1974
This program, currently consisting of thirteen tasks, is directed toward develop-
ing an understanding of the lire dynamics of pyrolysis, ignition, fire growth, extin-
guishment. and value destruction rate in fires.
Some highlights of the past six months work are:
1. Preliminary comparison of radiance and transmittance for arrays of laminar
and turbulent diffusion flames shows lower effective radiative temperatures for
the latter.
2. The data from last year's bedroom fire have been analyzed, using data from
some of the laboratory studies.
3. Vertical plastic wall and cylinder fire development and characteristic burning
rate have been modeled over a range of pressures.
4. Some useful but limited fire spread and value destruction data can be obtained
by the careful inspection of burned properties after a fire.
5. The extinguishment of burning vertical woodslabs and wood cribs follows an
inverse 1 .5 power law with water application rate. This empirical result agrees
with the empirical interpretation of a simple theory. There is a lower limit water
rate which is completely ineffective.
Contents December 1974
This program currently consists of twelve tasks of which only ten are active.
These tasks are directed to the development of a sufficient understanding of fire and
its control, so as to decrease the loss of lives and property by fire in the home.
Some highlights of the past six months work are:
I The second bedroom lire was accomplished. (It does not model.)
2. I he feasibility ol pressure modeling has been extended to transient wood crif
fires.
ABSI RACTS AND REVIEWS
254
3. Radiative properties of multiple turbulent flames was measured. The total
radiation from a single flame is directly proportional to flow rate over a wide
range.
4. Two fan anemometers went through the bedroom fire including flashover
without difficulty.
5. Some pyrolysis products of cellulose can diffuse and condense and then further
pyrolyze with char deposit on later heating.
6. The experimental difficulties of burning an analyzable charcoal fire have been
overcome.
7. The fire value destruction rate requires improved quantitative fire investigation
methods and instruments.
8. The equipment for testing by radiative ignition of a vertical wall is ready for
calibration.
Each of the tasks are briefly summarized below and a more extensive summary
is attached as an appendix.
I Dr. Kun Min has made further progress with the study of pyrolysis of cellu-
lose and wood It has been verified that a significant fraction of the pyrolysis
products are condensible at room temperature and that on reheating these
products further pyrolyze to carbon and flammable gases and that such
condensation may occur in coolerparts of a porous fuel. A report on these
qualitative results is in preparation and what further testing is needed to
make them quantitative [s under study.
II Dr Francesco Tamanini has completed the study of the extinguishment of
crib and Hat plate fires, has received his Ph D. and is now working at Fac-
tor) Mutual. His stud) used a single droplet size water spray. Although
inactive at present, this work needs to be extended to include other drop
sizes and other extinguishing agents.
III Mr. Dav id Evans has completed the development and analysis of the one
dimensional burning of charcoal after considerable effort to control heat
losses, to get consistent surface temperatures, and to measure and correlate
surtacc heat and mass transfers. The effect of small amounts of ash accumu-
lated on the surface is very important. The measured ratio of CO to CO
differs considerably from various values reported in the literature for rea-
sons not vet understood Mr. Evans expects to receive his PhD. in.luneand
is currently seeking employment.
IN Professor Joseph Prahland Professor H. Emmons are completing a report
on the theorv and measurement of the How of hot buoyant gases through an
opening. The report will be submitted for publication. I he attempt bv Pro-
fessor I homas Shen to measure the flow coefficients in a hot gas apparatus
proved to be very difficult. Alter trying water-airand salt water-fresh water
Hows, kerosene-water proved to be most effective. Although flow coeffi-
cients were measured, it was lound that a fixed flow coefficient of C - .68
was adequate for all present fire purposes.
\ Dr Charles Knight has prepared a large report on the two dimensional
260
FIRE RESEARCH
convective flows in an enclosure which will be published as a project report
soon. He has left the project for employment at Avco Research Labs. I his
convective study will be temporarily discontinued.
VI. The fan anemometer developed earlier on this project by Mr. Richard Land
measured velocities reliably throughout the lull scale test and a manufac-
turer is being sought to make and distribute them tor general lire research
and other velocity measurements.
VII. Professor Neville Fowkes has made fair progress with the prediction of the
grow th of fire in an enclosure and in particular the fire growth observed for
the bedroom fire. A report is in preparation.
VIII Mr. Paul Croce directed most of his effort during the last report period of
study of Froude Number Modeling toward obtainingsupplementary infor-
mation on quasi-steadv crib burns. Free burning rates were obtained for all
cribs used in this study, and additional tests were performed to assess the
effects of crib porosity, crib geometry , and enclosure wall materials. The
hypothesis is now being applied to the transient burning of plastic slab
(pool) fires.
IX. Dr. Ronald Alpert has initiated and nearly completed in the last six months
a study which has proven the feasibility of pressure modeling the important
transient processes of fire growth and decay in pine-wood cribs. Two crib
geometries are being considered, one having a fuel surface-controlled
burning rate at full-scale and at one atmosphere ambient pressure while
the second has a ventilation controlled burning rate under the same condi-
tions. Experiments performed over a w ide range of crib length scales (7.6 to
76 cm width) and ambient pressures! I to 40 atm) have shown that the rate
of weight loss, beginning with a point ignition and ending with the fuel
nearly consumed, behaves exactly as predicted by the pressure modeling
theory. Preliminary analysis of data on crib fires in enclosures from 24.4 cm
to 2.44 m wide has shown that the effect of these (well ventilated) enclosures
on the crib burning rate can also be pressure modeled.
X. I)r. George Markstein has used carefully developed and calibrated radia-
tion instrumentation to study the absorptance and radiance of laminar and
turbulent diffusion flames. I urbulent flames radiate a nearly fixed fraction
of the fuel energy (I 4 to 1 5) independent ol the luel How rate. Further-
more. the effective radiation temperature is 5 to l(K7 less for turbulent
ITames than for the laminar flame with the same gaseous luel
I he radiation measurement techniques and instrumentation were used in
the last full scale bedroom lire and showed that most of the radiation on the
lloor of the room originates in the hot gases (and smoke) above and not
from the ceiling.
Mr Paul Croce has issued a project report on the analy sis of the 1472 full
scale bedroom fire. A second "identical'' bedroom was burned with consid-
erable difference in behavior. In particular one lire took 17 5 minutes to
lias hover while the other took only ~ minutes I he data have been partialis
XL
ABSTRACTS AM) REVIEWS
261
analyzed and show fairly good internal sell consistency. The use of lull
scale tests cannot serve to properly evaluate fire safety of materials if the
reproducibility of “identical” room fires is so bad. A full scale test is planned
for each of the next several years to resolve this problem of reproducibility.
XII. Mr. Manny Ratafia has started the study of the burning of vertical slabs in a
radiative field. Apparatus to accomplish this is nearing completion and will
be used in the next contract period.
BOOKS
Fire Fighting Hydraulics R. Purington. l aw rente Livermore Laboratories. Liver-
more. California. McGraw Hill. New York (1974) 428 pages
Reviewed by J. W. Kerr
Dunn Loring VFD. Virginia
International Association of Fire Chiefs
Defense Civ il Preparedness Agency
How many fire chiefs ever w rite books? Answer: Very few . How many of those
few books are text books? Answer: Even fewer. How many of the total are reallv
good books? Answer: Few indeed.
In fact, one of the big problems w ith books w ritten for the fire serv ice by some-
body else is the fact that the authors do not see things in our light. And one of the
problems with most books written by fire chiefs is that they are long on the "war
stories" and short on the solid meat we crave.
So here we have a book by a practicing fire chief (Lawrence Livermore 1 abora-
tories. Livermore. California) that is credible, readable, qualifies as a first-class
textbook, and gives any fire service student of hydraulics the material he needs, in
or out of class.
Bob Purington is a member of the Research Committee ol the International
Association of Fire Chiefs, heads a number of professional groups in his state of
California and serves w ith the faculty of Chabot College. Hay ward. California. He
thus brings to the study of hydraulics many years of line experience plus his solid
technical know-how .
Technical folk will like this book because it addresses practical problems in a
relatively rigorous fashion, stressing basic concepts, giving some basic proofs, and
forcing the user to think things through step by step.
Instructors w ill like this book because it lays out the subject in a pattern of rela-
tionships. giv ing enough solutions to lead the student up to the problems he has to
solve on his ow n We start w ith water and its properties, get into dynamics, and
move on to equipment.
Students w ill like this book because it's all right there, w ith enough hard work to
keep them on their toes, but no stupid over-tough "problems" that some poor
instructors throw in to show their superiority.
Fire serv ice poeple in general w ill like this book because it refreshes us on our old
skills and reminds us of things we need to be aware of.
262
HKI RESEARCH
One appendix gives derivations, and another nomenclature. A useful bibliogra-
phy. a good index, and a table of conversion factors round out the text, with a
dozen or so blank pages inside the soft cloth binding lor notes. W e now await ( hief
Purington's promised study on metric conversion for the fire service.
Heat Transfer in Fires: Thermophysics, Social Aspects, Economic Impact P. I..
Blackshear. Editor. Halsted Press Division. J. Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York
(1974)
Subjects: Heat transfer: Fires; Economics; Social aspects of lires
Reviewed by R. M. Fristrom
I his collection of papers in the fire area has been organized to cover a very w ide
field in fire technology, including the social and economic aspects. The subject
material is very broad and coverage inevitably cannot be complete or uniform.
The volume comprises a very useful collection of reviews as can be seen Irom the
table of contents reproduced below . The reader’s attention is directed to the com-
panion volume Heat Transfer in Flames edited by V H Afgan and .1. M Beer
which is reviewed in this issue of FRAR.
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
I Social and Economic Aspects of Fire
1 The Fire Problem in the United States. E. R C Eckert
2 The Forest Fire Problem. E. A. Hrnn
3 Social & Economic Impact of Fire, P. H Thomas
II Geometric Parameters for C lassifying Full-scale Fires
1 Effects of Fuel Geometry on Fires in Solid Fuel Arrays.. P. H Thomas
2 Fires in Enclosures, P. H. Thomas
3 On the Combustion and Heat Transfer in Fires of Liquid Fuels in Tanks.
P (i. Seeger
III Heat and Mass I ransfer in Caseous and C ondensed Phases
1 Interactions Between Flames and Condensed Phase Matter. R. C Corlett
2 Concentration and I emperature Similarity, R. C. Corlett
3 C ondensed-Phase Mass and Energy Balances. T W iUiums
4 C hemical Kinetics ol Pyrolysis. T Williams
5 Velocity Distributions in Fires. R. C. Corlett
0 Fire Violence and Modeling. R C , Corlett
l\ Kadiatise Heat I ransfer Associated with Fire Problems
Introduction
1 Basic Principles of Radiative I ransfer. / R Steward
2 I ire Spread through a Fuel Bed. / . R Steward
3 Ignition Characteristics of Cellulosie Materials. T R Steward
ABS1 RACTS AM) REVIEWS
26.)
Appendix
1
Appendix
II
Appendix
III
Appendix
IV
Appendix
V
Appendix
VI
Black Body View Factors
Direct Interchange Areas with Absorbing
and Emitting Material Present
Example of Total Surface to Surface Radiative
Interchange in an Enclosure
Emissivities of Combustion Product Gases
Example of Total Gas to Surface Radiative
Interchange in an Enclosure
Nomenclature
V Radiative Transfer Parameters
1 Band Models of Infrared Radiation. R. Goulard
2 Introduction to the Use of the NASA Handbook SP-3080, R. Goulard
3 Carbon Particle Radiation. R. Goulard
Index
Heat Transfer in Flames N. H. Afgan and J. M Beer. Editors. Halsted Press Divi-
sion. J. Wiley and Sons. Inc.. New York ( 1974)
Subjects: Heat transfer; Flames; Radiant transfer; Convective transfer
Reviewed by R. M. Frist rom
This is a collection of papers presented at a meeting in 1973 by a distinguished
group of contributors. The subjects range from theory to practical engineering of
furnaces. As is to be expected in such collections, the treatment is varied in ap-
proach and quality. The coverage of the subject is not complete, however the
volume represents a significant contribution to the literature. The coverage can
best be appreciated by considering the table ol contents reproduced below The
volume is recommended as a reference work, but not as an introduction to the
subject. The reader is also referred to the companion volume Heat Transfer in Fires
(ed. P. Blackshear) reviewed in this issue,
Content s
Foreword
Part I: Heat Transfer in Steady ( unfilled Flames
Section I: Method of f alculation
1 First Estimates of Industrial Furnace Performance I he One-Gas-Zone
Model Reexamined, llmt ( Unite/
2 Methods lor Calculating Radiative Heat Transfer from Flames in Combustors
and Furnaces. Janos A t Rear
3 Mathematical Simulation of an Industrial Boiler by the Zone Method ot Analv-
sis. / R. Stew ard and H. K Guru:
4 Simultaneous Predictions of Flow Patterns and Radiation for T hree-
Dimensional Flames. Suhas I'atankar and Hrian Spalding
5 A Mathematical Model ol a Tow-Volatile Pulverized Fuel Flame, ft Richter
and R Quack
2M
FIRE RESEARCH
6 I he Problem of Flame as a Disperse System. A. Blok It
7 Solid Gas Phase Heat Exchange in Combustion of Powdered Fuel. I . I. Bahiv
8 Geometrical-Optical Characteristics and Calculation of Radiant Heal Trans-
fer Between a Flame and a Wall. /. Mikk
9 Flame as a Problem of the General Theory of Furnaces. M. A. Glinkov
10 Prediction of Radiant Heat Flux Distribution. T. M. Lowes. H Bartelds.
M. P. Heap. S. Michelfelder. and B. R. Pai
1 1 T he Application of Flux Methods to Prediction of the Behavior of a Process
Gas Heater. Richard G. Siddall and Rev in Selcuk
12 A New Formula for Determining the Effective Beam Length of Gas Layer of
Flame. Milos Gulic
13 The Intensification of the Heat Exchange Process in Industrial Flame Furnaces
and the Choice of Rational Regimes. A. L. Erinov
14 Method of Approximate Calculation of Radiant Heat Transfer Between Gas
and Surface, S. P. Detkov
Section II: Radiative Properties
15 Infrared Gaseous Radiation. Robert I). Cess
16 Experimental and Theoretical Results with Infrared Radiating Gases. Ralph
Greyf
17 The Effect of Pressure on Heat T ransfer in Radiating Gases. ./ I \ovotnv
18 Luminous Flame Emission Under Pressure up to 20 atm. Takeshi Run it onto
19 Spatial Distribution of Spectral Radiant Energy in a Pressure Jet Oil Flame.
E. G. Hammond and J. M. Beer
Section III: Experimental Methods
20 Nonlinear Inversion Techniques in Flame Temperature Measurements.
C. M. Chao and R. Goulard
21 Steady and Unsteady Radiant Heat Flux Measurement on the Screen Tube of a
Power Boiler Furnace. P Pavlovtc. 7. Jovic. l.j. Jovanovie. V Afgan
22 Temperature Field Measurement in Flames by External Means. \ V Rondh
23 An Experimental and Analytical Determination of Heat and Mass T ransfer in a
Diffusion Flame. V Abdel-Khalik. 7. Tamara, and \ I M. El- II akil
Part II: Heal Transfer in Unsteady C onfined Flames
24 Heat Transfer from Flames in Internal-Combustion Engines. IF. ./, I) Annad
25 A Method for Calculating the Formation and Combustion of Soot in Diesel
Engines. /. M Khan and G G reeves
26 Flame Radiation in High Speed Diesel Engines. G. Sitkei
Part III: Open Flame Heat Transfer
27 Radiation From Pool Flames. />. Burgess and M Hertzherg
28 Heat I ransfer by Radiation From Fires of 1 iquid Fuels in I ariks. /’ (,. Seeger
29 Flame Radiation as a Mechanism of Fire Spread in Forests. II P Telisin
30 Fabric Ignition and the Burn Injury Hazard. Wolfgang H u/// and Pandeli
Durhetaki
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
265
r
31 Heat Transfer from Turbulent Tree-Jet Flames to Plane Surfaces. //. Kremer,
E. Btilir. ant I K. Haupt
32 Heat and Mass Transfer Considerations in Super-Critical Bipropellant Drop-
let Combustion. R Natarajan
33 Soot Oxidation in Laminar Hydrocarbon Flames. A. Feugier
34 The Extinction of Spherical Dissusion Flames. G. I. Sivashinsky amt
C. Gutfinger
Index
Problems in Combustion and Extinguishment. C ollection of Articles, edited by
I V Ryabov. A V Baratov, and 1.1 Petrov. All Union Scientific Research and
Experimental Construction Institute of Fire Prevention Service. MOOP of the
1 SSR. FsNIlPO MOOP Publishers. Moscow 1968. Translated from Russian.
Published for the National Bureau of Standardsand the National Science Founda-
tion by Amerind Publishing Co.. Pvt. Ltd.. New Delhi (1974)
Contents
Foreword
Fundamentals ol Automatic Local-Fire Extinction Devices. A. / Veselov
1 he Development of Means and Methods of Extinguishing Fires on Oil Products
in Reservoirs. / / Petrov
A Review of Investigations on the Chemical Inhibition of Flames. 1. V. Baratov
The Chemical and Thermophysical Effect of Halogenated Hydrocarbons on the
Concentration I units of Flame Propagation for Hydrocarbons. 1 \l Kucher
The Effect ot l etrafluorodibromoethane on the Flame Velocity of a Hydrogen-
Air Mix! ure. I V. Baratov, J i Karayulov. ami I / Makes
1 he Minimum Ignition Energies ot Finely-Dispersed Solid Combustible Mate-
rials. G / Smelkov. P. A. Fetisov, anil B. G. Popov ,
I he Pyrological Properties of Some Combustible Forest Materials. 1 I Filippov
The Structure Effect of Combustible Forest Materials on Their Rate of Combus-
tion. M A. Sofronov
Some Characteristic Features of Combustion with I ow Oxygen Content. U. I
Kolyshenko. A. I . Saumchik. and A. IX Orel
I he Electric Charging of Free-F low ing Material in Gas Conveyors. 1 / Gorshkov.
B. G. Popov, and I '. V. Verevkin
1 he Discharges of Static Electricity. 1 V. Verevkin. V. I Gorshkov, and I 1
Bondar'
The Extinguishment of Experimental Fire bv Steam-Gas Mixtures. I /’
26«
FIRE RESEARC H
Thermophysical Processes during the Localization of Underground Fires, A. I.
Kozlyuk, V. Ya. Baltailis, V. D. Guguchkin, P. P. Petrov. H /. Lumer. and
E. A. Savon
A Study of Stationary Apparatus for Fire-Extinguishment with Powder, M. S.
Isaev
Design and Calculations for Fire Ladder Extensions. /. /. Ozherel'ev
PERIODICALS
Flammability News Bulletin 3(1) 19 pages (July-August 1974), E. E. Stahly (Con-
sultant) U.S. Editor. S. B. Sello (J.P. Stevens and Co.) Co-editor. J. DiPietro
(Milan. Italy) International editor
This new journal is published bimonthly and may be obtained from Flamma-
bility News Bulletin. Inc., PO Box 1 3085. Washington. D.C. 20009.
MEETINGS
Symposium on Fire Detection for Life Safety , March 3 1 - April 1 . 1975. Committee
on Fire Research, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences.
Washington. D.C.; Chairman W. J. Christian
Program
Session I: Chairman C. W. Walter. Harvard University Medical School
“Status and Problems of Fire Detection for Life Safety in United States” -
R Bright (Programmatic Center for Fire Research. National Bureau of Stan-
dards)
"Human Behavior" A Critical Variable in Fire Detection Systems” - J. L. Bryan
(Fire Protection Curriculum. University of Maryland)
“Emergencies: Arousal from Sleep” - E. Bixler (Hershev School of Medicine.
Pennsylvania State University)
“Warning and Survival in Fire”-J. H. Petajan (School of Medicine. University
of Utah)
V
Session II: Chairman R. M. Fristrom, Applied Physics Laboratory. The Johns j
Hopkins University
“Aerosol Technology in Fire Research and Detection" - B. H. Y. 1 iu ('’article
Technology I aboratory, University of Minnesota)
“Measuring Techniques for the Response Threshold Value of Smoke Detectors”
- F. .1. Kraus (I E. NT.. Gesamthochshule, Duisberg. Germany)
“The Separated Ionization Chamber - A New Aerosol Measuring Technique" -
P F Bum (Fire Research Station. Borehamwood, England)
“Large Scale Laboratory Fire Jests of Smoke Detectors” - R W Bukowski
(Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.)
L
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
267
"l arge Scale Laboratory Fire Tests of Smoke Detectors” - R. W. Bukowski
(Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.)
Session III: J. W. Kerr, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Department of
Defense
“Generalized Characterization of Smoke Entry and Response for Products of
Combustion Detectors” - G. Heskestad (Applied Mechanics Section, Factory-
Mutual Research Corporation)
“The Response of Smoke Detectors to Pyrolysis and Combustion Products
from Aircraft Interior Materials” - N. J. Alvarez (Stanford Research Institute)
“A Survey of Non Fire Environments” - P, E. Burry (Fire Research Station.
Borehamwood. England)
“The Application of Thermal and Flame Sensors to Fire Detection Systems” -
G. J. Grabowski (Fenwal Incorporated)
"Optical Smoke Detectors - Concepts, Design. Performance, and Reliability” -
C. Zimmerman (Electro Signal Laboratory)
Session IV: Chairman W. J. Christian, Underwriters Laboratories. Inc.
“Physical Aspects of Ionization Chamber Measuring Techniques (unipolar and
bipolar chambers)” - A. Scheidweiler( Cerberus, Ltd.. Maennedorf. Switzerland)
"Ionization Smoke Detection. Its Application to Life Safety in Dwellings" -
D. Pearsall (Statitrol Corporation)
"Development of a Quartz Crystal Incipient Fire Detector for Aerospace Vehic-
les" - L. G. Barr (Celesco Industries)
“Application of Cloud Chamber Techniques to Fire Detection" - L. A. Ludewig
(Environment One Corporation)
Symposium on Flammability and Burning Characteristics of Materials and fuels.
Central and Western States Sections, The Combustion Institute. April 21-22.
1975. San Antonio. Texas; Meeting Chairman. \\ . McLain(Southwest Research
Institute): Program Chairmen: F. A. Williams (University of California. San
Diego) and R A Strehlow ( L! niversity of Illinois. Urbana-Champaign): Papers
Chairmen: A S Gordon (Naval Weapons Center. China Lake) and W. D
Weatherford. Ir (Southwest Research Institute)
Session I: Chairman R A. Strehlow, University ol Illinois
"An Experimental Investigation of the Height of Gaseous Diffusion Flames
in a Concentric Stream of Air or Pre-Mixed Air and Fuel" - Karim and
Mohindra (University of Calgary. Southern Alberta Institute ol lechaologv)
“Flame Stability in Combusting! urbulent .lets" - Nelson. K ushida. and 1 ngland
(.let Propulsion I aboratory. California Institute ol Technology)
“A Numerical Model of a I urbulent Fuel. let” - Tamaninil Factory Mutual Re-
search C orporation)
“Statistical Model for Pre-Mixed Turbulent I lames" - Gouldin (Cornell
I niversitv I
268
HIRE RFSE ARCH
“Turbulent Diffusion Flame Structure” - Bilger (University of California. San
Diego)
“Flame Stabilization by Leading Edge Vortex Breakdown Above a Delta Shape”
- Sweat and Panton (University of Texas. Austin)
"Combustion of Hydrocarbons in an Adiabatic Flow Reactor: Overall Corre-
lations of Reaction Rate” - Cohen. Dryer, and Glassman (Princeton University)
Session II: Chairman N. W Ryan. University of Utah
“Properties of Smoke Produced by Burning Wood, Urethane, and PVC Samples
U nder Different Conditions” - Bankston. Cassanova. Powell, and Zinn (Georgia
Institute of Technology)
“Polymer Flame Retardant Mechanisms" - Holve and Sawyer (University of
California. Berkeley)
"L imiting Oxygen Index Measurement and Interpretation in an Opposed Flow
Diffusion Flame Apparatus" - Matthews and Sawyer (University of California.
Berkeley)
"Pyrolysis and Ignition of Polymer Films at Heating Rates lrom 1 to 100 K
Second" - Baer. Hedges, and Ryan (University of Utah)
“Flammability Study of Polymer Fuels Using Counter Flow Diffusion Flame
Technique” - Singhal and T’ien (Case Western Reserve University)
“The Gasification Combustion of Solid Polymeric Particles in Reactive Environ-
ment” - Massoudi (Arya Mehr University of Technology)
“The Burning Behavior of a Solid Polymeric Slab in Oxidizing Atmospheres" -
Massoudi (Arya Mehr University of Technology)
“Development of Fire Performance Specifications for Carbon Impregnated
Polyurethane Foams" - Tatem and Williams (Natal Research 1 aboratorv)
Session III: Chairman A. M Mellor. Purdue University
“A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of the Ignition of Fuel Droplets"
- Sangiovanni and Kesten (United Aircraft Research Laboratories)
“A Preliminary Analysis of Transient Convective Droplet Burning” - Prakash
and Sirignano (Princeton University)
“Fundamental Concepts on the Use of Emulsions as Fuels" - Dryer (Princeton
University)
“Alternative Automotive Fuels - Some Prospects and Problems” - McLean
(Cornell University)
“Measurement and Analysis of Particles Emitted from a Diesel Combustion
Process" - Vuk and Johnson (Michigan Technological University)
“Temperatures. Pressures and Compositions Developed in Fast Exothermic
Reactions" - Adams and Adams (University of Cincinnati)
"Studies of Fuel Volatility Effects on Turbine Combustor Performance" - Moses
(Southwest Research Institute)
"Theoretical and Practical Concepts Governing Production of Power Gas from
Coal" - Laurendeau (Purdue University)
Session IV: Chairman T. P. Torda. Illinois Institute of Technology
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
269
“The Mechanism of Ignition of Organic Compounds and It Catalysis by Asbes-
tos Type Materials” - Benbow and Cullis (The City University, London)
“Hydrogen Flammability and Burning Characteristics in a Closed Vessel" -
Slifer (General Electric Company, San Jose)
“Correlation of Burning Rates for Thin Materials with Piloted Ignition Data" -
Rooks, Sliepcevich and Welker (University of Oklahoma)
“Flammability of Treated Cotton Fabric” - Ambs and Aggarwal (University of
Massachusetts)
“Ignition of Single Fabrics Subject to Normal Impinging Flames" - Annamalai
and Durbetaki (Georgia Institute of Technology)
“Ignition of Fabric Assemblies Subject to Radiative Heating” - Acree, Durbetaki
and Wulff (Georgia Institute of Technology)
“An Experimental and Mechanistic Study of the Reactions of COF2 with H:and
with CO" - Gangloff, Milks, Maloney, Adams, and Matula (Drexel University)
“Research on Antimist Aircraft and Diesel Engine Fuels” - Weatherford and
Wright (Southwest Research Institute)
Session V: Chairman R. M. Fristrom, Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns
Hopkins University
“On the Burning of a Large Flammable Vapor Cloud" - Raj and Emmons
(Arthur D. Little, Inc.; Harvard University)
“Vapor Dispersion, Fire Control, and Fire Extinguishment for LNG Spills" -
West, Brown, and Welker (University Engineers, Inc.)
“Modeling Sub-surface Foam Fire Protection for Crude Oil Storage Tanks” -
Brzustowski, Sullivan, and Kaptein (University of Waterloo, Canada)
“Prediction of Ignition Conditions for Flammable Mixtures Drifting Over
Heated Planar Surfaces" - Thiyagarajan and Hermance (University of Water-
loo, Canada)
“A Minimum Effective Length Criterion for Flame Arrestors” - Wilson and
Atallah (A. D. Little, Inc.)
“The Formation of Toxic Products During the Combustion of Halogen Con-
taining Polymers” - Benbow and Cullis (The City University, London)
“Safe Hypergolic Ignition of TNT’ - Tulis, Keith, Sumida. Heberlein, and
Beveridge ( 1 IT Research Institute, U.S. Army MERDC)
“Fire Endurance of Soldered Copper Joints Used in Copper Tube Sprinkler
Systems" - Alvares (Stanford Research Institute)
Session VI: Chairman A. Broido. U.S. Forest Service
“Dynamics of Pyrolysis of Cellulosic Materials” - Kun Min (Harvard Univer-
sity)
“The Pyrolysis of Natural Fuels” - Duvvuri. Muhlenkamp, Igbal. and Welker
(University of Oklahoma)
“Extinction of Wood Crib and Pallet Fires" - Kung and Hill (Factory Mutual
Research Corporation)
“Rate of Heat Release Calorimetry as a Method for Evaluating the Fire Per-
k A
r : ■ " 1
270 FIRE RESEARCH
formance of Construction Materials” - Chamberlain (National Bureau of
Standards)
“Evaluation of NO, Emission Characteristics of Alcohol Fuels in Stationary
Combustion Systems” - Martin (Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle Park)
“Sampling Systems for the Collection of Particulate and Polycrylic Organic
Matter from Combustion Effluents” - Giammar (Battelle. Columbus Labora-
tories)
“An Analysis of Fire Hazard to Pulverized Coal Fired Burners for Steam Gen-
erating Plants” - Biswas and Bryers (Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation)
“The Combustion of Low Calorific Value Waste Gas” - Dahmen and Syred
(Continental Carbon Company; University College, Cardiff)
Symposium on Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Combustion Products,
Committee on Fire Research, Division of Engineering. National Research Coun-
cil, National Academy of Sciences and the Flammability Research Center.
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, March 18-20, 1974, Chairman 1. N.
Einhorn
Subjects: Smoke problems during fires; Smoke and fire casualties; Physiological
aspects of fire exposure; Toxicological aspects of fire exposure; Smoke develop-
ment; Smoke characterization
Program
Introduction - Professor 1. N. Einhorn, Symposium Chairman. Flammability
Research Center and Division of Materials Science and Engineering. University
of Utah
Welcoming Address - Dr. P. D. Gardner, Vice President for Academic Affairs.
University of Utah
Kevnote Address - Dr. C. W. Walter, Chairman. Committee on Fire Research.
National Academy of Science
Session I: Smoke Problems Encountered During Fires
Moderator: Dr. W. J. Christian, Underwriters’ Laboratories. Inc.. Northbrook.
Illinois
Smoke Problems in Urban Fire Control - Chief L. DeKorver. Salt Lake City Fire
Department. Salt Lake City. Utah
Smoke Control During Fires in High-Rise Buildings - Chief . I O-Hagan. New Y ork
City Fire Department, New York City, New York
Methods for Combating Smoke - H W Brice. Fire Marshal. Miami Fire Depart-
ment. Miami. Florida
Session II: Smoke and Fire Casualties
Moderator: Dr. M. M Birky. National Bureau of Standards. Visiting Professor.
University of Utah
Fire Deaths and Casualties - Dr. E. P Radford. Department of Environmental
Medicine. The Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore Maryland
L. i
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
271
What is Clinical Smoke Poisoning? - Dr. B. A. Zikria, Department of Surgery,
Columbia-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York
Medical Aspects of Toxicity Resulting from Fire Exposure - Professor J. Autian,
College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee, Memphis, Tennessee
Session III: Phsiological and Toxicological Aspects Resulting from Fire Expo-
sure
Moderator: Professor I. N. Einhorn,Flammabiiity Research Center and Division
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah
Fires, Toxicity, and Plastics - Dr. J. Zapp, Haskell Laboratory for Toxicology
and Environmental Medicine, E. 1. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc.,
Wilmington, Delaware
Effects of Exposure to Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide - Dr. P. W.
Smith Aviation Toxicology Institute, Federal Aviation Administration. Okla-
homa City. Oklahoma
Synergistic Effects of Combustion Products - G. Armstrong, Southwest Re-
search Institute, San Antonio, Texas
Effects of Brief Single Exposure to HC1 and NO* - Dr. K. C. Back. Aerospace
Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Toxicology Associated with Flame-Retarded Plastics - Dr. V. Carter. Johnson
Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas
Survival Response During Fire Exposure - Professor J. H. Petajan, Department of
Neurology and Flammability Research Center, University of Utah Medical
Center, Salt Lake City, Utah
Long-Term Nervous System Effects Resulting from Carbon Monoxide Exposure -
Professor M. L. Grunnet, Departments of Neurology and Pathology and Flam-
mability Research Center, University of Utah Medical School, Salt Lake City.
Utah
Kinetics of Uptake and Elimination of Carbon Monoxide - Dr. J. A. MacGregor,
Stanford Oil Company of California, San Francisco, California
Methodology for Analyses of Combustion Products - Dr. G. Kimmerle. Bayer
Institute for Industrial Toxicology, Wuppertal, Germany
Use of Animals in Experiments to Predict Human Response - Dr. F. Coulston.
Institute for Comparative and Human Toxicology, Albany Medical Center.
Albany, New York
Session IV: Smoke: Its Development and Characterization
Moderator. Dr. R. M. Fristrom, Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins
University. Silver Spring, Maryland
Factors Affecting Smoke Development and Measurement - Professor S. D.
Seader, Flammability Research Center and Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing. University of Utah
Analysis of Products of Combustion. A Computerized Analytical System - Profes-
sor I. N. Einhorn. Flammability Research Center and Division of Materials
Science and Engineering, University of Utah
f
272
FIRE RESEARCH
Session V: General Discussion
Panel Discussion: Government and Industry Programs for Smoke Control
Moderator: Dr. J. J. Lyons. Chief Fire Programs. National Bureau of Standards.
Washington, D C.
Panelists:
Mr. B. Andrus, Fire Marshal
Salt Lake City Fire Department
Salt Lake City, Utah
Mr. J. Carroll
Director of Safety and Loss Prevention
Society for the Plastics Industry, Inc.
New York, New York
Dr. W. J. Christian
Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.
Northbrook, Illinois
Professor 1. N. Einhorn
Flammability Research Center and
Division of Materials Science and
Engineering
University of Utah
Mr. J. W. Kerr
Support Systems Research
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency
Washington, D. C.
Mr. G. W. Shorter
Fire Section
National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa. Ontario
Mr. R. Riddell, Fire Marshal
State of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
Pane! Discussion: Early Treat men' at the Fire Scene
Moderator: Professor J. H. Petajan, Department of Neurology and Flammability
Research Center, University of Utah
Panelists:
Professor F. Chang
Department of Surgery
University of Utah Medical School
Salt Lake City, Utah
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Mr. B. Finkle
Center for Human Toxicology and
Flammability Research Center
University of Utah
Dr. G. Kimmerle
Bayer Institute for Industrial
Toxicology
Wuppertal, Germany
Dr. E. P. Radford
Department of Environmental Medicine
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
Dr. J. Zapp
Haskell Laboratory for Toxicology
and Environmental Medicine
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and
Company, Inc.
Wilmington. Delaware
Dr. B. Zikria
Department of Surgery
Columbia-Presbyterian Hospital
New York, New York
Proceedings will be published by the National Academy of Sciences.
Symposium on Products of Combustion of (Plastics) Building Materials, March
25-26, 1973, Research and Development Center. Armstrong Cork Company.
Lancaster. Pennsylvania. 87. H. J. Roux Chairman. G. E. Graham Co-
Chairman. A. R. McGarvey Coordinator ( 1974)
Contents
Estimation of Smoke Load from Building Materials H. £. Nelson
Smoke Hazards and Their Measurement— A Researcher's Viewpoint
J. R. Ga.sk ill
Can We Control the Toxic Products of Combustion of Building Fires? If not Why
Not?. J. R. S manga
Toxicity of Thermal Degradation Products of Plastics, H. Cornish
Fire-Department Concern with Respect to Products of Combustion of Plastic
Materials, S. If slim
The Problems of Smoke and Toxic Compounds in Building Fires. A Tew arson
Products of Combustion of Building Materials. J. £. Bihr
Analysis of the Combustion Products from Wood and Synthetic Polymers.
V/. O'Mara
Firesafety at GSA. /.. Roush
274
FIRE RESEARCH
Fiie Prevention and Control, R. E. Bland
The Fire-Protection Engineer’s View of Plastics, J. M. Rhodes
Chemical and Physical Factors Affecting Smoke Evolution from Polymers, C. J.
Hilado
Firesafety in Urban Housing — A Description of the NSF-RANN Program at the
University of California, Berkeley, R. B. Wdliamson
Second Seminar and Workshop on the Teaching of Fire Sciences, April 27-28,
1974, Northern Virginia Community College, Annandale. Virginia, Report No.
FPP E74-2 Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University, Pro-
ceedings editor R. L. Tuve, 72 pages (December 1974)
Program
Welcome and Introduction
Robert L. Smith
Program Head, Fire Science
Northern Virginia Community College
Annandale, Virginia
Address of Welcome
Edward J. Fredericks
Division Chairman
Northern Virginia Community College
Annandale, Virginia
Session Host’s Remarks
Robert L. Smith
Northern Virginia Community College
Annandale, Virginia
Objectives of This Seminar
Seminar Moderator: Walter G. Berl
Co-Principal Investigator
Fire Problems Program
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University
Qualification Standards
John L. Bryan. Director
Fire Protection Engineering Curriculum
University of Maryland
College Park. Maryland
Panel Subject: Basic Fire Sciences Curriculum
Content and Teaching Objectives
(Organized by Francis L. Brannigan. Coordinator.
Fire Science Curriculum, Montgomery College)
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
275
Panel Moderator: Richard L. Tuve
Consultant, Fire Problems Program
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University
Experience with the “Two Plus Two” Program
R. Wayne Powell
Office of Fire/ Rescue Services
Montgomery County, Maryland
Panel Discussion: Articulation with Four-Year Courses
Panel Moderator. Sylvan P. Stern
Coordinator. Fire Science Program
New York City Community College
Joseph J. Carroll
Fire Science Program Liaison Officer
New York City Fire Department
Eugene J. Fortrell
National Ass'n. of Fire Science
Administration
New York. N. Y.
F. J. Ronan
New York City Community College
Innovative Teaching Methods
Professor Joseph A. O’Keefe
' Fire Sciences
Bunker Hill Community College
Charlestown. Massachusetts
Assistant Professor Robert Carlson
Department of Mathematics
Bunker Hill Community College
Charlestown, Massachusetts
National Science Foundation, Research Applied to National Needs Conference on
Fire Research, May 28-29. 1974. Georgia Institute of Technology. Atlanta,
Georgia. 218 pages
Subjects: Flame spread: Fire systems studies; Physico-chemical aspects of
fires; Combustion products behavior
General Chairman: Dr. S. Peter Kezios, Director. School of Mechanical Engi-
neering. Georgia Institute of Technology
Program Chairman: Dr. B<*n T. Zinn. Regents Professor, School of Aerospace
Engineering. Georgia Insti ute of Technology
Local Arrangements Chairman: Dr. W. Denney Freeston, Director. School of
Textile Engineering
276 EIRE RESEARCH
Foreword
Dr. R. H. Long, Jr., Program Manager, Division of Advanced Technology Appli-
cations, National Science Foundation. Washington, D C.
Foreword
This document is a record of the fire research projects, supported by NSF, that
were discussed at a conference on May 28 and 29, 1974, at the Georgia Institute of
Technology. There is a brief progress report for each project. The report is not in-
tended to provide all features of the research. Reports and publications are listed so
that interested persons can obtain more information.
The NSF RANN fire research effort has the objective to reduce deaths and
losses due to hostile fires, and to improve the effectiveness of fire control. It has
been in operation for three years, and currently the expenditure level is about two
million dollars per year. At this time, the future of the effort is uncertain, because it
is dependent on actions to be taken by Congress and the administration.
When one looks at the cumulative results, I believe progress is evident and
significant. The projects are in various stages of completeness. There are four
comprehensive projects (Harvard, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, University of Utah, and University of California-Berkeley) which
are much larger than the others. Thus, the reports reflect such differences.
In addition to research performers, representatives of the fire protection com-
munity also attended the conference and participated in discussions. While the
open and at times spirited interchanges were not recorded, they will surely be re-
flected in a strengthening of future research and thus meet a goal of the conference.
The Foundation welcomes comments on the fire research program and related
needs. The dissemination of information from the projects to the various perform-
ers concerned with fire protection and control continues to be a matter of concern
and suggestions for improvement are solicited.
Program
Opening Session
C hairman: Dr. S. P. Kezios. Georgia Institute of Technology
Welcoming Address: Dr. T. E. Stelson. Vice-President for Research. Georgia
Institute of Technology
Introductory Comments: Dr. Ralph H. Long. Program Manager, National
Science Foundation
Session I: Flame Spread
Chairman: Professor Howard W. Emmons. Harvard University
Fire Propagation Along Solid Surfaces. Professor F. A. W illiams, Department of
Applied Mechanics and Engineering Sciences, University of California. San
Diego
Flame Spreading Over Solid Surfaces. Professor Merwin Silhulkin, Division of
Engineering. Brown University
A
1
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
277
Mechanism of Fire Propagation on Polymer Surfaces, Professor Norman W.
Rvan, Department of Chemical Engineering. University ol Utah
Fire Rate of Spread in Paper Arrays. Professor Ashley S. Campbell, Department
of Mechanical Engineering. University of Maine
Flame Spreading Across Liquid Fuels, Professor Irvin Classman. Guggenheim
Laboratories. Princeton University
Flame Spread over Liquid Fuels, Professor Kenneth E. Torrance. Department of
Thermal Engineering. Cornell University
Session II: Fire Systems Studies
Chairman: Dr. John W. Lyons. National Bureau of Standards
Firesafety in Urban Housing, Professor R. B. Williamson. Department of Civil
Engineering, University of California. Berkeley
The Home Fire Project, Professor Howard W. Emmons. Harvard University, and
Dr. Raymond Friedman. Factory Mutual Research Corporation
Education and the Fire Services. Dr. Robert M. Fristrom. Applies Physics lab-
oratory. Johns Hopkins University
Session III: Physico-Chemical Aspects of Fires
Chairman: Professor Irvin Glassman. Princeton University
Ignition of Fabrics, Professor Wolfgang Wulff School of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Georgia Institute of Technology
Thermal and Flammability Behavior of Multicomponent Fibrous Polymer
Systems, Dr. Bernard Miller. Textile Research Institute
Chemistry of Cellulosic Fires, Professor Fred Shafizadeh. Wood Chemistry lab-
oratory, University of Montana
Extinction of Flames by Metal Powders, Professor Waller E. Kaskan. Department
of Chemistry. SUSY at Binghamton
Flame Inhibition Studies. Dr. Robert M. Fristrom. Applied Physics Laboratory,
Johns Hopkins University
Behavior of Water Droplets in Fire Plume, Professor M. C. Yuen. Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University
Mechanisms of Wildland Fire Suppression. Professor R C. Corlett. Department
of Mechanical Engineering. University of Washington
Fire Whirl and Firebrand in Mass Fires. Professor S. L. Lee. Department of
Mechanics, SUNY at Stony Brook
Forest Fire Statistical Problems. Professor F. N. David, Statistics Department.
University of California at Riverside
Session IV: Combustion Products Behavior
Chairman: Dr. Raymond Friedman. Factory Mutual Research Corporation
NBS Fire Safety Program. Dr. John W. Lyons. Director of Fire Programs.
National Bureau of Standards
278
FIRE RESEARCH
Convective Flows of Building Fires, Professor Edward E. Zukoski, California
Institute of Technology
Fire and Smoke Spread in Corridors, Professor J. L. Novotny. Department of
Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame
Properties of Combustion Products from Building Fires, Professor Ben T. Zinn,
Department of Aerospace Engineering. Georgia Institute of Technology
Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Smoke Produced During the Com-
bustion of Polymeric Materials, Professor Irving Einhorn. Flammability Re-
search Center, University of Utah
Smoke Injury Studies, Dr. Robert M. Fristrom, Applied Physics Laboratory,
Johns Hopkins University
Fire Research Needs and Priorities, Dr. Edward H. Blum, New York City- RAN D
Institute
Symposium on Fire Safety Research, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg,
Maryland, August 22, 1973, edited by M. J. Butler and J. A. Slater, Program-
matic Center for Fire Research, Institute for Applied Technology, National
Bureau of Standards Special Publication 41 1 (November 1974) 239 pages
Subjects: Fire safety; Fire research; Detection; Firefighting; Inhibition;
Retardants; Fire hazard; Modeling
A Symposium on Fire Safety Research was held at the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS), on August 22, 1973. The Symposium's participants were NBS
staff as well as outside contributors affiliated with the NBS fire program, includ-
ing representatives from private industries, universities, government agencies, and
the National Fire Protection Association. The papers covered topics in hazard
analysis, standards development, flame chemistry, fire modeling, fire detection,
physiological effects of fire, fire services, effect of fire on building materials, and
field investigation methods for firefighters. Specifically included were papers
dealing with the development of the Children's Sleepwear Flammability Standards
and mandatory sampling plans, mechanisms of flame retardants, flame spread, and
radiant panel test methods, contribution of interior finish materials to fire growth,
a field study of non fire-resistive multiple dwe" :~g fires, the Research Applied to
National Needs (RANN) Program of NSF. and other related topics.
Contents
Welcome: Richard W. Roberts, National Bureau of Standards
Introduction: F. Karl Willenbrock. National Bureau of Standards
A Comparison Between Potential Hazard Reduction from Fabric Flammability
Standards. Ignition Source Improvement, and Public Education. Beniamin
Buchbinder and Allan Vickers. National Bureau of Standards
Desclopment of the Standards for the Flammability of Children's Sleepwear. Emil
Braun. James H. Winger, and James A. Slater. National Bureau of Standards
L ^
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
279
Sampling Plans in Mandatory Standards. Paul Gottfried, Consumer Product
Safety Commission
Human Activity Patterns and Injury Severity in Fire Incidents Involving Apparel.
iMura Baker Buchbinder, The Cotton Foundation
Chemical Aspects of Flame Inhibition. John H. Hastie, National Bureau of
Standards
Mechanism of Flame Retardant Action in Textiles. Robert H. Barker. Clemson
University
Additional Studies of the Transfer of Fiame Retardant Effects with Cellulosic
Fabrics. Bernard Miller, Textile Research Institute
An Evaluation of Flame Spread Test Methods for Floor Covering Materials.
James Quintiere and Clayton Huggett. National Bureau of Standards
Mathematical Modeling of Radiant Panel Test Methods. J. A. Rockett, National
Bureau of Standards
Flame Spread over a Porous Surface under an External Radiation Field. Takashi
Kashin agi. National Bureau of Standards
Physiological and Toxicological Effects of the Products of Thermal decomposi-
tion from Polymeric Materials. M. M. Birky. National Bureau of Standards.
I. V. Tinhorn. M. /.. Grunnett. S. C. Pack ham. J. H. Petajan. and ./. P. Sender.
University of Utah
Contribution of Interior Finish Materials to Fire Growth in a Room. J. B. Fang
anil I). Gross. National Bureau of Standards
Fire Build-up in Reduced Size Enclosures. W. ./. Parker and B. T. fee. National
Bureau of Standards
An Analytic Model for Calculating the Fire Resistance of Simply Supported
Prestressed and Reinforced Concrete Beams. Lionel A. Issen. National Bureau
of Standards
Smoke and Carbon Monoxide Generation from Burning Selected Plasticsand Red
Oak. Thomas )'. King. Armstrong Cork Company
A Field Study of Non Fire-Resistive Multiple Dwelling Fires. Frances l
Branmgan. Montgomery College
The Current Status ol Fire Detection. George Sinnott, National Bureau o /
Standards
Sequencing the Purchase and Retirement of Fire Engines. Patsy B. Saunders and
Richard Ku. National Bureau of Standards
Fili Fire Information Field Investigation. F. James Kauffman and Martin I.
Grimes. National Fire Protection Association
National Science Foundation RAW Program. Ralph H long. Jr.. National
Science Foundation
Appendix - Contributing Author Index
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF AUTHORS FOR VOLUME 16
Abdel-Khalik, S. I., 187
Afgan, N. H., 263
Alger, R. S„ 178, 239
Allen, D. E„ 188
Alvares, N. J., 178
Amaro, A. J., 178
Ames, S. A., 188, 190
Apin, A. Ya., 206
Autian, J., 230
Babrauskas, V., 233
Ballal. D. R„ 162
Baratov, A. N., 265
Barstad, J., 145
Bauer. A. N., 181
Beck. R E., 189
Beer, J. M„ 204. 263
Benson. S. P„ 189, 239
Berl, W G„ 248
Berlemont, C. F. J., 190, 243
Bevan, P. R.. 189
Bilger, R. W„ 189
Biordi. J. C., 179, 214
Birky. M. M„ 230
Blackshear. P. L., 262
Blakely. A D.. 220
Boler. J. B.. 145
Bovsunovskaya, A. Ya.. 155
Boyes. J. H., 239
Brannigan, F. L., 145
Bredo. M. A., 214
Brenden. J. J., 190, 240
Bridge, N. W., 146
Bright, R G„ 169
Brink. G. E., 257
YEAR 1974
Broil, R„ 190
Brzustowski, T. A., 193
Buchbinder, B., 146, 234
Bullen, M. L., 186
Burdett, N. A., 215
Burgess. D„ 146, 162, 166, 170
Biirkholz, A., 224
Burnett, J. C., 182
Butler, M. J.. 278
Butlin, R. N„ 190
Campbell, A. S., 172
Carhart, H. W„ 222
Cato, R., 166
Cernansky. N. P., 216
Chandler, S. E., 233
Chigier, N. A.. 240
Christian, W. J., 245
Clodfelter, R G„ 148
Corrie, J. G„ 189, 239
Courtney-Pratt, J. S.. 241
Custer, R. L. P., 169
Daizo, M., 222
Delbourgo, R., 167, 205
Demske. D., 161
de Ris, J.. 176, 191
De Soete, G. G.. 19!
DiPietro, J., 266
Dixon-Lewis, G., 162. 216
Donaldson, W. F., 170
Doyle. W H.. 147
Dvorak, K., 240
Edmonds-Brown, H., 147
Eickner. H. W„ 192
ABSTRACTS and reviews
28 1
Elmer, C. H , 241
Elovskaya, T. P., 175
El-Wakil, M. M., 187
Emmons, H, W., 168, 258
Endelman, L. L., 241
Fang, J, B„ 192, 193
Fernandez-Pello, A., 172
Field, P„ 207
Firth. J. G.. 218
Fowler, L. C., 252
Frandsen. W. H., 163, 172
Friedman, R., 258
Fristrom. R. M., 109. 248
Fujii, K.. 222
Gandee, G. W.. 148
George, C, W„ 220
Geyer. G B.. 180
Gibbs, B . 204
Giles. K.. 252
Goldsworthy, F. A., 216
Gollahalli, S. R.. 193
Gorb. V. Yu.. 155
Greenberg. J B.. 216
Greuer. R. E., 224
Gross, D„ 193
Grumer, J.. 180
Guillaume, 1’. J., 214
Gurevich. M. A., 163
Hacker. P T„ 156. 165. 257
Hallman. J. R . 194
Handa. T., 148. 164. 173. 195. 211
Harmathy, T. Z.„ 149. 150. 152. 196
Harmel. M. H.. 232
Harris. G. W.. 237
Harrison. G. A.. 150
Hart /ell. L. G.. 196
Hayashi, T.. 151
Hayhurst, A. N. 215
Haynes. B. S.. 196
Hedley, A B.. 204
Hertzberg, M.. 166. 170
Heselden. A. J. M '58
Hibbard. R. R„ 165
Hinds, W„ 225
Hirano, T., 174, 197
Hjorteland, O., 145
Holmes, C. A.. 151, 198
Holve, D. J., 198
Hopkinson, J. S., 186
Howard. J. B.. 212
Huggett. C„ 205
Ikeda. Y.. 148. 211
Iverach, D., 196
Jermgan. J., 18, 243
Jin. T.. 226
Johnson. G. VL. 220
Jones. A.. 218
Jones. T. A., 218
Kaimakov. A. A., 181
Kalas. M„ 247
Kamra, A. K.. 226
Kanury. A. Murty. 237
Kashiwagi, T.. 165. 174. 175
Kaskan. W. E„ 185
Katz. B. S.. 161
Kennedy. M. P., 239
Kent. J. H„ 181
King. M. K . 199
Kinns, R., 241
Kirov. N. Y.. 196
Kolesnikov. B. Ya.. 175
Konoshita. M.. 197
Krucke. W„ 152
Ksandopulo, G. E., 175
Kuchta. J. M.. 166
Kung. H„ 175
Kuvshinoff. B. W . 18, 243
Lazzara. C. P., 179, 214
Lee. B T„ 202
Lee.. S. L„ 227
Lefebvre. A. H., 162
Leonard. J. T., 182
Leschonski. K., 227
Levy, A., 219
Lie. T. T„ 152, 188
282
FIRE RESEARCH
Liebman, I., 229
Lipska, A. E., 178
Litton, C. D., 166, 170
Long, M. E., 242
Loomis, R. M., 233
Luck, H., 170
Lunn, G. A., 183
Lyle, A. R„ 153
Lynch, J. R„ 153
Mac Arthur, J. D., 231
Magee, R. S., 183
Mahajan, R. L., 177
Mallet, M., 153
Manheim, J. R., 154
Markstein, G. H„ 176, 200, 227
Martin, S. B., 160
McDonald, G. H„ 157 -
McQuaid, J., 242
Mealing, P., 257
Melvin, A., 218
Merryman, E. L., 219
Miller, S. C., 238
Modak, A. T„ 228
Moore, F. D., 231
Morgan, H. P., 186
Morita, M., 164
Morris, W. A., 186
Moss, J. B., 218
Mulvihill, J. N., 200
Murphy, J. N., 146, 162
Naruse, I., 220
Nicholas, E. B., 154
Nichols, J. R„ 239
Nickerson, M. F., 257
Oda, N„ 220
Odnorog, D. S„ 175
Ogasawara, M„ 202, 222
O’Neill, J. H„ 154
Onuma, Y„ 202
Oppenheim, A. K., 228
Orloff, L„ 176, 191
Orlov, N. V., 155
Osipov, S. N„ 155
Otto, F. W„ 227
Ozerova, G. E., 163
Pandya, T. P., 202
Papp, J. F., 179, 214
Parker, W. J., 202, 242
Pearson, F. K., 159
Peelers, J., 203, 223
Pelouch, J. J., Jr., 156, 257
Pepekin, V. I., 206
Pereira, F. J., 204
Perlee, H. E., 146, 162
Peters, 204
Petrov, I. L, 265
Phillips, H„ 183, 184, 204
Phillips, L. F., 200
Philpot, C. W„ 221, 234
Pickard, R. W., 170
Pitt, A. L, 156
Pokhil, P. F„ 206
Powell, J. H., 156
Powell, P„ 252
Purington, R., 261
Quintiere, J. 157, 205
Rae, D„ 167
Rattenborg, C. C., 232
Reist, P. C., 225
Reitz, R. D„ 183
Richard, J. R„ 167, 205
Richmond, J. K„ 229
Roberts, A. F., 184, 206
Romodanova, L. D., 206
Rothermel, R. C., 234, 238
Rousseau, J., 157
Ryabov, I. V., 265
Saito, F., 187
Saito, M„ 148, 211
Sato, K„ 174
Sawyer, R. F., 198, 216
Schermerhorn, D. A., 238
Schulz, A. G., 248
Schwenker, H., 158
Sello. S. B„ 266
Senior, M., 206
L
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
283
Shepherd, I. G., 162
Shivadev, U. K., 168
Tuve, R. L., 274
Sibulkin, M., 207
Van Dolah, R. W., 166
Sjolin, V., 99
Vandooren, J., 223
Slater, J. A., 234, 235, 278
Van Tiggelen, P. J., 214, 223
Sliepcevich, C. M., 194
Vickers, A., 146, 235
Soloukin, R. I., 228
Vinckier, C„ 203
Solum, E., 145
Virr, L. E„ 159
Sommers, D. E., 154
Spratt, D., 158
Vovelle, C„ 167, 205
Sridhar, lya, K„ 185
Wallace, W. H„ 220
Srivastava, N. K., 202
Watanabe, Y„ 159, 171
Stahly, E. E., 266
Waterman, T. E., 177
Stark, G. W. V., 207
Welker, J. R , 194
Stevenson, A. E., 238
Wersborg, B. L., 212
Stone, J. P„ 222
Westley, F„ 223
Strawson, H., 153
Whitehouse, R. B„ 171
Stromdahl, I., 208
Wiersma, S. J., 160
Stysanov, A. M., 163
Williams, F. A., 172, 181
Sullivan, J. J., 158
Williams, F. W„ 222
Sumi, K„ 212, 232
Wilson, D. M., 161
Suzuki, H„ 148, 164, 195, 211
Wilton, C„ 239
Wollowitz, S., 185
Takagi, T„ 222
Wraight. H. G. H., 161, 168
Takahashi, A., 148, 164, 173, 195
Takemoto, A., 171
Wright, W„ 242
Tamaru, T., 187
Yamao, S., 213
Tarumi, H., 151
Yasuno, K.. 236
Thomas, P. H., 212
Yeung, A. C., 212
Tonkin, P. S., 243
Torrance, JC. E., 177
Young, R. A., 146
Tovey, H., 234
Zabetakis, M. G., 146, 162
Tsuchiya, Y„ 212, 232
Zarem, H. A., 232
Zavadskii, V. A., 175
A
r
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF SUBJECTS FOR VOLUME 16
YEAR 1974
Adsorption, 200
Aerosols, 225
Aerospace vehicle fires, 154
Airburst long range, 240
Aircraft crashes, 180
Aircraft fire hazards, 257
Aircraft fire safety, 156
Aircraft safety, 154
Alarm systems, 170
Ammonium sulfate retardant, 220
Anemometer calibration, 242
Anemometer, laser, 240
Anemometer response, 242
Aqueous film forming foams
(AFFF), 180
Aqueous fire fighting foams, 182
Aviation fuel, 148, 154
Aviation safety, 148
Bibliography on fire research, 243
Blast, 240
B-numbers, 237
Boron flames, 199
Brands, 227
Brush fires, 234
BS 2773, 1945, 156
Building codes, 145
Building design, 145, 149, 252
Building explosions, 243
Building fires, 149, 150, 157, 192
Building materials, 148, 173, 187,
193, 207
Building materials tests, 21 1
Burn-back, 189
Burning rate, 206
Burn-prone patients, 231
Burns, 235
Burns, case histories, 235
Burns, epidemiology of, 231
California wildland fires, 238
Calorimeter, 239, 242
Calorimetric bead systems, 218
Carbon monoxide toxicity, 232
Carboxyhemoglobin, 232
Cardboard, 168
Carpet flammability, 165
Carpets, 174, 175
Casualties, 248
Catalytic fuel oxidation, 157
Ceiling smoke, 159
Cellulose retardants, 178
CFiBr inhibition, 179
Char limits, 167
Chemical kinetics, 223
Chemical plants, 147
Chemical structure and burning
fuels, 206
Chemionization, 203, 214
Chlorine, 223
Chlorine oxides, 223
CH 4-0; flames, 179
Chromatographic analysis. 187
Chromatography, 243
Civil Defense, 240
Cl" formation, 215
Clothing fires, 235
C iN: breakdown. 200
CN species. 197
Coal. 166, 220. 229
284
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
285
Coal combustion, 204
Coal dust explosions, 167
Coal mine locomotives, 159
Code requirements, for fire
detection, 169
Columns, supports, 152
Combustibility of furnishings, 192
Combustible materials, 159
Combustion, 212, 230, 242, 248
Combustion instability, 204
Combustion phenomenon, 153
Combustion products behavior, 275
Combustion properties, 167
Commensurability in fire testing, 196
Compartment fires, 149, 212
Computer programs, 233
Concrete, 152
Concrete columns, stress under
fire load, 188
Construction materials, 242
Consumer protection, 252
Convection, 174, 239
Convection, natural, 176
Convective transfer, 163
CO + OH reaction, 223
Cooling by water spray, 161
Corridor fires, 157, 205
Corrosion, 186
Counterflow diffusion flames, 202
Crib fires, 212, 220
Critical fire load of concrete
columns, 188
Critical ignition conditions, 163
Curtain and drapery fires, 235
Decomposition of PVC, 186
Defoaming agents, 1 78
Detection, 278
Detection of earth fault, 159
Detectors, 154, 171
Detectors for fire and explosion, 170
Diammonium phosphate
retardant, 220
Diffusion controlled combustion. 198
Diffusion flames, 172, 181, 187, 189,
191. 193, 197, 200, 202, 216, 218,
227. 228. 237
Directory U.S., fire research, 248
Dispersed particles, 175
Dispersion of spills, 146
Distillation, 147
Doppler sizing of particles, 225
Doppler velocitimetry, 240
Droplet burning, 193
Droplet flames, 187
Droplets, holography, 224
Dry chemicals, 185
Durability of wood, 198
Dust dispersed systems, 227
Dust electrification, 226
Dust flames, 199
Dwelling fires, 245
Dynamic behavior of fires, 160
Earth fault detection, 159
Economics, 262
Education, 146, 248
Effects of forest fire, 234
Electrical apparatus dangers, 147
Electrical equipment, 158
Electrostatic hazards, 153
Electrostatics, 226
Elementary reactions, 217, 223
Emission, 200
Energy conservation, 172
Energy transport, 200
Entrainment of smoke, 186
Environmental factors in
building fires, 177
Equal area compartment fires, 149
Ethylene flames, 215
Ethylene-oxygen flame, 203
Evaporation, 182
Evaporation suppression, 1 82
Explosion, 147, 243
Explosion chamber, 243
Explosion detectors, 170
Explosion gasdynamics. 228
Explosion interruption, 151
Explosion limit hydrocarbon-air
mixtures, 145
Explosion of gas in buildings,
188. 191, 207
286
FIRE RESEARCH
Explosion, physical model of,
in mines, 229
Explosion pressures, 188
Explosion prevention, by nitrogen
atmospheres, 155
Explosion suppression, 184
Extinction, 181, 184
Extinguishants, 180
Extinguishment, 183, 258
Fabric fires, 146, 234
Fatalities, 248
FFACTS, 235
Fibreboard, 168
Fire, 145, 147, 150, 235, 240
Fire behavior, 163, 206
Fire-blast interaction, 160
Fire brands, 227
Fire brigade reports, 233
Fire cell, 208
Fire control, 252
Fire deaths, 235
Fire destruction rate, 258
Fire detection, 169, 252
Fire detector, 169, 170, 171
Fire detector response, 171
Fire detector testing and
standards, 169
Fire dynamics, 258
Fire endurance testing, 196
Fire extinguishers in Germany,
requirements, 190
Fire extinguishment by
nitrogen, 156
Fire fighting foam, 178
Fire gases and temperature
toxicity, 232
Fire hazard, 148, 161, 165, 211, 278
Fire hazards of aircraft, 257
Fire hazards of fuels, 165
Fire injuries, 234
Fire interaction, 224
Fire load. 149, 208
Fire measurement sensors, 239
Fire modelling, 148
Fire point, 184
Fire portraits, 239
Fire prevention and control
hearings, 248
Fire problems exhibit, 248
Fire protection, 233
Fire protection of personnel, 254
Fire reports 1973, 233
Fire research, 252, 278
Fire research directory, 248
Fire research, RANN-NSF, 243
Fire research, review, 252
Fire resistance, 149, 152, 233
Fire resistance of concrete
columns, 188
Fire-resistant hydraulic oil, 158
Fire resistant wood doors, 192
Fire retardant ASTM exposure
test, 198
Fire retardant paints, 190
Fire retardant synthetics, 153
Fire retardants, 178. 220
Fire safety, 147, 149, 278
Fire safety of aircraft, 156
Fire severity, 149
Fire signatures, 169
Fire smoke, 226
Fire spread, 150, 172, 176,
177. 238. 252
Fire spread in buildings, 177
Fire spread in debris, 160
Fire spread in forests, 236
Fire spread model, 163
Fire structure. 204
Fire systems design, 171
Fire systems studies, 275
Fire testing, 196
Fire test methods, 205
Fire test, motor vehicle safety
standard no. 302, 152
Fire tests, 152, 157, 196. 202,
207. 233. 242
Fire toxicology, 230
Fire, underground, 156
Fire victim carbon monoxide
levels. 232
Fire walls. 145
A
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
2X7
Firefighting, 278
Firemen training, 254
Fires in aerospace vehicles, 154
Fires in shopping malls, 161
Flame arresters, 151
Flame deflectors, 150
Flame inhibition, 181
Flameproof enclosures, 205
Flame propagation rate, 165
Flame quenching, 181
Flame radiation, 227
Rames, 263
Flame size effect on radiation, 207
Flame speed, 199
Flame spread, 165, 172, 173, 174,
175, 193, 205, 275
Flame structure, 162, 167, 174. 179,
181, 185, 187, 191, 193, 197, 198,
200, 202, 203, 204, 213, 214, 215,
216, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223
Flaming and nonflaming
conditions, 190
Flaming conditions, 240
Flammability, 146, 167, 196, 252
Flammability index, 229
Flammability limits, 148, 154
Flammability of materials, 1 54
Flammability of wildland
brush, 234
Flammability testing, 153
Flammability tests, 205
Flammable fabrics, 234, 235
Flammable liquid fires, 239
Flammable mixtures, 146
Flammables, 147
Flashover, 202
Floor covering flammability, 205
Flooring, 196
Flow effects on ignition. 162
Fluidized bed, 204
Fluorchemical, 189
Fluorprotein, 189
Foam, 180, 189
Forest fire, 163. 236. 238
Forest fire damage appraisal. 234
Fuel crib heating. 163
Fuel ignition, 165
Fuel model, 234
Fuel nitrogen, 191
Fuel rich flames, 200
Fuel spills, 146
Fuel systems vulnerability, 148. 154
Fuel tank filling hazard, 153
Fuel tank inerting, 157
Fuel vulnerability, 154
Full-scale building bums, 177
Furnace, auxiliary equipment, 240
Furnace design, 196
Furnace tests, 148, 211
Gaps for flame quenching, 181
Gas analysis system, 191
Gas detection, 147, 158
Gasdynamic experiments of
explosions, 228
Gas explosions, 145, 188, 191,
207, 243
Gas phase reactions, 223
Gas solid kinetics, 218
Gas velocity, 174
Gunfire, 148, 154
H atom profiles, 162
H 2 flames, 215
Halogen extinguishing agents, 190
Hazard analysis, 157
H2-C2N2 flames, 214
HC1 in flames, 215
Heat flux, 172, 242
Heat of combustion, 240
Heat radiation, 208
Heat release, 193
Heat release rate. 202
Heat transfer, 262, 263
High expansion foam, 178
High racked storages, 146
High rise. 150
High rise fires, 150
High speed photography. 241
High speed photography. Tenth
International Congress. 241
High voltage equipment, for
flammable atmospheres. 158
288
FIRE RESEARCH
flames. 200
Hot-wire anemometer, 242
Hydrocarbon-air concentrations, 145
Hydrocarbon-air flames, 175
Hydrocarbon flames, 197, 216
Hydrocarbon fuels, 182
Hydrocarbon liquids, 182
Hydrocarbon oil, fire-
resistant, 158
Hydrogen chloride, 223
Hydrogen chloride adsorption, 222
Hydrogen flames, 217
Ignitability. 165
Ignition, 163, 164, 165, 167. 168,
192, 196, 205, 258
Ignition energy, 162
Ignition hazard, 146
Ignition,, localized. 162
Ignition of particles, 163
Ignition sources, 146, 234
Incipient combustion. 166
Industrial hazards. 147
Infrared detectors for fire. 170
Inhibited flames. 179
Inhibition, 185, 278
Inhibition mechanism, 175
Instabilities, 204
Interactions. 240
Interferometry. 187
Ionization detector. 169
Ions, 215
Ions in flames. 213. 214
Irradiation energy level, 190
Irradiation of paper sheets. 168
Jet fuels. 165
JP^t. 148
JP-8. 148
Kinetics. 179, 215
Kinetics of gas solid reactions. 218
Laboratory fire test. 189
Laminar burning. 176
Laminar flames on polymers. 172
Laser anemometer, 240
Laser Doppler spectroscopy, 225
Leaks of fuel, 146
Lean hydrocarbon flames, 217
Length of light path, 190
Lethal fire gases, 232
Light transmission, 190
Lighters. 234
Liquid fires, 177, 184
Liquid fuel flames, 181
Long gallery coal dust
explosions. 167
Longwall coal-mine face. 237
LPG, 156
Margolis effect, 177
Matches, 234
Material ignitability, 193
Mathematical fire model. 238
Maximum safe experimental gap
(M S E C ). 205
Metal oxides as gas detectors. 158
Meteorology. 238
Methane-oxygen flames. 203. 218
Mine fire prevention. 155
Mine fires, 224
Mines. 159, 166, 206. 213. 229
Minimum ignition energy. 162
Mobile field laboratory. 239
Model for urban fires. 227
Model of forest fires. 238
Modeling, 278
Modeling flame structure. 172
Modeling pool fires. 237
Molecular beam sampling. 213
M.S.E.G.. 205
Narrow gap theory, 184
NFPA 23 1C. 146
NH species. 197
Nitrogen as fire extinguishing
agent. 156
Nitrogenous fuels, 219
Nitrous oxide. 197
Non-flammable elastomeric
materials. 152
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
Nonluminous radiation, 228
NO, formation, 191, 216, 219,
222
Noxious gas concentrations, 177
NSF (National Science Foundation)
RANN fire program, 243
Nuclear fire threat, 160
Nuclear weapons effects, 161
Odors, 220
OH concentrations, 185
Opposed flow diffusion flames, 198
Opposed jet diffusion flames, 202
Optical detectors, 170
Oscillations, 204
Oxygen index, 167
Pallet storage, 146
Paper, 174
Particle combustion, 204
Particle ignition, 163
Particle production, 220
Particles, 195, 226, 227
Particles, sizing of, 224, 225
Pedestrian precincts, 161
Petroleum industry safety, 147
Physico-chemical aspects of
fires, 275
Plastic fires, 183
PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate),
172
Pollution, 191, 216, 219, 222
Polymer combustion, 198
Polymer combustion, toxicology of,
230
Polymer fires, 176, 237
Polymeric materials, 212
Polymeric materials, radiant
heating, 194
Polymers, 172, 206, 230
Polyolefin polymers, 167
Polystyrene, 167
Polyvinyl chloride fires, 222
Polyvinyl chloride soot, 222
Pool fires, 180
Porosity in crib fires, 212
289
Porous fuels, 172
Porous materials, 175
Powdered inhibitors, 175
Pressure dependence of flame
structure, 193
Pressure of explosions, 243
Protective equipment failure, 156
Protein, 189
PVC fires, 186
Pyrolysis, 167, 230, 258
Pyrolysis of cotton wood, 221
Pyrolysis of PVC, 186
Pyrolysis products, 178
Pyrolysis rate, 221
Quenching ability of sintered
metals, 151
Quenching distance, 162, 183
Radiant heating, 242
Radiant heating of polymers, 194
Radiant panel, 196
Radiant transfer, 263
Radiation 168, 174, 175,
191, 200, 239
Radiation, analytical solutions. 228
Radiation augmented flames, 183
Radiation form fires, 207
Radiative ignition, 165
Radical reactions, 217
RANN (Research Applied to National
Needs) fire program, 243
Rate constants, 223
Recombination reactions, 217
Reflectance-absorptance of
polymer surface, 194
Regression rate, 198
Respiration training, 254
Respirators, design, 231
Respirators, law requirements.
need, development, 153
Retardants, 159, 278
Retardants, “self-help", 178
Room fires, 193
Safe gaps, 183
J
L
290
FIRE RESEARCH
Safety engineering, 233
Safety scheme deficiencies, 156
Sandbox model, 237
Scale models, 202
Scaling of wood burning, 176
SCORE project, 248
Self ignition, 163, 164
Ship structures, 161
Shopping complexes, 161
Simulation of forest fires, 238
Sintered metals as flame
quenchers, 151
Sizing of particles, 227
Smoke, 192, 193, 195, 207,
213, 220, 230
Smoke detect or, 1 7 1
Smoke extraction, 159, 186
Smoke generation, 187, 212
Smoke measurement, 237
Smoke products, 178
Smoke, visibility through, 226
Social aspects of fires, 262
Sodium salts, 185
Solid fuel ignition, 165
“Solid-core” doors, 192
Soot, 195, 222
Soot characterization, 222
Sooting flames, 213
Space heater, 156
Spark ignition, 162
Specific optical density, 230
Spontaneous combustion, 166, 220
Spontaneous ignition, 164
Spontaneous ignition of paper, 1 68
Spray extraction of smoke, 186
Spray flames, 202
Sprinklers, 146
Standards, 146, 235
Statistical fire data, 235
Statistics of dwelling fires, 245
Steels, 152
Strain measurement, 243
Strain measurement in explosion, 207
Stress distribution, 237
Structural characteristics, 245
Structural concrete, 186
Structural design, 1 52
Structural fires, 177
Structural fires, response to
blast waves, 160
Structure and burning, 206
Supertanker cleaning hazard, 145
Suppression, 180, 240
Surface burning, 172
Surface combustion, 176
Swirl, 240
Systems Analysis, 248
Temperature curve, 208
Temperature profiles, 174, 197
Test facilities, 240
Testing of respirators, 231
Tests, 146, 156, 211, 213, 243
Tests on smoke, 187
TGA (thermogravimetric
analysis), 167
Thermal degradation of paper, 168
Thermal model of flameproof
enclosures, 205
Thermal radiation, 192, 202, 242
Timber structure fire, 208
Time dependence of explosion
pressure, 167
Toxic gas transport, 222
Toxic gases, 207, 230, 248
Toxicity, 230
Toxicity by carbon monoxide. 232
Toxicity of polymer combustion
products, 230
Treated cotton wood, 221
Tunnels, 159, 206
Turbulence, 162
Turbulent diffusion flames, 222
Turbulent fires, 176
Turbulent flames, 191, 216
Turbulent flow measurement, 242
Turbulent jet flames, 189
U.K. fire reports, 233
U.S. fire research directory, 248
Velocity measurement, 240
Velocity of gas, 197
ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS
291
Ml
kb
Velocity perturbation Water flow cooling, 161
measurements, 242 Water spray extraction of smoke, 186
Ventilation, 149 Water sprays, 183
Ventilation flow, 224 Wildland fuels, 238
Venting, 159 Wood, 164, 206
Vertical wood slabs, 176 Wood burning, 176
Vinyl Chloride (poly), 186 Wood doors, 192
Vortex u«San fire model, 227 Wood flammability, 152