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A COMPILATION
OF THE
MESSAGES AND PAPERS
OF THE
PRESIDENTS
Prepared Under the Direction of the Joint Committee
on Printing, of tfie House and Senate,
Pursuant to an Act of tlie Fifty-Second Congress
of the United States
(With Additions and Encyclopedic Index
by Private Enterprise)
VOLUME XX
PUBLISHED BY
BDREAD OF NATIONAL LITERATDRE, Inc.
NEW YORK
%
J S^l
Copyright, 1911, 1912, 1913,
Copyright, 1914, 1916, 1917
Copyright, 1922
BT
Bdbxau of National Litebatdbb
La Abra
Encyclopedic Index
Labor
La Abra Silver Mining Go., claim of
against Mexico, 4697, .4760, 4982,
4987, 5193, 5502, 6432, 6679.
La Crosse, Wis., bridge over Missis-
sippi Eiver.at, 4148.
La Manche, The, appropriation for
claims regarding, recommended, 3399.
La Pensee, The, judicial proceedings
against, referred to, 706.
La Plata River:
Transactions in region of, affecting
political relations with other , pow-
ers referred to, 3890, 3898, 3899.
Treaties regarding navigation of,
2813.
Labor (see Commerce and Labor, De-
partment of) :
Alien, discussed, 6065, 6348, 6455.
Arbitration. (See Labor Arbitration.)
Benefits to, through efficient guid-
ance, 6973, 7071.
Capital and, discussed, 6715, 6899,
8390, 8713, 8773, 8816, 8817, 8818.
Child, discussed, 6898, 6980, 6983,
7035, 7436. (See also Child Labor.)
Chinese, exclusion of, 6650. (See also
Chinese Immigration.)
Commodity status of, wrong), 8818.
Compensated plantation, referred to,
3470.
Conditions for, 6650.
Contract —
Convict, should be abolished, 6650.
Foreign, should be excluded, 6649.
Cooperation of, in prosecution of
war, praised, 8389.
Courts and, 7210. (See also Injunc-
tions.)
Demand of, for judiciary legislation,
discussed, 7209.
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 4979, 5095, 5111, 5359.
Grant, 4255.
Lincoln, 3258.
Roosevelt, 6715, 6786, 6895, 6898,
6973, 6983, 7035, 7089, 7205, 7210,
7213.
Taft, 7431, 7436, 7540, 7865.
Wilson, 8029, 8030, 8144, 8159,
8183, 8255, 8349, 8359, 8389, 8390,
8576, 8713, 8773, 8783, 8816, 8818.
Disputes (see also Labor Arbitra-
tion)—
Discussed by President Wilson,
8359.
Investigation of, effect of, 7036. .
Injunctions in, power of courts to
grant, discussed, 6983, 7027, 7086,
7123, 7190, 7213, 7341, 7378, 7431,
7524. (See also Injunctions.)
Settlement of, successive stops for,
7089.
Eight-hour day urged for, 6650, 7540,
8144, 8l83.
B-1
Extremist leaders of, denounced, 8773.
Freedom of, 8389.
Government —
Appointment of, 6707, 6781, 6804.
Eight-hour day for 6348, 6455, 7540.
Relations with, 6648, 6715, 6897.
Ten-hour day, on public work
ordered, 1819.
Hours of —
Railroads, on, discussed, 6982, 7035,
8144, 8183. (See Railroads.)
Uniform course regarding, urged,
1819.
Wages of Government employees
not to be affected by reduction
in, 3969, 4129.
Injunctions against, discussed, 6983,
7027, 7086, 7123, 7190, 7213, 7341,
7378, 7431, 7524.
Laws of states, compilation of, urged,
6898.
Leaders ' attitude toward courts, 7210.
League of Nations and, provisions
concerning, and, discussed, 8671,
8680, 8758, 8792.
Lockouts, compulsory investigation
of, urged, 7088.
Loyalty of, 8349.
Organizations' exemption from pro-
vision of Anti-trust Law —
Approved by President Roosevelt,
7194, 7343.
Disapproved by President Taft,
7865.
Peace treaty with Germany's provi-
sions regarding, discussed, 8671,
8680, 8755, 8792.
Railroad. (See Hours of.)
Standards must hot be lowered in
war times, 8255.
Strikes —
Denounced —
Carpenters in shipyards, 8450.
Coal industry, 8797.
Machinists in Bridgeport, 8581.
Policemen, 8796.
War-time, 8773. ,
feight of, supported, 8819.
Tariff protection of, against foreign
competition, 6649. (See also Tariff.)
Unclassified, to be appointed, 6707,
6780.
Union, in government service, 6897.
Unskilled, recruiting of, through Fed-
eral Employment Service, 8526.
Welfare of, 7205.
Woman, 7035. (See also Women in In-
dustry.)
Labor Agitator. — Any person who agitates
for the Improvement of the conditions of
the laboring class. Usually used contemp-
tuously to descrijje the organizers of the
American Federation of Labor or of other
trade unions (q. v.), the Implication of
Labor
Encyclopedic Index
Labor Arbitration
the term in this sense being that 8uch per-
son is endeavoring to make, workingmen
discontented without improving their con-
dition. (See Agitator.)
Iiabor, American Federation of. — This
body arose largely through the failure of
the Knights of Labor (q. v.), and soon
took the latter's place as the most power-
ful organization of workers in the United
States. The Knights of Labor had failed
largely because of Its entrance into politics
and of the secrecy and other characteristics
Incident upon its status as a fraternal body.
The American Federation of Labor therefore
at the outset determined to function as
an economic force entirely, although of late
years it has pursued a policy of "rewarding
its friends and punishing its enemies" at
elections. Except for the Socialist Party
and the American Labor Party (organized
in 1919-1920 by non-Socialist workers, many
of them A. F. of L. members who believed
In the political organization of Labor), the
United States has been practically the only
great Western Power without a political
labor party of great strength.
The preliminary organization meeting of
the American Federation of Labor was held
in 1881 at Terre Haute, Indiana ; and the
first convention, at which the name of
"Federation of Organized Trades and Labor
Unions of the United States and Canada"
was adopted, was held in Pittsburgh, Pa., in
November of the same year. The organizers
were to a great extent members of the
Knights of Industry and the American
Labor Union, the latter composed chiefly
of seceding members of the Knights of
Labor. The present name was not adopted
until December 8, 1886, when the organi-
zation amalgamated with an Independent
trade union congress. From 1886- to 1921,
with the exception of 1894, the president
was Samuel Gompers.
The membership of the American Federa-
tion of Labor rose from some 45,000 in 1881
to more than 250,000 in 1892, whence it
remained largely stationary until 1899,
when it rose to 325,000. It went over
1,000,000 in 1902, reaching 1,676,200 In
1904. It then declined slightly for a
number of years until 1911, when it rose
to 1,761,835. It went over 2,000,000 in
1914, and its recent growth has been as
follows :
1915 1,946,347
1916 2,072,702
1917 2,371,434
1918 2,726,478
1919 3,260,068
1920 4,078,470
The last fiscal year showed receipts oif
$654,688 to the Federation, with expendi-
tures of $587,517.
The organization is a federation In tact
as well as In name, most of its members
being affiliated with it through ' their
national and international unions. There
are 111 of the latter, -with 4C state federa-
tions, 816 central city bodies, 884 local trade
and federal labor unions, 33,852 local
unions, five departments and 573 local de-
partment councils. All elected officers must
be members of unions connected with the
Federation. Most of the unions In the A.
F. of L. are organized according to craft,
that is, the various subdivisions of a general
industry such as bricklayers, carpenters,
hodearriers, painters, plasterers, roofers, of
the general building industry; hut there
are a few industrial unions, comprising all
tile membership connected with an industry,
Irrespective of individual trade, such as the
Brewery Workers and the United Mine
Workers.
There are many Socialists within the
unions comprising the A. F. of L., but the
Socialists are a distinct minority. The
most important labor bodies outside the
American Federation of Labor are the four
railway brotherhoods, which by 1920 were
considering joining it; the Amalgamated
Clothing Workers; the Amalgamated Tex-
tile Workers.
Among the measures for which the Fed-
eration has fought are the eight-hour day,
one and one-half days' holiday each week,
restriction of Immigration, the abolition of
child labor, opposition to compulsory labor
arbitration, opposition to the use of in-
junctions in labor disputes, the abolition of
tenement and sweatshop labor, the closed
shop, employers' liability and workmen s
compensation. The Federation is opposed
to minimum wage legislation and prohibi-
tion.
An unofficial report of the 1920 con-
vention gave the following figures for the
twelve unions of largest membership com-
prised with the A. F. of L. :
Union MemtersMp
1. United Mine Workers 393,600
2. Brotherh'd Carpenters & Joiners 331,500
3. International Ass'n Machinists 330,800
4. Brotherhood Clerks & Freight
Haulers 186,000
5. Brotherh'd Carmen (Shopmen) 182,101)
6. Maintenance of Way (R. R.)
Employees '154,060
7. Brotherhood Electrical Workers 139,200
S. iirotherhood Teamsters &
ChaufCcurs 110,800
9. International Ladies' Garment
Workers 105,400
10. United Textile Workers 104,900
11. Broth'd Painters & Decorators 103,100
12. Brotherhood Boilermakers &
Shipbuilders 103,0011
•Under suspension.
(See also Trade Unions and Labor Arbi-
tration.)
Labor, American Federation of, address
o'f President Wilson before, 8386.
Labor Arbitration. — ^A 1 1 h o u g h definite
steps for the arbitration of disputes be-
tween Labor and Capital have not been
taken on a large and efCective scale until
the last several decades, records exist of
much industrial arbitration before the
twentieth century. The medieval guilds
were guided to an extent by industrial
arbitration, although the arbitration was
usually determined by the legal authorities.
The English Statutes of Laborers in 1351
attempted to provide for compulsory labor,
but unsuccessfully. In France, councils of
experts (conseila des prud'hommes) con-
nected with the guilds in the silk industry,
functioned successfully from medieval times
until the French Revolution and were
officially resurrected in 1806, although La-
bor was not given representation on them
until 1809 and was not given equal repre-
sentation until 1848. By the sixteenth cen-
tury, compulsory arbitration of disputes be-
tween individual masters and their work-
men by local magistrates had become com-
mon in England.
In the nineteenth century, England led
the way in provisions tor labor legislation.
Laws of 1800, 1803, 1804, and 1813 pro-
vided for compulsory arbitration in the
cotton ' trade. The act of 1824 extended
arbitration to all trades, but insured the
principle •f freedom of contract by making
Labor Arbitration
Encyclopedic Index
Labor Arbitration
mutual consent of workmen and employers
necessary before local magistrates could en-
force arbitration by appointing one arbitra-
tor from each side in the dispute. In 1887,
the local magistrate was empowered to en-
force compulsory arbitration, at the re-
quest of either side, by -means of an equal
number of arbitrators from each side. After
the middle of the century, joint boards of
conciliation and arbitration in indlTldual
industries became common.
In 1889, the City of London provided for
a permanent board of conciliation and
arbitration for all trade disputes within the
city. In 1896, the British Government was
authorized to take official steps toward aid-
ing conciliation and arbitration In Industrial
disputes, and since that time Governmental
and private arbitration in industrial dis-
putes has increased in both scope and num-
ber, as Labor has become more powerful and
as strikes have become more numerous. The
passage of a number of social insurance
laws, such as minimum wage and health in-
surance laws, has affected the British situa-
tion of recent years, as has the fact that
British Labor, although far better organ-
ized Industrially than American Labor, has
organized a political party of its own, and
thus is more prone than American Labor to
resort to political rather than to industrial
or direct action to gain the fundamental
changes It desires.
In 1912, 74%% of the Industrial disputes
in England were settled In favor of the
workers, 14%% In favor of the employers,
with 11% compromised. In that year, 1,-
223,000 workers were directly affected by
industrial disputes, of which more than 1,-
000,000 were affected by disputes concern-
ing wages and 121,000 were affected by dis-
putes concerning unionism. The total num-
ber of working days represented by the
duration of the disputes was more than
38,000,000.
In France, the councils of experts were
given official sanction in 1806, and by the
end of the century there were some 125
such in operation. The existence of trades
unions was not legalized until 1884. In
1892, a conclUation and arbitration law
was passed by the Government which
facilitated private conciliation and Govern-
mental arbitration by local magistrates ;
but, as in the case of England by this time,
the arbitration was voluntary, not com-
pulsory. In the next ten years, there were
almost 6,000 strikes and lockouts, in 1,400
of which conciliation and arbitration were
attempted. About 600 of these 1,400 at-
tempts were successful. In the majority of
cases, the attempts at settlement were
initiated by the workers, and in only 42
eases by the employers. In 1912, there
were 1,116 strikes In France, with 268,000
strikers, affecting 6,656, establishments and
totaling 2,318,000 workdays lost. About
17% of the strikes were wholly successful
and 34% were compromised, with 49% lost.
The situation in France has been affected
not only by the growth of Socialism, but
also by the growth of syndicalism, which
aims at complete Industrial unionism (One
Big Union) and which on several occasions
has called general strikes for political
purposes.
Germany was more backward In indus-
trial development than the other great
Powers of Europe, and 'until 1890 had only
private facilities for the settlement of in-
dustrial disputes. In 1890 and again in
1901 laws were passed which gave Govern-
mental assistance to industrial conciliation
and arbitration. The system was that of
providing industrial courts for voluntary
arbitration.
Compulsory ArMtraUon in New Zealand
and Australia — As outlined above, arbitra-
tion of recent date in Europe has been
chiefly voluntary, but in Australasia there
are forms of compulsory arbitration. In
1894, and by -amendments of later years,
New Zealand provided for 'boards gf oon-
dUation, consisting of an equal number of
representatives from the parties to indus-
trial , disputes, the former selecting an im-
partial chairman. The representatives were
elected for periods of three years. When
conciliation fails, the dispute passes to a
court of arbitration, appointed by the Gov-
ernment, one member from a list prepared
by employers, one from a list prepared by
employees, and one of the judges of the
Supreme Court. Strikes and lockouts are
forbidden while the case was pending. The
awards, which are enforced by the Govern-
ment, often cover large sections of the in-
dustry Involved, and often large stretches
of territory. This arrangement was made
possible by what practically amounted to
Government encouragement of trades unions,
since no worker was entitled to recognition
by the Government in disputes unless he
were a member of his union.
As a matter of fact, the law is only
partially compulsory, strikes and lockouts
being forbidden only when the dispute has
been referred to conciliation or arbitration,
or where there is not an industrial agree-
ment. Moreover, the law does not apply
to unregistered unions, which are without
the scope of the law. Even in cases not
falling under the above provision, notice
must be given to the Minister of Labor, who
must refer the matter to an industrial com-
mission or commissioner. If no settlement
is affected within fourteen days from the
delivery of the notice to the Minister, the
Labor Department must conduct a secret
ballot, and then seven days must elapse be-
fore cessation of work. In practice, how-
ever, the law almost eliminated strikes,
as from 1895 to 1915 there were but 22
active and 31 sympathetic strikes within the
law and only 95 strikes of unregistered
unions. The awards are enforced by the
Infliction of light fines upon violators,
which have proved to be etEective. More-
over, at any time during the progress of
the strike, 5% of the workers concerned
may compel a secret ballot on any question
involved in the strike. The conciliation
councils also proved most successful — from
1909 to 1915, they settled without the neces-
sity of reference to the court of arbitration
about 600 or 700 or so cases submitted to
them. The Government enforces the private
agreements made in disputes between em-
ployees and employers.
In Australia, there is compulsory arbitra-
tion in all the states except Victoria and
Tasmania, which regulate industrial dis-
putes by wage boards, but do not prohibit
strikes, except on railways. The Govern-
ment of Australia also enforces compulsory
arbitration In disputes extending beyond
any one state. As in New Zealand, the
emphasis Is on conciliation, rather than on
arbitration. The law in New South Wales
Is patterned after the New Zealand law, but
has been less successful, particularly in
mining disputes. The voluntary agreements
in all the Australian states have the force
of a legal award, and are registered by the
Government. In Australia, the judge sits
alone in the arbitration court, and since the
Labor Arbitratioa
Encyclopedic Index
Labor Arbitration
awards must go Into the details of Industry,
in effect the Government actively Inter-
venes in the management of private busi-
ness, laying dovfu conditions of employment
which must be obeyed by Capital no less
than by Labor. Sometimes the award
covers the entire Industry involved whether
all of it has been affected by the dispute
or not. It is reported that until recently
this system almost abolished striljes ; but of
late years it has seemed to be more and
more ineffective. Most of the Australian
states have declared strikes and lockouts
illegal under practically all conditions.
Compulsory arbitration has not been so
successful in Australia and New Zealand
of recent years as previously.
In the United States — So far as is known
the first strike in this country was in New
Y()rk among the journeymen bakers in 1741.
The journeymen shoemakers of Philadelphia
struck in 1796, 1798. 1799 and 1805. In
New York sailors organized a strike in
1802. From 1830 to 1840 occurred a num-
ber of strikes for the ten-hour day, and by
that time strikes had become common phe-
nomena.
The first instance of arbitration In the
United States occurred early in the nine-
teenth century, among the copper miners of
Connecticut. In 1865 the first trade agree-
ment resulted — in the iron industry ; and
was followed by another in 1867. In 1870,
at Lynn, Mass., in the centre of the shoe
manufacturing district, a board of indus-
trial arbitration was established.
The board consisted of five representa-
tives of the Knights of St. Crispin, the
union powerful in that industry, and five
representatives of the manufacturers. It
represented chiefiy an agreement concern-
ing wages ; but the agreement was abro-
gated in 1872, after which time the man-
ufacturers were able to maintain the upper
hand.
In 1877, the occurrence of the great rail-
road strikes awoke the country for the first
time to the serious problem presented by
the antagonism between capital and labor
and to the fact that the strength of labor
organizations could no longer be disre-
ga:rded. *
The first state law providing for in-
dustrial arbitration was passed in Mary-
land, the home of the great railroad strikes
in the period around 1877, on April 1,
1878 ; but seems never to have been used.
It provided for local arbitration only. New
Jersey passed a more comprehensive law
in 1880. By 1916, two-thirds of the states
in the Union had passed lawg providing for
som^ form of industrial arbitration. Of
the sixteen states which have no such laws,
eight are in the South, where capital Is still
able to preserve much of a paternalistic at-
titude towards labor.
There are two chief forms of arbitra-
tion in the United States. One provides
for a permanent state board of arbitration,
always on hand to render its services. The
other provides for voluntary arbitration by
local hoards when the need for it arises.
Seventeen states have permanent boards,
nine states have local boards, and nine
states have both forms.
Owing to the opposition of organized la-
bor to compulsory arbitration. In which
respect it is often supported by employers,
all this arbitration is voluntary — and there
is no compulsion to accept the awards and
decisions of the various arbitrating agen-
cies.
About 70% of strikes are ordered by
unions. Half of all Strikes seem to be
successful, 16% partly successful, and
34% unsuccessful. Strikes are much more
successful when organized by unions than
without union control and support. Thirty-
two per cent of strikes are for higher wages,
19% y for recognition of the union and
11% against reduction in wages.
A federal law of 1898, generally called the
Erdman law, provides for the mediation and
arbitration, by the labor bureau of the
Department of Commerce and Labor, in
cases of disputes between interstate com-
mon carriers- and their employees. There
is no power but public 6pinion to compel
resort to arbitration, but this has been
found effective in many cases ; but when
agreed to by both parties to a dispute the
decision of the arbitration is final.
The Newlands Act (q. v.), passed in
1913, created the United States Board of
Mediation and Conciliation. (See Media-
tion and Conciliation, Board of). It con-
sists of a commissioner, assistant commis-
sioner, and two other officials, all appointed
by the President to offer arbitration in dis-
putes between capital and labor. Some
idea of its services may be gained from
the fact that in three years (1913-1916)
it applied mediation successfully in 45 of
56 controversies between railroad employ-
ers and employees, and arbitration suc-
cessfully In the 11 other cases. The Board,
however, may play the part merely of a
voluntary mediator, organized labor resist-
ing bitterly all attempts at compulsory
arbitration, under the plea that such pro-
cedure deprives employees of their right to
strike and in other ways obtain their ends.
In September, 1916, when the Railroad
Brotherhoods threatened to strike in or-
der to obtain an eight-hour day, mediation
failed ; and a strike was averted only by
act of Congress, called the Adamson Law
(see Railroads, Eight Hour Day).
After the entrance of the United States
into the World War, the various bodies
concerned with the production problems
of the conflict, such as the Council of
National Defence (q. v.), had sub-divisions
functioning to meet the problem of labor.
Before the United States had been in the
war a year, however, the Department of
Labor had taken central supervision of
the labor problem. During the first year of
the American participation in the War, the
Department of Labor announced that it
had handled almost nine hundred labor
controversies, affecting directly some 1,300,-
000 workers. The efforts of the Depart-
ment failed in less than eighty cases,
whereas of the cases adjusted some 85 per
cent were settled by the efforts of the
Department alone, the remainder being
settled by state and local bodies with the
assistance of the Department. The magni-
tude of the task soon outgrew the organiza-
tion of the Department of Labor, with the
result that there was organized the War
Labor Board (q. t.).
The Lever Bill (see Food Control Law)
passed during the World War was utilized
by the Government in 1919 to prevent a
strike in the bituminous coal industry. The
Attorney General, declaring that the unions
fell within the provisions of the law bor-
bidding conspiracy to hinder production,
filed an injunction compelling the leaders
to call off the strike. The Lever Law was
also used to prosecute striking railway
workers in the follov?ing year.
Labor Arbitration
Encyclopedic Index
Labor Arbitration
Great interest has been aroused of re-
cent years by the passage of a law In Kansas
providing for compulsory arbitration of
labor disputes within the state. By the
provisions of the law, which was enapted
in January, 1920, against the bitter opposi-
tion of organized labor and, to an extent,
of employers, the Public Utilities Commis-
sion was reorganized and became known as
the Industrial Court. It consisted of three
Judges appointed for three years, with ■
annual salaries of $5,000 each. In addition
to its old power of supervising public
utilities and common carriers, it was given
jurisdiction over the operation of industries
affecting the public interest. It was given
the power to suspend old standards of wages
and prices and to fix new standards of
working conditions, including both wages
and prices. On order of the court, the state
may even take over the industry concerned.
It is the duty of the Industrial Court to
investigate all industrial disputes, and to
enforce its findings. Strikes and lockouts
for the purpose of violating the law are
punishable ; but on the other hand the
right of collective bargaining is recognized,
employers are forbidden to discharge em-
ployees for appearing before the Industrial
Court, and a contract found by the Court
to be unfair may be changed by the Court
even during the period of its existence. The '
right to picket is denied.
With this exception, labor arbitratiop in
the United States has been chiefly volun-
tary, and has resulted from private negotia-
tions between labor unions and employers
affected. There is a notable record of such
private arbitration. Probably the most
significant record of industrial peace by
arbitration in the United States has
occurred in the garment industry, particu-
larly through the Amalgamated Clothing
Workers of America. The ground was
broken by an agreement for arbitration,
known as the protocol, in New York City
after a disastrous strike in 1910, which
provided permanent methods for the arbi-
trament of disputes. Not only was the
union recognized and the standards of wages
and hours fixed, but also there were pro-
visions for joint boards of sanitary control,
a grievance committee and a permanent
arbitration board. A similar agreement in
the Hart, Schatfner and Marx shops in
Chicago paved the way for the adoption
of ari>itration in other individual shops, so
that by 1920 most of the clothing industry
in the United States was operating under
complicated but effective measures for the
prevention of strikes by joint conciliation
and arbitration. It is to be noted that
the Amalgamated Clothing Workers is a
union outside of the American Federation
of Labor, is officially Socialistic and is com-
posed to a very large extent of foreign-
born.
The Second Industrial Congress convened
by President Wilson in the winter of 1919-
1920 to consider means of minimizing in-
dustrial unrest proposed a national in-
dustrial tribunal and twelve regional boards
of inquiry and adjustment for the lessen-
ing of labor disputes in the United States.
The plan would have compliance with the
terms of the arbitration largely voluntary,
thus making strikes more difficult, rather
than forbidding them, counting on public
opinion to make the arbitration binding in
practice.
After the close of the World War, Govern-
mental steps for labor arbitration became
more common throughout Europe. With
widespread distress due to under-production,
arbitration became more essential than ever
to prevent strikes. Labor, both politically
and industrially had achieved a more power-
ful place than ever before in the Govern-
ments of practically all European countries,
and thus Governmental arbitration was
made more acceptable to the workers.
In England for instance, the war-time In-
dustrial Court for the whole country, with
all the authority of a Government body,
was made permanent after the War.
General Remarhs. — There are certain
factors reacting upon the labor arbitration
situation in the United States which make
that situation different from the situation
in other countries. In the first place, the
United States is the only great Western
Power in which organized Labor has not
formed a political labor party to advance
Its ends, instead of trusting only to its
economic power. Thus in the United States
Labor has no ofiicial connection with the
Government, whereas Governments in Aus-
tralia, for instance, have been practically
Labor Governments. Therefore, Labor in
"the United States tends to be far more sus-
picious of and opposed to Governmental
arbitration than Labor in Australia.
In the second place, the industrial pre-
tensions of Labor are more fully recognized
in Australia and New Zealand, for instance,
than in the United States. As an example,
most great industrial countries have con-
ceded the principle of the closed shop m
industry to a greater extent than has the
United States. Similarly, Australia has
protected the worker by laws against low
wages, child laboi, unemployment, old age,
111 health, unsanitary and dangerous con-
ditions of employment, etc., questions which
in the United States are among the prime
causes of strikes. Thus the countries gen-
erally cited as those most prominent in
enforcing compulsory arbitration of strikes
are those which by legislation have re-
moved most of the causes of strikes.
In the third place. Labor in other
countries employs not only the economic
weapon, but also the political weapon. In
most of the countries on the Continent of
Europe, Socialism is either in control, or
has a position of great power ; and England,
where Socialism is weak, has a very power-
ful British Labor Party which is Socialistic
in almost everything but name. In Australia
and New Zealand, Labor can also achieve
many of its desires by the political strength
of its political party. Therefore, in the
United States Labor is more prone to gain
its ends by resorting to its industrial
strength than in most of the other great in-
dustrial nations, although in Italy and
France the strength of the syndicalism has
tended to foment strikes.
Finally, the rights of private enterprise
are more zealously guarded in the United
States than in countries like Australia and
New Zealand. We have seen that coinpul-
sory arbitration in those countries has
been made possible only by giving the Gov-
ernment control over private business to an
extent which American employers at the
present time would not be likely to tolerate.
On the whole, therefore, it appears that
the opposition of organized' Labor in the
United States to compulsory arbitration of
industrial disputes and even to Government-
ally-enforced voluntary arbitration will con-
tinue for some time ; and that whatever
Labor Arbitration
Encyclopedic Index
Labor Statistics
Labor arbitration will continue here will be,
as previously, chiefly In the forms of private
voluntary agreements between Capital and
Labor, Industry by industry or plant by
plant.
(See also Strikes ; Trades Unions ; Media-
tion and Conciliation ; Labor ; Business ;
Socialism.)
La'bor Arbitration:
Discussed, 8819.
Failure of, in railroad disputes, 8145,
8184.
Machinery for compulsory investiga-
tion of controversies between em-
ployers and employees recommend-
ed, 6345, 6348, 7036, 7089.
Steps for, during war with Germany,
8359.
War Labor Board created, 8485.
Labor, Bureau of, enlargement of, by
adding power of arbitration rec-
ommended, 4979, 5111.
Conciliation work of, commended,
7540.
Work of, discussed, 6898.
Labor, Commission of, establishment
of, with power of arbitration recom-
mended, 4979, 5111.
Labor, Commissioner of:
Annual report of, transmitted, 5502,
5569, 5674, 5782, 5909.
Eeports of, on —
Building and loan associations,
5909.
Compulsory insurance of working-
men in Germany, etc., 5782.
Gothenburg system of regulating
liquor traffic, 5785.
Housing of working people, 6001.
Industrial education, 5782.
Slums of cities, 5911.
Labor Day. — The first Monday in Septem-
ber has been made a holiday. in practically
all states (see Holiday) in honor of Labor.
It was first thus observed by Colorado in
18S7. Meetings for the general discussion
of labor questions are usually held. There
are usually parades, picnics, and dances.
In Europe May 1 Is celebrated as a labor
festival and there are demonstrations by
worklngmen.
Labor Bay, significance of, discussed,
8576, 8783.
Labor, Department of. — in response to
petitions from labor organizations and
trade unions for a department of the gov-
ernment to. look after their interests the
Bureau of Labor was established in the
Interior Department by act of Congress
of June 27. 1884. After an existence of
four years the bureau was raised to the
dignity of a department June 13, 1888, and
Carroll D. Wright was placed at its head
as Commissioner. He was later succeeded
by Charles P. Neill. When Congress es-
tablished the Department of Commerce and
Labor Feb. 14, 1903, the activities In be-
half of labor were placed under the Juris-
diction of the new secretary. (See Com-
merce, Department of.)
The Sixty-second Congress, on the last
day of its third session, March 4, 1913,
separated the Department of Commerce
and Labor into the Department of Com-
merce and the Department of Labor.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics, the
Children's Bureau and the Bureaus of Im-
migration and Naturalization were placed
under the new Secretary, with directions
to. Investigate and report to Congress a
plan for the co-ordination of .the powers
of the present bureaus, commissions and
departments so far as they relate to labor
and its conditions, in order to harmonize
and unify them. The new Secretary was
charged with the duty of fostering, promot-
ing, and developing the welfare of the
wage-earners of the United States, im-
proving their worting conditions, and ad-
vancing their opportunities for profitable
employment. He has power under the law
to act as mediator and to appoint commis-
siohers of conciliation in labor disputes
whenever in his judgment the interests of
industrial peace may require it to be done.
William Bauchop Wilson, member of
Congress from Pennsylvania, who had been
chairman of the House Committee on La-
bor, was made the first Secretary.
For more detailed information of the
scope of the activities of the Labor Depart-
ment, consult the Index references to the
President's Messages and Encyclopedic
articles under the following headings :
Children's Bureau. Commissioner of
Commissioner of Naturalization.
Immigration. Immigration.
Commissioner of
Labor Statistics.
Labor, Department of (see also Com-
merce and Labor, Department of) :
Cost of living investigations of,
8786. .
Soldiers' and Sailors' re-employment,
plans of, for, discussed, 8715, 8813.
War-time activities of, discussed,
8641.
Labor, International Exposition of, at
Barcelona, Spain, discussed, 5177,
5399.
Labor, Knights of. (See Knights of
Labor.)
Labor Parties. (See the several par-
ties.)
Labor Heform Party. — This party was
organized in 1872, and in Convention at
Columbus, Ohio, placed in nomination David
Davis for President, and Joel Parker for
Vice President, adopting a platform call-
ing for just distribution of the fruits of
labor.
Labor, Secretary of, war housing pro-
gram placed under, 8527.
(See also Commerce and Labor.)
Labor Statistics. (See Commissioner of
Labor Statistics.)
Labor Statistics, Bureaus of. — Many
states and the United States have bureaus
of labor statistics. The first office of the
kind was established in Massachusetts by
an act of June 23, 1869. Others were estab-
lished as follows : In Pennsylvania in
1872; Connecticut in 1873 (abolished In
1875 and reestablished in 1885) ; Ohio In
Labor Statistics
Encyclopedic Index
Lake Erie
1877 ; New Jersey in 1878 ; Indiana, Mis-
souri and Illinois in 1879 ; California, Wis-
consin, New York, and Michigan in 1883 ;
Maryland and Iowa in 1884. Thirteen
states other than those named have organ-
ized labor 'oureaus.
La'bor Statistics, Bureau of, act to es-
tablish, omissions in, referred to,
4807.
Labrador. (See Newfoundland.)
Iiading, Bills of, enactment preventing
issue of fraudulent, recommended,
7553.
Lady Franklin Bay Expedition, expe-
dition fitted out for relief of, 4835.
Board to consider expedition to be
sent, 4813.
Offer of rewards for rescuers of, dis-
cussed, 4795.
Eeeommended, 4693, 4787.
Vessel presented by Great Britain
to United States to aid in, 4791.
■Return of, to Great Britain, 4917.
Eeeommended, 4855.
Lafayette, Ind., act for erection of
public buildings at, vetoed, 5154.
Lafitte & Co., memorial from trustees
of, presented, 1648.
La FoUette Seamen's Act. (See Sea-,
men's Act.)
Laissez-faire. — Meaning "leave alone."
The theory that the Government shall not
interfere with private Industry.
The laissez-faire creed became influential
in the eighteenth century, and was made
almost supreme In economic thought by
Adam Smith, who founded modern scientific
political economy by the publication of his
"Wealth of Nations," in 1776. His followers
and elaborators followed this doctrine and
it guided most economic reasoning until the
middle of the nineteenth century, when It
began to decline. The laissez-faire belief
was that individual self-interest coincided
wilh public interest in industry, since by
the influence of competition the public
would patronize those goods produced under
the best conditions rather than those pro-
duced under more anti-social conditions. Thus
the laissez-faire creed was largely responsible
for the delay In enacting laws to protect
women and children in industry, to pro-
vide tor Governmental sanitary inspection,
to guard the public against adulterated
products, and in other ways to protect both
workers and public to an extent now seen
to be necessary for the public welfare.
Lake Borgne (La.), Battle of.— The
British army, repulsed at Baltimore, retired
to the island of Jamaica. Being there re-
inforced by a sufiicient number to make a
total of above 7,000 men, it sailed Jrom
•Jamaica Nov. 26, 1814, in Admiral Coch-
rane's ships, with the intention of capturing
New Orleans, and thus securing possession
of the Mississippi Elver and the Territory
of Louisiana. Early in December Daniel T
Patterson, commanding the naval station at
New Orleans, sent Lieut. Thomas A. C.
Jones with seven small vessels, mounting
2S guns and carrying 182 men, to intercept
the British fleet. The British, December
14. 1814, manned sixty barges with 1,200
volunteers from the fleet, under Capt. Lock-
yer, and sent them out to destroy the
American gunboats. The battle took place
on Lake Borgne, and lasted almost an hour.
Several of the British barges were shattered
and sunk and about 300 men killed and
wounded. The Americans lost only 6 men
killed and 35 wounded. The American gun-
boats were captured, which gave the British
control of Lake Borgne.
Lake Champlain, Battle of. — ^After arriv-
ing at the head of Lake Champlain, Sept.
6, 1814, Governor-General Frevost awaited
the co-operation of the British fleet on the
lake. Sept. 11 Capt Downie's sguadron
rounded Cmnberland Head. It consisted of
the frigate Confidence, brig Linnet, sloops
Chub and Finch, and twelve gunboats — in
all, sixteen vessels, of about 2,402 tons, with
937 men and a total of ninety-two guns,
throwing a broadside of 1,192 pounds. In
Cumberland or Plattsburg Bay, awaiting the
attack, lay the American squadron, under
Capt. Thomas Macdonough, then only 28
years of age. It consisted of the ship
Saratoga, brig 'Eagle, schooner Tieonderoga,
sloop Preble, and ten gunboats — in all, four-
teen vessels, of 2,244 tons and 882 men,
with eighty-six guns, throwing a broadside
of 1,194 pounds. Kneeling beside his heav-
iest gun, surrounded by his men, the young
captain Invoked divine protection and guid-
ance. The first shot from the Saratoga was
aimed by Macdonough and went entirely
through the» flagship of the British squad-
ron, demolishing her wheel. The battle
raged two hours and twenty minutes, when
every British vessel struck her colors. Both
squadrons were badly crippled. The British
loss was more than 200, including Captain
Downie. The American loss was HO, of
whom 52 were killed.
Lake Champlain:
Act to authorize construction of
bridge across portion of, vetoed,
5060.
Insurgents on, proclamation against
authorizing militia officers . to dis-
pel by force, 438.
Victory of American squadron on.
534.
Lake Erie, Battle of. — In 1813 the Amer-
icans, under great dlfBculties, constructed
a fleet of war vessels at Presque Isle
now Erie, Pa., for service in the lakes.
Aug. 12. 1813, the American squadron, con-
sisting of the Lawrence, Niagara, Caledonia,
Ariel, Somers, Tigress, Scorpion, Porcupine,
Ohio, and Trippe, manned by less than 400
>mcers and men, under Capt. Oliver H
Perry, set forth in search of Barclay's
British squadron of six vessels, manned by
nore than 500 men. Sept. 10 Perry's look-
, mt sighted the enemy. At 10 o'clock in the
■taornmg the signal for action was run up to
the masthead of the Lawrence. It bore
the words of the dying Capt. Lawrence, of
the Ciiesapeake : "Don't give up the ship "
During the action the Lawrence was dis-
abled and Perry transferred his flag to the
Niagara. At 3 o'clock in the afternoon the
flag of the British flagship was struck.
The firing ceased. It was the first time an
American fleet had met a British fleet in
regular line of battle. The engagement was
fairly fought, with the Americans at a dis-
advantage, and the British fleet surrendered
Perry sent word to Gen. Harrison : "We
have met the enemy and they are ours."
The British loss In the action was 135
41 of whom were killed. The Americans
lost 123, 27 of whom were killed. (See
illustration opposite page 561.)
Lake Erie
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
Lake Erie:
Rise of waters of, referred to, 1563.
Victory of American squadron on,
519.
Lake Erie Depth Bsgulations, report
transmitted on, 7477.
Lake Memphremagog, practicability of
connecting Connecticut Eiver with,
873.
Lake Michigan, improvement of har-
bors and rivers on, 2764. j
Lake of the Woods, boundary with
Great Britain regarding, referred
to, 4141, 4191, 4243, 4356.
Final report of commissioners re-
ferred to, 4382.
Lake Ontario, movements of Ameri-
can squadron on, 520.
Lake Superior:
Copper mines on shores of, 764.
Mineral lands on, sale of, recom-
mended, 2304.
Lake-to-the-Gulf Deep Waterway Asso-
ciation.— A representative body of men
organized lor the development o£ a deep-
water passage between the Greait Lakes and
the Mississippi and its branches met in Chi-
cago in 1908. In 1909, as result of its
activity, the Kiver and Harbor Appropria-
tion Act carried with It the creation of the
National \\'aterways Commission (q. v.).
(See Conservation Commission.)
Lake Traverse Reservation:
Agreement with Sioux for purchase
of lands in, discussed, 5498.
Opened to settlement by proclama-
tion, 5707.
Eight of way for railroad through,
4788, 4954, 5178.
Lakes, Great. (See Great Lakes; the
several Lakes.)
Lame-Duck. — A term applied in derision
to any legislator who is ineffective ; and
generally to a politician who has "seen bet-
ter days," such as one who has failed of
re-election to office.
Land Grants. — By this name is known the
grant of land to corporations to encourage
and aid the construction of railroads in
portions of the country in Which it would
otherwise be unprofitable. These grants
are usually made directly to the companies.
Before 1862 they were made to the states
m order to enable them to extend aid to cor-
porations within their borders. To every
state, at its admission, Congress has grant-
ed five per cent of the public lands within
its limits on condition of the exemption of
the remainder from state taxation. In 1850
the first grant for railroad purposes was
made. It consisted of about 2,500,000
acres granted to the state of Illinois, and
it was used to aid the Illinois Central Rail-
road. In 1856 about 2.000,000 acres went
to Florida, a similar amount was received^
by Arkansas, w'hile various other states re-
ceived large tracts all more or less used
to encourage railroad building. But the
.grant of colossal areas began with the con-
struction of the Pacific Railroads. The
Union Pacific received 2,000,000 ; the
Kansas Pacific 6.000,000; the Central Pa-
cific (as successor of the Western Pacific)
1,100,000, ahd on its Oregon Branch 3,000,-
000 ; the Oregon and California 3,500,000 ;
the Southern Pacific 6,000,000; and the
Southern Pacific branch line 3,500,000
acres. Among others that received large
grants were the Burlington and Missouri
River and' the Hannibal and St. Joseph.
But the most stupendous grants were those
of 47,000,000 acres tp the Northern Pacific
and of 42,000,000 acres to the Atlantic and
Pacific. From these generous grants a re-
vulsion has set in, and at every session of
Congress bills are now introduced and
every effort is made to forfeit such por-
tions of the land as are not earned by a
strict compliance with the term? of the
grant, thus saving the land for settlement.
Bills revoking the grant of lands not as
.vet earned have been passed ; ambng (the
principal roads affected are the Atlantic
and Pacific, Texas Pacific and Iron Moun-
tain, and over 50,000,000 acres have thus
been recovered. (See Subsidies.)
Land Laws. (See Lands, Public — Laws
regarding.)
Land Office. (See General Land Office.)
Laud Ofaces, Public, act regarding fees
of registers and receivers at, vetoed,
6107.
Land Sales. (See Lands, Public.)
Land Titles. , (See Lands, Indian;
Lands, Public.)
Lands ceded to United States by North
Carolina referred to, 64, 105, 167.
(See also Franklin.)
Lands, Arid.— The great North American
desert possesses all the climatic, geologic
and pHysiographic features of the ■ Desert
of Sahara, in Africa, though only about
one-thl^d as large. It embraces the vast
stretches of country lying between the
Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and
the eastern ranges of the Rocky Mountains
in the United States, and between the
Pacific Ocean and the Sierra Madre Moun-
tains, in Mexico, an area of 1,050,000
sq. miles, of which about half lies in Mexico
and the other half in the United States,
including Nevada, Utah, eastern and south-
ern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and
all of Texas west of the Pecos. In general
this desert is. one of barren, stony mountain
ranges, separated by equally barren
stretches of desert plain, an aggregation of
elongated arid plains and lower mountain
ranges. The individual deserts have sepa-
rate names and each differs from the others
in some notable featurei Like the Sahara,
the American desert is without water on
its surface. Upon its area the average an-
nual rainfall is less than 10 inches — less
than falls in two months in the fertile
states of the east.
With the aid of the railroad and the
mechanical' drill American genius and energy
have conquered the arid plains of the west,
and made them yield double the wealth per
capita of any other portion of the United
States. Like Sahara, the arid plains of
America have an underground supply of
watei-. By the use of the mechanical drill
the deep wells on the mesa at EI Paso
supply 700,000 gallons of- watyer per day,
and the flowing well at Benson and those
of the Salton Desert afford ample supplies
to localities which were formerly hopelessly
dry. The sterile soil of the desert Is ap-
parently more fertile, when artificially
Lands
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
watered, tlian many regions where rainfall
is abundani:. lu the ddseit may be' seen
some of the most skillful and profitable
agriculture in the world. Striking examples
of this are seen in the wheat fields of
Utah and Sonora, the great cotton planta-
tions of Coahulla, Mexico, the alfalfa val-
leys of the Rio Grande and the orchards
of California. The marvelous transforma-
tion wrought by Irrigation Is shown in
Southern California, where communities of
great wealth and culture have sprung up
and where the ideal of perfect conditions
of existence seem to have been attained.
To the reclamation of these arid lands the
attention of Congress has been directed in
recent years, and Federal appropriations for
irrigation are bringing them more and mqre
each year into a state of productiveness.
(See also Irrigation ; Reclamation ; Lands,
Public ; Lands, Desert.)
Lands, Bounty. — A term applied to the
lands in the Northwest Territory belonging
to the eastern commonwealths. Sept. 16,
1776, Congress offered bounty lands to
volunteers in the Revolution, assessing the
money to buy them against the several
states. The term Bounty Lands was also
applied to the Crown Lands before the
Revolution. Lord Dunmore, Governor of
Virginia, was empowei*ed to offer bounties
in land to all officers and soldiers who
served in the French and Indian wars —
5,000 acres to each field officer, 3,000 to
captains, 200 to subalterns or staff officers,
and 50 to private soldiers — up to 200,000
acres. In the King's domain. This was un-
derstood by the Americans to refer to the
lands of the Northwest Teirltory, and
many of them selected choice tracts west
of the Alleghanles. Washington and his
land agent, Crawford, had surveyed 70,000
acres ard secured patents in his own and
other officers' names for 63.000 acres of
which his own share was 32,000.
Lands, Bounty:
Appropriation for carrying out laws
regarding, referred to, 2840.
Frauds in, discussed and recommen-
dations regarding, 2714.
Grant of, to Mexican War soldiers
recommended, 2365.
Granted persons who have been en-
gaged in military service, 555,
2664, 2823.
Eeeommended, 3387.
Referred to, 1844.
Lands, Coal. (See Coal Lands.)
Lands, Crown. — After the treaty of Paris
in 1763, by which Great Britain acquired
Canada and all the country west of the
Mississippi River, a royal proclamation was
Issued setting aside all the lands west of
the colonies and extending to the western
limits of the British possessions as Crown
lands. These lands were reserved for the
use of the Indians and the colonists were
forbidden to make settlements In or pur-
chase of them without permission of the
home Government. After the Revolution
each state laid claim to a portion of the
Crown lands. .
Lands, Desert.— March 3, 1877, Congress
passed the Desert Land law, whleli it sup-
plemented in 1891, by further legislation,
to encourage irrigation by private indi-
viduals and associations. It provides that
any citizen or any person who de4lares his
intention of becoming a citizen, by paying
a registration fee of 25 cents, and aeclar-
Ing his intent to irrigate within three
years, may occupy desert land to the ex-
tent of one section (640 acres) in any one
of a number of specified western states and
territories, and If he reclaims it within
that time may receive a patent for it upou
payment of |1 per acre. He must spend
at least $3 per acre ta irrigation or secur-
ing water rights, and must have secured the
rights before malting application. Associa-
tions may file joint declarations.
Under a recent amendment the settler
may take up 320 acres of arid land upon
payment of 25 cents per acre ; after spend-
ing $1 per year in Improvements for three
years, and proving the ownership of
sufficient water to irrigate the entire tract,
he may secure full title liy payment of $1
per acre to the government. Land so
acquired costs about $10 per acre.
Since 1S77, the date of the passage of
the act relating to desert lands, there have
been 153,083 original entries, covering 31,-
745,429 acres and $7,629,824, and 42,256
final entries, covering 7,921,680 acres and
$8,031,052.
During the last fiscal year, 1,675 final
desert-land entries were patented, Involving
267,000 acres.
Lands, Desert:
Discussed, 5380.
Fraud under, 7302.
Eepeal or' modification of laws re-
garding, recommended, 5107.
Lands, Gas:
Leasing of, recommended, 7303, 7534,
7568.
Licensing of prospectors for, 7534,
7568.
Withdrawal of, from entry, diSeussed,
7303, 7535.
Lands, Grazing:
Control of, 7304.
Extent of, 7004, 7096.
Fences on, illegal, 7096.
Lands, Homestead.— The Federal Home-
stead laws begin with the act of Congress
passed In 1862, now sections 2289-2317,
United States Revised Statutes. The ob-
ject of these homestead land laws is to give
portions of the public lands to those who
will settle, cultivate, and make permanent
homes upon them. Any person who is the
head of a family or who Is a citizen of the
United States, or who has filed his declara-
tion of becoming such, may acquire a tract
of unappropriated public land not exceeding
160 acres, on condition of settlement, culti-
vation and continuous occupancy as a home
for himself for a period of five years, and
the payment of certain moderate fws. Un-
der the provision of this law more than
85,000,000 acres of unoccupied lands have
been transferred to homeseekers. During
the year 1901 alone the original homestead
entries, final and commuted entries, aggre-
gated 111,390, and covered 15,455,057 acres.
Time of service in the United States army,
navy, marine corps, during the Rebellion;
the Spanish War or the Philippine Insur-
rection may be deducted from the term
of continuous occupancy of a homestead.
The homestead law gives the settler two
options : he can settle upon, enter and ac-
?uire title to 160 acres of land practically
ree of cost by maintaining residence
thereon for five years ; or he may at the
Lands
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
end of fourteen months of such continuous
residence secure a patent from the govern-
ment by paying $1.25 per acre.
By recent enactments. Congress has
raised the limit of lands patented under
the Homestead Acts to 820 acres, or 640
acres for grazing alone.
During the last fiscal year, there were
41,319 final homestead entries, covering
8,236,438 acres. Since 1868, 178,342,112
acres have been thus disposed of, involving
1,186,538 final homestead entries. The
grant of land under the homestead acts
is now the most common form of land
grant In the United States.
Lands, Homestead, manner of drawing
for, described, 6878, 6885.
Lands, Indian. — To quiet the apprehen-
sions of the Indians In the Ohio regions
that their lands were to be granted to
settlers, a royal proclamation was Issued
Oct. 7, 1763, forbidding colonial governors
from mailing land grants west of thn
sources of the rivers fiowing into the At-
lantic. As the result of treaties, purchase
and war, the Indians were eventually trans-
planted to the country west of the Missis-
sippi, the first territorial reservation set
apart for them being June 30, 1834, known
as the Indian Territory. Other reservations
were subsequently set aside for the exclusive
occupation of the Indians, but as the num-
ber of Indians decreased and the covetous-
ness of the whites increased these reser-
vations were either bought outright by the
Government or exchanged for other terri-
tory.
The present status of the lands occupied
by the Indian tribes Is that- the permanent
title is vested in the Government, the
Indians having the right of occupancy,
which may be vacated by the Government.
These Indian lands are often disposed of,
when available, by public auctions or sales.
During the last fiscal year, there were
4,791 original and 5,742 final entries and
segregations of Indian lands, involving
631,316 and 663,683 acres, respectively. The
receipts, sales and interest amounted to
$1,935,377.
Lands, Indian:
Accounts for advertising Kansas,
referred to, 4664.
Act for sale of, vetoed, 4341.
President requests return of bill
for his approval, 4342.
Allotment of, in severalty —
Act providing for, etc., 5498.
Discussed, ,5381, 5480, 5552, 5637,
5761, 5976.
Eeoommended, 561, 4528, 4576,
4643, 4730, 4779, 4783, 4955.
Remonstrance against, 4669.
Survey necessary for, 4943.
Cession of, to United States, agree-
ments for, 423, 426, 585, 603, 903,
931, 1257, 1729, 1818, 2501, 5450,
5552, 5638, 5648, 5649, 5671,
5768.
Amount of cession, 5481.
Commission to negotiate for, 5480,
5481, 5508, 5510, 5512, 5514,
5565, 5567. (See also Commis-
sions.) .
Report of, discussed, 5496.
Negotiations regarding, 5506.
Proclamation regarding, 5450,
5579, 5591, 5707.
Proposition regarding, 5392.
Opened to settlement. (See Lands,
Public.)
Referred to, 167, 256, 331, 335, 360,
362, 375, 422, 425, 890, 1810, 4680.
Sale of, desired by certain tribes,
4075.
Titles to, extinguishment of, referred
to, 585, 769, 1716, 2355, 2501,
2769.
Proclaimed, 1538, 5535.
Trespasses upon, discussed and leg-
islation to prevent, recommended,
937, 1099, 4637, 4676, 4742, 4775,
4853, 4953, 5177, 5178.
Lands, Mineral. — Among the classifica-
tions of public lands made by the General
Land Office is that of Mineral Lands.
These vary from placer locations, at $2.50
an acre, to mining rights at $5, not to
exceed 1,500 by 600 feet, nor less than
1,500 by 50 feet.
Lands, Mineral (see also California;
New Mexico) :
Congressional committees to visit,
recommended, 4309.
Discussed by President —
Roosevelt, 7302.
Taft, 7460, 7559, 7562, 7720.
Referred to, 1809, 2218, 2558, 2663,
3330, 3383.
Sale of, recommended, 2304, 2354.
Separation of, from farming lands,
recommended, 2493.
System of leasing, unsatisfactory,
2260, 2623.
Lands, Oil, leasing system for, discussed
by President —
Roosevelt, 7303.
Taft, 7534, 7567.
Lands, Phosphate, acreage, vahie, util-
ity and conservation of, 7568.
Disposal of, system of, 7461, 7533.
Withdrawal of, from entry, 7535.
Lands, Public. — By the treaty of 1783
England relinquished all her lands east of
the Mississippi River north of 31° north
latitude. So much of this territory as lay
east of the Alleghany Mountains was
claimed by the original states ; and certain
of the states claimed lands beyond the
Alleghanles based on their crown grants,
which extended to the "South Sea" or
Pacific Ocean. These grants were indefinite
and confiictlng and the source of much con-
tention between the states, and the lands
were finally (with certain reservations)
ceded to the Federal government. The ac-
quisition of more territory from Spain,
France, Mexico and Great Britain (through
the determination of boundaries) added vast
tracts to the public domain, from which
states were afterward formed, but with the
reservation that the unoccupied lands there-
in should remain the property of the general
government. Only eighteen states thus re-
tained control of the land within their
boundaries, and were able to dispose of it
Lands
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
The last report of the Public Land Office
gave the following figures for the acres of
land unappropriated and unreserved in the
public-land states, including both surveyed
and unsurveyed land :
Alabama 35,200
Arizona 21,256,010
Arkansas 2«8,476
California 20,529,034
Colorado 10,271,955
Florida 114,726
Idaho 13,322,716
Kansas 5,275
Louisiana 45,559
Michigan 72,829
Minnesota 469,973
Mississippi 42,064
Missouri 147
Montana 8,201,019
Nebraska i 108,556
Nevada 55,082,200
New Mexico 19,115,554
North Dakota 116,138
Oklahoma 31,715
Oregon 14,325,^91
Soutli Dakota 837,226
Utah 31,475,919
Washington 1,259,983
Wisconsin 6,146
Wyoming . . -. 25,434,194
Total 222,448,225
Of the above totaM42,231,300 acres have
been, surveyed and 80,216,925 are unsur-
veyed. There are in addition about 24,000,-
000 acres of reserved land in Alaska, of
which 1,000,000 acres have been reserved.
as the local governments saw fit. When
Texas was admitted to the Union, it re-
tained jurisdiction over its public domain
and is administering the same to-day inde-
pendent of the Federal Land Office.
Lands were also purchased by the federal
government from the Indians at various
times and opened to white settlement.
These acquisitions were always advanta-
geous to the government and as President
Monroe remarks (page 585), "presumably
so to the Indians." But the red men often
■ misunderstood the terms of the trades, and
regretted their bargains, and some of the
fiercest of Indian wars have been caused by
the feeling among the Indians that they had
been cheated.
During the last fiscal year, from the dis-
posal of public and Indian lands there was
realized the sum of ?5,358,516, of which
more than $2,000,000 represented cash
sales ; $1,160,000 represented fees and com-
missions ; and $1,936,000, sales of Indian
lands. The total receipts from the disposal
of public lands since the founding of the
Eepublic have been $491,430,102.
By this time, most of the good agricul-
tural public land of the United States has
been disposed of. The remaining pubUe
land for which the figures are given be-
low is chiefly rocky land, or land suitable
for only grazing or dry farming, with some
land available for agriculture only after Irri-
gation. Most of the public land now dis-
posed of is disposed of under the Home-
stead Acts (see Lands, Homestead, above) ;
or if with coal and oil deposits, etc., is sold
usually at from. $2.50 to $5.00 an acre; or
is sold at public auction. During the last
fiscal year, there were 9,552,482 acres of
public land disposed of, representing 48,620
entries. The chief classes of entry were
as follows :
Class Entries Acres
Homestead 25,160 6,012,086
Indian 10,150 1,089,766
Railroad 28 943,720
Public sale 2,383 353,264
Desert Land 2,093 340,281
Commuted Homestead . . . 2,209 304,173
Public lands may be acquired under acts
relating to Lands — Homestead, Timber and
Stone, Desert, Mining, Bounty (q. v.)
Abandoned or isolated portions of the public
land also are open to purchase from time
to time.
Lands, PuUic:
Acquired from Mexico, referred to,
1275.
Acreage of, original and contempor-
aneous, 7557.
Act-
Appropriating proceeds of sales of,
reasons for applying pocket veto
to, 2108.
Making grant of, to States for
benefit of insane persons vetoed,
2780.
To authorize entry of, for gravel
pits and reservoir purposes, etc.,
vetoed, 6002.
To authorize leasing of, for educa-
tional purposes in Arizona, ve-
toed, 6102.
Agricultural, lavrs governing, dis-
cussed, 7532, 7557.
Amount, salfes, and expenses of, etc.,
discussed, 1136.
Appropriations of proceeds of sales
of, for educational purposes. (See
Education.)
Attempts made to keep down price
of, referred to, 1744.
Augmentation in value of, 586.
Ceded to Indians, 108, 1716. (See
also Indian Tribes, under In-
dians.)
Early settlement of ceded lands de-
sired, 2832.
Classification of, 7266, 7460, 7720.
Court for litigated land cases recom-
mended, 5975.
Depredations on. (See Lands, Tim-
ber.)
Desert-land laws. (See Lands, Des-
ert.)
Discussed, 586, 5974, 6166, 6346,
6390, 6452.
Disposition of, discussed by Presi-
dent— •
Buchanan, 2990.
Cleveland, 4944, 5106, 5379, 5974.
Grant, 4106, 4206, 4309.
Hayes, 4577.
Jackson, 1163.
McKinley, 6345, 6346, 6452.
Eoosevelt, 6790, 6800, 7096.
Taft, 7460, 7532_, 7557, 7720.
Van Buren, 1601.
Lands
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
Fences, unlawful, removal of, direct-
ed by proclS,mation, 4893.
Discussed, 5107.
Forest, acreage and value of, dis-
cussed, 7560.
Frauds in purchase of, order regard-
ing, 6329.
Fraudulent acquisition of, 6790, 6800,
7096.
Fraudulent occupation of, discussed,
5886.
Gas deposit —
Leasing of, urged, 7534.
Licensing of prospectors for, urged,
7534, 7568.
Granted Canadian volunteers, 558.
Granted persons engaged in military
service. (See Lands, Bounty.)
Grants of —
In aid of education. (See Educa-
tion.)
Legislation to remove limitation
of time for bringing suits to annul
unlawful, recommended, 6092.
Eeferred to, 4065, 4206, 5974.
To railroads. (See Pacific Bail-
roads; Railroads.)
To States, referred to, 4065, 4206,
5380.
Hawaiian, stimulation of agriculture
on, 8541.
History of administration of, ?458.
Home builders and, 6725, 6800.
Homestead acts. (See Homestead
Laws.)
Instructions to receiving or disburse-
ing officers of land offices, referred
to, 1346.
Joint resolution authorizing grant of
lands to Kansas, etc., vetoed,
5308.
Laws regarding —
Amendment and change in, recom-
. mended, 4944, 5362, 6790, 6800,
6947, 7004, 7096.
Commission to investigate, 6801.
Eeport of, 6863.
Defeqts in, 7460, 7565, 7816.
Discussed, 5484.
Fraud under, and necessary changes
in, 7302.
History and codification of, 4581.
Recommendations regarding,
4577.
Violations of, referred to, 4743.
Lumber and naval stores taken from,
referred to, 4434.
Mineral deposit, discussed, 7460, 7559,
7562.
Mineral lands referred to. (See
Lands, Mineral.)
Oil deposit, discussed, 7534, 7568.
Opened to settlement —
Appropriation for, recommended,
5638.
Discussed, 5482, 5637, 5761.
Fraudulent, occupation of, dis-
cussed, 5886.
Proclaimed, 5450, 5579, 5591, 5707,
5710, 5727, 5838, 6016, 6018,
6020, 6026, 6486, 6506, 6525,
6547, 6553, 6588, 6600, 6603,
6612, 6615, 6616, 6687, 6873,
6875, 6956, 8047.
Patenting of —
In execution of railroad grants dis-
cussed, 6166.
To settlers, discussed, 5484, 5552,
5638, 5761.
Payments for, should be made in
specie, 1468.
Philippine, disposition of, 6815.
Phosphate deposit, discussed, 7461,
7533, 7568.
Planting of forests, recommendations
regarding, 4158.
Preemption laws discussed. (See
Preemption Laws.)
Prices of, should be reduced, 2353,
2407, 2500.
Purchase and cession of, to United
States —
Agreements regarding, 146, 167, 182,
203, 256, 347, 360, 375, 422, 426,
431, 585, 603, 803, 887, 931, 957,
1029, 1257, 1729, 1818, 2501,
5450, 5552, 5638, 5648, 5649,
5671, 5768.
Proclamations regarding. (See
Opened to settlement, ante.)
Proposition regarding, 4892.
Purchasers of —
Indulgence to, recommended, 647,
957, 986.
Patent of, when paid for, cannot
be withheld by President, 1098.
Railroad grants, timber on, 7303.
Reclamation of, by discharged sol-
diers urged, 8642, 8715, 8813.
Eeferred to, 79, 80, 100, 105, 113,
127, 128, 474, 586, 591, 599, 957,
1136, 2768.
Revenues derived from sales of.
(See Sale of, post.)
Russian colony to emigrate to Unit-
ed States discussed, 4207.
Sale of —
Act regarding appropriation of
proceeds of —
Reasons for applying pocket
veto to, 1275.
Vetoed, 2108.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 871, 956.
Buchanan, 2990.
Cleveland, 5974.
Fillmore, 2662, 2708.
Grant, 3995, 4064, 4154, 4206,
4307.
Jackson, 1098, 1163, 1468.
Lands
Encyclopedic Index
Lands
Jefferson, 317.
Johnson, 3651, 3774, 3880.
. Lincoln, 3332, 3387, 3451.
McKinley, 6345, 6346, 6452.
Pierce, 2748, 2823, 2873, 2943.
Polk, 2258, 2353, 2366, 2407, 2500,
2606.
Tyler, 2118.
Van Buren, 1601.
Forfeitures for non-payment of
purchase money should be re-
mitted, 957.
Frauds in, 1450.
Proclamation of President —
Jackson regarding, 1058.
Monroe regarding lands on San-
dusky Eiver, 580.
Referred to, 940, 1136, 1268, 2003.
Revenue derived from, discussed
by President —
Adams, J. Q., 599, 986.
Arthur, 4632, 4719, 4763.
Fillmore, 2662.
Grant, 3995, 4064, 4146, 4206, 4307.
Jackson, 1089, 1246, 1381.
Johnson, 3774, 3880.
Lincoln, 3233, 3384, 3451.
McKinley. 6424.
Pierce, 2748, 2823, 2873, 2943.
Tyler, 1895.
Statement of, 1897, 2708, 2990, 6875.
Set apart as public reservation by
proclamation of President —
Cleveland, 5859, 5864, 6122, 6205,
6207, 6209, 6211, 6213, 6215,
6216, 6218, 6219, 6221, 6222,
6225, 6227.
Harrison, Beuj., 5577, 5^90, 5595,
5686, 5695, 5705, 5719, 5722,
5786, 5792, 5795, 5797, 5804,'
5810, 5811, 5814, 5815.
McKinley, 6475, 6477, 6482, 6487,
6495, 6497, 6499, 6500, 6504,
6505, 6514, 6516, 6519, 6523,
6536, '6541, 6546, 6549, 6551,
6561, 6566.
Roosevelt, 6697, 6872.
Set apart for cultivation of vine and
olive, 599.
Should be reserved for actual set-
tlers, 2990.
Soldiers, discharged, and. (See Re-
clamation, supra.)
Stone and timber, laws concerning,
discussed, 7464, 7558.
Surveys for, recommendations re-
garding, 5975.
Timber-culture act. (See Timber-
Culture Act.)
Timber on. (See Lands, Timber.)
Title to, referred to, 1605.
Trespasses upon, referred to, 1605,
5177, 5380.
Unlawful inclosures of, proclamation
regarding, 4893.
Discussed, 5107.
Unlawful possession of, discussed,
557, 1057, 1106, 5380.
Proclamations regarding, 557, 1057,
1106.
Water power sites, discussed, 7462,
7534, 7570.
Withdrawals of, from entry. Presi-
dent's power to make, discussed,
7535, 7561.
Lands, Swamp. — in 1849 and 1850 Con-
gress passed resolutions granting large
tracts of land to the various states for
their disposal. Agents of the states se-
lected such lands as were unfit for cultiva-
tion, and title to the same was confirmed
in the states by an act approved March 3,
1857. At the time of the grant it was
estimated from Government surveys that
the swamp land would not exceed 21,000,-
000 acres. Millions of acres, however, were
listed as swamp lands. This led to an
investigation, and gross frauds were un-
earthed. Under the' various acts lands
have been granted to Alabama, Arkansas,
California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Missouri, Ohio, Oregon and Wisconsin.
Florida has received the largest share —
22,500,000 acres — and Ohio the least — 117,-
000 acres. In many instances the states
have sold the lands to railroad companies.
During the last fiscal year, some 25,600
acres of land were disposed of under swamp
land patents ; claims aggregating some 90,-
000 acres were rejected and new claims for
some 3,000 acres were filed. The total
amount of land granted to states under
the swamp-land acts is more than 64,000,000
acres, of which more than 20,000,000 acres
went to Florida, almost 7,700,000 acres
went to Arkansas, 9,735,000 acres went to
Louisiana, 5,065,000 to Michigan. Other
large beneficiaries have been California,
Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Missouri, and Wisconsin. The other states
receiving swamp lands, but less than 1,000,-
000 acres each, are Alabama, Iowa, Ohio
and Oregon.
Lands, Swamp, discussed, 5974.
Lands, Timber and Stone.— Lands which
are unfit for cultivation, but are of value
tor their standing timber or stone, may be
had from the Government by individuals
to the extent of 160 acres, on payment of
¥2.50 an acre.
From ] 878, the date of the passage of the
Timber and Stone Acts, there have been
103,422 entries, covering an acreage of 13,-
445,947 and the amount of $34,101,638.
During the last fiscal year 550 entries, iJi-
volving 58,843 acres and .$184,700, were
patented.
Lauds, Timber:
Act for relief of purchasers of stone
and, vetoed, 5912.
Agents employed for preservation of,
referred to, 2268.
Commission to formulate plans for
national forestry system, 6167.
Depredations committed on, and rec-
ommendations regarding, 4428,
4456, 4530, 4577, 4954, 5508, 5974.
Lands
Encyclopedic - Index
Law
Destruction of, 7464, 7537, 7560.
Discussed, 4309.
Fires upon, carelessly kindled, dis-
cussed, 5508.
Memorial regarding preservation of,
referrfed to, 4215, 5495.
Opened to settlement. (See Lands,
Public.)
Perpetuation of, through use, 6658.
Preservation of, legislation regard-
ing, 5106, 5668, 5886, 5974.
Private control of, laws regarding,
discussed, 7464, 7560.
Protection of, 7265.
Timber and Stone Act, harm wrought
by, 7302, 7464, 7558.
Timber-culture act. (See Timber-
Culture Act.)
Value of, 7303.
Iiarge Fortunes. (See Fortunes, Large.)
Laos — A French protectorate in south-
eastern Asia, a part of French Indo-Chlna
(q. v.). It consists of some 100,000 square
miles, with a population of about 650,000.
The country is rich in farming land,
minerals and timber, but has not yet been
exploited to any considerable extent.
Las G-uasimas (Cuba), Battle of. (See
Santiago (Cuba), Battle of.)
Latimer Case. — The first of a series of
fugitlre-slave trials which took place in
Boston. George Latimer was seized in
1842 without £ warrant, and kept in the
custody of the city jailer awaiting evidence
against him. A writ of habeas corpus was
denied. A writ of personal replevin, asked
for under the act of 1837, securing trial
by jury, was also denied, this act being
declared void. As a consequence of the
Indignation aroused by this case the legis-
lature in 1843 passed an act forbidding
State officers to aid in the capture of fugi-
tive slaves and forbidding the use of State
jails for their iinprisonment. The sum for-
feited for violation was not exceeding $1,-
300 or Imprisonment not exceeding one
year.
Latin America. — A name often applied to
that portion of America settled originally
or inhabited chiefly by the Latin races. It
thus Includes Mexico, the countries of South
and Central America and the West Indies.
Latin American and Mexican Divisions,
State Department. — These divisions with-
in the Department of State were organized
to control "diplomatic and consular corre-
spondence in matters other than administra-
tive with Mexico, Central America, the Re-
public of Panama, South America and the
West Indies." These divisions fall under
the supervision of the second assistant sec-
retary of state (q. v.) (See State Depart-
ment. )
Latin-American Library, establishinent
of, at Washington recommended by
International American Conference,
5506.
Latin-American Bepublics, discussed
by President Eoosevelt, 7231.
' (See also Central America, South
America and the several countries.)
Latin Union. — The name given the mone-
tary alliance of Belgium, France, Italy and
Switzerland, formed by convention Dec. 23,
1865.1 Greece joined the union in 1868.
Tiie object was the maintenance and regu-
lation ot a uniform interchangeable gold
and silver coinage baaed on the French
franc. Belgium withdrew from the union
in 1885 and adopted the single gold stand-
ard.
Latin Union. (See Monetary Conven-
tion of Latin Union.)
Latter-Day Saints. (See Mormon
Church; Polygamy.)
Lattlmer, Pa., claims of Austria-Hun-
gary arising out of conflict between
miners and sheriff at, discussed, 6324,
6363.
Laundries, Power. — ^A recent report of the
Census Bureau gives a survey of the power
laundry Industry, mostly steam laundries.
The figures are as follows :
Number of Establishments 6,097
Persons Engaged 149,100
Capital $98,055,011
Salaries and Wages $71,764,059
Cost of Materials $26,919,200
Amount Received for Work . . $142,503,253
Of* the persons engaged in the industry,
36%% were male and 63%% were female.
The months of greatest activity were July
and August.
About 50,000 wage-earners worked in
establishments where the prevailing hours
per week were 54 in number ; about 12,000,
where they were between 54 and 60 ; about
14,000, above 60 ; about 25,000, between
48 and 54 ; and almost 30,000, 48 and less.
Of the establishments, 3,125 were owned
by individuals, 1,541 by corporations and
1,431 by others. But the corporations
employed 56% of the wage earners and
received 58% of the amount paid for work
done.
Establishments receiving annually more
than $100,000 for work done by them num-
bered 253; those receiving' between $20,000
and $100,000 numbered 1,630 ; those receiv-
ing between $5,000 and $20,000 numbered
2,756.
Thirteen establishments employed more
than 250 workers ; 180 between 100 and
250 ; 441, between 50 and 100.
Law (see also Courts, Judges and
Justice) :
Activities of government centered
under Justice Department, 8521.
Delays, remedy urged for, 7209.
Due Process of. (See Due Process of
Law and Arbitration Internation-
al.)
Internationa}. (See International
Law.)
Maritime. (See Maritime Law.)
Principles of, discussed, 7992.
Law Clerk, State Department. — The Law
Bureau In the Department of State was
formed in 1870, simply to examine legal
questions referred to it. Nbw the law clerk
edits the laws of Congress and prepares
them for publication, and attends to other
legal matters of importance in the admin-
istration of the department. The office of
Law
Encyclopedic Index
League of Nations
Law Clerk was established In 1903, and his
present salary is $2,500. (See State De-
partment; Solicitor, State Department.)
"Law, Iiyman M.," S. S., case of, dis-
cussed, 8810.
I Lawrence, Kans., fortifications at, re-
ferred to, 3894.
Laws of United States (see also Be-
vised Statutes):
Bad, discussed, 7216.
Business, on, cessation of, urged,
Z555.
Careless, discussed, 8041.
Delay of, consequence of, 7029.
Enforcement of, appropriation for,
6790.
Newspapers selected to publish, for
Congress, referred to, 4116.
Private, discussed, 8041.
Special privilege, against, 7126, 7132,
Statute and precedent in, 7992.
Lazistan, disposition of, discussed, 8841.
Lead Mines. (See Mines.)
League Island, Pa. (situated in the
Delaware Eiver, near the junction
with the Schuylkill), bill accepting,
for naval purposes, referred to, 3649.
League of Nations. — Historical B ach-
ground. — Although thinkers of ancient times
speculated about a state of peace for ail
peoples, they had no plan for a political or-
ganlzation to make their aspirations effec-
tive. Isaiah and Micah in the Old Testa-
ment, for instance, merely voiced longings
for perpetual peace. The ancient Greeks
in their city-states lived without even na-
tional coheslveness, their Amphlctyonic
Council existing chiefly for religious pur-
poses and without much political power.
Imperial Rome preserved a form of peace,
the Pam Romana, for a considerable period,
but the Roman Empire, like that of Alex-
ander the Great, represented the armed
dominance of one country over many sub-
jects, not a voluntary organization of free
nations. There were judicial, religious and
other forms of unity in the Roman Empire,
but the government of the whole remained
in the hands of the citizens of the city,
Rome.
With the rise of the Christian Church
after the break-up of the Roman Empire,
the Western World saw its first effective
unified organization of various independent
peoples. But the unity represented by the
Church at Rome was, after all, religious
rather than political. Mediaeval Europe
lived under the feudal system, with innu-
merable lords rendering political allegiance
to the Pope chiefly in theory, and in prac-
tice remaining politically independent. The
Crusades and the Truce of God achieved
unity, but for war against the heathen,
rather than for the preservation of peace.
And In the fifteenth, sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, even this unity dissolved
before the strength of the Protestant Ref-
ormation, the openlng-up of new trade
routes, new industrial and commercial pro-
cedure and, especially, the rise of the Idea
of Independent nationalism, without even
theoretical allegiance to the Pope or to any
otKer foreign source of power.
This concept of national sovereignty not
only dissolved the unity of mediaeval times,
but also made Impossible any effective so-
ciety of nations until after the World War,
and even then militated against the effec-
tiveness of the League of Nations. The feel-
ing for nationalism free from international
allegiance became constantly stronger, es-
pecially after the French Revolution at the
close of the eighteenth century and the fol-
lowing activities of and against Napoleon.
Indeed, in many sections of Europe, strong
consciousness of sovereign nationalism did
not arise until well into the nineteenth cen-
tury.
With the development of sovereign nation-
alism came alliances between nations, and
soon there arose the. Balance of Power and
Concert of Europe system, whereby the
Powers became aligned in two camps of
about equal strength and tried to preserve
peace by preventing developments from
weighting the balance. After the Napo-
leonic Wars, the Quadruple Alliance of Aus-
tria, Russia, Prussia and Great Britain
was formed. France was soon admitted to
It. At the initiative of Alexander I of
Russia, permeated by liberalism and en-
thusiastic for international peace, the Holy
Alliance was formed, ostensibly to unite
the great Powers, and in actuality became
identical with the Quadruple Alliance.
But the Holy Alliance fell away from
the leadership of the Idealistic Alexander
to that of the reactionary Metternlch, pre-
mier of Austria. Instead of an agent of
peace and democracy, it thwarted revolu-
tions, insisted upon the divine right of
kings and tried to spread the imperialistic
idea. Great Britain accordingly withdrew,
lending her necessary support to the United
States when President Monroe proclaimed
the doctrine that the Holy Alliance must
not spread Its machinations to America. So
that by the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the Holy Alliance had become almost
a nonentity. However, it had been, not a
league of nations, but a council of individ-
ual sovereigns and their ministers. There
were no rules of procedure, no provisions re-
garding International law nor the elimina-
tion of war, no attempt at limitation of ar-
maments, no machinery for arbitration, no
publication of proceedings.
By the twentieth century, however, the
nations, although still in anarchy as to
International political organizations, were
bound by many non-political ties. These
were largely industrial and financial, due to
the internationalization of large-scale Busi-
ness and Finance ; but also there was inter-
national cooperation in postal and tele-
graph service, suppression of the slave and
opium traffics, patent and copyright pro-
cedure, the Red Cross, and religious, scien-
tific and educational affiliations. The So-
cialist movement of the world had a power-
ful international organization and trade
unions had also their international affilia-
tions. And the Increasing autonomy
granted Canada, South Africa and Austral-
asia made the British Empire take on many
of the aspects of a league of nations.
Before the outbreak of the World War,
there was even some International coopera-
tion of a political nature, such as the ex-
pedition against the Boxers in China, the
localization of the Russo-Turklsh and Bal-
kan wars, the disposition of Morocco. In
■ America, the conferences of the American
Republics were bringing the nations of the
New World into closer union. Many dis-
putes which might have led to war had
been arbitrated and the awards accepted,
and there were many treaties between great
and small nations providing for arbitration
Instead of war. And yet, so far from being
League of Nations
Encyclopedic Index
League of Nations
bound by a league of ntitlons, tlie world
was internationally still in anarchy, with
all Europe aligned In two hostile camps on
the Balance of Power system, jealous, sus-
picioua, competitive, nervous, and constant-
ly and inevitably drifting nearer and nearer
to a war in which most of the great Powers
and many small states would be Involved.
Proposals for World Peace. — With the
destruction of whatever unity had existed
in the Western World during the mediaeval
period and the dissolution of Europe Into
completely sovereign nationalities, it wap
natural that the minds of men should for-
mulate plans for the re-union of the world
tor the preservation of peace. In 1625,
Grotius codified the relations existing be-
tween nations in' his famous Be Jure Belli
ao Pads (On thfe Laws of War and Peace),
In which f. framework necessary for the
abolition of war r.nd the maintenance of
peace was outlined. In 1634, the Duke of
Sully published plans, which he assigned to
his master, Henry IV of Prance, for a
European confederation, and in 1712 the
plan was revived and altered by the Abbfi
Saint-Pierre. In 1795, during the ferment
caused by the French Revolution, Imman-
uel Kant, the great German philosopher,
published his Zum Ewigen Frieden (Toward
Everlasting Peace). These are the most
famous plans for a league of nations be-
fore the twentieth century, but others
worthy of mention are those of Georg von
PoSiebrad, King of Bohemia, published in
1462 ; of Bmeric de Lacroix, in 1623 ; of
William Penn, in 1690 ; and the principles
of international cooperation laid down by
Jeremy Bentham in 1786-9. Nineteenth
century aspirations for a world federation
are well typified by TennysoA's lines in
"Locksley Hall," looking forward to a day
when the war-drums would "throb no long-
er and the battle-flags be furled in the par-
liament of man, the federation of the
world ;" and also by the founding and ex-
tremely rapid growth of societies devoted
to peace. Most of these peace societies, itf
both America Sind' Europe, were pledged to
international judicial and arbitral machin-
ery. Instead of having designed plans for a
league of nations, and the outbreak of the
World War served to prove that their ac-
tivities had had little more ettect than the
earlier speculations of Grotius, Sully and
Kant .toward an association of nations to
preserve peace.
The Hague Peace Conferences. — Like the
ill-fated Holy Alliance, the Hague Confer-
ences were initiated by the Tsar of Bussia.
Nicholas II, like Alexander ,1, hoped to
bring together the nations of 'the world in
a federation to preserve peace. (For the
history and achievements of these confer-
ences, see Hague Peace Conferences ; see
also Arbitration, International.) He did
succeed In bringing together the nations of
the world — there were 26 Powers repre-
sented at the First Conference in 1899 and
46 at the Second, in 1907 ; but the concept
of sovereign nationalism and also the jeal-
ousies and ambitions of the several nations
were too strong to permit of effective inter-
national action for the elimination of war.
All that was accomplished was the estab-
lishment of courts of arbitration to which
international disputes might be submitted
at the volition of the disputants and the
adoption of recommended codes of warfare
which could not be effective until ratified
by all the nations concerned. The Hague
Conferences did not accomplish any limita-
tion In military or naval armaments. (See
page 9045.)
The Instigation of the Iteague. — With the
outbreak of the World War, the belligerents
were naturally too intent upon winning the
war to speculate very carefully upon the
organization of an association of nations
after peace had been declared. Moreover,
the passions engendered by war usually
accentuate national self-seeking and ag-
grandisement, so that when most of the
leaders in the belligerent countries thought
of the organization of the world after the
war, they thought chiefly of pacts and al-
liances which would accrue to their own
benefit and to the injury of their enemies.
It remained for the neutrals, removed from
the passions of the conflict, to visualize a
true association of nations ; and of the
neutral countries, the United' States was
the only one with sufittdent strength, stand-
ing and influence to launch the idea with
any degree of assurance.
That President Woodrow Wilson's thoughts
were turning more and more toward the
organization of a society of nations was
evidenced by his address at a banquet of
the League to Enforce Peace in Washing-
ton, on May 27, 1916, in which he clearly
stated that all the great nations must be
associated for the preservation of peace.
In January, 1917, he suddenly and dramat-
ically forced the idea of a league of nations
upon a war-weary world by stressing It In
his "Peace without Victory" address to the
United States Senate ; and after the United
States became a belligerent, the idea of a
league of nations was steadily brought to
the fore in the American President's state
papers and addresses. The last of the Four-
teen Points of Peace enunciated by Wilson
in January, 1918 (page 8425), called for a
"general association of nations under spe-
cific covenants" to "afford mutual guaran-
tees of political independence and territo-
rial Integrity to great and small states
alike." In the following September, in his
address at the Metropolitan Opera House
in New York City, when It was apparent
that the day of Germany's military defeat
was not faf distant, the necessity for a
league of nations was again uttered by the
President, with the entire world for an au-
dience. By the time of the Peace Confer-
ence at Paris, the hope for a league of na-
tions was so strong among the peoples of
the world that its formation as a result
of the peace was not opposed even by those
delegates who were hostile to or skeptical of
tlie idea.
The Drafting of the Covenant. — When the
Peace Conference assembled in Paris, It ^vas
found that support for and study of a
league of nations existed chiefly among the
American and the British delegations. The
other delegates, were inclined to be indiffer-
ent or, like Clemenceau and his colleagues,
skeptical, tiut threw no definite obstacle in
the way of the formation of the League.
The final form of the covenant of the
League of Nations follows no particular
draft, but represents the combined thought
of many minds. For several years, the
British Government, largely under the lead
of Lord Robert Cecil, had been studying
plans for a league of nations, but came to
Paris without any formal and official draft
of its conclusions. General Jan' Smuts, the
influential prime minister of British South
Africa, published a deflnite draft for a con-
stitution, with the cooperation of the Brit-
ish students of international affairs known
as tlie "Round Table Group." However,
the Smuts plan was published chiefly to
provoke discussion on the form of the con-
stitution for the League ; and, although
League of Nations
Encyclopedic Index
League of Nations
General Smuts was extremely potent in for-
mulating tlie final draft, it follows him
chiefly in the matter of mandates.
The only other definite authoritative plan
when the framing of the constitution got
under way came from the American delega-
tion. Before going to Paris, President Wil-
son had prepared a tentative plan for a
league of nations, and in Paris he prepared
a new draft, possibly Influenced by the
ideas of General Smuts. Mr. David Hunter
Miller, of the New York bar, had submitted
certain suggestions to Colonel House, the
President's most confldential adviser, be-
fore the President arrived in Paris. Mr.
Miller and Mr. James Brown Scott, long
associated with the United States Depart-
ment of State, had been the expert ad-
visers in international law attached to the
commission which, under the general direc-
tion of Colonel House, had been collecting
material on the peace settlements for the
use of the American peace mission ; and in
January, 1919, Miller and Scott submitted
a definite draft for a constitution for the
league of nations.
On January 25, 1919, the Peace Confer-
ence, after an address by President Wilson
(see page 8665), created a special commis-
sion to draft a constitution for a league
of nations. The membership of the com-
mission was determined chiefly by personal
rather than by political considerations. The
chairman was President Wilson and the
other American delegate was Colonel
House : the two British delegates were
Lord Cecil and General Smuts ; L£on Bour-
geois, probably the foremost French sup-
porter of a league of nations, was. included
in the membership, which comprised nine-
teen. Finally, separate plans were drawn
up by the British and the Americans. Af-
ter some discussion, the problem of recon-
ciling the British and the American drafts,
and also, the various opinions expressed and
acquiesced in in the commission's meetings,
notably the opinions of Wilson, Bourgeois,
Smuts, Cecil and House, was left to David
Hunter Miller and Mr. Cecil J. B. Hurst,
legal adviser to the British delegation.
Miller and Hurst agreed upon a draft,
which was essentially the tentative draft
submitted to the Peace Conference on Feb-
ruary 14 (see pages 8668 and 8669). This
draft was later altered in many particulars,
the changes b^ng indicated by President
Wilson in submitting the final draft for
ratification bv the Conference on April 28
(see pages 8681-8683).
This draft, adopted on April 28, 1919,
was embodied In the Peace Treaty submitted
to Germany on May 7 and signed by Ger-
many and the Allies on June 28, 1919. On
January 10, 1920, the date on which the
ratifications of the Treaty of Versailles of-
ficially became operetive, the League of Na-
tions came into existence.
The Nature of the League. — ^The league Is
a combination of sovereign states Banded
together for common action rather than a
single world-state holding the nations in a
single allegiance and government as the
states are held in the United States or do-
minions within the British Empire. Thus al-
most all the decisions of the Council and
the Assembly must be unanimous to be ef-
fective.
The entire text of the Covenant of the
League is on pages 8673 to 8681, and a
reading of the brief text is the best
way to understand its structure. It is to
be noted that the most powerful body is the
Council, composed of the iive great Powers
and" four other states. The assembly repre-
sents all the member states — ^It may discuss
almost any matter vital to the welfare of
the League and the peace of the world, thus
focusing international public opinion upon
It ; it admits new members and makes
amendments.
On the central theme of preventing war,
any dispute recognized as subject to arbitra-
tion must be arbitrated and the award ac-
cepted. If generally recognized as not ar-
bitral, the dispute must be submitted to in-
quiry by the Council, and if the Council's re-
port is unanimous it must be followed. Other
provisions for limiting war lool£ to the re-
striction of armaments and the control of
the munitions trade, the guarantee of terri-
torial integrity, the full interchange of in-
formation, delay in declaring war even in
those non-arbitral disputes in which the
report of the Council is not unanimous, the
registering and publication of treaties and
alliance-understandings and the supervision
of the undeveloped regions of the world, by
mandates given to Powers wlio guarantee to
give equal opportunity in those regions to all
nations.
The sovereign nationalism of the member
nations to an extent is preserved intact by
requiring unanimity in most important de-
cisions, by allowing for withdrawal from
the League, by not interfering in disputes
solely within the domestic jurisdiction of
one of the parties to the dispute, by leaving
the measures for punishment of infraction
of the Covenant largely' to the Individual
discretion of the nations inflicting it and
by not establishing an international army
and navy. Other provisions call for the uni-
fication of labor standards, constructive
action regarding the slave, opium, whit-
slave, etc., traffics, and prosecuting the work
of the Red Cross, postal union and other in-
ternational agencies.
The following states were members of the
League of Nations on January 10, 1920.
through having signed and ratified the
Treaty of Versailles : Belgium, Bolivia, Bra-
zil, British Empire (Including Canada, Aua-
tralia. New Zealand, South Africa, India),
Csecho-Slovakia, France, Guatemala, Italy,
Japan, Peru, Poland, Biam, Uruguay. The
following states were members through hav-
ing accepted invitations to Join : Argentina,
Chile, Paraguay, Persia, Spain. The following
original signatories of the Treaty of Versailles
subsequently joined : China, Cuba, Greece,
Haiti, Honduras, Jugoslavia, Liberia, Nicar-
agua, Panama, Portugal, Boumania. The fol-
lowing states subsequently accepted the
original invitation to join : Colombia, Den-
mark, Netherlands, Norway, Salvador,
Sweden, Switzerland, Venezuela. The United
States and Ecuador declined to ratify.
The following states later joined the
League : Austria, Bulgaria, Costa Rica,
Finland, Luxemburg, Latvia, Esthonia, Lith-
uania, Albania.
The following states applied for admis-
sion but were not admitted : Armenia,
Georgia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Liechtenstein,
San Marino, Iceland, Monaco, Hedjaz.
The following states were not members of
the League by 1922 : United States. Ger-
many, Mexico, Hungary, Turkey, Russia.
and Abyssinia, Afghanistan, Andorra,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Ecuador,
Georgia, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Monaco,
Nepal, Oman, San Marino, Santo Domingo
Tibet, Ukraine.
So that by 1922, there were 51 states in
the League and 23, of wWch 6 are impor-
tant countries, not in the League. The seat
of the League is Geneva, Switzerland,
League of Nations
Encyclopedic Index
Leather
Aocoinplishments. — The achievements of
the League are generally agreed to be disap-
pointing, although the extent to which the
cause is due to the non-entrance of the
United States is a matter of dispute. Thus,
the proponents of the League lay its failure
to effect reduction of armaments and prohi-
bition of the use of poison gas in war to the
fact that the United States would not be
bound by the League's action. The League
also notably failed to prevent the Polish
military attack upon Soviet Russia or to In-
Buence the Russo-Polish peace terms ; to ef-
fect the expulsion from Lithuania of a so-
called "Insurgent" Polish army ; to mediate
in the war between Greece and Turkey and
other military actions of a serious nature
in the Balkans. Germany and Russia re-
mained outside the fold — ^Indeed, the League
was able to frame no generally-accented
policy toward Russia. On many occasions
the alliance of the victors in the World
War was effectively functioning as a force
in opposition to and superior to the League.
There was no attempt to settle the problem
of China in the Far East, and the Covenant
of the League was flouted also by the fram-
ing of separate alliances among member-
states and the refusal to register certain in-
ternational treaties and agreements.
By 1922, the Assembly had held two
meetings and the Council, about fifteen.
There had been three successful arbitrations
— in the dispute between Sweden and Fin-
land on the ownership of the Aland Islands ;
in the drawing of the boundary between
Germany and Poland in Upper SUesla, where
France and Great Britain had come to a
deadlock in the Allied conference ; and In
the attempted invasion of Albania by Jugo-
slavia. The Sarre Basin and the Free City
of Danzig were being administered by the
League, according to the provisions of the
Treaty of Versailles.
The permanent court of international jus-
tice had been established and the League
had also awarded mandates for enemy ter-
ritory to be, administered by the yictorlous
Powers In the World War. Many valuable
International activities, concerned with
health, transit, opium. and white slave trafiic
suppression, finance, repatriation, produc-
tion, had been undertaken ; many treaties and
agreements had been filed and published ;
notable research had been accomplished In
the field of labor standards and many In-
vestigations of great importance had been
made.
League of Nations:
Covenant of —
Article X discussed, 8835.
Discussed, 8669-8686, 8787. _
Mandatory arrangement in, dis-
cussed, 8673, 8793.
Objections to, by Senate, 8849.
Text of, 8673-8683.
Efficacy of, discussed, 8836.
Germany might be barred from, 8402.
Mandates under, administration of,
discussed, 8878, 8915.
Need of, discussed, 8191, 8200, 8288,
8425, 8596, 8652, 8657, 8659, 8663,
8665-8668, 8722, 8733.
Peace Eesolution of Congress does
not provide for, 8851.
Rejected, 8923, 8947.
Leander, The.— A British war ship,
which, while lying off Sandy Hook, April 25,
1806, flred a shot which killed a sailor
aboard an American coaster. The citizens
of New York in mass meeting denounced the
outrage and called upon the President for
better protection. President Jefferson issued
a proclamation ordering the arrest of the
Leander's captain if found within the juris-
diction of the United States (See page 390).
League to Enforce Peace.— This organi-
zation was formed in Philadelphia on June
17, 1915. Its purpose was to'help organize
after the World War a league of nations
which would make war more difficult; Its
platform called for the hearing of justiciable
questions between nations before a Judicial
tribunal for hearing and judgment ; all
other international disputes, not settled by
negotiation, to be submitted to a council
of conciliation for hearing and recommen-
dations ; the use of the economic force of
the signatory nations, followed by military
and naval force, against any of their num-
ber making war without first submitting the
dispute involved for hearing and judgment
as described above ; international confer-
ences from time to time to codify interna-
tional law.
Learning, Institution of. (See Educa-
tion; Military Academy; National
University; Naval Academy; Semi-
naries of Learning.)
Leather and Shoe Business.— The first
American tannery is said to have been es-
tablished In Virginia as early as 1630, but
one or two years later Francis lugalls es-
tablished the business in Swampscott near
Lynn, Mass., and the center of the trade
has hovered about that vicinity ever since.
The colonial authorities encouraged the
business by forbidding the exportation of
hides or unwrought leather. Before the
Revolution leather w.ts more plentiful here
than in England. In 1790 William Edwards
established a tannery in Hampshire, Mass.
Out of this grew the Hampshire Leather
Manufacturing Company of Massachusetts,
incorporated m fioston in 1^09 with a cap-
ital of $100,000. The tanneries of this
company had a capacity for handling 16,000
hides a year. Many other tanneries fol-
lowed immediately on account of the cheap-
ness of bark, and soon the annual exports
reached 350,000 pounds. The value of hides
and manufactured skins was stated by the
census of 1810 to have been $17,935,477,
though private authorities claimed as high
as $20,000,000.
The business Increased steadily until in
1840 there were some 8,000 tanneries in the
United States, employing about 26,000
hands and a capital of $16,000,000. In 1909
there were 919 establishments reported as
engaged primarily in tanning, currying or
finishing leather. They gave employment
to an average of 67,100 persons, of whom
62,202 were wage-earners. The amount
paid in salaries and wages was $38,846,481.
The value of products for the year was
$327,874,187. The processes of tanning,
carrying and finishing are comparatively
simple and the cost of the materials rep-
resents the greater part of the value of
the finished goods.
There were tanned In the United States
during 1914, 138,547»692 hides and skins of
all kinds. This number represents a de-
crease of 5.3 per cent as compared with
1909. The number of cattle hides tanned
decreased from 18,613,054 in 1909 to
17,776,558 in 1914, or by 4.5 per cent, while
their value Increased from $121,266,814 in
the earlier year to $151,609,541 in the later,
or by 25 per cent. The number of calfskins
Leather
Encyclopedic Index
Leather
and kipskins treated decreased from 19,735,-
549 In 1909 to 16,067,793 in 1914, or by
18.6 per cent ; but during the same period
the cost of these skins increased $1,319,450,
or 4.1 per cent.
The falling off in the use of goatskins was
very marked. There were but 37,755,867
such skins treated in 1914, as against
48,193,848 in 1909, making a decrease of
21.7 per cent. The decrease in cost was
$4,011,054, or 14.4 per cent.
On the other hand, sheepskins and laml>-
skins show a large increase over 1909. The
number reported for that year was 26,177,-
136, whereas the census for 1914 showed
401364,926, making a gain of 54.2 per cent.
The cost increased by $7,069,811, or 57.6 per
cent.
In addition to the foregoing, there were
tanned in 1914, 1,250,245 horsehides, 1,095,-
360 kangaroo skins, 233,180 colt skins, and
a number of hog, pig, deer, buck, seal, dog,
alligator, shark, elk, moose, and other skins,
the total value of which, $8,414,129, repre-
sents an increase of $4,611,638, or 121.3 per
cent, over the value reported for 1909.
The value of leather produced in 1914 was
$348,956,872, representing an Increase of
$36,385,046, or 11.6 per cent, over the total
value, $312,571,826, reported for 1909.
Location of Establishments. — Of the 767
establishments reported for 1914, 130 were
located in Massachusetts, 120 in Pennsyl-
vania, 100 in New York, 86 in New Jersey,
30 in Illinois, 29 each in California and Wis-
consin, 28 in Ohio, 23 in Michigan, 22 in
Virginia, 20 each in Delaware and North
Carolina, 18 in West Virginia, 13 in Maine,
11 each in Kentucky and Missouri, 10 each
in Indiana and Maryland, 9 in Tennessee,
8 in New Hampshire, 7 each in Connecticut
and Georgia, 5 in Oregon, 4 in Minnesota,
3 each in Rhode Island and Washington, 2
each in Iowa, Texas and Vermont, and
1 each in Alabama, Louisiana, Montana,
Utah, and Wyoming.
Oloves and Mittens. — In the leather glove
and mitten Industiy there were 377 estab-
lishments reported in 1909, which gave em-
ployment to 12,950 persons, and paid out
$6,019,872 in salaries and wages. They
made goods to the value of $23,630,598,
utilizing $13,208,001 .worth of material.
New York is the most Important State in
the industry, doing more than 60 per cent,
of the total business in 1909.
The manufacture of leather gloves and
mittens as a factory industry was first
carried on in the United States In Fulton
County, N. Y., and this locality has ever
since been the center of the industry In
America. In 1909 41.4 per cent, of the
shops in the industry in the United States,
and 54.7 per cent, of the value of the goods
were reported from this county. Of the
persons employed in the Industry 48 per
cent, are males «nd 52 per cent, females.
Shoe-Making. — Thomas Beard, the pio-
neer shoemaker of America. Is said to have
arrived on the Mayfioioer in 1629, and for
his services received a salary of $50 per
annum and a grant of fifty acres of land.
Seven years later Philip Kertland began the
manufacture of shoes In Lynn, and In a
few more years Lynn supplied the Boston
market.
In 1698 the industry was carried on
profitably in Philadelphia and the colonial
legislature of Pennsylvania in 1721 passed
an act regulating the quality and prices of
the output. Most of the shoes worn by the
Continental army were made In Massachu-
setts. In 1795 there were in Lynn 200 mas-
ter workmen and 600 journeymen, who pro-
duced 300,000 pairs of ladies' shoes, and
one manufacturer alone turned out 20,000
pairs of men's shoes in seven months of
that year. It was the custom of the manu-
facturer of the time to make weekly trips
to Boston with horse and wagon, taking his
goods along in baskets and barrels and of-
fering them to the wholesale trade.
It was not until 1845 that machinery
came into use in the shoe-making trade.
First came the leather-rolling machine, then
the leather-splitting machine, peg-making,
power-pegging, and the dieing-out machine
for cutting soles, taps and heels. In 1860
came the McKay sewing machine, followed
by the Goodyear turn-shoe machine. In-
ventions followed with such rapidity that
soon nothing was left for the skilled ar-
tisan. Labor in shoe factories today con-
sists chiefly in feeding machines and carry-
ing away the product ; and even this is
accolnpllshed by mechanical carriers. This
has led to the adoption of shoe-making as
an occupation for convicts in state prisons.
In 1870, before the protests of trade unions
began to be heeded, convicts in twenty-sis
state prisons were emjloyed in shoe-
making.
In the boot and shoe industry there
were 1,918 establishments reported by the
census of 1910. These were capitalized at
$222,324,248, gave employment to 215,923
persons, and produced goods to the value
of $512,797,642. Establtshments engaged
chiefly in the manufacture of cut stock
formed about one-eighth of the total num-
ber, and the value of their products, $44,-
661,497, represented 8.7 per cent, of the
entire Industry. Boot and shoe findings
formed more than one-sixth of the above
total. Very few Industries have been more
affected by the introduction of machinery
than the manufacture of boots and shoes,
and to this fact may be attributed the
relatively small increase In the number of
wage-earners during the thirty years be-
tween 1879 and 1909.
The total output of boots and shoes In
1914 amounted to 252,516,603 pairs. Men's
boots and shoes numbered 98,031,144 pairs,
forming 38.8 per cent of the total. Women's
boots and shoes numbered 80,916,239 pairs,
constituting 32 per cent of the totaj.
Misses' and children's boots and shoes con-
tributed 48,322,395 pairs, or 19.1 per cent
of the total. Boys' and youths' boots and
shoes numbered 22,895,719 pairs, represent-
ing 9.1 per cent of the total. Fiber shoes,
which were not reported separately in 1909,
numbered 2,351,106 pairs and formed nine-
tenths of 1 per cent of the total in 1914.
In 1914, 387 establishments were owned
by Individuals, 686 by corporations and 282"
by others. But the corporations employed
78% of the wage-earners and produced 79%
of the value of the product.
There were in that year 137 establish-
ments whose annual product was valued
above $1,000,000 ; 567 whose annual product
was valued at between $100,000 and $1,-
000,000. Of establishments employing more
than 1,000 wage-earners each, there were
18 ; between 500 and 1,000, there were 67 ;
between 250 and 500, 140 ; between 100
and 250, 252.
The number of pairs of slippers, not In-
cluding infants' slippers and slippers made
from felt or other fiber, reported for 1914
was 17,733,689.
In the extent of the boot and shoe busi-
ness Massachusetts easily ranks first with
850 factories, turning out $236,342,915
Leather
Encyclopedic Index
Lew-Chew Islands
worth of goods, 46.1 per cent, of the whole,
followed at some distance by Missoiii'i with
a production of 9.5 of the whole. The num-
ber of women in the boot and shoe industry
in Massachusetts in 1909 was 28,922 ; in
New York and Ohio each more than 7,000
and in Missouri 5,800. The number of
children under 16 in Massachusetts was
3,335 ; and in Missouri, 1,392. In all of
the factories women formed a considerable
proportion of the wase-earners.
Exports of leather boots, shoes, and
slippers for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1870, and for each succeeding year to
1910, show a constant increase from $419,-
612 in the former year to $12,408,575.
Lecomptou Constitution. — During the
struggle in Kansas over the question of
entering the Union as a free or a slave
state, the pro-slavery party held a conven-
tion at Lecompton Sept. 5, 1857,i and
adopted a constitution sanctioning slavery
and forbidding the enactment of emancipa-
tion laws. It was provided that the con-
stitution as a whole should not be sub-
mitted to the people of the territory, the
vote being taken only on the main question
of a constitution with slavery or a consti-
tution without slavery. Free-state advo-
cates refused to vote, and the constitution
sanctioning slavery was adopted. Later
the Territorial legislature ordered a vote
on the constitution as a whole, and, the
slave-state settlers abstaining from voting,
it failed of adoption. (See also Kansas;
Topeka Constitution ; Wyandotte Constitu-
tion.)
Iiecompton Constitution. (See Kansas,
Government of.)
Lee, The, denjand of Great Britain
for surrender of mutineer in, re-
ferred to, 1808.
Leeward Islands. — ^A British possession
in the West Indies, forming the most
northerly group of the Lesser -Antilles. The
five presidencies have a combined area
of 716 square miles, with a population of
some 125,000. The staple products are
sugar and molasses, with some production
of lime, cocoa, onions, tobacco and cotton.
The Imports and exports each amount to
about $5,000,000 annually. The capital is
St. Jolm, on Aitigua.
Legal-Tender Acts, modifications in,
recommended, 4302.
Legal-Tender Cases. — During the financial
emergency caused by the Civil War Con-
gress in 1862 Issued $150,000,000 of Treas-
ury notes, the law authorizing their issue
making them legal tender for all private
debts and public dues except duties on im-
ports and interest on the public debt. The
constitutionality of the act authorizing
these notes was frequently disputed, es-
pecially as to its application to debts con-
tracted prior to its passage, and the Su-
preme Court was called upon In several
cases to decide the que.stion. State courts
generally maintained the constitutionality of
the law. The Supreme Court in 1869 (Hep-
burn vs. Griswold, q. v.) maintained the
validity of the law only in so far as it
did not affect contracts made prior to its
passage. A year later this decision was
overruled, and the constitutionality of the
law in its application to pre-existing debts
was maintained. The court in the mean-
time had undergone a change in its mem-
bership, two new .iudges having been ap-
pointed. (See also Jullliard vs. Green-
man.)
Legal-Tender Notes, redemption of,
recommended by President —
Grant, 4303, 4379.
Hayes, 4511, 4567.
Legation. — The representative, or represen-
tatives, sent by one country to the court
of another country with authority to act.
The legation may be for a specific mission,
but the term usually refers to an ambassa-
dorial or consular suite.
Legation Asylum, action of American
minister to Chile in harboring crim-
inals discussed, 5867.
Legations:
Military and naval attaches at, rec-
ommended, 4923.
Official residences for ambassadors
and ministers recommended, 6072,
6155.
Premises for, discussed, 4823, 4825,
4862, 4923. ,
Appropriation for erection of
buildings on, recommended, 5494.
Public documents or libraries in, re-
ferred to, 4070.
Secretaries at large, appointment of,
recommended, 4923. •
Legislation. (See Laws.)
Legislature. — The body of men in a state
or kingdom invested with power to make
and repeal laws. Colonial legislatures were
generally modeled after the British Parlia-
ment, the Kings, Lords and Commons hav-
ing their counterparts in the governor, the
council appointed by him, and the repre-
sentatives of the people. Parliamentary
procedure was also followed closely. The
first representative legislatiire in America
met at Jamestown, Va., in 1619. The first
representatives were elected by yoters hav-
ing a property qualification. In 1776 Vir-
ginia substituted a senate for its /upper
council, and other states followed.
Iiemhl Eeservation, Idaho, agreement
with Indians for sale of lands on,
4779.
Leopard, The, attack of, on the Ohesa-
pealce. (See Chesapeake, The.)
Leprosy in Hawaiian Islands, study of,
recommended, 6921.
Letters of Exchange, international con-
ference on, 7411.
Letters, Patent. (See Patents.)
Letters Patent, German, provision for
payment of fees on, 8269.
Letters Rogatory, report regarding exe-
cution of, transmitted, 5570.
Levees of Mississippi River, preserva-
tion of, recommendations regarding,
3652, 4682, 4797, 7005.
lever Act. (See Food Control Law.)
Lew-Chew Islands.— A group of some 55
Islands forming part of .the Kingdom of
Japan. (See Japan.)
Lew-Chew Islands:
Compact with, for securing certain
Lew-Chew Islands
Encyclopedic Index'
Liberia
privileges to American vessels,
2826.
Good offices of Uuited States ten-
dered China and Japan for settle-
ment of controversy regarding,
4521.
Lew-Chew, Treaties with. — A compact of
friendship and commerce was concluded by
Commodore Perry for tlie United States in
1854. Citizens of tlie United States, sea-
men, and others are permitted to go ashore
on the Islands to purchase or sell articles ;
ships may obtain wood and water on pur-
chase anywhere, but other articles may
be bought for them only at Napa. Sailors
may go ashore and move freely about with-
out molestation or espionage, so long as
their acts are peaceful and legal ; for ille-
gal and wrongful acts they are to be ar-
rested by the local authorities and handed
over to the captain of the ship to which
they belong, for punishment by him. A
burial ground for citizens of the United
States is established at Tumai. Pilots,
appointed by the government of Lew-Chew,
shall conduct vessels In and out of Napa
for a pilotage fee of $5. Wood is to be
supplied to ships at Napa at a selling
price of 3,600 copper cash for a thousand
catties, and water at the rate of 600 cop-
per cash (forty- three cents) for a thousand
catties (six barrels of thirty United States
'gallons each).
Lewis and Clark Expedition.— A party
of citizens and soldiers sent under command
of Captains Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark, by order of President JeEEerson, to
explore the country from the Missouri
River to the Pacific Ocean. They ascended
the Missouri River to its sources, crossed
the Rocky Mountains, and, finding the
source of the Columbia River, floated down
that stream to its mouth. They explored
nearly all the territory lying south of the
forty-ninth parallel. This expedition is im-
portant as.iorming the basis of our claim
to Oregon.
Lewis and Clark Expedition discussed,
386, 396.
Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition
at Portland, Ore., 6798.
Lewiston, N. Y. — ^Proclamation grant-
ing privileges of other ports to,
2319.
Lexington (Mass.), Battle of.— On the
night of April 18, 1775, a detachment of
800 British soldiers under Col. Smith left
Boston to capture or destroy some military
stores which the Americans had collected
and stored at Concord. Maj. Pitcairn, who
led the advance, was opposed at daybreak
at Lexington Green, eleven miles northwest
of Boston, by about fifty minute-men under
Capt. Parker, who had been summoned by
Paul Revere In his midnight ride. Plt-
cairn's men opened fire and 7 Americans
were killed and 9 wounded. This was the
first blood shed in the Revolutionary War.
The Americans returned the flre and re-
treated, but rallied and pursued the British
toward Concord, capturing 7 prisoners, the
first taken in the war. On their return from
Concord the British were reenforced at Lex-
ington by 1,200 men under Lord Percy. The
Americans had also been reenforced. and
kept up a guerrilla fire upon the British,
who fled to Boston In disorder. The loss
for the day was 93 Americans killed, wound-
ed, and missing, and 273 British. (See also
Concord (Mass.), Battle of.)
Lexington (Mo.), Battle of.— Sept. i,
1861, Col. Mulligan, in command of the
"Irish Brigade," stationed at Jefferson City,
Mo., was ordered by General Fremont, who
had recently been appointed to the com-
mand of the Western Department, to pro-
ceed up the Missouri River to Lexington,
Mo., 160 miles to the northwest, and re-
ehforce the garrison there. Mulligan's bri-
gade reached Lexington Sept. 9, swelling the
force to 2,780 men. After the battle of
Wilson's Creek (q. v.) the Confederate Gen-
eral Price marched toward the northern
part of the State with a constantly Increas-
ing force. He arrived in the vicinity of
Lexington Sept. 11 with 28,000 men and 13
pieces of artillery. Mulligan's force was
well intrenched and was constantly expect-
ing reenforcements from St. Louis. Several
unsuccessful efCorts were made to dislodge
them. The garrison suffered terribly from
thirst and many of the horses and cattle
perished. On the 20th Price advanced his
artillery behind the shelter of bales of hemp,
which the men rolled slowly before them
as they approached Mulligan's redoubt.
When this hempen breastwork was within
fifty yards of his lines, no reenforcements
having arrived. Mulligan surrendered un-
conditionally, after a loss of 39 killed and
120 wounded. Two thousand six hundred
men. Including 500 home guards, laid down
their arms. The Confederates lost 1,400 in
killed and wounded. Col. Mulligan was
twice wounded.
Libby Prison. — A famous Confederate
military prison In Richmond, Va., during
the war between the states. It was orig-
inally a tobacco warehouse and a . ship
chandlery and was named for its owner.
It was taken down In 1888 and carried to
Chicago and there set up as a war museum.
Libby Prison, rent for use of building
known as, referred to, 3895.
Liberal Bepubllcan Party. — A defection
from the regular Republican organization
in 1870-1872. This party was opposed to
the strict measures of coercion adopted by
the Administration to maintain the newly
granted rights to the freedmen, reconstruct
the Southern States, and stamp out disor-
der in the South. Uniting with the Demo-
crats in Missouri in 1870-71, It advocated
universal suffrage, universal amnesty, a
reform of the tariff, and a "cessation of
unconstitutional laws to cure Ku-Klux dis-
orders." At a national convention held in
Cincinnati In May, 1872, the Liberal Re-
publicans nominated Horace Greeley for
President and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri,
for Vice-President. The ticket was de-
feated.
Liberator. — l. The name of an anti-slav-
ery paper started in Boston In 1831 by
William Lloyd Garrison. 2. A title given,
by common consent, to Garrison. 3. The
title afterwards applied also to Abraham
Lincoln.
Liberia. — The Negro Republic of Liberia
Is situated on the West Coast of Africa,
from French Guinea (8° 25' N. latitude)
southward to the coast and between the
British Colohy of Sierra Leone and the
French Ivory Coast Colony, the eastern
boundary being partly marked by the right
bank of the Cavalla River. The extreme
geographical limits are 11° 32'-7'' 83' W.
longitude and 4° 25'-8° 25' N. latitude.
The area is about 40,000 square miles, with
350 miles of coast line. The population is
between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000.
Liberia
Encyclopedic Index
Liberty Bell
Physical Features. — The coastal regions
are marked by abrupt hills from 200 to
1,000 feet above sea level, with low-lying
land intervening, in which are creeks and
swamps ; but the interior is generally hilly,
and the hinterland is believed to contain
mountains exceeding 6,000 feet above sea
level.
The Cavalia River, which forms the east-
ern boundary with French territory for
about 150 miles from its mouth, is navi-
gable some eighty miles from the coast.
There are no railways and few roads,
but motor roads are being constructed to
link up the Interior with the navigable
rivers.
ffistorj/.— Liberia owes its origin to the
efforts of European and American coloniza-
tion societies to found a home for freed
American slaves. In 1822, a settlement was
made near the present site of Monrovia,
and in 1847 the colony declared its inde-
pendence as the Kepublic of Liberia.
Oovernment. — The constitution Is based
upon that of the United States. The natives
of the country have practically no share In
the Government, although they are entitled
to the franchise. The executive is vested
In a President, who has » cabinet of six, and
the legislative in a Congress. In 1910, an
agreement was reached whereby the United
States undertook the reorganization of the
Liberian finances. A loan was arranged
and the customs were placed under United
States supervision.
In 1912, an international loan, of $1,700,-
000 was raised, guaranteed chiefly by the
rubber tax, and the United States agreed
to designate officers to organize a defense
force.
Ethnography. — The inhabitants consist of
about 10,000 descendants of repatriated
American negroes included in an indig-
enous ropilatlon of about 2,000,000 of
various negro tribes. The Americo-Liberi-
an peoples and about 40,000 of the in-
digenous tribes are civilized and belong to
the Protestant Christian faith, but many
of the native tribes are Mohammedans, and
cannibal rites are practiced by some of , the
tribes in the interior. English is the offi-
cial language of the Eepublic.
Finance. — Tte most recent budget has
been in the neighborhood of $275,000
annually. The public debt is $2,132,000.
Production and Trade. — The soil is ex-
traordinarily fertile, but the country is cov-
ered with dense forests from a distance of
about twenty miles from the coast to the
northern boundaries. Occasional clearings
have been made, and cocoa, coffee, and cot-
ton are grown. The forest products include
rubber and palm-oil. Minerals of great
variety are believed to exist. Including
gold, iron, copper, and zinc. The princi-
pal exports are eoftee, cocoa, palm-ker-
nels, palm-oil, ivory, piaasava, rubber, and
camwood ; the prinefpai imports are cot-
tons, haberdashery, salt, rice, provi-
sions, arms and ammunition, tobacco, hard-
ware, glass and earthenware, rum, gin,
timber and beads. The most recent figures
show an annual rubber exportation of 70,-
000 pounds. In normal years, the Imports
and exports each amount to about
$1,000,000.
For the last year for which figures are
available, the United States Imported, from
Liberia goods valued at $173,000 and ex-
ported to Liberia goods valued at $213,000.
Cities. — Capital, Monrovia. Population.
6,000. There are sixteen ports of entry
among the 350 miles of coast, of which the
most Important are Eobertsport, Monrovia,
Marshall, Grand Bassa, River Cess, Sino,
Nanakroo, Sasstown, Grand Cess, and
Harper.
LilieTia:
Boundary dispute with Great Britain,
4716,. 4762.
Corony in, 2133.
Conditions in, and expedition to, dis-
cusSed, 7412.
Disorders in, suppression of, by
American naval officers, 7495.
Expedition to, report of, 7479.
French encroachments upon territory
of, action of United States regard-
ing, discussed, 5751, 5870.
Improvement in, measures for, dis-
cussed, 7495.
Independence of, recognition of, by
United States, recommended, 3248.
Loan to ameliorate conditions in,
found by American commission,
7669.
Eemoval of negroes captured on
coast of Cuba to, recommended,
3058.
Treaty with, 3329, 3346.
United States' assistance to, 7495,
7783.
Vessel to, presentation of, recom-
mended, 3445, 5086. , "
Weakness of, discussed, 50§6.
Liberia, Treaty With. —A treaty of com-
merce and navigation was concluded In
1862, which provides for freedom of com-
merce and navigation in the usual terms
of such conventions. Trade is permitted
without unusual restrictions ; taxes are to
be equitable and uniform ; importation and
exportation are In no wise restricted by
discrimination, and regardless of the na-
tionality of the carrying vessel ; humane
treatment of ship-wrecked mariners is pro-
vided for ; disputes arising regarding sal-
vage are to be settled by arbitration ; priv-
ileges granted hereafter by treaty to other
Powers are to be accorded to the United
States ; consuls for the protection of trade
are to be appointed to reside within the
dominions of the contracting parties ; the
United States is not to Interfere in affairs
of administration In Liberia, but if the Li-
berian government at any time is unable
to control the aboriginal Inhabitants with-
in its own dominions and makes requisition
for assistance from the United States, that
Power pledges itself to render the neces-
sary aid.
Liberty Bell. — The bell on the Pennsyl-
vania statehouse at Philadelphia, which, ac-
cording to tradition, was rung on July 4,
■ 1776, to announce the adoption of the
Declaration of Independence. It was cast
In London and sent to Philadelphia in
1752. The bell was broken up and recast
in April, and again in June, of the follow-
ing year. It was cracked July 8, 1835,
while being tolled In memory of Chief
Justice Marshall. The Liberty bell was
placed on exhibition at the Centennial at
Philadelphia in 1876, and at the Columbia
Liberty BeU
Encyclopedic Index
Liberty Loans
Exposition in Chicago In 1893. It bears
tile motto, "Prociaim liberty throughout the
land unto all the inhabitants thereof." It
is now in Independence Hall. Philadelphia.
Liberty Day proclaimed, 8365, 8490,
8588.
Iiiberty Iioan Campaign in Wall Street,
illustration of, 8570.
Liberty Loans, — The five popular loans
floated in the United States during the
war against Germany for the purpose
of meeting the expenses of the war. The
last loan was floated after hostilities
had ceased and an armistice was in effect,
and was popularly known as the Victory
Liberty Loan, or the Victory Loan. For
the purposes of the loans, the division of
the country into the twelve federal re-
serve banking systems was utilized. Each
district was assigned its quota, and, except
in the case of the last loan and the first
loan, each district oversubscribed its quota.
Appeals for subscriptions were made during
the loan campaigns in public places ;
through business, social, religious, fraternal
and other associations ; and through banks.
After the loans had been floated, the
Liberty Bonds declined in value on stock
exchanges, and in 1H20 fell as low as 85
for the bonds of the Second Loan, and to
95 for the bonds of the Victory Loan, with
proportionate reductions for the other
issues. /
The First Liberty Loan's interest rate is
■'•%%. with the provision that it will be
raised equal to any higher rate of interest
which may be paid on later loans. Bearer
(londs were offered in amounts of $50, $100,
.«500, and $1,000 ; and registered bonds
from denominations of $100 to $100,000.
The bonds mature in .SO years from the date
of issue, .Tune 15, 1917, but are redeemable
in whole or in part, at the option of the
United States, on or after 15 years, at par
and accrued interest. 2% of the amount of
the bonds was payable on application, 18%
on June 28, 20% July 30, 30% August 15,
and 30% August 30. Interest is payable
on June 15 and December 15 of each -year.
Bonds are exempt from all Federal. State
.Tnd local taxation, excepting estate and
Inheritance taxes. When subscriptions
were closed on June 15, it was found that
the loan had been largely over-subscribed.
The Second Liberty Loan campaign oc-
cupied most of the month of October, 1917.
The details were much the same as those
of the First Loan, as described above ; but
the rate of interest was 4%, thus automa-
tically making the rate of interest for the
First Liberty Bonds increase to this rate.
The minimum subscription was placed at
$3,000,000,000 ; and it was announced that
half of the subscriptions between this sum
and $5,000,000,000 would also be issued.
Total subscriptions by the public amounted
to $4,617,532.300 ; so that the amount is-
sued became $3,808,766,150. Nine and one-
half million persons subscribed. The bonds
mature on November 15, 1942, but may be
redeemed after November 15, 1927.
The Third Liberty Loan campaign was
inaugurated on April 6, 1918, the first an-
niversary of the entrance of the United
States into the European War. The cam-
paign closed on the following May 4. The
amount of the loan was $3,000,000,000 and
oversubscriptions, and the rate of interest
was 41/1%. to which the bonds of the First
and Second Liberty Loans were as a con-
sequence converted. The bonds were Issued
to mature in ten years from the date of
issue. Five per cent of the amount sub-
scribed for the various bonds was due on
subscription, 20% on the following May
28, 35% on the following July 18, and 40%
on the following August 15. The lowest
denomination of the bonds of the Third
Liberty Loan was $50.
The bonds of the Third Liberty Loan
were not convertible to any higher rate of
interest.
The total subscriptions to the Third Lib-
erty Loan were $4,176,517,550, an over-
subscription of 39%, every federal reserve
district oversubscribing its quota. The num-
ber of subscribers was about 17,000,000, as
compared with about 9,500,000 in the Sec-
ond Loan and 4,500,000 in the First. The
bonds mature on September 15, 1928, and
are not redeemable before maturity.
The Fourth Liberty Loan campaign took
place from September 28, 1918 to the follow-
ing October 19. There were coupon bonds of
$50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000,
with registered bonds of $50,000 and $100,-
000. The rate of Interest is 4% %, not con-
vertible to higher interest rate bonds. The
bonds mature on October 15, 1938, but may
be redeemed after October 15, 1933. The
amount ofCered was $6,000,000, but $6,992,-
927,100 was offered and was allotted.
The Victory Liberty Loan was offered in
April, 1919. The amount offered was $4,-
500,000, and the amount subscribed was
$5,240,908,300 with the amount allotted
finally fixed at $4,498,312,650. The bonds
mature on May 20, 1923, but may be re-
deemed on June 15 or on December 15,
1922. The, notes were Issued in two denom-
inations— one at 3 % % , of which the prin-
cipal and interest are exempt from all
taxation except "inheritance taxes; and one
at 4% %, exempt from all federal, ptate and
local taxation except inheritance, surtaxes,
and war and excess profits taxes.
Tax Exemption. — The unconverted 3%%
bonds of the First Loan and the 3% % notes
of the Victory issue are exempt from all
taxation, except Inheritance taxes. This
applies to both principal and interest. On
the other bonds, principal and' Interest are
exempt from all taxation except inheritance
taxes, surtaxes, excess and war profits
taxes.
In addition, an original subscriber to the
Fourth Liberty Loan for an 'amount up to
$30,000 (if still owned at the time of the
tax return) until 2 years after the offlclal
end of the war is exempt from all except
inheritance taxation on the interest of the
principal of the following bonds then owned,
up to 1% times his subscription to the
Fourth Loan: — Third Liberty 4%%, First
Liberty Converted 4%, First Liberty Con-
verted 414%, Second Liberty 4%, 'Second
Liberty Converted 4 % % .
Also, on the Fourth Liberty 414% bonds
and on the First Liberty Second Converted
4% % bonds, the interest on a principal
amount up to $30,000 is exempt from all
except inheritance taxation until 2 years
after the official end of the war. This tax
exemption for these bonds only is not
dependent on original subscription.
The Third Liberty 4%% bonds and the
First and Second Liberty Converted 4%%
bonds are receivable at par and accrued in-
terest in pa.ynicnt of federal inheritance
taxes, if owned by a person continuously
for six months before Tils death. The same
provision applies to the Fourth 4%%
bonds, the First Second Converted 4%%
bonds and the Victory 4% % notes, except
Liberty Loans
'Encyclopedic Index
Liberty Loahs
Totals All
Boston ....
New York .
Phllaflelphia
Cleveland .
Klchmond .
Atlanta . . .
Chicago . . .
St. Louis . .
Minneapolis
Kansas City
Dallas
San Francisco
Quota,
1,635,000,
5,550,000,
1,515,000,
1,830,000,
820,000,
566,000,
2,627,500,
785,000,
657,500,
805,000
415,500
1,263.500
000
000
,000
000
000
;000
000
000
000
,000
,000
,000
Loans.
Fifth Loan.
Overaui-
Overaub-
scription.
' scHption.
Suhacription.
Quota.
SubecHption.
2,221,316,100
36% g
375,000,000
$ 425,159,950
13%
7,659,y4S,600
38%
1,350,000,000
1,762,684,900
31%
1,995,142,750
32%
375,000,000
422,756,100
13%
2,376,117,100
30%
450,000,000
496,750,650
10%
1,075,043,700
31%
210,000,000
225,146,850
7%
646,459,400
14%
144,000,000
143,032,050
3,293,184,450
25%
652,500,000
772,046,550
^H%
977,071,800
24%
195,000,000
210,431,950
8%
809,823,400
38%
157,500,000
176,114,850
12%
938,615,950
16%
195,000,000
197,989,100
2%
476,518,050
15%
94,500,000
87,504,250
1,534,389,950
21%
301,500,000
319,120,800
6%
Total ...$18,500,000,000 $24,067,889,150 30% $4,500,000,000 $5,249,908,3'oo*»15%
Number of subscribers 65,000,000
Amount allotted $21,474,329,900
12,000,000
$4,500,000,000t
FouETH Loan. Third Loan.
Overaub- Overaub-
acription. . scription.
Quota. SubacHption. Quota. Subaoription.
Boston $ 500,000,000 $ 632,221,850 26% $ 250,000,000 S 354,537,250 42%
New York 1,800,000,000 2,044,778,600 13% ' 900,000,000 1,115,243,650 42%
PUladelphla ... 500,000,000 598,763,050 20% 250,000,000 361,963,500 45%
Cleveland 600,000,000 702,059,800 17% 300,000,000 405 051150 35%
Richmond 280,000,000 352,688,200 26% 130,000,000 186,259 050 43%
Atlanta 192,000,000 217,885,200 13% 90,000,000 137,649,450 53%
Chicago 870,000,000 969,209,000 11% 425,000,000 608,878,600 43%
St. Louis ..... 260,000,000 296,388,500 14% 130,000,000 199,835,900 54%
Minneapolis ... 210,000,000 241,628,300 15% 105,000,000 180,892 100 72%
Kansas City ... 260,000,000 294,649,450 13% 130,000,000 204.092,800 56%
Dallas 126,000,000 145,944,450 16% 80,000,000 116,220,650 45%
San Francisco . 402,000,000 459,000,000 14% 210,000,000 287,975,000 37%
Total $6,000,000,000 $6,954,875,200*16% $3,000,000,000 $4,176,516,750 38%
Number of subscribers 21,300,000 18,300,000
Amount allotted $6,989,047,000 $4,176,516,750
Second Loan. ' First Loan.
Overatib- Oiersuh-
acription. acription.
Quota. SubacHption. Quota. Subaoription.
Boston $ 300,000,000 $ 476,950,050 59% $ 210,000,000 $ 332,447,000 59%
New York 900,000,000 1,550,453,450 72% 600,000,000 1,186,788,000 97%
Philadelphia ... 900,000,000 380,350,250 52% 140,000,000 231,309,250 66%
Cleveland 300;000,000 486,106,800 62% 180,000,000 286,148,700 56%
Richmond 120,000,000 201,212,500 68% 80,000,000 109,737,100 35%
Atlanta 80,000,000 90,695,750 13% 60,000,000 57,196,950
Chicago 420,000,000 585,853,350 39% 260,000,000 357,196,950 38%
St. Louis 120,000,000 184,280,750 54% 80,000,000 86,134,700 7%
Minneapolis . . . 105,000,000 140,932,650 34% 80,000,000 70,255,500
Kansas City ... 120,000,000 150,125,750 25% 100,000,000 91,758,850
Dallas .... 75,000,000 77,899,850 4% 40,000,000 48,948,850 22%
San Francfsco . 210,000,000 292,671,150 39% 140,000,000 175,623,000 25%
Total $3,000,000,000 $4,617,532,200 54% $2,000,000,000 $3,035,226,850 51%
Number of subscribers 9,400,000 4,000,000
Amount allotted $3,808,766,150 $2,000,000,000
*Does not include $33,829,850 U. S. Treasury subscriptions.
•♦Includes $11,140,300 U. S. Treasury subscriptions. fApproximately.
that they are receivable at par for such
taxation.
Moreover, an original aubacriber to the
Victory Notes, 3%% or 4%%, if still
owned at the date of tax return, is exempt
from all except Inheritance taxation on
the Interest received on and after January
1, 1910, on an aggregate principal of all
Liberty 4% and 4%% bonds up to $20,000,
but not exceeding three times his original
subscription to the Victory Loan.
Also, interest on an aggregate principal
up to $5,000 of all Liberty 4% and 4%%
bonds and Treasury and War Savings Cer-
tificates, is exempt from all except inherl
tance taxation until maturity. Interest re-
Liberty Loans
Encyclopedic Index
Library of Congress
celved on and after January 1, 1919, on
an aggregate principal up to $30,000 of all
Liberty 4% and 4%% bonds is exempt
from all except inheritance taxation until
flTe years after the official end of the War.
Accordingly, until 2 years after the.ofS-
eial end or the War, exemption from all
taxation except inheritance taxation may
be obtained on a maximum principal of
$105,000, made up of $30,000 First Liberty
Second Converted 4% % bonds, $30,000
Fourth Liberty 4%% bonds and $45,000
First, Second or Third Liberty 4% or
4%% bonds. Until 5 years after the offi-
cial end of the War, exemption may be ob-
tained on the interest of a maximum princi-
pal of $50,000. Until maturity, such ex-
emption may be obtained on the interest
of an aggregate principal of $5,000 of all
Liberty 4% or 4%% bonds and Treasury
and War Savings Certificates.
Note. — ^The term "inheritance taxation"
above includes also estate taxes.
The quotas, subscriptions, amounts as-
signed and number of subscribers to the
four Liberty Loans are given in the ad-
joining table.
Liberty Loans discussed and urged upon
people, 8481, 8627, 8702. (See also
Liberty Day.)
Liberty Party.— A party organized in 1840
principally for the purpose of opposing slav-
ery. It was the outgrowth of the National
Anti-Slavery Society (q. v.), and finally
became the Abolition Party (q. v.).
Liberty. Statue ol.-^-A bronze image of a
female figure holding aloft a lighted torch;
designed by iM. Bartholdi for the Franco-
American Union in 1874, at an estimated
cost of $250,000. It was paid for by popu-
lar subscription in France and presented by
the French people to the United States as
a token of the traditional friendship of the
two nations. It was mounted upon a ped-
estal built by popular subscription in
America and erected on Bedloe's Island in
New York Harbor. In 1886, at a cost of
Some $350,000. The lighted torch is main-
tained by the United States Lighthouse
Service.
The height from the water level to the
top of the pedestal is 149 feet and 10 inches,
and the height of the statue proper is 151
feet 5 inches, making a total height of 301
feet 3 inches. The statue weighs 450,000
pounds. Forty persons may stand within
the head, and twelve within the torch.
Liberty Enlightening the World, statue
of, erected in New York Harbor,
by citizens of France, 4381, 4824,
5083.
Ceremonies of inauguration dis-
cussed and recommendations re-
garding, 4982.
To be placed under superintendence
of Light-House Board, 5080.
Libraries. (See Interior Department;
Library of Congress; State De-
partment.)
Libraries, Public, discussed, 6676.
Library, Latin American, establish-
ment of, at Washington, recom-
mended by International American
Couference, 5506.
Library of Congress. — When the seat of
Government was removed to Washington in
1800, the idea of a Congressional Library
was conceived. In December, 1801, John
Randolph made a report which formed the
basis of an act of Congress of 1802 organ-
izing the library. Some 3,000 books of
reference were accumulated, when, in Au-
gust, 1814, the British army burned the
Capitol and the Library was consumed.
In 1815 Congress purchased the private
library of Thomas JeSerson, consisting of
6,700 volumes, for $23,950. An annual ap-
propriation being made for the purchase
of books, the Library continued to grow
until in 1851 it numbered 55,000 volumes.
Dec. 24th of that year a second conflagra-
tion destroyed 35,000 of these volumes.
An appropriation of $72,000 was. made for
repairs, and the Library grew apace. In
1866, 40,000 volumes were transferred from
the Smithsonian Institution. The follow-
ing year Congress purchased for $100,000
the historical collection of Peter Force,
very rich in Americana. This library ■con-
tained nearly 60,000 books, pamphlets and
manuscripts. In 1864 President Lincoln
appointed Ainsworth R. SpofEord to be
Librarian, and he was succeeded in 1897
by John Kussell Young, who died in 1899,
and Herbert Putnam was appointed his
successor. One hundred sets of Government
publications are at the disposal of the Li-
brarian of Congress for exchange, through
the Smithsonian, with foreign Governments,
and from this source are received about
12,000 volumes annually.
At latest reports, the Library contained
2,451,974 books, 154,200 charts and maps,
770,000 pieces and collections of music, and
392,905 prints.
The collection of manuscripts, touching
every period of American history, includes
the papers of nine of the Presidents and
the records of the Continental Congress,
with numerous other important groups —
political, military, naval and commercial.
The Smithsonian deposit is strong in
scientific works, and includes the largest
assemblage of the transactions of learned
societies which exists in this country.
Of the printed books, probably one-sixth
are duplicates not in use.
The building containing the Library Is
an enormous structure in the Italian
Renaissance style of architecture, most im-
pressive in Its lines and beautiful' in its
detail. It is in the form of a quadrangle
enclosing a central rotunda surmounted by
a low gilded dome. The building was be-
gun in 1886 and completed in 1897, at the
cost of $6,180,000. It is probably the most
ornate and beautiful library building In
the world. The public reading room oc-
cupies the rotunda. It consists of an oc-
tagonal hall one hundred feet In diameter,
sumptuously built of soft-tinted Numidian,
Sienna and Tennessee marble in variegated
hues. In the decorations, some forty
painters and sculptors are represented-=-aIl
American citizens. The floor space is 326,-
195 sq. feet, or nearly eight acres. The
book stacks contain about 56 miles of
shelving, affording space for 2,600,000
octavo volumes. The reading desks are
arranged In concentric circles about the
Librarian's desk In the center, from which
easy communication is had to all parts
of the fireproof Iron book stacks. The
Library of Congress has been since 1870
the only office of record for copyrights, and
Its accessions from that source are very
large. (See illustration, frontispiece. Vol
Library of Congress
Encyclopedic Index
Light-Houses
Library of Congress:
Activities of, 6676.
Arundel manuscripts, copy of, to be
placed in, 1445.
Building for, recommended by Pres-
ident—
Arthur, 4651.
Cleveland, 4949.
Hayes, 4431, 4458, 4531, 4579.
Publications presented to, referred
to, 3347.
Size of, 6676.
Licenses for Vessels, prohibitory laws
in regard to, 430, 504, 508.
Licensing under the Food and Fuel Ad-
ministrations. (See Food Admini-
stration and Fuel Administration.)
Liechtenstein. — Liechtenstein is an inde-
pendent Principality on the riglit banlj of
the Lower Rhine, south of Lalie Constance,
and between the Swiss cantons of St. Gall
and Graubiinden and the Voralberg crown-
land of the Austrian Empire. The western
boundary is the Rhine, and the southern
boundary runs along the summits of the
Naaflsopf Fallinis and Mlttags-Spitze, in
the Uhatikon Range. A railway runs from
Buchs (Switzerland) to Feldkirch (Aus-
tria) with stations at- Schaan, Nendeln, and
Schaanwald in the Principality. The in-
habitants numbered 10,716 in 1911, of Ger-
man ' origin and almost all Roman Catho-
lics. Agriculture is the principal industry,
corn, wine and turf being produced, to-
gether with timber from the forest slopes ;
textiles and embroidery are locally manu-
factured. The revenue in 1915 was $231,-
000 and the expenditure was very slightly
less. There is no public debt, and, since
1886, no state army.
Liechtenstein is particularly noted for
its fine cattle, reared on the Alpine pas-
tures.
Government. The government is that of
a constitutional monarchy, the crown be-
ing hereditary (since 1719) in the male
line of the house of Liechtenstein. Ruler :
His Serene Highness Prince Johann II.,
Prince of Liechtenstein, Duke of Troppau
and of Jagerndorf, born Oct. 5, 1840 ; suc-
ceeded his father Prince Aloyslus, Nov. 12,
1858; Member of the Herrenhaus of the
Austrian Reichsrat.
There is a Diet, of fifteen members (of
whom three are appointed by the Prince
and twelve elected by indirect vote), meet-
ing anuually in October, with a maximum
duration of four years. The local courts
are subject to a Court of Appeal at Vienna,
and the Supreme Court is the Oberlandes-
gcricht at Innsbruck.
History. — From 1719-1806 the Principal-
ity formed part of the Holy Roman Em-
pire and from 1806-1815 of the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine. Prom 18151866 it was
part of the Germanic Confederation under
the hegemony of Austria, but since 1866
the Principality has been independent,
nlthough closely connected by treaties with
the Austrian Empire. In November, 1918,
1 he Diet proelaimeil the complete indepen-
ilonce of the country.
Lieutenant-General.— In the United States
Army the rank next below that of general
and next above that of major-general. It
was first authorized by Congress in 1798
and bestowed upon George Washington, "t
was abolished iu 1799, and was not revived
until 1855, when Wintteld Scott was
brevetted lieutenant-general. At his death
It again lapsed. In 1864 it was revived
by special act of Congress and conferred
upon Ulysses 8. Grant, on whose promotion
to the grade of general, July 25, 1866,
created In his behalf, William T. Sherman
became lieutenant-general ; and on his suc-
cession to the rank of general, March 4,
1869, Philip H. Sheridan was promoted
to be lieutenant-general. On the retire-
ment of Sherman, in 1884, the grade of
lieutenant-general was discontinued and
merged with that of general. By an act
of Feb. 5, 1895, it was revived and John
M. Schofleld appointed, who held it until
his retirement,* Sept. 29th, of that year.
On June 6, 1900, ' Congress provided that
the senior major-general commanding the
army should have the rank and pay of the
lieutenant-general, the act affecting Major-
General Nelson A. Miles, who retired Aug
8, 1903. On that date Samuel B. M. Young
received the commission of lieutenant-gen-
eral, and on Jan. 9. 1904, it was given to
Adna R. Chaffee. He was succeeded b'y Ma-
jor-Genei'al Arthur MacArthur, and with his
retirement on June 2, 1909, the rank again
lapsed. During the United States' partic-
ipation in the World War, the rank of lieu-
tenant-general was bestowed upon Hunter
Liggett and Robert Lee Bullard, comman-
ders of the First and Second American
Armies of the American Expeditionary
Forces, respectively.
Life, Liberty g,nd tlie Pursuit of Happi-
ness announced as the inalienable
rights of all men in the Declaration
of Independence, 1.
Life Insurance. (See Insurance, Life.)
Life-Saving Medals, government grant
of, 6896.
Life-Saving Service. — The ocean and lake
coasts of the United States are picketed
with the stations of the Llfe-Saving Service
attached to the United States Treasury De-
partment, and there is a corps of iuspectors,
superintendents, station keepers and crews,
extending over the entire coast line, to-
gether with a board on life-saving appli-
ances, composed of experts selected from
the Life-Saving Service, the Revenue Cutter
Service, and the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey and the Army.
In January, 1915, the Life-Saving Serv-
ice was combined with the Revenue Cutter
Service (q. v.) to form the Coast Guard.
(See Coast Guard.)
Life-Saving Service
Consolidation of, with Light-House
Service urged, 7738.
Discussed, 4931, 6158.
Pensions in, 7013.
Light-House Board:
Progress of, 2747.
Eeorganization of, effect of, 7437,
7539.
Referred to, 2747.
Statue of Liberty Enlightening the
World to be placed under Super! n
tendenee of, 5080.
Light-Houses:
Abaco Island, negotiations with Ba-
hamas for site on, 845.
Light-Houses
Encyclopedic Index
Lincoln
Act making appropriation for, rea-
sons for applying pocket veto to,
1071.
Cession of, to United States act of
New Hampshire legislature for,
102.
Establisliment of, and sites for, 182;
by an act approved June 17, 1910,
reorganized the service and, 678,
873, 955, 960, 1239, 2557.
Lands for —
Designated by proclamation, 1221,
6701, 6702, 6705. .
Erection of, negotiations for ces-
sion of, 103, 845.
Purchase of, 1733.
On Bahamas, 1239.
On Sandy Hook, 67, 80.
Permanent points for, on coasts of
Oregon, Washington, and Alaska,
3902.
Soil and jurisdiction for, complete
cession of, required, 142.
System of improvement in, 1683.
Treaty with Morocco concerning
maintenance of, on Cape Spartel,
3582.
Virgin Islands, on, 8319.
Light-House Service. — Formerly the man-
agement of the light-houses was intrusted
to a light-house board, organized in con-
formity to the act of Congress of Aug. 31,
1852. It consisted of the head of the
Treasury Department (later of the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor), three ofBcers
of the army, two naval and a civilian
member. The head of the department was
e:c-officio president of the board, and the
ranl^ing naval officer was chairman. There
were two secretaries, one a naval officer and
one an engineer officer of the army. That
system involved divided responsibility, and
resulted in much friction in administration.
Congress, therefore, by an act approved
June 17, 1910, recognized the service and
abolished the board and created a Bureau
of Light-Houses in the Department of Com-
merce and Labor, with a commissioner in
charge directly responsible to the Secretary
of Commerce and Labor.
The Bureau is charged with the estab-
lishment and maintenance of light-houses,
light-vessels, buoys and other aids to navi-
gation on the coasts and rivers of the
United States, as authorized by Congress,
and with the direction of the officers, depots
and tenders required In this work.
Under the old system there were sixteen
light-house districts, each in charge of
an army or navy officer. The law of 1910
provided that nineteen districts should be
created, each in charge of a civilian in-
spector, but the president was authorized
\ (or a period of three years, from July 1,
1910, to assign army and navy officers to
act as district inspectors.
During last year, the Service maintained
5,665 lighted aids to navigation, including
1,768 lights, 3,132 minor lights, 50 light-
vessel stations, 553 gas buoys, and 162 float
lights ; and 10,410 unlighted aids, Includ-
ing 534 fog signals, 49 submarine signals,
79 whistling buoys, 245 bell buoys, 7,055
other buoys, and 2,448 day beacons — a
grand total of 16,075.
At latest reports, there were about 6,000
employees In the Service. The cost of
maintenance for the last year was $5,841,-
116 and the cost of betterment was $1,750,-
080— a total of $7,591,196.
Light-House Service:
Consolidation of, with Life-Saving
Service urged, 7738.
Transfer of, from Treasury to Navy
Department urged, 4727.
Likin, abolition of, in China, 7418.
Lillie, The, compensation to owners of,
6730, 6824.
Lincoln, Abraham. — March 4, 1861-
AprU 15, 1865.
(FIRST TEKM, 1861-1865.)
Nineteenth Adipinistration — Republican.
Vice-President — Hannibal Hamlin.
Secretary of State —
William H. Seward.
Secretary of the Treasury —
Salmon P. Chase.
William Pitt Fessenden.
Secretary of War —
Simon Cameron.
Edwin M. Stanton.
Secretary of the Navy —
Gideon Welles.
Secretary of thr Interior'—'
Caleb B. Smith.
John P. Usher.
Postmaster-General —
Montgomery Blair.
William Dcnnison.
Attorney-Oeneral —
ICdwiird Bates.
T. J. Coftey.
James Speed.
Nomination and Election. — Lincoln was
first elected by the Republican party Nov.
6, 1860. The Republican National Con-
vention met at Chicago, May 16, 1860, and
on the third ballot nominated Lincoln over
Seward, Cameron, and Chase.
Platform. — The platform condemned dis-
union ; insisted on States Rights ; de-
nounced the Democratic administration ;
censured the reckless extravagance of the
Democratic Government ; proclaimed the
dogma that the Constitution carries slavery
Into any or all of the territories to be a
dangerous heresj*" ; asserted that the Con-
stitution does not countenance slavery nor
should Congress give a legal existence to it ;
insisted upon the admission of Kansas to
statehood ; recommended tariff for revenue,
with encouragement of the industries ;
protested against selling public lands al-
ready occupied by settlers ; opposed any
change in the naturalization laws ; declared
river and harbor appropriations to be both
desirable and constitutional ; and demanded
a transcontinental railroad.
Opposition. — The Democratic National
Convention met, for the first time in the
far South, at Charleston, S. C. After many
days of fruitless balloting, the convention
divided into two sections. Eventually, the
Northern half nominated Douglas and the
Southern half declared for Breckinridge.
The Constitutional Union Party met in
national convention at Baltimore, May 19,
1860, and nominated John Bell, on a plat-
form the basis of which was the recogni-
tion of no other political principles than
the Constitution, Union, and the enforce-
ment of laws.
Lincoln
Encyclopedic Index
Lincoln
Vote.— The popular vote as cast by thir-
ty-three States gave Lincoln, 1,865,913 ;
Breckinriage, 848,404 ; Douglas, 1,374,664,
and Bell, 591,900. The electoral vote,
counted Feb. 13, 1861, gave Lincoln, 180 ;
Breckinridge, 72 ; Bell, 39, and Douglas, 12.
(SECOND TERM, MAKCH 4, 1865-APRIL 15,
1865.)
Twentieth Administration — Republican.
Y ice-President — Andrew Johnson.
The only change in the cabinet at the
beginning of Lincoln's second term was the
substitution of Hugh McCulloch, of Indi-
ana, for Secretary of the Treasury to suc-
ceed Mr. Fessenden.
BECOND TERM.— In the election of
1864, Lincoln was renominated by the
(Regular) Republican National Convention,
which met In Baltimore on June 7, 1864.
Platform. — The Republican platform of
1864 pledged the party to preserve the
Union ; opposed any compromise with the
rebels ; demanded the utter and complete
extirpation of slavery ; gratefully acknowl-
edged the services of the Army and the Navy
in the war ; commended the administra-
tion of Lincoln ; advocated full and ample
protection of the members of the Army
and the Navy ; encouraged Immigration ;
urged speedy construction of the transcon-
tinental railroad ; urged the practice of
rigid economy in the expenditure of Gov-
ernment funds ; and deprecated European
interference or offensive sympathy.
Opposition. — The Radical Republican
party, opponents of Lincoln, met at Cleve-
land May 31 and nominated John C. Fre-
mont ; but, before the election, FrSmont
"urged the support of Lincoln and withdrew.
The Democratic National Convention at
Chicago, Aug. 29, 1864, nominated George
B. McClellan on a platform declaring that
the Constitution had been violated during
the Lincoln administration and urged the
cessation of hostilities and the conapromise
of difficulties ; condemned the military in-
terference in some state elections ; sympa-
thized with prisoners of war ; condemned
the exercise of martial law ; and expressed
sympathy for the suffering soldiers and
sailors, to whom future aid and reward
was promised.
Vote. — The popular vote cast by twenty-
four States gave Lincoln 2,216,067, and
McClellan 1,808,725. The electoral vote,
counted on Feb. 8, 1865, gave Lincoln 212
and McClellan 21.
Party AfflUation. — After Lincoln's service
in the State legislature and his single
term in Congress (1846-1848), he became
one of the most influential of the Whig
leaders in Illinois. The repeal of the Mis-
souri Compromise (1854) brought him
back into politics with intense anti-slav-
ery ardor. When the Republican party
was formed; Lincoln took his place as the
head of that party In his state. Before
the RepubiicJln Convention in 1858 he said :
"A house divided against itself cannot
stand. I believe .this Government cannot
endure half slave and half free. I do
not expect the Union to be dissolved;
I do not expect the house to fall; but 1
do expect that it will cease to be divided.
It will become all the one thing or all the
other. Either the opponents of slavery will
arrest the further spread of It and place
it where the public mind shall rest in the
belief that tt is In course of ultimate ex-
tinction, or its advocates will push It for-
ward until it shall become alike lawful
In all the states, old as well as new.
North as well as South."
Political Oomple(Bion oj Congress. — In the
thirty-seventh Congress (1861-1863), the
Senate, of 50 merubers, was composed of
11 Democrats, 31 Republicans, 7 Ameri-
cans, and 1 vacancy, and the House, of 178
members, was made up of 42 Democrats,
106 Republicans, 28 Americans, and 2 va-
cancies. In the Thirty-eighth Congress
(1863-1865), the Senate, of 51 members,
was composed of 12 Democrats and 39 Re-
publicans ; and the House, of 183 members,
was made up of 80 Democrats and 103 Re-
publicans. In the Thirty-ninth Congress
(1865-1867), the Senate, of 52 members,
was composed of 10 Democrats and 42
Republicans ; and the House, of 191 mem-
bers, was made up of 46 Democrats and
145 Republicans. In the Fortieth Congress
(1867-1869), the Senate, of 53 members,
was composed of 11 Democrats and 42 Re-
publicans ; and the House, of 193 mem-
bers, was made tip of 49 Democrats, 143
Republicans, and 1 vacancy.
Foreign Policy. — In speaking of the atti-
tude of foreign nations toward the United
States during the war. President Lincoln
said in his Second Annual Message (page
3327) that the commercial and social con-
ditions of other nations with whom we
have had relations have been disturbed by
the war, and adds : "We have attempted
no propagandism and acknowledge no revo-
lution. But we have left to every nation
the exclusive conduct and management of
its own affairs. Our struggle has been,
of course, contemplated by foreign nations
with reference less to its own merits than
to its supposed and often Exaggerated ef-
fects and consequences resulting to those
nations themselves. Nevertheless, com-
plaint on the part of this Government,
even if it were just, would certainly be
unwise."
Public Belt. — The public debt of the
United States during the administration of
President Lincoln stood as follows : July
1, 1861, $90,580,873.72; 1862, $524,176,-
412.13: 1863, $1,119,772,138.63; 1864,
$1,815,784,370.57; 1865, $2,680,647,869.74.
Tariff. — The principal tariff changes In
President Lincoln's administration were
made by the act of Aug. 5, 1861, "to pro-
vide increased revenue from imports, to pay
interest on the public debt, and for other
purposes." This levied a direct tax on
both states and territories and provided
for .what is believed to be the first income
tax ever levied by the general government
of the United States. This income tax
amounted to three per cent per annum on
all income in excess of eight hundred dol-
lars. The act of Dec. 24, 1861, imposed
Increased duties on tea, coffee, and sugar.
That of July 14, 1862, was an act "in-
creasing, temporarily, the duties on im-
ports and for other purposes." The act
of March 13, 1863, "to modify existing
laws imposiilg duties on imports, and for
other purposes," made slight increases. Du-
ties were further increased by the act of
June 30, 1864, and that of March 3,
1865.
Slavery. — In his Inaugural Address (page
3206), President Lincoln sought to assure
the people of the Southern states that
they had nothing to fear from a Republi-
can administration. He quotes from one
of his former speeches : "I have no pur-
pose, directly or indirectly, to interfere
with the institution of slavery in the states
where it exists. I believe I have no law-
ful right to do so, and I have no inclina-
tion to do so." He holds the Constitu-
tion to be clear on the question of surren-
vi,°,»
•7
vVt*
1%
U
I
I
Lincoln
Encyclopedic Index
Lincoln
derlng fugitive slaves and states tliat
tlie difference of opinion rests only on
whose autliorlty and liow tlie surrender
shall be made. He insists upon the in-
tegrity of the Union ; that no state has
the power to secede lawfully and that the
Union is not broken by such declaration
t)f secession on the part of any one state.
In urging upon the people not to plunge
the country into civil war, he said : "You
can have no conflict without being your-
selves the aggressors. You have no oath
registered In Heaven to destroy the Gov-
ernment, while I shall have the most sol-
emn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend
it.' " In the earlier stages of the war,
the President was besought by both great
parties in the country on the one hand to
adopt radical measures to stop slavery
and on the other to pursue conservative ,
paths. It was well Isnown that he enter-
tained a deep-rooted hatred of domestic
servitude ; but so great was his reverence
for the law, so careful was he of vested
rights and interests, and so desirous of re-
taining the support and confidence of the
people, as an aid for the solution of the
great problem, that he followed thus far
a moderate course between the two ex-
tremes.
Emancipation. — In August, 1861, Con-
gress passed the act confiscating the riglits
of slave-owners in slaves employed in hos-
tile acts against the Union. B'rfimont fol-
lowed with his order to emancipate the
slaves in Missouri. Lincoln ordered this
declaration to be modified to conform to
the orders of Congress and by so doing
angered the anti-slavery advocates in Mis-
souri and displeased the more conservative
advisers.
On March 6, 1862, the President sent a
special message to Congress (page 3269)
recommending the passage of a joint reso-
lution bringing about the gradual eman-
cipation of slaves by states, in return for
which the states should receive pecuniary
aid from the Government. Congress passed
the resolution, but public opinion in the
states was not ready to grasp this means.
In April, Congress freed the slaves in the
District of Columbia with compensation to
owners — a measure which Lincoln had
years before earnestly advocated.
The events of the war during 1862
forced upon Lincoln the conclusion that
emancipation was the only means at his
command. As early as July, 1862, he
began to prepare the proclamation, and
thoiigh urged by delegations to take the
step, he waited until it would be possible
to make the order effective and easily oper-
ative. Late in August, 1862, the President
said : "My paramount object Is to save the
Union, and not either to save or destroy
slavery. If I could save the Union without
freeing any slave, I would do it ; if I could
save it by freeing all the slaves, I would
do it ; and if I could do it by freeing some
and leaving others alone, I would also do
that." The defeat of Lee at Antletam and
his retreat Into Maryland seemed to the
President an opportune time to Issue his
proclamation of emancipation, and his pre-
liminary proclamation was accordingly is-
sued on Sept. 22, 1862 (page 3358).
In his Second Annual Message (page
3335), the President recommended to Con-
gress the passage of a resolution offer-
ing "compensated emancipation." But
Congress did not act promptly, and Jan. 1,
1863, saw the Proclamation of Emancipa-
tion issued (page 3358). There was much
speculation as to the President's firmness
of anti-slavery convictions, and some sug-
gestions that under some circumstances
he might withdraw this proclamation. But
in his Fourth Annual Message (page 3456)
he repeated his declaration of the previous
year: "While I remain in my- present posi-
tion I shall not attempt to retract or mod-
ify the emancipation proclamation, nor
shall I return to slavery any person who
Is free by the terms of that proclamation
or by any of the acts of Congress," and
he adds : "If the people should, by what-
ever mode or means, make it an Executive
duty to reenslave such persons, another,
and not I, must be their instrument to
perform ,it." He concludes Ihe message
with the terse paragraph : "In stating a
single condition of peace I mean simply to
say that the war will cease on the part of
the Government whenever it shall have
ceased on the part of those who, began
it." Congress acted promptly on the Presi-
dent's suggestion and on Jan. 31, 1865,
prepared and proposed to the states the
Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution
abolishing slavery, and this, before the
end of the year, was ratified by twenty-
seven of the thirty-six states.
Lincoln, Abraham:
Amnesty proclamation of, 3414.
Discussed, 3390, 3455.
Persons entitled to benefits of, de-
fined by proclamation, 3419.
Eeferred to, 3508.
Annual messages of, 3245, 3327,
3380, 3444.
Assassination of. (See Biography of,
3206; Death of, post; Military Com-
mission, etc., post)
Biographical sketch of, 3204.
Birthday of, centenary of, made legal
holiday, 6966.
Birthplace of, presented to War De-
partment, 8160.
Centennial anniversary of birth of,
proclaimed a special holiday by
Eoosevelt, 7344.
Character of, discussed by President
Wilson, 8160.
Child of, death of, announced by
Cabinet, 3266.
Constitutional amendment relative
to gradual emancipation of slaves
recommended by, 3337.
Death of (see also Military commis-
sion, etc., post.) —
Action of (Congress on, 3497.
Action of Senators and Represen-
tatives in Washington on, 3490.
Announcement of, to Vice-Presi-
dent Johnson, 3485.
Announcements of, 3485.
Condolence of Bey of Tunis on,
3565.
Day of humiliation and mourning
in memory of, appointed, 3504.
Order regarding, 3537.
Postponed, 3505.
Funeral announcement and official
arrangements for, 3493, 3533.
Liincom
Encyclopedic Index
L>uicom
Guard of honor, 3496.
Honors to be paid memory of, 3487.
Orders regarding, 3491.
Public offices to be closed in com-
memoration of, 3638.
Eeferred to, 3551.
Report of George H. Sharpe on
assassination of, referred to,
3792.
Reward offe/ed for arrest of al-
leged instigators of assassina-
tion of, 3505.
Distribution of, referred. to, 3577.
Persons claiming, directed to file
claims, 3551.
Eevoked as to certain persons,
3551.
Scene of, opposite 8568.
Emancipation discussed by. (See
Emancipation.)
Emancipation proclamation of, 3358.
Executive orders of, 3218, 3239, 3300,
3360, 3375, 3431, 3474, 3483.
Exequal^ur issued constil of Belgium
revoked by, 3420.
Fasting and prayer, day of, set apart
by, 3237, 3365, 3422.
Eeferred to, 3437.
Finances discussed by, 3248, 3330,
3350, 3384, 3447.
Foreign policy discussed by, 3248,
3255, 3327, 3444.
Habeas corpus —
Authority given by, to suspend writ
of, 3217, 3218, 3219, 3220, 3240,
3300, 3313, 3322.
Eeferred to, 3225.
Suspension of writ of, by, 3299,
3371, 3420.
Revoked as to certain States by
President Johnson, 3529, 3531.
Inaugural address of —
First, 3206.
Second, 3477.
Memorial to, construction of, in
Washington, D. C, urged, 7822.
Military commission to try persons
implicated in assassination of, to
be appointed, 3532.
Detail for court, 3534.
Judge-advocate appointed, 3534.
Order appointing commission, 3533.
Provost-marshal appointed, 3532.
Sentence of, approved, 3545.
Special judge-advocate appointed,
3534.
Pardon granted deserters from Army
by, 3364, 3479.
Act authorizing, 3365.
Pocket veto of, 3471.
Portrait of, 3203.
Powers of Federal and State Govern-
ments discussed by, 3206, 3221,
3269, 3274, 3286, 3335. /
Proclamations of —
Absence of soldiers from duty,
3364.
Admission of —
Nevada, 3430.
West Virginia, 3368, and illustra-
tion opposite 3257.
Agreement with Bernard Koclj for
emigration of negroes, canceled,
3368.
Amnesty, 3414.
Persons entitled to benefits of,
3419.
Anniversary of birth of Washing-
ton, 3209.
Blockade of Southern ports, 3215,
3216, 3481.
Removal of, 3290, 3372, 3417,
3431, 3482.
Declaring proclamation of Gen.
Hunter void, 3292.
Discriminating duties on vessels of
Nicaragua suspended, 3416.
Emancipation, 3358.
Notice of, 3297.
Exequatur issued consul of Bel-'
gium revoked, 3420.
Extraordinary session of —
Congress, 3214. '
Senate, 3362, 3474.
Fasting and prayer, 3237, 3365,
3422.
Government to be reestablished in
Southern States, 3414, 3423.
Habeas corpus, writ of, suspended,
3299, 3371, 3420.
Power to suspend, given, 3217.
Liability of aliens to perform mili-
tary duty, 3369.
Pardons granted deserters, 3364,
3479.
Persons —
Discouraging enlistments, 3299.
In rebellion, 3214, 3294, 3299.
Supplying Indians with -muni-
tions of war, 3480.
Privileges of other ports g anted —
Newport, Vt., 3428.
St. Albans, Vt.,,3473.
States in insurrection, 3238, 3293,
3366.
Thanksgiving, 3290, 3371, 3373,
3429.
Treatment of American vessels in
foreign ports, 3482.
Volunteers called for, 3214, 3216,
3370, 3374, 3427, 3472.
Secession discussed by, 3206, 3221,
3227.
Slavery discussed by, 3206, 3269,
3335.
Special session message of, 3221.
State of the Union dit.cussed by,
3245, 3255, 3334, 3389, 3452.
Lincoln
Encyclopedic Index
Linen
Thanksgiving order of, 3439.
Thanksgiving proclamation of, 3290,
3371, 3373, 8429. (See also Fast-
ing and Prayer.)
Order regarding day appointed,
3245.
Tributes of nations to, numbers of
copies of, referred to, 4001.
Veto messages of —
Additional medical of&cers of vol-
unteer service, 3289.
Circulating bank notes in District
of Columbia, 3288.
Correction of clerical errors in in-
ternal-revenue act, reasons for
applying pocket veto to, 3471.
War between the States discussed by,
3221, 3245, 3255, 3278, 3303, 3389,
3452, 3478.
Lincoln Highway. (See Transconti-
nental Highways.)
Lincoln Memorial.— In February, l9ll,
Congress appropriated $2,000,000, later in-
creased to $2,600,000, for a memorial in
Washington, D. C, to the memory of Abra-
ham Lincoln. A commission was appointed
to take charge of the work, and its plans
were adopted and approved in January,
1913. Construction was started on Feb-
ruary 12, 1914, and the corner-stone of the
Memorial was laid one year later. ThS
entire Memorial was completed in 1918.
It is located at the end of the Mall in
Potomac Park, on the axis of the United
States Capitol and the Washington Monu-
ment. The plans were prepared by Henry
Bacon, of New York City. The foundation
of the Memorial is raised above the ground
level about 45 feet ; and on a base 168 feet
by 2,^1 feet Is a simple but massive Greek
temple. There is a central Memorial Hall,
in which is a colossal statue of Lincoln by
Daniel Chester French, and on either side
of the hall are two smaller rooms. There
is an impressive surrounding colonnade.
Lincoln Memorial XTniversity. — This uni-
versity was established by General O. O.
Howard, from the suggestion of Abraham
Lincoln himself, on Feb. 10, 1897. The
Institution is located at Cumberland Gap,
Tenn., and exists for the education of the
youth of the mountain - stock from which
Lincoln himself sprang.
Lindesfarne, The, claim by owners of,
6934.
Lindsay & Co. vs. Montana Federation
of Labor et al. — Lindsay & Co., wholesale
dealers in fruits and vegetables, .had been
declared "unfair" by the Miners' Union
and the Trades Assembly. This action was
indorsed by the defendant, the Montana
Federation, and a circular issued in which
"all laboring men find those in sympathy
with organized labor are requested not to
patronize Lindsay & Co." The company
secured an injunction forbidding this boy-
cott, but the Supreme Court of the State
vacated the injunction. It was shown that
• the plaintiff company's trade had suffered
as a result of the boycott. The means of
boycott in this case was the publication
of the circular as (Juoted above. The
court held that such publication by one
person or by an association was perfectly
legal, being an exercise of the right of
free speech and free press.
£-2
The court defined the boycott as "the
act of combination, in refusing to have
business dealings with another, until he
removes or ameliorates conditions which
are deemed inimical to "the welfare of the
members of the combination, or some of
them, or grants concessions which are
deemed to make for that purpose." A
conspiracy was defined as "a combination
of two or more persons br same concerted
action to accdmplish a crimlna" or un-
lawful purpose, or to accomplish a purpose,
not in itself criminal or unlawful, by crimi-
nal or unlawful means." The court held
that the company did not have a property
right in the trade of any particular per-
son ; hence any one person may rightfully
withdraw his patronage. The court re-
jects the doctrine that an act perfectly
lawful when done by one person becomes
criminal when done by two or more per-
sons acting in concert, and that this con-
certed action amounts to a conspiracy. If
an individual is clothed with a right %vhen
acting alone, he does not lose such right
merely by actlpg with others. Hence, if
the defendants did not violate any legal
right of the plaintiff in withdrawing their
patronage, they cannot be enjoined from
continuing the boycott In force, so long
.■\s the means to make It effective are not
illegal.
Linen Industry.— 'The high prices of linen
and of the flax fiber from which linen is
made has centered attention on the neces-
sity of establishing a real Mnen industry in
this country, the greatest consumer of linen
in the world. There seem to be two big
problems which must be solved before suc-
cess Is assured. One is to find some artificial
method of preparing the flax straw for the
spinner, thus relieving the flax grower of
this task, and the other Is to convince the
American public that American-made linen
Is as good as any other.
In the United States fiax has been raised
almost entirely for the seed, which is used
to make the well-known linseed oil so neces-
sary for the production of good paints and
varnishes. Of some 3,000,000 acres of fiax
raised in this country in 1915, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture estimates that only
2,000 acres were devoted to fiax for fiber.
The bulk of the straw from the seed-bearing
plants is burned and used for fertilizer. It
should be borne Iti mind, however, that flax
growing for seed and fiax growing for fiber
are separate and distinct industries. Some
flax is grown for both seed and fiber, but a
decision must be made as to which Is to be
the more important product, just as the
sheep raiser must decide whether mutton or
wool is to be the primary consideration.
In Europe the farmer not only raises the
flax, but prepares the fiber for the spinner.
This preparation requires several processes,
one of which, known as "retting," requires
considerable cheap labor and much time and
is In addition a most disagreeable process
for the workmen. The problem In this coun-
try is to find some chemical process of ret-
ting that can be carried out at a factory and
thus allow the farmer to confine his atten-
tion to the agricultural end of the Industry.
There are (1914) 157 establishments In
the United States engaged in the manufac-
ture of cordage, twine. Jute and linen goods.
Only 21 of this number claim to make linen
goods. The materials used consist of Manila
and New Zealand hemp, Heunequin (sisal
from Mexico and Cuba), sisal (from Africa,
the Bahamas. Hawaii and Java). The con-
sumption of flax and flax tow wacj less than
2.") million pounds and most of these mate-
rials were mixed with cotton.
Liquors
Encyclopedic Index
Liquors
Iiiquors — Malt, Vinous and Distilled.
— The use of alcoholic liquors in the United
States is said to have doubled between the
years 1880 and 1900. It was estimated
that the per capita consumption in 1902
was 19.48 gallons. The total amount spent
for the year was $1,396,098,276. About
one-fourth of the population was said to
be habitual users of intoxicants, until the
growth of the movement for the prohibition
of liquors became powerful In recent years.
With the advent of prohibition on a na-
tional scale on June 30, 1919, the lawful
manufacture and sale of liquors ceased in
the United States. (See Prohibition.)
Malt Liquors. — Early New England col-
onists encouraged the manufacture of malt
liquors for the broader market it afforded
for grain, and because the supply of a
mild beverage promoted temperance and
good order among the citizenSj who pre-
sumably would have indulged in stronger
drinlc if denied ale or beer. In 1795 up-
' ward, of two million gallons were produced.
While, prior to 1795, it does not appear
that legislation adverse to the brewing In-
dustry was enacted, yet laws favorable to
the cheaper distribution of distilled liquors
brought these stronger drinks to the fore
and held in check the brewing industry.
Efforts were made in drawing up the early
federal revenue laws to foster malt liquor
making, but these were successfully foiled.
In 1789 President Madison expressed the
hope that the brewing industry would strike
deep root in every state in the union, and
Thomas Jefferson stated that "no nation
is sober where the dearncss of fermented
drinks substitutes ardent spirits as a com-
mon beverage." '
In 1810 the domestic production of malt
liquors amounted to 5,754,735 gallons.
There were 129 breweries in the country,
most of them producing ale and porter ex-
clusively. In 1847 the increasing German
immigration brought to America not only
a demand for their favorite beverage, lager
beer, but also a practical knowledge of Its
manufacture. Before the Civil war the
use of strong drink was increasing at an
alarming rate. The revenue tax then im-
posed raised the price of ardent spirits to
the consumer, and the Brewers' Associa-
tion was formed, in 1862, for the purpose of
aiding the government in perfecting the
law and collecting the tax, as well as to
protect its members from unjust dis-
crimination. The patriotism shown by the
German-Americans during the war between
the States also went a long way toward
silencing criticism of them and their na-
tional drink. In 1863, there was produced
2,006,625 barrels of beer. The amount
steadily increased until 1900, when the pro-
duction reached 39,330,849 barrels.
The census of 1910 reports the existence
of 290 wineries in the country, whose prod-
ucts were valued at $13,120,846. They em-
ployed 1,911 wage-earners to whom were
paid $971,502.
Whislcy. — During the early days of the
republic distilling was chiefly conducted by
farmers, who made a crude whisky for
home consumption. A small kettle and a
worm placed alongside his log cabin were
almost as essential a part of the farmer's
household equipment as the flail to thrash
his grain or the plow for his land. In 1791
the first internal revenue tax was imposed
on spirits, the rate being nine cents a
gallon. It was estimated that about tliree
million gallons were produced. This tax.
light as It was, was strongly resisted by
the farmers of Western Pennsylvania, and
it became necessary to call upon the militia
to enforce payment. (See Whisky Re-
bellion.) From 1802 to 1813 there was no
revenue tax on whisky,, then a tax on dis-
tillers was substituted for a tax on their
product. In 1816 the Internal revenue tax
was reduced one-half, and abolished en-
tirely in 1818. It was not again levied
until 1862 when the exigencies of war re-
quired more Internal revenue. Then a tax
of 20 cents a gallon was levied, and this
was thrice increased in 1864, until on
Dec. 22d of that year the tax was $2 per
gallon. After the war successive reductions
were made in the tax, but it has always
been looked upon as a fruitful source of
revenue for the government. In 1874 there
was produced about 69,500,000 gallons of
spirits upon which the government collect-
ed a revenue of $48,000,000.
Census figures published in 1910 place the
number of distilleries making whisky,
brandy, rum, gin and alcohol at 613 having
a yearly butput of $500 or more. The
Commissioner' of Internal Revenue, how-
ever, found 1,292 by counting the smaller
establishments and those which are engaged
primarily in other manufacture, but which
report distilled spirits as a by-product. The
. value of the products is placed by the cen-
sus at $204,699,412, but this figure includes
the revenue tax to be collected when taken
out of bond.
Wines. — As early as 1769 French settlers
near Kaskaskia, 111., made wine of the
native wild grapes. During the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries many efforts were
marte to introduce the tender European
vine, and to adapt it to the harsher cllmiate
of Eastern America, but all resulted in
ultimate failure. One of the most success-
ful raisers was Nicholas Longworth, of
Cincinnati, who in the forties and fifties
raised many grapes, and produced some
wine.
The decade closing with 1860 witnessed
the' birth of commercial wine manufacture
in the United States. The gxperiments of
Mr. Longworth in Ohio were followed by
the development of wine manufacture in
the Hudson River Valley and the lake dis-
tricts of western New York and the Lake
Erie district, comprising the shore and ad-
jacent Islands. At the census of 1860 Cali-
fornia, New York and Ohio were the lead-
ing states in wine production. In 1870 the
wine product of Missouri exceeded that of
any other state, and in 1890 exceeded that
of New York, but not that of California.
Ohio later dropped to a minor place, and
California furnished 68.1 per cent, of the
total value of the products in 1909.
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue
reported the .following withdrawals for con-
sumption during the fiscal year ending on
June 30, 1917 : —
Spirits distilled from apples,
peaches, grapes, pears, pine-
apples, oranges, apricots, ber-
ries, prunes, figs, and cher- ■
„ Ties gals . . 3,668,669
Spirits distilled from materials
other than the above. gals. .160,996,577
Fermented liquors bbls.. 60,729,509
For the last taxes upon liquors, see Ex-
cise Laws and Internal Revenue.
(See also Distilled Spirits.)
Liquors (see al.so Prohibition):
Alcoholic content of, limited, 8415.
Malt, proclaipntiona regarding manu-
facture of, 8583, 8699.
Lisbon
Encyclopedic Index
Lobby
Lisbon, Portugal, International Postal
Congress at, discussed, 4938.
Lissa, island of, assigned to Italy, 8707,
8837.
Literacy Test of Immigrants (see also
"Immigration) —
Favored by President Eoosevelt, 6651.
Opposed by President —
Taft, 7847.
Wilson, 8043.
Literature should be aided, 58, 60, 61.
lithuania.— At the time when Lithuania
passed into the control of Russia with the
dissolution of Poland in 1793, it comprised
a country of about 100,000 square miles,
bounded on the north by Courland and
Livonia, on the south by the Ukraine, on
the west by Poland and extending on the
east beyond the Dnieper. Under the old
Russia, Lithuania comprised the Russian
governments of Kovno, Vilna, Grodno,
Vitebsk, Mogilev, Minsk, and Suwalka.
The Lithuanians form a distinct race,
closely akin to the Letts. They are mostly
Roman Catholics. It was estimated that
there were in 1910 some 2,000.000 Lith-
uanians and 1,200,000 Letts. Other inhab-
itants of Lithuania are the Russians, the
Poles and the Jews.
Lithuania consists chiefly of marshes and
forests, and the land is generally unpro-
ductive. Its unattractive and almost im-
passable nature rendered it through the
Middle Ages both Immune from concerted
outside attack and from the spread of
knowledge and civilization. Indeed, the
first definite historical Lithuanian figure
does not appear on the pages of history
until the thirteenth century, and the coun-
try was largely pagan as late as fifteenth
century, when Roman Catholicism was estab-
lished.
From 1375 to 1500 Poland and Lithuania
had an alliance recognizing each as an in-
dependent government, and from the latter
date until 1569 they were under the same
ruler. In the latter year, however, Lithuania
became incorporated in Poland (q. v.), its
autonomy ended, and its later history is
the history of Poland.
The tides of the European War swept
through Uthuania for many months, but
did not succeed in stamping out whatever
had existed of a Lithuanian nationalistic
movement. After the Russian Revolution in
1917, when the old Russia began to split
up into separate nationalities, Lithuania
asserted and maintained its right to its
previous national Independence.
With the military collapse of Russia in
the European War, the forces of Germany
overran Lithuania without opposition, and
the entire country fell definitely undar Ger-
man influence. On December 12, 1917, the
Lithuanian Landsrat announced the restora-
tion of Lithuania as an independent state
allied to the German power, bound by al-
liances and military and economic conven-
tions. The independence of the country
was officially proclaimed by Germany in
May, 1918.
Litigation, measures to prevent delay
and unnecessary cost of, 7692.
Little & Brown, contract with, for pro-
posed edition of treg,ties, etc., re-
ferred to, 2273.
Little Belt, The. (See President, The.)
"Little Group of Wilful Men," de-
nounced for impeding armed neu-
trality legislation in crisis, 8218.
Little Osage Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Little Rock, Ark., road from Canton-
ment Gibson to, referred to, 932.
Little Bussia and Little Russians. (See
Ukraine.) . .
Live-Oak Timber, quantity of, in Unit-
ed States, referred to, 1097.
Livonia. (See Baltic Provinces.)
Lizzie Major, The arrest of, by Span-
ish frigate, discussed,, 3986.
Lizzie Thompson, The, claim arising out
of capture of, 3353.
Loans (see also Bonds; Debt, Public):
Authority for making, recommended,
2555.
Contracted with — i
Amsterdam, 120.
Antwerp, 120.
Bank of United States, 134.
HoUand, 73, 78, 98, 133, 167, 169.
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 243.
Adams, J. Q., 870, 924.
Johnson, 3264, 3282.
McKinley, 6238.'
Madison, 513, 523, 549.
Monroe, 636, 647, 675, 809, 822.
Polk, 2347, 2402.
Tyler, 1934, I960,' 2061.
Washington, 98, 167.
Extraordinary session of Congress -
convened by President McKinley
to obviate, if possible, the neces-
sity of, 6244.
Foreign nations, to, continuation of,
disapproved, 8812.
Inability of Government to obtain,
discussed, 2061.
Made for defense of States during
War of 1812, 809.
Necessary for prosecution of war
with Mexico, 2347, 2402.
Obviating the necessity of, by con-
vention of Congress in special ses-
sion, 6244.
Time of payment of, should be ex-
tended, 1934.
Eeferred to, 1960.
To Mexico, discussed, 3264, 3282.
War-rev3nue act of 1898, authorizing,
6314.
Loans and Sinking Fund, Commissioner
of, ofSce of, should be abolished, 1382.
Lobby. — In political usage, the persons
who frequent the halls of Congress or state
legislatures — especially the lobbies and com-
mittee rooms, for the purpose of meeting
legislators and persuading them to support
measures desired by the principals employ-
ing the lobbyists. Their means of persua-
Lobby
Encyclopedic Index
Log Rolling
Bion are usually mere arguments and appeals,
but, in isolated instances, money or other
valuable considerations are utilized. So long
as the lobby confines Itself to legitimate
arguments, it is not properly objectionable,
but is a means of carrying out the American
right of petition.
Lobos lElands:
Controversy regarding, referred to,
2696, 2837, 2900.
Sovereignty of Peru over, acknowl-
edged, 2703.
Local Government. — Sometimes written
local and self-government. The regulation
and administration of the local affairs of a
city or district by the people of It, as
distinguished from such regulation and ad-
ministration by authority of the state or
nation at large. The state was an institu-
tion of the Roman Empire, but the Teu-
tonic tribes or nations developed a local
government of their own, and gave the
name "town" to language and the idea of
"township" to constitutional law. As to
whether the first English colonists in
America derived the subdivision of the
county known in England as town or town-
ship from the mother country there was no
question until recently, when respectable
authority was adduced for the statement
that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay
colonists, especially the former, who came
directly from Holland, borrowed their local
government system and several other insti-
tutions of high value from the Dutch Ke-
public. Certain it is, nevertheless, that
when the first settlements were made In
this country England Jiad well-developed
forms of -local government which served
as a pattern, beyond doubt, for the James-
town Colony, Va., and for some other
colonies as well. The colony was sub-
divided into counties, the counties in some
cases into hundreds, and the hundreds Into
parishes or townships. At the time of the
colonization the parish of England had
fenerally superseded the township. In the
outhern colonics, where the plantation sys-
tem prevailed and the people were scattered
oyer a large area, the colonists, on their
separation from England, retained the
county system as being best suited to their
population. In the New England Colonies,
where population was more compact, the
township government was retained. Thus
two distinct types of local government pre-
vailed in the United States — the township
system in j^ew England and the county
system in the South. In the middle colonies
a system of local government was instituted
which combined the county and township
system. This is now generally in use in
the Western States.
Local Offices, elimination of, from poli-
tics, 7698.
Local Option, — A principle of law estab-
lished in some of the United States by
which the determination as to whether or
not any licenses to sell intoxicating liquors
shall be granted is submittea to a vote of
the people of a town or other minor
political community. If the people of any
. locality decide upon prohibition. It becomes
a part of the state law for that community.
Local option by states was suggested as a
solution of the slavery question, and the
Kansas-Nebraska law contained a provision
to this effect.
Local Option. (See Prohibition.)
Lockouts. (See Labor Arbitration and
Strikes.)
Loco-Focos. — The radical faction of the
Democratic party in New York In 1835-
1837. The Equal Rights faction was op-
posed to the granting of bank charters and
special privileges to favorites of the Govern-
ment, and the Tammany men supported the
Administration. At a meeting held in
Tammany Hall, New York, Oct. 29, 1835,
the regular Tammany Democrats tried to
gain control, but finding themselves out-
numbered they turned out the lights and
left the hall. The Equal Rights men pro-
duced candles and lighted them by the aid
of "loco-foco" matches and continued the
meeting. The word, at first used in de-
rision of this faction, was later adopted
by the Democratic party as an emblem of
promptitude in an emergency, and It was
also applied to the party sometimes in
derision by their opponents.
Loewe vs. Lawlor et al.— i-oewe & Co.,
hat manufacturers, of Danliury, Conn.,
brought suit against the United Hatters
of North America to restrain the latter
from prosecuting a boycott .Ts-^inst the
plaintiff's hats. The manufacturers had
declared an open shop and discarded the
use of the union label, whereupon their
employees, belonging to the Hatters' Union,
Induced the latter to institute a boycott
throughout the United States. The Su-
preme Court of the United Spates, over-
ruling two lower courts, unanimously found
in favor of the plaintiff company. ,
The contention was that the boycott, so
called, constituted a combination in re-
straint of trade, and was, therefore, a
violation of the Sherman Anti-Tnist Law
of 1890. The decision was based on Sec.
1 of that act, which declares "every con-
tract combination in the form of a trust or
otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of
trade" to be illegal, and fixes punishment
for violation at not more than $5,000 fine,
or imprisonment for one year, or both ; and
on Sec. 2, which forbids monopoly and
fixes similiar punishments ; and Sec. 7,
which provides that any person who is in-
jured in his business through any act for-
bidden by this law may sue to recover
threefold damages.
The court held that the trade union
boycott was a "combination in restraint
of trade among the several States" in that
it obstructed the free flow of commerce
and restricted the right of the plaintiff
to engage in business, by trying to com-
pel him to do business only in the way
the union imjposed. As the plaintiff com-
pany was able to show losses aggregating
$80,000, as the result of the boycott, it
was authorized to sue for $240,000.
Jan. 5, 1915, the Supreme Court for the
third time confirmed the decision of the
lower courts, granting damages to Loewe
& Co. of $252,000, t» be paid by the
United Hatters.
Log-Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign.
— A campaign slogan used by the Whigs dur-
ing the candidacy of William Henry Harri-
son for President in 1840, — originated by
the fact that a part of his house was orig-
inally a log-cabin, and that he served cider
on his table instead of wines. This cam-
paign is sometimes referred to as "The Hard
Cider Campaign."
Log Soiling, — A term used with reference
to legislative bodies where measures be-
come laws as the result of trading votes.
That is, where two or more members desire
a measure in which no one else Is interested,
each supports all the measures proposed by
the other or others in order to obtain suffi-
Log Rolling
Encyclopedic Index
Louisiana
cient votes for his own. A noted example of
"log rolling" Is found in our early history :
Hamilton wanted his financing plan ap-
proved in Congress, but cared less about the
location of the Capitol ; Jefferson wanted the
Capitol located on the Potomac, but cared
less about the financing plan. Each of
them threw his support to the other, and
each was successful.
Loudon, England:
Exhibition in, works illustrative of,
referred to, 2761.
Industrial exhibition to be held in, in
1862, discussed, 3233, 3264.
Circulars, etc., regarding, 3261.
Vessels to transport American ex-
hibits recommended, 3262.
International Fisheries Exhibition to
be held in, 4688.
International Inventions Exhibition
to be held in, 4827.
International Penitentiary Congress
at, 4162.
Smoke Abatement Exhibit at, 4695.
Lookout Mountain (Tenn.), Battle of.
— The arrival of the two corps under Hooker
and the army of Sherman at Chattanooga
increased the strength of Grant's command
to 80,000 men. At this critical time Long-
street, with 16,000 men, was detached from
the Confederate army and sent to besiege
Burnside at Knoxville, leaving Bragg with
only about 5,000 men to hold the position.
Nov. 24, 1863, to cover Sherman's crossing
the Tennessee River and securing a position,
Hooker, with lO.OOO men, made aji attack
on the western slope of Lookout Mountain.
During a heavy mist he pressed up the
mountain side and attacked the position in
front and rear, capturing about 1,000 pris-
oners. The Confederates retired from the
mountain to Missionary Ridge.
Loose Constructionist. — The individual or
political party construing the Constitution
liberally and flexibly ; the Federalists and
tbe Whigs and the modern Republicans
advocated loose or broad construction of the
Constitution. (See Strict Constructionist.)
Lopez Expedition, pardon and release
of members of, by Spain, 2678.
Lord Nelson, The, claim of James
Crooks against the United States for
seizure of, 4975, 5662.
Lorimer Case. — The right of William Lori-
iner, Republican, of Chicago, to hold his
seat in tne United States Senate, to which
■he had been elected by a combination of
Democrats and Republicans in the Hli-
nois iegislature was challenged Jan. 9, 1911.
The Committee on Privileges and Elections
reported that the charges were not sus-
tained. Senator Beveridge of the commit-
tee made a minority report contending
that if only one case of bribery were es-
tablished it invalidated the whole election.
"The testimony is overwhelming," he de-
clared, "not only that four members of
the general assembly were bribed, but that
three of their fellow members paid them
their money. But these seven were not
all of the tainted votes cast in the putrid
transaction. The testimony shows that at
least three additional corrupt Votes were
cast." After a long debate the Beveridge
resolution was lost, March, 1911. The ac-
tion of the Senate in afBrming the legality
of Lorimer's election was followed by om-
clal protest and public and private criticism
from all parts of the country. The Illi-
nois State Senate then made an investiga-
tion and found that Lorimer would not
have been elected had it not been for
bribery and corruption. Senator La Fol-
lette, of Wisconsin, reopened the case in
the United States Senate April 6, 1911,
and another investigation was carried on,
both in Washington and Chicago, and
Lorimer was expelled from the Senate in
the spring of 1912.
Lottery. — The Continental Congress tried
to raise money *by lottery in 1777. As early
as 1612 the Virginia Company was author-
ized by its charter to hold lotteries for the
benefit of its colonization schemes. In the
eighteenth century lotteries were extremely
popular in America. Legislatures author-
ized them for building churches, schools
and all sorts of public improvements. Fan-
euil Hall, in Boston, having been destroyed
by fire in 1761, was rebuilt by lottery.
The Louisiana State Lottery was the last
authorized institution of the kind in the
United States. Popular opinion has under-
gone a change regarding lotteries. Ttiey
were forbidden in 1890 by act of Congress
to use the mails. This act resulted in
closing the Louisiana Lottery.
Lottery. — Continental Congress recom-
mendations regarding, 5479, 5515.
Passage of act regarding, discussed,
5551.
Louisa, The, proceedings of court re-
garding, 895.
Louisiana. — One of the southern group of
states ; nickname, "The Pelican state" ;
motto, "Union, Justice and Confidence."
It extends from the Gulf of Mexico north-
ward to the thirty-third parallel of north
latitude and from the eighty-ninth to the
ninety-fourth meridian west longitude. It
is bounded on the north by Arkansas and
Mississippi, on the east by Mississippi
(separated by the Mississippi River) and
the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by the
Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Texas
(separated in part by the Sabine River).
The area of the State is 48,506 square
miles. Louisiana is the leading sugar state
of the Union, besides which are exported
cotton, rice, and corn.
Louisiana was explored by De Soto in
1541, by Marquette in 1673, and by La
Salle in 1682. It was settled by the
French under Iberville and Bienville about
1700, was ceded by France to Spain in
1763, retroceded to France in 18(50, was
purchased by the United States in 1803,
and was made the Territory of New Or-
leans in 1804. The portion east of the-
Mississippi River was annexed in 1810.
The State was admitted to the Union in
1812. Jan. 26, 1861, it seceded and joined
the Southern Confederacy. It was read-
mitted by act of Congress June 25, 1868
(3856). (See also Louisiana Purchase.)
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 120,546, comprising
10,439,481 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $301,220,988. The aver-
age value of farm land per acre Was $17.99,
as compared with $17.74 in 1900. The
value of domestic animals, poultry, etc.,
was $44,699,485, including 804,795 cattle,
valued at $11,605,354 ; 181,286 horses, $11,-
789,695; 131,554 mules, $15,624,962;
1,327,805 swine, $3,824,046 ; 178,287 sheep,
$343,046.
Louisiana
Encyclopedic Index
Louisiana
The latest figures for the annual agri-
cultural production are as follows : —
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Cotton ..1,532,000 300,000a $52,500,000
Corn ...1,850,000 32,375,000 48,562,000
Elce . . . 500,000 19,710,000 53,420,000
Potatoes. 25,000 1,600,000 3,520,000
Hay 250,000 450,000b 10,350,000
Sweet Po-
tatoes.. 70,000 6,300,000 7,245,000
a-bales ; b-tons.
In 1918-9, the cane sugar production
was estimated at 250,800 tons.
The latest figures show 215,000 horses,
valued at $23,000,000 ; 166,000 mules, $27,-
224,000; 230,000 sheep, $1,242,000; 1,512,-
000 swine, $21,622,000 ; 378,000 cows, $25,-
' 326,000 ; 725,000 other cattle, $21,242,000.
The last annual wool clip was 612,000
pounds.
The fisheries are important, especially
the oyster fisheries, there being more than
7,000 acres suitable for oyster planting.
Of recent years, the annual mineral pro-
duction has been around $25,000,000 in
value. The chief product Is petroleum, the
last annual production being some 11,400,-
000 barrels. There are also rich sulphur
deposits, which are worked. Another im-
portant mineral is rock salt.
In 1914, there were 2,211 manufacturing
establishments, employing 77,665 persons,
representing an investment of $260,000,000,
and paying annually in wages some $40,-
000,000. The chief manufacturers are con-
cerned with sugar (including molasses),
cotton-seed, rice and Itimber.
The population in 1910 was 1,656,388.
According to the report of the 1920 cen-
sus, it was 1,797,798.
Of the population in 1910 about 43%
was negro. The white population is chief-
ly descended from the early French settlers,
and, in contradistinction to the other South-
ern states, is largely Catholic. In 1910,
there were some 52,000 foreign-born, of
whom more than 20,000 were Italians. In
1910, 30% of the population was urban.
Recent figures show that the white school
population was 310,500, of whom 222,073
were in attendance ; and the negro school
population was 227,500, of whom 98,000
were in attendance. There were 6,248 white
teachers and 1,370 negro teachers. There
are 3,023 public elementary schools and 197
high schools.
Louisiana (see also Confederate States;
New Orleans):
Accession of, to United States, dis-
cussed and referred to, 346, 348,
350, 669, 853, 929, 957, 3255,
6346.
Effect of, discussed, 2878.
Appropriation for, 382.
Authority to grant or dispose of lands
of Spain in, referred to, 651.
Boundaries of, 372, 377, 960.
Branch mint in, referred to, 1383,
1495.
Cession of, to France, referred to,
331, 338.
Colonel-commandant of, commis-
sioned, 364.
Commission to, instruction of Presi-
dent Hayes to, 6341.
Constitution of, referred to, 3831.
Division of, into subordinate dis-
tricts, 363.
Elections in, and complications grow-
ing out of, discussed, 4161, 4166,
4250, 4259.
Federal interference in, discussed,
4259.
Proclamations regarding, 4177,
4230.
Electors in, letter of John Sherman
and others regarding canvass of
vote of, referred to, 4367.
France, cession of, referred to, 331,
338.
Fourteenth amendment to Constitu-
tion ratified by, 3837.
Proclaimed, 3856.
Government of—
Assumed by Governor Claiborne,
355.
Letter regarding, transmitted, 355.
Eeferred to, 352, 359.
Governor of, letter from, 336.
Indians inhabiting, referred to, 386.
Lands granted to, in aid of railroads,
referred to, 3580.
Lands in —
Fraudulent practices of monopoliz-
ing, 356.
Proclamation regarding sale of,
1058.
Treaty regarding security of titles
to, discussed, 929.
Laws of, referred to, 352, 353, 406.
Lead mines in, 359.
Memorial from purchases of land in,
1029.
Mint at New Orleans seized by au-
thorities of, referred to, 3199.
Possession of, commissioners appoint-
ed to receive, 35.'5.
Private land claims in, recommenda
tions "regarding, 4691.
Proclamations against unlawful com-
binations in, 4161, 4166, 4177, 4230,
4250, 4259.
Provisional court established in, or-
der regarding, 3323.
Eestoration of, into Union, discussed,
3123, 3452.
Spain, transfer of, to the United
States disagreeable to, 376. /
Support of, referred to, 382.
Title to, objections to validity of,
withdrawn, 358.
Transfer of, to United States dis-
agreeable to Spain, 376.
Unlawful combinations in, discussed
and proclamations against, 4161,
4166, 4177, 4230, 4250, 4259.
Louisiana
Encyclopedic Index
Loyalists
Louisiana, District of.— That part ot the
Louisiana Purchase which is not included
in the present State ot Louisiana. It was
erected into a district and the capital was
established at St. Louis in 1804. In 1805
It was given a separate goTernment as the
Territory of Louisiana. In 1812 the name
of the Territory was changed to Missouri.
Louisiana Lottery Co. discussed, 5515.
Louisiana, Province of. (See Louis-
iana.)
Louisiana Purchase. — A name applied to
the territory west of the Mississippi River
purchased from France in 1803. It was
the most important sale of territory ever
executed In favor ot the United States.
President Jefferson desired the acquisition
of New Orleans in order to obtain control
of the mouth ot the Mississippi and offered
to guarantee to Napoleon the territory to
the west of the river in exchange. Napo-
leon, being at tlit.t time at war with
Great Britain and greatly in. need of funds,
and being desirous moreover to foil Eng-
land's aspirations for more territory in the
United States, consented to the transfer of
the so-called province of Louisiana to the
United States for the sum ot ¥15,000,000.
The territory thus acquired embraced all
the present State of Louisiana lying west
of the Mississippi River, together with New
Orleans and the adjacent district east,
comprising Mississippi and Alabama below
the thirty-first parallel ; Arkansas, Mis-
souri, Iowa, a portion of Idaho and Minne-
sota, all of the Dakotas, most of Kansas,
all of Nebraska and Indian Territory, part
of Colorado, most of Wyoming, and the
whole of Montana. In 1904, the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition was held at St. Louis,
Mo., to commemorate the acquisition of this
Important territory.
Louisiana Purchase:
Discussed and referred to, 346, 348,
350, 669, 853, 929, 957, 3255.
Effects of, discussed, 2878.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition was held
at St. Louis, Mo., between April 30 and
Dec. 1, 1904. to celebrate the centennial
of the Louisiana Purchase. It was the
largest World's Fair ever held, and the
third of its kind in America : its grounds
covered 1,240 acres, of which 250 acres
were rooted over. The total amount ex-
pended upon the Exposition by the Expo-
sition Company, tie various states, foreign
governments, and the concessionaries,
amounted to about $44,500,000 : while the
total receipts came to about $25,000,000 ;
and the Exposition closed free from debt. In
point of attendance it fell below the Paris
Exposition of 1900 with its 50,000,000 en-
trances and the World's Fair at Chicago
with 27,500,000 entrances, as its attendance
only totalled 18,700,000.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition:
Opened by proclamation of President
Roosevelt, 6686.
Relations of United States Govern-
ment to, 6675, 6681, 6729, 6732,
6736, 6740, 6771, 6798, 6825, 6857,
6862, 6865, 6866, 6932.
Louisiana vs. Jurael.— An important Su-
preme Court case defining the linhility of
State oflBcers. Jume! held bonds Issued
under an act of the Louisinna legislature
of 1874 and the constitutional amendment
adopted In that year. He demanded pay-
ment of these bonds In 1880. Payment
was refused solely on the ground of obedi-
ence to the Louisiana State debt ordinance
of the new constitution adopted July 23,
1879, and the law of 1880, carrying out
provisions contained In this new constitu-
tion. This act, in the language and spirit
of the ordinance, recited that coupons of
consolidated bonds falling due in January,
1880, were remitted. Suit was brought '
against ofilcers of the State. The Circuit
Court of the State decided for the de-
fendant, and Its decision was affirmed by
the United States Supreme Court on the
ground that relief could not be awarded
against officers ol)eyIng the supreme power
of the State ; that the money is the State's
property, not held in trust by the officers
except in the capacity of her servants.
"The political power of the State," said
Chief Justice Walte in the opinion of the
court, "can not be ousted of its jurisdic-
tion and the judiciary set In its place."
Dissenting opinions were rendered by Jus-
tices Field aiid Harlan.
Louisville and Portland Canal Co., act
for subscription of stock in, reasons
for applying pocket veto to, 1071.
Louisville, Ky., Southern Exposition at,
discussed, 4773.
Board on behalf of Executive De-
partments designated, 4819.
Instructions to, 4820.
Lower Brule Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Loyal Legion, Military Order of.— The
Military Order of the Loyal Le^on of the
United States was organized by officers
and ex-offlcers of the army, navy and
marine corps of the United States, who
took part in the War of 1861-65. Mem-
bership descends to the eldest direct male
lineal descendant, according to the rules
of primogeniture. There are 21 command-
eries, each representing a state, and one
commandery representing the District of
Columbia. The total membership of the
Loyal Legion is 8,880.
LoyalistS.^Those of the American Col-
onists who opposed ,the Revolutionary War
and in some instances took up arms against
their countrymen in the struggle for inde-
pendence. "They were also called Tories.
As early as 1688 parties favorable to the
Crown were exerting an influence in all
the colonies. As the revolutionary move-
ment grew their opposition to it Increased.
In no colony was there an overwhelming
desire for Independence, and In some the
advocates of revolution were in the minor-
ity. Many of the most respected and
eminent men of the middle colonies were
loyal to the Crown. During the progress
of the war they were treated with great
harshness. Tlieir property was confiscated
or destroyed : they sulTered social ostracism.
and some were tarred and feathered. Legis-
lative assemblies banished them from some
of the colonies. When the British troops
withdrew at the close of the war the
Tories found life in'the states unendurable
and thousands retired to Canada, Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, the Bahamas, and
other West Indies. In the treaty of peace
in 1783 the British asked to have provision
made for recompensating the dispossessed
Loyalists, but all they received was a
promise to submit the matter to the states,
and they refused relief.
Lubeck
Encyclopedic Index
Lumber
Lubeck:
Minister of, received by United
States, 949.
Treaty with, 988, 991, 2686, 6294.
Vessels of, discriminating duties on,
suspended by proclamation, 642.
Lubeck, Treaty with. (See Hanseatic
Eepublics.)
Luckett and Tylfer (assignees of Wil-
liam T. Cheatham), act for relief of,
vetoed and reasons assigned, 4334.
Ludlow's Code. — Named (or Governor Rog-
er Ludlow, and being a set of laws for the
regula-tion of the New Haven Colony.
Lumber Business, symptoms of mon-
opolization of, 7539.
Lumber, Lath and Shingles.— (From a
report issued by tne Census Bureau, August
26, 191.S.) A preliminary statement of the
output of lumber, lath and shingles in the
United States during the calendar years
1912, 1911 and 1910. From data collected
in co-operation with the Forest Service of
the Department of Agriculture.
The number of active mills contributing
to the totals were 29,648 in 1912; 28,107
in 1911, and 31,934 In 1910; while the
reported production in these years was, in
M feet board measure, 39,158,414, 37,003.-
207 and 40,018,282, respectively. The sta-
tistics cover the output of practically
every commercial mill in operation during
the whole or any part of this period. Al-
though the reported cut was slightly less
than in 1910, the average yield per mill
was 5.3 per cent greater than In that year,
while the total production over 1911 wa«
2,155,207 M feet board measure, or nearly
6 per cent.
STATISTICS Oir THE LUMBER INDUSTBT TOR 1914 5H0W;
Total
Saw Mills,
Logging
Camps 'and
Independent
Planing
Mills
33 060
651,585
87,471
38 114
576,000
2,661,759
Number uf establishments
Persons engaged in maaufacture. . .
Proprietors and firm members. . .
Salaried employees
Wage earners (average number) .
Primary horsepowef .
Capital $1,183,379,000
Services 351,979,000
Salaries 60,053 000
Wages 301,926,000
Materials 466,179,000
Value of Products 1,022,982,000
Value added by manufacture (value of pro-
ducts les3 cost of materials) 556,803,000
Waste in the logging industry, in the
United Stntes amounts to 15 to 20 per
cent of the timber cut. or about a billion
and a half cubic feet of wood annually.
Sawmill waste also amounts to several bil-
lion cubic feet of wood, although not all of
it Is absolute waste.
SlATISIICS OF THE LUMBEK INDUSTKY.
In 1918, the Forest Service of the De-
partment of Agriculture reported 14,753
lumber mill.'!, cutting 29,362,000,000 feet of
timber, board measurement. Of these, 777
mills cut over 10,000,000 feet, b. m., each.
The following table shows the annual
lumber production by states for the last
year for which figures are available : —
State Feet, 6. m,
Washington 4,603,123,000
Louisiana 3,450,000,000
Oregon 2,710,250,000
Mississippi 1,935,000,000
Arkansas 1,470,000,000
Texas 1,350,000,000
California & Nevada 1,277,084,000
Wisconsin 1,275,000,000
Alabama 1,270,000,000
North Carolina 1,240,000,000
Minnesota 1,005,000,000
Florida 950,000,000
Michigan 940,000,000
Virginia 855,000,000
Idaho 802,529,000
West Virginia 720,000,000
Maine 630,000,000
Tennessee 630,000,000
.South Carolina 545,000,000
Pennsylvania 530,000,000
Georgia 515,000,000
-\ew Hampshire 300,000,000
Kentucky 340,000,000
Montana 340,000,000
New York 335,000,000
Missouri 273,000,000
Indiana 2."i0,000,000
Ohio 235,000,000
Oklahoma 195,000,000
Massachusetts 175,000,000
Vermont 160,000,000
New Mexico 88,915,000
Arizona 83,661,000
Maryland 71,000,000
Connecticut 64,000,000
Colorado 56,882,000
Illinois
South Dakota
New Jersey
Iowa
Rhode Island
Utah
Kansas & Nebraska
Wyoming
Delaware -. . .
42,000,000
29,533,000
19,500,000
14,200,000
13,100,000
9,815,000
8,401,000
7,501,000
6,000,000
United States 31,890,494,000
Bed gum is produced mostly in Arkansas,
Mississippi, and Louisiana ; yellow poplar
in West Virginia and Tennessee ; chestnut
in West Virginia and Pennsylvania ; yellow
pine in Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, North
Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas ; syca-
more in Arkansas, Indiana, and Tennessee ;
lodgcpole pine in Colorado and VVyoming ;
balsam ftr in Maine, Minnesota, and Michi-
gan 'fjwalnut in Missouri and Indiana ; sugar
pine In California ; hickory in Arkansas and
Tennessee ; cottonwood In Mississippi and
Arkansas; white fir in California, Nevada,
and Idaho ; ash in Arkansas, Wisconsin,
Louisiana, and Tennessee ; hasswood In
Wisconsin, Michigan, and West Virginia ;
elm in Wisconsin and Michigan ; cedar in
Washington, Oregon, and Idaho ; beech in
Michigan, Pennsylvania, Indiana, West Vir-
ginia, and New York ; tupelo in Louisiana,
Alabama, and Virginia ; redwood solely in
California ; larch in Montana and Idaho ;
birch In Wisconsin, and Michigan ; cypress
in Louisiana, and Florida ; maple in Michi-
gan, Wisconsin, V/est Virginia, and New
York ; spruce in Maine, Washington, West
Virginia, Oregon, Vermont, and New Hamp-
shire ; Western yellow pine in California,
Lumber
Encyclopedic Index
Luxemburg,
Oregon, Idaho, Washington, Montana, Ari-
zona, ana New Mexico ; white pine in Min-
nesota, Idaho, Maine, Wisconsin, New Hamp-
nhlre, and Massachusetts ; hemlock In Wis-
consin. Michigan, Washington, Pennsyl-
vania, West yjrginla, Maine, and New
York ; Douglas flr in Washington, Oregon,
California, Nevada, Idaho, and Montana ;
oak in West Virginia, Arltansas, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Virginia, Mississippi, and Ohio.
The board feet measurement of tim-
lumber, in feet, board measurement, pro-
duced In the difCerent kinds of wood In'
a recent year, with the percentage of the
average yearly production in the preceding
four-year period, 1910-1913 :
Yellow Pine 14,700,000,0no 106.4%
Douglas Fir 5,416,000,000 103.2
Oak 3,300,000,000 100.4
White Pine 2,700,000,000 87.9
Hemlock 2,350,000,000 92.7
iSpruce 1,250,000,000 100.1
Western Yellow Pine 1,690,000,000 123.9
Cypress 1,000,000,000 99.7
Maple . .• 975,000,000 100.5
Walnut 90,000,000 227.3
Hickory 125,000,000 52.4
All others 5,856,251,000 106.4
Total 39,807,251,000 103.3
The board feet measurement of tim-
ber cut in recent years in the United States
is as follows : —
Tear Feet, b. m.
1904 43,000,000,000
1905 43,500,000,000
1906 46,000,000,000
1907 46,000,000,000
1908 42,000,000,000
1909 44,500,000,000
1910 s 44,500,000,000
1911 43,000,000,000
1912 45,000,000,000
1913 44,000,000,000
1914 40,500,000,000
1915 38,000,000,000
1916 40,000,000,000
1917 36,000,000,000
1918 ■ 32,000,000,000
It is estimated that for the last year
for which ligures are available 2,282,000,000
pieces of lath were produced in the United
States and 8,697,000,000 pieces of shingle.
It Is estimated that some 82,800,000 cords
of wood are used annually as fuel on the
farms of the United States.
The total stand of timber on the national
forests is estimated at about 570,000,000,-
000 board feet. (See Forests, National.)
The last annual pulpwood consumption
of the United States was about 5,251,000
cords. Of this, 42% was domestic spruofe
and 13% was Imported spruce; 16% was
hemlock and 7% was balsam flr. The total
cost of pulpwood at the mills was $73,-
000,000. There are about 250 pulpwood
mills. The wood pulp produced was 3,314,-
000 tons. About 1,000,000 cords of pulp-
wood were Imported during the year.
Lundy's Lane (Canada), Battle of.—
After his defeat at Chippewa in 1814 Gen.
Riall retired by way of Queenston toward
the head of Lake Ontario. He was soon re-
enforced, and returned to attack the Amer-
icans under Brown, who had pursued him
as far as Queenston. Hearing of the British
reenforcements. Brown retreated to the
Chippewa Elver, and on July 24, 1814, en-
camped on the south bank, where he had
defeated Rlall on the 5th. On the 2otb
Gen. Scott, with about 1,200 men, went for-
ward to reconnoiter and came upon the
British army, 4,500 strong, near Niagara
Falls, on Lundy's Lane, a road leading from
the Falls to the end of Lake Ontario. Soon
the entire American force was engaged, the
battle lasting from sunset till midnight.
The American forces numbered about 2,500
men. During the engagement Gen. Scott
and Lieut.-Col. Miller diatingulshed them-
selves for daring and efBciency. The British
were finally driven back and forced to
abandon their artillery, ammunition, and
baggage. Both armies claimed the victory,
though both left the field. The American
loss was 171 killed, 571 wounded, and 110
missing — a total of 852 out of an army of
2,500. The British lost 84 killed, 559
wounded, 193 missing, and 42 prisoners — a
total of 878 out of an army of 4.500. Gen-
erals Brown and Scott were "amorig the
wounded. (See illustration opposite 587.)
Lunebuig, convention with, for acquir-
ing and inheriting property, 2826.
Luquillo Forest Keserve, 6778.
"Lusitania," sinking of, 8062, 8290..
(See also illustration opposite 8060.)'
Lussia, island of, disposition of, re-
ferred to, 8837.
Iiuther vs. Borden, — in 1841 a portion of
the people of Rhode Island framed a new
government and elected Thomas W. Dorr
governor In opposition to the charter gov-
ernment. (See Dorr's Rebellion.) Gov-
ernor King declared the State under mar-
tial law and Luther's house v^bls searched,
he being implicated in the armed con-
spiracy against the established government.
Luther pleaded the constitutionality of
the new government. The circuit court
gave judgment against him, and the Su-
preme Court of the United States af-
firmed this decision In 1842. It was de-
cided that under martial law suspected
persons might legally be subjected- to
search and arrest by State authority, and
that the question of the constitutionality
of a State government was one with which
Congress rather than the courts should
deal.
IiUxemburg. — The- territory of the Grand
Duchy of Luxemburg lies between 49° 27'-
50° 18' N .atitude and 5° 45'-6° 30' B.
longitude, with a total area of 2,586 square
kilometers (998.216 square miles). It is
bounded on the west by the Luxemburg
Province of Belgium, on. the north and east
by the Rhine Province of Prussia, and on
the south by the French Department of
Lorraine and the French Department of
the Meuse.
Physical Features. — The northern districts
are crossed in all directions by outrunners
of the Belgian Ardennes, and In the south
are hills which form part of the plateau of
iuorralne ; but there are extensive valleys
and plains in the north, and the southern
districts are mainly low lands in the basin
of the Moselle, which forms its south-
eastern boundary. The only considerable
rivers of Luxeniliuvg are the Moselle and
Its tributary, the Our.
History. — In 1831 the territory known as
Luxemburg was divided at the Conference
of London into the present Grand Duchy
and the Belgian Province of Luxemburg,
and from 1831 to 1890 the Grand Duchy
was ruled by the Kings of the Nether-
lands. At the death of King William UL
the operation of the Salic law transferred
Luxemburg
Encyclopedic Index
Lynn
the sovereignty to Adolphus, Duke of Nas-
sau, who, was sueceedecf by his son William.
By au amendment of, th6 constitutional law
of 1848, the succession was secured to the
daughter of the Grand Duke William.
By the Treaty of London, May 11, 1867,
Luxemburg was declared neutral territory
aud its integrity and Independence were
guaranteed by the signatories. However, at
the outbreak of the World War in 1914, Ger-
many violated Its neutrality by marching
troops across It on the road to France.
Ooverrmeni. — The government is that of
a constitutional monarchy, the territory
being declared neutral by the Great Pow-
ers of Europe by the Treaty of London
(May 11, 1867). The Grand Duehy formed
part of the Germanic Confederation, under
the hegemony of Austria, from 1815-1866,
and the ImpregnaDle fortress of Luxem-
burg was garrisoned by Prussian troops.
By the Treaty of London the garrison was
withdrawn and the fortress dismantled.
The population according to the census of
1910 was 259,891. Present ruler : Her Roy-
al Highness Marie Adelaide, Grand Duch-
ess of Luxemburg, born June 14, 1894 ;
succeeded her father (the Grand Duke Wil-
liam) B'eb. 26, 1912, attained her major-
ity and assumed the government June 14,
1912. There is a Council of State (Staats-
rat) of fifteen members and a Chamber of
Deputies of fifty-three members, elected by
direct vote of the Cantons for six years,
one-half renewable every three years. All
male inhabitants of twenty-flve years, who
pay. ten francs in direct taxes, are voters
aud eligible for election.
There are courts in each Canton, and
District Courts at Luxemburg and Diekirch,
with a Supreme Court at the Capital.
There Is a gendarmerie of about 180 men,
and a volunteer force of 250 men for the
preservation of order.
Erhtcation and Religion. — Education is
compulsory and free, and is widespread,
the expenditure in 1912 being 2,310,340
francs. Almost all the inhabitants are
Roman Catholics, there being only 4,000
Protestants and 1,300 Jews. The Bishop
of Luxemburg is appointed by the See of
Rome.
Finriiice. — The average annual expendi-
ture for five years was 15,408,255 francs
and the average revenue 16,845,083 francs.
After the World War, the annual budget
rose to some 43.000,000 francs. The debt
amounts to about 46,000,000 francs, the
franc being equal to $0,193 in United
States currency.
Production and Industry. — The country
is rich in iron ore, the last annual pro-
duction of iron being 1,580,000 tons and of
steel, 9.'!6,000 tons. There are 325 miles
of railway ; 439 miles of telegraph, with
1,352 miles of wire and 356 telegraph sta-
tions ; 858 miles of telephone system, with
4,700 miles of wire ; and 140 postofBces.
The principal town is Luxemburg, with
a population of some 22,000.
Luxemburg, fugitive criminals, conven-
tion with, for surrender of, 4782.
Luxemburg, Treaty witb. (See Extra
dition Treaties.)
Lynching. — The term covers punishment ol
alleged offenders, generally without trial,
by unauthorized persons and without due
process of law. Lynch law, it is said
takes its name from Charles Lynch, a Vir-
ginia planter and Quaker, and his associ-
ates, who during Revolutionary days seized
British sympathizers and banged them by
the thumbs till they shouted "Liberty for-
ever."
Outside of a few recent outbreaks in
Germany, Hungary and Russia as a result
of the World War, the United States holds
the unenviable position of being the only
advanced nation in which lynching occurs
on a wide-spi,-ead scale. In the thirty years
from 1889 to 1918, both inclusive, 3,224
persons were killed by lynching mobs in
the United States, in addition to 181 re-
ported lynched, but whose deaths could not
be verified. Of these 3,224, 702 were white
and 2,522 were negroes. Of the whites,
691 were men and 11 were women ; of the
negroes, 2,472 were men and 50 were wom-
en. Of the total amount, the South Is
responsible for 2,834.
The annual total of lynchings was great-
er in the years preceding 1900 than in the
subsequent years. From 1889 to 1903, the
annual number of lynchings was above 100,
with the exception of two years. (In 1892,
it was 226.) Since 1903, it has reached
100 in only one year, 1908. During the
30-year period, the greatest number of
lynchings occurred in the following states ;
Georgia 386 Kentucky 169
:\[lssissippi 373 South Carolina. 120
Texas 335 Oklahoma 96
Louisiana 313 Missouri 81
Alabama 276 Virginia 78
Tennessee 196 North Carolina. 53
Florida 178
Contrary to general opinion, the cause
for lynching In the majority of cases is
not rape. The following table shows the
number of cases by ofEense : —
Number Lynchings
Offense Negroes Whites
Murder 900 319
Rape 477 46
Attacks upon Women* 237 13
Other crimes against the per-
son 253 62
Crimes against property ..... 210 121
Miscellaneous crimes 303 135
Non-criminal acts** ^142 6
•Under this head are included attacks
in which it is not clear from accounts If
rape was ponsummated or only attempted.
**Under this head are such acts as testi-
fying against whites, . suing whites at law,
wrong man lynched, race feeling, etc.
In 1919, there were 84 lynchings in the
United ,=!tates, in which 78 of the victims
were negroes. Of these 31 were shot, 24
were hanged, 14 were burned (3 after
death) and 11 were killed in manner un-
known. The chief causes were murder (27),
rape (14), attempted rape (5), Insulting
white women (8), shooting white man (7).
The leading states in lynchings in this year
were Georgia (22), Mississippi (12), Ar-
kansas (10), Louisiana (8), Alabama (8).
Lynchings discussed and indemnities
voluntarily provided, recommended,
5767, 6248, 6277, 6371, 6430, 6459,
6461, 7029.
Lynn, Mass., act for erection of post-
o£B.oe building at, vetoed, 5150.
Macao
Encyclopedic Index
McKinley
Macao. (See Portugal.)
McCall, E. & Co., agents to receive in-,
stallments from Peru, 2587.
McCuUoch vs. Maryland.— A case brought
before tlie Supreme C;ourt of the United
States in 1819. iu which the right of a
State to interfere with the execution of
Federal laws was denied. McCulloeh was
cashier of the Baltimore branch of the
Banlj of the United States, which had been
incorporated by an act of Congress in 1816
and had headquarters in Philadelphia.
The action brought by the State of Mary-
land against McCuUoch was one of debt,
he, it was averred, havlne refused to com-
' ply with an act of the Maryland general
assembly of 1818 which imposed a tax
upon all banlfs or branches of banks doing
business in Maryland and not chartered by
the State legislature. The court of appeals
of Maryland decided against the plaintiff.
The Supreme Court reversed this decision,
' declaring that the act under which the hauls
was chartered was constitutional, and that
therefore the act of the Maryland legisla-
ture of 1818 was contrary to the Constitu-
tion of the United States, and therefore
void, because States' have, no power, by
taxation or otherwise, to impede or con-
trol the operations of constitutional laws
enacted by .Congress to carry Into execu-
tion any of the powers of the Federal
Government.
Mace. — Originally a club about five feet
long with a thick knob at the end, and a
valuable weapon for attack in hand-to-hand
conflicts. The mace accordingly came to
signify power, and is used as the insignia;
of authority in many legislative bodies. It
is used as such particularly by the Lord
Chancellor of England and the Speaker of
the English House of Commons and the
Speaker' of the United Sti^tes House of Rep-
resentatives. The latter's mace ends in a
globe representing the world, on which is
perched an American eagle with wings out-
stretcUed.
Macedonia,— A section of southeastern Eu-
rope, west and south of the iShodope Mouu-
tains and north and northwest of the Ae-
gean Sea. It corresponds almost exactly
to the former Turkish vilayet of Salon-
iki with the eastern portion of the former
TnrWsh vilayet of Monastir. The popula-
tinu is extremely mixed, composed ot Bul-
gars, sl?bs? Greeks, Mohammedan Rou-
mans, Turks and Albanians. However the
predominant race is generally agreed to be
the Bulgars.
, Turkish • persecutions and oppression in
Macedonia were marked throushout the
nineteenth century and were largely re-
sDonsible for the Balkan Wars of l»l-f-f;
Isee Balkan Wars.) Because of the defeat
of lulaaria In the Second Balkan War,
much of Slcedonia was given to Greece; m
1913 although the principle of nationality
would have leemed to favor Bulgaria ; and
with the defeat of Bulgaria in the World
War. Greece was granted by the Peace
ConferSice most of the. remainder of Mace-
., donia cutting off Bulgaria from access to
the Mediterranean.
"Macedonian."-A British gun boat cap-
tured by the gun boat TTie United States in
, the War of 1812.
Macedonian, The, 1822 3015 3064
Award of arbiter referred, 3381.
Capture of, 506.
Claims for, adjusted, 2116.
Second claim discussed, 2193.
Payment of, 3445.
Machine Guns, development of, recom-
mended, 7235.
Machinery. (See Engines and Ma-
chinery.)
Machine Tools, should be defined before
being' put on free list, 7751.
Mackinaw, Mich.:
Extension of civil authority over,
recommended, 190.
Lands ceded for post of, discussed;
421, 426.
Proclamation granting privileges of
other ports to, 2859. '
Eeduction of, discussed, 534.
McKinley, William.— March 4, 1897-
Sept. 14, 1901.
(riKST TEBM, ,1897-1901.)
Twenty-eighth Administration — Kfipublican.
Vice-President — Garret A. Ilobart.
Secretary of State —
John Sherman.
William R. Day.
John Hay. ,
Secretary of the Treasury —
Lyman J. Gage'.
Secretary of War —
Russel A. Alger. '
Elihu Root.
A ttorney- Genera J—
Joseph McKeuna.
John W. Griggs.
Postmaster-General —
James A. Gary.
Charles E. Smith.
Secretary of the Navy —
John D. Long.
Secretary ot the Interior —
Cornelius N. Bliss.
Ethan A. Hitchcock.
Secretary of Agriculture —
James Wilson.
McKinley was elected by the Republican
party at the elections of 1896 and 1900.
At the Republican National Convention at
St. Louis, June 16, 1896, he was nominated
on the first ballot, overwhelmingly defeat-
ing Reed and Quay, his closest rivals.
Platform. — The platform on this occasion
caused much discussion over the money
plank, and Senator Teller's resolution seek-
ing to commit the party to an endorsement
of gold and silver, with free coinage on a
basis of 16 to 1, was defeated. The plat-
form as adopted severely arraigned the Dem-
ocratic administration ; blamed it for the
period of financial depression through which
the country had just passed; confirmed the
party's allegiance to the doctrine of pro-
tection ; advocated a continuance and re-
vival of reciprocity ; favored the restoration
of discriminating duties ; stood unreservedly '
for sound money ; opposed the debasing, ot
currency by free coinage ; pledged ample
provisipns for veterans ; urged the control
of Hawaii by the United States, the building
of the trans-Isthmian canal, and the pur-
chase of the Danish West Indies ; con-
demned the Armenian massacres ; reassert-
ed the Monroe Doctrine ; urged the restora-
tion of peace to, and the securing of in-
McKinley
Encyclopedic Index
McKinley
dependence for Cuba, by the United States ;
Insisted upon rigid enforcement of Im-
migration laws ; supported civil service re-
form ; condemned lynching ; recommended
a Board of Arbitration to adjudicate be-
tween labor and capital ; urged free-home-
stead laws upon Congress ; favored the ex-
tension of statehood to the remaining terri-
tories, and proper recognition of Alaska ;
sympathized with temperance ; and recog-
nized the rights of women.
Opposition. — The Democratic National
Convention at Chicago, July 7, 1896, nomi-
nated William J. Bryan on the /fifth bal-
lot, over Bland and Pattlson. The Peo-
ple's party, or Populists, in convention at
St. Louis on July 22, 1896, agreed to sup-
port Bryan, and nominated Watson as Vice-
President. The National Silver party, at
the same place and time, agreed to support
Bryan for President and nominate Sewall
for Vice-President. The sound-money Demo-
crats in convention at Indianapolis, on
Sept. 2, 1896, nominated General John W.
Palmer and General Simon B. Buckner as
their candidates. The National Prohibition
party was split over the money question
into "Narrow Gangers," who wai^ted the
platform confined to Prohibition, and the
"Broad Gaugers," who wanted free coinage
and other national issues incorporated. The
Narrow Gaugers nominated Joshua Levering
and Hale Johnson as candidates. The
Broad Gaugers nominated Eev. Charles B.
Bentley and James A. Southgate. The So-
cialist Labor Party, at New York, on July
4, 1896, nominated Charles H. Matchett
and Matthew Maguire as their candidates.
Yote. — ^The popular vote gave McKlnley
7,111,607; Bryan, 6,509,052; Palmer, 222,-
583 ; Levering, 134,645 ; Bentley, 13,968,
and Matchett, 36,373. The electoral vote
gave McKlnley 271, Bryan 176.
(SECOND TERM MARCH 4, 1901-SEPT. 14,
1901.)
Twenty-ninth Administration — Republican.
Vice-President — Theodore Roosevelt.
Secretary of State —
John Hay (continued).
Secretary of the Treasury —
Lyman J. Gage (continued).
Secretary oj War —
Elihu Root (continued).
Attor-neiz-Gpncral —
I'hilander C. Knox.
Postmaiter-General —
Charles E. Smith (continued).
Secretary of the Nary —
John D. Long (continued).
Secretary of the Interior —
E. A. Hitchcock (continued).
Secretary of Apricnlture —
James Wilson (continued).
The Republican National Convention held
at rhiladelphia in June, 1900, nominated
President McKlnley for a second term.
SECOND TERM— Opposition.— The Demo-
cratic National Convention, at Kansas City,
Mo., nominated William J. Bryan. The
X^eotile's party, or Fusionists, at Sioux Falls,
5. D., endorsed Bryan's candidacy ; while
the "Middle-of-the-Eoad" Antl-Fuslonist fac-
tion of the People's party, at Cincinnati,
nominated Wharton Barker. The Prohibi-
tionists, at Chicago, nominated John G.
Woolley. The Socialist Labor party, in
New Yoi-k City, nominated Joseph F. Mal-
loney. The Social Democratic party, at In-
dianapolis, nominated Eugene Debs. The
United Christian party, at Rock Island, 111.,
nominated Silas C. Swallow. The Silver
Republican Convention, at Kansas City, en-
dorsed Bryan. The National party, in New
York City, nominated Donelson Caffrey oi
Louisiana, but he declined the nomination.
Vote. — The popular vote ran: McKinley.
7,207,923; Bryan, ,6,858.138 ; Woolley, 20S.
914; Barker, 50,878; Debs, 87,814; Mai
loney, 39,379. The electoral vote stood :
McKinley, 292; Bryan, 155.
Party Afflliation. — From his youth Will-
iam McKinley was an ardent Republican.
After 'his return from the war, he was ad-
mitted to the bar, and settled in Canton,
Ohio, then an opposition county, where his
political ability had abundant scope and
where he quickly attained considerable po-
litical prominence. In 1867, he favored ne-
gro suffrage, a tttost unpopular topic in his
neighborhood ; in 1875, at the height of the
greenback craze, he spoke for sound money
and the resumption of specie payment. In
Congress, in 1878, he opposed the Wood
Tariff B,iU; in 1879 and 1880, 'he opposed
the repeal of the Federal election laws :
in 1882, he advocated the protective policv
in Congress and the tariff commission ; in
1884. he opposed the Morrison Tariff Bill :
in 1884, he supported Blaine for the Presi-
dency ; In 1886, he favored arbitration be-
tween labor and capital : in 1887, lie con-
ducted a brilliant campaign against the
Mills Bill, which was supposed to embody
Cleveland's policy and ideas on the tariff :
his final address in Congress on this bill
has been characterized as "the most effec-
tive and eloquent tariff speech ever heard
in Congress." This speech served as a text-
book of the campaign. On April 16, 1890,
Major McKinley Introduced tlie tariff bill
since known by his name, which became
a law on Oct. 6, 1890. Defeated for Con
gress in 1890, he was elected Govcinor of
Ohio. His inauguration as Governor took
place shortly before the commencement of
the Presidential campaign.
Public Delt.—The public debt of tho
United States for the years to wllch Presi
dent McKinley was elected to serve stood
as follows : July 1, 1897, $986,656,086.14 •
1898, $1,627,085,492.14 ; 1899, $1,155,320
235.19; 1900, $1,107,711,257.89; 1901,
$1,044,739,119.97 ; 1902, $969,457,241.04
1903. $925,011,637.31; 1904, $967,231,-
oo?'or*S'"~^.? ^^^ Inaugural Address (page
6238) President McKinley took up the tariff
question. He said : "Nothing was ever made
plamer at a general election than that the
controllmg principle in the raising of rev-
enues from duties on imports is zealous
care for American Interests and American
labor. The people have declared that such
legislation should be had as will give ample
protection and encouragement to the in-
dustries and development of our country
... To this policy we are all, of whatever
party, firmly bound by the voice of the peo-
ple— a power vastly more potential than the
expression of any political platform." Fur-
ther, he says : "In the revision of the tariff
especial attention should be given to the
re-enactment and extension of the reciproc-
ity, principle of the law of 1890, under
Which so great a stimulus was given to our
torelgn trade in new and advantageous mar-
kets for the surplus of our agricultural and
manufactured products." In his message
SLP"^ special session (page 6246) he said-
The necessity of the passage of a tariff
law which shall, provide ample revenue
need not be further urged. The imperative
demand of the hour is the prompt enact-
ment of such a measure." In his Third
Annual Message (page 6439) the President
said : "I recommend that the Congress at its
present session reduce the internal revenue
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McKinley
Encyclopedic Index
McKinley
taxes imposed to meet the expenses of the
war with Spain in the sum of thirty millions
of .dollars. This reduction should be se-
cured by the remission of these taxes which
experience has shown to be the most bur-
densome to the industries of the people."
In his Second Inaugural Address (page
UiCi.ji the I'resident said; "Now 1 have the
satisfaction to announce that the Congress
just closed has reduced taxation in the sum
of $41,000,000."
Foreign Policy. — In his First Inaugural
Address (page 6241) President McKinley
summed up the foreign policy of his ad-
ministration in these words ; "We want no
wars of conquest ; we must avoid the temp-
tation of territorial aggression. War should
never be entered upon until every agency
of peace has failed ; peace is preferable to
war in almost every contingency. Arbitra-
tion is the true method of settlement of
international as well as local or individ-
ual differences." in a special message
to Congress (page 6277) the President an-
nounces the destruction of the battleship
Maine in Havana waters and the conclusion
of the court of inquiry. Irlis special mes-
sage (page 6281) deals with the revolution
in Cuba and its effects upon the United
Slates. In it he says; "The issue is now
with Congress. It is a solemn responsibil:
ily. I have exhausted every etfort to relieve
the intolerable condition of affairs which is
at our doors. Prepared to execute every
obligation imposed upon me by the Consti-
tution and 'the law, I await .vour action."
liy act of Congress, April 2'j. 1898, a state
of war was declared to exist between the
I'uited States of America and the Kingdom
of Spain. President lIcKinley's proclama-
tion of war (page 6474) followed on April
26, 1898. The President discussed the fu-
ture relations which should exist between
fho T'aited States and Cuba in his Second
Inaugural Address (page 6407). As to the
war in the Philippines, the President said ;
"Our countrymen should not be deceived. We
are not waging war against the Philippine
Is'.jinds. A portion of thom are making war
against the United States. . . - We will
not leave the destiny of the loyal millions
in the islands to the disloyal thousands who
are in rebellion against the United States."
Civil Service. — In his Inaugural Address
(page 6241) the President said: "Reforms
in tile civil service must go on ; but the
changes should be real and genuine, not
perfunctory, or prompted by a zeal in be-
half of any party simply because it happens
to be in power." Among the reforms in-
stituted, the President lays especial stress
upon dismissals, and says ; "... a distinct
advance has been made In giving a hearing
before dismissals upon all cases where in-
competency is charged or demand made for
the removal of officials in any of the De-
partments." In his Fourth Annual Mes-
sage (page 6455) the President recommends
the extension of such parts of the Civil
Service regulations as may be practicable to
the Philippines.
McKinley, William:
Advancement and progress of the
United States discussed by, 6618.
Agriculture, Department of, diseirssed
by, 6346, 6390.
Alaska, discussed by, 6269, 6370,
6400, 6429.
Alien Contract Law, 6348, 6455.
American Eepublics, Bureau of, dis-
cussed by, 6338, 6349, 6381; 6436.
Annual Messages of, 6251, 6307, 6356,
6416.
Arbitration, discussed by, 6242, 6267,
6380, 6432.
Army, discussed by, 6320, 6341, 6385,
6449.
Assassination of, analysis of causes
and results of, by President Eoose-
velt,'6642.
Autonomous government for Cuba,
discussed by, 6261, 6284, 6308.
Bering Sea Fisheries discussed, 6266,
6336, 6375.
Biographical sketch of, 6234.
Blockade of Cuban ports, discussed,
6296, ,6312.
Buffalo, Pan-American Exposition at,
discussed by, 6382, 6436.
Census discussed by, 6345, 6389, 6454.
Character of, 6641. ,
China, Boxer uprising in, discussed
by, 6417.
Civil Service, discussed by, 6241,
6274, 6405, 6455.
Commerce, discussed by, 6241, 6338,
6359, 6381, 6436, 6460.
Cuban insurrection and policy of the
United States regarding, discussed
by, 6248, 6280, 6307.
Death of — ■
Action of Congress on, 6635.
Announcement of, to Vice-Presi-
dent and reply to, 6624.
The assassination, 6622.
To Representatives abroad, 6624.
To the Army, 6625.
To the Navy, 6627.
To the Treasury, 6629.
Certificate of the coroner, 6630.
House Committee named, 6635.
News at the White House, 6623.
Official order of observances, .6630.
Official order of the Army, 6626.
Order of procession, 6632.
Orders to the Army, 6629.
To the Guard of Honor, 6633.
To the Navy, 6634.
Proclamation of, 6639.
Dewey appointed acting rear-admiral
by, 6568.
Executive orders of, 6568.
Extraordinary session of Congress by
proclamation of, 6470.
Finances discussed by, 6236, 6242,
6244, 6252, 6339, 6357, 6437, 6465.
Five civilized tribes, discussed, 6346.
Foreign policy, discussed, 6241, 6248,
6280, 6295, 6307.
Germany, relations with, 6330, 6369,
6429.
Hawaiian Islands, affairs in, discussed
by, 6399, 6453.
Cable communication with, dis-
cussed by, 6354, 6429.
McKinley
Encyclopedic Index
McKinley
Questions with Japan, discussed by,
6264, 6333.
Transfer of, to the United States,
discussed by, 6264, 6332.
Hobart, Garret P., death of, 6356.
Immigration,' discussed by, 6240.
Inau^ration of, see illustration op-
posite 6517.
Italy, lynching of subjects of, made
by, 6371, 6430, 6459, 6461.
Japan, commercial relations with, dis-
cussed by, 6373, 6431.
Questions with, discussed by, 6264,
6333.
Kansas Pacific Eailway, claims
against, discussed by, 6273, 6342.
Labor, hours of, discussed by, 6348,
6455.
Lands, Public, set apart as public
reservation by proclamation of,
6475, 6477, 6482, 6487, 6492, 6495,
6497, 6499, 6500, 6504, 6505, 6514,
6519, 6523, 6536, 6541, 6546, 6549,
6551, 6561, 6566.
Opened for settlement by procla-
mation of, 6486, 6506, 6525, 6547,
6559.
Eevenue derived from, discussed
by, 6346, 6452.
Loans, discussed by, 6238, 6314.
Lynehings, discussed by, 6248, 6277,
6371, 6404, 6430, 6458, 6461.
Manila, Cable Communication with,
discussed by, 6348, 6373, 6449.
Marshall Day, referred to, 6456.
Mexico, treaty with, discussed by,
6374.
Modification of tariff laws, 6239.
Monetary Commission, discussed by,
6250.
Mosquito Indian Strip, 6365, 6433.
Xavy, discussed by, 6268, 6313, 6344,
6387, 6440, 6451.
Vessels for, construction of, 6268,
6344.
Nicaragua Canal, discussed, 6265,
6326, 6366, 6433.
Nicaragua, relations with, discussed
by, 6264.
Eevolutions in, discussed by, 6432.
Ocean Cables with Philippines, 6348.
Ozama Eiver bridge claims, 6329,
6427.
Pacific railway claims, discussed by,
6273, 6343, 6389.
Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo,
discussed by, 6382. ^436.
Last speech of, at, 6618. '
Paris, France, Universal Exposition
at, discussed by, 6247, 6267, 6275,
6303, 6329, 6368, 6411, 6416, 6427,
6455, 6457, 6461.
Patent Office, discussed by, 6345,
6388, 6453.
Peace Commission, Spanish- American,
discussed by, 6321, 6322.
At The Hague, discussed by, 6383,
6432.
Peace Treaty with Spain —
Proclaimed, 6356.
Signing, illustration, opposite 6247.
Pennsylvania, riots at Latimer, 6324,
6363.
Pensions, discussed by, 6345, 6388,
6452.
Peru, affairs in, discussed by, 6335,
6432.
Force, etc., for, suggestions from
commanders regarding, requested
by, 6392, 6580. ,
Philippine Islands, affairs in, 6441.
Government for, discussed, 6391,
6395, 644L ,
Thanks tendered to commanders
and men by, 6319, 6579.
Victory of squadroij over Spanish
fleet in bay of Manila, discussed
by, 6297, 6315.
Porto Rico, Legislation for, sug-
gested by, 6402, 6447.
Belief for, discussed by, '6403.
Portrait of, 6233.
Postal Service, discussed by, 6344,
6386, 645L
Proclamations of —
Blockade of Cuban ports, 6472,
6481.
Cessation of Tariff, Puerto'- Eico,
6564.
Copyright —
Costa Eica, 6515.
Netherlands, 6522.
Existence of "War — Spain, 0474.
Facsimile of, opposite 6421.
Extraordinary- session of —
Congress, 6470.
Senate, 6544.
Harrison, Benjamin, death of, 6545.
~ Hawaiian Cable Cpncessiun, 6493,
Lands, Public — -
Opened to settlement, 6486,
6506, 6525, 6547, 6553.
Set apart as public reservation,
6475, 6477, 6482, 6487, 6492,
6495, 6497, 6499, 6500, 6504,
6505, 6516, 6519, 6523, 6536,
6541, 6546, 6549, 6551, 6561,
6566.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition,
6567.
Germany, 6538.
Italy, 6539.
Peace with Spain, 6356.
Revocation of suspension of port
dues —
Tobago, 6502.
Trinidad. 6503.
McKinley
Encyclopedic Index
Madagascar
Sherman, John, death of, 6543.
Southern Ute Indians, Colorado,
6506.
Suspension of hostilities, Spain,
6487.
Suspension of tonnage dues —
Mexico, 6471, 6496.
Denmark, 6485.
Thanksgiving, 6470, 6491, 6518,
6544.
Treatment to be accorded foreign
vessels, 6474.
Volunteers called for, 6473, 6477.
Eeeoncentrados, 6256, 6283, 6284,
6285, 6308.
Bed Cross, American National, aid
furnished Cubans by, discussed by,
6284, 6308.
Samoan Islands, Affairs of, and pol-
icy of the United States, concern-
ing, aiscussed by, 6336, 6375, 6428,
6435.
Spanish-AmeJ-iean War, discussed by,
6295, 6297, 6298, 6302, 6305, 6307.
(See also Spanish-American War.)
Trusts, discussed by, 6240, 6360.
Veto messages of —
Navajo, 6411.
Water Boundary Commission, dis-
cussed by, 6334, 6374, 6432.
McKinley TaiiS Act, discussed, 5556,
5626. (See also Tariff.)
McLaue, The. (See Cedar Keys, Fla.)
McLeod Case, — in 1840 Alexander Mc-
l.tinl, a Canadian sojourning in New Yorli,
boasted of having talsen part in tlie seiz-
ure of tlae steamer Caroline during a re-
bellion in Canada a few years previously.
He was arrested and indicted for murder
in Lockport, N. Y. The British minister
demanded his release on the ground that
McLeod had acted under orders and that
Ihe New York State courts had no juris-
diction in a case that lay only between
the two Governments of Great Britain and
the United States. • The Federal Govern-
ment admitted the justice of the British
contention, but held that McLeod could
only be released by operation of the law.
■J'be Attorney-General instituted habeas
corpus proceedings, but the court held that
there was no ground for releasing him.
McLeod finally proved an alibi in October,
1841, and was acquitted.
Macomber vs. Eisner. — A case under the
income tax law, In which the Supreme
Court decided, by a vote of 5 to 4, in a deci-
sion handed down on March S, 1920, that
dividends paid in the form of stock in-
stead of in cash are not Income and hence
are not taxable as such by virtue of clause
4 of Section 9 and clause 8 of Section 2 of
Article I of the Constitution. The case
was argued In the Supreme Court on April
14, 1919 and was reargued on October 17
and 20, 1918.
Macon Bill No, 2.— A bill introduced in
Congress by Nathaniel Macon and passed
in May, 1810, to relieve American commerce
from the depredatioug of English and
French cruisers and privateers. It provided
that commerce should be free and carried
on under sanction of the Berlin and Milan
decrees of France and the orders in council
of England, but that if either of these
nations should withdraw from these con-
ventions commerce should be prohibited
with the nation which retained them. (See
Berlin arid Milan Decrees.)
Madagascar. — ^A French colony in the In-
dian Ocean off the southeast coast of Af-
rica. It Is the sixth largest Island in the
world, surpassed in size only by Australia.
Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo and Baffin
Land. Its length is 980 miles and its
greatest breadth is 360 miles, the total area
being 228,000 square miles. The latest
figures show an estimated population of
about 3,545,000.
The most important of the native tribes
is the Hova, whose dialect, akin to the
Malayan and Oceanic tongues, is under-
stood over most of the island. The natives
are divided into many clans, which seldom
intermarry. The slave trade was abolished
in 1877 and slavery itself in 1896.
The central and eastern sections are very
mountainous, the western and southern
sections being low. The good harbors are
chiefly on the northwest coast. The most
important ports are Tamatave, Majunga,
Ulego Suarez and Tulear. The chief town
is Antananarivo in thu interior, wUti a pop-
ulation of 63,115.
Madagascar was known to Arab traders
by the twelfth century. In the fifteenth
century, the French, Portuguese and Eng-
lish made settlements, but were driven off
by the natives. In the seventeenth cen-
tury, the French succeeded in holding a
settlement for some years before being driv-
en out. In 1815, France regained some set-
tlements which she had made at the end
of the eighteenth century and which she
had lost to England during the Napoleonic
Wars. Later in the nineteenth century, some
British settlements managed to hold on
while the relations with the rulers of the
Hova tribe remained friendly. Toward the
end of the century, Prance determined to
conquer the island, and in 1895 the con-
quest of Madagascar was completed. In
1890, the French protectorate was recog-
nized by Great Britain and in 1895 by the
native rulers. In 1896, France officially
declared Madagascar a French colony. The
island is ruled by a Governor-general. There
is no native elected assembly recognized
in the Government, but native officials are
employed to an extent in the administra-
tion.
Latest figures show almost 3,000,000
acres of land under cultivation, 260,000 by
Europeans. The chief products are rice,
sugar, coffee, manioc, cotton, cacao, va-
nilla, tobacco, butter beans, cloves and rub-
ber. There are extensive forests of valu-
able timber and there is an average annual
production of some 35,000 metric tons of
graphite.
Besides agriculture, attention Is devoted
chlefiy to cattle-raising. Latest figures
show almost 7,000,000 cattle, 810,000 sheep,
200,000 goats, 545,000 pigs, 3,000 horses
and 700 ostriches. There is also weaving
of silk, cotton and straw hats. Factories
«re being established for the preparation of
meat, sugar, rice, etc. There are also min-
eral deposits of value.
Latest figures show exports from Mada-
gascar of $15,000,000 and Imports of $25,-
000,000. The chief Imports are clothing,
cotton, ticxerages, machinery and metals.
u
I ^
0 S
?
"».
Madagascar
Encyclopedic Index
Madison
The chief exports are hides, wax, fibre, gold
dust and rice. The trade is chiefly with
France and French colonies.
There are few roads and only some 250
miles of railroad open to traffic. There is
postal and telegraph service.
Madagascar:
Affairs of, report on, referred to,
5399, 5400.
Imprisonment of American citizen in,
by French authorities, 6060, 6098.
Treaty with, 3780, 4653.
Eeferred to, 4757.
Madeira River, Brazil, exploration of,
referred to, 4449. (See also Brazil,
Physical Features.)
Madison, James. — 1809-1817.
(FIKST TEEM, 1809-1813.)
Sixth Administration — Democratic-Repub-
lican.
Vice-President — George Clinton.
Secretary of State —
Robert Smith.
James Monroe.
Secretary of tlie Treasury —
Albert Gallatin (continued). '
Secretary of War —
William Knstis.
John Armstrong.
Secretary of the Navy —
Paul Hamilton.
William Jones.
Attorney-General —
Ctesar A. Rodney (continued).
William Pinkney.
Postmaster-General —
Gideon Granger (continued).
Nomination, — Mndison was elected by the
Democratic-Republicans in 1808 and 1812.
Virginia, in separate caucuses, nominated
James Madison and James Monroe as Pres-
idential candidates to succeed Jefferson.
But the Congressional Republican caucus,
by an almost unanimous vote, chose Madi-
son for President tind George Clinton for
Vice-President. Monroe had many sup-
porters, but reconciled them to the choice
of Madison by the suggestion that Monroe
should succeed Madison. The Federalists
held no caucus and made no formal nomi-
nation ; but tfiey accepted C. C. Pinckney
and Rufus King. The election was held
Nov. 8, 1808, and seventeen States took
part in it.
Tote. — The electoral vote, counted Feb.
8, 1809, gave Madison 122 votes and Clin-
ton 113 votes, against 47 each for Pinck-
ney and King. The New England Federal-
ists by a determined effort, redeemed some
of their lost States. The votes of >.ew
York, North Carolina, and Maryland were
divided.
(SECOND TERM, 1813-1817).
Seventh Adminlstratl on — Democratic-Re-
publican.
Vice-President — Elbridge Gerry.
Secretary of State —
James Monroe (continued).
Secretary of the Treasury —
Albert Gallatin (continued).
G. W. Campbell.
Alex. J. Dallas.
Secretary of War —
John Armstrong (contmued).
James Monroe (acting).
Wm. H. Crawford.
Secretary of the Navy —
William Jones (continued).
B. W. Crowninshield.
Attorney-General —
William Pinkney (continued).
Richard Rush.
Postmaster-General —
Gideon Granger (continued).
Return J. Meigs.
SECOND ■ TERM — Nomination.— In the
election of 1812, Madison was nominated
by the Republican Congressional caucus,
at which New York State was represented
by only oue member. The other New York
members formed a faction which nominated
DeVVitt Clinton. The Federalists, at a cau-
cus held in New York City, agreed to
support DeWitt Clinton for President and
Jared IngersoU for Vice-1'resident.
Tote. — The federal election was held
Nov. 3, 1812, and the electoral vote, which
was counted Feb. 13, 1813, gave Madison
128, against 89 for Clinton ; and Gerry 131,
against 80 for Ingersoll. Eighteen Stales
took part, for Louisinna w.as admitted in
1812. Maryland's w.ns the only divided
vote, and it was cast 6 to 5.
Party Affiliation. — In the early consti-uc-
tion of the Governmout, Miidison was a
pronounced Federalist. He played a most
important part in carrying the Constitu-
tion through the Virginia Assembly, de-
spite the well-organized opposition of sncli
leaders as Patrick Henry ,Tnd Lee. His
work in the B'irst National Congress in-
cluded tariff resolutions, creation of ex-
ecutive departments, nnd the proposal of
amendments to the.. Constitution. He diil
not support Hamilton's financial neasnves
and it was not long before he became one
of the leaders of the new Republican
party. Especially did he oppose the as-
sumption of state debts and the institu-
tion of a national bank. While he sym-
pathized with the French Revolutionists
he did not go so far in this direction as
did Jefferson. He led the debiiles in op-
position to Jay's treaty with Grcnt Hritain.
In 1798 he drew up the resolutions prissed
by the Virginia Assembly denouncing the
Alien and Sedition Acts.
Political Complexion of Congress. — The
Eleventh Congress (1809-1811) was made
up of a Senate of 34 members, of whom
10 were Federalists and 24 Democrats ; and
the House, of 141 members, of whom 46
were Federalists and 95 Democrats. In
the Twelfth Congress (1811-1833) the Sen-
ate, of 36 members, was made up of 6
Federalists and 30 Democrats ; the House,
of l4l members, was made up of 36 Fed-
eralists and 105 Democrats. In the Thir-
teenth Congress (1813-1815) the Senate,
of 36 members, was made up of 9 Fed-
eralists and 27 Democrats, and the House,
of 182 members, was made up of 67 Fed-
eralists and 115 Democrats. In the Four-'
teenth Congress (1815-1817) the Senate, of
38 members, was made up of 12 Federal-
ists and 26 Democrats ; and the House, of
183 members, was made up of 61 Federal-
ists and 122 Democrats.
Foreign Policy. — In his First Inaugural
Address, Madison outlines his foreign pol-
icy (page 451) : "To cherish peace and
friendly intercourse with all nations having
corresponding dispositions ; to maintain
Madison
Encyclopedic Index
Madison
strict neutrality toward belligerent na-
tions ; , to prefer in all cases amicable
, discussion and reasonable aecommodiition
of differences to a decision of ttiem by an
appeal to arms; to exclude foreign in-
trigues and foreign partialities, so degrad-
ing to all countries and so baneful to free
ones ; to foster a spirit of independence
too just to invade tbe rights of others, too
proud to surrender our own, too liberal to
Indulge unworthy prejudices ourselves, and
too elevated not to look down upon them
in others ; to hold the union of the states
as the basis of their peace and happiness.
. . ." The embargo act of 1807 was re-
pealed and the non-intercourse act substi-
tuted in 1809. This proved ineffectual and
was repealed in 1810; but was revived
against Great Britain in 1811. Great Brit-
ain conceded the rights of neutrals, but
refused to accommodate the impressment
of sailors, to the satisfaction of the United
States.
War n-ith England. — During 1811, hostil-
ities began on land and sea. By procla-
mation of June 19, 1812, Madison (page
497) declared war against Great Britain, ,
and this followed closely upon his special
message of June 1, 1812 (page 484), in
which he reviewed the acts of hostility
and offense of which Great Britain had
been guilty. Throughout the several mes-
sages the progress of the war is discussed.
It is generally conceded that the conduct
of the war was feeble on the part of the
United States. So far as Madison's con-
nection witli it is concerned, it may be
remembered that he was essentially a man
of peace and that the war, so important
in the annals of the country and in the
life history of those who bore themselves
valiantly in defense of their country, be-
comes a mere incident in Madison's life.
Eventful as his administration was, the
part which he contributed was slight in
comparison with his preeminently brilliant
record before he reached the highest office.
Public Debt. — The public debt of the
United States during the Madison admin-
istration stood as follows : Jan. 1, 1810,
$53,173,217.50; 1811, $48,005,587.76; 1812,
$45,209,737.90 ; 1813, $55,962,827.57 ; 1814,
$81,487,846.24 ; 1815, $90,833,660.15 ; 1816,
$127,334,933.74; 1817, $123,491,965.16.
rartff.— July 1, 1812, there was passed a
tarifi: act for imposing "additional duties
upon all goods, wares, and merchandise,
imported from any foreign port or place,
and for other purposes." By this act, the
duties were increased 100 per cent., and an
additional tax of 10 per cent, was levied
on all goods Imported in foreign vessels.
Feb. 25, 1818, a duty was imposed on the
importation of iron wire ; and July 29 of
the same year the duty was imposed on
imported salt, a bounty was granted on
pickled flsh exported, and certain vessels
employed in the fisheries were entitled to
allowances. In his Seventh Annual Mes-
sage (page 552) Madison brings up the
question of tariff for protection- "t„ ori.
'In ad-
iusting the duties on imports to the ob-
'ject of revenue, the influence of the tariff
on manufactures will necessarily present
itself for consideration. However wise the
theory may be which leaves to the sagacity
and interest of individuals the application
of their Industry and resources, there are
in this as in other cases exceptions to
the general rule. Besides the condition
which the theory itself implies of a recip-
rocal adoption by other nations, experi-
ence teaches that so many circumstances
must concur in introducing and maturing
manufacturing establishments, especially
of the more complicated kinds, that a coun-
try will remain long without them, al-
though sufficiently advanced and in some
respects even peculiarly fitted for carrying ■
them on with success."
Slavery. — In his Second Annual Message
(page 470) President Madison says;
"Among the commercial abuses still com-
mitted under the American flag, and leav-
ing in force my former reference to that
subject, it appears that American citizens
are instrumental in carrying on a traffic in
enslaved Africans, equally in violation of
the layvs of humanity and in defiance of
those of their own country. The same
just and benevolent motives which pro-
duced the Interdiction in force against this
criminal conduct will doubtless be felt by
Congress in devising further means of sup-
pressing the evil."
Commerce. — The commercial status of the
United States in the year 1810 was as
follows : Area, 1,999,775 square miles ; pop-
ulation, 7,239,881;, population per square
mile, 3.62 ; gold coined, $501,435 ; silver
coined, $638,774 ; money in circulation,
$26,500,000 ; impbrts, $85,400,000 ; exports,
$60,757,970; vessels built, 127,575 tons;
vessels in foreign trade, 984,269 tons ; ves-
sels in coastwise trade, 440',175 tons ; post-
offices, 2,300.
Madison, James:
Annual messages of, 458, 467, 476,
499, 519, 532, 547, 558.
Biographical sketch of, 450.
Change of possession of Florida from
Spain to other foreign power ob-
jected to, 473.
Commissioner to settle boundary
question with Georgia, 329.
Conference with Senate regarding
Executive nominations, ■ declined
by, 515.
Constitutional amendment respecting
internal improvements suggested
by, 553.
Death of—
Announced, 1449.
Correspondence of President Jack-
son and Mrs. Madison on, 1479.
Executive nominations, conference
with Senate regarding, declined
by, 515.
Finances discussed by, 455, 461, 472,
480, 504, 513, 523, 535, 549, 563.
Foreign policy discussed by, 452, 473.
Inaugural address of —
First, 451.
Second, 509.
Internal improvements discussed by,
569.
Oath of oflfice, notifies Congress of
time and place of taking, 451.
Pardon granted deserters from Army
by, 497, 499, 528.
Portrait of, 449.
Powers of Federal and State Govern-
ments discussed by, 474, 475, 540,
569.
Proclamations of —
Commercial relations with Great
Britain —
Madison
'Encyclopedic Index
Mail Routes
Bene wed, 457.
Eevoked, 408.
Existence of war between United
States and Great Britain, 497.
Extraordinary sessio* of —
Congress, 476, 529:
Senate, 571.
Land bounties to Canadian volun-
teers, 145.
Military expedition against Span-
ish dominions, 546.
Pardons granted —
Deserters, 497, 499, 528.
Persons carrying on lawless
trade, 543.
Possession of West Florida, 465.
Preparation for defense of coun-
try against British forces, 530.
Thanksgiving, 498, 517, 543, 545.
Treaty of peace with Great Brit-
ain, 545.
Unlawful possession of public
lands, 557.
Vessels of United States not to
interfere with foreign vessels,
528.
Secretary of State, 329.
Special session messages of, 453, 511.
State of the Union discussed by, 524,
552, 558.
Tariff discussed by, 470, 522.
Thanksgiving proclamations of, 498,
517, 543, 545.
Treaty of peace with Great Britain,
proclamation of, regarding, 545.
Veto messages of —
Endowing church in Mississippi,
475.
Incorporating bank of United
States, 540.
Incorporating church in Alex-
andria, Va., 474.
Internal improvements, 569.
Naturalization, 508.
Trials in district courts, 496.
War with —
Algiers should be declared by Con-
gress, 539.
Great Britain discussed. (See War
of 1812.)
• Writings of, on Constitutional Con-
vention referred to, 1479.
Correspondence regarding publica-
tion of, 1481.
Madison Papers, reasons for applying
pocket veto to resolution to distrib-
ute, 1745.
Madrid, capital of Spain, exposition at,
to celebrate four hundredth anni-
versary of discovery of America,
5622.
Eeport of United States commission-
ers to, transmitted, 5988.
Mafia. — A Sicilian secret order which aims
to substitute its own authority for that
legally constituted by the state. It first
became prominent in 1860. It depends upon
community of sentiment rather than thor-
ough organization for Its strength, and its
members are bound neither to seek redress
at law nor give evidence in court. The
boycott and blackmail are the usual means
of ofCense, but violence is often resorted to.
Members of the society emigrating to the
United States have established branches in
New Yorlj, New Orleans and elsewhere.
On the night of Oct. 15, 1890, David C.
Hennessy, chief of police of New Orleans,
was assassinated before his own house by
members of the Mafia to whose band he had
traced a number of crimes. The officer re-
ceived six wounds. Eleven Italians were
arrested charged wilh' the murder. By the
IBth of the following March several of the
prisoners had been acquitted, and, despair-
ing of convicting any of them, on account
of their disregard of oaths, a mob of en-
raged citizens, headed by a lawyer named
Parkerson, broke into the jail and put to
death the eleven prisoners, Including those
who had been acquitted. In consequence of
the delay in bringing to justice the perpe-
trators of this deed the Italian Govern-
ment made a protest against this violation
of the rights of Italian citizens, ajid the
United States arranged the matter amicably
by paying an indemnity to the families of
the murdered Italians.
Magazines. (See Arsenals and Maga-
zines.)
Magiclenne, The, appropriation to pay
claims of owners of, recommended,
3580.
Maha Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Mail Matter. — Mail matter is divided into
four classes, as follows : First Class —
Postal cards and private mailing cards, one
cent each ; letters and other sealed matter,
two cents each ounce or fraction of ounce.
"Drop" letters not involving delivery may
be mailed for one cent each. Ijetters may
be mailed also to Great Britain for two
cents each, and at the same rate to Ger-
many, provided that they take the direct
ocean route to the latter country. Second
Class — Newspapers and periodicals. When
mailed by the publisher in bulk, one cent
per pound. Singly, one cent each for four
ounces or fraction thereof. Delivery In the
county in which second-class matter is pub-
lished is free. Third Class — Comprises all
other printed matter, and may be mailed at
the rate of one cent for each two ounces
or friction thereof. Fourth Class — All oth-
er mailable matter, including parcel post
(g. v.). Mail carried for the Government
is free, as Is mall sent under the frank
of a member of Congress. (See Post-Office
Department.
Mail Matter. (See Postal Service.)
Mail Routes (see also Star Routes; Cum-
berland Road) :
Appropriation for, 926.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 873, 877, 985.
Arthur, 4689.
Buchanan, 2992.
Fillmore, 2625, 2670.
Harrison, Benj., 5633, 5756.
Hayes, 4574.
Madison, 552.
Monroe, 587, 784, 825.
Polk, 2355, 2503.'
Mail Routes
Encyclopedic Index
Maine, The
Van Buren, 1610, 1719, 17155.
Washington, 58, 75, 99.
Establishment of, vested in Congress,
19.
Little Eoek to Cantonment Gibson,
Ark., 932.
Eeferred to, 60.
Washington, T>. C, to New Orleans,
La., surveyed by Isaac Briggs, 364.
Wheeling, W. Va., to point on Missis-
sippi Eiver, 652, 683.
Zanesville, Ohio, to seat of govern-
ment of Missouri, 993.
Mail Service. (See Postal Service;
Bail way Mail Service.)
Mail Steamers. (See Postal Service.)
Mail Subsidy urged for steamships to
South America, 7374, 7435, 7503. (See
also Postal Service.)
Mails, Foreign, transmission of, through
United States, referred to, 2175. (See
also Postal Service.)
Maine. — One of the New England states;
nickname, "The Pine Tree State" ; motto,
"Dirigo" ("I direct"). The most north-
easterly state of the Union. It extends
from lat. 43° 4' to 41° 28' north and from
long. 66° 57' to 71° 7' west. It Is bound-
ed on the nortn by the Province of Quebec,
on the east by New Brunswick, on the
southeast and south by the Atlantic, and
on the west by New Hampshire and Que-
bec. The area of the State Is 33,040 square
miles.
Settlements were made by the French
under Du Monts in 1604 and by the Eng-
lish in 1607. The first permanent settle-
ment dates from 1623. Maine was a part
of the province of Massachusetts Bay in
1691 and became a separate state in 18^0.
The Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842 set-
tied' the long-standing dispute regarding its
northeastern boundary.
The nrodncts of Maine are chiefly those
derivld^from forestry, fishing, farming and
Quarrying. The most fertile portion, the
Aroostook Valley, is well adapted for the
growing of fruits and vegetables.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State, at 60,016 comprising
R2»fi 859 acres valued, with stock and im-
nrovementt, at $199,271,998. The average
?alue of farm land, advanced from about
|i an acre in 1900 to $14 an acre in 1910.
The figures for the last annual agri-
cultural production are as follows:
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Potatoes 102,000 24,480,000 $34,270,000
Potatoes .. i^g Q 1100,000 2,145,000
hZv ■ ■ ■ ■ i 120,000 1 456 000* 27,227,000
Wheat' ".v. 12^00 '228,000 500,000
Oats .■-. 170,000 5,745,000 5,285,000
*Tons.
At latest reports, the state's farms con-
tained 107,000 horses, valued at $16,478^
000- 179,000 cows, $14,141,000; 143,000
other cattle $5,134,000; 180,000 sheep,
$1 710,000 and 116.000 swine, $2,842 000
'rhe last annual wool clip was 935,000
pounds.
The mineral products are relatively un-
important, although Maine is the leading
state in the- production of feldspar. Other
mineral products are granite and mineral
waters.
There are 2,144 miles of steam railway
and 383 miles of electric line in the State.
The population was 742,371 in 1910.
Of the total population in 1910, 110,13?
were foreign-born, of whom some 76,000
were Canadians. The largest religious body
is the Roman Catholic.
In 1920, the population was 768,014.
The school population (ages 5 to 21) is
228,489. Of these, 149,268 are enrolled in
school, with an average dally attendance
of 112,885. There are 5,697 teachers in the
public school system.
The ^number of manufacturing establish-
ments In Maine having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 3,378. The amount of capital in-
vested was $233,744,000, giving, employment
to 90,758 persons, lislng material valued at
$117,655,000, and turning out finished goods
worth $200,371,000. Salaries and wages
paid amounted to $50,525,000.
Maine:
Claims of, presented, 1496, 1687.
Controversy with New Brunswick re-
ferred to, 1805.
Depredations in, committed by law-
less men from British provinces,
1733.
Correspondence regarding, 1738,
1784, 1785, 1791.
Northeastern boundary correspond-
ence regarding. (See Northeast-
ern Boundary.)
Usurpation of jurisdiction within,
by New Brunswick, 990.
Maine, The. — One of the second-class
battleships of the United States Navy.
This vessel was sent to Havana, Cuba, in
January, 1898, on a peaceful mission. She
was received by the Spanish forts and naval
vessels in the harbor with the courtesies
usually extended to visiting war ships of a
friendly power. Her anchorage was selected
by the Spanish authorities. On the night of
Feb. 15, 1898, the Maine was destroyed by
a submarine mine (6277). It was believed
that the Spaniards, who at the time were
very much incensed at the interest Ameri-
cans were taking In the Cuban insurrection,
had maliciously destroyed the vessel and
crew. Two omcers and 258 sailors and
marines lost their lives by the explosion
(6296). An investigation failed to place
the responsibility for ^he catastrophe, and
Spain hastened to send a message of regret
at what she called an "incident." The blow-
ing up of the Maine was among the causes
of the war with Spain, begun soon after-
wards. A new battleship has since been
added to the navy bearing the name Maine.
(See illustrations opposite 5603. 5886,
5918.)
Maine, The, destruction of, in Havana
Harbor, Cuba, 6277, 6290, 6308.
Findings of court of inquiry, dis-
cussed, 6277, 6290.
Number of lives lost in, report on,
6296.
Proposition of Spain to investigate
'■auses of, referred to, 6290.
Maine, The
Encyclopedic Index
Manila
Eemoval of wreck of, appropriation
for, recommended, 7630.
Makah Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Malay Archipelago. — The largest and most
Important island group or congeries of
groups in the world, stretching from lat. 25°
north to 12° south and from long. 93° to
105° east. It is bounded on the north by
the China Sea, on the east by the Pacific
Ocean, and on the south and west by Austra-
lia and the Indian Ocean. The principal
f roups are the Sunda Islands, Including
umatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores,
Sandalwood, Timor, and several smaller
ones ; the Philippines in the north ; Celebes
and the Salayer Islands, north of Flores ;
the Moluccas and others east of Celebes.
The chief islands for trade are Jaya, Suma-
tra, Borneo, and the Moluccas. The Dutch
division of Papua is considered a part of
the Malay Archipelago. The Philippines
were taken by the United States from Spain
in 1898. Great Britain is in possession of
Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and Labuan.
Native rajas rule most of the islands. The
Dutch East Indies, including Sumatra,
Borneo, Java, and the Celebes, comprise the
greater^ and richer portion of the archipel-
ago, having rights of suzerainty over the
active princes.
Malefactors of Great Wealth. — A phrase
used by President Roosevelt, (7138), and
afterwards popular In political discussions
as denoting men of riches who defied the
law.
Malefactors of Wealth and Position, at-
titude of Eoosevelt administration
toward, 7137.
Proceeded against by the Department
of Justice, 7085.
Malta. — An Island in the central Mediter-
ranean south of Sicily. It has belonged to
Great Britain since 1814. It Is the head-
quarters of the British Mediterranean fieet.
and is strongly fortified and garrisoned. The
area Is 91% square miles and the popula-
tion, about 225,000. The chief town and
port is Valetta, with some 45,000 Inhab-
itants. The chief agricultural products are
potatoes, lemons, oranges and other fruits ;
onions and other vegetables ; grain, and a
little cotton. The latest figures show annual
imports of $10,400,000 and exports of $3,-
000,000. The British crown colony of Malta
includes also the islands of Gozo, 26 square
miles, and Comino, 1 square mile. To the
whole colony, the United States sent in the
last calendar year goods valued at $622,000,
as against $50,000 imports from Malta. A
large proportion of vessels, especially of
the British vessels, plying between the East
and Western Europe stop at Malta.
Malvern Hill (Va.), Battle of.— The
last of the Seven Days' Battles before Rich-
mond. On the morning of July 1, 1862, the
Second, Third, and Sixth corps of McClel-
lan's army, under command of Keyes,
Franklin, Sumner, Ileintzelman, and Porter,
were united on Malvern Hill, a plateau near
the James River. The approaches to the
position were commanded by about 70 guns,
several of them heavy siege cannon. The
Confederate attack, under D. H. Hill and
Magruder, was made about 3 P. M., and it
continued until 9 p. M. The assailants were
repulsed. During the night McClellan con-
tinued his retreat to Harrison's Landing.
(See Illustration opposite 3167.)
Mammoth Gave. — This, the largest cavern
in the world. Is situated in a region in
which caverns abound. Scientists explain
the existence of these phenomena of nature
in that region by the action of rain water,
which from the earth collects chemicals
of dissolving properties.
Mammoth Cave is In Kentucky, near
Green River, and about one hundred miles
southwest of Lexington. It was discovered
by a hunter in 1809. The entire cave has
never been explored, but its length is about
nine miles. It consists of series of cham-
bers, domes and pit^ ; and contains many
rare and beautiful phenomena. There are
several underground streams running
through it, and there Is some fish life. The
longest avenue is Cleveland Avenue, which
extends for two miles, and the largest in-
dividual chamber Is 450 feet long and 130
feet wide.
Management, Government and Private.
(See Government Management.)
Manafesas (Va.), Battle of. (See Bull
Run (Va.), Battle of.)
Manassas (Va.), or Bull Eun, Second
Battle of. — On the morning of Aug. 30,
1862, the day after the battle of Groveton,
the conflict between the forces under Pope
and those under Jackson was renewed. The
latter, having been reenforced, massed his
forces on the left of the Federal army with
the intention of turning Pope's flank and se-
curing a position on the road to Centeryllle,
in Pope's rear. The fiercest fighting of the
day took place about 5 o'clock in the after-
noon on the ground where the battle of
Bull Bun had been fought July 21, 1861.
By night the left wing of the Union army
had been driven back about halt a mile, the
right not so far. Pope, being defeated, re-
treated to Centervllle. Federal loss, about
15,000; Confederate, 8,400. (See also
Groveton (Va.), Battle of.)
Manassas, Va.:
Army mauoBuvers at, 6927.
Encampment at, 6774.
Manchuria. — ^The northeastern section of
China. It is north of Korea, east of Mon-
golia, south and west of Siberia, from
which it Is separated by the Amur River
on the north and the Usurl River on the
east. Its area is estimated at 364,000
square miles and its population at 13,000,-
000. Before the World War, Russia and
Japan were In competition to wrest Man-
churia from China, and with the overthrow
of the Tsarist Government of Russia in
1917, Japan renewed her endeavors to gain
control of the country.
Manchuria:
Railroads in, internationalization and
neutralization of, 7497.
Eusso-Japanese agreement regarding,
7498.
Mandan Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Mandatory Principle in the League of
Nations Covenant discussed, 8673,
8793. (For text of the arrangements
concerning mandatories, see pages
8679 et seq.)
Manila Harbor (Philippine Islands),
Battle of. — Prior to the beginning
Manila
Encyclopedic Index
Manufacturers
of the war with Spain the Asiatic Squadron
of the United States had been lying for
several weelis at Honglsong, under the com-
mand of Commodore (later Admiral) George
Dewey. Upon the Issuance of the colonial
proclamation of neutrality, the usual 24
hours' notice having been given, Dewey re-
paired to Mlrs Bay, near Hongkong. From
there he proceeded, under telegraphic orders,
to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet then
assembled at Manila, capital of the Philip-
pine Islands, a Spanish possession off the
southeast coast of Asia. At daybreali May
1, 1898, the American fleet entered Manila
Bay and before noon effected the total de-
struction of the Spanish fleet, consisting of
10 warships and a transport, besides cap-
turing the naval station and forts at Cavite.
Thus at one blow, in a few hours, was an-
nihilated Spain's naval power in the Paeiflc.
Nor was this all. The victory secured to
the American commander complete control
of the bay of Manila, with the ability to
take the city at will. Not a life was lost
on the American ships. The wounded num-
bered only seven. The Spanish loss was 412
officers and men killed and wounded. Aug.
15, after a brief assault upon the works of
Manila by the land forces under Gen. Mer-
rltt, in which the squadron assisted, the
last scene of the war was enacted at its
starting place, resulting in the unconditional
surrender of the city.
Manila, Philippine Islands (see also
Philippine Islands):
Cable communications with, recom-
mended, 6348, 6373, 6449.
Expeditions to, under command of
Gen. Merritt, 6315.
Gen. Otis directed to avoid conflict
with insurgents, 6584.
Victory of —
American squadron over Spanish
fleet in bay of, discussed, 6297,
6315.
Commander of American squad-
ron—
Appointed acting rear-admiral,
6297, 6568.
Sword to be presented to, and
medals to men under, 6302.
Thanks of Congress to, and
men under, 6298.
Eecommended, 6297.
Eeply of, 6302.
Thanks of President tendered,
6568.
Eeferred to, 6297.
Commander of the HugJi McOul-
loch in, recognition of ser-
vices of, recommended, 6305.
American squadron and land forces
at, discussed, 6319.
Thanlfs of President tendered
commanders and men, 6579.
Mann Law. (See White Slavery.)
Manor.— In English law a freehold es-
tate held by the lord of the manor, who Is
entitled to maintain a tenure between him-
self and copyhold tenants, whereby a sort
of feudal relation Is kept up between them.
Manors closely resemble the feudal estates
held In Scotland by all proprietors of land.
Manors of the English type were granted
in the United States In several of the
Colonies on such terms that property right
carried right of Jurisdiction. In 1636 the
proprietor of Maryland ordered that every
grant of 2,000 acres should be m&de a
manor.
Manual of Parliamentary Practice. — The
manual prepared by Thomas Jefferson after
he was elected Vice President In 1796 was
the first sdch in this country, and it still
holds the premier position as a guide for
deliberative bodies, and is usually referred
to as the JetCerson Manual.
Manufactory Bank. (See Bank, Manu-
factory.)
Manufacturers, Association of.— In order
to combat the encroachments of organized
labor and offset the growing tendency of
public opinion and state legislatures to ac
quiesce in the demands of labor men, no
matter how ruinous to employers, the Na-
tional Association of Manufacturers was
formed. A platform of ten principles for
the guidance of members in dealing with
the labor que.stion was formulated, as fol-
lows :
1. Fair dealing is the fundamental and
basic principle on which relations between
employees and employers should rest.
2. The National Association of Manufac-
turers is not opposed to organizations of la-
bor as such, but it is unalterably opposed
to boycotts, blacklists and other illegal acts
of interference with the personal liberty of
employer or employee.
3. No person should be refused employ-
ment or in any way discriminated against
on account of membership or non-member-
ship in any labor organization, and there
should be no discriminating against or in-
terference with any employee who is not a
member of a labor organization by members
of such organizations>
4. With due regard to contracts, it is the
right of the employee to leave his employ-
ment whenever he sees fit, and it is the
right of the employer to discharge any em-
ployee when he sees fit.
5. Employers must be free to employ
their work people at wages mutually satis-
factory, without interference or dictation on
the part of individuals or organizations not
directly parties to such contracts.
6. Employers must be unmolested and
unhampered in the management of their
business in determining the amount and
quality of ineir product, and in the use of
any methods or systems of pay which are
just and equitable.
7. In the interest of employees and em-
ployers of the country, no limitation should
be placed upon the opportunities of any
person to learn any trade to which he or
she may be adapted.
8. The National Association of Manufac-
turers disapproves absolutely of strikes and
lockouts, and favors an equitable adjust-
ment of all differences between employers
and employees by any amicable method
that will preserve the rights of both
parties.
9. Employees have the right to contract
for their services in a collective capacity,
but any contract that contains a stipulation
that employment should be denied to men
not parties to the contract is an invasion of
the constitutional rights of the American
Manufactures
Encyclopedic Index
Marine Conference
Number of establishments 275,793
PersoDi engaged i n manufactures 8,265,426
Propi-ietore and firm members 264,872
Salaried employees 964,217
Wage earners (average number employed
during the year) 7,036,337
Wage earners, by months;
January 7,075,682
February 7,141,594
Match 7,242,752
April 7,217,320
May 7,148,660
June 7,100,368
July 7,018,867
August 7,020,682
September 7,086,804
October 7,006,342
November 6,736,699
December 6,640,284
Primary horsepower 22,537,129
Capital $22,790,880,000
Services 5,367,249,000
Salaries 1,287,917,000
Wages 4,079,332,000
Miterials 14,368,089,000
Value of products 24,246,323,000
Value added by manufacture (value of
products leas cost of materials) 9.878,234,000
In the following table the several Indus-
tries are arranged in the order of the value
of tbelr output.
Manufactdkikg Industkies.
Average
Number
of Wage-
Earners.
"Value
of
Products.
Slaaghteriug and packing
Foundries and machine shops .
89,728
531,011
695,019
240,076
39,453
258,434
378,880
239,696
198,297
168,722
166,810
282,174
100,216
38,429
153,743
15,628
54,579
62,202
13,526
18,431
89,492
75,721
128,452
13,929
87,256
6,430
129,275
73,615
99,037
7,424
37,215
69,928
59,968
40,618
17,071
50,551
22,895
44,638
14,240
43,086
23,714
65,603
34,907
1,634,927
51,370,568,000
1,228,475,000
1,156,129,000
Iron and steel, steel works
985,723,000
883,584,000
luting and publishing. . . —
737,876,000
628,392,000
568,077,000
512,798,000
Woollen, worsted and felt goods
Tobacco -,
Car shops <■
Bread and bakeries
Iron and steel, blast furnaces..
435,979,000
416,695,000
405,601,000
396,865,000
391,429,000
384,752,000
Copper, smelting and refinmg.
378,806,001)
374,730,000
327,874,000
Sugar and molasses, not includ-
279,249,000
Butter, cheese and milk
274,558,000
267,657,000
249,202,000
239,887,000
236,998,000
221,309,000
204,699,000
Hosiery and knit goods
Copper, tin and sheet iron
200,144,000
199,824,000
196,912,000
Lead, smelting and refining. . .
Gas, illuminating and heating .
167,406,000
166,814,000
159,893,000
Canning and preserving
157,101,000
149,989,000
147,868,000
Agricultural implements
146,329,000
141,942,000
134,796,000
124,889,000
123,730,000
117,689,000
Marble and stone work
113,093,000
104,719,000
4,561,002,000
6,615,046
S20,672,Q52,0(X)
workman, is against public policy, and Is In
violation of the conspiracy laws. This asso-
ciation declares its unalterable antagonism
to the closed shop and insists that the doors
of no Industry be closed against American
workmen because of their membership or
non-membership in any labor organization.
10. The National Association of Manu-
facturers pledges itself to oppose any and
all legislation not in accord with the fore-
going declaration.
Manufactures. — The adjoining table is
from a summary issued by the Director of
the Census in 1914.
One of the important duties of the fed-
eral census is to take account o( the number
and extent of the manufacturing establish-
ments of the country and report on the
number of persons engaged in the various
industries, the value of tinished products
and the value added to raw material in the
process of manufacture, as in the preceding
tables.
Manufactures. (See also Business and
Tariff) :
Capital —
Invested in, discussed, 5741.
Should be applied to internal, 443.
Depression in, mentioned, 559.
Encouragement of, recommended, 58,
60, 193, 197, 318, 454, 469, 480, 538,
630, 979.
Increase of, 676, 760, 979, 1108, 3991.
Prosperous condition of, 2404.
Eeferred to, 95, 175, 361, 456, 667.
979.
Statistics of, referred to, 3066, 3067.
Tariff assistance to, 6713.
Of 1828, effect on, 1012.
"Man Without a Country, The."— The
title of a story written in 1863 by Edward
Everett Hale, which has been widely read
and has made a strong patriotic appeal.
Manzano and Zuni National Forests
combined, 7987.
Maps of United States, joint resolution
providing for printing of, vetoed,
5292.
Marblehead, The, mentioned, 6317, 6760,
6768, 6769.
Marbury vs. Madison. — The first impor-
tant case wherein the Supreme Cburt set
aside an act of Congress because of con-
flict with the Constitution. William Mar-
bury and others had been appointed Jus-
tices of the peace in the District of Co-
lumbia by President John Adams, with the
consent of the Senate. Before their com-
missions were issued Adams was succeeded
by Thomas Jefterson and James Madison
was appointed Secretary of State. Falling
to receive his commission, Marbury moved
the Supreme Court to issue a mandamus
to Madison commanding him to issue it.
The court decided that Marbury was legally
entitled to his commission, but that the
court had no constitutional authority to
issue a mandamus in such a case, thus
declaring unconstitutional a portion of the
judiciary act of 1789, which purported to
grant such authority.
Marietta, The, voyage and arrival of,
from San Francisco discussed, 6316.
Marine Conference, International, at
Marine Conference
Encyclopedic Index
Marine Signals
Washington discussed and recommen-
dations regarding^ 5180, 5370, 5468,
5493, 5498, 5543.
Marine Corps.— The United states Marine
Corps Is an independent brancli of the mili-
tary service of the United States, serving
generally under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Navy. The corps may be de-
tached by order of the President for service
with the army, and on various occasions
parts of the corps have so served.
Marines served on shore and on board
vessels of the navy throughout the R«volu-
tionary war, two battalions having been
authorized by the Continental Congress
Nov. 10, 1775, but the present organization
dates from July 11, 1798, when an act of
Congress was approved for establishing and
organizing, a marine corps to consist of one
major, four captains, sixteen first lieuten-
ants, twelve second lieutenants, forty-eight
sergeants, forty-eight corporals, thirty-two
drums and fifes and 720 privates.
The following duties are assigned to the
marine corps : To garrison the different
navy yards and naval stations, both within
and beyond the continental limits of the
United States. To furnish the first line
of the mobile defence of naval bases and
naval stations beyond the continental limits
of the United States. To man such naval
defences, and* to aid in manning, if neces-
sary, such other defences as may be erected
for the defence of naval bases and naval
stations beyond the continental limits of
the United States. To garrison the Isthmian
Canal Zone, Panama. To furnish such gar-
risons ' and expeditionary forces for duties
beyond the seas as may be .necessary in
time of peace. To serve on board all battle-
ships and armored cruisers of the navy,
and such other vessels as may be directed,
in detachments of not less than 8 per cent
of the strength of the enlisted men of the
navy on said vessels. In case of disturb-
ances in foreign countries marines are land-
ed to protect American interests.
The marine corps garrisons the follow-
ing places :
Naval Proving Ground, Indian Head, Md.
American Legation, Peking, China.
American Legation, Managua, Nicaragua.
Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C, and
San Diego, Cal.
Rifle Range, Winthrop, Md.
Navy Yards. — Boston, Mass. ; Charleston,
S. C. ; Mare Island, Cal. ; New York, N. T. ;
Norfolk, Va. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; Puget
Sound, Wash. ; Portsmouth, N. H. ; Wash-
ington, D. C.
Recruit Depots. — Mare Island, Cal., and
Port Royal. S. C.
Naval Stations.— Cayite, Philippine Is-
lands; Guam. ' Mariana Islands; Guantana-
mo, Cuba'; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii ; Key West,
Fla. ; Olongapo, Philippine Islands.
Naval Academy. — Annapolis, Md.
Naval Hospitals. — Boston, Mass. ; Las
Animas, Colo. : New York, N. Y. ; Norfolk,
Va. ; Washington, D. C.
Naval Home. — Philadelphia, Pa.
Btaft Offices. — New York, N. Y., San Fran-
cisco, Cal.. and Philadelphia, Pa.
Naval Mananines. — ^Dover, N. J. ; Fort
Mifflin, Pa. ; lUingham, Mass. ; lona Island,
N. Y. ; St. Julien's Creek, Va.
Naral Prisonsj — Cavite, Philippine Is-
lands ; Mare Island, Cal. ; Portsmouth, N. H.
Also V>8 vessels of the U S. Navy.
The latest authorized strength of thi'
Marine Corps was 1,093 officers, 100 war-
rant ofllcers, 42 pay clerks and 27,400 en-
listed men. Within this anthorlzed strength
were comprised 3 major generals, 9 briga-
dier generals, 33 colonels, 44 lieutenant-
colonels, 124 majors, 329 captains, 276 first
lieutenants, 275 second lieutenants, 50
marine gunners, 92 clerks, 73 sergeants
major, 368 quartermaster sergeants, 3 drum
majors, 413 first sergeants, 399 gunnery
sergeants, 1,853 sergeants, 3,303 corporals,
361 drummers and trumpeters, 4,224 first-
class privates, 16,335 privates and 67
musicians.
The Marine Corps played a leading part
in the activities of the American forces In
France during the World War. Its losses
were 2,800 dead, of whom 1,614 were killed
in action and 860 died of wounds ; and
8,793 wounded. These figures should b^
read in light of a total strength on active
duty at the time of . the armistice of 72,-
963, of which 24,555 were in France. The
Corps distinguished itself especially in the
capture of Belleau Woods, where more than
1,000 deaths were suffered by the Marines
and the name of which was later changed
by the French Government to Marine Corps
Woods iBois de la Brigade de Marine.)
Marine Corps:
Appointment in, referred to, 1965.
Compensation to officers of, referred
to, 906, 1097.
Expenditures of, 2670.
Appropriation for, recommended,
1045.
Nominations for, referred to, 2586,
3236.
Plan for peace establishment of, 764.
Eank and position in, discussed,
3235.
Recommendation for, 2502.
Should be merged into artillery or
infantry, 1023.
Marine Corps Beserve. (See Naval Re-
serve.)
Marine Hospitals. (See also Health
Service.)
Construction of, referred to, 2747.
Patients treated by, during 1885, 4931.
Plan for, referred to, 1613.
Provision for, recommended, 324.
Service discussed, 4931, 5877.
Sites for, referred to, 1796, 1835.
Appropriation for, recommended,
1953.
Marine Insurance.
Fire.)
Marine, Secretary of.— Up to 1781 the
Board of Admiralty had supervision of all
naval affairs. Feb. 7 of that year the Con
tineatal Congress created the office of Sec-
retary of Marine, whose duties correspond-
ed with those of the present Secretary of
the Navy. Before the end of that year.
however, the dnties of the office were trans-
ferred to the Treasury Department.
Marine Signals, international confer-
ence at Washington for adoption of
system of, etc., 5468.
(See Insurance,
Marines
Encyclopedic Index
Martial Law
Marines: ,
Arrest of, in Mexico, 7934.
Funeral of, in Brooklyn Navy Yard,
7939.
Mariposa Big Tree Grove, presented to
Nation by California, 7013.
Maritime Canal Company, referred to,
5623, 6185, 6326.
Maritime Xiaw, declaration concerning
referred to, 2917, 2945.
Codification of, and international,
conference on, 7411.
(See also World War and Interna-
tional law.)
Maritime Policy, adoption of, by Unit-
ed States recommended 6340.
Maritime Eights, correspondence -with
foreign powers, regarding, referred
to, 7854.
Maritime War, rights of neutrals and
belligerents in, discussed, 821.
Uniform action of the powers regard-
ing, 866.
Markets (see also business. Commerce
and Trade):
Domestic, for raw materials, neces-
sary to protect farmers, 578.
Foreign — combinations, competitions
and long credits in, 8040.
World, for American goods, 8321.
Markets and Rural Organization Serv-
ice, Agriculture Department. — A branch
office of tbe Department of Agriculture de-
voted to the study of the many problems
of rural organization, Including studies of
marketing and distributing farm products
and bettering country life. It Is not gen-
erally appreciated, said Secretary Houston,
in his report for 1915, to what extent mar-
keting troubles have their origin in irregu-
larity of production or lack of a stable and
balanced agriculture. In years when a de-
structive disease prevails, the yield from
an acreage normally sufficient to supply
consuming requirements is insufficient tp
meet the demand, and high prices follow.
High prices also may result from reduced
acreage caused by low prices at planting
time. High prices one year stimulate heavy
planting the next. The solution of evils of
tbis sort Is the problem which confronts
the Markets and Rural Organization Serv-
ice. It is also an object of the service to
supply shippers and distrihators of perish-
able products with accurate Information con-
cerning the quantities arriving in the large
markets.
Marmion Case. — The South .Carolina legis-
lature in 1822 passed a law providing that
any free negroes entering the ports of
that State on ships could be imprisoned un-
til the departure of the vessels. This was
done In the case of negroes on board the
Marmion. The district court of the United
States in 1823 decided that this law was
contrary to the Constitution and incom-
patible with the international obligations
of tbe United States. The Attorney-Gen-
eral rendered a similar opinion in 1824.
Marque and Reprisal, Letters of. —
These are commissions issued by a bellig-
erent state to vessels of private interests,
either neutrals or those of its own citizens,
authorizing them to fight the enemy at sea.
The word marque represents the old mean-
ing of "boundary," and is used in this con-
nection because letters of marque and re-
prisal originally authorized the holder to
proceed across the boundaries into an enemy
country in order to take reprisals. In 1797
and in 1816, the United States forbade the
issuance of letters of marque to neutrals,
but allowed the practice for its own private
citizens until the middle of the nineteenth
century. The Declaration of Paris, in 1856,
forbade letters of marque and reprisal, but
that declaration was not ratified by the
United States because it did not exempt in-
nocent commerce from capture at sea. Ac-
cordingly, the United States is still tech-
nically free to iss\ie letters of marque and
reprisal to its own citizens.
Marriage:
Collection of statistics of States by
Director of Census, recommended,
6942.
Discussed, 7048. .
Marriages of American citizens abroad,
recommendations regarding, 4246,
4301, 4360.
Marseillaise. — The French Naltional Hymn.
Composed in Strassburg in 1792 by a young
officer, Claude Joseph Eouget de Lisle, it
was sung by volunteers coming from the
city of Marseilles when they entered Paris
during tbe Frencb Revolution, and later
was shouted aloud with glee at the attack
upon the King's Palace. First called the
Hymn of the Marseillians, the title soon
was shortened to the Marseillaise. The
hymn is decidedly stirring in both words
and music, and is distinctively republican
in its import, as is shown by the fact that
it was prohibited during tbe later French
empire and monarchy, and also by the fact
that it has received recognition as the offi-
cial hymn of the Socialist and of other revo-
lutionary movements.
Marshals, United States:
Acts making appropriations to pay
fees of, vetoed, 4493, 4497, 4543,
4544.
Appropriations for maintenance of
service of, recommended, 4474,
4525.
Necessity for, referred to, 4535.
Compensation to, discussed, 2666,
2714, 4770, 4836, 4939, 5103,
Eeferred' to, 91.
Martha's Vineyard, Slass., lands desig-
nated by proclamation for light-
houses on, 1221.
Martial Law. — A system of government
under the direction of military authority.
It is an arbitrary kind of Jaw, proceeding
directly from the military power and hav-
ing no immediate constitutional or legis-
lative sanction. It is only justified by ne-
cessity and supersedes all civil government.
Sir Matthew Hale said : "Martial law is
built on no settled principle, but is ar-
bitrary, and, in truth, no law, but some-
times indulged, rather than allowed, as
law." Suspension of the writ of habeas
corpus is essentially a declaration of mar-
tial law. "In this case," says Blackstone,
Martial Law
Encyclopedic Index
Maryland
"the nation parts with a portion of liberty
to secure its permanent welfare, -and sus-
pected persons may then be arrested wltli-
out cause assigned."
Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee. — In 1791
Martin brought suit of ejectment against
the defendant in the district court of Vir-
ginia for the recovery of certain lands.
The court decided for the defendant. The
court of appeals of Virginia reversed this
decision, and their judgment was reversed
by the United States Supreme Court in
1816. The court of appeals of Virginia
refused to execute this judgment, declar-
ing that the "appellate power of the Su-
preme Court of the United States does
not extend to this court under a sound
construction of the Constitution of the
United States," and that the "act of Con-
gress to that effect is not in pursuance of
said Constitution." The Supreme Court
overruled this decision and thus established
its jurisdiction upon such points.
MartiniCLue. —A French colony In the
Lesser Antilles, with an area of 385 square
miles and a population of 195,000. The
chief town is Fort-de-France. The main pro-
ducts are sugar, rum, cacao, coffee, tobacco,
and cotton. There are some 15 sugar worics
and a number of other factories. Latest
figures show exports of $16,000,000 and Im-
ports of $11,000,000.
Martinique, Island of:
Tonnage on American vessels at, re-
ferred to, 1123. /
Voleanie eruption on, detroying St.
Pierre, formerly populated by 26,-
000, 6679.
Mary Lowell, The, seizure of, by Span-
ish authorities, referred to, 3986.
Mary, The, capture and sequestration
of, by Netherlands, 1612.
Claims arising out of, 1693.
Maryland. — One of the thirteen original
states of the Union ; niciiname, "Old Line
State ;" motto, "Fatti maschil ; parole
femlne" ("Deeds are men; ' words are
women"). It was founded by Lord Bal-
timore in 1634 and named in honor of
Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I.
Maryland extends from lat. 37° 53' to
39° 43' north and from long. 75° 4' to 79°
33' west. It is bounded on the north by
Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware and
the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the
Chesapealse Bay, on the southwest by Vir-
ginia and West Vifginia (separated by the
Potomac), and on" the west by West Vir-
ginia. It is divided into two parts by the
Chesapeake Bay, and- has an area of 12,327
square miles.
Maryland was first settled at St. Marys
in 1634 as a proprietary colony of the
Calvert family, but was governed as a
roval province from 1691 to 1716. The
Mason and Dixon line was established as
the boundary between Maryland and Penn-
sylvania about 1766.
The fisheries of the State are Important,
the oysters of Chesapeake Bay being wide-
ly famous. Other fishery products are shad,
bass, perch, and shell flsh. Agriculture is
an important pursuit, about 82 per cent
of the area being in farms, and these mostly
worked by their owners.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 49,923 ; comprising
5,057,140 acres, valued, with stock and
iniprovements, at $286,167,028. Native
white farmers operated 40,669 farms, about
one-eighth of the farmers being negroes.
The latest figures for the annual agricul-
tural production are as follows : •
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Corn 693,000 28,413,000 $39,778,000
Wheat 790,000 10,665,000 22,930,000
Hay 450,000 630,000*15,120,000
Tobacco . . . 29,000 19,575,000t 5,872,000
Potatoes .. 55,000 5,170,000 6,721,000
Sw. Potatoes 12,000 1,680,000 2,234,000
Oats 65,000 1,820,000 1,492,000
•Tons ; fPounds.
The last figures for farm animals gave
168,000 horses, valued at $17,136,000; 25,-
000 mules, $3,350,000 ; 180,000 cows, $16,-
020,000; 138,000 other cattle, ^$6,955,000 ;
250,000 sheep, $2,725,000 ; 461,000 swine,
$8,759,000. The last annual wool clip was
812,000 pounds. The fruit crop also is bar-
tlcularly important.
The most important mining industry is
that of coal, in the western part of the
state. The last annual coal production was
4,760,000 tons. Maryland ijanks eighth
among the states in total manufacturing,
first in fertilizer, eighth- in tobacco, second
in iron shipbuilding, third in clothing,
tenth In iron and steel, and thirteenth in
cotton goods.
In 1910, the population was 1,295,346.
In 1920, it was 1,449,610. The city of
Baltimore accounts for more than half of
the total number of inhabitants. Of the
population in 1910, 232,250 were negroes
and 104,174 were- foreign-born. Of the
foreign-born, 36,650 were from Germany
and 25,532 were from Russia and Russian
Poland.
Latest figures show 2,476 public schools,
with 6,525 teachers, of whom 975 are
colored. There are 235,268 pupils enrolled,
of whom 41,305' are colored.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Maryland having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the beginning
of 1915 was 4,799. The amount of capital
Invested was $295,934,000, giving employ-
meut to 131,333 persons, using material
valued at $238,982,000, and turning out
finished goods worth $377,764,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid aggregate $71,829,000.
'-This report showed a decrease in the num-
ber of establishments since the last report,
which was in 1909, hut an increase In the
amount of capital invested. The number
of employees also Increased.
Maryland (see also Baltimore):
Act of general assembly of, relating
to Chesapeake and Delaware Canal
Co., 870.
Census of, referred to, 321.
Cession of Government interest in
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal to,
considered, 1776.
Claims of, agaitist United States for
expenditures during War of 1812,
894.
Combinations, unlawful in, discussed
and proclamations against, 4400
4424.
Constitutional ameijdments received
from governor, 63^
Maryland
Encyclopedic Index
Massachusetts
District of Columbia, portion of,
ceded to Congress by, 92.
Eeferred to, 86.
Legislature of, arrest and dispersion
. of members of, would not be jus-
tifiable, 3218.
Loan of, to Washington City, pay-
ment of, guaranteed by United
States, 321.
Eatifieation of amendment to Federal
Constitution by, referred to, 63,
249.
Unlawful combinations in, discussed,
and proclamations against, 4400,
4424.
Maryland in Liberia. — A negro colony to
the eastward of Cape Palmas, in what is
now the Republic of Liberia, Africa, found-
ed by the Maryland State Colonization So-
ciety in 1834. Expeditions sent to Mon-
rovia in 1831 and 1832 proved unsuccess-
ful. John Russworm, a citizen of Monrovia,
was chosen the first governor in 1836. In
1857 it became part of Liberia.
Mason and Slidell, Confederate envoys
to Great Britain and France, removal
of, from British steamer Trent, 3262,
3263, 3264, 3267, 3268.
Mason and Dixon's Line.— The boundary
line between Pennsylvania and Maryland.
It is coincident with the parallel of 39°
43', beginning at the Delaware River and
running 244 miles to the westward, and
was laid out by two eminent English mathe-
maticians and astronomers, Charles Mason
and Jeremiah DIzon, about 1766. Lord
Baltimore and William Penn having dis-
puted the boundary between their adjoining
grants, the case was taken to London for
adjudication and the parties to the suit
were ordered to have the line run. The
surveyors marked the line with boundary
posts, having on one side the arms of Penn
and on the other those of Lord Baltimore.
The line became famous In later days as
marking in part the boundary between free
and slave states. During the discussion in
Congress on the Missouri compromise John
Randolph of Roanoke made free use of this
phrase, which contributed to its more popu-
lar use as such dividing line.
Masonic, The, confiscation of, attempt-
ed by Spain, discussed, 4626, 4759.
Indemnity for, awarded, 4919.
Massachusetts. — One of the thirteen origi-
nal states of the Union ; nickname, "The
Old Bay State" ; motto, "Bnse petit pla-
cldam sub libertate quletem" ("With the
sword s'he seeks quiet peace under liberty").
It was named from the Massachusetts In-
dians, who occupied the eastern part of the
territory. The name means "At the Great
Hills." Massachusetts extends from lat.
41° 14' to 42° 53' north and from long.
69° 53' to 73° 32' west. It Is bounded
on the north by Vermont and New Hamp-
shire, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, Rhode
Island and Connecticut, and on the west by
New York, and has an area of 8,266 square
miles.
Massachusetts chartered the first college
in America. It has produced more eminent
literary men than any other state In the
Union. It is the leading state in the
manufacture of boots and shoes and cotton
and woolen good«. It was visited by
Gosnold In 1602 and settled at Plymouth
in 1620. This was the third in the order
of settlement of the British Colonies in
America. Later settlements were made at
Salem and Boston in 1628 and 1630. A
Confederate union of the Massachusetts,
Plymouth, New Haven, and the Connecti-
cut Colonies existed from 1643 to 1684 for
defensive purposes. Massachusetts took an
Important part in the Revolutionary War
and the organization of the Government. It
was the scene of Shay's Rebellion in 1786-
1787.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 36,917, comprising
2,875,941 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $226,474,025. The aver-
age value of land ber acre was $36.69, as
compared with $27.62 in 1900.
The figures for the last annual agri-
cultural production are as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Hay 410,000 656,000* $17,712,000
Tobacco . .10,000 15,400,000t 7,130,000
Corn 44,000 2,640,000 4,540,000
Potatoes ..33,000 2,970,000 6,645,000
•Tons ; fPounds.
Latest figures show within the state 52,-
000 horses, valued at $8,060,000"; 159,000
cows, $16,695,000 ; 102,000 other cattle,
$4,570,000 ; and 176,000 pigs, $4,752,000.
Massachusetts is primarily a manufactur-
ing state and about three-fourths of its
population is urban.
The 1917 census of manufactures showed
that the total amount of capital invested in
manufactures was $2,239,848,630. The
average number of wage-earners was 708,-
421 and their wages, $537,144,629. The
raw material used in manufacture was
valued at $1,782,440,354 and the value of
the finished products was $3,020,557,545.
The four leading industries, in rank ,of
value, were the cotton goods ; woolen, felt
and worsted goods ; boots and shoes ; and
foundry and, machine shops. There is very
little mining, the chief mineral products be-
ing quarry and clay products.
In 1917, there were 151 National Banks
in operation In the state, with assets of
$766,982,000. There were 196 savings-
banks, with assets of $1,113,887,000 ; 184
co-operative banks, with assets of $126,-
695,000 ; and 100 trust companies with
assets of $775,786,000.
In 1920, the population was 3,852,356.
A state census in 1915 showed the popula-
tion as 3,693,310. Of these 45,600 were
negro and 1,152,045 were foreign-born. Of
the foreign-born, 210,000 were from Ireland,
122,000 from Italy, 96,000 from Russia,
96,000 from England, 83,000 from Poland.
The latest figures show 19,609 teachers
In the public schools, an enrollment of 607,-
805 pupils and an average daily attendance
of 506,478. There are 253 public high
schools within the state, and 17 colleges
and universities of which 14 are non-sec-
tarian , and 5 are for women only.
Massachusetts (see also Boston; Lynn):
Claims of, for services rendered by
militia in War of 1812, discussed,
795, 854.
Constitution of United States, ratifi-
Massachusetts
Encyclopedic Index
Meat Packing
cation of certain articles of, evi-
dences of, 166.
Governor of —
Eeferred to, 65.
Eefusal of, to furnish militia for
' defense of frontier, 501.
Prisoners in, provision for, recom-
mended, 183.
Massachusetts Bay Oompany,— A coloniz-
ing company ctiartered In England, Marcb
19, 1628, by Jobn Humphrey, John Endlcott,
and others. The company grew out of the
preexisting Dorchester Company, and was
the result of imperiled political and reli-
gious rights in England under Charles I.
The patentees received a grant of land ex-
tending from the Atlantic to the "Western
Ocean," In width from a Hue running three
miles north of the Merrlmac to one running
three miles south of the Charles. Endlcott
headed a colony which settled at Salem
In September, 1628. March 4, 1629, a new
charter was granted to the governor and
company of Massachusetts Bay, and the old
oflScers of the company were succeeded by
John Winthrop as governor, with a deputy
and eighteen assistants. In 1630 Winthrop,
at the head of a large body of settlers,
transferred the company headquarters to
America and founded Boston. Under this
charter Massachusetts carried on her gov-
ernment for fifty-five years.
Massachusetts, The, appropriation to
owners for detention of the Perth-
shire by, recommended, 3247.
Massachusetts, The (battleship), men-
tioned, 6396.
Matanzas, Cuba, harbor and forts
shelled by American squadron, 6315.
Mauritius. — ^A British island possession in
the Indian Ocean about 500 miles east of
Madagascar. Its area is about 720 square
miles and its population, about 385,000. The
staple Industry is sugar, the annual crop
averaging about 250,000 tons. The latest
figures show annual imports of $14,000,000
and exports of $20,000,000. About 300,000
tonnage of shipping visits the Island
annually. The capital is Port Louis, with
a population of some 50,000.
Majrflower Compact.— Before the landing
of the Pilgrim Fathers the company gath-
ered ib the cabin of the Mayflower, in
Provincetown Harbor, Nov. 11, 1620, and
there bound themselves Into a body politic
and pledged themselves to abide individ-
ually and collectively by the laws they
should make.
Mayflower Descendants.— Organized in
the City of New York, Dec. 22, 1894, by
lineal descendants of the Mayflower pil-
grims, "to preserve their memory, their
records, their history, and all facts re-
lating to them, their ancestors, and their
posterity." Every lineal descendant over
eighteen years of age, male or female, or
any passenger of the voyage of the May-
flower which terminated at Plymouth,
Mass., December, 1620, Including all sign-
ers of "The Compact," are eligible to mem-
bership. The initiation fee is $10 and the
annual dues are $5. The Triennial Congress
is held in September at Plymouth. Mass.
Societies have been organized in New York,
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, District of Columbia. Cmio, New
Jersey, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Michigan.
Minnesota, Maine, Colorado, and California.
Maysville, Washington, Paris and Lex-
ington Turnpike Boad Co., act au-
thorizing subscription of stock in,
vetoed, 1046.
Mazzei Letter. — A private letter written
by Thomas JefCerson to an Italian named
Mazzei in 1796. The letter was translated
and published in an English paper. It
aroused much animosity against Jefferson
by its supposed allusion to Washington and
others as those "Samsons in the field and
Solomons in the council" who had formed
an Anglican monarchical aristocratic party
In America whose avowed object was "to
draw over us the substance, as they had
already done the forms, of the British
Government."
Meat, necessity and regulations for
conservation of, 8432. (See also Ani-
mals and Animal Products; Pood.)
Meat Inspection Law discussed, 7080,
7298. <See also Pood and Drugs Act.)
Meat Packing and Slaughtering. —
The art of refrigeration has been so per-
fected in recent years that fresh meat may
be shipped thousands of miles and its qual-
ity so preserved that It Is even more desir-
able and palatable at its destination than
at the point where slaughtered. The pres-
ent methods of curing and preserving by
salting, smoking, etc., differ from the
•ancient methods only in the extent and
system adopted. Preservation in hermeti-
cally sealed cans or jars is a comparatively
recent process introduced into the United
States in 1S73. The utilization of the by-
products of slaughtering, such as hides,
hoofs, horns, benes, hair, fats, intestines,
blood, etc., has broadened the scope of the
business' and added man.v dqjlars per ht'iid
to the value of animals.
The present day meat packing establish-
ment, with a constant demand, arranges
for a constant supply of live animals by
maintaining stock yards which aio ipsu-
larly fed by accession from the farmer and
herder. Machinery, too, has employed an
important part In bringing the modern
meat packing establishment to completion.
In the up-to-date plant operations are con-
tinuous, lighted at night by electricity and
surrounded always by the latest sanitary
precautions and appliances.
The rise of slaughtering and meat pack-
ing as a distinct Industry in the United
States dates back to 1818, when a packer
is recorded as conducting business in Cin-
cinnati. Similar operations were begun in
Chicago in 1823, but the packing statistics
of the latter city were of small account
until 1850, though It is said 9.G0O hogs
were packed there in 1834. It was not un-
til 1861-62 that Chicago attained pre-em-
inence as a packing centre.
During the winter of 1832-33 there were
several packing establishments in Cincin-
nati, and it is claimed that 85,000 hogs
were slaughtered there that season. The
development of the agricultural resources
of the Ohio Valley cheapened the cost of
raising stock, and the demands of the East-
ern and Southern markets caused increased
production, particularly of hogs. Cincin-
nati's pre-eminence in the meat packing in-
dustry was maintained up to the beginning
of the Civil War, when Chicago took the
lead it has since maintained.
Meat Packing
Encyclopedic Index
Meat Packing
Report Year 1309
Numbei- of Establishments 1,279 929
Persons Engaged 121,729 87.077
Capital $ 534,27.3,503 $237,714,690
fialaries and Wages 89,696,745 53,670,874
Cost of Materials 1 ,441,662,658 805,856,969
Value of Produets '. 1,651,965,424 913,914,624
1,118
$116,887",564
28,841,576
480,962,211
561,611,668
Cincinnati's advantage was due to its
situation in the centre of the stock-raising
region and ^ to its superior hanking facili-
ties, for the packing industry demanded
that large sums be expended in ready cash.
It was also necessary often to employ large
gangs of laborers and coopers at slunt no-
tice and these could be had at Cincinnati.
An ample supply of salt was always readily
obtainable there. In 1844 there were
twenty-si.^ packing houses in Cincinnati,
and in 1856, forty-two. During the season of
1848-49 475,000 hogs were slaughtered there."
About 20,000 hogs were killed in Chicago
In 1850-51, and since that time the business
has steadily increased. The Union Stock
Yards were laid out on 320 acres of land
in 1865. This area has been doubled since,
and the plant is now worth many millions
of dollars. The amount of capital invested
was given in 1900 as $67,000,000. Within
the yards are more than twenty miles of
water troughs, seventy-five miles of drain-
age pipes and one hundred fifty miles of
railroad track.
Efforts to shorten the overland journey
of live cattle, sheep and hogs from the west-
ern farms and ranges where raised to the
place of slaughter caused the establishment
of yards and packing houses further west.
With the development of the country
west of the Mississippi St. Louis took its
rise as a packing and slaughtering centre.
Reports made to the Department of Com-
merce in 1914 show the following values
of products for the preceding year :
', PRODUCTS POUNDS VALUE
Fresh Meat:
Beet 3,658,333,660 $421,296,794
Veal 194,698,880 26,299,446
Mutton and lamb and goat
and kid 629,232,690 74,675,627
Pork 1,877,099,071 226,535,734
Edible ofial and all other
fresh meat 296,666,701 20,576,245
Cured Meat:
Beef, pickled and other cured 91,571,753 14,395,316
Pork, pickled and other
cured 2,929,309,741 393,605,600
Canned goods 160,7^8,955 26,417,624
Sausage:
Canned 74,004,380 9,845,669
All other 435,146,931 58,349,863
Lard, oils and fats:
Lard 1,119,188,676 120,414,007
Lard compounds and substi-
tutes 396,397,950 33,037,467
GALLONS VALUE
Oleooil 16,501,585 $11,925,832
Other oils 6,716,497 4,009,602
Tallow and oleo stock 209,614,135 $ 13,73 2,766
Stearin 30,091,991 2,762,421
Oleomargarine dO,387,881 8,818,657
All other products, value* .... 185,076,874
Total value $1,661,765,424
*Includes value of baked beans, confectionery, fertilizers,
fertilizer materials, glue, head cheese, hides and skins, hog
hair, ice, meat puddings, peanut butter, preserves, sausage
casings, scrapple, wool, etc., and~ amount received for
slaughtering and refrigeration for others.
The importance of Kansas City as a meat
packing centre dates from 1870. The stock
yards there cover about 200 acres. There
were only three packing houses in the city
in 1873. Other meat packing centres are
St. Joseph, Mo., and Omaha, Neb.
A recent report of the Census Bureau
covers the operations of the meat packing
.ind slaughtering industry in the Upited
States for a year just before war conditions
made the industry abnormal. The report
covers only wholesale establishments, and
does not include any retail establishments
nor any of those engaged exclusively in
the manufacture of sausage and in the kill-
ing and dressing of poultry.
The leading states in the industry are
Illinois, with 32% of the wage earners and
29% of the value of the products; Kansas,
with 10%, of the wage-earners and 9% of
the value of the products ; New York, Ne-
braska, and Missouri, each with about 6%
of the value of the products and the number
of wage-earners.
The five leading cities are Chicago, with
24% of the value of the product ; Kansas
City, with 8% ; New York, with 6 1/2% ; and
Indianapolis and St. Louis, with 2% each.
Of the persons in the industry 93% are
male and 7% female.
The winter months are normally the
period of greatest activity.
Of the establishments covered by the
report, 504, or 39%, were owned by in-
dividuals ; 494, or 38 % by corporations ;
and 281, or 23% by other forms. But the
corporations employed 92% of the wage-
earners and produced 91% of the value of
the product.
Of the establishments, 206 had products
valued annually at more than $1,000,000 ;
439, at between $100,000 and $1,000,000 ;
and 427 at between $20,000 and $100,000.
The following table shows statistics of
materials used in the report year :
Number Oost
Beeves 7,149,042 $490,108,203
Calves 2,019,004 27,623,448
Sheep and Lambs .15,943,743 84,783,721
Hogs 34,441,913 597,097,518
Goats and Kids . . 8,117 29,345
All others 2,178,250
Dressed Meat
Bought 124,334,692
All Other
Materials 115,507,481
The following table shows the average
weight of the animals used :
Lbs. on Hoof Lbs. Dressed
Beeves 990 530
Calves 167 102
Sheep, Lambs 79 39
Hogs 211 159
The Department of Agriculture estimates
that the total meat production in the
United States for 1918 was 9,796,929,000
pounds of beef, 558,318,000 pounds of
mutton and 13,010,577,000 pounds of pork,
a total of 23,365,824,000. Of this total,
Meat Packing
Encyclopedic Index
Medals
20,338,432 pounds Trere Consumed in the
United States. The per capita consumption
of meat in the United States for 1918 was
estimated as follows : Beef, 85.9 pounds ;
mutton, 5.3 pounds ; pork, 102.3 pounds.
The total gives 193.5 as the average number
of pounds of meat consumed per person
in the United States in the course of the
year.
Mechanicsville (Va.), Battle of.— One
of the Seven Days' Battles before Eichmond.
On June 26, ISCii, Lee massed his troops
on his left, A. P. Illli crossing to the north
side of the Chiclsahominy and being sup-
ported by Longstreet and D. H. Hill. Jack-
son joined the Confederate forces later. The
Confederate attack on Fitz-John Porter at
dawn was repulsed, but the Federal army
subsequently retired. According to Federal
accoiints, the Confederate loss was 1,500,
the Union 361. This battle 1^ also called the
battle of Beaver Dam Creek.
Mecklenburg Declaration.— A series of
resolutions purporting to have been adopted
by the citizens of Mecklenburg County,
N. C, May 20, 1775, declaring their inde-
pendence of Great Britain, followed by a
second series of resolutions, adopted on the
31st of May, providing for a local govern-
ment. The Independence resolutions were
first published in 1819 and created much
discussion as to their genuineness. They
contained several phrases almost or quite
identical with portions of the document
adopted at Philadelphia, July 4, 1776.
Thomas Jefferson Immediately declared
them fraudulent. It was admitted that
the original Mecklenburg resolutions were
burned in 1800 and that those published in
1819 were reproduced from memory by a
son of one of the secretaries of the meet-
ing. The North Carolina legislature in-
vestigated the matter and secured enough
evidence to warrant them in making May
20 a state holiday. The historians are
divided in opinion. Hildreth, one of the
most critical, admits the validity of the
Declaration, but, curiously enough, says it
was made May 31. Bancroft contends that
only a provisional government was formed,
and that on the date of the 31st. There
is no dispute as to the fact that a govern-
ment was organized. In North Carolina,
among the Scotch-Irish people, there exists
little doubt that the Mecklenburgers de-
clared their Independence on May 20, 1775.
William A. Graham, Secretary of the Navy
from 1850 to 1852 and candidate of tjie
Whigs for vice-president In 1852, was the
son of Joseph Graham, who was present at
the meeting in Charlotte which declared
Independence, and testified to the fact.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin :
Treaty with, 2417, 2479.
Vessels of, discriminating duties on,
suspended by proclamation, 1365.
Medal of Honor Legion.— Composed of
officers and enlisted men of the United
States army and navy who have been
awarded medals of honor for most dis-
tinguished gallantry In action during any
war In which the United States has been
engaged. At the present time it has 440
such members.
Medals.— Congress has from time to time
awarded gold and silver medals for dis-
tinguished services in the army and navy.
Since the civil war most of the medals have
been awarded for heroic rescues froni
dangers at sea. Under resolutions of
1874, 1878 and 1882 several hundred medals
of honor have been awarded by the Secre-
tary of the Treasury for life saving. Among
the recipients of the latter have been eight
women.
The following is a list of persons who
have been awarded medals by Congress for
distinguished services In the army and
navy:
Gen. Creorge Washington, (gold medal) for
the Capture of Boston.
Brig.-Gen. Horatio Gates, (gold) Defeat
of Burgoyne.
Maj.-Gen. Anthony Wayne, (gold) Storm-
ing of Stony Point.
Lieut.-Col. De Fleury, (silver) Storming
of Stony Point.
MaJ. John Stewart, (silver) Stormine
of Stony Point.
„ Maj. Henry Lee, (gold) Surprise of
Pauius Hook.
John Paulding, (silver) Capture of
Andre.
David Williams, (silver) Capture of
Andre.
Isaac Van Wart, (silver) Capture of
Andre.
BrIg.-Gen. Daniel Morgan, (gold) Vic-
tory of Cowpens.
Lleut.-Col. William A. Washington,
(silver) Victory of Cowpens.
Lieut. John E. Howard, (silver) Victory
of Cowpens.
Maj.-Gen. Nathaniel Greene, (gold) Vic-
tory at Eutaw Springs.
Capt. John Paul Jones, (gold) Capture
of the Serapis 1779.
Capt. Thomas Truxtun, (gold) Action
with the Vengeance (fr).
Com. Edward Preble, (gold) Tripoli.
Capt. Isaac Hull, (gold) Capture of the
Guerriere.
Capt. Jacob Jones, (gold) Capture of the
Frolic.
Capt. Stephen- Decatur, (gold) Capture
of the Macedonian.
Capt. William Bainbridge, (gold) Cap-
ture of the Java.
Lieut. Edward R. McCall, (gold) Cap-
ture of the Boxer.
Com. Oliver I-I. Perry, (gold) Victory on
Lake Erie.
Capt. Jesse D. Elliott, (gold) Victory on
Lake Erie.
Capt. James Lawrence, (gold) Capture
of the Peacock.
Com. Thomas Macdonough, (gold) Vic-
tory on Lake Champlain.
Capt. Robert Henley, (gold) Victory on
Lake Champlain.
Lieut. Stephen Cassin, (gold) Victory on
Lake Champlain.
Capt. Lewis Warrington, (gold) Capture
of the Empervier.
Capt. Johnston Blakely (to the widow),
(gold) Capture of the Reindeer.
Maj.-Gen. Jacob Brown, (gold) Victory
of Chippewa, etc.
Maj.-Gen. Peter B. Porter, (gold) Vic-
tory of Chippewa, etc.
Brig.-Gen. E. W. Eipley, (gold) Victory
of Chippewa, etc.
Brig.-Gen. James Miller, (gold) Victory
of Chippewa, etc.
Maj.-Gen. Winfleld Scott, (gold) Victory
of Chippewa, etc.
Medals
Encyclopedic Index
Mediation
Ma.1.-Gen. Edmund P. Gaines, (gold) Vio-
tory of Erie.
Maj.-Gen. Alexander Macomb, (gold) Vic-
tory of Plattsburg.
MaJ.-Gen. Andrew .lackson, (gold) Vic-
tory of New Orleans.
Capt. Charles Stewart, (gold) Capture
of Cyane and Levant.
Cant. James Biddle, (gold) Capture of
Penguin.
Maj.-Gen. William H. Harrison, (gold)
Victory of the Thames.
Gov. Isaac Shelby, (gold) Victory of the
Thames.
Col. Geo. Croghan (2i! yrs. after), (goldi
Defence of Fort Step'henson, 1813.
MaJ.-Gen. Zachary Taylor, (gold) Victory
on Rio Grande.
Ila.1.-Gen. Zachary Taylor, (gold) Cap-
ture of Monterey.
British, French and Spanish officers and
crews, (gold and silver) Rescuing Crew of
the U. S. Brig-of-war Somers before Vera
Cruz, Dec. 7, 1846.
:Ma].-Gen. Winfleld Scott, (gold) Mexican
Campaign.
Slaj.-Gen. Zachary Taylor, (gold) Vic-
tory of Buena Vista.
Capt. Duncan N. Ingraham, (gold) Re-
lease of Martin Koszta.
Dr. Frederick H. Rose of the British
Navy, (gold) Humanity — care of yellow
fever patients from Jamaica to N. Y. on
the U. S. S. Buaquehanna.
MaJ.-Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, (gold) Vic-
tories of Fort Donelson, Vicksljurg, Chat-
tanooga.
Cornelius Vanderbilt, (gold) Gift of ship
yanierWlt.
Capts. Crelghton, Low and Stouffler,
(gold) Rescuing 500 passengers from the
S. S. Son Francisco, July 26, 1853.
Cyrus W. Field, (gold) Laying the At-
lantic Cable.
George Peabody, (gold) Promotion of
Education.
Capt. Crandall and others. Long Island
lig'hthouse keeper and crew, (gold) Saving
passengers from the Metis or the N. Y.
and Providence Line, Aug. 31, 1872.
George F. Robinson, (gold) Saving Wil-
liam I-I. Seward from assassination Apr.
14. 1865. Besides the medal $5,000.
Under resolutions of July 12, 1862, and
March 3, 1863, 2,000 army medals of
bronze were provided for non-commissioned
officers and privates for gallantry in ac-
tion. All the members of the twenty-
seventh Maine volunteers received these
medals for remaining in service for the
battle of Gettysburg after their terms had
expired.
Naval medals were authorized in 1861
and 1862 to be bestowed on petty officers,
snainen and marines for gallantry in ac-
tion. Two hundred were issued.
In 1905, the New Medal of Honor was
authorized. During the World War, the
Distinguished Service Medal was awarded
by the War Department in a number of
shining cases of meritorious service.
By the beginning of 1920, 78 medals of
honor in the Army and 10 in the Navy had
been awarded for service during the World
War. Distinguished Service Medals and
Crosses were still being awarded months
after the conclusion of actual hostilities.
By a ruling of the War Department, the
D. S. M.'s were not available to enlisteil
men. By the beginning of 1920, the Army
had awarded 1,181 D. S. M.'s, of which
641 went to United States Army officers
and 434 to foreign officers. Of the awards
to United States Army officers, some 75%
were for service abroad and 25% for
service at home. Distinguished Service
Crosses had been awarded to some 4,500
inlisted men and some 1,000 officers. Four
enlisted men had received certificates of
merit. The Navy had awarded some 144 Dis-
tinguished Service citations to officers and
men, but that number was later considerably
increased.
Medals, Life-Saving, government grant
of, 6896.
Medals of Honor for men of Armv and
Navy, 6927.
Mediation and Conciliation, Board of. —
(Created by act of Congress approved Julv
15, 1913.) The purpose for which the
Board of Mediation and Conciliation was
established Is to settle by mediation, con-
ciliation and arbitration controversies con-
cerning wages* hours of labor or conditions
of employment that may arise between com-
mon carriers engaged in interstate trans-
portation and their employees engaged in
train operation or train service.
In any case where an interruption of
traffic is imminent and fraught with seriou-i
detriment to the public interest, the Board
of Mediation and Conciliation may, if in its
Judgment such action seem desirable, proffer
its services to the respective parties to the
controversy.
Whenever a controversy concerning
wages, hours of labor, or conditions of em-
ployment arises between such railroads and
such employees, interrupting or threatening
to Interrupt the operation of trains to the
serious detriment of the public interest,
upon the request of either party the Board
of Mediation is required to use its best
efforts, by mediation and conciliation, to
bring about an agreement. If such efforts
to bring about an amicable adjustment
through mediation and conciliation are un-
successful, the board endeavors to induce
the parties to submit their controversy to
arbitration and, if successful, makes the
necessary arrangements for such arbitra-
tion. The board is an independent office,
not connected with any department.
During the first six years of Its exis-
tence, the Board used its services in 148
eases, involving 586 railroads and more
than 620,000 employees. Seventy of the
cases were settled by mediation alone, 21
by mediation and arbitration, 19 by the
parties in the disputes themselves, and 1
by Congressional action (the Adamson
Law), a total of 111. In 3 of the cases
mediation was suspended or discontinued •
in 11, the cases did not come under the
law; m 2, the controversy was abandoned
by the employees; in 16, the mediation
was halted by the assumption of Federal
Control of the railroads ; in 2 cases the
Board s services were declined by the rail-
roads and in 1 case by the employees.
(See also Labor Arbitration,)
Mediation and Conciliation, work of
Bureau of Labor eoncernins, com-
mended, 7.540. (See also Labor Arbi-
tration.)
Mediation Proposals in World War
(See World War.)
Medical Corps
Encyclopedic Index
Medical Corps, enlargement of, and in-
crease in, reeommended, 6935, 7000
7111, 7117. (See also Army.)
Meiical Department of the Army. (See
Army and War Department.)
Medical Museum, Army, building for,
recommended, 4572, 4780, 4833.
Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of. Navy
Department. (See Bureau of Medi-
cine and Surgery.)
Medicines, Patent.— For purposes of valua-
tion and enumeration the federal census
bureau classifles under this heading many
patent compounds and druggists' prepara-
tions. The patent office has a Hat of syn-
thetical chemicals, the formulas of which
are protected by letters patent, but most of
the special remedies are protected only in the
use or their distinctive names. The value
of patent medicines manufactured in the
United States as ascertained in 1910
amounted to $141,942,000. This figure rep-
resents the wholesale price, indicating that
the public spends about $200,000,000 in re-
tail purchases. The census of 1900 gave the
value of the annual product at .f;59.011,355
Comparison of these figures shows the rapid
growth of the business in recent years.
The cost of material entering into the
manufacture of patent medicines is smaller
in proportion to the retail price than that
of perhaps any other business. The profits
to the manufacturers, however, are largely
reduced by the discounts allowed dealers
and the cost of advertising, upon which the
success of the business largely depends.
Patent medicine manufacturers are among
the largest general advertisers in the
countiT. It is estimated that $40,000,000
is spent annually for periodical advertising.
The number of establishments reported by
the last census was .<?.642. employing ah
average of 22,895 wageworkers.
"Druggists' preparations" Include all ma-
terials for use by druggists in compounding
medicines to he dispensed upon physicians'
prescriptions or orders. 'These comprise
tinctures, fluid extracts, medicinal sirups,
and other liquid preparations ; pills, tablets,
powders, etc. ; alkaloids and derivatives (co-
caine, codein, morphine, quinine, and strych-
nine) ; synthetic medicinal preparations,
such as acetanilid. acetphenetidin. phenol-
phthalein, saccharin, methylsalicylate, etc. ;
medicinal metals and their salts (bromides,
acetates, citrates, bismuth, etc.) ; and bio-
logical products, such as serums, vaccines,
toxins, etc.
"Patent and proprietary medicines" are
those sold under the protection of a patent,
copyright, or trademark, or prepared accord-
ing to a secret formula ; and "patent and
proprietary compounds" include all such
compounds not intended for medicinal use,
such as fire-extinguisher compounds, house-
hold ammonia. Insecticides, etc.
"Perfumery and cosmetics" comprise co-
logne, toilet waters, face powers, cold cream,
etc., and perfumes. -
Reports for 1914 were received from 4,082
establishments, with products valued at
$172,008,946.
Of the 4,082 establishments reported for
all three branches of the industry. 850 were
located in New Tork, 391 in Illinois, 353
in Pennsylvania, 267 in Ohio. 234 in Mis-
souri. 179 in Massachusetts, 161 in Indiana,
155 in Michigan, 142 in California, 134 In
New Jersey, and 107 In Minnesota, and the
B-3
Medicines
JfJpa'ilhS 1.109 establishments were dis-
trihutcd among 34 states, ranging from 99
in Iowa to 1 in Arizona. The stitef for
which no establishments were reported a?e
Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Wyoming!
u.?iy/i^*^' .Pr<^Pa'-aUons.~T]ie manufac-
,.i^S of druggists' preparations In 1914 was
reported by 438 establishments, with prod
of looq "t1? *' $48,624,966. At the cjiisus
01 1909 tliere were reported 375 establish-
ments, with products valued at .'«43 958 479
The increase in number of establishments
thus amounted to 16,8 per cent ami in
value of products to 10.0 per cent.
^„T^^ production of liquid preparations
such as tmctures, fluid extracts7 and me^
at »rd, 900,402 and of pills tableto nnw
ders, etc., at $10,903,056 These fl-SreT
however, are to be considered as represent'
s*^|ar-a?e"^'tro?L-|„j%Sa %1:E.--
'The manufacture of alkaloids nnrr thoi..
^S'lf^'r^ '" 1014 was reported bv 142
til'o ,'*•,, .°* ^^^^^ establishments, 27
were located in New York, 17 in Pennsvl
vania 13 in Illinois, 8 in Ohio, ahd 7 in
pre?/ratirs"tf°tSe?'alu7^f|?§84%f6"t^i
reported by 72 estabnsSmentI, 'of whfch ll
ranfn"";^''^ '° ^-^^ Y°"^ and io in Pennsyl
the^r'saTs°"vSat STslI?;?"' "^*^'^ ^"-^
by 47 .est|lffinfs,^L''d7chTI '^!rTlo^.
tg|i^iSf^lS'^^,li---g>|
^•^Sl'^-^etr^-;^
f^'rS^^h wMca^Jd \^
&?sV°7 fn'^'pe^n^nsy&a, TllTin^?^
q »^?i, ^'"^.^'- e?<^ New York,'5 in MoSana'
3 each in Michigan and Wisconsin 2 each fn
Minnesota and South Dakota, and 1 each
Uick'y^'k'nTSnP/s^sll^' "' '^'""'"'^-- "en"-
Oo^«,S.,!!!^rhf ZS*arf ^f pttfnt Z'a
proprietary medicines and compounds to
l^Jh Z^% reported by 3,085 establishments
with products valued at $105,665,611 '
vaf#e*™o*f ^$"l3,f5l^1?^-^4r'?^truyc?uJ^^
by 2,271 estab'lishments^n iflfi (incfudin^
some which were engaged primarily in SI
manufacture of druggists' nreDarafinn? »„5
perfumery and cosmetics), ^hffeadiSg Ive
states in this branch of the Industrv -n»
ni? '^'^J"^' ^"h 406 estaSushm^nts"
Illinois, 203 ; Pennsylvania, 192 ■ Ohir 156 '■
and Missouri, 126 ; and natent nni ,?;„ • '
tary compounds to the vafufof''$f6Sl?352
were manufactured by 1,006 establishmonfs
^^■ly.^^^ni'?^ '^™. ^t^tes being New York
with 211 establishments ; IllS 97 •
Pennsylvania, 83; Missouri 7<!-nS^-ij-. '
chusetts, 60. Somf of these es'tahHfiwfnf"
maimfactured both Udic'fne1*"^',!|'^"'e1f.^!
Perfumer}/ and CosmetiCB.—The manufac
ture of perfumery and cosmetics in 1914
was reported by 559 establishments with
products valued at $17,718,369. These fig-
Medicines
Encyclopedic Index
Merchant Marine
ures, however, do not include the products
of establishments classified, according to
their principal products, in the other two
branches of this industry.
The value of the production of perfumery
and cosmetics and other toilet preparations
in 1914, by all establishments including
those engaged primarily in the manufacture
of druggists' preparations and of patent and
proprietary medicines and compounds, was
$19,160,427. .
The leading five states reporting the 659
establishments classified in this branch of
the Industry were New York, with 175 ;
Illinois, 67 ; Pennsylvania, 45 ; Ohio, 34 ;
and Michigan, 28.
Mediterranean Sea:
Naval force in, should be increased,
333, 356, 826.
Piracies in, 929.
Trade with, 75, 77, 78.
Vessels sent to, for protection of
commerce, 314, 347, 358, 631, 826,
874, 928, 1008.
Mediterranean Squadron, referred to,
1905, 1953.
Medium of Exchange. (See also Cur-
rencj'') :
Augmentation of, discussed, 643.
Discussed by President —
Buchanan, 2968.
Grant, 3983, 4198, 4239.
Johnson, 3769, 3877.
Madison, 550, 563.
Monroe, 643.
Tyler, 1897, 1935, 2119.
Gold and silver —
Hope expressed that use of, for,
will become general, 1383.
To take place of bills below $20
recommended, 1385.
Paper used as, discussed, 1897, 1935.
Eestoration of uniform system of,
recommended, 563.
Mee-see-qua-guilch Indians. (See In-
dian Tribes.)
Melbourne, Australia:
International exhibition at, to cele-
brate centenary of founding of
New South Wales, 5176.
International Exhibition of Arts and
Industries at, discussed, 4519, 4559,
4625.
Melilla. (See Spain.)
Melton, Miss, assailants of, in Turkey,
conviction of, discussed, 5962.
Members of Congress. (See Congress.)
Memorial and Bemonstrance. (See Ee-
ligioua Freedom.)
Memorial Day Address by President
Wilson, 7946, 8265, 8720.
Memphis (Tenn.), Capture of. — After
the evacuation of Corinth, Miss., by Beau-
regard, Fort Pillow, forty miles above Mem-
phis, was useless, as the Union army could
take it from the rear. The Confederates
therefore spiked the guns, burned the bar-
racks, and what supplies they could not take
away, and In their gunboats dropped down
the river to Memphis. The Confederate fleet
consisted of 8 vessels, mounted 28 guns,
commanded by Commodore Montgomery. On
June 6, 1862, Commodore Davis, with 5
Union gunboats and 2 rams, appeared before
the city, and Montgomery went forth to
give him battle. After one hour and twenty
minutes of fierce fighting the Confederate
fleet was defeated. Col. EUet, who built
the rams, was the only person injured on
the Federal side. The number of killed
and wounded on the Confederate side is not
known, but was probably between "80 and
100.
Memphis, Tenn., navy-yard to be estab-
lished at, 2202.
Proposition of city authorities of,
relative to, 2829.
Mensheviki. (See Bolshevism.)
Mercantile Marines of Prance, Ger-
many, Great Britain, and Italy, re-
ferred to, 4978.
Merchant Marine. — The British naviga-
tion acts, beginning in 1645, prohibited im-
portations into the Colonies except in Eng-
lish or colonial built ships. Though seri-
ously restricting commerce, these acts served
to stimulate the shipbuilding Interest.
Between 1789 and 1797 the registered ton-
nage of United States commercial ships in-
creased 384 per cent. From 1837 to 1857
the tonnage increased from 810,000 to
2,268,000, and in 1861 the aggregate ton-
nage of American registered vessels reached
the highest point — 5,539,813. This nearly
equaled the combined tonnage of all other
nations excepting Great Britain, which alone
was slightly in excess of it. For various
reasons American shipping fell o£E after the
Civil War, until It became quite insignifi-
cant.
For many years no country of importance
other than the United States has required
that ships flying the national flag shall be
of domestic construction, although prac-
tically every country has made this re-
quirement in the case of steamships receiv-
ing postal subventions. England has granted
registers to foreign-built ships, in other
words has pursued the free-ship policy, since
about 1850. At that time, it is interesting
to note, wooden sailing vessels were pre-
dominant and these could be secured more
cheaply in the United States, which had
larger' supplies of timber and naval, stores
and a more efficient ship-building industry.
As a result of this free-ship policy the mer-
chant marine of England received large
accessions during the Civil War, when more
than 750,000 tons of American shipping se-
cured English registers to avoid capture or
destruction.
The policy of granting loans to shipown-
ers at low interest or without interest was
begun, it is believed, by Austria. The only
instance of such a loan by the British Gov-
ernment was that made to the Cunard
Steamship Line under the mail and ad-
miralty subvention contract of 1903. Under
this contract the British Government loaned
the steamship company $12,652,900, for
building two steamers that would be suitable
for use by -the admiralty and be the fastest
afloat. This loan brought Into being the
Lusitania and Mauretania. The loan was
made at the rate of 2% per cent, which was
about 2 per cent lower than the rate at
which the company could have liorrowed a
similar amount in the open' market.
Exemption from taxation is a form of In-
direct assistance granted by only Austria-
Merchant Marine
Encyclopedic Index
Merchant Marine
Eiungary and by a tew of our own States.
A notable law In New York State exempts
from al taxation for State and local pur-
poses all American-owned ships registered
at any port in the State If engaged in the
foreign trade of the United States. Cor-
porations owning such ships are exempt until
December 31, 1922, from all taxation upon
their stock, franchises, and earnings. Ala-
bama exempts all ships engaged in foreign
commerce from taxation, while the State
of Washington exempts all ships built or in
process of construction in the coastwise as
well as In the foreign trade of the United
States.
The granting of postal subventions to
steamship lines antedates the bounty or
subsidy system and is In more general use
throughout the world. Great Britain was
probably the first to pay subventions of this
kind, the first contract of the sort being
made In 1838. The United States and
Prance soon followed suit — the United
States in 1847 and Prance in 1851. Ger-
many did not adopt the policy until 1886,
when a contract with the North German
Lloyd was concluded. The purpose of mail
subvention contracts is primarily to en-
courage the maintenance of fast mail serv-
ices on regular routes and schedules. In
many Instances a motive of almost equal
weight is that of maintaining the fastest
possible communication between the mother
country and her colonies. Incidentally a
third object is commonly acbieved, namely,
that of providing vessels suitable for aux-
iliary cruisers and transports in time of
war, and, in many cases a fourth abject,
namely, that of fostering the domestic ship-
building industry by requiring that the sub-
ventions shall be paid only to domestic-
built ships. With only two important ex-
ceptions, all financial aid extended by the
British Government has been in the form
of postal and admiralty subventions. The
United States and Germany, whose mer-
chant navies rank next to that of Great
Britain, have extended financial aid to ship-
ping only in the form of mail subventions.
The system of paying direct general
bounties or subsidies to shipping lines may
be said to have been instituted by Prance,
which entered upon this policy in 1881, and
has made a more extensive use of bounties
than any other country, although as a whole
the results have not been satisfactory,
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Japan, and Spain
have followed the French plan, with indif-
ferent success except in the case of Japan.
Unquestionably the merchant marine of
Japan has developed more rapidly during
the last 35 years than that of any other
nation, although this development is in part
due to the phenomenal development of Jap-
anese Industries in recent years.
One of the reasons for the decline of
American shipbuilding after the Civil War
lay in the successful British experiments
with large iron ships. England's iron in-
dustry was much further advanced than
that of the United States, and with her
great coal deposits, she began to defeat the
United States In the competition for ship-
building. The foreign demand for American
wooden sailing vessels fell off. In 1855,
the tonnage built in American yards was
583,450; in 1860, it was but 214,797. In
addition, the great period of railroad build-
ing and other Industrial development in
the United States after the Civil War at-
tracted much of the capital which had pre-
viously been attracted to shipbuilding. In
1858, about 75% of United States trade
was carried in United States ships. In
1861, this figure had fallen to 65% ; In
1872, to 29% ; in 1881 to 16%%.
The construction and completion of the
Panama Canal revived the interest in Amer-
ican shipbuilding, but Its great boom was
due to the World War and especially to
the entrance of the United States into the
struggle. Figures for the losses of ship-
ping during the War and for the great
American achievements in shipbuilding from
1917 to 1919 are given in tables in the
article under World War, which should be
consulted. Prom June, 1914, to June,
1919, the tonnage of United States ship-
ping Increased from 4,287,000 to 11,933,000,
including the Great Lakes vessels. This
was an increase of some 155% ; but the
Increase In seagoing tonnage was more than
380%. During this period, the entire
tonnage of the world increased but 5%%,
from 45,404,000 to 47,897,000. In 1914,
the United States merchant marine was
but 9% of the world's total; In 1919, it
was 25%.
By June, 1919, more than one-half of
the tonnage of vessels with tonnage of
over 500 tons each trading with the United
States was United States tonnage. This
United States ocean-going tonnage com-
prised :
117 vessels of 320,000 gross tons, owned
by the Army,- Navy and other Government
Departments.
913 vessels of 3,562,000 gross tons owned
by the U. S. Shipping Board (q. v.).
1,387 vessels of 3,641,000 gross tons under
private ownership.
89 seized enemy vessels of 583,000 gross
tons, operated by the Shipping Board.
These 2,506 United States ocean-going
vessels of more than 500 gross tons each,
comprising a total of 8,107,000 gross tons,
were divided as follows :
Wo. Class Gross Tonnage
359 Freight and Passenger ...1,344,505
29 Freight, Passenger and Ee-
frigerator 150,198
1,488 Freight 4,960,800
27 Freight and Refrigerator . 152,513
188 Steam Tankers 1,013,051
415 Sailing Vessels 485,889
2,506 Total 8,106,956
In the fiscal year 1918-9, there were
built on the Great Lakes 317 vessels of 507,-
172 tons, the record. These figures should
be contrasted with a tonnage built of 45,-
000 in 1916, 94,000 in 1911, 169,000 In
1910. 341,000 in 1908, 265,000 in 1906, and
131,000 in 1900.
The following table gives the total United
States Merchant Marine gross tonnage for
significant years :
Foreign Trade Total
1790, Jan. 1 124,000 201,562
1801 667 972,000
1811 981,000 1,425,000
1831 538,000 1,192,000
1840, Sept. 30 763,000 2,181,000
1850, June 30 1,440,000 4,247,000
1860 2,379,000 5,354,000
1870 1,449,000 4,247,000
1890 928,000 4,424,000
1900 817,000 5,165,000
1910 783,000 7,508,000
1914 1,066,000 7,929,000
1915 1,863,000 8,389,000
1916 2,185,000 8,470,000
1917 2,441,000 8,871,000
1918 3,599,000 9,925,000
1919 6,665,000 12,^07,000
Merchant Marine
Encyclopedic Index
Merrimac
The total United States merchant marine
tojiiiiigi; of 12,907, .'iOO on .Tune 30, 1919, was
iUstr[liutiJ(l as follows .
Poroign Trade 6,665,376
<\);iNting Trade 6,201,426
ii'\i herles 40,498
The total tonnage on September 30, 1919,
of United States sliips of more than
1,000 gross tons each was distributed as
follows ;
^0. Class Oross Tonnage
2.j1 Wood Sailing and Schooner
Barges 378,348
95 Steel Sailing and Schooner
Barges 180,487
300 Wood Steam and Gas Vesels 876,811
1,628 Steel Steam and Gas
Vessels 7,051,440
The building record for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1919, was as follows :
No. Class Oross Tonnage
84 Sailing 79,223
1,524 Steam 3,157,091
15 Canal 2,731
330 Barges 87,565
1,953 Totals 3,326,621
At the entrance of the United States Into
the World War on April 6, 1917, there were
in the United States 61 shipyards for sea-
going ship construction, of which 37 were
steel with 162 ways, and 24 were wood, with
73 ways. At the conclusion of hostilities,
there were 341 shipyards for seagoing ship
construction, with 1,284 launching ways,
more than twice the number of shipways
owned by all the other nations combined.
Many of the yards were "fabricating" ship-
yards, where the ships were assembled in
the yard after all parts had been prepared
in steel-fabricating shops, instead of wholly
building the ship within one yard.
Merchant Marine (see also Shipbuild-
ing, Ship Purchase Law, Ships):
Aid to, by subsidies, urged, 7503.
Commission, report of, 7005.
Condition of, discussed by President —
Adams, John, 24:6,
McKinley, 6239, 6241, 6338, 6359,
6381, 6436, 6460, 6653.
Madison, 480, 540.
Eoosevelt, 6653, 6654, 6788, 6914,
7005, 7049.
Taft, 7503, 7674, 7789.
Washington, 75, 78.
Wilson, 8016, 8028, 8072, 8110, 8151,
8209, 8716.
Defensive arms asked for, 8209.
Encouragement of, discussed, 75, 6914,
7049, 7789, 8018.
Foreign markets dependent upon,
6653.
Ob,iectiona to encouragement of, 7049.
Ee-ereation of, urged, 7789, 8151.
Eight of, to arm for defense, 8122.
Ships, purchase of, recomm»nded,
8018, 8028, 8110.
Subsidies urged for, 7503.
Merchant Vessels:
Claims resulting from destruction of
United States vessels by Confeder-
ate vessels, referred to, 3964.
Condition of American, 6653, 6654,
2005.
Discussed, 6239, 6241, 6338, 6359,
6381, 6436, 6460, 6653.
Foreign-built, admitted to American
entry, 8006, 8354.
Naval force for protection of, in
Mexican ports, etc., recommended,
3100.
Meridian Conference, International:
At Washington, discussed, 4718, 4800,
4827, 4841, 5180.
Invitation of Italian Government to
attend, 5546.
Merit System (see also Civil Service) :
Consular and diplomatic corps, in,
7768.
Government service, in, 6728.
Porto Eico and the Philippines, for,
6673.
Merrimac, The (Confederate ram), en-
gagement of, with —
Cvwhrrland, 3345.
ilmntnr, 3313.
See Hampton Eoads (Va.), Battle of,
and illustrations opposite 3199,
3200.
Merrimac, The. — This vessel, a two-
masted iron steamship of 5,000 tons, was
used by the United States in the Spanish-
American War as a collier. During the
month of May, 1898, the Spanish fleet under
Admiral Cervera took refuge in the harbor
of Santiago. The city of Santiago is well
located within the harbor, about five miles
from the ocean proper. The channel lead-
ing from the harbor out to the ocean is at
certain points quite narrow and compara-
tively easy to obstruct. This channel was
well covered by Spanish batteries on" shore,
so that it was deemed unwise on the part
of the American officers to attempt to enter
the harbor with war ships. The American
commander decided to attempt to block the
channel, and for this purpose concluded to
sink the Merrimao at a narrow point. It
follows necessarily that such an undertak-
ing would be exceedingly dangerous to those
who were to steer the unarmed vessel within
the channel, and then at the proper moment
sink it and endeavor to escape by swimming
ashore or attempting to reach a lifeboat.
Assistant Naval Constructor Richmond P.
Hobson was chosen at his own request to
execute the hazardous undertaking. Volun-
teers were called for to accompany and
assist him. Fifteen hundred officers and
men responded, gallantly tendering services,
and begged that they be accepted. Six only
were accepted, whose names are Daniel Mon-
tague, chief master-at-arms of the Wew
Yorlt; George Charette, gunner's mate of
the New York; John Murphy, cockswain of
the Iowa; Francis Kelly, water tender;
George F. Phillips, machinist, and Cock-
swain O. W. Deignan, the last three of the
Merrimac. Randolph Clousen, cockswain of
the New York, was during the delay of one
day added to the company. On the morning
of June 3. 1898. at about half past three
o'clock, Hobson steered straight Into the
channel under a heavy flre from Spanish
guns on both sides. As the Merrimao
reached the spot that had been picked out
Merrimac
Encyclopedic Index
Messages
for her sinking lie gave orders to explode
the toipedoes. Two of them only exploded.
Amid the tremendous Are from the shore
batteries, the flring of 8 electric m"lnos in
the channel, and torpedoes from two Span-
ish vessels, the collier sank, her masts and
smokestack showing above the water, ob-
structing but not blocking the fairway As
the ship went down the Spaniards sent up
a cheer, believing they had sunk some large
war vessel. Hobson and his men held on
to a catamaran belonging to their sunken
ship for about an hour. Just after sunrise
a steam launch came down the harbor with
Admiral Cervera on hoard. Hobson and his
men were taken on board the launch, were
courteously treated by their captors, and
placed in prison. They were all exchanged
July 6.
The sinking of the Merrimac was an act
of heroism which challenged the admiration
of the world. The IHesident, in a message
to Congress, speaking of the incident, said :
"This enterprise, demanding coolness, Judg-
ment, and bravery amounting to heroism,
was carried into successful execution in the
face of a persistent fire from the hostile
fleet as well as from the fortifications 6n
shore" (6305). Rear- Admiral Sampson
8aid : "I cannot myself too earnestly ex-
press my appreciation of the conduct of
Mr. Hobson and his gallant crew. I venture
to say that a more brave and daring thing
has not been done since Gushing blew up
the Albemarle" (6306). The President rec-
ommended that a vote of thanks be given
Hobson by Congress. He and his crew
were subsequently promoted.
Merrimac, The (United States collier),
sinking of, in Santiago Harbor,
Cuba, by Lieut. Richmond P. Hob-
son, 6305, 6316.
Naval Cadet Powell to be made en-
sign for attempting to rescue force
of, 6306.
Thanks of Congress to Lieut. Hobson
and promotion of, recommended
6306.
Merrjrman Case. — Merryman, a citizen ol
Maryland, was arrested at his home In 1861
by order of an oflBcer of the United States
Army, and charged with treason. He was
Imprisoned in Fort McHenry. Chief Justice
Taney granted a writ of habeas corpus,
which the officer in charge of the prisoner
refused to execute on the ground that the
President had suspended the writ. The
case was taken before the Supreme Court,
which decided that the power to suspend
the writ of habeas corpus was not vested in
the President, Congress alone hnving that
privilege, and that a military officer has no
right to arrest a person not subject to the
rules and articles of war, except in aid of
judicial authority. ' (See also Habeas Corpus
and Milligan Case.)
Mesa Verde National Park. (See Parks,
National.)
Mesopotamia. — ^The name roughly applied
to that section of Asia Minor and south-
western Asia lying between the Tigris and
the Euphrates Klvers and extending be-
tween Syria and Arabia on its west and
Persia on its east from Armenia to the
Persian Gulf. In ancient days, it was one
of the most famous seats of civilization,
and under the rule of the Assyrians, Chal-
deans and Persians attained a high degree
of culture. Tradition maintains that it was
the site of the Garden of Eden.
After the fall of the Persians, Mesopo-
tamia (literally, the land between the
rivers) fell under the sway of the Roman
Empire and became a Roman province. After
the fall of Rome, native Arab rulers held
power until the land was conquered by the
Osmanli Turks in the sixteenth century,
A. D. By the middle of the seventeenth
century, Mesopotamia was securely a part
of Turkey. For administrative purposes,
the country was divided into the vilayets
of Basra, Bagdad and Mosul. As thus con-
stituted. Its area was about 145,000 square
miles and its population, some 2,000,000.
However, the native Arabs largely ruled
themselves, as the Turkish administration
was both loose and luelflcient.
History records that Mesopotamia was
once highly fertile, but today the fertility
has disappeared and the land is largely a
desert. However, valuable petroleum de-
posits have been found, particularly in the
vicinity of Mosul. This fact induced (5reat
Britain to occupy the country as a manda-
tory after the World War and the conse-
quent collapse of Turkey. Great Britain was
influenced in this action also by the fact
that the Berlin-to-Bagdad Railroad (q. v.)'
ran through Mesopotamia and by the fact
that possession of Mesopotamia was neces-
sary for the protection of the Baku oil dis-
trict in the Caucasus, which British forces
had also occupied. However, the native in-
habitants of the country stood by the prin-
ciple of the self-determination of national-
ities, claiming that Great Britain pos-
sessed no legal or moral claim to Mesopo-
tamia, and resisted the British occupation
with vigor.
Mesopotamia, disposition of, discussed,
8841.
Messages and Papers of the Presidents,
resolution authorizing compilation of,
and requesting Hon. James D. Bich-
ardson to take charge of the work of
preparing the same. (See Prefatory
note of first volume.)
Messages, Presidential. — A written com
municatlon by the President to Congress
At the beginning of eacfh session an annual
message is transmitted, going into details
of our standing as a Nation and recom-
mending such action by the House and
Senate as may be deemed necessary to the
progress of the country or the correction
of abuses. Special messages are sent from
time to time to either or both Houses, sub-
mitting ti'eaties or correspondence, or in
answer to a request from either branch for
particular information, or to recommend
specific or immediate legislation. Veto
messages are sent with the returned bills
which the President disapproves, in which
he states his reasons for such disapproval.
After pointing out wherein a bill fails
to meet the requirements of the case he
usually suggests the way to an etCectlve
measure that may receive Executive sanc-
tion. Article II., section 3, of the Constitu-
tion declares that the President "shall
from time to time give to the Congress in-
formation of the state of the TJnion and
recommend to their consideration such
measures as he shall Judge necessary and
expedient." Washington and John Adams
read their annual messages to Congress.
Jefferson inaugurated the custom, long fol-
lowed by his successors, of sending mes-
sages in writing to Congress (313). They
were carried by the private secretary of ttie
President, who is received at the door of
• the Senate or House, and whose presence is
formally announced by an officer of the
Messages
Encyclopedic Index
Metals
body, whereupon he delivers the message
to the clerks.
President Wilson in 1913 revived the
custom of Washington and Adams of orally
addressing Congress.
Messages, Presidential. (See Annual
Messages; Special session messages;
Veto messages, under the several
Presidents.)
Metals and Mining —
Metallic Elements and Mining. — Chemi-
cally considered, a metal is an element
which has the power to replace the hydro-
gen of acids and form salt ; in
other words, it forms a base by com-
bining with a hydroxyl group or groups.
It is usually hard, heavy, lustrous, mal-
leable, ductile, tenacious, and a good con-
ductor of heat and electricity. Only six or
seven metals were known to ancient alchem-
ists, whereas under the modern definition
quoted above some forty-five elements are
properly called metals. No sharp line can
be drawn between metals and non-metals,
however, since some of tlie elements belong
to both classes. Though weight is one of
the most common properties of metals, a
few such as lithium, sodium, potassium,
etc., are lighter than water. Metals are
distinguished from minerals in that the lat-
ter are either the uncombined elements
in a native state, or compounds of these
elements formed in accordance with chemi-
cal laws, and have, therefore, a definite
The following table shows the quantity and value
of the mineral production of the Ur-'ited States in
a recent year. In some instances, the figures are
preliminary or estimated.
METALLIC
Product Quantity Value
Aluminum % 41,375,000
Antimonialleadi..s.t. 12,535 1,963,255
AntunonyS s. t. 2,785 173,450
Bauxite 1. 1. 521,308 3,247,345
Cadmium lbs. 129,283 151,261
Chromic Iron Orel. t. 2,502 44,113
Copper (sales) . . . .lbs. 1,209,061,040 222,467,000
Ferroalloys 1. 1. 399,900 46,995,000
Gold, coining value,
troy oz 2,395,017 49,509,400
Iron— Ore2 1. 1. 69,558,000 290,607,000
Pig Lt. 35,683,234 1137,926,882
Lead, refined s. t.. 476,849 76,296,000
Manganese ores. .l.t. 94,000 2,385,000
ManganiferousoreSdo. 673,000 2,091,000
Nickel lbs. 698,000 275,120
Platinum, etc. troy oz. 41,544 4,679,722
Quicksilver lbs. 980,250 1,041,156
Silver troy oz. 56,564,504 57,420,325
Tin*. '. lbs. 40,000 20,100
Titanium ore^ s. t. 1 02 20,400
TungstenoreO s. t. 216 77,760
Uranium, vanadium 2,363,500
Zinc s. t. 450,045 72,907,000
Total value, metallic $1,724,300,000
Notes — IFrom both domestic and foreign ores.
aValues not included in total values. sMangan-
eae ore containing 35% or more manganese; man-
ganiferous containing 5% to 35%. iMetalho
equivalent. oRutile. o80% concentrates. ^Figures ,
for an earUer year than other minerals.
NON-METALLIC
Product 1
Quantity
Value
Arsenious Oxide. .». t;
11,502 S 2,021,356
Asbestos a. t.
1,710
1,154,000
Asphalt 3. t.
886,500
13,219,000
Barytes (crude)., .s. t.
207,700
1,946,800
Borates s. t.
120,320
2,173,000
Bromine lbs.
1,160,584
745,381
Calcium magne-
sium chloride., .s. t.
58,604
2,045,851
Cement, bbls.
(376 lbs.)
96,944,000
194,513,000
Clay— Products
. .364,220,000
Raw2 a. t.
3,159,000
12,094,000
Coal-Anthracite. .1. t.
78,653,751
364,926,000
Bituminous. . . .s. t.
556,563,000
1,950,000,000
Coke2,7 a. t.
56,478,372
382,324,368
Diatomaceous
earth and tripoli . s. t.
83,000 ~
832,000
Emery a. t.
2,327
21,685
Feldspar a. t.
71,064
585,200
Fluorspar a. t.
186,000
4,544,000
Fuller's earth s. t.
128,488
2,506,189
Garnet(abrasive) .a. t.
5,476
434,425
Gems, precious
stones . . ,>-
107,500
Graphite, amor-
phous s. t.
4,694
49,758
CrystalUne lbs.
9,632,360
576,444
Grind and pulp-
stones a. t.
53,484
1,707,004
Gypsum s. t.
3,130,305
24,542,512
Lime a. t.
3,350,000
33,321,000
Magnesite, crude .a. t.
303,767
2,748,150
Mica — scrap s. t.
3,258
58,084
Sheet lbs.
1,545,709
483,567
61,676
Mineral paints,
zinc and lead
pigments s. t.
155,648
25,810,671
Mineral waters . . . gal.
40,000,000
5,000,000
Natural gas M cu ft.
735,000,000
162,000,000
GasoUne gal.
349,647,000
63,608,900
Peat s. t.
73,204
921,732
Oilstones, etc >.s. t.
1,144
231,747
Petroleum, bbls.
(42 gal.)
443,402,000
1,360,000,000
Phosphate rock. . .1. t.
4,103,982
25,079,572
Potash (K20)....s.t.
41,444
7,463,026
Pumice s. t.
41,841
114,433
Pyrite 1. 1.
275,000
1,450,000
Salt, bbls. (280 lbs.)
49,7^1,343
30,539,168
Sand — Glass s. t.
2,144,000
4,722,000
Moulding, building.
etc. & Gravel. . .s. t.
75,743,000
57,972,000
Sand-Ume brick 1000s
162,289
2,364,470
Silica (quartz) s. t.
22,000
233,000
Slate
8,726,442
120,500,000
Stone s. t.
68,500,000
Sulphur 1. 1.
1,517,625
30,000,000
Talc & Soapstone . s. t.
222,724
3,052,038
Total value, non-metallic $4,977,500,000
Value unspecified minerals 85,200,000
GRAND TOTAL 46,707,000,000
Metals
Encyclopedic Index
Mexican War
chemical composition and molecular struc-
ture. Rocks are commonly referred to as
minerals, and the process of extraction
from the earth, mining.
The principal metals mined in the United
States are, in the order of their importance :
Iron, gold, copper, silver, lead, ferroman-
ganese, zinc, aluminum, quiclisilver, anti-
mony, molybdenum, tungsten, ferromolyb-
denum, ferrotungst^n, platinum. The prin-
cipal minerals in the order of their im-
portance are : Coal, bituminous and cannel,
clay products, coal (anthracite), petroleum,
iron ore, natural gas, cement (Portland
and natural), salt phosphate rock, calcium
borate, copper sulphate, limestone, zino
white, silica, sand, ochre, pyrites, and talc.
The whole number of mines and quarries
in the United States, Including the terri-
tories of Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Kico.
was reported by the census of 1910 to be
27,260. To this may be added 166,448
petroleum and gas wells, as the other sta-
tistics of mines and mining do not separate
oil and gas wells from solid mining. As
there are always some of the enterprises
non-productive, the following, figures relate
only to those in operation at the time the
enumeration was made. The amount of
capital employed in the industry was $3,-
380,525,841 ; there were 1,139,332 persons
engaged, and they received $640,167,630
for their services. The value of the aggre-
gate product was $1,238,410,322. Coal led
in the value of products with $577,142,935,
or 46.6 per cent, of the total. Next in
value came petroleum and natural gas with
15 per cent, of the whole value, or $185,-
416,684. Copper led the metals with $134,-
616,987, nearly 11 per cent, of the whole
amount. The only other product of the
mines that exceeded $100,000,000 in valije
was iron, which yielded $106,947,082. The
precious metals and structural materials
made up the balance.
Meteorological Observatory, establish-
ment of, at Fort Myer, Va., recom-
mended, 4792.
Metric System. — A system of weights and
measures invented by the French. Its merit
is its similarity to the decimal system, so
that the different ratios are multiples of
10.
In 1790, a committee of the French Acad-
emy of Sciences was appointed by the
National Assembly, with the approval of the
King ; and the metric system reported by
them, after some years of labor, was adopted
in 1799 by that country, although its use
was not made compulsory until 1837. At
the j)resent time the metric system is com-
pulsory in France, Germany, Austria-Hun-
gary, Belgium, Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Spain, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Norway,
Sweden, the Netherlands, Peru, Portugal,
Eoumania, Servia, Bulgaria, Siam and
Uruguay.
The use of the system in other countries
is constantly growing, especially as com-
mercial and scientific relations tend more
and more to liecome international instead
of purely national. In the United States
the use of the metric system is legal (since
1866).
Among the chief items of the metric
system are the following :
1 meter equals 39.37 inches.
1 kilometer equals 1,000 meters or .621
mile.
1 hectometer equals 100 meters or 328
feet, 1 inch.
(See Indian
1 dckameter equals 10 meters or 393.7
Inches.
1 decimeter equals 1-10 meter or 3,937
Inches. . ^
1 centimeter equals 1-100 meter.
1 millimeter equals 1-1000 meter.
1 centare equals 1 square meter or 1,550
.''quare inches.
1 hectare equals 10,000 square meters
or 2,471 acres.
1 liter equals 1 cubic centimeter or
1,308 cubic yar(^ or 264.17 gallons.
i kiloliter equals 1,000 liters.
1 milliliter equals 1-1000 liter or .061
cubic inch or .27 fluid dram.
1 gram equals 1 cubic centimeter or
15,432 grains.
1 quintal equals 100,000 grams or 22,-
040 pounds.
1 milligram equals 1-1000 gram.
To reverse the process in a few instances,
1 acre equals 0.4 hectare ; 1 bushel equals
35 liters ; 1 foot equals 30 centimeters ; 1
gallon equals 3.8 liters ; 1 mile equals 1.6
kilometers ; 1 peck equals 8.8 liters ; 1 ton
■of 2,000 pounds equals .91 metric ton.
Mettakahtla Indians.
Tribes.)
Mexican Boundary Commission. (See
Mexico.)
Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil, report on,
6949.
Mexican War. — The Mexican War grew out
of the annexation of Texas by the United
States. March 2, 1830, Texas seceded
from Mexico and declared her independence,
which she maintained by the defeat of Santa
Anna in the battle of San Jacinto, April 21,
1836. The United States, England, France,
and Belgium recognized the new Govern-
ment as independent. Dec. 29, 1845, Texas
was annexed to the United States. A dis-
pute as to the boundary induced President
Polk to order Gen. Taylor to take a position
in the disputed territory on the left bank of
the Rio Grande. Here (near Matamoras)
he was attacked April 23, 1846, by Mexicans
under Arista, and a portion of his army
was captured. Taylor advanced into the
north of Mexico, leaving- garrisons at Corpus
Christi and at Fort Brown, opposite Mata-
moros, and after the battles of Palo Alto
(May 8, 1846), Resaca de la Palma (May 9,
1846), Buena Vista (Feb. 22, 23, 1847),
and a number of lesser fights, in which the
Mexicans were defeated, he obtained con-
trol of all northern Mexico. Gen. Scott,
landing at Vera Cruz, advanced to the City
of Mexico, defeating Santa Anna at Cerro
Gordo (April 17, 18, 1847), Contreras (Aug.
19, 20, 1847), Churubusco (Aug. 20, 1847),
and Molino del Rey (Sept. 7, 8, 1847), caus-
ing the surrender of the capital and the
termination of the war Sept. 14, 1847.
During these operations in Mexico Gen.
Kearny and Lieut. Fremont occupied Cali-
fornia and New Mexico with American
troops. Under the treaty of peace signed at
Guadalupe Hidalgo (2423), Mexico, upon the
payment by the United States of $15,000,000
and of private claims which amounted to
$3,250,000, ceded to the latter the territory
Mexican War
Encyclopedic Index
Mexican War
now comprising Nevada, Utah, most of
Arizona, a large part of New Mexico, por-
tions of Colorado and Wyoming, and all of
California (2437).
Mexican- War:
American blood shed on American
soil, 2292.
American forces —
Gallantry of, referred to, 2490.
General officer to take command of,
required, 2358.
Increase in, recommended, 2358.
Kind of money paid, to, inquired
into, 2360.
Movement of, referred to, 2290,
2334.
Eeturn of, to United States, 2440.
American territory invaded by Mex-
ican forces, 2292.
Ample cause of war against Mexico
asserted, 2329, 2383.
Appropriation by Congress, for pros-
ecuting, referred to, 2387.
Armistice, referred to, 2424.
Battle of —
Buena Vista, 2385.
Cerro Gordo, 2386.
Churubusco, 2386.
City of Mexico, 2391.
Contreras, 2386.
Monterey, 2342.
Palo Alto, 2295, 2300, 2342.
Eesaca de la Palma, 2295, 2300,
2342.
Vera Cruz, 2385.
Bounty lands for soldiers in, recom-
mended, 2365.
Charge that American army invaded
territory of Mexico refuted, 2332.
Discussed, 2287, 2295, 2300, 2306,
2321, 2363, 2383, 2415, 2437, 2481.
Executive orders concerning, 2233,
2373.
Existence of, proclaimed by —
Mexico, 2292.
United States, 2320.
Referred to, 2384.
Expenses of conducting, 2301, 2347,
2365, 2386, 2441, 2555.
Loan necessary to meet, 2347, 2555.
Mexico should be held responsible
for, 2348, 2373, 2387.
Forces of United States in, 2490.
Increase of, recommended, 2358.
Gen. Arista in command of Mexican
forces, 2291.
Gen. Scott in command of American
troops, 2298.
Assignment of command to, dis-
cussed, 2298.
Correspondence with, referred to,
2298.
Recall of, referred to, 2299, 2431.
Gon. Taylor in command of American
troops, 2291.
Assignment of command to, re-
ferred to, 2299.
Brevet rank of major-general con-
ferred upon, referred to, 2299.
Referred to, 2369, 2415, 2418, 2419.
General officer to take command of
American forces required, 2358.
Government established in Mexico
by American army officers dis-
cussed, 2356.
Illustrations of, 2083, 2115, 2147, 2179,
2268, 2300, 2332, 2364.
Imposition of duties as war measure
proposed, 2352, 2366.
Increase in army recommended by
President Polk, 2358.
Invasion threatened by Mexico be-
cause of annexation of Texas, 2290,
2292.
Letters of marque and reprisal
against Mexican vessels recom-
mended, 2346.
Liberal provision for sustaining mili-
tary forces recommended, 2293.
Means of transmitting letters to and
from American army in Mexico,
2359.
Measure for raising additional force
recommended, 2354.
Mexican general considers hostilities
begun, 2291.
Military contribution levied upon
Mexico. (See Mexico.)
Not provoked by United States, 2322.
Operations of American army near
Matamoros referred to, 2293.
Peace concluded, 2437.
Pirates commissioned by Mexico,
2345.
Ports of Mexico in possession of
American forces ordered to be
opened, 2373, 2379.
Proclaimed by —
Mexico, 2292.
United States, 2320.
Referred to, 2384.
Proclamations concerning, 2319, 2371,
2477, 2539.
Public debt of United States in-
creased in consequence of, 2441.
Recognition of, by Congress recom-
mended, 2293.
Results of, respecting military
strength of United States dis-
cussed, 2481.
Success of American troops referred
to, 2295, 2300, 2342, 2384, 2391.
Suspension of hostilities after battles
of Contreras and Churubusco re-
ferred to, 2419.
Termination of, 2437.
•Threatening aspect of, 2113.
Treaty negotiations discussed, 2306,
2343, 2385, 2419, 2422, 2423, 2424,
2529. (See also California; New
Mexico.)
Mexican War
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
Treaty of Peace —
Proclaimed, 2477.
Transmitted, 2437.
Volunteer force discussed, 2293, 2365.
Increase in, recommended, 2399.
Promptness of, in rushing to the
field, 2323.
Report regarding, transmitted, 2359.
Mexico.' — Mexico occupies the southern
portion of the North American Continent,
and extends between 15°-32'' 30' N. lati-
tude and 87°-117° W. longitude. The Unit-
ed States forms a nortliern boundary, while
its territories touch Guatemala and Brit-
ish Honduras in the south ; on the east it
is bounded by the Gulf ot Mexico and the
Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the
Pacific Ocean.
Physical Feaiures. — The two great ranges
of North America, the Sierra Nevada and
Bocky Mountains, are prolonged from the
north to a convergence towards the nar-
rowing Isthmus of Tehuantepec, their
course being parallel with the west and
east coasts. The surface of the interior
consists of an elevated plateau between
the two ranges, with steep slopes both to
the Pacific and Atlantic (Gulf of Mexico).
In the west is the Peninsula of California,
with a mountainous surface, separated from
the mainland by the Gulf of California.
The Sierra Nevada, iinown in Mexico as
the Sierra Madre, terminates in a trans-
verse series of volcanic pealss, from Co-
lima on the west sido to Citlaltcpete on
the east, the intermediate and highest
peaks being Ixtacclhuatl (17,879 feet) and
Popocatepetl (19,784 feet). The low-lying
lauds of the coasts form the Tierra Cali-
ente, or tropical regions (below 3,000 feet),
the higher levels form the Tierra Templada,
or temperate region (from 3,000 to 5,000
feet), and the summit of the plateau with
its peaks is known as Tierra Fria, or cold
region (above 5,000 feet).
The only considerable rivers are the Rio
Grande del Norte, which forms part of
the northern boundary, and is navigable
for about seventj miles from its mouth
in the Gulf of Mexico, and the Bio Grande
de Santiago, which runs from Lake Cha-
pala to the Pacific. The remaining streams
are governed by the formation of the land,
and run in mountain torrents between deep-
cut canons or "barrancas." The largest
fresh-water lakes are Chapala, some fifty
miles in length, and Patzcuaro and Xochi-
milco. In the northwest/ are saline lakes
amid bare and dry regions.
The climate of Mexico varies according
to the altitude. Yellow fever sometimes
occurs at Merlda, Yucatan.
History. — The earliest invaders, or Tol-
tecs, gave place in the thirteenth century
to the Aztecs, who were conquered in the
sixteenth century by Spanish adventurers
under Hernando Cortes. Spanish rule was
established at Tenochtitland, a fourteenth
century Aztec city (now Mexico), and
Mexico remained a Spanish dommion until
its freedom was asserted ' by a revolution-
ary war, 1810 to 1827. From 1837 to
1848 the province of Texas gave rise to
hostilities with the United States, termi-
nating in a three years' war and a cession
of the disputed territory to the victorious
northern state. In 1810 a Bepublie was
proclaimed, buft Iturbide declared himself
Emperor In 1821. He was shot in 1824,
and a Republic was again established. In
1862 the French troops came to Mexico,
and in 1864 an Empire under Ferdinand
Maximilian of Austria was declared. (See
illustration opposite 4576.)
In 1867 the downfall of the Empire and
the death of the ICmperor gave rise to
the new Bepublie, under President Juarez,
who, during the whole of these three
years, had the seat of the Bepubllcan Gov-
ernment in the north of the country, chiefiy
at Chihuahua. From 1876-1911 (with the
exception of fonr years, 1880-84, when
General Manuel Gonzalez was President)
the executive power was in the hands of
General Porflrio Diaz, who was elected
President for eight successive terms of
four years. Diaz maintained his power
only by resort to dictatorial and despotic
measures, and resistance to his rule was
put down with an iron hand.
However, at the end of 1910 the revolu-
tionary sentiment against Diaz became
stronger when it fell under the leadership
of Francisco Madero. Throughout the early
months of 1911, Madero's revolt became
more and more serious, until the revolu-
tionists' military successes forced Diaz ti
abdicate on May 10, 1911. Madero took
over the control of ^Mexico, and on Novem-
ber 6 was Inaugurated President.
But revolts against Madero broke out
almost immediately upon his accession to
power. Rebel leaders such as Zapata and
Felix Diaz caused much trouble through
the latter part of 1911 and throughout 1912.
In February, 1913, at a critical military
juncture, the leader of the Governmental
forces. General Huerta, deserted to the revo-
lutionists, with the result that Madero was
forced to resign on February 19. Four
days later, he was murdered while under
Governmental guard. ^
The vicissitudes of Mexican affairs and
the dangers to and destruction of American
property and lives in Mexico had compelled
the United States intimately to interest it-
self in the political situation of the country.
President Wilson refused to recognize
Huerta's anthority, claiming that it was
held only by force and had been flagrantly
abused in the murder of Madero. A serious
revolt against Huerta broke out in the
north, under the leadership of Venustlano
Carranza, and the United States placed an
embargo upon the importation of arms into
Mexico for either faction. Huerta assumed
the powers of a dictator where they _had
been surrendered, by Porflrio Diaz, dis-
solving the Mexican Congress and in Octo-
ber calling an election in the territory under
Federal control. The election gave Huerta
the Presidency, but President Wilson main-
tained that the election was null, void and
fraudulent, and still insisted that Huerta
must eliminate himself. The United States
President declared that Huerta's power was
crumbling, and that a policy of "watchful
waiting" on the part of the United States
would be the most serviceable method of
bringing about the fall of the Mexican
dictr.tor.
This prediction seemed to be fulfilled
early ' in 1914, when the successes of the
revolutionists, chiefly under the leadership
of (!;arranza. Villa and Zapata, became more
pronounced. President Wllsgn got the co-
operation of all the great Powers in placing
a strict financial boycott i^pon Huerta's
government, with the result that the latter's
difficulties increased many-fold. Meanwhile,
the situation was complicated by the so-
called Tampico incident. On April 9, 1914,
a partv of American sailors, who had landed
from the U. S. S. Dolphin, at Tampico,
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
•were arrested there by the Mexican au-
thorities. Although their arrest lasted but
a few hours and although an apology was
tendered for it, Admiral Mayo, command-
ing the American fleet in Mexican waters,
di^manded that atonement be rendered by
an official salute by Mexico to the United
States flag. This demand was refused.
On April 21, United States marines and
sailors occupied Vera Cruz with the
loss of 17 United States lives in order to
prevent a consignment of arms for the
Mexican Government from being landed.
War between the countries became im-
minent ; but Argentina, Brazil and Chile
intervened, and through their mediation
war was finally prevented, although the
demand for the salute of the United States
flag was never met. (See A. B. C. Ar-
bitration.)
By the summer of 1914, Huerta's power
had definitely waned, until in July he was
compelled to abdicate. In August, Car-
ranza assumed control of the Government,
but waS immediately confronted by a quarrel
with Villa, as a result of which Villa led
a revolt against his former chief. Me.xico
was thus still in the throes of civil warfare,
which continued throughout the remainder
of 1914 and through much of 1915.
In the summer of 1915, a number of the
American Republics joined the United
States in attempting peaceful mediation be-
tween Carranza and Villa. But although
Villa was willing to accept such mediation,
Carranza was not, and the attempt came
to naught. After investigation by personal
representati'^es in Mexico, President Wilson,
supported by the other mediators, decided
that Carranza was worthy of support, and
in Oqtober he was oflficially recognized by
the United States and by the other Amer-
ican republics. The United States immedi-
ately permitted arms to be imported tor
the Carranzistas, or Governmental forces,
with the result that in the latter months of
1915 Villa's fortes were defeated on several
occasions and his power materially
wealiened.
The recognition of Carranza by the
United States incensed Villa, and he turned
his attention to attacks upon United States
citizens and towns. In Januar.v, he mur-
dered a number of United States citizens near
Santa Ysabel; and on March 9, 1916, the
border town of Columbus, New Mexico, was
raided by a band of some 1,500 ViUistas, re-
ported under the leadership of Villa him-
self. The United States at once decided to
dispatch a punitive expedition into Mexico
after Villa, and a body of United States
troops under General John J. Pershing
crdssed the border into Mexico on March
15. The situation was rendered peculiarly
difficult by the refusal of General Carranza
to grant general assent to the expedition.
Several skirmishes were fought with Vil-
lista bands, but the pursuit itself accom-
plished little. Indeed, on April 13, a body
of United States troops was attaclied near
Parral by Mexicans not under Villa.
Views of the United States forces for
service in Mexico in 1914 and 1915 are
shown opposite pages 7650, 7682, 7778.
In May, Cai'ranza demanded the immedi-
ate withdrawal of the United States forces
from Mexico ; but Villa raided other border
towns, and President Wilson called out the
National Guard for police duty along the
border. The United States troops remained
in Mexico. On June 21, a body of Govern-
ment Mexican troops opened fire on and
put to rout, with sharp losses, a smaller
body of United States troops, at Carrizal.
War appeared more immient than ever be-
fore, but Carranza finally yielded to the
United States' demand that the prisoners
taken at Carrizal be released, and a re-
adjustment of the United States battle-line
in Mexico brought the United States forces
nearer the border, so that better feeling
was restored. Finally the two Govern-
ments met In a Joint Commission, at the
end of the summer and the beginning of the
fall of 1916, but with no success until the
end of November, when a modus operandi
on the border situation was reached.
However, President Carranza (he had
been elected President in the elections held
in October) refused assent to the protocol
agreed upon by the Joint Commission, al-
though he did not definitely reject it. As
a result of the Joint Commission, the with-
drawal of the United States' forces from
Mexico began and was completed early in
February, 1917. In January, 1917, a new
Constitution was adopted by Mexico. It
contained many liberal social welfare provi-
sions, many of them more radical than those
of the United States Constitution. Among
them may be mentioned equal suffrage, the
tree administration of the law, popular elec-
tion and recall of judges, minimum wage,
eight-hour working day, six-day working
week, compulsory profit-sharing, severe po-
litical restrictions upon the clergy. In ad-
dition, all natural resources were declared
to be the property of the state, thus attack-
ing the foreign business and financial in-
terests which had obtained valuable con-
cessions In Mexico.
With the entrance of the United States
into the World War in April, 1917, the
movement in the United States for armed
Intervention in Mexico temporarily died
down. Those favoring intervention claimed
that it was necessary to protect United
States lives, rights, property and honor in
Mexico ; and that only by the armed inter-
vention of the United States could order
and a stable government finally be restored
in the land south of the Rio Grande. The
opponents of intervention, on the other
hand, insisted that intervention would ac-
crue only to the benefit of the big busi-
ness interests financially involved In Mex-
ico, that it would be a cloak for further
annexation, that it would Increase the ani-
mosity against the United States and sus-
picion of United States motives current
throughout Central and South America,
and that intervention woul(^ so unite Mex-
ico against the United States that it would
require five years of time, one billion dol-
lars of money and thousands of lives to
conquer the country and keep it pacified
and policed. Since President Wilson had
opposed intervention, on the whole the
Democratic Party opposed intervention, in
which stand it was supported by the Ameri-
can Federation of Labor and other radical
forces in America ; whereas although the
Republican Party did not openly favor in-
tervention in its platforms of 1916 and
1920, yet it declared for a firm policy to-
ward Slexico, In which stand It was gener-
ally supported by the more conservative
forces in the United States.
Thtoughout 1918 President Carranza con-
tinued In power in Mexico. However, pro-
tests continued against the discrimination
by his government against foreign capital
in Mexico, especially against the oil in-
terests ; and border raids By bandits con-
tinued. In 1919, sporadic killings of Uni-
ted States citizens in Mexico by bandits
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
and attacks on United States property in-
terests iu that country continued. It was
estimated that 217 United States citizens
had been Itilled in Mexico since 1911, and
some 100 of these since the accession of
Carranza to power. With the end of hos-
tiiitips in the World War, the movement
in the United States for armed interven-
tion in Mexico again became strong, but
was still resisted vigorously by the Demo-
cratic administration. In October, 1919,
the relations betweeri the two countries
were almost broken when an American con-
sular agent, Jenkins, at Puebla, Mexico, was
kidnapped by bandits and held for ransom.
The ransom was paid, but in November,
the Mexican Government formally arrested
Jenkins on the charRc that he had been
in collusion with the bandits. A strong
note of protest was sent the Mexican Gov-
ernment by Secretary of State Lansing,
which came close to being an ultimatum.
(See page 8807.) Mexico replied by a
note vigorously assailing the United States'
position as being unwarranted by inter-
national law, but on December 4, Jenkins
was finally released.
In the spring of 1920, a revolution
atgainst Carranza assumed threatening pro-
portions, and after some severe fighting he
was driven from the capital and was killed
by his enemies on May 22, 1920. Mexico
then fell under a provisional Government
headed by Adolfo de la Huerta. In Sep-
tember, 1920, General Alvaro Obregon was
elected President.
.VnEA AND POPULATION
States and Territories in EngUsh PoP^lat'oo-
Sq. Miles ^^^"
Aguaa Calientes 2,989 118,978
Campeohe 18,086 85,795
Chiapas 27,222 436,817
Chihuahua 89,974 405,265
Coahuila 63,728 367,652
Colima 2,273 77,704
Durango 42,265 436,147
Guanajuato 10,948 1,075,270
Guerrero 24,996 605,437
Hidalgo 8,575 641,895
Jalisco 33,486 1,202,802
Mexico 8,949 975,019
Michoa'can 22,656 ?91.6f ?
Morelos 2,734 179,814
NuevoL^on 23,679 368,929
Oaxaca 35,383 1,041,035
Puebla 12,204 1,092,456
Queretaro.'.' 4,492 243,515
San Luis Potosi 24,000 624,748
Shialoa 27,553 323,499
lonora 76,619 262,545
TabMoo : 10.072 183,708
Tamaulipaa 32,268 249,253
TepicfTer.) 10,951 171,837
Tlaxpala 1,595 183,805
Verfcrui' "'.:.... 29 283 1,124.368
Yucatan 18 565 337,020
zao^l'asV. :::.::.: 24:467 475,863
L. CaUfornia (Ter.) 58,328 52,244
Federal District , 579 719,052
Quintana Roo 16.638 9.086
Total 765,535 15,063,207
In 1912, the population was estimated at
10,500,000.
In 1910, there were some 116,000 foreign-
ers in Mexico, of which some 30,000 were
from Spain, 29,000 from the United States,
21,000 from Guatemala, 5,000 from Great
Uritain, ."5,000 from France, 4,000 from Ger-
many, and 2,000 from Japan.
Practically all the population is Roman
Catholic, but there is complete separation of
church and state. Theoretically, education
is free and compulsory, but most of the
people are illiterate.
Whites number less thap 20% and In-
dians almost 40%, the remaining population
being of mixed white and Indian blood.
Spanish is generally spoken,
Oovernment. — By the Constitution pro-
mulgated on February 5, 1917, Mexico is
declared a Republic, federated from twenty-
eight states, one Federal District and two
Territories. Each state retains control of
its local government. The powers of the
Central Government are divided into the
executive, legislative and judicial.
The executive Is under the direction of
the President and an executive council, with
seven secretaries in the cabinet attfendlng to
foreign affairs, interior, finance, army and'
nav.y, communications, public works, and
industry and commerce. There are three
departments of state — Judicial, Educational
and Public Health.
The legislative is vested in a Congress
composed of a House of Representatives
and a Senate of 58 members, including two
from each state. Representatives are
elected on the basis of one for each 60,-
000 inhabitants. Like the Congress, the
President is elected by popular vote, and
holds office for four years. Congress is
elected for two years. During the recess
of Congress, a central executive committee,
elected by its two houses, represents it.
Judicial. — The judiciary consists of the
Supreme Court, with 15 judges chosen for
six years, three circuit courts, and district
courts, with thirty-two judges.
Production and Industry. — The mineral
deposits of Mexico are among the most
valuable of any country in the world. In
normal years, when not interrupted by
political upheavals, Mexico produces about
30% of the world's silver, 6% of its gold,
12% of its lead, 6% of its petroleum and
5% of Its copper. Fuel generally is scarce,
not because there are not coal fields, but be-
cause there are few means of transporting
the coal from the fields. Mexico has also
great stores of asphalt.
The great contrasts in the Mexican cli-
mate have etCected great contrasts in the
fertility of the soil. Many sections, especi-
ally in the north, are deserts, but much
of the desert land could be readily reclaimed
by irrigation, which the supply of water in
many cases makes easily available. There
are still forests over a considerable area.
Mexico raises much cotEee, tobacco, corn,
beans, and a large fruit crop, especially
bananas, lemons and oranges. There are
also crops of cotton, wheat, sugar and rice.
Sisal hemp, is important. There is much
raising of stock.
Latest figures show 30,000,000 acres of
cultivated land, 120,500,000 acres of pas-
toral lauds, 44,000,000 acres of forest lands.
Manufactures are still largely , un-
developed. Those that exist are chiefly
of sugar, tobacco, distilling, and cotton
and woolen weaving.
The latest figures available for the annual
crops and mineral yields were ^s follows :
Cotton, 80,000 tons; Corn 1,130,000,000
kilograms ; Sisal (exports to United
States), 140,000 tons, valued at $50,000,-
000 ; Total mineral production, $115,000,-
000 — Silver, $40,000,000 ; Copper, $40,000,-
000; Lead, $15,000,000; Zinc, $5,500,000;
Gold, $2,000,000; Petroleum, 64,000,000
barrels. It is estimated that there are
some 4,000 industrial establishments, repre-
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
senting capita! of about $150,000,000 and
employing 40,000 woriiers.
Tlie annual coal production is estimated
at 700,000 tons.
For 1918, the imports Into Mexico
amounted to $82,235,000 in United States
currency. Of this amount, more than $70,-
000,000 came from the United States, al-
most $5,000,000 from the United Kingdom,
$1,635,000 from France, $1,375,000 from
Cuba, and almost $1,000,000 from Spain.
The chief imports were vegetable products,
$19,000,000 ; mineral products, $14,000,000 ;
textiles, $14,000,000 ; animal products, $10,-
000,000 ; machinery, etc., $5,625,000 ; chem-
icals, $5,3:20,000.
For the same year, the exports from
Mexico were $183,650,000 in United States
currency, of which more than $175,000,-
000 went to the United States, more than
.$2,000,000 each going to Chile and the
United Kingdom, $1,500,000 to Cuba and
$825,000 to Spain. The chief exports were
petroleum, $70,250,000 ; other minerals,
$37,000,000 ; vegetable products $65,000,-
000 ; animal products, $10,000,000.
In the last fiscal year, the United States
imported from Mexico goods valued at
168.330,626 and exported to Mexico goods
valued at $143,785,526.
Fivavce. — In normal years before the
World War, the annual budget was In the
noishborhood of $70,000,000. In 1918, the
expenditure was estimated at $93,000,000.
Latest figures show the outstanding debt as
$325,000,000. The unit of currency is the
peso, equal to $0,498 in United States
money.
In 1916, an estimate of the amount ~of
foroi^'n capital invested in Mexico was as
follows : American, $1,500,000,000 ; English,
f 325.000,000 ; French $143,000,000 ; others,
$120,000,000. The largest amounts of
American investments were as follows :
rnilwavs, $645,000,000: mines. $225,000,-
000 : domestic bonds, $50,000,000 ; smelters,
$25,000,000 ; bank deposits, $22,500,000 ;
petroleum. $15,000,000 ; rubber, $15,000,-
000 ; factories, $10,000,000.
CommunicaUons. — Most of the Mexican
railways have been brought under the state
system. Altogether they represent abour
10,700 miles of track. Latest figures show
60.000 miles of telegraph line in the Gov-
ernmental system ; 30,000 miles of tele-
phone wire ; 3,000 post-offlces.
Cities. — Capital. City of Mexico. Popu-
lation (1910), 470,659. Other towns ex-
ceeding 20,000 inhabitants were : Guadala-
jara, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Monterey,
Merida. I^enn, Vera Crnz, Aguascalientes,
Morelia. Cliihunhua. Pachuea, Oaxaca, Ori-
zaba, Tacuhaya, Guana.iuato, Saltlllo, Du-
rango, ToUica, Zacatecas, Jalapa, Celaya
and Irapuato.
Mexico:
Affairs of, referred to, 3278, 3411,
3725, 7124, 7325, 7498, 7775, 7884,
7907, 7929, 7934, 8032, 8089, 7103,
8131, 8140, 8156.
Agent sent to, referred to, 3114, 8265.
Agreement with, for pursuit of ban-
dits, 8131.
American citizens in —
Captured by army of, 1944, 2010.
Liberated, 2050.
Departure of, requested, 7887.
Expelled from jurisdiction of, 2180,
2198, 3044, 3120.
Forbidden to sell goods, 2115.
Interests of, 7124.
Murdered, 3096, 3176, 8133. .
outrages on, and injuries sustained
by, 2207, 2287, 2323, 2383, 2494,
2869, 3043, 3094, 4143, 4358.
Property of, seized or destroyed
by, 2323, 3044, 3096, 3120.
Treatment of, fair and courteous,
7125.
American flag insulted by, 2323, 7934,
American troops —
Authority to use, in, requested,
7936.
Mobilized on border of, 7658, 8130.
Occupying territory of, referred to,
3657, 3660.
Presence of, in, reasons for, 8134.
Sent to, for protection of citi-
zens from Indians, 1457.
Should not be considered as en-
croachment rights upon of,1457.
Eeferred to, 1646.
To be sent to, for protection of
citizens of United States in, rec-
ommendation regarding, 3097,
3176, 7934.
Transit of, through territory of, in
1861 referred to, 3574.
Apology by commander for arrest of
United States sailors in, 7934.
Arbitration vrith, at The Hague,
6717, 6731.
Arbitration vrith, concerning —
Boundary dispute, 7499.
Chamizal, with, 7658, 7780.
Colorado River, 7780.
Imperial Valley, 7780.
Armies of) in Texas defeated, 1487.
Armistice between United States and,
referred to, 2424.
Arms and ammunition, exportation
of, to-
Forbidden, 7888, 8089, 8756.
Permitted, 7929, 8091.
Arrest of United States sailors at
Tampieo, 7934.
Austin-Topolovampo Bailroad survey
across northern States of, referred
to, 4475.
Austrian troops dispatched to, re-
ferred to, 3588, 3589. ^
Blockade of coast of, referred to,
1733.
Blockade of ports of, by France and
injurious effect of, on United States
discussed, 1705.
Border raids and outrages, summary
of, 8132.
Boundary dispute with Guatemala,
4627, 4716, 4802.
Arbitration of, submitted to United
States minister to, 6066.
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
Boundary-' line with United States —
Adjustment of, chief obstacle in
settling difficulties, 2306, 2309.
Appropriation for expenses of com-
mission recommended, 2551, 2709,
4802.
Commission engaged in marking,
referred to, 2551, 2665, 2709,
2719, 2813, 2915.
Commissioners appointed, 1318, 2494.
Convention regarding, 4698, 4716,
4760, 4841, 4951, 4957, 5397,
5400, 5622.
Matias Eomero 's note regarding,
referred to, 4957.
Proposed, 4686.
Discussed, 1245, 1370, 4686, 4716,
4918, 5368, 5751.
Dispute concerning, arbitrated,
7499, 7658.
International boundary commission
discussed, 5622, 5870, 6066.
Proclamation regarding, 2926.
Proposition regarding, submitted
by United States commissioner
unauthorized, 2419.
Eeeommendation that Executive
be given power to advance,
money for settlement of, 2306,
2309, 2345, 2388.
Referred to, 1245, 1588, 2693, 2900
4757, 6294.
Settlement of, proclaimed, 2926.
Treaty regarding, transmitted and
discussed, liSO, 1370, 1406,
2332, 2743, 4686, 5622.
Legislative provision for execu-
tion of, recommended, 1445,
1457, 4825.
Referred to, 1245. 4757.
Water-Boundary Commission dis
cussed, 6334, 6374. 6432.
'Carrizal, encounter at, 8140.
Cession of California and New Mex-
ico to United States by —
Area and value of, discussed, 2449,
2484.
Discussed and recommendations re-
garding, 2306, 2309, 2344, 2356,
2386, 2426, 2437, 2444, 2484.
Treaty for, transmitted, 2437.
Cession of territory to United
States —
Report on,, transmitted, 1588.
Treaty regarding, 2762.
Charge that American army invaded
territory of, refuted, 2332.
Chief of, captured, 1487.
Chinese entering United States
through, discussed, 5632.
Civil authority of, in Texas expelled,
1487.
Civil dissensions in, 1245.
Civil government established in. (See
Government.)
Civil war in. (See "Wars in, post.)
Claims of — ■
Against United States, 2636, 2769,
4244, 4358.
Commission to settle, extension
of time of, recommended, 4244.
Convention regarding, 3836, 3902.
To lands in Arizona and New Mex-
ico under grants, 5484, 5510,
5561.
Claims of Benjamin Weil and La
Abra Silver Mining Co. against,
4697, 4760, 4982, 4987, 5193, 5502.
Claims of United States against —
Advances, made toward adjust-
ment of, 1702, 2850.
Award of commissioner referred to,
4540, 5193, 5650.
Commissioners appointed for ad-
justment of, 1822, 4143.
Extension of time for, recom-
mended, 4244.
Referred to, 1909, 2050, 2326.
Report of, referred to, 2050, 2327.
Umpire in, selected, 4192.'
Convention for adjustment of, re-
ferred to, 1728, 1750, 1790,
1807, 2010, 2086, 2127, 3836,
3902, 3997, 4160, 4164, 4193,
4295, 4697.
Charter of umpire referred to,
2015.
Extension of time for exchange
of ratification of, suggested,
1730, 4258.
Correspondence regarding,
1731.
Indemnities to be paid under, re-
ferred to, 2212, 2274. 2327.
Protocol regarding, 3997.
Referred to, 2326.
Treaty regarding, 4296.
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 4792. .
Counsel to assist commission rec-
ommended, 2552.
Discussed by President —
Buchanan, 3043, 3095, 3175.
Grant. 4143, 4192, 4244, 4358,
4379.
Hayes, 4536. .
Jackson. 1246, 149-7.
Pierce, 2769, 2812, 2869, 2947.
Polk, 2239. 2287. 2333, 2494.
Taylor, 2552.
Tvler, 2031, 2032, 20-50, 2207,
"2214.
Van Bur"ii. 1594, 161-3.
Wilson, 7884.
Distribution of award of commis-
sion referred to, 4988.
New convention submitted for ad-
justment of, 1750.
Referred to, 2327*
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
Opportunity given for payment of,
1497.
Payment of, 2116, 4521, 5959.
Demanded, 1594, 2050.
Eefused, 2207, 2323, 4420, 4792.
Beport of United St'ates agent re-
ferred to, 4379.
Eeprisals, act authorzing, should
be passed if not paid, 1497.
Sir Edward Thornton, umpire of
commission, referred to, 4359.
Special messenger sent to demand
settlement of, 1594.
Colonization of negroes in, action of
, United States for relief of, dis-
cussed, 6066, 6096.
Columbus, N. M., attacked by bandits
from, 8133.
Commerce —
In ports of, measures for protec-
tion of, referred to, 3016.
Of United States, discriminations
against, by Maximilian's Gov-
ernment, referred to, 3584.
Commercial relations ■with, 816, 1070,
'1157, 2115, 4327, 4462, 5678.
Treaty regarding, recommended,
5959:
Condition of, referred to, 3114, 3273,
3352, 3460, 3578.
Constitutionalists of, character of,
discussed, 7892.
Consul of United States in, contro-
versy of, with Mexican authorities,
2695.
Contraband of war, correspondence
regarding exportation of articles,
3351.
Controversies between American con-
suls at Acapulco and authorities
of, 2695.
Convention with, 2010, 2642, 2833,
3997, 4790.
Proposed, 3261.
Regarding crossing and recrossing
frontier between United States
and, 5200.
Conventional regulation of passage of
Chinese laborers across frontier of,
proposed to, 5544.
Copyright privilege ektended by
proclamation, 6122.
Crabb, execution of, referred to, 3012,
3096.
De facto government of. (See Gov-
ernment.)
Depredations committed by individ-
uals' of, on property of Chouteau
and Demun, 1448.
Diplomatic intercourse with, suspend-
ed, 2238, 2287, 2838, 3044, 3095,
3107.
Eestoration of, 1750, 2480, 4449.
Disorders on frontiers of. (See Eio
Grande Eiver.)
Election in, advised, 7886.
Embargo against ports of, 8091, 8136.
(See also Arms and Ammunition,
Exportation of, to.)
European and West Virginia Land
and Mining Co., agreement of,
with, referred to, 3723.
European troops employed in, re-
ferred to, 3590.
Expeditions against —
Attempts of Santa Anna and Or-
tega to organize, 3658.
Discussed, 2455, 2812.
Proclamation against —
Fillmore, 2648.
Eeferred to, 2656.
Pierce, 2804.
Taylor, 2545.
Eeferred to, 2770.
Export of arms and ammunition to,
7929, 8089, 8090.
Elag of United States insulted by,
2323, 7934.
Free Zone —
Discussed, 4055, 4100, 4295, 4806,
633#.
Eeferred to, 5195.
French troops in, referred to, 3571.
Contraband articles for Use of, re-
ferred to, 3351.
Evacuation of, by —
Discussed and referred to, 3582,
3653, 3662, 3718.
Indicated and Gen. Grant sent to
communicate with American
minister, 3641.
Gen. Grant relieved and Gen.
Sherman assigned, 3641.
Negroes used by, referred to, 3355.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2602, 3264, 4867.
Demands made under, 4791, 6333.
Extension of time for ratification
of, recommended, 3274.
Questions arising under, discussed,
5086, 6333.
Beport of Secretary of State re-
garding, 2690.
Termination of, notice of, given
by, 6334.
Fur trade with, persons killed while
engaged in, 1128.
Gamboa, reply of, to proposals of
United States, 7889.
Germany, note to, text and confirma-
tion of, 8216.
Government of —
Civil, established in territory held
by American army, 2356, 2444.
De facto —
Inefficiency of, 8138.
Eecognition of, 8090.
Government of, overthrow of, 3094,
3175.
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
Government of, Parades, referred to,
2341.
Hostile attitude of, toward United
States, discussed, 2238.
Hostile Indians in, discussed, 3045.
Hostile interference of foreign pow-
ers with, not to be permitted by
United States, 3043, 3177.
Huerta —
Authority of, usurped, 7907.
Claims of, to Presidency, discussed,
7893.
Plag, United States, refuses to allow
salute to, 7936.
Presidency —
Candidacy of, for, renounced,
7886.
Claims of, to, 7893.
Recognition of, reason for refusing,
8156.
Eegret of, at arrest of American
marines, 7934.
Immigration of dissatisfied citizens
of United States into. (See Immi-
gration.)
Imprisonment of American citizens
by authorities of, 2720, 2834, 2837,
4376, 4672, 4678, 4692, 4696, 4852,
4991, 5106.
Indemnity paid to, by United States,
, referred to, 2636, 2677, 2679, 2705,
2900, 2940.
Independence of, first recognized by
United States, 2241, 2323.
Indians of United States on frontier
of, referred to, 2580, 2630, 2664,
2714.
Incursions of, discussed, 2666, 2710,
3045.
Inhuman treatment of captives by,
2207.
Insurrection in. United States army
and navy forces mobilized on bor-
ders of, to guard American inter-
ests, 8038. (See ?llso Wars in, post.)
Interference of citizens of United
States in war of, with Texas, com-
plained of, 2051.
International exhibition to be held
in, 4449.
Intervention in, not to occur, 8032.
Intervention of foreign powers in af-
fairs of, referred to, 3260.
Invasion of, by —
Spain, discussed, 1009.
Squadron under command of Capt.
Thomas Jones, discussed, 2080.
Jenkins, William O., arrest of, note
to, on, 8807.
Jurisdiction claimed by, over foreign-
ers committing offenses against
Mexicans, discussed, 5087.
Kidnapping of American Qhild in, re-
ferred to, 3572.
La Abra Mining Company, award
against, 6677.
Language used by, offensive to United
States, 2206.
Liberty desired for people of, 8032.
Lind, John —
Personal representative of Presi-
dent Wilson in, 7885.
Proposals submitted by, 7886.
Reply of Gamboa to, 7889.
Loan of United States to, discussed,
3264, 3282.
Marines, United States, arrested at
Tampico, 7935.
Maximilian —
Capture and execution of, referred
to, 3725.
Decree of, declaring blockade of
ports proclaimed void, 3631.
Decree of, reestablishing slavery
in, referred to, 3569.
Organization for purpose of aveng-
ing death of, referred to, 3780.
Mayo, Admiral, demands that Ameri-
can flag be saluted by, 7935.
Military contributions to be levied
upon, 2373, 2379.
Amount collected referred to, 2398,
2501, 2528.'
Authority for collecting, discussed,
2420, 2522.
Contribution levied discussed, 2374.
Eeeoinmendatious regarding collec-
tion of, 2380, 2381.
Referred to, 2418.
Military posts in, establishment of,
recommended, 3045, 3099.
Minister of, to United States, 2051,
2480.
Mission of, terminated, 1456.
Passports demanded by, 2238.
Received, 1595, 4718.
Minister of United States, 808, 1009,
1537, 2219, 2241, 2480.
Assemblage of ministers in, 935.
Postponed, 951.
Correspondence with, referred to,
3723.
Gen. Grant sent to communicate
with, 3641.
Referred to, 3654.
Relieved and duties assigned to
Gen. Sherman, 3641.
Interference of, in favor of the
French, referred to, 3348, 3351.
Passports demanded by, 2289, 2340.
Recall of, requested, 1010.
Refusal of Government of, to re-
ceive, 2288, 2340.
Rejection of, referred to, 2284.
Return of, 2238.
Mission to, elevation of, to first class
recommended, 5547.
Monarchy in, establishment of, re-
ferred to, 3571.
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico
Mutiny in American camp at Buena
Vista, 2443.
National Guard ordered to border of,
8130.
Neutrality in, policy of, determined
upon, 7888.
New Mexico and California ceded to
United States by. (See Cession,
ante.)
Orderly, United States, arrested in,
7935.
Paredes government of, referred to,
2341.
Paredes 's return to, referred to, 2416.
Peaceful adjustment of difficulties
with United States, referred to,
2290, 2338.
Pirates commissioned by, discussed,
2345.
Pledge of United States to, against
foreign interference with, referred
to, 907.
Policy of, in exempting from impost
duties territory on borders of
United States, referred to, 4055,
,4100, 4295.
Policy of United States in, under
President —
Taft, 7775, 7783.
Wilson, 7884, 8103.
Attitude of other countries to-
ward, 7888.
Change in, threatened, 8762.
Ports of, in possession of American
forces ordered to be opened, 5108,
5114.
Postal treaty with, 3235, 3264, 5377.
Eatification of, referred to, 3274.^
President of —
Death of, referred to, 4142.
Demonstration by Congress of
United States of Colombia in
honor of, 357.5.
Election of, discussed, 3094, 3175.
Governnient formed by, discussed,
3095.
Referred to, 3175, 3577.
Prisoners of war taken by belliger-
ents in, referred to, 3720.
Release of, demanded, 8140.
Proclamation revoking prohibition of
shipment of arms to, 7929.
Property of American citizens seized
or destroyed by, 2323, 3044, 3096,
' 3120.
Property received from ports of, re-
ferred to, 2528.
Protection of —
American commerce in ports Qf, re-
ferred to, 3016.
United States over portions of, rec-
ommended, 3045.
Public lands acquired from, referred
to, 2448,
Railroad and telegraph lines across,
granted to American citizens for,
referred to, 3665.
Railroads in, referred to, 4465, 4562,
4627, 4918, 5547.
Recognition of so-called Empire of,
by United States, referred to,
3572.
Recovery of debts —
From persons absconding into, dis-i
cussed, 960.
In, due American citizens, 993.
Relations with, 1070, 1446, 1496, 1684,
1697, 1744, 2014, 2213, 2277, 3411,
4627,^4667, 4759, 5547, 0374, 7498.
Revolutionary aims in, 8155.
Revolution in, and installation of
President Diaz, discussed, 4419.
Revolution in. (See Wars in, -post.)
Salute to flag of United States de
manded by Admiral Mayo, 7935.
Santa Anna's return to, referred to,
2415.
Security of trade with Missouri, dis
cussed, 1036.
Should be held responsible for ex
penses incurred by United States
in war with, 2348, 2373, 2386.
Slavery in, so-called decree concern
ing reestablishment of, referred to
3569.
Spanish invasion of, discussed, 1009,
Special message asking authority to
use land and naval forces to main
tain dignity of United States in,
7934.
Subjects lynched at Yreka, Cal., and
indemnity recommended, 6277, 6458.
Supreme power of, passes into hands
of military leader, 2289, 2340.
Tampico, arrest of United States ma-
rines at, 7935.
Taxes levied upon products of, for
support of American army, 2418.
Territory of, ceded to United States'.
(See Cession, ante.)
Texas —
Admission and annexation of, to
United States. (See Texas.)
Correspondence with United States
regarding, 2014.
War with. (See Wars, Foreign.)
War with United States, regarding.
(See Mexican War.)
Threatens to —
Declare war against United States,
2113. '
Renew war with Texas, discussed,
2194, 2206. '
Trade between United States and
Provinces of, 816.
Trade with, extent of, 7124.
Treaty and negotiations with, regard-
ing routes across Isthmus of Te-
Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
Mexico City
huantepeo. (See Tehuantepee,
Isthmus of.)
Treaty of peace with, transmitted
and discussed, 2437.
Negotiations regarding, discussed,
2306, 2343, 2385, 2419, 2422, 2423,
2424, 2529. (See also Cession,
ante.)
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 922, 939, 966, 967.
Arthur, 4686, 4741, 4742, 4743,
4866, 4867.
Buchanan, 3109, 3177.
Cleveland, 4918, 4984, 5086.
Fillmore, 2602.
Grant, 4296, 4315.
Jackson, 1069, 1115, 1130, 1406.
Lincoln, 3264, 3282.
Pierce, 2762, 2766, 2774, 2843.
Polk, 2240, 2386, 2423, 2424, 2426,
2437, 2529.
Taylor, 2545, 2551.
Van Buren, 1702.
(See also Gadsden Purchase;
Guadalupe Hidalgo; Tfist,
N. P.)
Amendments to, proposed, 2762.
Accepted, 2774.
Amount to be paid under, 2437,
2774.
Payment made, 2900.
Arbitration treaty with, referred
to, 1702.
Cession of- California and New
Mexico to United States under.
(See Cession, ante.)
Correct import of remarks of Pres-
ident Pierce regarding, not con-
veyed, 2769.
Failure of commissioners to con-
clude, 2386.
Instructions to minister regarding,
referred to, 3113.
Legislation regarding, recommend-
ed, 5086.
Proclamation regarding, by Presi-
dent—
Pierce, 2926.
Polk, 2477.
Proposition to conclude, by —
Mexico, referred to, 2422.
United States, 2306, 2344.
Declined, 2344, 2364.
Ratification of, referred to, 3274,
482.5.
By Mexico, 2174.
Ratifications of, exchanged at
Queretaro, 2437.
Recommended, 5086, .5368.
Referred to, 976, 1136, 1445, 2768,
3109, 3177, 4743, 4759.
Regarding transit way across Isth-
mus of Tehuantepee. (See Te-
huantepee, Isthmus of.)
Signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo by
N. P. Trist, 2423.
Proclamation regarding, 2477.
' Views of President Pollv on,
2423, 2424.
Steps taken to negotiate, referred
to, 5678.
, Terminated, 4759, 5086.
Terms of —
Discussed by President Polk,
2437, 2529.
Proposed, discussed, 2388, 2389.
Violated by Mexico, 2207, 2383.
Ultimatum to, 8140.
United States army and navy forces
mobilized on borders of, to guard
American interests, 7658.
United States only nation insulted
in, 7935.
United States sailor in uniform jailed
at Vera Cruz, 7935.
Vessels of —
Captured by United States sloop of
war restored to, 1617.
Law granting letters of marque
and reprisal against, recommend-
ed, 2346.
United States seized or interfered
with by, 1684, 1685, 5123, 5502.
Villa, operations of, in, 8133.
War against, ample cause for, 2269,
2383, 7934.
War waged against, by Spain,
France, and Great Britain referred
to, 3264.
War with Texas. (See Wars, For-
eign.)
War with United States. (See Mexi-
can War.)
Wars in, 1157, 2277, 2341, 2656, 3043,
3094, 3175, 4419.
Information regarding naval force
of United States participating
in, transmitted, 3115.
Neutrality of United States between
belligerent factions in, discussed,
3444, 3581, 7888.
Weil, Benjamin, award against,
6677.
Watchful waiting policy in, 7908,
8032.
Zona Lihrc —
Discussed, 4055, 4100, 4295, 4806,
6412.
Referred to, 5195.
Mexico, City of, Surrender of.— After a
series of brilliant operations the United
States invaders liad overcome three times
their own number and were in possession
of the capital of Mexico. Before daylight
of Sept. 14, 1847, the city council had
waited upon Gen. Scott, the American com-
mander, and demanded terms of surrender.
He replied tha;t the city had come into his
power the night before and that the term?
accorded would be imposed by the American
army. At 7 o'clock the United States flag
Mexico City
Encyclopedic Index
Michigatnia
was hoisted on the top of the National
Palace, and at 9 o'clocls Gen. Scott rode
into the plaza, escorted by the Second
United States Dragoons. Soon after taking
possession of the city. Are was opened
upon the American soldiers from the roofs
of houses, from windows, and street corners
by about 2,000 conYlcts who had been lib-
erated the night before by the fleeing Gov-
, ernment. These were joined by as many
soldiers, who had disbanded themselves and
assumed the garb of citizens. This firing
was Isept up in a desultory way for 24
hours, and many soldiers were Isilled or
wounded.
Mexico, City of:
Capture of, by American troops, dis-
cussed, 2391.
Cemetery at, appropriation for, rec-
ommended, 2683.
Referred to, 4149.
Mexico, Treaties with. — The treaty of
peace, friendship, limits, and settlement,
Icnown as the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty,
was concluded in 1S48, and closed the Mex-
ican War. After a declaration of peace be-
tween the two nations, the treaty provided
for the appointment of a commission to
arrange a provisional peace and restore
constitutional government so far as mili-
tary occupation would permit.
Boundary. — The boundary line between
the two republics was defined by this treaty,
but modified by the Gadsden Treaty of
■1853. Mexicans, who by the change of
boundary should pass from the Jurisdiction
of Mexico, were to be Incorporated is citi-
zens of the United States with all reason-
abief ease and expediency. For the bound-
ary extension the United States agreed to
pay to Mexico the sum of $15,000,000 in
gold or silver coins of Mexico ; $3,000,000
to be paid at the city of Mexico imme-
diately after ratification, and the remaining
$12,000,000 in annual Installments of $3,-
000,000 each, with interest at the rate of
six per cent, per annum. The United, States
agreed to the payment of all claims due
and to become due, so that Mexico should
be free from all expense of any kind in
connection with them. The Mexican govern-
ment was discharged from all claims of
United States citizens which arose prior
to the signing of this treaty ; and the
United States agreed to pay the same in
a sum not to exceed $3,250,000.
Fortiflcations. — The privilege of fortify-
ing any point within its own territories
was reserved by both nations. Supplies
necessary to the support of United States
troops within the territories of Mexico prior
to evacuation, to be admitted duty free.
Customs Duties. — Until the rehabilitation
of the custom house in Mexico, goods arriv-
ing shall be exempt from confiscation if
dutiable. Disputes arising in regard to
matter not covered clearly by this treaty
are to be arranged amicably by the parties ;
failing such amicable arrangement, then
they are to be submitted to arbitration of
commissioners or of a friendly power. Pro-
vision was made for the possible outbreak
of war between the two nations.
Gadsden Treaty.— The treaty of 1853,
known as the Gadsden Treaty, transferred
to the United States the territory out of
which Nevada, Utah, California,' and parts
of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wy-
oming were erected, comprising 45,585
square miles, and relinquishing claims
against the United States for damages
caused by Indian depredations amounting to
between fifteen millions and thirty millions
of dollars. In return, the United States
paid the sum of $10,000,000, $7,000,000 at
the time of signing the treaty, and $3,000,-
000 on the completion of the survey. No
opposition to passage on the plank and rail
road across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, of
which the government of Mexico had pledged
its support, was to be offered by either party.
The privilege of carrying United States mail
over the road was accorded without liability
of duty charges on such parts of the mall
as were not intended for distribution en
route.
Boundary Commission.— The boundary
convention of 1882 provided for the estab-
lishment of an International Boundary Com-
mission for the replacing of such monuments
as should be deemed necessary to clearly de-
fine the boundary between the two repub-
lics. The powers of the commission, the
sort of monuments to be used, the cost
thereof, and the expenses of the commission,
were all clearly detailed in the treaty. Pen-
alties were also agreed upon for destruction
or removal of such monuments.
The boundary convention of 1884 estab-
lished and more clearly defined the bound-
ary of the Rio Grande and the Eio Colo-
rado than did the treaty of 1848 and the
treaty, of 1853. Several boundary conven-
tions were concluded at later dates to extend
the time allowed to the commission for the
completion of their work. By a boundary
convention of 1889 a boundary commission
was established for the determination of the
boundary line consequent upon the changes
In the courses of the Rio Grande and the
Rio Colorado. (For the extradition treaties
of 1899 and 1902, see Extradition Treaties.)
An arbitration convention was signed in
1908. (See A. B. C. Arbitration.)
The question as to wtiether the Chamiza]
tract at El Paso belonged to the United
States or Mexico was submitted to arbitra-
tion in 1910, but the result proved unsatis-
factory. (See pages 7658 and 7780.)
Mexico also became a party to the con-
vention between the United States and the
several republics of South and Central
America for the arbitration of pecuniary
claims and the protection of inventions,
etc., which was signed in Buenos Aires in
1910 and proclaimed in Washington July
29, 1914. (See South and Central America
Treaties with.)
Mexico, Gulf of:
Canal from Atlantic Ocean to, dis-
cussed, 995.
Commerce of United States de-
stroyed by pirates in, discussed,
765.
Naval force in, referred to, 2173.
Instructions to commanders of, re-
ferred to, 8065.
Piracy, force employed in, for re-
pression of, ,826.
Survey of coast of, referred to, 2610.
Vessels of the United States —
Seized in, 3017.
Visited by British ofBcers in, 3062.
Mexico vs. United States, first case be-
fore Hague Court, 6718, 6731.
Miami Indians. (See Indian Tribes,
and Indian Wars.)
Miami, Battle of. (See opposite 102.)
Michigamia Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Michigan
Encyclopedic Index
Middle Creek
Michigan.— One of the western group of
states ; nickname, "The Wolverine State" ;
motto, "Si quseris peninsulam amoenam,
circumspice" ("If you seek a delightful
peninsula, look about you"). It consists
of two peninsulas, which extend from lat.
41° 45' to 47° 30' north and from long.
82° 25' to 90° 30' west. The southern pen-
Insula Is bounded on the east by Lakes
Huron, St. Clair, and Brie and by Can-
ada (separated by the St. Clair and Detroit
rivers), on the south by Indiana and Ohio,
and on the west by Lake Michigan. The
upper peninsula (separated from the south-
ern by the Strait of Mackinaw) lies be-
tween Lake Superior on the north and
Lakes Huron and Michigan and the State
of Wisconsin on the south and west. Mich-
igan's area Is 57,890 square miles. The
State is noted for its great mineral wealth.
Its Chief industries are the production of
copper, salt, lumber, wool, and iron, and
In the manufacture of furniture it is one
of the most prominent states in the Union.
The lumbering industry, in which it for-
merly led the country, has declined, owing
to misuse of the forest, although the in-
du&trv is still considerable.
Michigan was first settled by the French
at Sault Ste. Marie in 1668. It was ceded
to Great Britain in 1763, was formally sur-
rendered to the United States in 1796,
formed part of the Northwestern Territory
and later of Indiana Territory, and was
constituted Michigan Territory in 1805.
Detroit was taken by the British in 1812,
but was recovered by the United States
in 1813. Michigan w.as admitted to the
Union in 1837.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census placed the number of
farms in the State at 206,960, comprising
18,940,614 acres, valued, with stock and
Improvements, at $1,088,858,379. The av-
erage value of farm land was $32.48.
' Latest flgurps for the annual agricul-
tural production were as follows : —
Bushels Talue
64,350,000 $8(8,800,000
3,180,000a 74,415,000
28,700,000 38,730,000
20,235,000 42,500,000
36,875,000 26,180,000
1,109,000a 12,505,000
13,500,000 17,280,000
4,0.30,000 16,925,000
5,320,000 6,278,000
The latest figures give the number of
farm animals as follows :— 2,224,000 sheep,
valued at $26,243,000 ; 640,000 horses, $60,-
800,000 ; 873,000 cows, $83,808,000 ; 773,-
000 other cattle, $33,084,000; 1,450,000
swine, $31,000,000 ; 4,000 mules, $396,000.
The last annual wool clip was 9,554,000
pounds.
Michigan ranks sixth among the states
in mineral production value. The last an-
nual production of iron ore was almost
18,000,000 tons. The copper production
was 268,500,000 pounds. The coal mined
amounted to 1,385,000 net tons. Other
mineral products were 760,000 fine ounces
of silver, 16,000,000 barrels of salt, 4,670,-
000 barrels of cement. The total mineral
production In 1917 was valued at more
than $160,000,000.
The automobile industry has centred In
Michigan, which produces about three-
fourths of all the automobiles manufac-
Crop
Acreage
Corn . .
..1,650,000
Hay . . .
. .2,650,000
Potatoes
326,000
Wheat .
. .1,035,000
..1,475,000
Oats . .
S u g a
r
Beets
. . 121,500
Eye . . .
. . 905,000
Beans .
. . 310,000
Barley .
.. 280,000
a-tons.
tured In the United States. The census of
1920 gave Detroit a population Just short
of one million, ranking It as the fourth
city in size in the United States.
In 1910 the population was 2,810,173.
In 1920, it was 3,667,222.
Of the total population in 1910, only 17,-
115 were negroes. The foreign-born num-
bered 595,524, of whom 171,000 were Cana-
dian and 132,000 German. About 47%
of the population was urban.
Late figures show that the school popu-
lation between the ages of 5 and 21 was
892,888 and the enrollment was 662,453.
The teaching staff numbered 21,992.
The manufacturing business is concerned
chiefly with lumber, agricultural products,
metals and mining.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Michigan having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 8,724. The amount of capital
Invested was $869,043, giving employment
to 320,611 persons, using material valued
at $592,801,000, and turning out finished
goods worth $1,086,162,000. Salaries and
wages paid amounted to $250,525,000.
Michigan:
Admission of, into Union —
Application for, referred to, 1405.
Conventions held in regard to, 1489.
State government formed by inhab-
itants of, 1405.
Appropriation for, 382.
Approval of bill providing for road
limited to, explained, 1046.
Boundary of —
Controversy with Ohio regarding,
1404, 1407.
With Wisconsin, referred to, 1846.
Grovernor of, report of, 379.
Homestead entries in Marquette dis-
trict in, confirmation of, referred
to, 4665.
Lands in —
Ceded to United States by Indians,
1257.
Promised to soldiers, not fit for cul-
tivation, recommendations re-
garding, 555.
Laws of, transmitted, 400, 6257.
Eecovery of, from British forces, re-
ferred to, 520, 527.
Revenue District established within
the State of, 6586.
Supplies furnished citizens of, 527.
Support of, referred to, 382.
Middle Creek (Ky.), Battle of.— Jan. 9,
1802. Col. James A. Garfield broke up his
camp at Muddy Creek, Ky., and advanced
with 1,800 men to attack Gen. Humphrey
Marshall, who had some 2,500 troops, in
Johnson County. Marshall, being advised
of Garfield's approach, took up a position
on the heights of Middle Creek, about two
miles from Prestonburg. On the morning
of the 10th Garfield began the attack. The
battle lasted all day. Marshall retired from
the field in the evening upon the arrival of
Federal reenforcements and burned his
stores to prevent their falling Into Federal
hands. Seventy-five of the Confederate
dead were picked up on the field. The
Middle Creek
Encyclopedic Index
Military Academy
Union loss was less than 30, according to
Federal accounts.
Middleman, conduct of, during "World
"War, 8251.
Middle States, armed neutrality in, dis-
cussed, 3225.
Midnight Appointments.— During tlie last
days of his presidential term John Adams,
piqued at tlie success of Jefferson, whom
he bitterly opposed for the presidency, made
a number of Federal appointments, in every
instance of men opposed to Jefferson and
his principles. Among the appointments
were sixteen circuit judges. Some of the
commissions of these appointees were
signed just before midnight of March 3,
1801, and were called "midnight appoint-
ments."
"Midnight Eide of Paul Eevere." — The
ride by Paul Eevere from Boston to lyexing-
ton, in 177S, to call the "Minute Men" to
emergency service ; Immortalized by Long-
fellow In his Midnight Biie of Paul Revere.
Midshipmen (see also Navy):
Number of, increase in, 7116.
Title of, should be restored to replace
"naval cadet," 6667.
Midway Island, referred to, 5187.
Milan Decree. — Nov. 11, 1807, France and
England being then at war, the King of
Great Britain and his privy council issued
a decree forbidding trade between the Unit-
ed States and any European country under
Napoleon's power. Napoleon thereupon, in
retaliation, on Dec. 7, 1807, issued the
Milan Decree, in Which he declared "de-
nationalized," whether found in continental
ports or on the high seas, any vessel which
should submit to search ijy a British vessel
or should touch at or set sail to or from
Great Britain or her Colonies. (See also
Berlin Decree ; Embargo ; Orders in Coun-
cil.)
Milan and Berlin Decrees:
Discussed and referred to by Presi-
dent—
Jefferson, 409, 415, 430, 432, 434,
441, 446.
Madison, 467, 474, 476, 503, 513,
522.
Proclamations regarding, issued by
Jefferson and Madison, 457, 466.
Milan, Italy. Beneficence Congress at,
4626.
Mileage, — Compensation for traveling ex-
penses at a certain rate per mile. The
First Congress passed a law allowing each
member ?6 for every twenty miles traveled
in going to and from Congress. In 1818
this was raised to $8, and in 1856 mileage
was limited to two sessions. Railway trans-
portation having cheapened traveling ex-
penses. Congress in 1866 reduced the mile-
age to 20 cents a mile each *ay.
Miles, The, claims of owners of, against
Portugal, 2453.
Militarism.— ^he term is hard to define,
but may be considered as a state of na-
tional psychology which exalts military
ideals, not only above, but also instead of
civil ideals ; and which in any countr.y
basis its hopes for the greatness of that
couptry upon fh? development and utiliza-
tion of Its military forces. A' necessary
concomitant of militarism is the division
of the social life of the country along the
lines of military caste. It must be pointed
out that the mere presence of a large army,
or of a system of universal military train-
ing, does not imply militarism. France,
considered one of the most democratic coun-
tries before the war, and one peculiarly free
from militarism, has had universaL military
training and an army proportionately as
large as that of the German Empire, which
is usually considered the greatest exponent
of the ideal of militarism In present times ;
whereas peaceful Switzerland has the larg-
est army in Europe in proportion to its
population. Although militarism was su-
preme in ancient and feudal times, modern
militarism dates from the Napoleonic Wars ;
and the pre-war German system was the di-
rect result of the organization of Marshal
von Moltke, assisted by Bismarcls: ; and is
exemplified in the military writings of von
Bernhardi and Treltslse, and in the philoso-
phy of Neitsche.
Militarism (see also Germany) :
Effects of, evil, discussed by Presi-
dent "Washington, 208.
GermaAy, in, power of, must be
crushed, 8400.
Military Academy. — As early as 1770 the
idea of a National Military Academy had
been advanced. A committee of the Con-
tinental Congress was appointed to "pre-
pare and bring in a plan of a military
academy of the army." Washington called
the attention of Congress to the matter in
1793, and in 1796 recommended the institu-
tion of a military academy (page 194).
March 10, 1802, Congress passed the law
founding the Academy. On June 20, 1801.
the Secretary of War directed that all ca-
dets of the corps of artillerists should re-
port at West Point, on the Hudson Iliver,
for instruction, and on Sept. 1, 1801, the
school was opened, with four army officers
and one civilian as administrators and in-
structors. (See illustration opposite iei7.)
The general commanding the army has,
under the War Department, supervision of
the Academy. The immediate government
consists of a S'uperintendent, commandant
of cadets, and seven commissioned profes-
sors. The act of Congress of June 6, 1900,
provided that the corps of cadets shall con-
sist of one from each Congressional dis-
trict, one from each Territory, One from
the District of Columbia, two from each
state at large, and thirty from the United
States at large. The act approved June
28, 1902, provided that the number of ca-
dets to be appointed from the United States
at large is not at any one time to exceed
forty. An additional appointment of one
cadet from Puerto Eico was authorized 'by
a provision in the act of March 3, 1903.
By a law passed April 17, 1916, Repre-
sentatives may appoint two cadets Instead
of one. Senators "four instead of two and
the President eighty. Instead of forty.
With each candidate appointed two alter-
natives are also named. The act of June
11, 1878, had provided that the number of
cadets at large should not exceed ten. and
this number had been increased to twenty
by an act of March 2, 1899. The cadets
are appointed by the President, those from
the Congressional districts being recom-
mended by a Congressman from the respec-
tive districts, and those from the states at
large being recommended by the Senators
Military Academy
Encyclopedic Index
Military Courts
of the respective states. -Those from the
United States at large and from the District
of Columbia are appointed directly by the
President. With the exception of those ap-
pointed from the United States at large, ap-
plicants must be actual residents of the
Congressional or Territorial districts or of
the states respectively from which they are
appointed. Except in cases of unexpected
vacancies appointments must be made one
year in advance of the date of admission.
Appointees to the Military Academy
must be between seventeen and twenty-two
years of age, free from any infirmity
which may render them unfit for military
service, and able to pass a careful examina-
tion in English grammar, English composi-
tion, English literature, algebra through
quadratic equations, plane geometry, de-
scriptive geography and the elements of
physical geography, especially the geography
of the United States, United States history,
the outlines of general history.
The Secretary of War is authorized to
permit not exceeding four Filipinos, to be
designated, one for each class, by the Philip-
pine Commission, to receive instruction at
(he United States Military Academy at
West Point ; Provided, That the Filipinos
undergoing instruction shall receive the
same pay, allowances, and emoluments as
are authorized by law for cadets at the
Military Academy appointed from the Unit-
ed States, to be paid out of the same ap-
propriations ; And provided further, That
said Filipinos undergoing instruction on
graduation shall be eligible only to com-
missions in the Philippine Scouts. Serve
tor eight years, unless sooner discharged.
The course of instruction, which is quite
thorough, requires four years, and is large-
ly mathematical and professional. The
principal subjects taught are mathematics,
lOnglish, French, drawing, drill regulations
of all arms of the service, natural and ex-
perimental philosophy, chemistry, chemical
physics, mineralogy, geology, electricity,
history, international, constitutional, and
military law, Spanish, civil and military en-
gineering, art and science of war. and ord-
nance and gunnery. About one-fourth of
those appointed usually fail to pass the
preliminary examinations, and but little
over one-half of the remainder are finally
graduated. The discipline is very strict —
even more so than in the army — and the
enforcement of penalties for offences is in-
flexible rather than severe. Academic
duties begin September 1 and continue un-
til June 4. Examinations are held in each
Dncomber and June, and cadets found pro-
ficient in studies and correct In conduct are
given the particular standing in their class
to which their merits entitle them, while
those cadets deficient in either conduct or
studies are discharged.
From about the middle of June to the
end of August cadets live in camp, engaged
only in military duties and receiving prac-
tical military instruction. Cadets are al-
lowed but tone leave of absence during the
four years course, and this is granted at
the expiration of the first two years. The
pay of a cadet is $709.50 per year, and,
with proper economy, is suflicient for his
support. The number of students at the
Academy is usually about five hundred and
fifty.
Upon graduating cadets are commissioned
as second lieutenants in the United States
Army. The whole number of graduates
from 1802 to 1916, inclusive, has been
5 601. It is without exception necessary
for a person seeking an appointment to ap-
ply to his Senator of Member of Congress.
The appointments by the President are usu-
ally restricted to sous of officers of the
army and navy, who, by reason of their
shifting residence, due to the necessities
of the service, find It next to impossible to
obtain an appointment otherwise. The Su-
perinteddent in 1917 was Colonel John Bid-
die, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. Dur-
ing 1916, the disbursements of the Academy
from government appropriations were .$240,-
000. On Sept. 1, 1916, the number of stu-
dents at the Academy was 769 and the corps
of instructors numbered 128.
Military Academy:
Appropriation for, recommended,
95.5, 983.
Bequest of George W. Galium for
erection of memorial hall on
grounds of, 5674.
Cadets in—
Enlistment of, time of, should be
extended, 1G07.
Increase in corps of, recommended,
3249.
Promotion of, referred to, 2422.
Discussed, 757, 781, 872, 983, 1019,
4248, 4934, 5879.
Enlargement of, necessary, 433, 471,
551.
Establishment of, recommended, 194,
197, 878.
Expenditures of, 4934.
Extending time for enlistment of
cadets in, recommended, 1607.
Government of, rules for, 621.
Improvement in, recommended, 4148.
Military education in, recommenda-
tions regarding, 1389.
Eegulations for, amended, 4713.
Eemoval of, suggested, 433.
Eules for government of, 621.
Vievir of, in 1840, 1617.
Military Asylum. (See Soldiers' Home.)
Military Code. (See Code.)
Military Commanders (see also Mili-
tary Districts and Divisions) :
Anonymous letter filed Avith corre-
spondence of, return of, request-
ed, 3999.
Not vested with authority to inter-
fere with contracts between indi-
viduals, order regarding, 3548.
Military Commissions to Cuba, Puerto
Eieo, and adjacent islands, 6322.
Military Contributions to be levied
upon Mexico, 2373, 2379.
Military Control over Eailroads, sugj,
gested, 8184.
Military Courts and Commissions (see
also Lincoln, Abraham; Military
Commission, etc.) :
Order —
In relation to trials by, 3638.
Sentences of imprisonment remitted,
3537.
Military Divisions
Encyclopedic Index
Military Education
Military Divisions.— On September 1, 1920,
nine corps areas were established to com-
prise tbe following states ana territories :
First. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut.
Headquarters, Boston.
Second. New York, New Jersey, Dela-
ware, Porto Rico and adjacent islands.
Headquarters, Governor's Island, New York.
Third. Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia,
District of Columbia. Headquarters, Fort
McHenry, Maryland.
Fourth. North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee,
Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana. Head-
quarters, Ft. McPherson, Georgia.
Fifth. Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana,
Kentucky. Headquarters, Fort Benjamin
Harrison, Indiana.
Sixth. Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin.
Headquarters, Fort Sheridan, Illinois.
Seventh. Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Ne-
braska, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Da-
kota. Headquarters, Fort Crook, Nebraska.
Eighth. Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New
Mexico, Arizona. Headquarters, Fort Sam
Houston, San Antonio, Texas.
Ninth. Washington, Oregon, Idaho. Mon-
tana, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, California.
Headquarters, the Presidio of San Francisco.
For inspection, mobilization,' etc., the
corps areas were combined into three Army
Areas, the first, second and third corps
areas forming the First Army Area; the
fourth, fifth and sixth corps areas forming
the Second Army Area ; and the seventh,
eighth and ninth corps areas forming the
Third Army Area.
Military Districts and Divisions:
Assignments to, 3749, 3750, 3754,
3755, 3859, 3860, 3861, 3862, 3863,
3864, 3866, 3869, 3973, 3975, 3976,
4047, 4048, 4753.
Orders regarding, rescinded, 3976,
4048.
Creation of, 3860.
Authority for, referred to, 3830.
Dissolution of, 4048, 4049.
First, fourth and fifth districts dis-
solved, 4048, 4049.
Instructions relating to third district
referred to, 3826.
Plans, etc., for barracks and quarters
in Military Division of Potomac,
4666.
Eeports and recommendations of
commanders of, 3994, 3999.
Military Drafts. (See Drafts, Mili-
tary.)
Military Education.— The Military Edu-
cational System of the United States Is
under the supervision and co-ordination of
,,the General Staff of the Army. The system
provides for the military education of the
ofiicers and enlisted men of the Army. It
contemplates that all officers upon being
newly commissioned from West Point, from
the ranks, from civil life, or from any
other source, shall pursue a year's basic
course at the special service school of their
respective arms of the service. Upon com-
pletion of this, they are assigned to duty
with troops of their arm for a minimum
period of two years.
I. The War Plans Division of the Oen-
eral Staff is charged with the supervision
of all military, educational, and vocational
training throughout the army. It is in
charge of a director, who is an assistant to
the Chief of Staff.
II. Special Service Schools are main-
tained for each arm of the service as fol-
lows : The Infantry School, Camp Btoning,
Georgia ; the Cavalry School, Fort Riley,
Kansas; the Field Artillery School, Fort
Sill, Oklahoma, and Camp Knox, Kentucky ;
the Coast Artillery School, Fort Monroe,
Virginia ; the Engineer School, Camp
Humphreys, Virginia ; the Signal Corps
School, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas ; the Sig-
nal Corps School,' Camp Alfred Vail, New
Jersey ; the Air Service Schools at the vari-
ous flying fields ; the Tank Corps School,
Camp Meade, Maryland ; the Ordnance
School of Application, Aberdeen Proving
Ground, Maryland ; the Ordnance School of
Technology, Watertown, Mass. ; the Ord-
nance School of Operation, Maintenance and
Repair, Raritan Arsenal, New Jersey ; the
Army Medical School, Washington, D. C. ;
the Motor Transport SchoolLCamp Holabird,
Maryland ; the Chemical Warfare School,
Lakehurst, N. J., and the Finance School,
Fort Washington, Maryland.
These schools are under the direct super-
vision and control of the chiefs of the re-
spective arms or services. The object of the
courses for officers is to develop and stand-
ardize the instruction and training of 6ffl-
cers in the technique and tactics of their
respective arm or service.
Basic courses, where officers are sent upon
their initial entry into the Regular Army,
are maintained at the five special service
schools of the combatant arms of the serv-
ice, viz. : infantry, cavalry, field artillery,
coast artillery, and engineers. These basic
courses have for their object : So to qualify
all officers upon their initial entry into the
service that they may function intelligently
on being assigned to duty with their arm of
the service.
Advanced courses for the training of of-
ficers are maintained. They are of such
scope as will completely fit the graduates
for the performance of all duties that de-
volve upon officers of their grade in their
respective arm or service.
III. General Service Schools, including
(a) the School of the Line and (6) the
General Staff School located at Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas, and (c) the General Staff
College, Washington, D. C, are under the
direct supervision and control of the Chief
of Staff of the Army. It is contemplated
that the officer will spend his first school
year at the School of the Line. On the rec-
ommendation of the school faculty, which
is based on his competitive class standing,
he is eligible for the course at the General
Staff ' School the succeeding year. The
third year of his military education is to be
spent, if practicable, on duty with troops of
arms of the service other than that with
which he has previously served. Having
received the recommendation of the General
Staff School faculty at the end of his second
year, the officer is eligible to enter the Gen-
eral Staff College at the beginning of his
fourth year. This course continues for one
year, at the end of which period the officer's
school education is complete and he is eli-
gible for detail on the War Department Gen-
eral Staff after having complied with the law
as to eligibility for detached duty from his
own arm of the service.
The School of the Line, Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas. The object of this school is
Military Education
Encyclopedic Index
Military Education
to train officers (o) In the combined use of
an arms and services functioning with a di-
vision, Including the functioning of corps
and army troops and services, In their rela-
tion to the division, in accordance with a
uniform doctrine approved by the War
Department ; (6) In the duties and respon-
sibilities of field officers with regard to
education and training in the Army.
The General Staff School, Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas. The object of this school Is
, .*'?'5. selected officers, ^ho have com-
pleted the course in the School of the Line
for higher tactical command and duty as
General Staff officers with tactical units,
in addition, special courses are conducted
for general officers and selected officers of
the technical and administrative services.
The General Staff College, Washington,
D. C. The object of this Institution is to
train selected officers who have completed
the course In the General Staff School for
high command and for duty In the War De-
partment General Staff. In addition, special
courses are conducted for general officers,
and for selected officers of the technical and
administrative services.
IV. Unit Schools for Officers. These
schools include those for officers which are
under the direct control of territorial or
tactical commanders. Their primary object
Is the training and instruction of officers
of all grades with a view to securing uni-
form and efficient training of the troops or
personnel under their respective commands.
The courses are conducted concurrently with
and closely co-ordinated with the training
schedules or work of the troops or person-
nel under the student officers.
V. Unit Schools for Enlisted Men. These
schools Include schools for the military
training and instruction of enlisted men.
They have for their object (o) to prepare
non-commlssloned officers, selected privates,
and enlisted specialists to carry out effi-
ciently the schedule of training or work in
progress ; (b) to insure proper uniformity
and co-ordination in the training or work
of different elements of the same command :
(c) to provide such additional technical and
tactical Instruction as may be practicable
and suited to the needs of the students.
VI. Special Service Schools for Enlisted
Men. Courses are established at the special
service schools enumerated in paragraph II,
above, for the special training and Instruc-
tion of enlisted men. The objects of the
schools are (o) to train selected non-
commissioned officers in the duties of junior
officers of their respective arm of service ;
(6) to give special training to selected en-
listed men in the duties of non-commissioned
officers and enlisted specialists of their re-
spective arm or service.
VII. The Reserve Officers' Training Corps
consists of units established under the pro-
visions of Sections 40-53 of the National
Defense Act (act of June 3, 1916) In civil
educational institutions under a system of
regulations and instructions prescribed by
the Secretary of War. These units are com-
posed of students and represent the various
branches of the military service. The mili-
tary Instruction is conducted by Army of-
ficers detailed for the purpose who are des-
ignated as professors of military science and
tactics. The Reserve Officers Training
Corps consists of a senior division organized
In general colleges and universities which
require four years of collegiate study for a
degree and a junior division established at
other approved Institutions. Military train-
ing In the Reserve Officers' Training Corps
Is carried on from three to five hours each
week throughout the four academic years,
and also includes attendance at a Summer
camp of six weeks' duration. Upon the sat-
isfactory completion of the four-year course,
including the camp training, the students
are eligible for appointment as Second Lieu-
tenant In the Officers' Reserve Corps of the
Army.
VIII. General and Vocational Education
of Soldiers. The Army school system pro-
vides for the enlisted personnel elementary
and advanced education and vocational
training. Education is voluntary, except
for illiterates and non-English speaking re-
cruits. Recruit educational centers have
been established ' within the several terri-
torial departments where Intensive special-
ized training is given this class of student.
In the advanced general education, an op-
portunity is given the soldier to pursue
work preparatory to college and to West
Point. Vocational training is offered with
the dual purpose of providing the Arm.y
with the technicians needed, and to qualify
the soldier for a place in the industrial
world on his return to civil life. The
courses now offered are automotive, elec-
trical, building, textile, food, animal, trans-
portation, metals, printing, medicine, high-
way construction and topography, steam,
gas and electrical power, music, leather,
machine, business, agriculture and miscel-
laneous. The "applicatory" or "learning by
doing" method of instruction is followed in
both the general education and vocational
courses. Funds are provided by Congres-
sional appropriation. The instructors are
qualified civilians and officers and soldiers
■BUthln the service. A special educational
school has been established for the purpose
of developing courses along vocational
and general educational lines, and for the
Instruction of teachers to Insure uniform
standards of achievement throughout the
Army.
THE SPECIAL SERVICE SCHOOLS
IX. The Infantry School, Camp Bennlng,
Georgia ; The Cavalry School, Fort Riley.
Kansas ; The Field Artillery Schools, Fort
Sill, Oklahoma, Camp Knox. Kentucky, and
Camp Bragg, North Carolina ; The Coast
Artillery School, Fort Monroe, Virginia,
and The Engineer School, Camp Humphrey.
Virginia, are established for the purpose of
(a) training officers for their specific duties
in command of troops ; (6) the tactical and
technical training of their arms and serv-
ices ; (c) training selected non-commlssloned
and enlisted specialists for their respective
arms and services.
X. The Signal Corps School, Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas, for the training of officers
and selected enlisted men for the tactical
duties of the Signal Corps.
XI. The Signal Corps School, Camp
Alfred Vail, New Jersey, for the training
of officers and enlisted men in the technical
duties of the Signal Corps.
XII. The Air Service Schools are main-
tained at the several flying fields for the
practical training of officers and enlisted
men as aviators, and the duties incident
thereto.
XITI. The Tank Corps School, Camp
Meade, Maryland, for the training of officers
and enlisted men of the Tank Corps in the
tpchniqup, tactics, and practical mechanical
operation of military tanks.
XIV. The Ordnance School of Applica-
tion, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Mar,vland,
for the instruction of officers of the Ord-
nance Department in mechanical and chem-
ical engineering.
Military Education
Encyclopedic Index
Military Schools
XV. The Ordnance School oj Technology,
Watortown, Mass., for the instruction of of-
ficers in sliop practice, .shop administration,
and the general administration of the Ord-
nance Department, except that of the field
service thereof.
XVI. The Ordnance Operation, Mainte-
nance and 'Repair School, Raritan Arsenal.
New .Terse.v, for the training of officers and
enlisted men in the specialized branches of
ordnance work.
XVII. The, Army Medical School, ^Wash-
ington, D. C, for the training of officers
and selected enlisted men in the administra-
tive work and medical procedure pertain-
ing to the Medical Corps. The Army Med-
ical School at Washington provides a course
of training and instruction for prospective
officers of the Medical Corps covering a
period of one year.
XVIII. The Motor Transport School,
Camp Holabird, Maryland, provides prac-
tical courses of training for officers and en-
listed men in the technical and mechanical
operation of motor transport. There are
also excellent vocational training schools in
which enlisted men may pursue a sixteen
weeks' course to qualify in the several
trades pertaining to motor industry.
XIX. The Chemical Warfare" School,
Lakehurst, N. J., for the training of officers
and enlisted men in the technical and tac-
tical duties of the Chemical Warfare Serv-
ice.
XX. The Army Band Leaders School, Fort
Jay, Governor's Is., N. Y., for the training
of baud masters and selected enlisted men
for service with Army bands. The Institute
of Musical Art, of New York, gives a number
of scholarships to students at the school.
Graduates of the school are eligible for ap-
pointment as band leaders in the service.
XXfr. School for Bakers and Cooks. At
many of the large cantonments a speciall.y
prepared course of training for enlisted men
to qualify them for duty as bakers and cooks
in the service operate under the direction
of the Quartermaster Corps.
Military Education, discussed, 6671,
6721.
Military Encampment, International, to
be held at Chicago during World's
Fair discussed, 5669.
Foreign guests attending, not to pay
duties on baggage, 5164.
Military Establishment (see also
Army) :
Proposition of Czar of Eussia for re-
duction of, discussed, 6335.
Military Expeditions. (See Expeditions
Against Foreign Povrers.)
Military Governors. (See Provisional
Governors.)
Military Information, Bureau of:
Discussed, 5879.
Eeorganization of, 5755.
Military Justice, Bureau of, recommen-
dations regarding, 4570.
Military Order of Foreign Wars.— The
Military Order of Foreign Wars of the
United States was instituted in the City
of New York, Dec. 27, 1894. by veterans
and descendants of veterans of one or more
of the five foreign wars which the United
States had been engaged in, to wit ; the
War of the Revolution, the War with
Tripoli, the War of 1812, the Mexican War,
and the War with Spain, "to perpetuate
the names and memory of brave and loyal
men who took part in establishing and
maintaining the principles of the Govern-
ment" in said wars, and "to presei've rec-
ords and documents relating to said wars,
and to celebi-ate the anniversaries of 'his-
toric events connected therewith." Since
the establishment of the order the TIniied
States has fought its sixth foreign war. By
an amendment to the constitution all Amer-
ican officers who participated in the war
with Spain, or any future foreign campaign
recognized by the United States Govern-
ment as "war," are rendered eligible to
membership as veteran companions.
Members are entitled "companions," and
are either "veteran companions" or "heredi-
tary companions." The former are com-
missioned officers of the army, navy, or
marine corps of the United States who par-
ticipat(Ml in any of the foreign wars of the
United States. The latter are direct lineal
descendants, in the male line only, of com-
missioned officers who served honorably in
any of the said wars. Comnmndttries may
be established in each of the- states, and
state commanderies now exist in tlie States
of New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut,
Illinois, California, Massachusetts, Alary-
land, Ohio, Missouri, Vermont, Virginia,
Rhode Island, Louisiana, Indiana, Wiscon-
sin, Michigan, Texas, Georgia, Colorado,
New Jersey, and the District of Columbia.
The National Commanderv was instituted
March 11. 18!)C,. by the ofhcers of tlie New
york, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut com-
manderies. I'resent membership, over 1.-
800 companions. There are Vice-Com-
manders-General representing each state
commandery.
Military Park. (See Chiekamauga and
Chattanooga National Military Park;)
Military Peace Establishment. (See
Arm}-.)
Military Posts. (See also Forts.)
Disposition of abandoned, recom-
mended, 4524, 4569.
Establishment of —
Lands donated by Indians for, 436.
Eeeommended, 831, 1475, 1940,
2111, 2190.
Estimates, plans, etc., for, 4666, 4670,
4674, 4677, 4680, 4687.
Military Reservations:
Additional land for Fort Preble, Me.,
recommended, 4777.
Indian school at, establishment of,
recommended, 4683.
Legislation to provide for disposal of,
recommended, 4660, 4690, 4737,
4740, 4782, 4783.
Military Schools and Colleges.— Besides
the United States Military Academy (q. v.)
at West Point there are the following
schools and colleges making up a system of
advanced instruction in the science and art
of war : The War College at Washington, D.
C, for military education ; the General
Service and Staff College, at Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas : the Artillery School, at Fort
Monroe, Virginia ; the School of Submarine
Defense, at Fort Totten, New York ; the
Military Schools
Encyclopedic Index
Militia
I'.ngincer School of Application, at M'ash-
ington, D. C. ; the School of Application fof
Caviihy nnd Field Artillery, at Fort Kiley
Ivausas, and the Army Medical School, at
Washington, D. C.
Military Stores, provisions for —
Discussed, 416.
Eeoommendcd, ,317.
Military Training in the Schools.— Dur-
inK the Civil War. the passage of the Mor-
rell Act provided financial .lid from the Gov-
ernment to colleges with corapulsorv mili-
tary drill for all students. It is estimated
that hy 1917 over 30 000 college students
were receiving such military training. In
18!)o, an unsuccessful attempt whs made in
Congress to estahlish a Bureau of Slilitary
Education, and to provide for the establish-
ment of uniform military drilling in the
public schools of the Onited States. Many
states, notably Wyomins:, have provisions
for voluntary military drill, and Boston for
many years has liad such drill in its public
high schools. The existence of a belief in
the efficacy and the benefits of military
training has led to the establishment of
private military schools all over the United
.States.
In 1914, however, the movement for mili-
tary training in the public schools was
resurrected by the outbreak of the Great
ICuropean War. Opinion in the country
was sharply divided on the issue. Military
men were almost unanimous in their ao-
proval of the measure, as were most of the
advocates of what came to be called "Pre-
paredness" (q. V.) ; hut the movement was
opposed strongly by organizations of the
working-classes and by pacifists (q. v.),
while educational and physical training ex-
perts differed in their opinions. Many o£
the proposals for military training in the
schools were modeled after the Swiss s.ys-
tem (q. v.). In Germany, the school chil-
dren vvere given physical training adaptable
to military purposes, which, however, was
Itself givea outside the schools. New York
state created much interest by passing In
1916 a law for universal militar.y training
in the schools. The training Is under the
supervision of a Militar.y Training Commis-
sion of three, appointed by the Governor.
The law applies to boys between the ages
of 16 and 19, except those actively em-
ployed ; and prescribes that not more than
three liours a week during the school year
may be devoted to this purpose. (See also
Australian System of Military Training.)
The practice of twenty countries with
respect to military training In the schools
before the World War was as follows ;
Argentina — Obligatory military training
in the last two years of secondary schools.
Specially trained instructors.
Australia — Militar.T instruction compul-
sory for all boys from twelve to eighteen
years.
Austria — Voluntary organizations for
military training of pupils of secondary
schools, under government protectorate. Op-
tion.al rifle pr.nctice In the last two years
of secondary schools.
Bolivia — Simple drill in connection with
gymnastics.
Canada-^MlWt&ry instruction carried on
in voluntary cadet corps.
Franeo — Prescribed military, instruction
without arms, and rifle practice in ele-
mentary and higher elementary schools.
Ages nine to thirteen years ; rifle pia; tice
llmitrd to bo.ys over ten years of ago. Spe-
cially trained instructors. Strnng organ-
izations carry on the work of military
preparation, among older hoys.
Germany — Voluntary organizations of
older public school pupils and students of
.secondary schools. Training without arms.
Decrees issued during tlie war provide for
preparatory military training of all boys
over sixteen years of age.
Orcat Britain — Strictly voluntary work
carried on by private agencies. .
Greece— Very intensive military instruc-
tion is given in gymnasia, under toe patron-
age of the King. Simple drill obtains in all
public schools in connection with physical
training.
Hunnary — Voluntary organizations in ele-
mentary, .'secondary, and higher schools. In
many districts military instruction is ob-
ligatory in secondary schools.
Ttalii — ^Military training given as ob-
ligatory subject in "national colleges." Pri-
vate agencies provide for simple military
drill for younger boys.
Japan — Militar.v gymnastics obligatorv in
elementary, secondary, and normal schools.
Mexico — Obligatory military drill with
nrms in all primary and secondary schools,
liegulated by state laws.
l^'etherlanila — Military training given in
voluntary organizations for boys over fif-
teen years of age.
New Zenlanrl — Military instruction com-
pulsory for boys over fourteen years.
Norway — Voluntary rifle practice.
Portur/al — No military training is given
in schools. The sub.ieet of "iiliysicnl cul-
ture," which is taught generally, includes
simple drill without nrms. Boy Scout or-
ganizations are numerous.
Russia — Prescribed military gymnastics
in elementar.y and secondary school*.
Spain — No distinct military training is
given. Some simple drill is included in
the program of physical training.
Sweden — Compulsory rifle practice in pub-
lic secondary schools for boys from fifteen
to eighteen years of age. Given by special
instructors.
Switzerland — Instruction in military g.vm-
nastics in elementary schools obligatory
throughout the school age. Conducted by
specially trained instructors. Voluntary
rifle practice and military drill both with
and without arms.
Military Tribunals. (See Military
Courts and Commissions.)
Militia. — Citizens of a state enrolled as
soldiers for training and discipline, but
called into active service only in emer-
gencies, as distinguished from the regular
.soldiers, who are in constant service. The
Constitution empowers Congress "to pro-
vide for calling forth the militia to exe-
cute the laws of the Union, suppress in-
surrections, and repel invasions." In 1792
an act was passed to provide for the na-
tional defense by establishing a uniform
militia throughout the United States by
the enrollment of every free able-bodied
white male citizen between the ages of
eighteen and forty-five. (See Army.) An
Militia
Encyclopedic Index
Militia
act of March 2, 1867, permitted the en-
rollment of negroes.
The militia was called out by Federal au-
thorities in 1794 to quell the Whislsy Re-
bellion in western Pennsylvania, during the
War of 1812, and in 1861, during the Civil
War.
The law of Jan. 21, 1903, provided for
the better equipment of this service and
supplied an organic connection between the
National Guard and the Regular Army, the
purpose being to create a National Volun-
teer Reserve that could be called upon
whenever needed by the general Govern-
ment. This law provided that the militia
shall consist of every available male citizen
in the respective states, territories, and the
District of Columbia, and every available
male of foreign birth who had declared his
Intention to become a citizen, the entire mi-
litia body being divided into two classes :
(1) the Organized Militia, to be known as
the National Guard of the State, Territory,
or District of Columbia, or by such other
designation as may be given them by the
laws of the respective states or territories ;
and (2) the remainder, to be known as the
Reserve Militia.
The organized militia is those state and
territorial organizations that have in the
past or shall in the future participate in
the annual appropriation made by Congress
for the militia, and the organization, ar-
mament, and discipline of the organized
militia are the same as prescribed for the
regular and volunteer army.
The act of Jan. 21, 1903, and the laws
antecedent thereto restricted the use of
the organized militia when called forth by
the President in time of emergency to serv-
ice in the United States and to a period
. of nine months. The act approved May
27, 1908, removes these two restrictions
and makes the organized militia of the
several states available for service during
the period of commission of the olEcers or
enlistment of the men, and within or with-
out the boundaries of the United States.
The call of the President will, therefore,
of Itself accomplish the transfer of the
organized militia specifled in his call from
state relations to Federal relations. The
militia so called forth^ becomes at once a
part of the Army of the United States, and
the President becomes Its Commander-in-
Chief ; it is therefore as completely under
the orders of the President and as com-
pletely serviceable, both as to time and
place, as the regular army.
Assuming that all male citizens 18 to 45
years of age are available for military duty
the total number of citizen soldiers, elimi-
nating Chinese, Japanese and alien whites,
based on the census of 19lO, with 10 per
cent, added for estimated increase to 1916,
constituting the potential military strength
of the United States in 191fi. was estimated
by the Census Bureau as 21,071,076.
Among other Important provisions of the
new militia act may be mentioned, fixing
the organization, armament and discipline
of the organized militia after Jan. 21, 1910,
similar to those of the Regular Army ; pro-
viding that the organized militia shall be
called In time of emergency into the service
of the United States in advance of any
volunteer force.
The Secretary of War issues without
cost to the states or territories all arms
and equipment necessary to supply all of
the organized militia. The Secretary of
War is also authorized to provide for the
preparation of the organized militia for the
encamnment manceuyers and field manoeu-
vers of the regular army in which the
militia receives the same pay, subsistence
and transportation as the regular army.
Upon the requisition of the GovernoT of
any state or territory having militia or-
ganized under this law, the Secretary of
War may assign one or more officers of
the regular army far service In the militia
of the state or territory. Alaska has no
militia. Guam and Samoa have small pro-
visional forces used for police purposes.
The Philippines have a constabulary force
for police or regular military service.
Porto Rico has a provisional force under
the command of a Lieutenant-Colonel of
the United States Army.
Congress makes annual appropriations,
for the support of the militia. The appro-
priations are apportioned among the several
states in accordance with the strength of
their militias.
For the present position of the militia
in the military system of the United States,
see the article, Army.
In May, 1917, President Wilson ordered
the mobilization of the militia of all the
states, and before the end of August the
entire militia of the United States was
organized In the Federal service. The
strength of the militia by that time had been
greatly increased by voluntary enlistments.
Any vacancies still existing were filled
from the selective draft. The report of the
Adjutant General of the Army gives the
following figures for the militia of the sev-
eral states. They comprised the enlisted
strength on April 2, 1917 and subsequent
voluntary enlistments, but not the number
Inducted into the militia from' the draft.
Alabama 7,201 Montana 2,106
Arizona 973 Nebraska 5,713
Arkansas .... 8,131 Nevada 38
California . . . 13,183 N. Hampshire 3,467
Colorado 4,858 New Jersey.. 14,910
Connecticut . 8,271 New Mexico..
Delaware 1,638 New York
District of N. Carolina . .
Columbia .. 3,228 N. Dakota
Florida 3,858 Ohio
1.782
51,225
9,228
3,933
29,446
3,586
5,495
32,885
4,625
5,050
Georgia 7,168 Oklahoma . . .
Hawaii 4,382 Oregon
Idaho 2,238 Pennsylvania.
Illinois 24,508 Rhode Island,
Indiana 9,705 S. Carolina . . ,
Iowa 11,104 South Dakota. 4,050
Kansas 10,679 Tennessee ... 9,062
Kentucky .... 7,301 Texas 22,920
Louisiana . . . 4,331 Utah . : 1,893
Maine 5,735 Vermont 2,547
Maryland ... 8,130 Virginia 9,034
Massachusetts 20,934 Washington . 5,284
Michigan 9,977 West Virginia. 5,086
Minnesota ... 7,642 Wisconsin ... 17,323
Mississippi... 6,230 Wyoming ... 2,414
Missouri 16,531
Total 461,048
There are now about 23,500,000 males
in the country between the ages of 18 and
45, which is considered the period of lia-
bility for service in the militia. Of these,
about 16,000,000 are native whites, about
5,000,000 are foreign born whites and about
2,500,000 are negroes, Chinese, Japanese
and Indians.
The strength of the National Guards of
the several states, according to the most
recent report of the Militia Bureau of the
War Department, is as follows :
Militia
Encyclopedic Index
Militia
Alabama .
Arizona .
Arkansas
California
Colorado .
1,591 Montana • 69
624 Nebraska 1,099
1,606 Nevada
2,141 N. Hampshire. 1
825 New Jersey... 3,478
2,867 New Mexico. . 502
491 New York 16,181
332 N. Carolina. . . 1.645
1,241 N. Dakota 344
2,022 Ohio 7,077
Hawaii 929 Oklahoma 2,731
Idaho 369 Oregon 2,125
nilnols 3,831 Pennsylvania .10,301
Indiana 2,160 Porto Rico.... 1,424
Iowa 3,170 Rhode Island . 1,188
Connecticut . .
Delaware
Dist. Columbia.
Florida . :
Georgia
Kansas . .
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine ... .
Maryland
Massachusetts .
Michigan
Minnesota ....
Mississippi . . .
Missouri
2,025 S. Carolina... 1,056
803 S. Dakota 1
441 Tennessee .... 1,052
1,368 Texas 1,578
1,925 Utah 656
6,898 Vermdnt 934
2,579 Virginia 1,898
5,024 Washington . . 2,526
825 W. Virginia ... 1
3,476 Wisconsin ... 5,813
Wyoming 387
Total, United States 113,630
The National Defense Act of 1920 fixed
the National Guard at 200 per member of
Congress for that year, or 108,950 ; with
an increase of at least 50% each year fol-
lowing until it reaches 800 per member of
Congress, or 435,800 (set for 1924), the
increments being — for 1921, 163,425 ; for
1922, 245,140 ; and for 1923, 367,700..
The location of the cantonments where
the National Guards of the various states
were trained for service abroad in the
European War will be found under the
heading Cantonments.
The Chief of Coast Artillery has indi-
cated that about 20,000 of the organized
militia will be required for the coast artil-
lery reserves and approximately the same
number for supports in time of war. These
troops would be required for service in
the immediate vicinity of the fortifications,
and would not be available for use with
the mobile army until all question of sea
?ower .along the coast had been settled
avorably. (See also Army; War, Depart-
ment of ; Artillery ; Arms and Ammunition :
Naval Militia.)
The Militia law of Jan. 21, 1903, as
amended by the act of May 27, 1908, pro-
vides : "That the militia shall consist of
every able-bodied male citizen of the re-
spective states and ever.v able-bodied male
of foreign birth who has declared his in-
tention to become a citizen, who is more
than eighteen and less than lorty-flve years
of age, and shall be divided into two classes
— the organized militia, to be known as the
National Guard (or by such other desig-
nations as may be given them by the laws
of the respective states or territories), the
remainder to be known as the reserve mi-
litia."
At the beginning of the war against Ger-
many, the strength of the National Guard
in Governmental Sprvlce was about 67,-
000. At the close of the war, it was 382,-
000. During the war, the National Guard
Divisions were numbered from 26th to 42d,
both inclusive.
Militia
[ilitia:
Arming and equipping of, recom-
mended, 4724, 4768, 6159.
Artillery tactics for use of, prepared,
927.
Called into national service in war
against Germany, 8306.
Called out to prevent British invasion
from Canada, 1618.
Cavalry tactics for use of, prepared,
d27.
Discharge of, directed, 455.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 869, 958, 995.
Arthur, 4768.
Cleveland, 5877, 5968. 6159.
Jaclcson, 1166, 1389, 1474.
Jefferson, 317, 333, 373', 394.
Lincoln, 3249.
McKinley, 6385. ,
Madison, 461, 468, 471, 479, 534,
551, 561.
Monroe, 758, 781. i
Polk, 2481.
Roosevelt, 6672, 6805, 7236.
Taft, 7799.
Tyler, 1902, 2121.
Van Buren, 1754.
Washington, 57, 59, 78, 99, 132, 159,
161, 176, 196.
Dispatched to Mexican border, 8130.
Distribution of arms, ordnance,
stores, etc., to District of Columbia
and Territories, regulations regard-
ing, 51 59, 5462.
Encampment of, in coast works,
urged, 5476.
Encouragement of, 5550.
Field manoeuvers for, 6927.
Guard, National, referred to, 5476.
Hawaiian drafted into national ser-
vice, 8508.
Increase in, recommended, 429.
Indian wars, campaigns of, in. (See
Indian Wars.)
Insurrections suppressed by. (See Il-
legal Combinations.)
Laws for, revision of, recommended,
228, 230, 317, 504, 523, 869, 1166.
Laws regarding, obsolete, 6672.
Organization, arming, and disciplin-
ing, 4570.
Plan for, submitted, 63.
President cannot call into service ex-
cept by authority of Congress,
2640.
Modification in laws regarding, rec-
ommended, 2641.
Eefusal of governors of Massachu-
setts and Connecticut to furnish
quotas of, 501.
Reorganization of, urged, 6672, 6721,
6805, 7236.
Returns of, 338, 356, 366, 388, 409,
435, 449, 455, 584, 653, 687, 773, 781.
Suppressing insurrections by. (See
Illegal Combinations.)
Militia
Encyclopedic Index
Miners
Total
Number Establishnu'n^s 2,079
Persons Engaged 58,936
Capital $ 53.100,601
Salaries and Wages 28.893,839
Cost of Materials 57,675,921
Value of Products 114,160,462
Trimmed Hats
Einhroiderlcs and Frames
773
13,571
$15,487,321
■ 7,784,324
19,125,243
23,393,470
634
19,945
$17,676,716
11,948,381
26,638,794
48,361,908
Trim-ming-^,
Braids,
Fringes
218
3,457
$3,529,716
1,674,510
4,495,611
7,810,389
Volunteer Ast regarding, passage of,
7514.
Volunteer force should be enlisted,
429, 463, 479, 2121.
Young men should become members
of, 373..
World War, called to service in, 8306.
Militia Bureau, War Department. — By
act of June 3, 1916, the Division of Mili-
tary Affairs, which had been a subdlTision
of the War Department under the Chief
of Staff (q. v.), became a separate division
of the department, under the direct super-
vision of the Secretary of War. The act
of June 3, 1916 was intended to fulfill the
federalization of the National' Guard up to
constitutional limitations, and the passage
of the act abolished the National Militia
Board. The act provided for the organiza-
tion, arming, and disciplining of the Nation-
al Guard, "reserving to states * * • the
training of the Militia according to disci-
pline prescribed by Congress." (See Mili-
tia ; Army ; War Department.)
Milliken's Bend (La.), Battle of. — ^Dur-
ing the operations before Vicksburg, Grant
had withdrawn troops from all the posts
within his reach to strengthen his army.
The fort at Milliken's Bend, on the Missis-
sippi Eiver, in Louisiana, was left in charge
of a small garrison, mostly negroes. On June
6, 1863, the place was attacked by a party
of Louisiana Confederates under General
Ben. MeCuUoch, who might have been suc-
cessful in their assault but for the arrival
of the gunboats Choctaw and Lexington.
The Confederates were repulsed. The Fed-
eral loss was 404 killed and wounded.
Millinery and Lace Goods Industry. —
(See also section under Clothing Trade.)
A recent report of the Census Bureau gives
figures for this industry covering the pe-
riod .iust before the conditions of war made
it, and all industry, abnormal.
March, February, April and September
are the months of greatest activity.
27% of the workers are male, 71% fe-
male, and 2% under 16.
18.765 of the wage-earners work 54 hours
weekly ; 15,519, from 48 to 54 ; 4,557, 48
and less ; 5,368, from 54 to 60 ; 1,065, 60
hours and above.
Three establishments employ between 500
and 1,000 workers ; 8, between 250 and
500 ; 57, between 100 and 250 ; and 159, be-
tween 50 and 100.
Sixty-two per cent of the value of the
entire product comes from New York City.
Mill Springs (Ky.), Battle of.— Early
in the winter of 1861-62 the Confederate
General Felix K. ZollicofEer, with a force of
about 5,000 men, intrenched himself at Mill
Springs, on the (Cumberland Elver in Wayne
County, Ky. Jan. 17, 1862, Gen. George H.
Thomas, with 8,000 Union troops, advanced
to dislodge him. The Confederates set out
to meet Thoma?, and on Jan. 19, 1802, an
engagement took place, begun by the ad-
vance guard of both armies. The Confeder-
ates were driven back to their camp, whic*h
' they abandoned during the night. Twelve
pieces of artillery, 156 wagons, 1,000 horses
and mules, as well as large quantities of
small arms, ammunition, and stores fell into
the hands of the Union army. Crossing the
Cumberland Elver, the retreating army
burned their boats to prevent pursuit. The
loss on the Confederate side was 350. The
Unionists lost 246. Gen. ZollicofEer was
among the Confederate dead.
Mill Springs, Ky., battle of, discussed,
3301.
Milligan Case. — A United states Supreme
Court ease involving the right of the
President to suspend the rights of citizens
under habeas corpus proceedings. Oct. 5,
1864, during the Civil War, Milligan w.ts
arrested by order of Gen. Hovey, and on
Oct. 21 was brought before a military
commission convened at Indianapolis, Ind.,
by the same oflScer. He was tried, found
guilty, and sentenced to be hanged for
participating in rebellious schemes. By
the habeas corpus act of (Congress in 1SU3
lists were to be furnished in each State
of persons suspected of violating national
law. But any such persons arresied
against whom no indictments should be
found by the circuit court or district court
were to be freed on petition verified by
oath. The Milligan indictment was not
found by the circuit or district court. He
objected to the authority of the military
commission and sued for a writ of hab.as
corpus in the circuit court. The case com-
ing before the Supreme Court in 1800,
it was decided, Justice Davis reading the
opinion, that the writ should be issued
and the prisoner discharged. The court
held that the power of erecting military
Jurisdiction in a State not invaded and
not in rebellion was not vested in Con-
gress and that it could not be exercised in
this particular case ; that the prisoner, a
civilian, was exempt -from the laws of war
and could only be tried by a jury ; that
the writ of habeas corpus could not be sus-
pended constitutionally, though the privilege
of that writ might be. The Chief Justice
and Justices Wayne, Swayne, and Miller,
while concurring in the judgment, made
through the first named a separate state-
ment of reasons. The decision expressly
stated that conspiracies to aid rebellion
were enormous crimes and that Congress
was obliged to enact severe laws to meet
the crisis. (See also Habeas Corpus i
Marryman Case.)
Milwaukee, Wis., proclamation granting
privileges of other ports to, 2859.
Mineral Fuels, conservation of, 7100.
(See also Lands, Public and Conser-
vation.)
Mineral Lands. (See Lands, Mineral.)
Miners, act for protection of, in Terri-
tories, discussed and recommenda-
tions regarding, 5663.
Mines
Encyclopedic Index
Minimum Wage
Mines. — Submarine mines were first used
extensively by the Confederate forces in the
Civil War, 90% of these being of the self-
acting variety. Other varieties of mines
are hred by electricity from points on
shore or on ships when the target has ar-
"7'^?n°f>T,'='^ }^^ '5'°«- '^'^^ Hague Conference
of 1907 forbade the use of imanchored
mines, the regulations to that effect to
remain in force for seven years from that
(3ate. Mines are often rendered useless by
being exploded by counter-mining, a new
set of mines being exploded In their vicinity
and the reverberations of the explosions
discharging the originally-laid mines. An-
other method widely used in the Great Euro-
pean War consisted of sweeping a mine
area clear of these engines of destruction
by grappling irons or wire nets stretched
between two or more vesgils drawing little
water. (See Submarines.)'!
Mines, Drifting and SuT»arines:
Agreement on use of, suggested by
President Wilson, 8057.
Defence of use of, by Germany, 8058.
Mines (see also Lands, Mineral):
Bureau of, advocated, 7104.
Equipment and power needed for,
7912.
Gold, disco-vered, 3451.
In Black Hills, 4306, 4355.
In California, 2486.
Miues, Bureau of.— Chapter 240 of the
acts of the second session of the 61st Con-
gress to establish in the Department of the
Interior a Bureau of Mines was approved
May 16, 1910. The act provided for the
establishment of said bureau and a director
"who shall be thoroughly equipped for
the duties of said office by technical edu-
cation and experience," with an annual
salary of $6,000. Transfer to the bureau
was provided for the investigations of the
analyzing and testing of coals, lignites and
other mineral fuel substances, and the in-
vestigation as to the cause of mine explo-
sions, from the United States Geological
Survey. The duties of the bureau were
prescribed as follows : "It shall be the
province and duty of said bureau and its
director, under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Interior, to make diligent in-
vestigation of the methods of mining, es-
pecially in relation to the safety of miners,
aud the appliances best adapted to prevent
.".ccidents, the possible improvement of con-
ditions under which mining operations are
carried on, the treatment of ores and other
mineral substances, the use of explosives
and electricity, the prevention of accidents,
and other inquiries and technologic investi-
gations pertinent to said industries, and
from time to time make such public reports
of the work, investigations and information
obtained as the Secretary of said depart-
ment may direct, with the recommendations
of stfch bureau." (See also Interior, De-
partment of.)
The scope of the Bureau was broadened
by act of Congress approved February 25,
1913. Included in the recent activities of
the Bureau have been the maintenance of
an extensive chief experimental station in
Pittsburgh, Pa., the formation of first aid
and rescue corps in most of the mines of
the country, and the dispatch of a train
carrying an elaborate exhibit <Jf first aid
to the largest mining centers of the country.
Minimum Wage. — The tumultuous devel-
opment of modern industrial life within
the last decades has resulted in a number
of checks upon the fixing of wages by the
law of supply aud demand. The most ef-
fective of these checks has been the trade
union movement, with its ability to fix
the wages of labor by its economic, and
occasionally its political, power. Another
check has been the growth of the social con-
science, alert to lessen the amount of pov-
erty and misery. The most radical of
these checks, however, has been the mini-
mum wage, fixed to apply to certain desig-
nated classes or industries by law, rather
than by the power of certain organized
groups or by the conscience of individuals.
The first minimum wage legislation was
passed in 1894 by New Zealand, where a
law for compulsory arbitration of labor
disputes made some provision for fixing a
minimum wage. The first real minimum
wage legislation, however, was that of the
Australian state of Victoria, in 1896 ; and
by the end of 1916 Victoria's minimum
wage legislation covered more than 150,000
workers, the total population In Vic-
toria being less than a million and a half.
Other Australian states lost little time in
following the Victorian example of 1896.
In Great Britain, a minimum wage fixed
by law for all Industries is advocated not
only by the Labor Party, but also by most
Liberals and by many Unionists. A bill
to that, end was introduced by the Gov-
ernment In 1919 in Parliament and was still
pending In 1920. Many industries in Great
Britain, however, such as mining, railroad-
ing, munition work, had previously been
brought under the scope of national mini-
mum wage legislation. Prance began mini-
mum wage legislation for women working
In the clothing Industry at home, and later
extended it to other industries. Tentative
minimum wage legislation exists also in
Norway, Switzerland and Argentina. In
Canada, British Columbia, Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan and Quebec have applied mini-
mum wage legislation to all women and
minors in industry.
In the United States, agitation for the
minimum wage by law did not get under
way until 1910, and it is still concerned
only with laws by states applying only to
women and children. The American Fed-
eration of Labor is on record in opposition
to minimum wage legislation on the ground
that it tends to become the maximum wage
and to weaken the economic power of those
workers who are organized to fix their own
wages. However, the radical wing of the
organization, together with the Socialists
In and out of the Federation, favor the
minimum wage. With but few exceptions,
employers oppose it.
Even befo're 1910, however, tl>e minimum
wage in America had been fixed in public
employment, by words such as "a fair rate
of remuneration," usually interpreted as
the prevailing trade union rates. On the
other band, some states and cities specific-
ally fixed the sum which was to be the mini-
mum wage for public employment. Massa-
chusetts was the first state (1912) to pass
minimum wage laws for private industries,
and her example was followed in 1913 by
California, Utah, Colorado, Minnesota, Ne-
braska, Oregon, Washington and Wiscon-
sin ; in 1915, by Arkansas and Kansas ; in
1917 by Arizona ; in 1918, by Congress for
the District of Columbia; and in 1919 by
North Dakota and Texas. In 1917, the Su-
preme Court, by a tie vote of 4 to 4, per-
mitted the minimum wage law of Oregon to
stand on the statute books. In 1919, Ne-
Minimum Wage
Encyclopedic Index
Minnesota
brasUa repealed her minimum wage law.
In 1912, a constitutional amendment per-
mitting minimum wage legislation for wom-
en and minors was passed by California
and in 1912 a constitutional , amendment
permitting such legislation for all indus-
tries was passed by Ohio ; but by 1920
those states had not taken advantage of
these acts to pass minimum wage legisla-
tion. These state laws all apply only to
women and children, and most of them ap-
ply only to industrial and commercial work,
agricultliral and domestic labor being ex-
cepted from the operation of the laws.
Standards. — Several of the state laws in
the United States speciflcally mention the
sum which shall be the minimum wage, but
most of the laws provide for commissions
to fi.Y the sum by rulings after investiga-
tions. Thus the first Oregon legislation fixed
the sum as $8-$9 weekly, which was raised
during the war to $11-$12. Washington
fixed the sum of $13.20 weekly for exper-
ienced adult women during the World War,
Massachusetts has made it $12.50 in candy-
making, while Wisconsin and Minnesota
have fixed the minimum wage at 22-23 cents
per hour. The board in the District of
Columbia fixed $16.50 in retail stores in
1919 and for women in hotels, restaurants,
etc. in 1920.
Australia fixes the minimum wage as the
living wage, interpreted so as to allow the
worker to exercise the normal functions of
citizenship. There are different rates for
those supporting a family and for those
supporting only themselves. In Great Bri- .
tain, the rate is usually fixed as the rate
paid for similar work by the accepted model
employer of the district in question.
Minister. — 1. in political parlance, a repre-
sentative of one government in the terri-
tory of another government, lower in rank
than ambassador. Minister extraordinary —
a personal representative of the chief execu-
tive of one nation to a foreign country with
specific duties to perform. Minister pleni-
potentiary— a personal representative of the
chief executive with full power to conclude
a specific negotiation in accordance with
the minister's own judgment. (See Am-
bassador and Consul.) 2. In foreign coun-
tries, particularly In Great Britain, the term
is used in much the same sense as "secre-
tary" in the President's Cabinet, e. g., the
Minister of Foreign Affairs, corresponding
to the American Secretary of State.
Ministers of United States (see also
Consular and Diplomatic Service;
the several powers) :
Assurances of respect to, 256, 269.
Assemblage of, in Tacubaya, Mexico,
for concluding treaties at Pana-
ma, to promote friendliness and
good will with South American
Eepublics, 935.
Congress indefinitely postponed,
951,
Instructions to, 997.
Correspondence between, effects of
publication of, 385.
Elevation of, missions and title of
ambassador conferred, 5874, 6335.
Interfered with by French command-
er, 780.
List of —
Charges d'affaires, secretaries, and,
transmitted, 2830.
Money appropriated for, rights of, re-
garding, referred to, 912.
Must have assurances that they will
be respected, 256, 269.
Official residences for, recommended,
6072, 6155.
Peace between Great Britain and
United States, treaty of, received
from, 537.
Presents —
From foreign States not to be ac-
cepted by, 1256.
Given to,Adeposited in State De-
partme^, 1256, 1258, 1260.
Previou^fc given to, should be re-
turned3257.
Salary of, discussed, 103, 1910, 1953.
Increase in salary of commissioner
to China recommended, 2658.
Sent to Congress of Nations. (See
under Panama, Isthmus of.)
Ministers to United States. (See the
several Powers.)
Minnesota. — One of the western group of
states; nickname, "The Gopher State";
motto, "L'gtoile du nord" ("The North
Star"). It Extends from lat. 43° 30' to
49° 25' north and from long. 89° 29' to
97° 5' west. It is bounded on the north
by British America, on the east by Lake
Superior and Wisconsin, on the south by
Iowa, and on the west by the Dakotas, and
has an "area of 84,682 square miles. The
chief industries are wheat growing, lumber-
ing, and flour and grist milling, and In the
products of this latter Industry the State
has the largest output in the country. The
manufacture of lumber and timber products
is a rapidly progressing industry. Minne-
sota Is one of the leading wheat-producing
states of the Union. The region was first
explored by the French near the close of
the seventeenth century, the first settle-
ment being made at Duluth in 1678. In
1763 France ceded the territory east of the
Mississippi to England, by whom it was
ceded to the United States in 1783. It
formed part of the Northwest Territory
organized in 1787, and was successively in-
cluded in the Territories of Indiana, Michi-
gan, and Wisconsin. The lands west of the
Mississippi form part of the Louisiana Pur-
chase, and were included successively in the
Territories of Upper Louisiana, Arkansas,
Missouri, and Iowa. March 3, 1849,
Congress passed an act creating Minnesota
Territory. In 1851, 21,000,000 acres of
land were acquired of the Dakotas by the
treaty of Traverse de Sioux. May 11, 1858,
Minnesota became a State. '
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows : —
Crop
Acreage
Bushels
Value
Wheat .
.4,015,000
37,710,000
$94,276,000
Corn . .
.2,950,000
118,000,000
141,600,000
Hay
.2,000,000
S,800,000a
55,100,000
Oats .. .
.3,220,000
90,160,000
57,700,000
Potatoes,
. . 300,000
26,100,000
40.000,000
Barley .
. 910,000
18,200,000
21,110,000
Eye . . .
. 522,000
7,830,000
10,180,000
Flax . .
a-tons.
. 320,000
2,880,000
12,816,000
Minnesota
Encyclopedic Index
Mirboha
Latest reports show the farm animals as
940,000 horses, valued at $85,540,000 ; 1 -
393,000 cows, $114,390,000 ; 1,730,000 other
cattle, $56,400,000; 668,000 sheep, $7,348,-
000 ; and 2,951,000 swine, $70,824,000. The
last annual wool clip was 3,594,000 pounds.
Minnesota leads all the states in the pro-
duction of Iron ore, especially red hematite.
The leading districts are the Mesabi and
Vermilion ranges, with 39,056,000 gross
tons produced last year in the former.
There were In 1906, 8,223 miles of steam
railway in the State and 538 miles of elec-
tric line. From St. Paul ten railways radiate
with a total length of 60,000 miles. The
Great Northern owns a line of steamers
which run between Puget Sound and China,
Japan and the Philippines. The popula-
tion of the state in 1910 was 2,075,708 ;
and In 1920 it was 2,386,371.
Of the population in 1910, 543,595 were
foreign-born, including 122,000 Swedes,
105,000 Norwegians, and 110,000 Germans.
Latest figures for education showed 236
high schools, with an enrolment of 45,457,
an average daily attendance of 37,422, and
1,827 instructors. In the elementary schools
there were 15,959 teachers and 433,122 pu-
pils.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Minnesota having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the begin-
ning of 1915 was 5,974. The amount of
capital invested was $354,434,000, giving
employment to 115,690 persons, using ma-
terial valued at $336,849,000, and turning
out finished goods worth $493,354,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid amounted to $80,-
591,000.
Minnesota:
Admission of, into Union —
Discussion and territory outside of,
referred to, 3121.
Taking of census in accordance
with act providing for, referred
to, 3002.
Constitution of, transmitted, 3000.
Indian massacres in, and persons sen-
tenced to be hanged, discussed,
3345.
Public building to be erected in, re-
ferred to, 2682.
Public lands in, to be surveyed, 2838.
Minnesota and Northwestern Bailroad
Co., suit instituted against, in name
of United States referred to, 2830.
MinUetaree Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Minorities, Rule by, denounced, 8819.
Mint. — By an act of Congress passed April
2, 1792, the first United States mint was
established at Philadelphia. The first
machinery and first metal used were im-
ported, and copper cents were coined the
following year. In 1794 silver dollars were
made, and the suceeding year gold eagles.
In 1835 branch mints were established in
New Orleans, La., at Charlotte, N. C, and
at Dahlonega, Ga. ; In 1852. at San Fran-
cisco, Cal. : in 1864, at Dallas City, Oreg.,
and in 1870, at Carson City, Nev. The
mints at Charlotte and Dahlonega were
suspended in 1861, that at Dallas in 1875,
that at Carson City in 1885, and that at
New Orleans from 1860 to , 1879. Assay
offices, considered branches of the mint, were
established at New York in 1854, Denver,
Col., in 1864, Boise City, Idaho, in 1872,
and at other places at later dates. The
mints as at present established are situated
at Philadelphia, San Francisco and New
Orleans : those at Carson City and Denver
are equipped as assay offices, and no coins
are made at either. (See also Currency ;
Coinage Laws.)
Mint:
Abuses of, discussed, 177.
Artists from abroad engaged in, 120.
Branch of —
At Columbus, Ohio, referred to,
4311.
At New Orleans, statement of,
transmitted, 6299.
At New York recommended, 2352,
2407, 2500.
Establishment of, recommended
and referred to, 75, 1432, 4310,
In California recommended, 2486,
2557, 2621.
Eeferred to, 2747.
In North Carolina, Georgia, and
Louisiana, referred to, 1383, 1495.
Buildings and grounds at Columbus,
Ohio, offered to United States for,
by F. Michel, 4311.
Coinage at, referred to, 2407.
Proclamation regarding, 239.
Defective coins lodged in, 160.
Medals made in, for army and navy
officers, 1845.
Opening of more mints, with author-
ity to coin for foreign nations,
recommended, 4201.
At New York, 2352, 2407, 2500.
In California, 2486, 2557, 2621.
In North Carolina, Georgia, and
Louisiana, 1383, 1495.
Eeferred to, 99, 141, 177.
Seizure of, at New Orleans by au-
thorities of Louisiana, referred
to, 3199.
Mint, Director of, reports of, transmit-
ted, 303, 305.
Mlnutemeu. — At a session of the provin-
cial congress of Massachusetts, Nov. 23,
1774, it was voted to enroll 12,000 minute-
men. They were to be organized as militia
and hold themselves ready for service at
a minute's notice.
Miraflores Island, San Juan Harbor,
Puerto Bico, referred to, 6708.
Miranda Plot. — A joint scheme of citi-
zens of the United States and Great Britain
■whereby tlirough the agitation of one
Miranda, a citizen of Caracas, Venezuela,
dissatisfaction was to be spread among the
Spanish and French provinces. During the
revolutions which it was hoped would en-
sue Great Britain was to obtain the West
Indies and the United States, Fiorlaa and
Louisiana east of the Mississippi.
Mirboha, The:
Capture of, by the Philadelphia near
Gibraltar in 1803, 352.
Mirboha
Encyclopedic Index
Mississippi
Indemnification to eaptors of, and of
the Mislioiida for the public ac-
commodation, recommended, 354.
Misbranding imported goods, 7728. (See
also Pood and Drugs Act.)
Miscarriage of Justice, in eSse of beef-
packers, 7291.
Miscellaneous Transportation. (See
Division of Miscellaneous Transporta-
tion.)
Misdemeanors. (See Crimes and Mis-
demeanors.)
Mishouda, The, indemnification to cap-
tors of, recommended, 354.
Misprision of Treason.— Concealment on
the part of a citizen of treasonable acts
known to him, or neglect to report such
knowledge promptly to the proper authori-
ties. The penalty consists of not more than
7 years in prison, and of a line of tfot more
than $1,000. (See Treason.)
Mission Commission, recommendation
of, referred to, 5661.
Mission Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Missionaries, American, treatment of,
in Turkey discussed, 4627, 5090, 5872,
5962, 6069, 6147.
Missionary Kidge, or Chattanooga
(Tenn.), Battle of.— After retiring
from Lookout Mountain, Bragg's army con-
centrated on Missionary Ridge, across the
Chattanooga Valley and --southeast of the
city. On the morning of Nov. 25, 1863,
Sherman assailed the Confederate right
wing at the extreme north end of the ridge.
Hooker advanced from Lookout Mountain
across the valley and attacked the left. The
battle raged all day, but the Confederates
held the position until late in the after-
noon, when the center was weakened by
withdrawals to support the left and right.
It was then that Grant, watching the
progress of the tight from Orchard Knob,
■ ordered forward the Army of the Cumber-
land, under Thomas. Wood's and Sheridan's
divisions charged the Confederate center.
The brigades of Hazen and Willich were in
advance. Darkness came on, when the Con-
federates retreated. Pursuit was stopped
when the ridge was won. The Confederates
lost more than 9,000, including 6,000 pris-
oners. Forty pieces of artillery and 7,000
stand of small arms fell into the hands of
the victors. The Federal casualties in the
Chattanooga campaign between Nov. 24 and
Nov. 29 were 753 killed, 4,722 wounded, and
349 missing — a total of 5,824.
Missions Boundary Dispute, evidence
presented to President of United
States as arbitrator by Argentine
Eepublic and Brazil, 5867.
Award of, discussed, 6058.
Mississippi. — One of the southern group of
states ; nickname, "The Bayou State." It
Is named for the Mississippi Eiver and ex-
tends from lat. 30° 10' to 35° north and
from long. 88° 5' to 91° 40' -west. It is
bounded on the north by Tennessee, on
the east by Alabama, on the south by the
Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, and on the
west by Louisiana and Arkansas (sepa-
rated by the Mississippi Eiver), and has
an area of 46,865 square miles.
The region was visited by De Soto in
1540, and a settlement was attempted by
the French undi?r Iberville at Blloxi in
1699. The territory was ceded by France
to Great Britain in 1763. Fart was ceded
to the United States in 1783 and the re-
mainder was acquired in 1803. The Terri-
tory of Mississippi was organized in 1798
and admitted as a State in 1817. It se-
ceded Jan. 9, 1861, and was readmitted
Feb. 17, 1870. The State has a semi-trop-
ical climate and rich soil.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 274,382, comprising
18,557,553 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $426,314,634. The aver-
age value of land per acre was $13.69, an
increase from $6.30 in 1900. The value of
domestic animals, poultry, etc., was $75,-
247,033. ^
The last annual agricultural production
■was i-eported as follows : —
Crop
Acreage
Bushels Value
Cotton .
2,950,000
946,000a$177,375,000
Corn . . ,
.3,980,000
59,700,000 95,520,000
Hay
. 405,000
648,000b 13,285,000
Sweet Po-
tatoes. ,
. 98,000
10,290,000 11,525,000
Potatoes.
. - 18,000
1,530,000 2,830,000
Oats . . .
278,000
5,282,000 5,454,000
a-bales
; b-tons.
Latest figures indicate that the farm ani-
mals comprise 261,000 horses, valued at
$29,493,000; 322,000 mules, $48,944,000;
571,000 cows, $35,402,000 ; 716,000 other
cattle, $16,826,000 ; 175,000 sheep, $1,102,-
000 ; and 2,396,000 swine, $34,742,000.
There is little mining. The last annual
wool clip was 656,000 pounds.
There are 3,975 miles of steam railway
and 79 miles of electric line. The Missis-
sippi River and the Gulf Coast provide natu-
ral facilities for transit. The population in
1910 was 1,797,114. The 1920 census gave
it as 1,789,384.
Of the population in 1910, 789,627 were
whites and 1,009,487 were colored. There
were less than 10,000 foreign-born. The
urban population -was only 11%% of the
total.
Late figures show that there 10,953 teach-
ers, of whom 2,924 are men, in the public
elementary schools. There are 492,756
teachers. There are 167 high schools,
which have 570 teachers and 10,323 pupils.
The number of manufacturing estahlish-
ments in Mississfppi having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the begin-
ning of 1915 was 2,209. The amount of
capital invested was $81,005,000, giving em-
ployment to 52,277 persons, using material
valued at $41,340,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $79,550,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $23,008,000.
Mississippi (see Confederate States):
Aaron Burr surrenders to officers in
Territory of, 409.
Act endowing church in, vetoed, 475.
Act to authorize special term of cir-
cuit court of XTnited States in,
to be held in Scranton, vetoed,
4440.
Citizens of Territory of, must be pro-
tected, 372.
Combinations, unlawful in, proclama-
tion against, 4276.
Mississippi
Encyclopedic Index
Mississippi
Consolidation of Territory of, dis-
cussed, 426.
Elections in, and complications grow-
ing out of, proclamation regarding,
4276.
Fifteenth amendment, action of, on,
referred to, 4001.
Lands granted to, in aid of railroads
referred to, 3580.
Lands in Territory of, claimed by
Great Britain, 438.
Laws of Territory of, referred to,
292, 303.
Legislative council for —
Dissolved by governor of, 445.
Nomination of, 445.
Memorial from, regarding alleged
violation of treaty by United
States transmitted, 2003.
Nomination for council of, 445.
Offices in. President Jackson Befuses
to make further nominations for,
1199.
Provisional governor for, appointed
and restoration o£, into Union dis-
cussed, 3512.
Beeonstruction of —
' Eecommendations regarding, 3965.
Referred to, 4000.
Time for submitting constitution
to voters proclaimed, 3970.
Eeferred to, 3983.
Survey of towns in, referred to, 597.
Unlawful combinations in, proclama-
tion against, 4276.
Mississippi Bubble. — The gigantic com-
mercial scheme commonly known by this
name was projected in France by the cele-
brated financier, John Law, of- Edinburgh,
in 1717, and collapsed in 1720. Its pri-
mary object was to develop the resources
of the Province of Louisiana and the coun-
try bordering on the Mississippi, a tract at
that time believed to abound in the precious
metals. The company was Incorporated in
August, 1717, under the title of ''The Com-
pany of the West," and started with a capi-
tal of 200,000 shares of 500 livres each.
They obtained the exclusive privilege of
trading to the Mississippi, farming the
taxes and coining money. The prospectus
was so inviting that shares were eagerly
bought, and when, in 1719, the company
obtained the monopoly of trading to the
East Indies, China and the South Seas,
and all the possessions of the French East
India Company, the brilliant vision opened
up to the public gaze was irresistible. The
"Company of the Indies," as it was now
called, created 50,000 additional shares ; but
a rage for speculation had seized all classes,
and there were at least 300,000 applicants
for the new shares, which consequently rose
to an enormous premium. Law, as director-
feneral, promised an annual dividend of
00 livres per share, which, as the shares
^were paid for in the depreciated WUets
d'etat, amounted to an annual return of
120 per cent. The public enthusiasm now
rose to an absolute frenzy, and Law's house
and the street in front of it were daily
crowded by applicants of both sexes and
of all ranks, who were content to wait for
hours — nay, for days together — in order to
obtain an interview with the modern Piutus.
B-4
While confidence lasted a factitious Im-
pulse was given to trade in Paris, the
value of manufactures was increased four-
fold, and the demand far exceeded the sup-
ply. The population Is said to have been
increased by hundreds of thousands, many
of whom were glad to take shelter in
garrets, kitchens and stables. But the
Regent had meanwhile caused the paper
circulation of the National Bank to be in-
creased as the Mississippi scheme stock
rose in value, and many wary speculators,
foreseeing a crisis, had secretly converted
their paper and shares into gold, which
they transmitted to England or Belgium
for safety. The increasing scarcity of gold
and silver becoming felt, a general run
was made on the bank. The Mississippi
stock now fell considerably, and despite all
efforts continued to fall steadily and rapid-
ly. In 1720 the National Bank and the
Company of the Indies were amalgamated,
but, though this gave an upward turn to
the share marljet, it failed to put the public
credit on a sound basis. The crisis came
at last. In July, 1720, the bank stopped
payment, and Law was compelled to fiee
the country. The French government was
very nearly overturned and widespread
financial distress and bankruptcy followed
the collapse of the project.
Mississippi Eiver:
Act to remove obstructions to navi-
gation in mouth of, vetoed, 2919.
Appropriations for, 768, 934, 2124.
Breakwater near mouth of, referred
to, 988.
Bridge over, at Eoek Island, 111., and
La Crosse, "Wis., 4148.
Canalization of, from St. Paul to St.
Louis, 7465.
Channel at mouth of, to be deepened,
3019.
Condition of, near Vicksburg, Miss.,
referred to, 4082.
Defense of, provision for, recommend-
ed, 394.
Delta of, surveys of, referred to,
2666.
Exploration' of country west of, re-
ferred to, 2261.
Grants to James B. Eads for construc-
tion of jetties in, order regarding,
4282.
Improvements of, recommendations
regarding, 4571, 4647, 4682, 4781.
Appropriation for, 768, 934, 2124.
Improvement of South Pass of, dis-
cussed, 4362, 4524, 4638.
Indian trade on, 341.
Levees —
Government support of, 7005.
^'reservation of, recommendations
concerning, 3652, 4682, 4797.
Mail route from California to, recom-
mended, 2992.
Navigation on —
Appropriation for improving, 934,
2124.
Treaty with Spain, regarding, 106,
110, 164.
Mississippi
Encyclopedic Index
Missouri
Plan for reclamation of alluvial basin
of, subject to inundation, 4257,
4272.
Eailroad from Pacific Ocean to, rec-
ommended, 2714, 2754.
Eeferred to, 1104, 1196.
Eesolution in relation to removal of
obstructions to navigation in, rea-
sons for applying pocket veto to,
31S8.
Survey of —
Appropriation for, 768.
Near completion of, referred to,
677.
Surveys of mouth of, 1500.
Mississippi Biver Commission:
Appropriation for protection of levees
recommended by, 4682, 4797.
Eeport of, discussed, 4784.
Missouri. — One of the central western
group of states ; nickname, "Bullion
State ;" motto, "Salus popuU suprema
lex esto" ("Let the people's safety
be the supreme law"). It takes its name
from the Missouii River, which in turn Is
named after a tribe of Indians belonging
to the Siouan family. The State Is in-
cluded between lat. 36° and 40° 30' north
and long. 89° 2' and 95° 44' west. It Is
bounded on the north by Iowa, on the east
by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee (sepa-
rated b.v the Mississippi), on the south by
Arkansas, and on the west by the Indian
Territory, Kansas, and Nebraska (sepa-
rated in part by the Missouri River), and
has an area of 69,420 square miles.
Slaughtering and meat-packing are the most
important industries, the manufacture of
tobacco ranking second.
The territory was first settled at St.
Genevieve by the French In 1755, was ceded
to Spain in 1763, ceded back to France in
1800, and was ceded by France to the
United States in 1803, forming part of the
Louisiana Purchase. Missouri Territory
was formed in 1812 and admitted to the
Union as a State in 1821.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms In the State at 277,244, comprising
34,591,248 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $2,052,917,488. The av-
erage value of land per acre was $41.80,
an increase from $20.46 in 1900. The value
of domestic animals, poultry, etc., was
$285,839,108, including 2,561.482 cattle,
valued at $72,883,664; 1,073,387 horses,
$113,976,563 ; 342,700 mules, $43,438,702 ;
4,438,194 swine, $31,937,573; 1,811,268
sheep, $7,888,828 ; poultry, 20,897,208, val-
ued at $11,870,972.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows : —
Crop Acreage , Bushels Value
Corn ..5,756,000 155,410,000 $214,470,000
Wheat .4,295,000 57,886,000 120,980,000
Hay ...2,810,000 3,795,000a 73,980,000
Oats ...1,415,000 38,260,000 27,165,000
Potatoes 110,000 8,250,000 15,180,000
Cotton . . 111,000 60,000b 10,200,000
Tobacco 3,300 2,970,000c 942,000
a-tons ; b-bales ; c-pounds.
The latest figures for farm animals com-
prise 4,305,000 hogs, valued at $71,032,-
000 ; 919.000 cows, $72,600,000 ; 1,746,000
other cattle, $85,380,000; 1,525,000 sheep,
$18,148,000 ; 1,040,000 horses, $86,320,000 ;
378,000 mules, $45,360,000. It will be seen
from these figures that the raising of
stock, especially hogs, Is an Important ac-
tivity in the state. The last annual wool
clip was 7,614,000 pounds.
In a recent year, the production of lead
was 210,440 short tons ; and of zinc, 136,-
300 short tons. The last annual coal pro-
duction was 5,605,000 net tons. Other Im-
portant mineral products are stone and
granite, and cement.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Missouri having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the beginning
of 1915 was 8,386. The amount of capital
Invested was $522,548,000, giving employ-
ment to 188,266 persons, using material
valued at $388,715,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $637,952,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to more than
$125,000,000.
In 1910, the population was 3,2^3,335.
Of this, 157,452 were negroes, and 228,896
were foreign-born. Including 88,224 Ger-
man, 21,401 Russian and 23,290 Irish.' Of
the total population, 42%% was urban.
The 1920 federal census gave the population
as 3,403,547.
There are 20,667 teachers in the public
elementary schools, with 906,^55 enrolled
pupils. There arc 631 public high schools,
with 2,600 teachers and 52,468 enrolled
students.
Missouri (see also Springfield):
Admission of, into Union, proelaiined,
664.
Bank of. (See Bank of Missouri.)
Boundaries of, extended, 1493.
Boundary line with Iowa, dispute re-
specting, 1175, 1777, 1788.
Defalcation of officers in, 941, 970.
Indian titles to lands in, extinguished,
769, 1538.
Joint resolution placing troops of, on
footing with others as to bounties,
reasons for applying pocket veto to,
3733.
Judicial districts of, 6733.
Lead mines in, 711, 931.
Military forces to be raised by gov-
ernor of, for suppression of rebel-
lion in, 3241.
Order regarding, 3243.
Eailroads in, to be made available for
military uses of Government, 3317.
Security of trade with Mexico, dis-
cussed, 1036.
Troops of, orders respecting inspec-
tion of records of, 3433.
Missouri, The, loss of, by fire, referred
to, 2122.
Aid rendered, by British authorities
at Gibraltar, 2123.
Missouri Compromise. — An agreement
relative to the question of slavery embodied
in a bill passed by Congress March 2, 1820,
and in the act admitting Missouri, Feb.
28, 1821. Upon the Introduction into Con-
gress during the session of 1818-19 of a
bill providing for the admission of Missouri
as a state, but prohibiting slavery therein,
the opposition on the part of the Southern
members became violent and threatening.
Missouri
Encyclopedic Index
Mobile Bay
and after long and brilliant debates a
compromise. was effected, chiefly througli the
efforts of Henry Clay, fiepreseutative Tall-
madge, of New York, in February, 18ii),
proposed an amendment declaring all chil-
dren born after the admission of the state
to be free. This was modifled to make all
children born slaves free at twenty-five.
The House passed the bill with this amend-
ment, but the Senate refused to concur.
Next year the bill passed the House again
In the same form. The Senate voted to ad-
mit Maine provided Missouri was admitted
as a slave state. The House rejected the
proposal. Representative Thomas, of Illi-
nois, proposed as a compromise the admis-
sion of Missouri as a slave state provided
that in future slavery s'hould be prohibited
in all the territory forming part of the
I.ouisiana Purchase north of 36° SW, the
southern boundary of the new state. This
was agreed to. On the question as to when
the compromise was abandoned, whether be-
fore or at the passage of the Kansas-Ne-
braska bill in 1854, parties and sections
have been divided. When Missouri's con-
stitution was laid before Congress it was
found that It contained clauses excluding
free negroes from the state. The House
therefore refused to admit Missouri. Clay
effected a further compromise whereby Mis-
souri agreed not to deprive of his rights
any citizen of another state.
Missouri Compromise, discussed, 2457,
2491, 2878.
Missouria Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Missouria Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
IHitteleuropa. — This term, first coming In-
to general European public usage in 1904,
describes those political and economic am-
bitions of Germany bound up in a German
domination of Central Europe. The Ger-
man expounders of the Mitteleuropa (Cen-
tral Europe) ambition based their arguments
on the previous recent existence of three
great national world-infiuences — namely,
the British, the Yankee (to use the nomen-
clature of such expounders), and the Slavic,
or Russian. They claimed that the day
of independent and small nationalities was
past, but that the world was not yet ready
for the union of all the nations of
world into one federation, so that the next
step in international development was In-
evitably the union of certain nations of
similar stock and purposes Into a large
national confederation. A glance at the
map will show how the political union of
Germany and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria
and Turkey created a broad belt of German
influence throughout central Europe, and
the aim of the German political offensive,
both before and after the outbreak of the
World War, was to add to that belt by
strengthening German influence in the Bal-
kans and to weaken Russian influence in
southern Europe, while every student of
that war will recognize the military
strength Inherent in Germany's homogene-
ous position In the geographical heart of
Europe.
Mob Violence (see also Lynchings) —
Claims of British subjects for dam-
ages sustained by, in Colorado,
6866.
Consequences of, 7055.
Deplored, 8391, 8556.
Italian subjects killed by, reparation
for, 6731.
Opinions on, 7030.
Mobile, Alabama; population (est.),
60,000.
Achievements of Federal forces in
harbor of, and orders respecting
celebration of, 3439.
Collection district of, established, 357.
Object of. misunderstood by Spain,
358.
Mobile and Dauphin Island Bailroad
and Harbor Co., act regarding grant
of right to, to construct trestle be-
tween Cedar Point and Dauphin Is-
land, returned, 5784.
Mobile Bay (Ala.), Battle of.— Aug. 5,
1864, Itear-Admlral Farragut, lashed to the
rigging of the flagsfhip Hartford, passed the
forts and obstructions at the entrance to
Mobile Bay and captured the Confederate
ram Tennensee. Mobile Bay was defended
by Port Gaines, on the eastern end of
Dauphin Island, Fort Morgan, on the west-
ern extremity of Mobile Point, east of the
channel, and Fort Powell, situated on a
small island west of Dauphin. Forts Gaines
and Morgan commanded the main channel,
the former mounting '21 guns and the lat-
ter 48.
In the bay were the iron-clad ram Ten-
nessee and the gunboats Oaines, Morgan,
and Belma under the command of Admiral
Buchanan. The Tennessee was built on the
plan of the Merrimac. Her armament con-
sisted of G rifles — 2 pivots of 7 1-8 inches
bore and 4 six-inch broadsides. Obstruc-
tions and defense of all kinds had been
placed around the harbor and 30 torpedoes
were strung across the channel. Farragut's
fleet consisted of 14 wooden ships and 4
monitors, Gen. Gordon Granger had landed
4,000 Federal troops on Dauphin Island, in
the rear of Fort Gaines, to cooperate with
the fleet. The fleet got under way early in
the morning and before 7 o'clock the en-
gagement became general. The monitor
Tecumseh flred the first shot, and shortly
afterward struck a torpedo and sunk, with
her commander, Capt. Craven, and most
of her crew. Within an hour the other ves-
sels had passed the forts and met the gun-
boats and ram Inside the harbor. After a
severe contest the Tennessee surrendered at
10 o'clock. Farragut's loss was 165 killed
and drowned (113 of whom went down on
board the Tecumseh) and 170 wounded. The
Confederate loss was 8 or 10 killed and
wounded and 170 surrendered. Of the other
three Confederate vessels, the Morgan es-
caped up the bay, the Oaines was disabled,
and the Selma was captured with her crew
of 90 oflScers and men.
The night after the battle Fort Powell
was abandoned and blown up. Next day
Fort Gaines was shelled by the Chickasaw
and surrendered with 800 prisoners. Gran-
ger's troops were transferred to the rear of
Fort Morgan. Aug. 22 it was bombarded
and on the 23d It surrendered. With the
defenses of Mobile there were taken 104
guns and 1,464 men. Operations against
the city of Mobile were begun March 20,
1865. Two forts protected the city after
the passage into the harbor had been made.
Arrll 4 these were bombarded. Pour days
later another bombardment was begun, fol-
lowed In the evening by an assault. The
outer works were carried during the night
and preparations made to complete the con-
Mobile Bay
Encyclopedic Index
Money
quest next day, but at 1 o'clock on the
morning of April 9 the garrison surrendered.
Mobile Point, Ala-, fortifieations at, rec-
ommeDded, 691.
Eeferred to, 695.
Mobile River:
Commerce passing through, obstruct-
ed by arbitrary duties and vexa-
tious researches; armed resistance
authorized, 372.
Modoc Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Modus Vivendi.— Literally, .i mode of liv-
ing. The terra is used in diplomatic rela-
tions to describe a tentative understanding
before a final treaty is concluded ; for ex-
ample see 5581.
Mohammedan Peoples:
Christians and, differences between,
along eastern coast of Adriatic Sea
referred to, 8836.
Turkey and, discussed, 8840.
Mobawk, The, capture of the WiUflre
with cargo of slaves, by, 3124.
Mohawk Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Mohican Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Mo-lal-la-las Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Mo-lel Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Molino del Eey (Mexico), Battle of.—
When the fortifications of Contreras and
Churubusco had been passed. Gen. Scott
took up his headquarters at Tacubaya, the
bishop's castle, overlooking the western ap-
proaches to the City of Mexico, and two
and one-half miles distant. The first formid-
able obstruction was El Molino del Rey
("The King's Mill"). Gen. "Worth's division
of 3,100 men was detailed for attack upon
this and its supporting fortiUcatlons, Casa
de Mata. These were stone buildings, strong-
ly fortified and ably defended, the Mexicans
contesting every foot of the ground. The
attack was made on the morning of Sept.
8. 1S47. After two hours' hard fighting the
works were carried and the army of Santa
Anna, 14,000 strong, driven back. The
Mexican loss was 2,200 killed and wounded
(among the former being Generals Valdarez
and Leon) and more than BOO* prisoners,
including 52 commissioned ofllcers. The
American loss was 116 (including 9 ofBcers)
killed, 605 (including 49 officers) wounded
and 18 missing. The magazine of Casa de
Mata was blown up, and Worth returned to
Tacubaya.
Monaco. — Monaco is a sovereign Principal-
ity on the coast of the Mediterranean, nine
miles east of Nice, and is enclosed on
three sides by the Alpes Maritimes depart-
ment of France. The total area is about
eight square miles. The last . census gave
the total population as 23,000. There is a
large visiting population.
Blstorii. — The Principality has been in
the possession of the noble Genoese family
of Grimaldi (now Goyon de Matignon-Gri-
mnldi) since the tenth century, with a
short break from 1793-1814. In 1814 inde-
pendence was again secured under the pro-
tection of Sardinia. In 1848 the towns of
Mentone and Roccabruna were annexed to
Sardinia, and in 1860 the protection was
transferred to Prance.
Government. — The Prince was an abso-
lute ruler until the promulgation of a Con-
stitution In 1911. Tne throne is hereditary
In the male line (and afterwards in the
female line) of the reigning house by
primogeniture, and the daughter of the
Heir-Apparent has been recognized as capa-
ble of succession falling other Issue. Ruler :
His Serene Highness Albert Honorg
Charles, Prince of Monaco, Duke of Va-
lentinois. Marquis des Baux, born Nov.
13, 1848 ; succeeded his father Sept. 10,
1889.
By the Constitution of Jan. 8, 1911, par-
liamentary representation and complete
civil liberty were established. There is a
Council of State and a National Council of
twenty-one members, elected by indirect
vote for four years.
.The Communes have each a Municipal
Council elected by voters of both • sexes.
Order Is maintained by a local police force
of about 150 men. There are no taxes
and rents are high, the product of the gam-
ing tables (to which none of the inhabi-
tants are allowed access) providing the
cost of public works and police.
Towns. — Capital, Monaco. Population,
2,247. La Condamine (11,082) and Monte
Carlo (9,627). The gaming establishment
Is at the last-named, the concessionaire (a
joint stock company) having paid 25,000,-
OOO francs (10,000,000 paid in 1899 and
15,000,000 in 1913) for the concession, and
a yearly tribute increasing by 250.000
francs every ten years to a maximum of
2,500,000 per annum in 1937. The conces-
sion expires in 1947. At the capital, which
occupies the rocky- summit of a headland,
is the Palace, and an Oceanographieal Mu-
seum, built by the Prince to accommodate
a collection made during thirty years of re-
search.
Monetary Commission:
Appointment of, discussed, 6250. '
Report of, 7683.
Monetary Convention of Latin Union,
Belgium declares its adhesion to,
4957.
Monetary Union, American. (See In-
ternational American Monetary
Union.)
Money. — The following table shows the
amount and kind of money in circulation
in the United States • on November 1,
1919 :—
Gold coin* $ 969,214,760
Gold certificates 424,439,732
Standard silver dollars 81,885,372
Silver certificates 156,135,714
Subsidiary silver 239,022,461
Treasury notes of 1890 1,709,093
United States notes 328,013,984
Federal reserve notes 2,738,944,522
Federal reserve bank notes . . 209,049,369
National bank notes 668,510,772
Total*'" $5,816,925,779
Circulation per capita $54.63
•Includes $454,217,620.60 credited to
Federal Reserve Banks in the gold settle-
ment fund deposited with the Treasurer of
the United States.
••The total in circulation, combined with
the amounts held m the Treasury, was
$7,721,561,106.
Money
Encyclopedic Index
Monroe
The following table shows the amount of
money in circulation in the United States
in recent years, on November 1 : —
1919 . . $5,816,925,779 1913 . . $3,417,109,678
1918.. 5,943,801,171 1912.. 3,328,106,400
1917.. 4,924,928,348 1911.. 3,254,966,451
1916.. 4,241,162,189 1910.. 3,180,084,499
1915.. .S,799, 531,052 1909.. 3,124,679,057
1914.. 3,715,522,306 1908.. 3,098,498,021
(See also Currency ; Finance ; Banks.)
Money, Continental. (See Continental
Money.)
Money, Foreign, Value of. (See For-
eign Money, Value of.)
Money Order System, discussed, 985,
4639, 4937, 5377, 5756, 5881, 5971.
Money Orders. (See Division of Money
Orders.)
Money Orders, International, discussed,
5881, 59Y1.
Money, Public. (See Eevenue, Public.)
Mongolia. — The large territory lying be-
tween China proper and Siberia, usually
considered a part of China. (See China.)
In 1913, it was placed by treaty under the
nominal protection of Russia, but with the
collapse of the Tsar's Government in Russia
in 1917 that treaty became inoperative.
Monitor, The. (See Hampton Eoads,
(Va.), Battle of.)'
Monitor, The, engagement with the
Merrimac, discussed, 3313.
Monmouth (N. J.), Battle of.— An im-
portant conflict of the Revolutionary War,
fought during the afternoon of June 28,
1778, at Wenrock Creek, Monmouth County,
N. J., Gen. Washington in command of the
Americans and Sir Henry Clinton command-
ing the British June 18 Clinton left Phila-
delphii for New York with 11,000 men and a
large supply train. Washington pursued him
with about 20,000 men. After some prelim-
inary skirmishing, in which the Americans,
led by Gen. Charles Lee, second in command,
retreated, a general battle occurred. The
British were defeated and drew off under
cover of night, leaving about 300 dead
on the field. The Americans lost 288. less
than 70 of whom were killed. An incident
of the battle was Washington's Severe repri-
mand of Gen. Charles Lee, which resulted in
the la Iter's final dismissal. Lee had op-
posed bringing on the battle, but when his
advice was respected in the council of war.
asked and obtained the right to lead off in
t'lie engagement.
Monocacy (Md.), Battle of.— Gen. Hun-
' ter succeeded Gen. Sigel in command of
the Federal forces in the Shenandoah Val-
ley in June, 1864. Ben. Early was de-
tached from Lee's army at Richmond and
sent to reenforce Gen. Breckinridge, who
commanded the Confederate forces in the
valley. Hunter retired westward across
the mountains, leaving Washington unpro-
tected. Lee thereupon reenforced Karly, in-
creasing his strength to 20.000. and or-
dered him to threaten Washington, in the
hope of eompellin.? Grant to withdraw some
of the troops before Richmond and Peters-
burg. The Sixth Corps, under Wright, was
sent to defend Washington, with the Nme-
teenth Corps, which arrived from Hampton
Roads. July 6 Early reached Hagerstown
and moved a strong column toward Fred-
erick, whereupon Gen. Lew Wallace ad-
vanced from Baltimore with a force of 6,000
men. He encountered Early on the 9 th at
Monocacy, Md., and for eight hours resisted
his advance, but was finally defeated, with
a loss of 98 killed, 579 wounded, and 1.282
missing. The Confederate loss was stated
by Gen. Early at from 600 to 700. includ-
ing the cavalry.
Monometallism. (See Bimetallism.)
Monopolies (see also Anti-Trust Law
and Anti-Trust Legislation):
Competition and, discus.sed, 8040.
Failures more common than successes
in attempt to create, 7451.
Eegulation of, in power of Congress,
6712.
Trusts and evils of, discussed and rec-
ommedations concerning, 5358, 5478,
6176, 7131, 7650, 7647, 7914, 8040.
(See also Trusts.)
Water power, 7157.
Monroe, James. — 1817-1825.
(FIKST TERM, 1817-1821.)
Eighth Administration — Democratic-Repub-
lican.
Yice-President—Daniel D. Tompkins.
Secretary of State —
John Quincy Adams.
Secretary of the Treasury —
William H. Crawford.
Secretary of War —
George Graham.
John C. Calhoun.
Secretary of the Navy —
B. W. Crowninshield (continued).
Smith Thompson.
Attorneu-General —
Richard Rush (continued).
William Wirt.
Postmaster-General — ■ /
Return J. Meigs.
Nomination. — James Monroe was elected
by the Republican party in 1816 and 1820.
In the election of 1816 Monroe and Daniel
D. Tompkins were the nominees of the Re-
publican Congressional caucus. The Fed-
eralists supported Rufus King for Presi-
dent, with no Vice-Presidential candidate.
Vote. — ^The election took place Nov 5.
The electoral vote, counted Feb. 12, 1817,
ffave Monroe 183 and King 34 ; Tomp-
kins received 183 votes for Vice-Presi-
dent, and Howard, 22. Ninei-een states
took part in this election, Indiana for the
first time. King's vote was received from
the New England States, where the elec-
tors were chosen by the legislatures. Had
the people voted there, it is more than
probable that they would have expressed
approval of the course of the administra-
tion in the War of 1812, which the Fed-
eralists opposed.
Party Afllliniion. — In the Virginia contest
over the adoption of the Constitution, Mon-
roe stood beside Henry in opposition, and
consented to the ratification only upon the
adoption of certain amendments. In the
Senate he was a prominent Anti-Federal-
ist and a most determined opponent of
the Washington administration. On the
publication of Monroe's pamphlet, "A View
of the Conduct of the Executive," in 1796,
he became the hero of the Anti-Federal-
ists and was made governor of Virginia
(1799-1802). Eventually, by his great pop-
ularity, he came to fill almost every ex-
Monroe
Encyclopedic Index
Monroe
alted station to which a politician might
aspire.
Political Complexion of Congress. — In the
Fifteenth Congress (1817-1819) the Sen-
ate, of 44 members, was made up of 10
Federalists and 34 Democrats ; and the
House, of 185 members, was made up of
57 Federalists and 128 Democrats. In the
Sixteenth Congress (1810-1821) tue Senate,
of 46 members, was made up of 10 Fed-
eralists and 36 Democrats ; and the House,
of 187 members, was made up of 42 Fed-
eralists and 145 Democrats. In the Seven-
teenth Congress (1821-1823) the Senate.
of 48 members, v^as made up of 7 Federal-
ists and 41 Democrats ; and the House, of
187 members, was made up of 58 Federal-
ists and 129 Democrats. In the Eighteenth
Congress (1823-1825) the Senate, of 48
members, was made up of 40 Democrats
and 8 Whigs ; and the House, of 213 mem-
bers, was made up of 72 Federalists and
141 Democrats.
(SECOND TEEM, 1821-1825.)
Ninth Administration — Democratic-Republi-
can.
Vice-President — Daniel D. Tomplslns.
Secretary of State —
John Quincy Adams (continued).
Secretary of the Treasury —
William H. Crawford (continued).
Secretary of War —
John C. Calhoun (continued).
Secretary of the Navy —
Smith Thompson (continued).
John Rogers (President of Navy Com-
mittee Sept. 1-Sept. 16, 1823).
Samuel J. Southard.
Attornev-Oeneral —
William Wirt (continued).
Postmaster-Oeneral —
Return J. Meigs (continued).
John McLean.
SECOND TERM.— In the election of 1820,
no candidates wpre chosen by Congres-
sional caucus, as there was no opposition
to Monroe and Tompkins.
Yote. — The election was held Nov. 7.
The electoral vote, counted Feb. 14, 1821,
fave Monroe all of the votes but one. It
s, said that the opposing vote was cast
by ^a New Hampshire elector for John
Quincy Adams, in order that Washington
alone might have the glory of a unanimous
election. Twenty-four states toolc part in
this election — Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama,
Maine, and Missouri having been recently
added to the Union.
Internal Improvements. — On this ques-
tion the attitude of Monroe was the same
as that of Jefferson and Madison. He held
that there was no doubt of the desirability
and necessity of contributions from the
Federal Government to works of this na-
ture ; but that the Constitution did not
confer upon the Federal CJovernment the
right of making them (pages 587 and 759)
without an amendment to the Constitution,
which he favored. On this groimd, while
appreciating the need of the work, he
vetoed the bill making appropriations to
the Improvement of the Cumberland road
in 1822.
PtMic Deit.—The public debt of the
United States during the administration of
Monroe stood as follows; Jan. 1, 1818,
$10,S, 466.633. 83 ; 1819, $95,529,648.28 ;
1820, ,1191,015,566.15: 1821, $89,987,427.66;
1822, $93,546,676.98 ; 1823. $90,875,877.28 ;
1824, $90,269,777.77; 1825, $83,788,432.71.
Tariff.— The act of April 20, 1818, "to
increase the duties on certain manufac-
tured articles imported Into the United
States" affected such articles as are manu-
factured from copper or in which copper
is the article of greatest value, silver-
plated harness, coach and harness furniture,
cut glass, tacks, brads, springs, and brown
and white Russia sheeting. Another act,
on the same day, increased the duties on
iron in bars and bolts, iron in pigs, cast-
ings, nails, and alum. An act of March
3, 1819, regulated the duties on certain
wines. In his Fifth Annual Message (,page
675) President Monroe says: *'It may be
fairly presumed that under the protection
given to domestic manufactures by the ex-
isting laws we shall become at no distant
period a manufacturing country on an
extensive scale. Possessing as we do the
raw materials in such vast amount, with a
capacity to augment them to an indefinite
extent ; rising within the country aliment
of every kind to an amount far exceeding
the demand for home consumption, even
in the most unfavorable years, and to be
obtained always at a very moderate price ;
skilled also as our people are in the me-
chanic arts and in every improvement cal-
culated to lessen the demand for and the
price of labor, It is manifest that their
success in every branch of domestic indus-
try may and will be carried, under the
encouragement given by the present du-
ties, to an extent to meet any demand
which under a fair competition may be
made upon it." In his Sixth Annual Mes-
sage (page 760) he says: "... it appears
that our manufactures, though depressed
immediately after the peace, have consid-
erably increased, and are still Increasing,
under the encouragement given them by
the tariff of 1816 and by subsequent laws.
Satisfied I am . . . that there are other
strong reasons applicable to our situation
and relations with other countries which
impose on us the obligation to cherish and
sustain our manufactures. Satisfied,' how-
ever, I likewise am that the interest ' of
every part of the Union, even of those most
benefited by manufactures, requires that
this subject .should be touched with the
greatest caution, and a critical knowledge
of the effect to be produced by the slight-
est change." Again, In his Seventh Annual
Message (page 784) he reiterates his views
and adds : "... I recommend a review of
the tariff for the purpose of affording such
additional protection to those articles
which we are prepared to manufacture, or
which are more immediately connected with
the defense and Independence of the coun-
try."
Foreign PoUcy.—The foreign policy of
the Monroe administration has become fa-
mous under the name of the Monroe Doc-
trine. This attitude toward foreign in-
terference in the Western Hemisphere is
contained in two paragraphs in the Sev-
enth Annual Message (page 787) sent to
Congress Dec. 2, 1823. Very similar sen-
timents were expressed by President Madi-
son In a message to Congress In 1811 (page
473) : and John Quincy Adams, a member
of Monroe's Cabinet, and with whom Mon-
roe consulted, is also credited with origi-
nating these views. In its practical appli-
cation, the policy upholds opposition from
the United States against foreign con-
quest of any part of America.
Regarding^the relations of the United
States with Europe, President Monroe savs
in his First Annual Message (page 584) •
"A strong hope is entertained that by ad-
hering to the maxims of a Just, a candid,
and friendly policy, we may long preserve
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Monroe
Encyclopedic Index
Monroe Doctrine
amicable relations, with all of the powers
of Europe on conditions advantageous and
honorable to our country."
Commercf. — ^The commercial status of the
United States during the administration
, of President Monroe may be shown by
statistics for the year 1820, here given :
Area, 2,059,043 sq. miles : Dopulation,
9,638,453 ; population per oy. mile, 4.68 ;'
total monev in eircul.ition, $67,100,000 ; im-
ports, $74,450,000; exports, $69,691,-
669 ; ships built, 51,394 tons ; vessels in
deep sea trade, 619,048 tons ; vessels in
coastwise trade, 660,065 tons ; post-offlces,
4,500'.
Slavery. — In his Third Annual Message
(page 631) President Monroe, in describ-
ing the means taken to put down the
slave trade, says : "It is hoped that these
vigorous measures, supported by like acts
by other nations, will soon terminate a
commerce so disgraceful to the civilized
world." In a special message (page 632)
he recommends that slaves taken from the
cargoes of slavers be sent back to Africa
and not retained in the United States.
Monroe, James:
Accounts and claims of, discussed by,
846.
Eeferred to, 889.
Annual messages of, 580, 608, 623,
642, 667, 754, 776, 817.
Biographical sketch of, 572.
Constitutional amendment regarding,
internal improvements recommend-
ed by, 587, 759.
Coarespondence and manuscripts of,
unpublished, purchase of, referred
to, 5671.
Discretionary power of President
over nominations, removals, and
other acts discussed by, 847.
Finances discussed by, 584, 613, 629,
646, 675, 756, 761, 780, 785, 822.
Foreign policy discussed by, 573, 582,
624, 627, 639, 672, 685, 762, 787,
791, 817, 829.
Inaugural address of —
First, 573.
Second, 655.
Internal improvements discussed by,
587, 711, 713, 759.
Minister to —
France, nomination of, 148.
Negotiate treaty with Spain, nomi-
nation of, 339.
Settled differences with Great Brit-
ain, nomination of, 390.
Monroe Doctrine. (See Monroe Doe-
trine.)
Oath of office, notifies Congress of,
time and place of taking, .573.
Portrait of, 571.
Power of legislation in District of
Columbia should be taken from
Congress and vested in people, 616.
Powers of Federal and State Govern-
ments discussed by, 587, 711, 713.
Proclamations of — ■
Admission of Missouri, 664.
Agreement with Great Britain for
force on Great Lakes, 605.
Discriminating duties suspended
on vessels of —
Bremen, 606.
France, 752.
Hamburg. 607.
Lubeck, 642.
Norway, 665.
Oldenburg, 666.
Extraordinary session of Senate,
856.
Importation of plaster of Paris, re-
strictions on, removed, 603, 605.
Lands, sale of, 580.
Ports opened to vessels of Great
Britain, 753.
Eeward for murder of William
Seaver, 663.
Reduction in peace establishment dis-
cussed by, 698.
Eequest of House for documents con-
cerning public officers, refused by,
698.
Secretary of State, 476.
South American Provinces, message
of, regarding independence of, 685.
State of Union discussed by, 623,
642, 667, 776, 791, 817.
Tariff discussed by, 675, 760, 784.
Veto message of, regarding repair of
Cumberland road, 711.
Monroe DocSrine. — After the overthrow of
Napoleon, France, Russia. Prussia and Aus-
tria formed the so-called Holy Alliance in
September, 1815, for the suppression of
revolutions within each other's dominions
and for perpetuating peace. The Spanish
colonies in America having revolted, it was
rumored that this alliance contemplated
their subjugation, although the United
States had acknowledged their independence.
George Canning, English Secretary of State,
proposed that England and America unite
to oppose such intervention. On consulta-
tion with Jeilerson, Madison. John Quincy
Adams, and Calhoun, Monroe, in his annual
message to Congress in 1823 (page 787),
embodied the conclusions of these deliber-
ations In what has since been known as
the Monroe Doctrine.
Referring to the threatened intervention
of the powers, the message declares : "We
owe it, therefore, to candor arid to the
amicable relations existing between the
United States and those powers to declare
that we should consider any attempt on
their part to extend their system to any
portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to
our peace and safety. With the existing
colonies or dependencies of any European
power we have not interfered and shall not
interfere. But with the Government who
have declared their independence, and main-
tained it, and whose independence we have,
on great consideration and on just prin-
ciples, acknowledged, we could not view any
interposition for the purpose of oppressing
them, or controlling in any other manner
their destiny, by any European power in
any other light than as the manifestation
of an unfriendly disposition toward the
United States." The promulgation of this
doctrine is accredited to Mr. Monroe, but
Jan. 3, 1811, the principle was substantially
Monroe Doctrine
Encyclopedic Index
Montana
enunciated by Mr. Madison. In a message
to Congress on that date (page 473), while
discussing a threat of Gieat Britain to take
possession of a portion of Florida claimed
by Spain, he used these words : "I recom-
mend to the consideration of Congress the
seasonabieness of a declaration that the
United States could not see, without serious
inquietude, any part of a neighboring ter-
ritory in which they have In different re-
spects so deep and so Just a concern pass
from the hands of Spain into those of any ,
other foreign power."-
The practical application of this doctrine
goes no further than to place the United
States in opposition to any possible attempt
of any European power to subjugate or
take possession In whole or in part of any
American country. The principle involved
was cieariji set forth by Secretary of State
Richard Oiney in his dispatch of July 20,
1895, on the Venezuelan Boundary dispute.
He stated that the Monroe Doctrine "does
not establish any general protectorate by
the United States jver other American
states. It does not relieve any American
state from its obligations as fixed by inter-
national law, nor prevent any European
power directly interested from enforcing
such obligations or from inflicting merited
punishment for the breach of them."
This interpretation of the Monroe Doc-
trine has been upheld in the most emphatic
manner by President Roosevelt in many of
his public speeches and his messages to
Congress in which he states that any well-
merited punishment inflicted by a European
power upon an American state does not
violate the Monroe Doctrine, provided that
such punishment does not involve any oc-
cupation, either permanent or temporary,
of American territory.
Monroe Doctrine, 473, 787, 829.
Analysis of, 8282.
Armed force necessary to maintain,
6664, 6805, 6925.
A guarantee of peace, 6994.
Assertion of, during Kussian negotia-
tions over Northwest coast, 778,
787.
Explained by Secretary Eoot to Con-
ference of American Republics at
Rio Janeiro, 7059.
Facsimile, opposite 619.
Germany assaulted by, 8290.
Hague Peace Conference assents to,
6664.
International i>olice duty by the
United States involved by, 6923.
League of Nations provision guaran-
teeing, 8679.
Mexico and South America ask aid of
United States under, 907.
Obligations under, 6996.
Of the v^orld, the basis of perpetual
peace, 8203.
Reasserted by President —
Adams, J. Q., 900-1, 904.
Buchanan, 3043, 3177.
Cleveland, 6064, 6087.
Grant, 4015, 4054, 4083.
Polk, 2248, 2390^ 2432.^
Roosevelt, 6664,
Taft, 7415, 7772.
Tyler, 2065.
Wilson, 8103.
Reassertion of, need of, vanishing,
7415.
Referred to, 907.
Santo Domingo 's status under, 6997.
South American misunderstanding of,
7058.
Territorial aggression by U. S. not
covered by, 6995.
Montana. — One of the western group of
states ; nickname, "Mountain State ;" motto,
"Oro y Plata" (Gold and Silver"). It Is
included between lat. 45° and 49°
north and long. 104° and 116° west. It
is bounded on the north by British America,
on the east by the Dakotas, on the south by
Wyoming and Idaho, and on the west by
Idaho, and has an area of 146,997 square
miles. Gold, silver and copper are exten-
sively mined and stock raising is an im-
portant occupation.
Montana was first entered in 1743 by
the Chevalier de la Verendrye who discov-
ered the Rocky Mountains, but no attempt
was made at a settlement. Montana formed
part of the Louisiana Purchase, and the
greater part of it was included in the
Nebraska Territory. Montana Territory was
organized in 1861 and admitted as a State
in 1889.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 26,214, comprisiflg
13,645,603 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at ,$347,828,770. The value
of domestic animals, poultry, etc., was $85,-
663,187, including 943,li7 cattle, valued at
$27,474,122; 315,956 horses, $27,115,764;
4,174 mules, $445,278 ; 99,261 stwine. $838,-
829; 5,380,746 sheep, $29,028,069.
Figures for the last annual agricultural
production were as follows : —
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Wheat ...2,221,000 10,729,000 $25,214,000
Corn 128,000 1,728,000 2,851,000
Potatoes . 47,000 2,820,000 4,512,000
Hay 752,000 827,000a 19,021,000
Oats 612,000 6,120,000 5,569,000
Flax 410,000 697,000 3,067,000
a-tons.
There is also a considerable production
of flax, and fruit-raising has become in-
creasingly important.
The latest figures give the farm animals
as follows : — Sheep, 2,701,000, valued at
$28,747,000 ; horses, 518,000, $31,080,000 ;
cows, 180,000, $14,940,000 ; other cattle,
936,000, $47,362,000 ; swine, 160,000, $3,-
200,000. Montana leads the states in the
production of wool, the last annual wool
clip being 17,751,000 pounds.
Montana also Is one of the leading states
in mineral production, especjaily copper.
In a recent year more than 350,000,000
pounds of copper were produced, 17,000,000
pounds of lead, 16,500,000 fine ounces of
silver, 220,000 fine ounces of gold, and $31,-
000,000 worth of zinc. About 4,275,000
tons of coal are mined every year.
In 1910, the population was 376,053. In
1920 the figure was 547,593. Of the popula-
tion in 1910, less than 2,000 were negroes
and the foreign-born numbered 91,644.
Latest educational statistics show 112,-
525 children in the public elementary
schools and 10.164 pupils in the public
high schools. There were 712 male and
4,451 female teachers.
Montana
Encyclopedic Index
Monterey
Montana:
Act-
Erecting Territory of, into survey-
ing district, etc., vetoed, 3624.
Granting rigiit of way to railroads
through Indian reservations in,
vetoed, 5057.
Admission of, into Union, proclaimed,
5459.
Discussed, 5485.
Lands in —
Opened to settlement by proclama-
tion, 5727.
Set apart as public reservation by
proclamation, 6213, 6222, 6227.
Partial organization of, referred to,
3451.
Unlawful combinations in, proclama-
tion against, 5932.
Montauk Point, Long Island, lands ly-
ing on, referred to, 139.
Montenegro, — Montenegro Is situated In
the northwest of tlie Balkan rcnlnsula, be-
tween 42° 5'-43° 35' N. lat. and 18° 30'-
20° 50' E. long. The kingdom Is bounded
on the northeast by Servia, on the south-
east and east by Albania, and on the north
and west by the districts of Jugo-Slavla
known as Bosnia and Plerzegovina, and by
Dalmatla. In 1919, after the World War,
Montenegro was incorporated with Servia
and with South Slavic sections of the for-
iiuT empire of Austria-Hungary to form
the new nation of Jugo-Slavia, or Kingdom
of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. (See
Jugoslavia.) The area of Montenegro was
about 5,600 square miles.
Physical Features. — The country is gen-
erally mountainous. The valleys between
the various ranges contain fertile and well-
watered plains, and in the northwest are
rich, grassy uplands and finely wooded
slopes.
The principal rivers are the Zeta-Mo-
ratcha and the Tara-Piva. The Zeta is re-
markable for its disappearance in a subter-
ranean passage beneath a mountain range,
and its reappearance, several miles further
south, on the other side of the range. The
western halt of Lake Scutari is within the
boundaries of Montenegro, and there are
many small lakes in the northern mountains.
Hislory. — Montenegro was a province of
the old Servian Empire, which came to an
end after the battle of Kossovo (1389),
since which' date the country has always
claimed to be independent, a claim which
was persistently defended against the Turks
for nearly sir centuries. In 1878 the
Treaty of Berlin recognized the independ-
ence of the Principality, and on October
15-28, 1910, the National Skupshtina (or
Parliament) celebrated the fiftieth anni-
versary of the accession of Nicholas I. by
proclaiming the country a kingdom. The
crown is hereditary in the male line of the
house of Petrovitch J<I16goch, and the gov-
ernment is that of a constitutional mon-
archy. In October 1912 Montenegro de-
clared war against Turkey, and conducted
a vigorous dampaign in the northwestern
Albania, in conjunction with Servia. Bul-
garia and Greece; the second war of 1913
left her recent acquisitions unchanged.
(See Balkan Wars.)
Montenegro is closely connected with
Servia by race, language, political aspira-
tions and economic situatlo^il and when
Austria-Hungary declared war on Servia
in 1914, Montenegro at once threw in her
lot with Servia. (See World War.) Monte-
negro was occupied by the forces of the
Central Powers as part of their occupa-
tion of Servia in the winter of 1915-6, and
rpuLiined occupied until the end of hos-
tilities.
Ethnoffraphy. — The bulk of the popula-
tion (which is about 500,000) is of a
Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race,
with Albanians and nomadic gypsies In the
acquired region. The Montenegrin language
is Serbo-Croatian, with adopted words of
Turkish and Italian.
Production and Industry. — Agriculture Is
generally conducted by primitive methods,
the principal crops being maize, tobacco,
oats, potatoes, barley and buckwheat. There
Is much . vine-growing and cattle-raisingi
Much of the country is covered by forests,
but there is little cutting of timber be-
cause of the lack of transportation facilities.
The chief mineral found is coal.
The latest figures before the World War
showed Imports of $1,700,000 and exports
of $500,000.
Army. — All able-bodied Montenegrins be-
tween the ages of 18 and 62 (except Mo-
hammedan subjects, who pay a fine in lieu
of service) are liable for service in the
National Militia, which possesses a per-
manent staff of trained officers. The war
eCEective is about 80,000 of all ranks, and
it Is estimated that 20,000 well-armed
troops could be mobilized within forty-eight
hours. There is no cavalry, owing to the
nature of the country.
Education. — Primary education is compul-
sory and free, and there are about 120
primary schools with 10.000 pupils. The
government also supports Itinerant lecturers
who instruct the peasants in agriculture and
veterinary science, etc. There is no Uni-
versity.
The capital is Cettinje.
The exports include cattle, eastradina,
cheese, raw hides, tobacco, and wool, the
imports being mainly manufactured articles
and arms and ammunition. The import
duties are heavy.
Montenegro:
Establishment of kingdom of, 7496.
Evacuation and restoration of, es-
sential, 8424.
Monterey (Mexico), Battle of. — The
Mexican army under Arista, driven across
the Rio Grande, took refuge in Matamoras.
Taylor receiving reenforcements, demanded
the surrender of that city. Arista, unable
to hold the place, abandoned it and retreat-
ed to Monterey, 180 miles from the Rio
Grande and 700 miles from the City of
Mexico. Aug. 18, 1846, Taylor, with a
force of 6.600 men, began the long march
toward Monterey, on the way to the ene-
my's capital, having established a depot
for supplies at.Camargo, at the head of
steam navigation of the Rio Grande Sept.
19 the American army encamped in sight
of Monterey, in the beautiful valley of
San Juan, almost encircled by the Sierra
Madre Mountains. Tha city is the capital
of the Province of Nuevo Leon and the seat
of the Catholic bishop of the diocese. It
yn^n^'^'^^Sly fortified and garrisoned by
10,000 men, mostly regulars, under Gen.
Ampudia. The attack was begun by the
Americans on Sept. 21 and on the following
morning the bis'hop's palace was taken by
assault. The city was then forced, the
Monterey
Encyclopedic Index
Morgan's Raid
Mexicans stubbornly retreating from square
to square. The fighting continued during
the 22d and 23d, and on the morning of the
24th of September an armistice was agreed
upon. Gen. Ampudia surrendered the place
and was allowed to retire with his army.
The Amerira.n loss was slight.
Monterey, Mexico, battle of, referred
to, 2342.
Montessori System. — A system of educa-
ting children, named after its founder,
Maria Montessori. Doctor Montessori was
born in Italy in 1870, and was the first
woman to graduate from the University of
Home as a doctor of medicine (1894). She
was appointed assistant in the psychiatric
clinic of the University, and in that capac-
ity became especially interested in the study
of feeble-minded children. On this subject
she lectured extensively, and in 1898-9 ap-
plied her theories concerning their educa-
tion to a school for them which was under
her direction. In 1907 came the opportun-
ity to apply her method of teaching to
normal children In a school established in
connection with the erection of model tene-
ments in Rome, and it was in this that her
name became famous in the realm of inter-
national pedagogy. She resigned the ac-
tive direction of these schools in 1911, in
order to pursue her investigations and ex-
periments.
The exact value of the Montessori Sys-
tem is still a matter of dispute. It seems
evident' that it is less a departure from
educational theory as exemplified by Pestal-
ozzi and Froebel than a more adequate
vehicle for the expression of the newer edu-
cational theory of individual development.
The keynote of the system is its belief that
the present methods of teaching superim-
pose the Individuality of the teacher upon
the child, and that the child must be aided
in every possible manner to unfold its own
nature. Accordingly, there is in the Mon-
tessori schools practically no school furni-
ture, and the child is allowed to learn by
experimenting freely with the apparatus
designed for it.
A second principle of the system is the
development of the child by means of its
muscles and senses. These are developed
largely for themselves, and the child is
then allowed to use this training and de-
velopment in the specific problems of the
formal studies, such as arithmetic and
spelling. All the apparatus which the child
uses is designed for muscle and sense train-
ing, although many educators criticize the
system for keeping the apparatus rigid, in-
stead of allowing the child to develop its
own. Other principles of the system are
generally In accord with this principle of
freedom for the individual development for
the child. Instead of its subjection to a
formal discipline and curriculum.
In 1911, the establishment of Montessori
schools was made compulsory in Switzer-
land ; but in other countries, including the
United States, Montessori schools are con-
ducted by private agencies, although sev-
eral muuicipalities are experimenting with
them.
Montgomery, Ala., government of Con-
federate States first located at,
3225.
Transferred to Eiehmond, Va., 3225.
Montijo, The, seizure and detention of,
by United States of Colombia,
4289.
Claims arising out of, paid, 4358.
Montreal (Canada), Capture and Loss
of. — After the taking of Ticonderoga and
Crown Point, Kthan Allen, I'hilip Schuyler,
Benedict Arnold, and other Americans were
anxious to invade Canada and secure the
cooperation of the Canadians with tJie colo-
nists. In June, 1775, the Continental Con-
gress gave Gen. Schuyler discretionary
power to proceed against Montreal. He sent
Gen. Montgomery with 3,000 men down
Lake Champlaln. Gen. Carleton,. with 500
British, was forced to surrender on the 13(h
of November. Eleven vessels also fell into
Montgomery's hands. Carleton escaped to
Quebec. Benedict Arnold, with 1,200 men,
had been ordered to proceed by way of the
Kennebec and ChaudiSra rivers and coop-
erate with Montgomery before Quebec. TTie
expedition to the latter city proved dis-
astrous. Three brigades of infantry, be-
sides artillery, stores, and ammunition, hrtv-
Ing arrived from England, the Americans
were forced to retire to Lake Chamnlain.
(See also Quebec (Canada), Battle of.)
Monuments. (See Statues and Monu-
ments.)
Moouey Case, international significance
of, 8635, 8636.
Morality in Business discussed, 7197.
(See also Business.)
Morey Letter, The. — A letter published In
1880 during the Presidential campaign, ad-
dressed to H. L. Morey, and alleged to have
been signed by James A. Garfield, advocating
the use of Chinese cheap labor in the United
States. The letter was a crude forgery, and
Morey a fictitious name.
Morgan's Baid. — in the summer of 1863
the Confederate General buckner was in
East Tennessee, near the borders of Ken-
tucky, preparing for an expedition against
Louisville. Gen. John H. Morgan was sent
anead with 2,460 cavalry to pave the way.
He crossed the Cumberland River, and
having been joined by about 1,000 Kentucki-
ans, passed over the Ohio River into Indi-
ana. The advance of Rosecrans's army pre-
vented Buckner from joining him. Morgan
rode through southern Indiana toward Cin-
cinnati, burning bridges, tearing up rail-
roads, and fighting home guards. The whole
State of Ohio became alarmed, and a strong
Union force was soon in pursuit. Others
were advancing upon his flanks, and gun-
boats were patrolling the Ohio River to pre-
vent his recrossing into Kentucky. Passing
around Cincinnati, he reached the river at
BulDngton's Ford July 19. After a severe
battle with various Installments of Federal
troops which had hotly pursued him, about
800 of the command surrendered, but Mor-
gan, with the remainder, proceeded up the
river to Belleville. About 300 succeeded in
crossing the river here before the arrival
of the gunboats. Many were drowned or shot
in attempting to cross, and Morgan, with
about 200 of his men, retreated farther
up the river to New Lisbon, where he was
surrounded and forced to surrender. In his
raid Morgan traveled about 350 miles
through Indiana and Ohio, making some-
times 50 miles a day. The amount of prop-
erty destroyed scarcely exceeded $.')(),000.
More than 2,000 of his men were killed or
captured. Morgan and some of his officers
were sent to Columbus and confined in the
penitentiary, from which he and six others
escaped. Immediately after his escape he
piiinncd another raid into the Union lines
Morgan's Raid
Encyclopedic Index
Morocco
In Tennessee, but was surrounded and killed
by Union troops under Gen. Glllem, near
Greenville, Tenn;
Mormon Church (see also Polygamy):
Commissioners appointed under act in
reference to polygamy, etc., re-
ferred to, 4678, 4731, 4771, 4801,
4837, 4946.
Manifesto of president of, advising
Mormons to refrain fronj contract-
ing marriages forbidden by laws
of the land, 5553, 5803, 5942.
Suit instituted by Government for
disincorporation of, discussed, 5379.
Mormons. — A religious body more correctly
known as the Church of Jesus ChrKst of
Latter-day Saints. They came into prom-
inence largely because of their practice and
advocacy of plural marriage, as a principle
of their religion. The church was founded
by Joseph Smith in 1830, on what is
claimed to have been a divine revelation.
The Mormons organized in the State of New
York, and migrated successively to Ohio,
Missouri and Illinois. These removals were
caused by religious and political differences,
culminating in the murder of Joseph and
I-Iyrum Smith, the Prophet and Patriarch
of the Church, at Carthage, Illinois, June
27, 1844. In July, 1847, the Mormons
entered" Salt Lake Valley, where they
founded their first settlement in the Rocky
Mountain region. It was then Mexican
soil.
Misunderstandings as to acts and motives
caused many difficulties between the Mor-
mons and Federal representatives sent to
govern them and administer the laws. In
1856-1857, the Mormons were charged with
rebellion against the Government, and an
army was sent to suppress the alleged up-
rising. While there had been trouble be-
tween individuals representing both sides,
no rebellion existed, and the United States
Court records, which the Mormons were
accused of having destroyed, were found
intact and so reported by Honorable Alfred
Cumming, Brigham Young's successor as
Governor of Utah. Pending the peaceful
adjustment of the difficulty, the territorial
militia, under orders from Governor Young,
opposed the entrance of the Government
troops into Salt Lake Valley.
Special laws bearing upon the Mormons
and their institutions were enacted by
Congress in 1862, 1882 and 1887. These
laws forbade polygamy (marrying of plural
wives) and unlawful cohabitation (living in
such relations), and provided for their pun-
ishment by heavy fines and imprisonment ;
they also disincorporated the church and
confiscated its property. The Mormons
having submitted to the laws enacted by
Congress against polygamous practices, the
confiscated property was returned.
In 1898, B. H. Roberts was nominated
for Congress by the Democratic Party in
the State of Utah, and was elected, but
owing to a charge that he was still living
in polygamy, he was not allowed to take
his seat. In 1903 Reed Smoot, a Republi-
can, was elected to the Senate and an agi-
tation was immediately set on foot to un-
seat him, on the ground that, being an
official of the Mormon Church, , he coun-
tenanced polygamy. The agitation was un-
successful. It was shown that the church,
since the Manifesto -of 1890, officially dis-
countenancing the further practice of
polygamy, had not sanctioned any plural
marriages. Latest religious statistics in-
dicate that the Mormons have 1,531 reli-
gious organizations, with 462,332 members
and 6,000 ministers. Of these, more than
400,000 members were within the Latter
Day Saints, the other branch of the Mor-
mons being known as the Reorganized
Church.
(See illustration opposite 2887.)
Mormons, laws to prevent importation
of, recommended, 4947.
Morning Light, The, seizure of the Jor-
gen Lorcnzcn by, 3271.
Morocco. — Morocco, the largest of the
Barbary States, called by the Moors El
Maghrib el Aksa, "The Farthest West" (of
the Mohammedan world), is situated' in the
northwest of the African Continent, between
27°-36° N. lat. and 1°-11° 40' W. long.
Included in this area are the Kingdoms of
Fez and Morocco, to the north of the At-
las Mountains, and other districts to the
south. The northern boundary is the
Mediterranean, and the western coast is
washed by the Atlantic. The eastern bound-
ary with Algeria has been settled by treaty
with France, and meets the southern bound-
ary at the 30th parallel of north latitude,
but the remaining southern boundary is
indeterminate and irregular to the south-
west, where it descends to 26° N. lat. on
the Atlantic coast an approximate area of
231,500 square miles.
Physical Features. — Morocco is traversed
from the Atlantic coast in the southwest
to the Algerian frontier in the northeast
by five parallel ranges, known generally
as the Atlas Mountains. Between the vari-
ous ranges lie well-watered and fertile
plains, the lower slopes of the northern
Banks of the mountains being well-wooded,
while the southern slopes are exposed to
the dry winds of the desert and are gen-
erally arid and desolate.
Along the Mediterranean coast the Rif
Mountains overlook the sea from Melilla to
Ceuta. Tie Bay of Tangier contains the
best harbor in Morocco. The most northerly
point of Morocco is the peninsula of Ceuta,
which Is separated from the continent of
Europe by the narrow Strait of Gibraltar.
The Jebel Musa dominates the promontory,
and with the rocky eminence of Gibraltar
was known to the ancients as The Pillars
of Hercules, the western gateway of the
Mediterranean.
The climate is generally good and un-
doubtedly healthy, especially on the Atlan-
tic coast, the country being sheltered by
the Atlas Mountains from the hot winds
of the Sahara. The Mediterranean coast is
drier and less temperate, but not unhealthy,
while the plains of the interior are Intensely
hot.
History. — From the end of the eighth
century A. D. until the year 1912 Morocco ■
was ruled by a despotic Amir or Sultan
of various dynasties, that of Filali having
reigned since 1649. The imperial umbrella
(the symbol of sovereignty) was passed on
by nomination, and the rule was arbitrary
and unchecked by any civil limits. The
country was subject to European interven-
tion at many periods, and durmg the closing
years of the nineteenth century the dom-
inant power in the country was France,
whose Algerian territory formed the eastern
boundary. By the Anglo-French Convention
of 1904 Great Britain had recognized the
predominance of French rights, but in 1905
Germany exhibited an interest in Moroc-
Morocco
Encyclopedic Index
Morocco
can affairs, and at the Algeciras Confer-
ence in January. 1906, an attempt was made
by tlie Powers to define tlie various inter-
ests, and to establish order in the country
by means of an organized police force. Be-
tween 1906 and 1911 there were frequent
conflicts between French troops ahd Moroc-
can tribesmen, and in 1908 internal dissen-
sions led to the defeat and deposition of
the Sultan Abd el Aziz IV. by his brother
Hafid, who eventually triumphed and was
recognized by the Powers in 1909. In 1911
a German gunboat anchored In the harbor
of Agadir on the Atlantic coast, and after
protracted Uegotiatlons Germany abandoned
this port, and relinquished all claims to
the country under a Franco-German treaty,
which secured compensation from France
in the Congo region. In 1912 Sultan Hafld
abdicated and accepted a pension from
France, and was succeeded by his brother
Moulai Yusef.
Oovernment. — France is the paramount
power in Morocco, and the Government of
the country is administered by the French
Republic, which is recognized as the "pro-
tecting power." In addition to France, the
kingdom of Spain has had relations with
Morocco for many centuries. Ceuta has
been a Spanish possession since the close
of the sixteenth century, and forms part of
the administrative province of Cadiz, and
there are several presidios along the Med-
iterranean (or Rif) coast, while the ad-
jacent Alhucema and Zaffarin islands are
Spanish possessions. The Franco-Spanish
treaty of Nov. 27, 1912, regulates the pro-
tectorate of Spain over a portion of Moroc-
co, and lays down the boundaries, Tangier
(with a small district adjacent) being de-
clared International by treaty between Great
Britain, France and Spain.
Ethnography. — There are five distinct ra-
cial elements in the population (which num-
bers between four million and six million),
of whitfh three are native, viz. ; Berbers,
Arabs and Jews, the fourth element are
Negroes from the Sudan, the fifth being
various colonies of Europeans settled at the
ports. The Berbers are the aboriginal in-
habitants of the mountainous districts. The
Arabs were introduced in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries A. D.. and inhabit the
plains. Many of the inhabitants of the
plains are of mixed Berber-Arab descent,
and constitute the race known to Europeans
as Moors. The Negroes have been imported
as slaves from the western Sudan, and
there are many mnlattoes.
With the exception of the Jews who num-
ber about 300.000, and the 25,000 Eu-
ropeans, the 65,000 French troops in the
French zone, the population is entirely Mo-
hammedan. The language of the country is
Arabic.
The latest estimate of the population is
5,750,000.
Production and Industry. — Parts of thp
cultivable land are entirely neglected sind
the area under crops is cultivated m the
most primitive manner. Among the agri-
cultural products are wheat, barley, maize,
beans, peas, birdseed, linseed, coriander,
cummin, fenugreek, esparto and hemp, and
many fruits, principally figs, almonds, pome-
granates lemons, olives, oranges and dates,
the latter growing also on the southern
slopes and in the plains. The live stock
includes large quantities of horses, cattle,
sheep and goats, while the poultry and egg
■ industry is of increasing importance.
Antimony, iron, coal, copper, lead and
tin (the last three in considerable quanti-
ties) are known to exist, and gold and sli-
ver are also found. Rock salt and brine
are exported in large quantities. The iron
mines of the Atlas are of great antiquity,
but 'have long been abandoned.
The leather industrj;, which was once
of great importance, is greatly reduced,
and the native manufactures of woolens,
silks and embroideries suffer from the com-
petition'of inferior but cheaper articles from
Europe. Carpets and rugs are still produced
for export and slippers and shawls for the
home market and the Levant.
The total. foreign debt for loans, chiefly
from Franc*, amounts to about $80,000,000.
During the last year for which figures
are available, the imports into Morocco
amounted to $73,000,000 and the exports
from Morocco, to $26,000,000. About half
of the Imports came from France and Al-
geria, and most of the remainder from
Spain and from the United Kingdom, Malta
and Gibraltar. Most of the exports went
to France and Algeria.
The chief Imports, in order of value, are
as follows : — Sugar ; Cottons ; Wines and
Spirits ; Machinery and Hardware ; Tea ;
Vegetables and Fruit ; Flour and Semo-
lina ; Groceries and Provisions ; Vegetable
Oils.
The chief exports, in order of value, are
as follows : — Barley ; Eggs ; Wool ; Beans ;
Maize ; Wheat ; Linseed.
During the last calendar year, 'the United
States exported to Morocco goods valued
at $1,412,224 and imported from Morocco
goods valued at $718,000.
During the last year for which figures
are available, 4,440 vessels, of 2,113,000
tons, visited Moroccan ports. More than
half of the "tonnage was French, although
much was Spanish. The foreign Govern-
ments maintain a postal service through
much of Morocco, and there are more than
2,000 miles of telegraph, with more than
6,000 miles of wire, including the military
lines. More than 550 miles of railway are
open, with twice as much under construc-
tion or survey. The French also have built
many roads.
Cities. — The principal harbors are Tetuan,
Tangier, El Araish, Rabat, Casablanca, Ma-
zagan, SafD. Mehedia, and Mogador. Capital,
Fez. Population, about 120,000.
Morocco:
Algeciras convention urged upon Con-
gress, 7062.
Consuls of United States in, 169.
Presents given to. (See Consuls.)
Differences with United States, com-
munication from Commodore Mor-
gan relative to adjustment of, re-
ferred to, 2063.
Emperor of —
Death of, 169.
Lion and horses presented to the
United States by, 1256.
Legation of United States in, prem-
ises for, presented- by Sultan of,
4823, 4923.
Mdors in, conference regarding pro-
tection for, 4561.
Relations with, 2081.
Situation in, 7783.
Treaty regarding exercise of right of
protection in, 4580.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 90, 140, 174, 178, 181, 363,
Morocco
Encyclopedic Index
Mount McGregor
1458, 1484, 1498, 3582, 7062.
Expiration of first year at hand,
1318.
Vessels of United States seized or in-
terfered with by, 352, 353.
Morocco, Treaties with. — The treaty of
peace and friendship of 1787 was super-
seded by that of 1836. It provided for neu-
trality of the one power if the other should
be at war with a third ; and that the sub-
jects of the one power taken in such war
on prize vessels should be at once set free
and their effects restored to them. Ex-
amination and searcli of vessels of the
contracting parties are to be conducted
with alf possible ease and freedom from ■
embarrassment. Humane treatment of ves-
sels in distress and shipwrecked crews is
provided for. If a vessel of an enemy of
one of the contracting ' powers be in a
port of the other power at the same time
that a vessel of the contracting power
leaves the port, the vessel of the enemy
shall be detained there for a period of
tweuty-four hours after the departure of
the former.
Freedom of commercial intercourse is ex-
tended to vessels and individuals in the
dominions of the two nations. Disputes
are to be settled by consular officers. Jus-
tice is to be impartially dispensed toward
the peoples of both nations. The consul
may act as executor of estates. The rights,
privileges, and powers of consuls are de-
nned as in consular conventions.
The treaty of 1865 provided for the
support and maintenance of the lighthouse
at Cape Spartel by the United States and
such powers of Europe as were contracting
parties. The lighthouse was built by the
Sultan of Morocco, who, having no navy
or merchant marine, gave the support of
the light into the hands of the contracting
powers without encroachment or loss of
rights therein. The Sultan agreed to fur-
nish a guard for the defence of the light,
while all other expenses were to be oorne
by the powers.
The convention as to protection of 1880
was entered into with tae United States
and several of the powers of Europe, to
establish protection on d uniform basis to
the representatives of the several nations
in Morocco.
Mores, referred to, 6690, 6692, 6720.
Morris, The, referred to, 1030, 2116,
2173, 2206.
MoscLuito Indian Strip, Nicaragua:
American citizens in —
Murdered, 5960.
Eights, etc., of, inquired into, 5991.
British troops landed at Bluefields,
referred to, 5908.
Claims of Great Britain upon Nica-
ragua respecting treatment of citi-
zens in, and action of United
States, 6066.
Correspondence regarding, 2569.
Insurrection in, and treatment of
American citizens, discussed, 5960,
6365, 6433. '
Jurisdictional questions regarding,
discussed, 5959, 6066.
Mosquito Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Mosqultos, Kingdom of. (See Mosquito
Indian Strip.)
Mother's Day, flags to be displayed on,
7941.
Mothers' Pensions. — In connection with
country-wide discussion of the education
and best development of the child have come
within the past few years many definite
steps for preserving to the child the bene-
fits gained only from proper home influ-
ences. In the belief that separation of
mother and child necessarily works to the
detriment of the child's development, many
states have enacted legislation that will en-
able mothers too poor to maintain their
children to keep them at home, instead of
placing them in various institutions. This
Is being done through a pension or allow-
ance system.
The first state laws providing for Moth-
ers' Pensions in the United States date from
1911. By 1920, such laws were in effect
in 39 states and in Alaska and Hawaii.
The states which did not enjoy such laws
were Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisi-
ana, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Caro-
lina, Rhode Island, South Carolina.
There is a large amount of variation In
the laws in force In the various states re-
garding the pensions given to mothers.
Some laws give pensions only to widowed
mothers ; others include divorced mothers ;
others include deserted mothers ; others in-
clude mothers whose husbands are in pris-
ons or in asylums or are otnerwise in-
capacitated. In three states, mothers re-
ceive financial aid before child-birth and
In some states the mothers of illegitimate
children come under the scope of the law.
The age-limit to which an allowance is
paid varies from 13 to 17 years. The
greatest number of states place the maxi-
mum at 16. The amounts of the allow-
ances also vary greatly. The lowest is
$2.00 per week per child ; the highest is
.$25 per month for one child and $15 for
each additional child. Social workers and
sociologists generally maintain that in many
states, especially in view of the increased
cost of living, the amount of the allow-
ance is too low to maintain a decent stand-
ard of living.
Motion Pictures. (See Moving Pic-
tures.)
Mound Builders.— A prehistoric race of
Americans who inhabited the valleys of the
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. They are so
named because the only traces of their
existence are found in mounds of earth
formed in regular geometrical shapes con-
taining ashes, stone and bronze imple-
ments and weapons. Some of these mounds
seem to have been simply places of sepul-
ture, while others show unmistakable evi-
dences of having been erected as fortifica-
tions. The race probably became extinct
only a few generations before the discovery
of America, as De Soto found tribes of
Southern Indians who built mounds and
possessed other characteristics of the ex-
tinct race. They belonged distinctly to the
Indian race and to the Stone Age. The
?°".,'i.'?.® J^^Se .from 2 or 3 feet in height
fV^^l?^*.J'S5 ^°"5 188 feet long, the
latter being the dimensions of one at Mari-
etta, Ohio, while one at Grave Creek W
Va.. measures 70 feet in height and 900
feet in circumference.
Mount McGregor Cottage. (See illus-
tration opposite 4691.)
Mount Rainier
Encyclopedic Index
Moving Pictures
Mount Eainler Forest Reserve, Wash,,
establishment of, by proclamation.
6209. '
Mount Eainier National Park. (See
Parks, National.)
Mount Vernon.— The Washington estate
originated in 1674 with the grant by
Lord Culpeper to John Washington and
Nicholas Spencer of 5,000 acres of land
on the west bank of the Potomac River,
beginning about four miles south of Jones'
Point (the original southwest boundary of
the District of Columbia). One-h^lf of
this estate was Inherited by Lawrence
.Washington, who. In 1743, built his resi-
dence tnere, and named the place Mount
Vernon, in honor of the British admiral
ilnder whom he had served. At his death,
in 1752, title to the property passed to his
half brother, George Washington.
During his residence of more than half
a century on the estate George Washing-
ton increased his holdings to about 7,600
acres, which he divided into five main
farms, the survey of which, by the Gen-
eral himself, is preserved in the Library
of Congress. He also turned his attention
to the enlargement of the mansion and
adornment of the grounds. The plans and
specifications of the mansion house as it
stands today were his personal work, and
the neatness and simple beauty so admir-
ably adjusted to harmonize with the land-
scape suri'ounalngs proclaim Its architect a
person of refined taste and artistic judg-
ment.
Washington described his home as being
situated in a high, healthy country ; in a
latitude between the extremes of heat and
cold ; on one of the finest rivers of the
world — a river well stocked with various
kinds of fish at all seasons of the year.
"It is more than possible," says a recent
writer, "that without Mount Vernon Wash-
ington himself might not have been pre-
cisely what he was. That unique balance
of power that differentiates him from all
other men of all times might not have ex-
isted but for the conditions in which it
had its growth and ultimate maturity. In
all the years of his activity, so fateful to
mankind, beginning, as it were, with his
very boyhood, who may tell what part in
the mighty result was due to the simplic-
ity, quietude and dignity of this country
place, so persuasive of reflection and so in-
spiring to high thought, seated as it is on
the bluS overlooking the broad and tran-
quil river with its ever-changing face and
its never-changing fiow '."
In his will Washington bequeathed the
estate to his nephew. Judge Bushrod Wash-
ington, of the United States Supreme
Court. Later it passed ' to Bushrod's
nephew, John Augustine Washington,
whose son, John Augustine, Jr., upon com-
ing into possession through inheritance,
offered to sell the entire estate to the
nation. The proposition was not accepted,
but a part of the property, including the
mansion, was purchased by the Mount Ver-
non Ladies' Association. (See article fol-
lowing.) Several attempts have later been
made to have Congress purchase the entire
estate and preserve it as a national me-
morial park. Since the purchase made by
the ladles' association the remainder of
the estate has been divided and sub-divided
and come into the possession of various
owners. Many beautiful suburban homes
now adorn the spot and the National Gov-
ernment has contributed largely toward
its attractiveness by constructing a fine
automobile boulevard connecting It with
Washington city, which is usually thronged
by tourists.
Mount Vernon Ladles' Association.—
A national organization of public spirited
American women formed to purchase and
maintain as a patriotic shrine the home of
George Washington at Mount Vernon, Va.
Miss Ann Pamela Cunningham, of South
Carolina, founded the society in 1856 and
became its first Regent. Edward Everett,
of Massachusetts, through his lectures and
writings, contributed $70,000, and with
other funds aggregating $200,000 raised
by popular subscription 200 of the nearly
8,000 acres. Including the house owned by
Washington, were purchased and turned over
to the ladles' association. Their object is to
preserve and carry out the landscape fea-
tures of the estate, care for the house and
perpetuate Washington's idea of a model
American home. It is stated that 125,000
Americans visit the spot each year.
A council of the association Is held an-
nually in Mount Vernon, presided over by
the Regent. Thirty-two States are repre-
sented by Vice Regents.
Mountain Meadow (Utah) Massacre.—
Efforts of the Federal Government to en-
force the laws against polygamy incited the
Mormons to bitter hatred of all opposed to
their religion. Brigham Young made threats
of turning the Indians loose upon west-
bound immigrants unless what he considered
the Mormons' rights were respected. Sept.
7, 1857, about 30 miles southwest of C?dar
City, a body of about 120 non-Mormon im-
migrants were attacked by 'Indians and
Mormons under the leadership of John D.
Lee, and after a siege of four days were
Induced to surrender under promise of pro-
tection, but all were massacred except 17
children under 7 years of age.
Mountain Meadow Massacre, referred
to, 3123.
Moviner Pictures. — This rapidly developed
Industry consists of the representation upon
a screen magnified and illuminated, of a
series of photographs in such rapid suc-
cession that the impression of one is not
effaced from the eye until it is succeeded
by another view of the same object in an-
other position, taken at an interval no
longer separated from its predecessor than
the duration of an impression upon the
retina of the eye. The illusion of motion
is caused by the fact that an impression
made upon the eye lasts for a short time
after the object causing it has disappeared.
This short time is known as the period of
persistence of vision, and its duration varies
from one-tenth to one-fiftieth of a second.
Pictures, therefore, to convey the illusion
of motion must follow each other on the
retina at a speed of from ten to fifty per
second. Actual experience has shown that
a rate of sixteen to twenty per second
obviates the flicker caused by a slower rate
and the indistinctness due to greater speed
of rotation.
Early forms of the Illusion were the
stroboscope and zoetrope, popular toys,
wherein a series of pictures were viewed
through silts cut in discs or cylinders which
were caused to revolve rapidly between the
eye and the pictures. These toys grew out
of the discoveries of M. Plateau, a blind
scientist, of Ghent, Belgium, in 1833.
Eadweard Muybridge, in 1877, obtained pic-
tures of running horses, springing animals
and climbing men by settmg a number of
Moving Pictxires
Encyclopedic Index
Moving Pictures
cameras in a row and arranging their shut-
ters to be opened and closed automatically
as the objects passed before them. The
results of Muybridge's experiments were
published in folio form by the University
of Pennsylvania. The discovery of instan-
taneous photography by the German, Aus-
chuetz, the invention of the dry plate proc-
ess in 1878, and the celluloid roll film, first
used by Marey in 1888, combined to bring
motion pictures nearer to perfection. Then
came the snap-shot camera of Friese-Greene
and Evans, which took ten pictures a sec-
ond. Edison produced sensitized films of
celluloid in 1893 and devised the sprocket
wheel to carry them across the focal plane
of the camera and expose them intermit-
tently, the Images being thus successively
projected through an object lens upon a
distant screen. The Brothers Lumiire, of
Lyons, France, in 1895, brought out a ma-
chine which took the pictures and pro-
jected them as well. Some Idea of develop-
ment of the industry may be gained from
the fact that the first patent for a motion
picture machine was granted Nov. 3, 1857,
and by Feb. 17, 1914, there were 479.
Many inventors have essayed machines
for connecting moving picture projectors
with talking machines, and though some of
these have been exhibited, the results have
been unsatisfactory because perfect syn-
chronism and the reproduction of the per-
fect tones of the voice in their original
quality and sufficiently loud to be heard in
every part of a theatre are difficult to ob-
tain.
The first moving pictures were mere
reproductions from scenes of nature, but
soon the public became weary of these,
and it hence occurred to the early producers
to tell stories by means of the film. Nat-
urally enough, the first attempts in this
field were comedies, of a crude and super-
ficial nature ; and the traditions of the
regular stage were followed as faithfully
as possible. The art of motion picture
acting in these early days was still the art
of the old pantomimes, although the actors
and producers were aided by the possibility
of inserting explanatory legends on the
screen as the play developed, to this extent
overcoming one of the pantomime difficul-
ties.
It was not until the close of the first
decade and the beginning of the second
decade of the twentieth century that motion
pictures developed a technique of their own.
To-day, the producers and actors have
evolved an art of their own. irrespective of
the regular stage, and by no means inferior
to it. Indeed, the motion picture art is
well termed to-day the art of the silent
drama, and its prononents hail it as an
art more difficult and even more significant
than the regular dramatic art.
To judge from the calibre of the plays
produced upon the regular stage since it
has been subject to the competition of
the "movies," the latter have had a most
beneficial effect upon the spoken and acted
drama.
Certainly, aside from artistic considera-
tions, the motion picture has had a social
significance which the regular stage could
not have. Because of the cheapness of the
entertainment provided, much of the prob-
lem of wholesome recreation for the great
masses of the population was solved. To
give only one example of the ramifications
of the services rendered by the motion
picture film, social workers in immigrant
neighborhoods announce that it has pro-
vided a new and in some eases the only
point of contact between the foreign-born
parent and his American child.
Surveys recently made in Washington,
D. C, and in other cities indicate that the
average daily attendance at moving pic-
tures amounts to one-seventh of the popu-
lation. Using these figures as a basis, re-
membering that the rural and sparsely
settled districts do not have the~ same op-
portunity for attendance as do the urban
and more thickly settled districts, it may
be said that the average daily attendance
in the United States is 12,000,000.
The National Association of the Motion
Picture Industry estimates the number of
motion picture theatres in the United States
as 16,000, with a total seating capacity of
5,400,000 — an average of almost 350 seats
per theatre. In recent years, the tendency
has been toward the construction of larger
theatres and the abandonment of many of
the smaller theatres, so that the total num-
ber of theatres devoted to moving pictures
may not have increased.
Reports of the Bureau of Internal Reve-
nue, of the Federal Government, indicate
that $750,000,000 is spent annually for ad-
missions to moving picture theatres. This
figure would bring the amount spent every
day for admission to more than $2,000,000.
If the above estimate for the average daily
attendance at the "movies" is substantially
correct, this would mean that the average
price for admission Is In the neighborhood
of seventeen cents.
More than half of all pictures in the
United States are produced in California.
Reports of the Federal Bureau of the
Census show that the investment in the
production of pictures, including real estate,
studios, electrical equipment, wardrobes,
etc., is in the neighborhood of $500,000,000.
Approximately 20,000 persons are steadily
employed in the actual making of the pic-
tures. Moving picture producers estimated
the cost of their output for a recent year
at $200,000,000, of which $50,000,000 was
paid for salaries and wages and $25,000,000
for supplies and materials.
It has been estimated that som.e 100,000
schools, 45,000 churches and 6,500 factories
are, or are planning to be, equipped with
motion picture machines.
In a recent year, the company which orig-
inated motion picture films for commercial
purposes put out more than 800,000,000
linear feet, or more than 150,000 miles, of
motion picture films. The imports of films
In that year were as follows, in length and
value ; — Sensitized, but not exposed, 134,-
118,621 linear feet, $2,443,577; Negatives,
2,121,593 linear feet, $734,920; Positives,
5,253.413 linear feet, $306,986. The exports
of films from the United States were as fol-
lows : — Not exposed, 53,814,601 linear feet,
$1,376,928: Exposed, 154,931,010 linear
feet, $7,013,881. In rank of quantity of
films, the exports went chiefly to the United
Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France and
Argentina.
The tax by the Government collected on
the leasing of motion picture films in a
recent year amounted to $4,381,276.31. As
this tax was 5% of the total amount paid
for leasing, the latter was indicated as $87,-
625,526 for the fiscal year.
In a recent year the National Board of
Review of Motion Pictures reviewed 1,846
different pictures, totalling 5,784 reels.
This agency examines practically all of
the recreational films, as distinct from the
educational and current events films ; so
that it is probable that the number of rec-
reational pictures produced annually in
this country is in the neighborhood of 2,000,
Moving Picttires
Encyclopedic Index Municipal Ownership
with an average of about three reels to the
picture.
Muck-Baker. — The term was first used by
Bunyan In his "Pilgrim's Progress," and
came into political use during President
Roosevelt's administration, contemptuously
characterizing reformers (q. v.), especially
writers, who insisted upon stirring up fraud-
ulent and questionable practices among the
industrial enterprises of the country, not
so much to accomplish improvements as
merely to rake up the unpleasant.
Mugwump.— A corruption of the Algon-
guian Indian word "mugquomp," which
signifies a chief, ruler, or a person of im-
portance. After long use in local politics
the word came into national use In the
Presidential campaign of 1884. The news-
papers applied the term to those Republi-
cans who refused to support James G.
Blaine, the regular party nominee, and it
has since been used to designate any person
of independent politics or who is supposed
to be lacljing in loyalty to his political
party.
Mulligan Letters. — A bookkeeper by the
name of Mulligan, in the oflBce of Warren
EHsher of Boston, wrote certain letters eal-
culated to implicate James G. Blaine in im-
proper transactions with Fisher in. connec-
tion with the Little Hock and Port Smith
Railroad. These letters were used as a basis
for attacks on Blaine in the nominating
convention of 1876, and in the convention
and campaign of 1884. Blaine's denial
and corroborative evidence in connection
with the letters fully satisfied his friends
of his innocence.
Mumfordville (Ky.), Battle of.— Here
on Sept. 17, 1862, the Confederate army
under Gen. Bragg attacked the Federals un-
der Gen. J. T. Wilder. The post surren-
dered to the Confederate."!, the number of
captured being about 4,000.
Munich, Bavaria. — Third International
Exhibition of Fine Arts to be held at,
5193.
Municipal Government, District of Co-
lumbia should be model of, 6728.
Municipal Ownership. — in its strict sense,
the term applies to the ownership by mu-
nicipalities of public utilities, but it Is
generally used to describe not only owner-
ship of certair forms of municipal activ-
ities, but also management and operation
of them, by the municipalities. In the
United States, because of the traditional
feeling for individualism and private enter-
prise, and because of its rapid economic de-
velopment, the movement has not been so
pronounced as in Europe, where Germany
and Great Britain in particular represent
notable achievements in the field of mu-
nicipal ownership. Nevertheless, af? de-
scribed below', there is a considerable and
an increasing amount of municipal owner-
ship in the United States.
In Germany, even before the World War,
almost three-fourths of the cities with a
population of more than 50,000 owned gas-
works. There were more than 3,000 miles
of municipal street railways, representing
some 150 separate systems. Municipal elec-
tric light and power plants were also com-
mon and even more prevalent was municipal
ownership of abattoirs and stock-yards.
German cities in many eases operate other
enterprises which in the United States are
almost universally left to private hands —
such as pawnshops, quarries, restaurants,
brickyards, mills, warehouses, bakeries, ho-
tels, canneries, fisheries.
In Great Britain, the majority of electric
light and power plants are municipal and
about one-half of the gas-works. Most of
the street railway systems also are city-
owned and -operated. There are ailso many
municipal housing arrangements for the
poorer classes. Probably the most notable
and extensive example of municipal under-
takings in the world is found in Glasgow,
Scotland. In Great Britain, and also to a
smaller extent in Germany, private profit-
making enterprise is limited not only by
municipal undertakings but also by the
Cooperative Movement (q.v.).
Municipal ownership In the United States
is confined almost entirely to such public
utilities as water-works, gas - and electric
light and power plants, ferries and bridges
and street railways, excluding such forms
of public endeavor as education, libraries,
etc., generally admitted to be properly a
division of municipal government. Where
our public utilities are still in private hands,
they are almost universally supervised and
directed as to rates by state or district
public service utility commissions. Certain
cities also conduct enterprises, such as as-
phalt plants and municipal garages, for the
use of the city governments only. These
are not Included in the figures quoted below.
Of the total value of municipally-owned
public utilities in the 227 cities with a
population of 30,000 and over in the United
States, 71 % % represents' water-works,
16^% docks, wharves and landings, and
12% electric light and power systems, gas-
plants, markets, etc. The total value of the
lands, buildings and equipment of such
public utilities is placed at $1,761,034,983,
of which $1,257,831,733 is represented by
the water-systems, $48,314,907 by electric
light and power systems, $27,942,985 by
markets and public scales, $288,398,567 by
docks, wharves and landings, $17,032,977 by
cemeteries and crematories, $12,548,535 by
public halls, $14,283,060 by subways for
pipes and wires, $9,572,487 by street rail-
ways, $70,146,451 by toll bridges of New
York City and $7,694,000 by Oakland (Cal.)
waterfront development.
The annual revenues of the municipal
public service enterprises in these cities
amounted in a recent year to $127,399,258,
of which almost one-half came from cities
of over 500,000 population. In this total
were included $95,304,064 from water-
supply, $10,447,286 from electric light and
power, $1,635,107 from gas, $1,885,576 from
markets and public scales, $9,822,969 from
docks, wharves and landings, $1,479,983
from cemeteries and crematories, $3,875,698
from municipal railways, $1,779,660 from
ferries.
All the ten cities with a population of
over 500,000 own their own water-systems,
ten of the eleven in the 300,000-500,000
class, 38 of the 45 in the 100,000-300,000
class, 50 of the 66 in the 50.000-100,000
class and 47 of 85 in the 30,000-50.000
class. In the first class, Chicago, Cleveland
and Los Angeles have municipal electric
light and power systems, one city In the
second class, two In the third, eight In the
fourth and seven in the fifth. The large
cities with municipal street-railways are
San Francisco, New Orleans, Seattle and
Tacoma (Detroit in preparation).
One hundred forty-five. Including practi-
cally all of the larger cities, of the 227
cities of over 30,000 have municipal mar-
kets and public scales. There are mnni-
Municipal Ownership Encyclopedic Index
Muscle Shoals
cipal docks, wharves and landings in seven
of tlie ten cities witli a population abovo
500,000, five of the eleven In the 300,000-
nOO.OOO class and 56 altogether. (Some of
the smaller cities are not located on water.)
There are municipal cemeteries and cre-
matories In three of the ten largest cities,
in two of the eleven next largest and 93
altogether. Fifty-nine cities have other
forms of municipal ownership of public
utilities.
The annual governmental cost for the
municipal enterprises in these 227 cities
was $66,700,066, of which $46,582,220 was
represented by the water-systems, $6,830,-
078 by electricity plants, $1,436,533 by gas
plants, $1,366,926 by markets and scales,
$3,366,390 by street railways, $1,399,506
by ferries.
In the course of a year $58,734,400 was
expended for more or less permanent im-
provements, of which $43,280,244 went on
water-systems, $3,392,778 on electricity sys-
tems. The total funded, floating and special
assessment indebtedness incurred by the
cities for municipal undertakings at the
end of the year was $1,170,192,274, of which
.T599, 512,707 went for water-supply sys-
tems, $26,700,532 for electric light and
power and gas plants, $199,450,889 for the
rapid transit of New York City, $119,-
862,705 for New York City docks and fer-
ries, $77,133,501 for New York City toll
bridges, $35,899,700 for the Boston rapid
transit and $18,032,000 for the Cincinnati
Southern Eailroad.
Munitions, sale of, to belligerents dur-
ing European War, question of, dis-
cussed, 82S9.
Munitions Board. — A hoard created by
and under the Council of National Defense
(q. V.) to control so far as possible under
tine existing law the produrtion and distri-
hutlon of munitions in the United States
for the use of both that country and of
her allies in the World War.
Munitions of War. (See Arms and Am-
munition.)
Munn vs. Illinois. — One of the "elevator
cases" decided by the Supreme Court of
the United States. In 187 2 Mniin and
another were found guilty of violating an
article of the Illinois constitution in re-
gard to grain warehouses. They had
failed to take out a license and give bond
and were charging higher rates for storage
than the law allowed. The offenders were
fined, and the supreme court of the State
affirmed the action of the criminal court.
The case was then appealed to the United
States Supreme Court. That body affirmed
the judgment on the ground that the act
of the Illinois legislature was not repug-
nant to the Constitution of the United
States, and that a State could lawfully de-
termine how a man might use his own
property when the good of other citizens
was Involved.
Munsee Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Murfreesboro (Tenn.), Battle of, fought
Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863, between
forces of General Eosecrans and General
Bragg. (See Stone River (Tenn.), Battle
of.)
Murmansk, Russia, American and Al-
lied troops dispatched to, 8591.
Muscat; seaport on Gulf of Oman:
Presents offered President Van Buren
by Imaum of, declined, 1809.
Offered United States, recommen-
dations regarding, 1809, 2169.
Treaty with, 1272, 1457, 159B, 5195.
Muscle Slioals Nitrate Plant. — Muscle
Shoals (often spelled "Mussel Shoals" — ■
the correct spelling being still in dispute)
are a succession of cascades, among mdny
islands, in a stretch of the Tennessee Elver,
there from half a mile to three miles in
width, east of Florence, Alabama. In the
Shoals proper, from Muscle Shoals to Bain-
bridge, the river falls eighty-seven feet In
seventeen miles. From Bainbridge to Flor-
ence, known as "Little Muscle Shoals," the
river falls twenty-three feet in seven miles.
Including the approaches to the Shoals, in
some forty miles the Tennessee Elver falls
one hundred fifty-five feet.
The Shoals occupy a highly strategic
position as a nucleus of Industrial energy.
They are In the middle of the great cotton
belt. They are about two hundred miles
from Chattanooga by river, and about that
distance , from Nashville, Memphis and
Birmingham. If the river were made navi-
gable, the centre of the agricultural section
of the South and much of the new Indus-
trial South would be connected by a river
gateway with the agricultural West. Above
all, in the vicinity of the Shoals a rock
has been discovered in quantity which Is
the basis for nitrates, invaluable in the
manufacture of fertilizer.
Proposals for the development and im-
provement of the Tennessee Elver may be
traced as far back as 1827, and in 1904
the immense power potentialities of Muscle
Shoals were pointed out in a report of the
United States Geological Survey, but so far
as current interest in the Shoals is con-
cerned, their industrial history dates with
1916. Under the National Defence Act of
June 3 of that- year, the Government began
the construction of a dam (Dam No. 2 or
the Wilson Dam) which was designed to
make some fifteen miles of the Shoals navi-
gable. By the end of the war, when con-
struction on the dam ceased, the Govern-
ment had spent about $17,000,000 on It.
When finished, it will have a total length
of 4,267 feet, of which 2,890 feet is a spill-
way section and 1,221 feet, a power section.
The height above present low water Is 95
feet, including crest gates 18 feet high ; the
width at bottom being about 75 feet, and
at top about 27 feet. When completed, it
will have more than 1,000,000 cubic yards
of masonry in its structure, making it the
largest dam in the world after the Assuan
Dam on the Nile in Egypt. Dam No. 3,
on which the Government did practically
no work, is about fifteen miles upstream
from Dam No. 2, and is designed to over-
flow the remaining portions of the rapids
and thus improve navigation for sixty-three
miles. In a letter from the Secretary of
War to the House of Eepresentatlves, under
date of February 1, 1922, it is estimated
that it will cost about $50,000,000 to com-
plete the two dams.
The prime interest of the Government in
construction at Muscle Shoals during the
war, however, was in plants to make gas
for war purposes from nitrates. At Shef-
field, Alabama, is United States Nitrafe
Plant No. 1, constructed by the Govern-
ment, under agreement with the General
Chemical Company, for about $13,000,000.
It was designed to produce annually about
22,000 tons of ammonium nitrate, using
the direct synthetic ammonia or Haber proc-
ess of the General Chemical Company The
plant, which has about 19,000 acres within
Muscle Shoals
Encyclopedic Index
Musical
Its site, proved unsuccesslul in a test oper-
atiou.
At Muscle Shoals, Culbert County, Ala- 1
bama, is United States Nitrate Plant No.
2. It was constructed under contract with
the Air Nitrates Corporation for the pro-
duction of munitions, and cost about $67,-
500,000, including Waco Quarry. It was
built for an estimated annual capacity of
111,000 tons of ammonium nitrate, under
the cyanamid process of the American Cyan-
amid Company. The plant, which was suc-
cessful in a partial test operation, contains
about 2,300 acres within its site. The
power plant located on It was leased to the
Alabama Power Company.
Waco Quarry is about five miles south-
east of Eussellviile, and embraces about
460 acres. Its crushing plant can produce
2,000 tons of crushed and sized limestone
daUy.
About ninety miles southeast of Nitrate
Plant No. 2, in Walker County, Alabama,
is the Government-owned Warrior Steam
Plant at Gorgas, Alabama. It was con-
structed under contract with the Alabama
Power Company near a coal mine, with a
view to using coal direct from the mine.
It has a capacity of 30,000 kilowatts and
it furnishes power for the operation of
Nitrate Plant No. 2. It cost about $5,000,-
000.
After the end of the war, there were
many suggestions that the work at Muscle
Shoals be continued and soon after the
Harding Administration assumed office.
Secretary of War Weeks announced that he
would recommend favorably to Congress
any private proposal to develop Muscle
Shoals which would give a fair return upon
the Government investment there. As a
result, In July, 1921, Mr. Henry Ford, the
Detroit automobile manufacturer, made a
detailed offer regarding the Muscle Shoals
development, and in January, 1922, modi-
fled the offer to meet certain objections of
the Government. The chief points of the
offer as modified are as follows :
Mr. Ford will complete Dam No. 2 and
construct Dam No. 3, both according to
the Government's plans, generating 850,000
horsepower, after which the Government
will reimburse him the actual cost of this
work. He will lease the dams and power
plants for one hundred years at an annual
rental equal to 4% of the cost of the work
on the dams, the rentals beginning six years
after Dam No. 2 Is ready to furnish 100,000
horsepower and three years after Dam No. 3
is ready to furnish 80,000 horsepower. Dur-
ing these six-year and three-year periods,
he will pay upon the two dams annual rent-
als of $200,000 and $160,000, respectively.
" He will maintain the power-houses, the Gov-
ernment keeping the remainder of the dams
In repair and condition. As compensation
for this upkeep by the Government, Mr.
Ford will pay $35,000 annually on Dam No.
2 and locks, and $20,000 annually on Dam
No. 3 and lock.
Mr. Ford will furnish electricity for oper-
ating the locks without charge and in addi-
tion will pay $23,373 semi-annually to build
up a sinking fund to return to the United
States at the end of the lease period a sum
estimated, if invested at 4%, at $49,000,000.
The Government will sell to Mr. Ford Ni-
trate Plants Nos. 1 and 2, the Waco Quarry
and the Warrior Steam Plant, with all
appurtenances, for $5,000,000, — $1,000,000
down and the remainder in annual install-
ments of $1,000,000 each, with 5% inter-
est on deferred payments.
Mr. Ford agrees to operate Nitrate Plant
No. 2 at the annual capacity of its mach-
inery and equipment for the production of
nitrogen and other fertilizer compounds,
and to sell the fertilizer produced at a
profit not above ,8% of the cost of production
as determined by a board chosen chiefly by
three leading farm bodies. The plant Is to
be kept in constant readiness for the manu-
facture of materials necessary for the pro-
duction of explosives in time of war and to
be turned over to the Government when-
ever it shall be required for the national
defence. Mr. Ford requires a preference in
purchasing or leasing the property at the
end of the lease period and the right to
electric power at reasonable rates to the
extent of his average annual consumption
during the previous ten years in case his
company does not lease or purchase the
property. The entire offer to be accepted as
a whole and not in part.
The legal situation regarding the above
offer is complicated by the fact that the
Air Nitrates Corporation and the Alabama
Power Company maintain that their con-
tracts with the Government give them the
exclusive rights to purchase the Nitrate
Plant No. 2 and the Warrior Steam Plant,
respectively. There have been several other
offers for the Government property at Mus-
cle Shoals.
Muscle Shoals, vrater power rights at,
disposition of, discussed, 6777.
Museum, National, appropriation for,
recommended, 4431, 4458.
Musical Instruments.— (From a Report
issued by the Census Bureau, August 1,
1913.) The establishments engaged pri-
marily in the manufacture of pianos in
1909 turned out products to the value of
$66,569,273, or 74.1 per cent, of the total
value of products of the three branches of
the industry combined. The value of the
products reported by the establishments en-
gaged chiefly in the manufacture of organs
($4,745,655) represented 5.3 per cent of
the total for all three branches ; and the
value of the products reported by the es-
tablishments engaged chiefly in the manu-
facture of piano and organ parts and ma-
terials ($18,474,616) represented 20.6 per
cent of the total value of products for the
three branches.
Although statistics are shown in the
bulletin for seventeen states separately,
more than two-thirds (69 per cent) of the
total value of products was reported by
New York, Illinois and Massachusetts.
New York reported 37.5 per cent of the
total and Illinois 21.4 per c6nt.
There has been a steady increase in the
number and value of both upright and
grand pianos manufactured since' 1899.
The establishments in the three branches
of the industry combined (pianos, organs
and piano and organ parts and materials)
gave employment to 41,882 persons, of
whom 38.020 were wage-earners, and paid
out $28,813,754 In salaries and wages.
The manufacture of pianos and organs
has had an uninterrupted development since
1869 when products to the value of $11,-
886,444 were reported. In 1909 the value
of products was more than seven times as
great, $89,789,544. The largest increases
are shown for the decade from 1899 to
1909, when the number of persons engaged
in the industry increased 80.4 per cent and
the value of products 118.9 per cent. The
large piano and organ factories are of
Musical
Encyclopedic Index
Muskogee
comparatively recent aevelopment. In 1869
the average establishment gave employment
to only twenty-four wage-earners and the
average value of products was $46,797 ;
in 1909 the average number of wage-earners
was seventy-five and the value of products
$177,100.
In 1909, of the total number of reed and
pipe organs reported, 1.9 per cent were pipe
organs, but of the combined value 51.1 per
cent was contributed by pipe organs. In
the number of reed organs there was a de-
crease during the decade 1899-1909 of 39.9
per cent. For pipe organs there was an
increase of 117 per cent in number and
130.5 per cent in value. In the manu-
facture of reed organs, Illinois was the
leading state In 1909.
Each census since 1899 has shown an in-
crease in the manufacture of phonographs
and graphophones, but by far the greater
development occurred during the five-year
period 1899-1904, when there was an in-
crease of 2,525, or 178.4 per cent, in the
number of persons engaged in the industry,
and of $7,990,801, or 355.7 per cent, in the
value of products. In 1909, 16 of the
18 establishments were operated by corpora-
tions. New Jersey is by far the leading
state in the industry, as measured by value
of products, followed by Connecticut and
New Yorls in the order named.
Of the total value of products reported
for the industry in 1909, $11,725,996, the
value of complete instruments formed $5,-
406,684, or 46.1 per cent, and that of
records and blanks $5,007,104, or 42.7 per
cent. The remainder, 1,312,208, or 11.2
per cent, represented for the most part
horns, needles, matrices and other supplies
used in the manufacture or operation of
the instruments.
Other musical instruments made In-
clude cornets, trombones, tubas and other
brass instruments for band and orchestral
use, cymbals, drums, xylophones, castanets,
dulcimers, harps, lyres, guitars, lutes,
banjos, mandolins, zithers, violins, violon-
cellos, flutes, flageolets, piccolos, etc., and
parts of such instruments.
The value of products for this branch
of the combined musical instrument in-
dustry does not show the general increase
from census to census so noticeable in the
two preceding branches. The value of prod-
ucts in 1909 was 7.3 per cent less than
in 1904, and 4.9 per cent less than that in
1899. During the first half of the decade
ending with 1909 there was considerable
decrease in the number of establishments,
accompanied b.v smaller decreases in the
number of persons employed, capital invest-
ed, wages paid and cost of materials, and an
increase in the salaries, miscellaneous ex-
penses, value of products, and value added
by manufacture. During the last half of
the decade there was a decrease in all of
the items except the number of establish-
ments, number of salaried employees, and
salaries.
The establishments assigned to this in-
dustry were engaged chiefly in the manu-
facture of phonographs or graphophones for
either disk or cylinder records, including
those for ofiSce dictation ; also the manu-
facture of rpf'ords, blanks, horns, needles
or other supplies and materials used in the
industry.
Muskogee Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Naples
Encyclopedic Index
National Air
Naples, Italy:
Claims against, by —
Merchants of United States, 598,
1112.
United States, 556, 598, 867, 1109,
1112, 1157.
Extension of time allowed com-
missioners for settlement of,
recommended, 1267.
Minister of United States to, 557.
Treaty with, referred to, 1195.
ITarragansett Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Nashville Convention.— The Mississippi
State convention of 1849 suggested to other
Soutliern States the feasibility of holding
conventions to make some public expression
on the slavery question and the encroach-
ments of Northern antisiavery men. Ac-
cordingly, a convention was^ called in Nash-
ville, Tenn., in June. 1850, composed of
delegates from all the Southern States.
The Wilmot Proviso and the Missouri Com-
promise were disapproved of by this meet-
ing. Delegates from Texas, Mississippi, and
South Carolina advocated open resistance
to Federal authority, but more conservative
action prevailed. The convention met again >
in November, but only moderate resolutions
were passed.
NashviUe (Tenn.), Battle of.— After the
battle of Franklin, Nov. 30, 1864, Gen.
Schofleld retreated to Nashville, closely fol-
lowed by Flood, who formed his lines near
that city Dec. 4. Eeenforcements were sent
to Thomas at Nashville,' swelling his forces
to 56,000 men. Dec. 15 Thomas s army ad-
vanced against Hood. The day was con-
sumed in manoeuvering and skirmishing.
There were not many killed or wounded,
but the results of the day's operations were
the driving of the Confederates from every
position held by them and the capture of
16 guns, 1,200 prisoners, 40 wagons, and
several hundred stand of small arms. The
Union forces bivouacked on the field and
renewed the attack the next morning. By
4 o'clock in the afternoon the Confederates
were in retreat toward Franklin. They
were pursued until Dec. 28, when Hood
crossed the Tennessee with the remnants
of his army. The loss In killed and wound-
ed was comparatively light, but more than
50 guns and almost 5,000 Confederate pris-
oners were captured.
Nashville, The, mentioned, 6765, 6766,
6767, 6768, 6769, 6836, 6838.
Nassau, Duchy of:
Convention with, 2303.
Exequatur issued consul of, revoked,
3709.
Natal. (See Union of South Africa.)
Natchez :
Commissioners of United States as-
semble in, 186, 192, 236.
Government in , establishment of, rec-
ommended, 236.
Natchez, The. (See General Vrren,
The.)
National Academy of Sciences.— The
National Academy of Sciences was Incor-
porated under an act of Congress approved
March 3, 1863. It was self-created and
retains autonomous powers, but derives na-
tional character from' the provision in the
article of incorporation that "the academy
shall, whenever called upon by any depart-
ment of the government, investigate, ex-
amine, experiment and report upon any
subject of science of art, the actual ex-
pense of such Investigaiions, examinations,
experiments and reports to be paid from
appropriations which may be made for the
purpose ; but the academy shall receive
no compensation whatever for any services
to the Government of the United States."
The first meeting was held April 22, 1863,
and Alexander D. Bache was elected presi-
dent. Originally the membership was limited
to fifty. This limit was removed in 1870,
but the policy remained exclusive, election
being regarded as a dignity conferred in
recognition of special scientific work and
only five names are considered for each
year's election. A stated session is held
annually in Washington on the third Tues-
day in April, and another is commonly held
elsewhere during each autumn. The mem-
bership (at present, 147 members and 46
foreign associates) comprises many of the
leading scientific specialists of the United
States who are grouped into committees
on (1) mathematics and astronomy. (2)
{fhysics and engineering, (3) chemistry, (4)
geology and paleontology, (5) biology, and
(6) anthropology. There are in addition
a number of foreign scientists distinguished
for scientific attainments, who have been
elected associates.
National Academy of Sciences:
Forestry system plans to be formu-
lated by committee of, 6167. .
Requested to perpetuate National Ee-
search Council, 8496.
National Air.— The tune, or song, adopted,
usually by custom, as a musical symbol of
the country ; as, in England, "God Save the
King" ; in France, "The Marseillaise" : In
the United States, "The Star Spangled Ban-
ner." (See Star Spangled Banner.)
In all public assemblages it is a custom,
amounting to an unwritten law, for -all per-
sons to stand when the national air is played
or sung ; likewise it Is the custom, under
similar circumstances for all men when
out of doors to uncover. This mark of re-
spect Is held so sacred that any one violat-
ing it Is apt to be roughly treated. This is
eBpecIalI.v true when the martial spirit pre-
vails. Foreigners, even though not in sym-
pathv with the air being played, are ex-
pected to obey this custom as a matter of
"courtesy to the host."
The National Airs, of some of the great
nations of the world are as follows :
Austria — Hymn to the Emperor.
Belgium — Brabanconne.
Denmark — Song of Danebrog.
France — Marseillaise.
Germany — Die Wacht am Rhein ;
Dcutschiand.
Great Britain — God Save the King ; Rule
Britannia.
Hungary — Rakoczy March.
Italy — Garibaldi's Hymn ; Marcia Reale ;
War Song of the Alpine Huntsmen.
Japan — Kiml Ga Yo.
Soviet Russia — Internationale.
Spain — Spread the Tidings Afar.
Switzerland — Hall Thee, Helvetia.
United States — Star Spangled Banner.
National
Encyclopedic Index
National
National Anti-Slavery Party. — A party
organized in 1833 for united opposition to
slavery. It merged into the Liberty Party
(q. v.), and finally into the Abolition Party
(q. v.).
National Army. — The term applied to the
first draft army of 500,000 called to the
colors in the war with Germany. (See
Army. )
National Army, Message of President
Wilson to, 8352.
National Association of Naval Veter-
ans.— Organized 1887; 6,000 mem-
bers; 1,500 contributing members; 30
associations in all the principal cities
of the United States.
National Bank Circulation:
Act to fix amount of United States
notes and, vetoed, 4222.
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4720, 4766, 4832.
Cleveland, 4926, 5876, 5966, 5986,
6074, 6157, 6175.
Harrison, Benj., 5474.
Johnsbn, 8563, 3769.
Roosevelt, 7050.
Taft, 7373, 7793.
Wilson, 7869, 7879, 7908, 8026.
National Bank Examiners, reports of,
referred to, 4655.
National Banks. (See Banks, National.)
National Board of Health.— By act of
Congress approved March 3, 1879, a Na-
tional Board of Health was established,
consisting of 7 civilian physicians, 1 army
surgeon, 1 navy surgeon, 1 surgeon of the
Marine-Hospital Service, and 1 officer of
the Department of Justice. This board was
abolished by law. A national quarantine
law was passed June 3, 1879.
National Board of Health:
Establishment of —
Discussed, 4631.
Recommended, 5983.
Report of, transmitted, 4857, 4972.
National Cemeteries. (See Cemeteries,
National.)
Establishment of, and number of
Union soldiers buried in, discussed,
3649.
National Civic Federation. — An organi-
zation to promote civic welfare, founded as
a result of conferences held In 1900-1.
Although it Is generally interested in the
problems confronting the nation, it Is
particularly concerned with the struggle
between Capital and Labor. Working on
the thesis that the interests of Capital
and Labor are identical, it contains among
its ofiicers representatives of both the Amer-
ican Federation of Labor and the capitalist
interests. Of recent years, it has devoted
much of its energy to combating Bolshevism
and radicalism.
National Conservation Association. (See
Conservation Commission.)
National Consumers' Iieague. — A body
of men and women organized to further,
by discriminating purchase of goods, the
welfare of those who produce them. The
movement becomes distinct in England In
1890 and in the United States in 1891,
when the Consumers' League of New York
was organized. Other similar state and
municipal Leagues soon followed, to be
united in a national body in 1899.
Thci League pays especial attention to the
welfare of working women, and In that con-
nection issues a white label signifying that
the goods upon which it is found meet with
the requirements of the League. These re-
quirements signify especially obedience to
the national, state and municipal laws cov-
ering working conditions ; the fact that the
goods labeled were made on the premises
of the plants under whose name they are
prqduced : the employment of no child under
the age of 16 upon them ; the limit of the
working hours to at least ten dally in the
manufacture of them ; and the willingness
of the manufacturer of such goods to have
his establishement investigated for the pur-
poses of the League.
The League has been active especially in
infiuencing labor legislation, and in its
direct influence has functioned particularly
in improving working conditions in retail
stores and in eliminating sweatshops.
National Debt. (See Debt, Public.)
National Defense. (See Defenses, Pub-
lie.)
National Defense Act. —The name of the
act of Congress of June 3, 1916, providing
for increases in the provisions for the United
States Army. (See Army.)
National Food Board.— This was an or-
ganization created by and under the Council
of National Defence (q. v.), in order to
handle as well as possible the problems
arising from the food situation of the coun-
try, until Congress passed legislation re-
quested by the President in order to make
food regulation efBcient and oflScial.
National Forests. (See Eorests, Na-
tional, and Lauds, Timber.)
National Foundry, erection of, recom-
mended, 1607, 1714.
National Geographic Society. — This
body was formed in 1889 for the increase
and diffusion of geographic knowledge. It
has now more than 600,000 members, mem-
bership including subscription to the "Na-
tional Geographic Magazine," published by
the Society. The Society makes exhaustive
investigations of geographic facts, dispatches
expeditions of research, conducts a bureau
of general information to the public on geo-
graphic matters, and publishes books, mono-
graphs and papers on geographic subjects.
National Guard. — The enrolled militia
of the States is known collective-
ly as the National Guard. (See
Militia.)
Encampment of, in coast works rec-
ommended, 5476.
Encouragement of, 5550. ,
Reorganization of, 6672, 6805, 72D6.
National Incorporation Act, suggested,
7074, 7455, 7456, 7457, 7458, 7522.
National Intelligencer, publication in,
of proceedings of President and Cabi-
net respecting interpretation of re-
construction acts discussed, 3725.
National Monuments
Encyclopedic Index
National Republican
Katibual Monuments.— (See also Statue.i
and Monuments.) By act approved June 8,
1906, the President is anthorized to set
apart, as National Monuments, certain por-
tions of the land, or landmarks on the land
owned and administered hy the Government,
vphlcli may be of historic or scenic Interest.
At present, there are thirty-seven national
monuments, of which twenty-tour are ad-
ministered by the National Park Service of
the Department of the Interior, eleven by
the Department of Agriculture and two by
the War Department. Those administered
hy the National Park Service, together with
their area and date of organization as na-
tional monuments, are as follows ;
Devil's Tower, Wyoming, 1908, 1,152
acres,
Montezuma Castle, Arizona, 1906, 160
acres.
El Morro, New Mexico, 1906-1917, 400
acres.
Petrified Forest, Arizona, 1906-1911, 25,-
G25 acres.
Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, 1907, 20,629
acres.
Mulr Woods, California, 1908, 295 acres.
Pinnacles, California, 1908, 2,080 acres.
Natural Bridges, Utah, 1908, 1909 and
1916, 5,600 acres.
Lewis and Clark Cavern, Montana, 1908-
1911, 320 acres.
Tumacacori, Arizona, 1908, 10 acres.
Navajo, Arizona, 1909-1912, 960 acres.
Zlon, Utah, 1909-1918, 92,640 acres.
Shoshone Cavern, Wyoming, 1909, 210
acres.
Gran Quivira, New Mexico, 1909, 160
acres. '
Sitka, Alaska, 1910, 57 acres.
Rainbow Bridge, Utah, 1910, 160 acres.
Colorado, Colorado, 1911, 13,883 acres.
Papago Saguaro, Arizona, 191i, 2,050
a cres.
Dinosaur, Utah, 1915, 80 acres.
Sieur de Monts, Maine, 1916, 5,000 acres.
Capulin Mountain, New Mexico, 1916, 681
acres.
Verendrye, North Dakota, 1917, 253 acres..
Casa Grande, Arizona, 1889, 1909 and
1918, 480 acres.
Katmai, Alaska, 1918, 1,088,000 acres.
The following national monuments are
administered by the Department of Agri-
culture :
Gila CUE Dwellings, New Mexico, 1907,
160 acres.
Tonto, Arizona, 1907, 640 acres.
Grand Canyon, Arizona, 1908, 806,400
acres.
.Tewel Cave, South Dakota, 1908, 1,280
acres.
Wheeler, Colorado, 1908, 300 acres.
Mount Olympus. Washington, 1909, 1912
r.ml 1915, 1,516,490 acres.
Oregon Caves, Oregon, 1909, 480 acres,
acres.
Devil Postpile, California, 1911, 800
r.cres.
Walnut Canyon, Arizona, 1915, 960
acres.
Bandelier, New Mexico, 1916, 22,075
Old Kasaan, Alaska, 1916, -38 acres.
The following national monuments are
administered by the War Department :
Big Hole Battlefield, Montana, 1910, 5
acres.
Cabrlllo, California, 1913, 1 acre.
National Museum.— The National Museum
is an offshoot of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion at Washington, and was organized
under the provisions of the act of 1810
creating the parent institution. It is a
museum of record, research and education,
and the legal depository of all national col
lections. It is especially rich in American
archseolocv and natural history, but con-
tains specimens from all over the world.
The new building was completed in 1910
at a cost of $3,500,000. It contains the
specimens collected by the scientific expedi-
tion into Africa conducted by Ex-President
Uoosevelt. Through the beneficence of this
Erivate enterprise the museum was enriched
y specimens of African mammals superior
to that of any other museum in the world.
The series of birds, reptiles and plants is
also of great Importance. Some idea of the
size of the collection may be gained from
the statement that in 1916 alone there were
received almost 250,000 specimens In hot-
any, geology, anthropology, mineralogy, zo-
ology, animal and vegetable products, pale
ontology, mineral technology, and additions
to the National Gallery of Art.
(See illustration, frontispiece, Vol. VIII.)
National Museum, appropriation for.
recommended, 4431, 4458.
Eef erred to, 6676.
National Parks and Reservations. (Se«
Parks, National.)
National Party. — In 1900 the National
Party was organized as the result of defec-
tion from the First Liberty Congress (q. v.).
Donelson CafEery was nominated for Presi-
dent and M. H,owe for Vice President. The
platform declared against expansion, hut In
favor of the Gold Standard, and it was de-
cided that one elector of the National Party
should be voted for at the head of either the
Republican or Democratic ticket.
National Party. — This political party was
formed in the latter part of 1917 as a
combination of Independents, Prohibition-
ists, Progressives, Single Taxers and Social-
ists who supported the United States In its
prosecution of the war against Germany.
The platform of the party advocated na-
tional prohibition, the gradual adoption
of the single tax attitude with respect
to land (see Single Tax), the public owner-
ship and democratic control of the tele-
phones, telegraphs, mines, forests, etc.,
freedom of speech, etc. It soon evaporated.
National Prison Congress at Baltimore
referred to, 4162. (See also Interna-
tional Prison Congress.)
National Problems, new, request for
study of, 8,331.
National Repulilican Party.— After the
defeat of .Tohn Quincy Adams by Jackson
In 1828 the broad-construction wing of
the Democratic-Republican party organized
and came out with a platform directly op-
■posed to Jackson on the question of the
tariff and the United States Bank. They
opposed the spoils system in the public
service, favored internal Improvements at
national expense, a bank of the United
National Republican
Encyclopedic Index
Naturalization
states, and -a division of the proceeds of
land sales among the States. In 1832
they supported Henry Clay for the Presi-
dency and advocated a protective tariff.
Clay was defeated, receiving but 49 elec-
toral votes, and in 1835 the party, reen-
(orced by other elements, ^ took the name
of Whig.
National Research Council, perpetua-
tion of, 8496.
National Elvers and Harljors Congress.
- — This body exists to collect and prepare
data on the improvement and development
of the rivers and harbors in the United
States, including findings of the Board of
United States Engineers and problems of
water transportation, and to disseminate
this information as widely as possible. The
membership consists of commercial organi-
zations, improvement associations and cor-
porations, and individuals in sympathy with
the purposes of the Congress. The organi-
zation issues publications, maintains a news
bureau, and employs field representatives.
National Security League. (See Pre-
paredness Societies.)
National Silver Party.— O r g a n i z e d
in 1806 : nominated William .Tennings Bryan
tor President and Arthur Sewell tor Vice
President (the candidates on the Democratic
ticket*. The platform adopted followed gen-
erally the lines of the Democratic platform.
National University. — Washington strong-
ly disapproved of foreign education for
American youth and early conceived the
idea of establishing a national university
in the central part of the United States.
He bequeathed fifty shares of the Potomac
Company toward the endowment of such an
institution in the District of Columbia, but
ultimately the stock of the company proved
valueless. Several of the presidents from
time to time in their messages recom-
mended the establishment of a national
university or universities, or, as they some-
times called them, "seminaries of learn-
ing."
National University (see also Educa-
tion; Seminaries of Learning):
Establishment of, recommended, 58,
194, 197, 398, 470, 553, 878, 4208.
Lands, donation of, to, recommend-
ed, 398, 470, 4208.
National Waterways Commission. — A
special commission created by Congress in
1909, and the membership of which was
drawn entirely from Congress, to make an
Investigation of transportation by water,
and to make recommendations to Congress.
It was largely the result of the Lake-to-the-
Gult Deep Waterway Association (q. v.),
and of the National Rivers and Harbors
Congress (q. v.).
National Zoological Park referred to,
6676.
Nationality. — Federal and not state law
determines the status of the nationality
of persons in the United States. Until the
adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment,
the Constitution established no rules re-
garding the loss or acquisition of nation-
ality. Birth in the country is, as a rulBv
the test, but not all persons born in the
United States are considered as endowed
with nationality. The naturalization act
of 1790 extended nationality to children
born to American parents beyond the sea.
In 1855 an act passed restricting this to
children whose fathers were citizens. The
Civil-Rights Act (q. T.) of 1866 declared
"all persons born in the United States and
not subject to any foreign power" to be citi-
zens of the United States. The Fourteenth
Amendment defines citizens as "all persons
born or naturalized in the United States
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof."
The citizens of Hawaii became citizens of
the United States by virtue of annexation,
it being so stated in the act of Congress
of 1900 which made Hawaii a Territory.
The inhabitants of the Philippine Islands
and Puerto Rico are entitled to the protec-
tion of the Constitution but cannot enjoy
the privileges of citizenship until Congress
admits their countries to the Union as
states or organizes them as territories.
Nationality, Principle of (see also Po-
land, Czeeho-SIovakia, Jugo-Slavia,
Piume, Austria-Hungary, Italy) :
Difacultv in following, 8791.
Eeeognition of, essential, 8202, 8424,
8425, 8450.
Violated in settlements of World War,
8837, 8840.
Nations, Congress of. (See under
Panama, Isthmus of.)
Nations, Foreign. (See Powers, For-
eign; the several Powers.)
Nations, Rights of, 6922, 6994. (See
also Nationality.)
Native Birds, reservation established
for, on Smith Island, 7959.
Natural Rights. ^ — The rights which by na-
ture inhere in man (as distinguished from
the rights given by law) such as life, liberty
and the pursuit of happiness. (See Declara-
tion ot Independence. Volume I, page 1.)
The right to these blessings does not carry
with it the power to secure them, but gov-
ei'ument must be formed to establish guar-
antees of natural rights by the enactment of
positive law.
Naturalization. — The investment of an
alien with the rights and privileges of
citizer.ship. Section 8 of Article I. of the
Constitution empowered Congress "to estab-
lish a uniform rule of naturalization."
Naturalization laws were passed by the
colonial legislatures of Maryland, Virginia,
New York, South Carolina and Massachu-'
setts between 1666 and 1715. In 1740 the
British Parliament enacted a law regulating
colonial naturalization. In 1790 Congress
legislated for the first time so as to pro-
vide tor uniformity of naturalization under
the Constitution. The conditions of this
law were that any free white alien might
be admitted to citizenship by any court
of record of the state in which he has
resided for one year, having been a resident
of the United States two years. An act of
1795 required five years' residence and ap-
plication three years prior to naturaliza-
tion : that of 1798 required fourteen years'
residence and application five years prior
to naturalization. The act of April 14.
1802, restored the conditions of the act of
1795 and required a proof of five years'
residence in the United States and one in
the state, good character, an oath of alle-
giance, and a renunciation of titles and
prior allegiance. No alien may be natural-
ized it his country is at war with the
United States. Conditions and procedure
in naturalizing an alien are prescribed by
Natttralization
Encyclopedic Index
Naturalization
sections 2163-2174 of the Eevised Statutes
of the Lnlted States. Naturalization of
Chinese is prohibited by section 14. chapter
126, laws of 1882; and of anarchists by
the immigration act of 1903. Naturalized
citizens of the United States receive the
same protection when abroad as native-
born citizens. (See also Expatriation.)
The following paraphrase atid conden-
sation of the naturalization laws of the
United States have been revised by the
Commissioner of Naturalization of the De-
partment of Labor, and includes such minor
changes in the law as were provided by
the recent amendments embodied in the
act of Congressi approved June 25, 1910.
The following courts alone have the
power to naturalize aliens : United States
District Courts now existing, or which may
hereafter be established by Congress in any
state, United States District Courts for the
Territories of Hawaii and Alaska, also all
courts of record in any state or territory
now existing, or which may hereafter be
created, having a seal, a Tilerk and juris-
diction ;n actions at law or equity, or law
and equity, in which the amount in contro-
versy is unlimited.
The power to naturalize, conferre<i upon
the above mentioned courts, is limited to
persons residing within the geographical
limits over which their respective jurisdic-
tion extends.
Any alien who is a white person, or of
^ African nativity or African descent, is
required, if he desires to become naturalized,
to file a declaration of intention in the
clerk's oflBce of any court having jurisdic-
tion over the place in which he lives, and
such declaration may not be filed until the
alien has reached the age of eighteen years.
This declaration must contain information
as to the name, age, occupation, time and
place of arrival in the United States, and
must further show that it is the declarant's
hona fide intention to become a citizen of
the United States and to renounce forever
all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign
prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, and
particularly to the one of which he may
be at the time a citizen or subject.
Any alien, of the age of twenty-one years
and upward, who has served five consecutive
years in the United States navy or one en-
listment in the United States marine corps,
may be admitted to citizenship without
any previous declaration of intention.
The widow and children who are under
age at the time that an alien who has made
his declaration of intention has died, with-
out having secured a certificate of naturali-
zation, are also exempted from the neces-
sity of, filing a declaration of intention.
By act of June 25, 1910, any person who
on May 1, 1905, was an inhabitant for
five years and qualified to become a citizen
of the United States and who for the
five years preceding May 1. 1910, had
resided in the United States continuously
and who, because of misinformation in re-
gard to his citizenship, had in good faith
exercised the rights and duties of a citizen
of the United States because of wrongful
information and belief, may, upon proof
of these facts satisfactory to a court having
jurisdiction to naturalize aliens, petition
for naturalization without filing the re-
quired declaration of intention upon com-
pliance with the other requirements of the
law.
Not less than two years after an alien
has filed his declaration of intention, and
after not less than five years' continuous
residence In the United States, he may file
a petition for citizenship in any one of the
courts above stated which has jurisdiction
over the place in which he resides, pro-
vided he has lived at least one year con-
tinuously, immediately prior to the filing
of such petition, in the state or territory
in which such place is located. This peti-
tion must be signed by the petitioner in his
own handwriting and shall give his full
name, place of residence, occupation, place
of birth and the date thereof, the place
from which he emigrated, and the date and
place of his arrival in the United States.
It such arrival occurred subsequent to the
passage of the act of June 29, 1906, he
must secure a certificate from the Depart-
ment of Labor showing the fact of such
arrival and the date and place thereof,
for filing with the clerk of the court to be
attached to his' petition. Ir ne is married
he must state the name of his wife and, if
possible, the country of her nativity and
her place of residence at the time of the
filing of his petition, and, if he has children
the name, date and place of birth and
present place of residence of each living
child. The petition must set forth that he
is not a believer in or opposed to organized
government, or a member of or atfillated
with any organization or body of persons
teaching disbelief in or opposition to or-
ganized government ; that he is not a
polygamist or a believer in the practice of
polygamy, an^ that he absolutely and for-
ever renounces all allegiance and fidelity to
any foreign country of which he may, at
the time of filing such petition, be a citizen
or subject. This petition must be verified
at the time it is filed by the aflidavit of
two credible witnesses, who are citizens of
the United States and who shall state that
they have known the petitioner during his
entire residence in the, state in which the
petition is filed, which must be not .less,
than one, year, and that they have known
him to be a resident of the United States
continuously during the five years immedi-
ately preceding the filing of the petition ;
that during such time he acted as a man
of good moral character, attached to the
principles of the Constitution of the United
States and well disposed to the good order
and happiness of the same. If a portion of
the five years has been passed by the
petitioner in some other state than that in
which he resides at the time of filing his
petition the affidavit of the witness may
verify so much of the petitioner's residence
as has been passed in the state, and the
portion of said five years' residence out
of the state may be shown by depositions
at the time of hearing on the petition.
No petition may be heard until the ex-
piration of at least ninety days after it is
filed nor within thirty days preceding a
general election. At the hearing upon a
petition, which shall be a date fixed by
order of the court, the witnesses are re-
quired to again attend and testify in open
court so that the judge or judges thereof
may be satisfied that the petitioner is quali-
fied and that he has complied with all the
requirements of the law.
An alien who has borne a hereditary
title or been a member of an order or
nobility must renounce such title or posi-
tion expressly before becoming naturalized.
No alien may become naturalized, if physi-
cally capable, who does not speak the Eng-
lish language.
Aliens who are admitted to citizenship
by order in open court will be required to
take the oath of allegiance and thereafter
wil^ be entitled to a certificate of naturali-
zation.
Naturalization
Encyclopedic Index
Naturalization
The law also provides as to those per-
sons who, though Dot citizens, owe per-
manent allegiance to the United States,
and who may become citizens of any
state or organized territory ol the United
States, that they may be naturalized upon
compliance with all the requirements of the
law, except that they will not be called
upon to renounce allegiance to any foreign
sovereignty.
At the time of filing his declaration of
intention an alien is required to pay to the
clerk of the court a fee of one dollar. At
the time of filing a petition for naturaliza-
tion a petitioner is required to pay to the
clerk of the court a fee of four dollars.
The naturalization of Chinese is ex-
pressly prohibited by Sec. 14, Chap. 126,
Laws of 1882.
The act of May 9, 1918, In reference to
naturalization of honorably discharged sol-
diers and sailors who served durihg the
World War was superseded by the act of
July 19, 1919, as follows : Any person of
foreign birth, who served in the military or
naval forces of the United States during
the War, after final examination and accept-
ance by the military or naval authorities,
and shall have been honorably discharged
after such acceptance and service, shall
have the following benefits, for one year
after all of the American troops are re-
turned to the United States :
Exemption from declaration of intention
and certificate of arrival ; exemption from
$4.00 fee ; exemption from proof of United
States residence for five years and State
residpnce for one year. An applicant for
naturalization under this statute must first
appear before a naturalization examiner
with his honorable discharge and two citi-
zens to identify him as the person named
therein and after passing the required pre-
liminary examination, he may file his peti-
tion for naturalization and be heard im-
mediately by any naturalization court.
In cases of applicants In military or naval
service petitions may be filed in the most
convenient court without proof 'of residence
within Its jurisdiction. Honorable dis-
charges or certificates of service are deemed
prima facie proof as to residence and
character, and the petition of a person
in actual service may be heard immediately
even though within thirty days of an elec-
tion. Aliens in the military or naval ser-
vice of the United States abroad (1. e.,
"not within the Jurisdiction of an? court
authorized to naturalize aliens" — wording
of statute), may file petitions without ap-
pearing in person, and may take the oath of
allegiance by written verification. Service
by aliens on vessels of other than American
registry is not accepted as residence within
the TTnlted States.
Alien seamen who have sailed three years
on United States merchant or fishing
vessels may claim protection ns American
citizens by simply asking for it and, at the
same time, declaring their intention of be-
coming citizens. Aliens honorably dis-
charged on account of disability in perform-
ance of duty while In military or naval ser-
vice during the war or at Its termination,
may be relieved of the necessity of proving
continuous five years' residence. Citizens
having lost citizenship by entering the ser-
vice of the Allies may resume citizenship by
taking the oath of allegiance.
A sublect of an enemy country may, by
the eleventh subdivision of the act of May 9,
1918, become naturalized during war-time
by the following means : He should make
his petition for naturalization in the cus-
tomary manner, and thereafter have the
clerk of court serve on the Commissioner
of Naturalization the special ninety-day
alien enemy notice required by the statute.
If the applicant's declaration of intention
was less than two years old when war was
declared with his native country he must
be excepted by the President, through the De-
partment of Justice, from the alien enemy
classification before he may secure final heap-
ing. In all such cases the objection of the
Government to the final hearing of the ap-
plication must be withdrawn before he may
become naturalized.
In a recent year 93,911 applications for
citizenship were finally granted, and 11,927
were denied. Of those denied, 25% were
denied because of the incompetency of the
witnesses and 9% because of the ignorance
of the applicant.
In the same year, 207,935 declarations
of intention (first papers) were filed, and
108,009 applications for ■ citizenship (second
papers).^ There were 2,136 state and 209
federal courts exercising naturalization
jurisdiction.
In 1910, of a population of 92,000,000
there were about 13,350,000 foreign-ljprn
whites in the country. Of this number
3,803.500 were of voting age and 1,684,195
had been naturalized.
Naturalization :
Act on subject of uniform rule of,
vetoed, 508.
Aliens, ot; report on, 6935.
Commission, report of, 7002.
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 248.
Arthur, 4716, 4828.
Buchanan, 3171.
Cleveland, 4921, 5090, 5366, 5370.
Grant, 3990, 4193, 4245, 4299, 4359.
Harrison, Benj., 5472, 5478, 5551.
Jefferson, 319.
Johnson, 3715, 3778.
Lincoln, 3381.
Madison, 508, 559.
Eoosevelt, 6788, 6790, 6915, 6917,
6935, 7002, 7003, >7055.
Taft, 7372, 7543, 7689.
Washington, 58.
Frauds in, 4245, 4299, 4359, 6789,
6916.
Germany, 4419, 4520, 4625, 4916,
5084, 5471, 5869.
Eussia, 5961.
Switzerland, 4715, 6337.
Turkey, 4920, 5089,5872,5962, 6337.
Illustration of, 7810.
Japanese, of, recommended, 7055.
Laws on, revision needed in, 6916.
Treaty regarding, with —
Austria-Hungary, 4069, 4098, 4142.
Bavaria, 3888.
Belgium, 3892.
Denmark, 4160, 4193.
Ecuador, 4119, 4193.
Germany, 3828, 3829, 3830, 3888.
Questions arising under, referred
to, 4419, 4520, 462,5, 4916, 5084,
5471, 5869.
Naturalization
Encyclopedic Index
Naval Academy
Great Britain, 3894, 3956, 4014,
4056, 4077.
Prussia, 3827.
Sweden and Norway, 4033, 4142.
Turkey, 4258, 5398.
Question arising out of, 4920,
5089, 5878, 5962, 6337. •
Wurttemberg, 3997.
Naturalization, Federal Bureau of, rec-
ommended, 7002.
Naturalization Laws:
Laws regarding expatriation and elec-
tion of nationality, discussed, 3656,
3778, 4193, 4245, 4300, 4359, 4921.
(See also Impressment; Naturalized
Citizens.)
Ee\'ision of, recommended, 58, 60,
248, 319, 508, 559, 4359, 4828, 4921,
5090, 5370, 5478, 6240, 6789, 6790,
6916, 6917, 6935, 7002, 7003, 7055.
Naturalization of Filipinos, 7689.
Naturalized Citizens (see also Aliens):
Address to, 8066.
Allegiance of, to native government
discussed, 3778.
Bureau of registration of. (See Eeg-
istration' Bureau.)
Disloyalty among, denounced by
President Wilson, 8114, 8120.
Distinctions not to be recognized be-
tween native citizens and, 3172.
Duties of citizenship evaded by, dis-
cussed, 5370.
Impressed into military service of
foreign countries, 3121, 3656,
6425.
By France, discussed and referred
to, 3171, 3715, 5199, 5366.
Italy, referred to, 5673.
Prussia, discussed and referred
to, 3120, 3123, 3715, 3778.
Eeturning to native country and
claiming citizenship in United
States, discussed, 3381, 3990, 4198,
4245, 4299.
Natural Resources, necessity for gov-
ernment utilization of, 8405. (See
also Conservation.)
Nautical Almanac. — ^The Ephemeral and
Nautical Almanac of the United States Navy
Department was first publisbed in 1853. It
contains tables indicating tbe rising and
the setting of the sun, moon and stars, with
various astronomical observations of Im-.
portance to mariners, Including announce-
ments of eclipses. It contains data for
finding latitude and longitude, and Its
ephemerides are calculated for both the meri-
dian of Washington and the meredlan of
Greenwich. It is published three years in
advance of the year with which it deals, so
that all the information it contains may be
used on the longest voyages. (See Naviga-
tion.)
Navajo Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Naval Academy. (See Navy, Depart-
ment of.)
Naval Academy. — An institution for the
training of naval oflicers, founded at An-
napolis, Md., in 1845, through the efforts of
George Bancroft, then Secretary of the
Navy. The Academy was not established
by formal legislation of Congress, but was
opened In October, 1845, under orders
from the Secretary of the Navy. It was
not until Aug. 10, 1846, that Congress took
any action toward the encouragement of
the enterprise. At that time $28,000 was
appropriated for repairs, Improvement andi
Instruction, and the following year a like^
sum was appropriated. In 1850 the school
was reorganized and the name changed to
the United States Naval Academy. At th«
outbreak of the Civil War the Academy was
removed to Newport, R. I., where it re-
mained until the summer of 1865, when
it was re-established at Annapolis.
The Naval Academy is under the juris-
diction of the Bureau of Navigation of the
Navy Department and in the immediate
control of an academic board, consisting of
a superintendent, who is a naval officer;
a commandant of cadets, and the heads of
the different departments of study, who
are, with one exception, naval officers.
The students of the Naval Academy are
called Midshipmen. Two Midshipmen are
allowed for each Senator, Representative
and Delegate In Congress, two for the
District of Columbia, and five each year
from the United States at large. The ap-
pointments from the District of Columbia
and five each year at large are made by
the Tresident. One Midshipman is allowed
rvom Porto Rico, who must be a native of
that island. The appointment Is made by
the President, on the recommendation of
the Governor of Porto BIco. The Congres-
sional appointments are equitably dis-
tributed, BO that as soon as practicable each
Senator, Representative and Delegate in
Congress may appoint one Midshipman dur-
ing each Congress.
The course for Midshipmen is four years
at the Academy, when the succeeding ap-
pointment is made, and the examination for
graduation takes place. Midshipmen who
pass the examination for graduation are
appointed to fill vacancies in the lower
grade of the Line of the Navy, in the
order of merit as determined by the Aca-
demic Board of the Naval Academy.
The act of June 29, 1906, prescribes that
the Secretary of thte Navy shall, as soon as
possible after June 1 of each year preced-
ing the graduation of Midshipmen in the
succeeding year, notify in writing each
Senator, Representative and Delegate in
Congress of any vacancy that will exist
at the Naval Academy because of such
graduation, and which he shall be entitled
to fill by nomiuation of a candidate and
one or more alternates therefor. The nom-
ination of candidate and alternate or alter-
nates to fill said vacancy shall be made
upon the recommendation of the Senator,
Representative or Delegate, if such recom-
mendation is made by March 4th of the
year following that in which said notice
In writing is given, but If it Is not made
by that time the .Secretary of the Navy
shall fill the vacancy by appointment of an
actual resident of the State, Congressional
District or Territory, as the case may be,
in which the vacancy will exist, who shall
have been for at least two years immedi-
ately preceding the date of his appointment
an actual and bona fide resident of the
State, Congressional District or Territory
in which the vacancy will exist, and of the
legal qualification under tbe law as now
provided.
Naval Academy
Encyclopedic Index
Naval Observatory
Candidates allowed for Congressional Dis-
tricts, for Territories, and for the Disti'ict
of Columbia must ba actual residents.
Candidates at the time of their examination
must be physically sound, well formed and
of robust constitution. Attention will also
be paid to the stature of the candidate,
and no one manifestly under size for his
age win be received at the Academy. The
height of candidates for admission shall
not be less than 5 feet 2 inches between
the ages of 16 and 18 years, and not less
than 5 feet 4 inches between the ages of
18 and 20 years ; and the minimum weight
at 16 years of age shall be 100 pounds,
with an increase of not less than 5 pounds
fgr each additional year or fraction of a
year over one-half. Any marked deviation
in the relative height and weight to the
age of a candidate will add materially to
the consideration for rejection. Candidates
must be unmarried, and any Midshipman
who shall marry, or who shall be found
to be married, before his graduation, shall
be dismissed from the service. All candi-
dates must, at the time of their examina-
tion for admission, be between the ages of
16 and 20 years. The pay of a Midship-
man is $600, beginning at the date of
admission. The regulations regarding
places and times of examinations and sub-
jects of examinations may be obtained by
addressing the Chief of the Bureau of
Navigation, Navy Department, Washington.
The Sixty-third Congress, upon the rec-
ommendation of the Navy Department, con-
tinued the law which had expired by limita-
tion providing for the appointment of two
midshipmen by each member /of Congress,
and the Sixty-fourth Congress, as the first
act in larger preparedness, passed the bill
giving three appointments to each Senator
or Representative. This made possible an
increase of 531 midshipmen a year, coupled
with the increase of appointments from
the United States at large to fifteen and
the provision that the President may ap-
point in addition 25 enlisted men from the
Navy provided that each has been at least
one year in service.
By act of Congress approved December
20, 1917, the number of midshipmen was In-
-creased to five for each Senator, Representa-
tive and Delegate in Congress, one for
Porto Rico, two for the District of Colum-
bia, fifteen appointed annually at large, and
one hundred appointed annually from the
enlisted men of the Navy, as previously
provided for by law.
Naval Academy:
Address to class of 1914 by President
Wilson, 7949.
Appropriation for paving sidewalk
at, recommended, 4671.
Board of Visitors to, report of, re-
ferred to, 3587.
Cadets, suspended, returned to, 6937.
Courses of study in, 7117.
Discussed, 2669, 3386.
Establishment of, recommended, 876.
Increased number of ofacers and men
needed, 8108.
Instruction at, should be more prac-
tical, 7117.
Eemoval of, discussed, 3561.
Reorganization of, discussed, 2713.
Naval Aeronautics.— The division of
Naval Aeronautics in the Navy Department
investigates and develops In particular the
use of air-craft from the decks of vessels and
from the surface of the seas. (See Aero-
nautics ; Navy ; Navy Department.)
Naval Aids recommended for Secretary
of the Navy, 7807.
Naval Auxiliary Reserve. (See Naval
Resepve.)
Naval Cadet, title of, should be re-
placed by "midshipman," 6667.
Naval Coast Defence Reserve. (See
Naval Reserve.)
Naval Code. (See Code.)
Naval Code, revision of, 2625.
Naval Communications Service. (See
Radio Service.)
Naval Consulting Board.— The Naval Con-
sulting Board was organized in July, 1915,
by Secretary of Navy Josephus Daniels. It
is composed of members , selected by the
leading scientific societies of the United
States, and it Is headed and directed by
Thomas A. Edison. Although it advises the
Navy Department on all matters of im-
portance in the development of the Navy, it
is concerned especially with new Inventions,
which It investigates and on which it re-
ports, and with plans for industrial prepara-
tion for naval purposes, in which work It is
assisted by branch committees in all the
states of the Union. It also conducts a
laboratory in experimental and research
work, in order to study all new develop-
ments in naval warfare.
Naval Courts of Inquiry, 892.
Naval Expeditions. (See Arctic Expe-
ditions; Exploring Expeditions.)
Naval Militia. — in 1888 Congress passed
an act authorizing the maritime states to
organize a naval reserve, to be trained and
fitted for operating the coast and harbor
defense vessels, etc., in time of war, thus
liberating the regular naval force to man
the heavy seagoing war ships, et;;. Massa-
chusetts was the first state to pass laws
providing for such organization. New
York took similar action, and by 1898 most
of the maritime states had regularly organ-
ized naval militia. The first appropriation
tor the equipment of the force was $25,-
000, made by Congress in 1891. The naval
militia is now organized in twenty-two
states and in the District of Columbia.
All matters relating to the Naval Militia
come under the cognizance of the Assistant
Secretary of the Navy, who transacts all
business with the Naval Militia through the
Governors and Adjutants-General (or Quar-
termasters-General) of the states. The
officer in the Navy Department, Washing-
ton, having charge of Naval Militia matters
is Commander F. B. Bassett, Jr., U. S. N.
At the beginning of 1917, the strength
of the naval militia was reported as 558
commissioned oflJcers, 26 warrant officers,
1.857 petty officers and 6,076 men — a total
of 8,517.
Naval Militia, development of, dis-
cussed, 5759, 6166, 6669.
Naval Observatory. — A division of the
Bureau of Equipment of the Navy Depart-
ment. Its functions are to determine ac-
curately the positions of the sun. moon,
planets and the earth for use in preparing
Naval Observatory
Encyclopedic Index
Naval Reserve
the Nautical Almanac; to test chronom-
eters and to Issue correct time daily ; to
distribute to vessels of the navy instru-
ments of precision for navigating purposes ;
to conduct astronomical investigations of
general and special scientific interest, and,
since 1894, to publish the Nautical Almanac.
In 1830 the Navy Department established
a depot of charts and Instruments in charge
of Lieutenant L. M. Goldsborough, and
he mounted a 3-inch transit instrument.
In 1833 Lieutenant Willtes moved the
depbt to a site on Capitol Hill, and at his
own expense built an observatory contain-
ing a transit instrument of 3f inches aper-
ture and 63 Inches focal length ; a Borda's
circle ; a 3J-foot achromatic portable tele-
scope ; a portable transit instrvtment ; and
a sidereal clock. In 1838 the Secretary of
the Navy granted authority for the pur-
chase of all necessary supplies for making
a constant series of observations in astron-
omy, magnetism and meteorology, and
detailed naval officers to the work under
the instructions of Lieut. J. M. Gilliss.
The new equipment then Installed consisted
of a sidereal clock and a mean time clock ;
a meridian circle of 5.5 Inches aperture
furnished with a circle 30 Inches In diam-
eter ; a portable achromatic telescope of
3i Inches aperture and 42 inches focal
length. Berlin, Paris, Greenwich and
Vienna presented some 200 rare volumes
of the highest standard as the nucleus for
an astronomical library. The work done
at Capitol Hill between 1838 and 1842
was published as Astronomical Observations
Made at the Naval. Observatory, being the
first American work of this nature.
In 1842 Congress, through the efforts
of Lieut. Gilliss, authorized the erection
of a new observatory. Lieut. Maury was
placed In charge of the new establishment
and gained an international reputation
through his studies of ocean currents and
other hydrographic and nautical sub.iects.
He was succeeded in 1861 by Lieut. Gilliss
and later by Charles H. Davis and John
• Eodgers.
Among the earliest scientific achievements
of the new observatory were the observa-
tions of the planet Neptune, secured In
1846, immediately after Its discovery, which
enabled Sears C. Walker, by identifying two
older foreign observations, to discuss the
elements of Neptune during his short con-
nection with the observatory. The adapta-
tion of electricity to record observations by
Prof. John Locke, formerly lieutenant in
the navy, resulted in the installation of the
first practical chronograph at the observa-
tory in 1849. With the 9.6-inch equatorial
Assistant Astronomer James Ferguson dis-
covered several planetoids between 1854
and 1860. With the 26-inch refractor
(made by Alvan Clark), at that time the
largest telescope in the world. Prof. ASaph
Hall discovered the moons of Mars m 1S7T.
This Instrument was set in place in time
to observe the transit of Venus in 1874.
The present observatory buildings on the
more favorable site of Georgetown Heights
were confpleted in 1893. They comprise a
commodious office building occupied by the
astronomical, nautical instrument, time ser-
vice and Nautical Almanac departments,
while the 26-Inch. equatorial, a p-Inch and
a 6-inch transit circle, and a 5-lnch prime
vertical instrument are placed in suitable
dome and houses to the south east west
•and north of a clock house, the longitude
of which is 5h. 8m. 15.78s west and the
latitude 38° 55' 14" north. Besides the
above-named instruments there are a 12-
inch equatorial, a 6-inch altazimuth a 5-
nch transit, a 5-inch photohellograph.
Although one of the youngest among the
great astronomical Institutions, It has de-
veloped in a short time to a rank with these
at Greenwich and Pulkowa. Its object is
rather the development and application of
the known facts of astronomy than the
making of further discoveries. Professors
Newcomb and Hall, of the older scientific
staff of the Naval Observatory, were later
succeeded by Professors Skinner, See, Upde-
graph, Eichelberger, LIttell and Harsch-
mann. The library now contains some 22,-
000 volumes and stands second to Pulkowa
only.
Naval Observatory:
Estimates for observation of transit
of Venus, referred to, 4668.
Appropriation for, recommended,
4688.
Eeferred to, 4249.
Eemoval of, recommended, 5158.
Separation of, from Navy Depart-
ment, recommended, 7430.
(See also Navy, Department of.)
Naval Ofacers. (See Navy.)
Naval Order of the United States.—
Composed of a General Commandery and
commanderles in the States of Massachu-
setts, Pennsylvania, New York, California
and Illinois, and in the District of Colum-
bia. The General Commandery meets tri-
ennially on Oct. 5th, and the State Com-
manderles meet annually in the month of
November. The Massachusetts Commandery
is the parent Commandery, and was organ-
ized at Boston on July 4, 1890. The Gen-
eral Commandery was established three
years later, on June 19, 1893. The Com-
panies of the Order are officers and the
descendants of officers who served in the
navy and marine corps in any war or In
any battle in which the said naval forces
of the United States have participated.
The membership clause, as adopted at the
triennial congress held at Boston, Oct. 5,
1895, provides for two classes of members :
First, veteran officers and their male de-
scendants ; and. second, enlisted men who
have received the United States naval medal
of honor for bravery in the face of the
enemy.
Naval Parade, to be held in New York
Harbor, 5760.
Naval Pension Fund.^ (See Pensions.)
Naval Kadio Station, land in Alaska set
apart for, 8215.
Naval Reserve.— By act of Congress, ap-
proved August 29, 1916, provision was made
for the establishment of a naval reserve in
the United States Navy. Under this head,
the act created six classes of service : Fleet
Naval Reserve, Naval Reserve, Naval Auxil-
iary Reserve, Naval Coast Defence Reserve,
Volunteer Naval Reserve, and Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps. The same act also
provided for the establishment of a Marine
Corps Reserve. The legislation provides for
a naval reserve force embracing all former
officers and men of the navy now In civil
life, the officers and men of the merchant
marine, and civilians capable of serving the
navy In connection with the defense of the
coasts. After 16 or 20 years of service,
enlisted men may transfer from the active
list to the Naval Reserve. It Is estimated
that at the time of the passage of the act.
it provided for a reserve force of 20,000
Naval Reserve
Encyclopedic Index
Navassa
men, and that after a few years that number
will have Increased to '30,000 men.
Pay. — In the Fleet Naval Reserve, officers
receive 2 months' base pay of their rank;
and men of 4 years' service, $50 a year ;
men of 8 years' service, $72 a year ; and
men of 12 years' Service, $100 a year. Pay
is increased 25% for each enrollment. In
the Naval Auxiliary Reserve, ofiacers receive
1 month's base pay of their rank, and
men 2 months' base pay of their rating,
with a 25% Increase for each enrollment.
Men in the Volunteer Naval Reserve receive
no pay. In all other classes, officers and
men receive 2 months' base pay of their
rank or rating. Enlisted men who transfer
to the Naval Reserve after 16 or 20 years
service receive between $40 and $60 per
month.
Service. — Members of the Naval Reserve
may be ordered into actual service in the
Navy by the President In time of war or
national emergency. Enrollment and re-
enrollment are for terms of four years, but
in times of peace or of no national emergency
members of the Naval Reserve shall be dis-
charged at their request, provided that they
reimburse the Government for any clothing
gratuities which may have been furnisnea
them during their enrollment. Members
upon enlisting are assigned ranks according
to their qualifications for service, which are
determined by examinations. In time of
actual service, all members of the Naval
Reserve shall be sub.iect to the same regula-
tions as apply to the enlisted men m the
Navy, and their pay during time of actual
service shall be equal to that of enlisted
men and officers in the regular service of
the Navy of corresponding grade.
Divisions. — In the Fleet Naval Reserve,
all former officers, including midshipmen, of
the NSival Service, who have been honorably
discharged after not less than one four-year
term of enlistment, are eligible. In the
Naval Reserve, men between the ages of
eighteen and thirty-five who have followed
the sea-going profession are eligible. In the
Naval Auxiliary Reserve, those eligible are
men who have beep or who are engaged on
vessels of the American merchant marine
which have been listed by the Navy Depart-
ment as suitable for service In time of war.
The Naval Coast Defence Reserve Is re-
served for those citizens who may be of
especial value to the Navy Department In
connection with the defense of the coasts.
Those citizens who are willing to serve In
the Naval Reserve without retainer pay and
uniform gratuity In time of peace are eligible
to the Volunteer Naval Reserve. The Naval
Reserve Flying Corps is composed of those
persons who are skilled In the designing,
building, or operating of aircraft. The
Marine Corps Reserve Is divided into classes
corresponding to the first five classes listed
above.
Naval Reserve Flying Corps. (See
Naval Reserve.)
Naval Reserve, National, establishment
recommended, 6669, 7808.
Naval Stations. — Naval bases or shore
stations are ports on home or foreign
shores owned or leased by the government,
where fuel and supplies are stored, and
which are regularly visited by vessels on
cruise. Recruiting and instruction are also
carried on at these stations, and they form
the bases for sea manoeuvres. Following
are the locations of the permanent stations
at home and abroad :
Annapolis, Md. (naval academy) ; Balti-
more, Md. (recruiting station) ; Boston,
Mass. (yard "and recruiting station);
Charleston, S. C. (yaru and barracks) ;
Great Lakes, 111. (training station) ; Indian
Head (proving ground) ; Key West, Fla. ;
Las Animas, Colo, (hospital) ; Mare Island,
Cal. (yard, barratks, prison, iron works) ;
Narragansett Bay, K. I. (training station) ;
New York, N. x. (Brooklyn yard) : Nor-
folk, Va. (Newport News yard) ; Philippine
Islands (Olongapo, Cavite, Canacao) ;
Panama (Canal Zone) ; Pensaeola, Fla. ;
Philadelphia, Pa. (recruiting station, home,
hospital, etc.) ; Port Royal, S. C. (dis-
ciplinary- barracks) ; Portsmouth, N. H.
(yard, iron works, hospital, etc.) ; Puget
Sound (Bremerton, Wash., dock, etc.) ; San
Francisco, Cal. ; Washington, D. C. (ad-
ministrative dept.) ; Guam; Guantanamo,
Cuba ; Hawaii, H. I. ; Tutulla, Samoa ;
Yokohama, Japan.
Naval Stations:
Establishment of —
Discussed, 4573, 4586.
In West Indies, recommended, 3777.
Lands for. (See Lands, Public.)
Survey for, mentioned, 1038.
(See also Navy Yards and Docks.)
Naval Training Stations. — The regular
naval training stations of the United States
are Newport, R. I. ; Norfolk, Va. ; Great
Lakes, 111. ; San Francisco, Cal.
Stations at which general detail men and
graduates of training stations receive furth-
er training while awaiting assignment to
ships are Boston, Mass. ; Charlestown, S.
C. ; Gulfport, Miss. ; Key West, Fla ; Mare
Island Navy Yard ; New York Navy Yard ;
New Orleans, La. ; Pensaeola, Fla. ; Phila-
delphia Navy Yard ; Portsmouth, N. H. ;
Puget Sound Navy Yard ; San Diego, Cal.
Training stations for reserves and na-
tional volunteers are Portsmouth (N. H.)
Navy Yard ; Bumkin Island, Boston Harbor ;
Newport, R. I. ; Bensonhurst, L. I., N. Y. ;
Pclham Bay Park, N. Y. ; U. S. S. Iowa,
Indiana, Massachusetts; Cape May, N. J. :
S. S. Bulgaria, Norfolk Navy Yard ; Cherry-
stone Island, Va. ; Charlestown (S. C.)
Navy Yard ; Key West Fla. ; New Orleans
Navy Yard ; Los/ Angeles, Cal. ; Seattle,
Wash.; Chicago, 111.
Naval War College. — A course of lec-
tures on and instruction in the manipula-
tion of torpedoes established by the Gov-
ernment at Coasters Harbor Island, New-
port, R. I., in 1889. The class consists
chiefly of officers and men in the torpedo
service, but lectures are delivered on all
branches of naval improvements and prog-
ress. The course continues three months
in each year.
Naval War College, discussed, 6166.
(See also Navy, Department of.)
Navassa Island, West Indies:
Occupation of, by American citiizens,
referred to, 3120.
Eeeognition of, as appertaining to
United States, referred to, 5625.
Trial of laborers in, charged virith
killing agents of Navassa Phos-
phate Co., discussed, 5625.
Navassa Phosphate Co., trial of laborers
charged with killing agents of, in
Navassa Island, discussed, 5625.
Navies Encyclopedic Index Navies
Navies of the World. — The World War of tbe German fle.!t sunk while under In-
has made it difficult to present wltli ac- ternment at Scapa Flow could be salvaged.
curacy comparative statistics of the navies The adjoining table was compiled and pub-
of the Great Powers. The belligerents In lished by the Office of the Naval Intelligence
the War, and even neutrals, found It neces- of the United States Navy Department to
sary to Iteep their naval programs secret present as accurately as possible compara-
durlng the War, and even in the period im- tive figures of the live great Powers emerg-
mediately following it. And In addition, It ing victorious from the World War. (The
was many months after the close of hostlll- terms of peace of the War saw the end, at
ties before the terms of division of the fleets least temporarily, of the naval strength of
of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.)
among the Entente Allies were settled and The statistics, which are given In the table
before it was known if any large proportion below, are as of July 1, 1919 :
Great Britaint United States France Japan Italy
_ ,., ., ^0. Tons No. Tons No. .Tons No. Tons No. Tons
Battleships —
8uperdreadnaughtS ... 24 603,750 11 319,300 7 163,500 4 123,600 5 109,000
Drcadnaughts 9 172,100 6 115,160 1 21,400
Predreadnaughts 17 258,900 14 208,500 10 166,000 6 99,800 4 51,400
Coast Defense Vessels*.. 27 256,790 16 124,885 5 55,500 7 78,166 10 67,000
Battle Cruisers 9 206,300 4 110,000
Armored Cruisers 22 267,500 8 112,390 14 154,000 9 95,000 5 45,700
Crulserst 71 295,290 11 49,800 1 2,400 7 32,500 3 89,000
Destroyers 367 384,900 162 176,500 64 36,800 61 36,500 43 33,000
Torpedo Boats 31 8,700 70 7,000 9 1,250 94 14,900
Mine Planters 6 32,100 4 16,080 1 .3,950 1 2,000 4 13,178
Submarines 147 103,800 88 37,250 56 ■ 25,700 11 2,900 65 22,715
Air-craft Carriers 10 62,000 2 9,000 1 7,600 1 8,800
Total Tonnage 2,652,130 1,160,355 623,850 580,716 454,293
•Includes older battleships and monitors.
fAU unarmored warships of more than 1,500 tons are classed as cruisers.
^Includes colonial vessels.
Note. — The above figures include only warships of more than 1,500 tons displacement and
torpedo craft of more than 50 tons each. Ships more than 20 years old and torpedo
and submarine craft more than 15 years old and transports, colliers and other
auxiliary vessels are not included.
In addition to the above vessels actually in commission on July 1, 1919, there were
being built a number of warships, chiefly superdreadnaughts, battle cruisers, cruisers,
destroyers and submarines. Including these vessels under construction, the classifica-
tion under these heads of vessels in commission and under construction on July 1, 1919,
was as follows : —
Great Britain
No. Tons
Superdreadnaughts. 24 603,750
Cruisers 92 387,940
Battle Cruisers . . 10 246,300
Destroyers 402 429,900
Submarines 177 137,000
United Sfates
No. Tons
France
No. Tons
Japan
No. Tons
No.
Italy ■
Tons
23 773,500
21 120,800
6 211,800
325 373,963
161 98,100
16 403,650
1 2,400
65 '37,666
65 31,800
8 251,600
12 62,500
6 180,000
77 53,500
38 1 25,150
9
3
59
73
231,600
89,000
'53,266
25,515
The following table shows the number of battleships and battle cruisers able to take
their position in line of battle authorized by the five great naval Powers from 1907
to 1918, both dates inclusive : —
Great Britain United States France Japan Italy
Battleships 36 26 16 10 5
Battle Cruisers 8 6 .. 8 4
The following table shows the heavy gUns according to calibres which the fleets of
the five Powers will contain at the completion of their programs as projected on July
1, 1919 :—
Great Britain United States France Japan Italy
16-lnch 152 ... 32
15-lnch 100 ... ... .. 32
14-lnch 10 124 ... 80
13%-inch 144 ... 154*
12-incli 136 80 48 12 64
Totals .390 356 202 124 96
•Subject to modification.
Navies
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
The following table shows the annual naval expenditure by the five great naval
Powers for some recent fiscal years : —
Great Britain United States Prance Japan Italy
1900-1 $ 61,721,695 S 145,792,850 $72,683,180 $23,829,206 $21,373,954
1905-6 109,725,059 161,117,947 61,565,559 24,494,400 11,378,202
1910-1 111,791,980 202,056,258 74,102,439 40,5a5,204» 36,889,158t
1913-4 136,858,301 237,530,459t 90,164,625^ 49,550,147t 48,105,152t
1914-5 141,872,786** 260,714,275t 123,828,872t S6,920,440tt 69,111,653§
1915-6 152,821,540 1,001,099,682 138,006,996 130,975,440 - 63,000,000
1916-7 261,403,176 1,021,262,541 169,967,766 155,829,390 73,000,000
1917-8 1,214,995,767 " 1,106,391,578 301,910,093 226,061,278 85,000,000
1918-9 616,740,797 430,199,173 229,779,176 125,000,000
♦Appropriation, including $4,827,568 made available in 1910. fApproprlation. tEstl;
mated. •♦Includes about $14,500,000 especial revenue. ttEstimated and including addi-
tional war appropriation. §Estimated and Including about $19,000,000 naval expendi-
tures for war against Germany.
The relative order of the five great naval
Powers, on July 1, 1919 and when tonnage
projected on July 1, 1919 is completed
was as follows : —
On Completion
of Projected
Power July 1, 1919 Tonnage
Great Britain 2,652,130 2,898,780
United States 1,160,355 2,155,668
France 623,850 ^ 870,990
Japan 580,716 847,966
Italy 454,298 601,543
Navigation:
Accidents in, resulting from criminal
negligence in use of steam power,
discussed, 1253.
Advancement in science of nautical
affairs, 2670.
Appropriation for improvement of,
recommended, 2666.
Bridges so constructed over waters
as to obstruct, discussed, 4634.
Depressed state of, 559.
Extension of laws of, etc., referred
to, 2544.
Laws of, having tendency to prolong
War of 1812, should be revised,
525.
Prosperous condition of, 2404.
Eeferred to, 74, 77, 78, 81, 95, 227,
318, 346, 470, 480, 559, 2571.
Treaty with Spain regarding, 106,
110, 164.
Utility of canal, explained, 482, 785.
Navigation Act. — An important move in
England's struggle with the Dutch for pos-
session of the carrying trade of the world.
The act was first promulgated in 1645,
amplified in 1630, and renewed with a few
changes by Charles II. in 1660. It related
to five subjects — coasting trade, fisheries,
commerce with the colonies, commerce with
European countries, and commerce with
Asia, Africa and America. The clauses of
Importance to American history were those
providing that all colonial trade should
be carried on in ships built and owned in
England and the colonies and that in the
case of many specified goods trade should
be confined to IJnglish marltets. The for-
mer clause acted as a powerful stimulant
to colonial shipbuilding. The act was ren-
dered largely inoperative by the prevalence
of smuggling, and the efforts of Great Brit-
ain to enforce it were among the leading
causes of the Revolution.
Navigation, Bureau of, Navy Depart-
ment. (See Bureau of Navigation.)
Navigation Laws, — The Constitution gives
Congress power to pass navigation laws in
accordance with the principles of interna-
tional law. By act of 1789 a tonnage tax
of 6 cents per ton was levied on all
American vessels and one of 50 cents a ton
on all vessels built and owned in foreign
countries and entering American ports,
which practically gave a (monopoly of
American trade to American bottoms. In
1792 the act requiring American registra-
tion was passed. In 1793 the coasting
trade was closed to foreign vessels. In
1816, 1817 and 1820 the American naviga-
tion laws were remodeled and made to
correspond closely to those of Great Britain.
Tonnage taxes, which had been abolished,
were renewed at the outbreak of the Civil
War. With the advent of iron vessels
came the decrease in American shipbuilding
and the decrease in the American marine
was further due to the law forbidding any
but American-built ships to fly the Ameri-
can flag. This restriction was, however,
modified by the act of 1892. The act of
1886 reduced the tonnage rates consider-
ably. (See Seamen's Act.)
Navigators Islands. (See Samoan Is-
lands.)
Navy. — During the Kevolution this coun-
try had practically no navy. In September,
1775,^ the British troops, closely environed
in Boston, could receive supplies only by
water. To intercept these Washington de-
tailed certain of his oflJcers and men who
were familiar with nautical matters to
patrol Boston Harbor in small armed cruis-
ers. Some of the states had already con-
structed vessels at public expense to pro-
tect their coast line. New England sea-
men cruised with such effect in Massachu-
setts Bay as not only to deprive the British
garrisoned in Boston of their necessary
supplies, but also to add to the resources
of the Continental Army by the capture
of numerous prizes. At the end of 1775
the Continental Congress began the con-
" struction of a navy by ordering thirteen
frigates to be built. These performed
some service, but most of the achievements
of the war were by privateers. By 1781
all of the thirteen Federal vessels had been
either captured or destroyed.
In 1797 and 1798, In anticipation of war
with Prance, Congress authorized the con-
struction of the Constitution, United States,
and Constellation and the purchase of twen-
ty-four other vessels. Hostilities with
Prance having been averted, the newly ac-
quired navy was used with good effect in
resisting the Barbary States. At the out-
INSIGNIA OF RANK OF OFFICERS OF THE U. S. NAVY
COMMISSIONED LINE OFFICERS
SI FEve SHOULDER COLLAR
BHlV^HI
COMMISSIONED on
rs petty officers
NAVAL AVIATION CORPS
INSIGNIA OF PETTY OFFICERS U. S. NAVY AND MISCELLANEOUS INSIGNIA
PETTY OFFICERS' RATING BADGES AND SPEOIALTV MARKS
MISCELLANEOUS CAP DEVICES
LIGHTHOUSE COAST A'lC' GEODETli:
SERVICE SURVEr
AIR PLANE DISTINGUISHING MARKS
000^
Y. M. C. A. SLEEVE
Navy
Encyclopedic Indent:
Navy
break of the War of 1812 the United
States had about a score of vessels, three
of them being tlrst-class frigates — the
Conatitittion, the President, and tne United
States — as against England's 830. The
brilliant achievements of American vessels
in that war secured Increased appropria-
tions. In 1816 $1,000,000 annually for
eight years was appropriated.
By the law of 1819 the Navy was
largely increased and a resolution provided
for naming ships of the line after the
states, frigates after the rivers of the
United States^ and sloop of war after the
chief cities and towns. The vessels were
divided among four squadrons and sta-
tioned in the Mediterranean, the Pacific,
the West Indies, and on the coast of Bra-
zil, and in 1841 an additional squadron was
ordered to cruise along the coast of the
United States. During the Mexican War
the Gulf Squadron blockaded Vera Cruz
and bombarded the fort of San Joan de
Ulloa into submission, while the Pacific
Squadron seized Monterey and Los Angeles,
Cal.
At the outbreak of the Civil War the
United States had only about forty ves- '
sels in commission. The character of naval
, warfare at this time had been changed by
Improved armament. The old wooden
vessels were useless when opposed by the
Whitworth and other modern guns of
long range and heavy caliber. The tur-
reted Ironclad was born of the emergency.
A new navy had to be constructed In or-
der to maintain the blockade of Southern
ports, and by Jan. 1, 1864, the National
Government had over 600 vessels, seventy-
five of them ironclads, with more than
4,600 guns and 35,000 men. After the war
the Navy was reduced. Notwithstanding
the appropriation of large sums of money,
1882 found the United States in possession
of only 140 vessels, and more than 100 of
these were incapable of sea service.
Soon after this date a new policy regard-
ing the Navy was inaugurated and has
since been pursued with credit and honor
to the nation.
The officers of the navy are trained for
their profession at the United States Naval
Academy at Annapolis (which see).
Target Practice. — So necessary is target
practice considered for the efficiency of the
United States Navy that there exists a
separate division of Target Practice in the
Navy Department (q. v.). Up to 1903, tar-
get practice in the Navy was at the short
range of about a mile, as naval experts were
almost unanimous in the opinion that naval
battles could never be fought at distances
greater than two or three miles. The range
of target practice was gradually increased
until the outbreak of the European War
showed that naval battles could be fought at
great distances, and in recent target prac-
tices of the United States Navy the range
has been thousands of yards. In the prac-
tices off Guantanamo in February, 1916, the
ships of the Navy averaged 11% of hits at
battle distance. Ships of the dreadnaught
class, aiming at screen targets 90 feet long
and 30 feet high, made 7% of hits at long
battle distance and 21% of hits at mean
battle distance. Secretary of the Navy
Daniels reports that these records are be-
lieved not only to have equalled, but even to
have bettered the best records made In the
European War.
Salutes.— It is the custom of foreign
ships of war entering the harbor, or In
passihg in the vicinity of a fort, to hoist
at the fore the flag of the country in whose
waters they are and salute It ; on the com-
B-5
pletlon of the salute to the flag, a salute
(of twenty-one guns) is returned as soon as
possible by the nearest fort or battery ; If
there are several forts or batteries In sight,
or within the radius of six miles, the prin-
cipal fort returns the salute. The Presi-
dential salute of twenty-one guns was adopt-
ed that a uniformity in national salutes
might be maintained, it being the same
number of guns as the royal salute of Eng-
land. The reason why twenty-one should
have been selected as the number of guns
has been a source of search and guess,
with no satisfactory results. Of the many
surmises, the two carrying the most weight
of opinion are : . First, that twenty-one
was the same number of years fixed by
English law as the age of majority ; the
secomj, that seven was the original salute,
and three times seven would signify one
seven for each of the divisions, England
and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. It is
also asserted that the Uniteu States adopt-
ed this salute to signify to the mother
country that her child had reached Its
majority, and was prepared, in law, to
inherit the land ; and to this end fired the
"gun of 1776," the figures of which year
added together equal twenty-one. The
salutes given in addition to the Presidential
salute are as follows : To the Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States and the Presi-
dent of the Senate, 19 guns ; members of
Cabinet, Chief Justice of United .States,
Speaker of the House of Representatives,
17 guns ; rear-admiral, 13 gnns ; commo-
dore, 11 guns ; captain, 9 guns ; to a sov-
ereign or chief magistrate of any foreign
country, 21 guns ; to the heir apparent or
consort of a reigning sovereign, 21 guns.
A salute in accordance with their rank is
also given to the viceroy, governor-gf neral
or governors of provinces belonging to for-
eign states, to ambassadors extraordinary
and plenipotentiary, to envoys extraordi-
nary and plenipotentiary, to ministers resi-
dent accredited to the United States, to
charges d'affaires in charge of missions in
the United States, to consuls-general ac-
credited to the United States, and to offi-
cers of foreign services.
The war with Spain brought the impor-
tance of the" navy into prominence, and
resulted to a general desire for its en-
largement, for it became evident that if
tills country should be attacked by a for-
eign power, that attack would be by sea ;
and the true method of defense would be
by means of a navy that could meet the
enemy, pursue and destroy them on the
seas, not by means of mere harbor de-
fenses. The rapidity of this enlargement
can be judged by the comparative ex-
penses. For the year ending June
30, 1897, the year before the war with
Spain, the cost of the navy was |34,-
561,546 ; and for the year 1904 the cost
was $102,956,102.
Pay. — All commissioned officers of the
active list of the Navy receive the same
pay according to rank and the term of serv-
ice, the annual base pay of each grade be-
ing as follows :
Admiral (in command of fleet) $10,000
Vice Admiral (second in command) . 9,000
Rear Admiral (upper half) 8,000
Rear Admiral (lower half) 6,000
Commodore 6,000
Captain 4.000
Commander 3,500
Lieutenant Commander 3,000
Lieutenant 2,400
Lieutenant (junior grade) 2,000
Ensign 1,700
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
The following table summarizss the ships of the Navy of the United States at the
armistice of the World War : —
Fit for Under Con- Authorized but
Service. struction. not yet placed.
Diaplace-
Type So.
Battleships, single caliber 16
Battleships, mixed calibei- 23
Battle Cruisers
Armored Cruisers 8
Monitors • 7
Cruisers, first class 4
Subtotal, armored ships 58
Cruisers, second class 4
Cruisers, third class 15
Destroyers 93
Coast Torpedo Vessels 15
Torpedo Boats IT
Submarines 79
Gunboats 37
Patrol Vessels" 2
Submarine Chasers 300
Subtotal, unarmed fighting ships 562
Tenders 17
Mine Sweepers" v 14
Converted Yachts' . . . . , 12
Transports 5
Supply^ Ships 5
Hospital Ships „6
Fuel Ships 21
Special Service 13
Tugs 50
Unserviceable for War Purposes 15
Subtotal non-fighting ships 158
ment.
Tons
403,450
No.
11
Displace-
ment.
Tons
399,800
Displace-
ment.
Tons
86,400
au»,i-«i
"e
2ii,866
111,900
24,964
36,765
17
*
2
885,225
611,600
86,400
25,065
10
71,000
47,820
94,583
'238
286,676
12
14,580
6,275
3,146
29,886
^93
73,084
9
(")
34.410
2
3,150
1,000
«98
49,000
23,100
H2
483
3,234
486,144
21
265,285
»14,5S0
98,860
3
31,800
13,300
'40
38,000
8,711
• ■ >
> •< •
57,295
1
10,300
33,900
• • •
• •■< • • .
34,097
1
9,800
248,989
3
44,400
83,891
2
21,200
1
10,000
22,572
81
36,350
43,356
127
5
644,971
149,750
52,100
Total
627 1,247,494 28 '153,080
778 1,795,481
' Six of these have since been cancelled.
' Fourteen of these have .since been cancelled.
' Does not include displacement of nine fleet submarine.';.
' Forty of these have since been cancelled.
" Does not include commandeered or chartered vessels.
' Five of those have since been cancelled.
The following table summarizes the United States' battleships and- armored cruisers
as of 1918, and not including vessels over 20 years old from date of launching:-
Com- • ^ ., .
Displacement Mam
Tons Armament
Four 12-lnch ; eight 8-lnch
pleted
Speed
Name Tons Armament Knots
1902 Maine 12,500 Four 124nch ; eight 8-lnch 18.00
1903 Missouri 12,500 ;; " " '\ 17.82
1904 Ohio 12.500 , 18.15
1906 Hhode Island .-;..- 14,948 „ „ .. „ 19.01
1906 Virginia 14,948 19.01
1906 New Jersey 14,948 ., 19.18
1906 Georgia 14,948 ;.' " .',' .*; 19.26
1907 NebrSska 14,948 19.06
1906 Connecticut 16,000 ' ' 18.78
1906 Louisiana 16,000 " " 18.82
1907 Minnesota 16,000 18-85
1907 Vermont 16,000 " " " " 18.33
1907 Kansas 16,000 " " " " 18.09
1908 New Hampshire 16,000 " " " " 18.16
(Continued on next page.)
To each commissioned officer below the
rank of rear admiral Is allowed 10% of his
vearly base pay for each five years of serv-
ice in the Army. Navy or Marine Corps,
Irat not exceeding in all 40%. Additional
provision Is made by law that the pay of a
captnin shall not exceed $5,000 ; of a com-
TQander. $4,500 ; and of a lieutenant com-
mander. $4,000 yearly. All officers on sea
or shore duty beyond the continental limits
nf the United States receive while so serv-
ing 10% additional of pay.
Total Cost
of Con-
struction
$5,225,308
5,166,174
5,176,446
6,456,778
6,406,763
6,413,456
6,535,288
6,621.197
7,705,603
7,342,063
7.449,487
7,363,744
7,346,681
7,066,771
An officer on shore duty where no Govern-
ment living quarters are furnished is paid
an additional $12 monthly for each room
to which he is entitled by his rank, as fol-
lows : — Rear admirals, 9 and 8 rooms ; Cap-
tains, 7 rooms ; Commander, C ; Lieutenant
Commander, 5 ; Lieutenant, 4 and 3 ; En-
sign, warrant officer and nurse 2. There
are also additional allowances for heat and
light, depending upon the month and the
place of duty.
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
Com-
pleted
1910
1910
1910
1910
1911
1911
1912
1912
1913
1914
1915
1915
1916
1917
1917
1918
1905
1905
1905
1905
1907
1906
1908
1908
1905
3 906
Dreadnauijht
Type Tons
Michigan ICOOO
South Carolina 16,000
Delaware 20,000
North Dakota 20,000
Florida 21,82r,
Utah 21,82.j
Arkansas 26,000
Wyoming 26,000
Texas 27,000
New York 27,000
Nevada 27,500
Oklahoma 27,500
Pennsylvania 31,400
Arizona 31,400
Mississippi 32,000
New Mexico 32,000
Total, 30 battleships 611,700
Building.
Idaho 32.000
California 32,300
Tennessee 32,300
Colorado 32,600
Maryland 32,600
Washington 32.000
West Virginia ' 32.600
South Dakota 4.'{,200
No. 50 43.200
Montana 43,200
North Carolina 43,200
No. 531 43,200
No. 51' 43,200
Main Armainent
Knots
Cost
Eight 12-10011
18.79
$6,655,774
" ** \
18.86
6,671,886
Ten 12-lnch
21.56
8,235,917
,1 .,
21.01
8,551,481
ti (t
22.08
10,359,979
,1 .,
21.04
8,504,492
Twelve 12-inch
21.05
10,061,454
21.22
11,077,119
Ten 14-inch
21.05
10,971,525
21.47
11,323,131
(1 (1
20.53
11,401,073
,1 tt
20.58
11,548,573
Twelve 14-inch
21.0s
13,393,682
21.0
12,705,750
<t tt
21.0
12,593,532
11 It
21.0
13,556,324
Twelve 14-inch
21.0
<i (1
21.0
21.0
Eight 16-inch
21.0
21.0
U ((
21.0
21.0
Twelve 16-lneh
23.0
23.0
(1 ti
23.0
*i «(
23.0
(( ((
23.0
*( «i
23.0
Grand total,
43 battleships
.1,097,900
Armored Crcisers
Pittsburgh 13,680
Frederick 13,680
Pueblo 13,680
Huntington 13,680
.South Dakota 13.6S0
Seattle 14,500
North Carolina 14.500
Montana 14,500
Four 8-lnch ; four 6-inch
Four 10-inch ; four 6-inch
Total, 8 nrmored
cruisers 111,900
Charleston 'i 9,700
St. Louis'^ 9.700
Total if last 2 are
Included 131,300
Battle Cruisers — Building.
Lexington 35.300
Constellation 35,300
Saratoga 35,300
Ranger 35,300
Constitution 35.300
No. 61 35,800
Twelve 6-inch
Eight 16-lnch; 14 6-lnch
Grand total, 16 ar-
mored cruisers . . 343,100
' Authorized but not appropriated for ; appropriation was made in
"Offlciiilly these ships are protected cruisers. They are actually
so treated by standard foreign publications.
Cruisers, Third Class
Displace-
Author- ment
ised In: Name Tons Main Armament
1904 Birmingham 3,750 Four 5-lnch ; two 3-inch
1899 Chattanooga 3,200 Eight 5-inch
1904 Chester 3,750 Four 5-inch ; two 3-inch
1899 Cleveland 3,200 Eight 5-lnch
1899 Denver 3,200 Eight 5-lnch
1899 Des Moines 3,200 Eight 5-inch
1899 Galveston 1. 3,200 Eight 5-lnch
1904 Salem 3,750 Four 5-lnch ;two 3-lnch
1899 Tacoma 3,200 Eight 5-lnch
22.44
$5,619,810
22.41
5,394,981
22.24
5,640,838
22.15
5,399,412
22.24
5,300,586
22.27
6,021,747
21.91
5.723,178
22.26
5,769,858
22.04
3,827,655
22.13
3,620,368
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
act of .Tuly 1, 1918.
armored cruisers, and
Speed
Knots
24.33
16.65
26.52
16.45
16.75
16.65
16.41
25.95
16.58
Total
Cost
Construction
$1,961,425
1,635,881
2,039,687
1,386,487
1,349,688
1,488,750
1.675,361
1,819,631
1,343,599
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
Cruisers, Second Class (Building)
Authorised 'Cons finota Armament
No. 4 7,100 35 Bight 6-inch
No. 5 "
No. 6 " " '•
No. 7 " " "
1916 No. 8 "
No. 9 " " "
No. 10 " " "
No. 11 "
No. 12 " "
No. 13 "
Gunboats (Building)
1916 Ashevllle Three 4-ineh
1916 No. 22 1,575 12
The following table shows the average cost for maintaining the ships of our Navy,
by class, for the fiscal year 1918 : —
Average Coat
per vesael
Olaaa No. Total Cost for 12 months
Battleships :
Flrat Une 20 $22,129,714.33 $1,516,437.54
Second line 10 23,727,783.88 1,031,642.77
Armed Cruisers 10 9,275,254.86 1,030,583.76
Cruisers :
First class 5 3,545,597.89 886,599.44
Second class 4 3,091,003.63 772,130.80
Third class 13 5,286,742.12 432,618.00
Monitors 7 1,944,713.93 278,059.68
Destroyers 89 11,681,807.75 217,035.81
Submarines 76 3,622,801.65 74,192.04
Coast Torpedo Vessels 33 2,932,479.35 90,063.84
Tenders to Torpedo Vessels 8 2,971,078.86 424,439.76
(JuDboats 29 4,258,806.36 176,226.36
Transports 5 2,732,256.90 546,451.38
Supply Ships 5 1,441,263.65 288,252.73
Hospital Ships 1 397,757.04 397,757.04
Fuel Ships 25 5,347,184.29 267,359.16
Converted Yachts 14 1,047,841.55 74,845.82
Tugs 51 3,612,114.93 70,825.58
Special Type 8 2,961,693.94 370,211.74
Oflicers of the Navy appointed student
naval aviators while detailed for duty in-
volving actual flying in aircraft receive
35 % additional pay of their rank ; and
those who qualified while so detailed re-
ceive an additional 50%.
Warrant oflicers are boatswains, gunners,
pay clerks, machinists, carpenters, sail-
makers, and pharmacists, and are paid dur-
ing their first three years' service, $1,500
yearly if at sea; $1,125 if on shore; and
$875 while waiting for orders. During the
second three years' service, the pay is in-
creased $125 yearly from the above amounts.
During the third three years' service, there
Is an additional $125 yearly from the sec-
ond three years' service, except in the case
of being on shore, when the increase is
.$375. During the fourtli three years' serv-
ice, the increase is $250 while at sea, and
$125 while on shore or while waiting for
orders. After twelve years' service, the
additional pay above the last figures is
$250, the totals then for three classes be-
ing respectively $2,250, $2,000, and $1,500.
After six years from date of warrant,
duly qualified warrant oflicers are commis-
sioned chief warrant oflicers and receive the
pay and allowances of ensigns. After six
years from date of commission each commis-
sioned warrant oflBcer may be giveti the pay
and allowance of a lieutenant of the junior
grade, and twelve years after the date of
commission the pay and allowance of a
lieutenant.
While warrant oflicers are attached to a
sea-going ship they are paid a ration al-
lowance of $.40 daily.
All officers in the regular Navy must
provide their own uniforms and pay for
their subsistence both afloat and ashore.
Pay for the Enlisted Personnel. — The en-
listed personnel of the Navy is of extremely
complicated and lengthy classification, ac-
cording to the duties assigned; and pay
is according to classification, even within
the separate groups.
Chief petty officers average a monthly
pay of $68.85, but all chief petty officers
who have served as such for one year with
credit are given a permanent appointment
at $83.00 monthly.
Petty officers of the first class receive.i
on the average, the monthly pay of $56.42.
Petty officers of the second class receive
an average monthly pay of $48.11.
Petty officers of the third class average
a monthly pay of $41.00.
Seamen of the first class average monthly
pay of $40.76.
Seamen of the second class average
monthly pay of $38.38.
Seamen of the third class average monthly
pay of $33.80.
Messmen average monthly pay of $49.75.
Additional hionthly amounts are paid as
, follows : $1.50 for each successive reenlist-
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
The following table gives the total appro-
priations for our Navy in recent years : —
1883 $ 16,920,288.80
1884 10,689,149.26
1885 22,606,315.97
1886 17,411,700.21
1887 25,824,105.58
188S 20,977,832.61
1889 23,655,537.44
1890 25,454,850.75
1891 32,776,040.64
1892 23,994.238.84
1893 22,625,615.06
1894 25,691,900.47
1895 29,586.656.09
1896 31,458,822.13
1897 34,833,451.04
18971 557,561.02
1898 144,556.940.77
1899 57,297,569.78
1900 66,949,286.62
1901 83,020,090.23
1902 85,347,345.29
1903 84,993,697.99
1904 103,852,170.96
1905 118,459,897.51
1906 105,815,342.50
1907 100,893,431.98
1908 130,013,153.60
1909 140,042,655.85
1910 133,216,693.19
1911 127,818,681.48
1912 129,739,055.88
1913 142,550,364.47
JqiQi 193,802.80
1914 ■■■ 148,254,332.41
1Q1.5 ■ 151,033,908.03
tgifi ■; 318,212,207.77
iqiY 516,810,960.08
iaiii 524,286,603.58
1918 .' . '. .'.' 2,226,609,083.90
Total $6,005,031,342.58
'By miscellaneous acts.
ment within four months of date of honor-
able discharge from previous enlistment.
'S5.50 for first reenlistment and $3.30 tor
each subsequent reenlistment ■ if a citizen
of the United States and completed previous
enlistment. $1.20 per hour spent under
water for divers. $5.00 per month for sub-
marine service. There are also many other
additional increases for various forms ot
special or trained work.
A man detained beyond the expiration ot
his enlistment receives one-fourth of all pay
in addition while so detained.
A man receives a gratuity of four months'
pay if he reenlists within four months of
and presents an honorable discharge from
his last enlistment.
Clothing and small stores are furnished
free of charge to all enlisted men on their
first enlistment. Afterwards articles drawn
are furnished at cost price.
Subsistence is furnished enlisted men by
the Government. Men on detached duty
ai'e furnished money in place of subsistence.
Transportation to their homes is fur-
nished men discharged.
Retired its/.— Ofllcers on the retired list
receive three-fourths of their active duty
pay. Enlisted men are retired after 30
years' service, and receive three-fourths of
the total pay and allowances they received
at date of retirement and cash In lieu or
quarters and subsistence.
When first called into active service to
time of war or national enjergency a uni-
form gratuity of $150 Is allowed each of-
ficer of the Naval Eeserve and $60 each
enlisted man.
Dependents, — ^All enlisted man must con-
tribute to the support of their immediate
families not more than 50% of their pay
and not less than $15 monthly. On ap-
plication, the Government will add to this
allotment an allowance of its own of from
$5 to $50 per month, according to the size
of the family. The amount thus given by
the government is fixed by law as follows ;
$15 for a wife, $25 for a wife and child,
$32.50 for a wife and two children, with
$5 for each additional child. ,Tbe sums
are monthly. The enlisted men must con-
tribute an amount equal to the government
allowance unless such contribution would
exceed\50% of their pay.
See also Soldi^s' and Sailors' Insurance.
Insignia. — The personnel of our Nav.y
(excepting aviators) wear blue or wliltc
uniforms. Aviators wear "khaki' or "Olive-
drab." Insignia denoting rank of officers
ot the Naval Service consist of cap, shoul-
der, collar and sleeve devices, and specialty
marks. (See colored plate: Insignia of
Rank U. S. Navy.)
War Activities. — During the first year of
the war between the United States and the
Central Powers, the personnel of the Navy
increased to 20,664 officers and 329,333 men
from 4,792 ofllcers and 77,946 men on April
6, 1917.
The Hospital Corps increased from 1,600
to more than 8,000.
Mechanics employed, at Navy Yards and
Stations increased from 35,000 to more
than 66,000, with 7,000 additional civilian
employees. Civilian employees and reser-
vists on duty in the Navy Department in-
creased from 700 to more than 3,000.
The estimated total expenditures of tlie
Navy Department during the first year of
war were $1,881,000,000. Monthly pay took
on an average of $17,200,000, as compared
with $5,000,000 in April, 1917. The total
appropriations, real and pending, for the
Navy, during that year, amounted to $3,-
333,806,000, as compared with total ex-
penditures from the founding of the De-
partment in 1794 to 1917 of only $3,367,
160,000.
In the first year of the war with Ger-
many, only two Navy vessels were sunk by
submarines, the destroyer -Jacol) Jones (Dec.
6, 1917) and the converted yacht Alcedo
(Nov.' 5, 1917). Not a single transport of
the United States was sunk on the way to
France. The Antilles was sunk returning
from France and the Finland, although tor-
pedoed, reached port under her own steam.
. The sunk Tuscania was a British transport
carrying American troops.
Navy:
Activities of, in waters of Colombia,
6741.
Admiral, revival of grade of, recom-
mended by President —
McKinley, 6345.
Taft, 7472.
Advisory board for, civilian, 8076.
Amalgamation of stafE corps recom-
mended, 7696.
America's character and power ex-
pressed in, 8069.
Appointments In, referred to, 212fi,
2134.
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
Apprentices, corps of, recommended,
2713.
Appropriations for. (See Navy De-
partment.)
Army and, forces mobilized on bor-
ders of Mexico to protect interests
of citizens of tJnited States dur-
ing uprising, 7658.
Auxiliary in Spanish-American War,
6313.
Aviation corps of, civilians for, 8108.
Award of medals in, 6927.
Base in Pliilippines advocated, 6880.
Battleships, four a year needed for,
7147, 7236.
Boys, enlistment of, in, recommended,
1392, 1476, 2713.
Bureau of Navigation, report of chief
of, 6294.
Classifying and manning vessels of,
6613.
Classifying and rating of ofScers and
men, 6602.
Code of, revision of, recommended,
2625.
Commander-in-chief, recommendation
for establishment of rank of, in,
7809.
Commissary branch, salaries in,
6700.
Condition and equipment of, at end
of 1911, 7695.
Condition of, report regarding, trans-
mitted, 6258.
Construction program of, 8107.
Courts-martial in. (See Courts-Mar-
tial.)
Courts of inquiry in, referred to,
892.
Cruise of, 677.
Battleship iieet around world, dis-
cussed, 7234, 7429.
Defence, iirst line of, should be con-
stituted by, 8085.
Sufficient source of, in, 8022.
Desertions from, denounced, 6684.
Development of, 6666, 6722, 7001.
Discharges from, discussed, 6707.
Discipline of —
Discussed, 1022, 2942, 6166, 7808.
Flogging abolished, referred to,
2633.
Punishment discussed, 2669, 2712,
2714, 2822.
Eeferred to, 2633, 2942.
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 226, 263, 270, 297,
302.
Adams, J. Q., 876, 925, 955.
Arthur, 4638, 4671, 4674, 4726,
4768, 4796, 4834^ 4848.
Buchanan, 2990, 3055, 3062.
Cleveland, 4935, 5100, 5375, 5882,
5972, 6164.
Fillmore, 2624, 2633, 2668, 2711,
2714.
Grant, 3994, 4009, 4062, 4103, 4150,
4202, 4249, 4304, 4362.
Harrison, Benj., 5479, 5551, 5635,
5758.
Hayes, 4405, 4407, 4425, 4452, 4525,
4565, 4573.
Jackson, 1022, 1167, 1254, 1269,
1334, 1392, 1411, 1444, 1475.
Jefferson, 317, 333, 335, 360, 407,
416, 442.
Johnson, 3561, 3649, 3775, 3882.
Lincoln, 3240, 3249, 3350, 3385,
3449.
McKinley, 6268, 6313, 6344, 6387,
6451.
Madison, 455, 461, 463, 471, 504,
513, 519, 534, 538, 551.
Monroe, 585, 594, 600, 603, 615, 618,
631, 649, 677, 764, 783, 791, 800,
811.
Pierce, 2748, 2821, 2872, 2942.
Polk, 2262, 2276, 2355, 2411, 2501.
Eoosevelt, 6665, 6722, 6806, 6925,
7001, 7066, 7069, 7114, 7117, 7236.
Taft, 7371, 7429, 7470, 7529, 7695.
Taylor, 1902, 1941, 2055, 2064, 2122,
2127, 2129, 2130, 2131, 2134,
2559
Van Buren, 1609, 1719, 1754, 1818,
1835.
Washington, 185, 193.
Wilson, 8022, 8069, 8085, 8107.
Education in. (See Naval Academy.)
Efficiency of —
Assurance of peace, 6666, 7117.
Credit for, '6667.
Discussed by President —
Monroe, 783.
Eoosevelt, 6666, 6926, 7001, 7066.
Wilson, 8069, 8085.
Historical, 6666.
Maintenance of, 7000, 7067.
Personnel, in, 7115.
Elections, interference in, by, pro-
hibited, 3866.
Enlisted men, discharge of, 6707.
Pay of, 6702, 6708.
Establishment of, recommended, 193.
Expenditures of. (See Navy Depart-
ment.)
Fighting force of, in Spanish-Ameri-
can War, 6313.
Foundry for making heavy guns for,
recommended, 4797, 483.".
General Board of, 6668, 7069.
General staff recommended for, 6806,
7237.
Guantanamo station, construction of,
urged, 7531.
Gunboats. (See Vessels, United
States.)
Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy
Gunnery practice should be unceas-
ing in, 6668.
Hospital ships, two recommended,
7237.
Increase in. (See Vessels for, post.)
619, 647, 677, 761, 782, 800, 817,
927-8, 955, 982, 1000, 1022, 1476,
1719.
Expenditures for, 800, 823, 832,
870, 927.
Need for, 6665, 6926.
Urged upon Congress, 6722, 7148.
Insane asylum for. (See Government
Hospital for Insane.)
Larger Navy, need of, 6666, 6668,
6925, 7000, 7066.
Laws in relation to, 1269.
Lessons for, from recent history, 7001.
Lessons of Russo-Japanese War, 7076.
Manoeuvers of, 6722.
Marine Corps. (See Marine Corps.)
Marines needed for, 8108.
Marksmanship of, 6722.
Mess attendants, classification and
pay of, 6702.
Midshipmen —
Increase in number of, needed,
8108.
Name of, should replace "Naval
Cadet," 6667.
Surplus of, 7116.
Monroe Doctrine cannot be upheld
without, 6666, 6805.
Naval Cadet, name of, should be re-
placed by "midshipmen," 6667.
Naval force abroad. (See Chile;
Great Lakes; Haiti; Mediterranean
Sea; Peru; Squadrons; "West In-
dies.)
Naval force for protecting commerce
indispensable, 193, 197, 226, 1719.
Eeferred to, 1835.
Naval parade to be held in New York
Harbor,' 5760.
Naval reserve of steamships recom-
mended, 5492.
Navy Board —
New organization of, 1252.
Eeport of, referred to, 2308.
Should be dispensed with, 1023.
New system of accountability in, rec-
ommended, 1902.
Nominations for, discussed, 3062.
Number of available vessels and men
in the Spanish-American War, 6313.
OfScers in —
Additional grades of, recommended,
3240.
Ages of, compared with foreign
conditions, 7471, 7529.
Appointments of, list of, 2134.
Conduct of, to be investigated,
847.
Flag officer to take rank in cer-
tain cases with major-generals,
3240.
Grades of, discussed, 2624, 2633,
2669, 2714, 3240, 7115.
Increase in number of, 1609.
Letter of John Randolph, Jr., re-
lating to the privileges of the
House, demanding that certain
be punished for insulting, 291. '
Limitations on, recommended,
2820.
Mistreated in Spanish-American
ports, 683.
Nominations of, discussed, 3062.
Pay of, equalization of, with armv
officers, 1023, 1254.
Problem of, discussed, 7429.
Promotion of, discussed, 2669, 4103,
5973, 7495, 7496.
Relative rank with officers in Army
referred to, 2624, 2633, 2669,
2714, 3240.
Retired list for, recommended,
2624, 2669J 2714.
Offensive weapon, primarily, 7114.
Pay should be increased for certified
students and good conduct in, 6702.
Payment of, resolution providing for,
approved, 3350.
Peace establishment of —
Plan for, 764, 791.
Referred to, 925, 4103.
Should be permanent, 876.
Pensioners of. (See Pensioners.)
Personnel of —
Commended, 7429.
Discussed, 6722.
Efficiency of, 7115.
Laws regarding, should be changed,
7470, 7529.
Petty officers' schools, 6742, 6748.
Program for, discussed by President
Wilson, 8644. (See also Discussed
by President, supra.)
Progress of, commended, 6806.
Promotion in, change needed in legis-
lation regarding, 7470.
Promotions in. (See officers In, ante.)
Punishment in. (See discipline of,
ante.)
Radio stations for, 7960, 8215.
Rank in, discussed, 3450.
Rear-admiral in, rank of acting con-
ferred upon certain officers in-
quired into, 4848.
Reduction in, referred to, 3561, 3775,
3882.
Referred to, 594, 600, 615, 619, 650,
1022, 2127, 4009.
Reorganization in, 7429, 7430, 7529.
Reorganization of, recommended,
2669.
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Navy
Encyclopedic Index
Navy Department
Eeserve force of, composition 6f,
6669.
Steamships, of, 5492.
Ee vision of code for government of,
recommended, 2625.
Eoosevelt's policy regarding, reiter-
ated, 7371.
Eules and regulations for, referred
to, 603, 1255.
Sabbath observance enjoined upon,
3326, 5464, 8433.
Scarcity of ofScers and enlisted men
discussed, 6756, 6763, 7002.
School of instruction for. (See Na-
val Academy.)
Seamen for, need of more, 7002, 8108.
Seamen, permanent corps of, recom-
mended, 2712.
Service in, dignity of, 7949.
Should be in readiness for actual
service, 463.
Staff corps of, amalgamation of,
urged, 7696.
Statement of, 585, 1167.
Success of, due to enterprising spirit
of, 504.
Sunday, observance of, by, enjoined,
. 3326, 5464, 8433.
Supplies for naval force referred to,
811.
Supply fund of, administration of,
discussed, 7530.
Timber for —
Care of reservations for supplying,
referred to, 3799. ■
Machinery for preserving, 4676.
Vessels for, construction of, dis-
cussed, by President —
Adams, John, 226, 263.
Adams, J. Q., 876, 927, 955.
Arthur, 4638, 4727, 4768, 4796, 4834.
Buchanan, 2990, 3055.
Cleveland, 4935, 5100, 5376, 5882,
5972, 6164. ,
Grant, 4150, 4202, 4249, 4304, 4862.
Harrison, Benj., 5479, 5551, 5635,
■5758.
Hayes, 4565.
Jackson, 1022, 1392, 1411, 1476.
Jefferson, 317, 333, 360, 407, 442.
Lincoln, 3385, 3450.
McKinley, 6344.
Madison, 455, 461, 471, 504, 513,
538, 551.
Monroe, 594, 615, 618, 631, 649, 677,
765.
Pierce, 2748, 2821, 2872, 2942.
Polk, 2262, 2276, 2355, 2411.
Eoosevelt, 6666, 6806, 6926, 7001,
7237.
Taft, 7429, 7530, 7696.
Tyler, 1941, 2122, 2130, 2131.
Van Buren, 1609, 1719.
Washington, 185, 193.
Wilson, 8107.
Vice-admiral, creation of grade of,
urged, 3450, 6345, 7472.
War College discussed, 6166.
War requirements of, 7114.
Wireless telegraph station established
in Canal Zone for use of, 8340.
Navy Board:
New organization of, 1252.
Eeport of, referred to, 2308.
Should be dispensed with, 1023.
Navy, Department of. — The Continental
Navy was under the direction of vari-
ous committees, boards and agents ; the
first committee, being one of three mem-
bers, was appointed on Oct. 13, 1775. In
1781, the Board of Admiralty then acting
was replaced by the Secretary of Marine,
whose duties correspond with those of the
present Secretary of the Navy ; but before
the end of that year the duties of the
office were transferred to the Treasury
Department.
Upon the adoption of the Constitution,
in 1789, nava^ matters were placed under
the jurisdiction of the War Department
and so remained until April 30, 1798, when ,
in consequence of depredations of French
cruisers, twelve new ships were added to
the fleet ; and the modern Department of
the Navy was organized with a Secretary
at its head. In 1815 a boar^ of three
"Navy Commissioners" was created which
was charged with the duty of procuring
naval stores, of constructing and equipping
vessels and of superintending the navy
yards ; the order creating these Commis-
sioners expressly provides that they should
not interfere with the powers of the Sec-
retary of the Navy Department.
In 1842 five bureaus, namely. Navy
Yards and Docks, Construction, Equipment
and Repairs, Clothing and Provisions, Ord-
nance and Hydrography, and Medicine and
Surgery took the place of the Commis-
sioners. Another reorganization took place
In 1862 which placed the Department sub-
stantially upon its present basis. The
Hydrographlc Office was then established
and the office of Judge-Advocate-General,
created In! 1865, was reorganized iu 1880.
Although assistants to the Secretary had
been from time to time appointed before
that date, it was not till 1890 that the
office of Assistant Secretary was estab-
lished.
The Secretary of the Navy has the gen-
eral supervision of the work of the Depart-
ment, and, although under the Constitution
the President Is Commander-in-chief of
the Navy, the official acts of the Secretary
are final. The details of the Secretary's
duties are carried out by eight Bureaus,
each presided over by a naval officer hav-
ing the actual or nominal rank ■ of Rear-
Admlral. The Bureau of Navigation at-
tends to the promulgation and enforcement
of the Secretary's orders ; the education of
officers (see Naval ^Academy) ; the enlist-
ment and education of enlisted men ; keeps
their records and preserves the Naval Reg-
ister ; and directs the enforcement of all
regulations. The Bureau of Yards and
Docks attends to the construction, equip-
ment and maintenance of all Docks and
Navy Yards. The Bureau of Equipment
furnishes all supplies to the ships, directs
the Naval Observatory (q. v.) and pre-
pares the Nautical Almanac ; the Hydro-
graphic Office, whose duties relate to the
preparation of charts and gathering Infor-
Navy Department
Encyclopedic Index
Navy Department
mation on all kinds of nautical subjects, is
a branch of this Bureau. The Bureau of
Ordnance supervises the manufacture of
offensive and defensive armor and appa-
ratus, and, in connection with the Bureau
of Construction and Repairs, their installa-
tion on the ships. The Bureau of Construc-
tion and Repairs designs and constructs
war-ships, has charge of the docking of the
ships and repairing all permanent faxtures.
The Bureau of Steam-Engineering con-
structs and repairs all steam machinery.
The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery has
charge of and furnishes supplies to the
Medical Department and all naval hospi-
tals. The Bureau of Supplies and Ac-
counts furnishes all the general supplies
and keeps all naval accounts.
• In addition to these Bureaus, the offices
of the Judge-Advocate-General form the
law department of the Navy. The Com-
mandant of Marines Is the head of the
Marine Corps (q. v.). The General Board,
composed of naval officers of various
grades, advises the Secretary on technical
matters and submits plans for naval ma-
noeuvres, etc.
Building Programme. — The Secretary of
the Navy in his annual report for 1913,
recommended the authorization by Con-
gress of a building programme which
should Include two dreadnaughts, eight
destroyers and three submarines annually.
Naval Schools. — There was established
on board the Des Moines, in 1913, a school
for academic, vocational and technical in-
struction of enlisted men. The experiment
met with such success that It was pro-
posed to install the school generally upon
the ships and at the shore stations of the
navy. Four schools are now maintained
for training recruits — at Newport, Nor-
folk, Chicago and San Francisco.
Enlistments. — The policy recently adopt-
ed by the department of raising the stand-
ard for admission to the navy has in-
creased the number as well as bettered t^e
character of the men entering the service.
There is now a ri^ld exclusion of those not
morally or physically fit.
For more detailed information as to the
scope and activities of the Navy Depart-
ment consult the index references to the
Presidents' Messages and Encyclopedic
articles under the following headings :
Bureau of Construe- , Marine Insurance.
tion and Repair. Marine, Secretary of.
Bureau of Medicine Nautical Almanac.
Following Is a list of the secretaries o(
the Navy and the Presidents under whom
they served :
Naval Academy.
Naval Consulting
Board.
Naval Militia.
Naval Observatory.
Naval Reserve.
Naval War College.
Navigation Act.
Navigation Laws.
Navy Tards.
Office naval opera-
tions.
and Surgery.
Bureau of Naviga-
tion.
Bureau of Ordnance.
Bureau of Steam
Engineering.
Bureau of Yards and
Docks.
Hydrographic office.
Judge Advocate
General.
Marine Corps.
Navy Department:
Accounts of, in Fourth Auditor's Of-
fice referred to, 1096.
Amount charged to State Department
for services rendered by naval ves-
sels referred to, 3660.
Appointments in, referred to, 1965.
Appropriations for, 927, 4426.
Diverted to survey of Isthmus tif
Darien referred to, 4000.
Necessary to render efficient, 1444.
Peesident
Adams. . . .
u
Jefferson. . .
a
Madison.. .
a
«
Monroe
J.Q.Adams.
Jackson
Van Buren.
Harrison.. .
Tyler
George Cabot, Massachusetts. .
Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland.
Robert Smith, Maryland
Jacob Crowninshield, Mass
Paul Hamilton, South Carolina.
William Jones, Pennsylvania. . .
B. W. Crowmnshield, Mass. . . .
Polk.
Taylor...
Fillmore.
Pierce. . . .
Buchanan
Lincoln.. .
Johnson. .
Grant. . . .
Hayes. .
Garfield. .
Arthur, j .
Cleveland
B. Harrison
Cleveland
McKinley
Roosevelt.
Taft....
Wilson .
Secretary of the Navy
Smith Thompson, New York . . .
Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey
John Branch, North Carolina . .
Levi Woodbury, NewHampshire
Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey .
James K. Paulding, New York .
George E. Badger, N. Carolina.
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia
David Henshaw, Massachusetts
Thomas W. Gilmer, Virginia . . .
John Y. Mason, Virginia
George Bancroft, Massachusetts
John Y. Mason, Virginia
William B. Preston, Virginia . . .
William A. Graham, N. Carolina
John P. Kennedy, Maryland . . .
James C. Dobbin, N, Carolina.
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut
Gideon Welles, Connecticut. . .
Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania.
George M. Robeson, New Jersey
Richard W. Thompson, Indiana.
Nathan Go£f, Jr., West Virginia.
William H. Hunt, Louisiana. . .
Wm.-E. Chander, N. Hampshire
William C. Whitney, New York.
Benjamin F. Tracy, New York .
Hilary A. Herbert, Alabama. . .
John D. Long, Massachusetts. .
William H. Moody, Mass
Paul Morton, Illinois
C. J. Bonaparte, Maryland ....
Victor H. Metcalf , California . . .
Truman H. Newberry, Michigan
George von L. Meyer, Mass. .
Josephus Daniels, N. Carolina.
1798
1798
1801
1801
1805
1809
1813
1814
1817
1818
1823
1825
1829
1831
1834
1837
1838
1841
1841
1841
1843
1844
1844
1845
1846
1849
1850
1852
1863
1857
1861
1865
1869
1869
1877
1881
1881
1882
1885
1889
1893
1897
1901
1902
1904
1905
1907
1908
1909
1913
Recommended, 955, 1168, 1475, 2055,
2872, 4405, 4674, 4796.
Referred to, 4407.
Transfer of, referred to, 1818,
2122.
Act authorizing, approved, 2131.
Appropriations for docks, etc., should
be separated from those for naval
service, 2625, 2670.
Board of Commissioners for, referred
to, 603, 631.
Clerks in, referred to, 3585.
Deficiencies in, referred to, 4407.
Discussed, 7807.
Estimates of, for 1911-1912, discussed,
7530. '
^^„P.!,°^^*"''^* "*' 335, 800, 2055, 2064,
2625, 2670, 3450, 3650, 3775, 3882
4062, 4407, 4425, 4452, 4525; 4573!
Navy Department
Encyclopedic Index
Nebraska
Fireproof building for, recommended,
2281, 2704.
Laud reserved for use of, 6703, 6706.
Navy Board — ,
New organization of, 1252.
Report of, referred to, 2308.
Should be dispensed -with, 1023.
Persoas employed in, without express
provisions of law, 1964, 2174.
Transfer of —
Coasts, Survey to, recommended,
4727, 4932, 5973.
Light-House Service to, recoin-
mended, 4727.
Payment of naval pensions to,
recommended, 4060.
Navy Iieague. (See Preparedness So-'
eieties.)
Navy List. — A complete account of the
ships, personnel, and general organization
of the Navy Department of the United
States, similar to the Army List (q. v.).
Navy Medical Department, relative
rank of officers of, 7000.
Navy, Secretary of:
Control over construction and materi-
als lodged in, 8326.
Control over vessels in ports of Unit-
ed States during war given to,
8414.
Letter of Boynton and Fisher to,
referred to, 3669.
Naval aids recommended for, 7807.
Program of, for Navy, 8644.
Report of, 594-5, 600, 650, 680, 758,
764, 765-6, 769, 773, 782, 791, 800,
811, 816, 626, 827, 846, 848, 853, 877,
892, 893, 906-7, 925, 934, 955, 958,
984, 1022, 1089, 1096, 1097, 1119,
1126, 1133, 1167, 1252, 1334, 1392;
1444, 1475, 1490, 1496, 1609, 1646,
1683, 1719, 1726, 1728, 1745, 1756,
1785, 1798, 1806, 1818, 1835, 1905,
1941, 1964, 1966, 2055,- 2064, 2122,
2127, 2134, 2174, 2601, 2204, 2326,
6294.
Discussed. (See Navy discussed.)
Transmitted, 335, 845, 994, 1097,
1444, 2064.
Navy Yards. — Yards, docks, and shops for
construction and repair of vessels, and sta-
tions for coaling, storing supplies, and as
bases for operation are maintained by the
Navy Department as follows :
1. New York Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y.
2. Boston Navy Yard, Boston, Mass.
3. Norfolk Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va.
4. Portsmouth Navy Yard, Portsmouth, N. H.
5. Philadelphia Navy Yard, Philadelphia,
Pa
6. Mare Island Navy Yard, near San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
7. Washington Navy Yard, Washington,
D. C.
8. Puget Sound Navy Yard, Bremerton,
Wash.
9. Charleston Navv Yard, Charleston, S. C.
Navy Yards:
At Boston, machinery at, for pre-
serving wood, referred to, 4676.
Title of United States to land oc-
cupied as, referred to, 4698.
At New York, new boiler shop at,
recommended, 4681.
At Norfolk, employment at, referred
to, 3660.
At Washington, manufacture of guns
at, discussed, 5973.
Civil service in connection with, dis-
cussed, 5974.
Order regarding, 6146.
Defense of, demands attention of
Congress, 1754.
Discontinuance of, on Atlantic sea-
board referred to, 2958.
Establishment of —
At Memphis referred to, 220?,
2829.
On Atlantic seaboard recommend-
ed, 3385, 3450.
Mississippi River recommended,
2132.
San Francisco Bay recommended,
2669.
Western river recommended,
3385.
Recommended, 3561.
Improvements in,- recommended, 4062.
Labor at, secured through boards
of labor, employment, discussed,
6166.
List of. (See Encyclopedic Index ar-
ticle on the Navy.)
Officers and men in, referred to, 765,
3660.
Referred to, 6255.
Re-organization of, urged, 7430, 7529.
Small, abolition of, recommended,
7696.
Superfluous, dismantling of, urged,
7530.
Near East, and Europe, political condi-
tions in, 7667.
Near Eastern Division, State Depart-
ment,— This division was organized in 1909
by Secretary of State Knox. It falls under
the supervision of the third assistant secre-
tary of state (q. v.) ; and it has charge of
matters other than administrative In Ger-
many, Austria-Hungary, Russia. Houmania,
Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Turkey,
Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, Egypt and
the colonies of these countries. (See State
Department. )
Nebraska. — One of the western group of
states ; nickname, "Black Water State."
Motto, "Equality before the law." It
extends from lat. 40° to 43° north and
from long. 95° 25' to 104° west. It is
bounded on the north by South Dakota
(partly separated by the Missouri River),
on the east by Iowa and Missouri (sepa-
rated from both by the Missouri Elver), on
the south by Kansas and Colorado, and
on the west by Colorado and Wyoming,
and has an area of 77,520 square miles.
Nebraska
Encyclopedic Index
Negroes
Nebraska originally formed part of the
Louisiana Purchase and was later made a
part of the Territory of Missouri. It was
made a Territory in 1854, and included
portions of the Dalsotas, Montana, Wyo-
ming and Colorado. Nebraslca was admitted
to the Union in 1867. The State takes
its name from the river. It was first
permanently settled at Bellevue in 1847.
The State is one of the first in the
production of corn, bping extremely fertile
in the eastern part and along the Platte
River. Its principal industries are agricul-
ture and stock raising, slaughtering and
meat packing. South Omaha being one of
the great cattle markets of the world.
Butter, cheese, condensed milk and kindred
dairy products are the chief mannfactured
products.
In 1910, the population was 1,192,214.
The figure in 1920 was 1,295,502. In 1910,
there were 175,86.5 foreign-born, of whom
57,302 were German. In 1910, 26% of the
population was urban. The total school
population at latest reports was 387,394,
of whom the enrolment In the public schools
was 292,362, with an average daily attend-
ance of 219,246 and with a teaching staff
of 12.697. In addition, there were 368 pub-
lic high schools, with 1,121 teachers and
3,804 students.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census place the number of
farms in the State at 129,678. comprising
38,622,021 acres, valued, with stock and
Improvements, at $2,079,817,647. The aver-
age value of land per acre was $41.80, an
increase from $16.27 In 1900.
The latest annual, statistics for the agri-
cultural production are as follows : —
Crop Acreage
Corn ..7,030,000
Wheat . 4,384,000
Hay ..1,769,000
Oats . . 2,133,000
Potatoes 115,000
Sugar
Beets. 59,750
a-tons.
Bushels Value
184,186,000 $224,707,000
60,675,000 122,564,000
4s300,000a 60,185,000
69,960,000 45,475,000
6,325,000 12,018,000
580,285a 5,780,000
In addition, there Is much raising of
fruit and the apple crop is Impor-
tant. The raising of stock is prosecuted
on a large scale. The latest figures for
the farm animals are as follows : — Horses,
1,018,000, valued at $76,350,000 ; 106,000
mules, $11,554,000 ; cows, 601,000, $49,883,-
000 ; other cattle, 2,911,000, $131,868,000 ;
sheep, 323,000, $3,585,000 ; swine, 3,366,-
,000, $70,349,000. The last annual wool
clip was estimated at 1,730,000 pounds.
Nebraska's only mines are tho.se of silica.
There is some quarrying of sandstone and
limestone, and a considerable output of
bricks and tiles.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Nebraska having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 2,493. The amount of capital In-
vested was $121,020,000, giving employment
to 33.695 persons, using material valued at
$174,114,000, and turning out finished goods
worth $221,616,000. Salaries and wages
paid amounted to $24,011,000.
Nebraska (see also Omaha) :
Act-
Extending time of payment to pur-
chasers of Indian lands in, ve-
toed, 5525.
Tor admission of, into Union, ve-
toed, 3687.
For sale of Indian reservation in,
4656.
To provide for lease of Fort Oma-
ha Military Eeservatiou to, ve-
toed, 6119.
Admission of, into Union, proclaimed,
3714.
Indian lands in, titles to, extin-
guished, proclaimed, 5535.
Memorial from citizens of, regarding
creation of new Territory, 3111.
Military forces sent to and reasons
therefor, discussed, 4673.
Public lands in, survey of, referred
to, 4959.
Eed Cloud Agency in, deficiency in
supplies at, 4312, 4313.
Supplies issued, suffering people in,
referred to, 4272.
Survey-general in, recommendations
for discontinuance of office of
4959.
Negotiations, Diplomatic, Breaking of.
(See Diplomatic Negotiations, Break-
ing of.)
Negro Exposition, appropriation for,
and proclamation of, 8064.
Negro Plot.— An alleged attempt on the
part of certain negroes, incited and as-
sisted by whites, to burn New York City.
March 18, 1741, a fire occurred in the
chapel and barracks of Fort George. It
was at first thought to be accidental, but
eight other fires of unaccountable origin
within a month strengthened the allegation
of one Mary Burton, a servant in the
employ of John Hughson, that a number of
negroes and sailors were implicated in a
plot to destroy the town. It was charged
that the Spanish were inciting plots among
the negroes. Twenty whites and more than
160 negro slaves were imprisoned. Four
whites and 18 negroes were hanged and 13
others were burned at the stake before the
excitement abated.
Negro Troops. — In early Revolutionary
days and In the first two years of the Civil
War negro troops were employed to a
limited extent. In July, 1863, a general
provision was made for their enlistment in
the Union Army and numbers were in
service. Since the Civil War there have
always been negro troops in the regular
?'"™7o,^„^''^y served in the war with Spain
in 1898, and proved to be less sub.iect to
the prevailing fever and the enervating
effects of heat than white soldiers.
Negroes in the United States.— The first
negroes to be imported Into the United
States were landed as slaves at Jamestown
Virginia, in 1019. Within the next one
hundred years from 55,000 to 60,000 were
landed, mostly from the west coast of Afri-
ca, although many came also from the
West Indies. Their commercial value es-
pecially in the agricultural processes of the
South, was realized particularly in the
eighteenth century, and by 1750 It is estim-
ated that there were 300,000 negroes in
the United States. When the first United
Negroes
Encyclopedic Index
Negroes
states census was taken In 1790, It was
found that there were 757,208 negroes In
the United States at that time. Further
importation of negro slave's was forbidden
in 1808, but nevertheless from this date up
to the Civil War many negroes were smug-
gled into the country as slaves. The in-
crease in the negro population In the last
century, however, has been shown to be due
mostly to their natural increase.
For the history of the Slavery move-
ment and discussions of it, consult the
articles under that head.
In 1800 negroes constituted 19% of the
population ; In 1830, 18% ; in 1860, 14% ;
In 1890, 12% ; and In 1910, 10.7%. In
1880, 45% of the negroes In the United
States were in the South Central states and
44%% in the South Atlantic states, with
5% in the North Central, >3%% in the
North Atlantic and 2% In the Western
states. In 1910, exactly the same pro-
portions as In 1880 existed, except that the
North Atlantic states had gained 1%%
of the negro population, which had been
lost by the Western states. In the years
during the World War, however, there
was a considerable migration of the negro
from the South to the Northern Industrial
centres.
After the close of the Civil War, the
South for some years was under the politi-
cal control of the negroes, and the situa-
tion was so difllcult that since 1890 the ne-
gro has been generally disenfranchised by
the constitutions of the Southern states.
In 1910, 981,000 farms in the South
alone were operated by negroes. The value
of farm property owned by the negroes in
the South increased from $125,000,000 in
1900 to $275,000,000 in 1910. At the pres-
ent time it is estimated that negroes own
approximately one billion dollars of the
country's wealth.
In 1910, 72%% of the negrc population
was rural, and 27%% urban. There were
91 males to 100 females.
The proportion of illiteracy among the ne-
groes has been as follows: — 1910, 30%%;
1900, 44%% ; 1890, 57% ; 1880, 70%. Of
the negroes in the North in 1910, only
10%% were illiterate and in the West,
17%. The figures are for those above the
age of nine.
In 1910, there were 430,449 homes owned
by negroes In the South alone.
In 1915, there were 3,178,134 male ne-
gro workers and 2,013,981 female. Of
the males, 31% 'were farm laborers and
25% were farmers, with 10% engaged In
other forms of unskilled laboring work. Of
the women, 48% were farm laborers, 18%
were laundresses and washerwomen ana
10% were cooks.
In 1915, there were 3,685,097 negro
church communicants, of whom 2,294,000
were Baptists and 1,183,000 were Metho-
dists.
The death rate of negroes in the registra-
tion area (see Death Kate) was in 1915 25.5
per thousand as compared with 14.6 for the
whites. It must be remembered, however,
that the registration area would give pre-
ponderent weight to the urban negroes,
among whom the death rate would probably
be higher than among the rural negroes.
The negro population of the United States
in recent census years has been as fol-
lows : —
8,833,994
9,827,763
1870 4,880,009 1900..
1880 6,580,793 1910..
1890 7,488,788
The following table shows the number
of negroes In some of the large cities where
they are most numerous ; —
Population
Oity Negroes Percentage
Washington 94,406 28%%
New York ..91,709 2
New Orleans 89,262 26
Baltimore 84,709 15
Philadelphia 84,459 5%
Memphis 52,441 40
Birmingham 52,305 40
Atlanta 51,902 33%
Eichmoud 46,733 37
Chicago 44,103 2
St. Louis 43,960 6%
Louisville 40,522 18%
Nashville 36,523 33
Pittsburgh 25,623 5
Boston 13,564 2
Cleveland 8,448 1%
N'egroes (see also Freedmen; Liberia):
Colonization of —
Discussed, 3255, 3328, 3341, 3401,
3588.
In Mexico, and action taken by
United States for relief of, dis-
cussed, 6066, 6096.
Vessel? to bring back, 3433.
Education and industrial training,
recommended, 7032.
Emigration of —
Agreement with Bernard Koclj for,
canceled, 3368.
Discussed, 3853.
Exposition to commeniorate achieve-
ments of, 8064.
Freedom of, centennial celebration of,
7439.
Lynching of, discussed, 576?, 7030.
Patriotism of, recalled and commend-
ed, 7377.
Eecruiting of, in War between the
States, order regarding, 6335.
Begiments of —
Discharged for misconduct, 7329.
In Civil War —
Employment of, for military pur-
poses, order regarding, 3318.
Enslaved and executed, retalia-
tory measures for, 3378.
Opinion of Attorney-General on
rights of, referred to, 3410.
Recruiting of, order for, 3318.
Services of, discussed, 3389.
Troubles v^ith, discussed by
President Roosevelt, 7335.
Sale of, taken from United States by
British forces, referred to, 6278.
To be employed for military purposes
in war between, the States, order
regarding, 3318.
Welfare of, discussed by President
Taft, 7376.
Nepal
Encyclopedic Index
Netherlands
Nepal. — A state in southern Asia, north
of India and south of Tibet. Internally,
it Is Independent, but its foreign affairs
are guided by the British Government of
India. Its area is approximately 54,000
square miles. The dominant race is the
Gurkhali, or Gurlsha, descendants of Brah-
mans and Rajputs who retreated from India
during the Mohammedan invasions of the
touiteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
and conquered the country in the eighteenth
century A. D. The inhabitants are almost
entirely Buddhists, but their languages dif-
fer according to racial distinctions, the
Gurkha dialect being of Sanskrit origin,
and the remaining dialects akin to Tibetan.
The population is estimated at 5,600,000.
Physical Features. — The Himalayas trav-
erse the centre of western Nepal, and ex-
tend along the northern boundary of the
eastern division, where the highest peak of
the whole range, Mount Everest, rises to
29,002 feet above sea level, the greatest
land altitude yet ascertained.
Western Nepal contains many fertile val-
leys north and south of the range, and
the southern portion of eastern Nepal con-
tains low-lying alluvial land known as the
tarai.
History. — The conquest of Nepal by the
Gurkhas was completed in 1765, since which
date the whole country has been under the
hereditary rule of the Sahi dynasty. Since
1816 the actual power has been in the
hands of successive Prime Ministers, The
southern trend of the Gurkha conquests led
to a war with the British Government of
India in 1814-1816, since wiiich time a Brit- .
ish resident has been accepted at Kat-
mandu.
Crovernment. — Internal affairs are unfet-
tered, but foreign relations are controlled
by the Government of India, and by ar-
rangement with Nepal, India obtains many
fine recruits for its Gurkha regiments.
Education. — Education Is provided by the
State free of cost in a central college at
the capital, with branch schools In the sur-
rounding district. Instruction is given in
Sanskrit, Urdu, and English, and there Is
a considerable sprinkling of English-speak-
ing Nepalese.
Finance. — The revenue Is derived from
land rents, forests, customs duties, mining
royalties and monopolies, and exceeds .$5,»
000,000. The trade with India bears a
duty each way of about 12 per cent.
Production and Industry. — Every avail-
able acre is cultivated for the, production of
grain, fruit and foodstuffs, and the live
stock (which consists only of a few sheep
and cattle) is grazed in the jungles or stall-
fed. The principal crop is rice, and wheat,
pulse, maize and other grains are grown,
while fruit, flowers and vegetables are freely
cultivated. In the hills tea, cotton and
tobacco are grown, and hemp, dye plants
and medicinal herbs are obtained.
Gold, silver, lignite and coal have been
found, and iron, copper, zinc, lead and
sulphur are plentiful. Limestone and mar-
bles abound in central Nepal, and there are
numerous mineral springs.
Coarse cottons, paper, bells, brass and
iron metal work, weapons, and gold and
silver ornaments are the principal manufac-
tures. The dominant Gurkha race despises
trade and peaceful industries, which are in
the hands of the Newars, a subject Mongol
race. *
The chief exports are cattle, hides and
skins, opium and other drugs, gums and
resins, dyes, jute, wheat, rice and other
grains, tobacco, timber, etc. The chief Im-
ports are cattle, sheep and goats, salts and
spices, sugar, tobacco, cotton and woolen
goods, etc. In a recent year, Nepal sent
to India goods valued at $12,500,000 and
imported from India goods valued at $7.-
000,000. '
Nero, The, soundings taken by, 6719.
Nesqually Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
NesquaUy, Wash., proclaimed port of
delivery, 2588.
Netherlands. — The kingdom of the Nether-
lands is a maritime country of northwest
Europe, extending from 53° 32' 21" to 50°
45' 49" N. lat., and from 3° 23' 27" to 7°
12' 20" E. long. The greatest length from
north to south is 164 miles, and the greatest
breadth Is 123 miles. The kingdom is
bounded on the east by Germany, and on
the south by Belgium, the northern and
western boundaries being the North Sea
At the northeastern extremity the boundary
crosses the Dollart, a basin at the mouth
of the river Ems.
Physical Features.— The coast of the
southwest provinces of Zeeland and South
Holland, and of the northern provinces of
n nesland and Groningen is broken in many
places, and groups of Islands have been
formed by the inroads of the sea. For
nearly 200 miles, however, the western coast
consists of unbroken sand dunes, protected
from the sea by breakwaters, and on
the landward side by plantations. The
southern archipelago lies between the estu-
i'";l ,r*'"^ Meuse and Scheldt, and north
of the Meuse estuary is an irregular land
formation known as the Hook of Hol-
land; the northern archipelago extends in
a semi-circlefrom the Texel Gat to the Ems
basin. Behind the chain of northern is-
lands or Frisian archipelago, are the great
gulf or inland sea, known as the Zuyder
Zee, or South Sea, to distinguish It from
S,tif^'^™"' ^?'l^ Sea, the northeastern
Shallows or Wadden, and the Inundated
Ems basin, or Dollart, all of which were
formed during the thirteenth century by
inroads through the original coast line, now
marked by the chain of Frisian Island"
Xhe area of the Zuyder Zee and Wadden
extends 2,000 English square miles, and
the Netherlands portion of the Dollart
twenty-three square miles, giving a total
area for the kingdom of the Netherlands of
close on 14,800 English square miles.
„o™ *n® ?^"^ implies, the Netherlands are
generally low-Iy,ng and flat. Of the total
land area, 12,582 squares miles, nearly 5
000 square miles would be submerged at
high water but for the protecting barriers
of sand dunes, dikes and dams, the latter
accounting for many of the place names in
the country. = ■»»
.„P+®i,P'??'^'P^',^j7"^ are the Rhine (Riju)
and the Meuse (Maas), the former crossing
the eastern border from Germany and flow-
ing in several branches to the North Sea
and Zuyder Zee, and the latter traversing
N„li-?,™="°™ of I.imburg and flowing to the
?Sni^i/?- ^^^ estuaries of the Scheldt
(bchelde) are also m Netherlands terrltorv
The country is also intersected with lesser
fZ^^^^- ^°^ these are turned to account
!^/, }'^ purposes of navigation, irrigation
and land drainage, and are connected bv
numerous artificial canals, or gracflits, lined
with trees and studded with windmills The
intervening land often consists of drained
morasses, or polders, transformed into fer
tile agricultural or grazing land In addl
Netherlands
Encyclopedic Index
Netherlands
tion to the communicating canals there are
many ship canals, the largest being the New
Waterway from Rotterdam to the Hook of
Holland, and the North Sea Canal from
Amstei-dam and the Zuyder Zee, along the
bed of the river Y to Ttmulden on tlie North
Sea coast. There are many Inland lakes,
or meers, particularly in the northeast, of
much Importance to the fishing industry,
but the principal hydrographical feature is
the Zuyder Zee, a land-locked inlet about
eighty-four miles from north to south, and
forty-five miles from east to west at its
widest part. The mean depth is between
11 and 12 English feet, and the nature of
much of the bed has prompted several drain-
age projects, the reclaimed soil being cap-
able of practical cultivation. The present
Go''ernment are preparing fre^ proposals
foi the reclamation of large portions of
the Zuyder Zee.
History. — The territory now known as the
Netherlands was Incorporated as a Prov-
ince of the Roman Empire in the first
century, A. D., being at that time peopled
by various Germanic tribes, the names of
the Batavi and the Frisil being still pre-
served In the kingdom. As the Roman em-
pire crumbled to pieces, the south Nether-
lands became part of the Frankish do-
minions, and the inhabitants were convert-
ed to Christianity, but the Frisians of the
north retained their independence and
heathendom until the eighth century, when
they were subdued and converted by Charle-
magne, himself a Netherlander by descent.
The twelfth century witnessed the rise of
the towns, but by the fifteenth century the
lordship of these towns had passed with
that of most of the feudal states to the
rulers of Burgundy, and the overlordShip
passed successively to France and Austria
and so to the head of the Holy Roman em-
pire, and at the abdication of Charles V. to
his son Philip II., King of Spain. The six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries witnessed
the beginnings of the Reformation and the
rise of the Dutch Republic. The religious
dissensions had divided the country into a
Protestant Northern Netherlands and Cath-
olic Southern Netherlands, the latter form-
ing the country now known as Belgium. The
Netherlands were acknowledged to be inde-
nendent by the Treaty of Munster (1648),
and in 1688 their Stadtholder, William,
Prince of Orange, who had married the
daughter of the Duke of York (James II.),
became King William III. of Great Britain.
Prom 1700-1713 the Netherlands were the
scene of many battles of the War of the
Spanish Succession, and at the close of the
eighteenth century the people threw over
their Stadtholder (whose office had been
declared hereditary in 1747) and the Ba-
tavian Republic was set up under the pro-
tection of the French Republic, but in
1806 Louis Bonaparte, brother of the Em-
peror Napoleon, was crowned King of Hol-
land By the Treaty of London (June 14,
1814) the Northern and Southern Nether-
lands (the Dutch and Belgian provinces)
were united and formed into the Kingdom
of the Netherlands, under the Prince of
Orange-Nassau, a descendant of the house
which had taken a leading part In the des-
tiny of the nation since the thirteenth cen-
tury This prince was crowned in 1815
as king William I., but the artificial union
of Protestant and Catholic countries broke
down in 1830-1831, when the Belgian Prov-
inces revolted, and became an Independent
kingdom.
government. — The crown is hereditary in
the male (and eventually in the female)
line of the House of Orange-Nassau, and
Ktags William I, (1815-1840) William
II. (1840-1849) and William III. (1849-
1890) were followed in 1890 by the only
surviving child of the last-named sovereign.
The States General consists of two cham-
bers. The First Chamber contains 50 mem-
bers, elected for 9 years (and renewable
as to one-third every 3 years) by the Pro-
vincial Legislature. The Second Chamber
consists of 100 members elected for 4
years by direct vote. In December, 1917,
an electoral act was passed which pro-
vided for women suffrage and proportional
representation. Electors are registered at
the age of 23.
The Sovereign has power to dissolve one
or both houses of Parlianjent, but In that
case must call new elections within forty
days and convoke the new meeting within
two months. Only the Government and
the Second Chamber may introduce laws ;
the function of the Upper Chamber Is to
approve or reject legislation, without
amendments. The executive is vested in
a cabinet of eleven members. There Is also
a state council of fourteen members, ap-
pointed by the Sovereign, which acts In
an advisory capacity in legislative and In
some executive matters.
Justice is administered in 101 Cantonal
Courts, 23 district tribunals which also act
as courts of appeal from the cantonal
courts. There are 5 higher Courts of Ap-
peal and a Court of Cassation (Hooge
Raad) at The Hague.
Each of the 11 Provinces has a legis-
lature elected for 6 years.
The latest figures for the land areas and
populations of the eleven provinces into
which the Netherlands are divided are as
follows : —
Bguare ,
Province Miles Population
Drenthe 1,028 200,951
Prlesland 1,243 384,363
Groningen 881 358,663
Guelders 1,939 723,437
Llmburg 847 430,489
North Brabant 1,920 714,973
North Holland 1,066 1,270,808
Overyssel 1,295 431,757
South Holland 1,131 1,636,097
Utrecht 525 327,192
Zeeland 707 245,933
Total 12,582 6,724,663
In 1918, a law was passed providing for
the formation of a new province by drain-
ing some 525,000 acres of the Zuiderzee.
Including the interior waters, the total
area is 13,196 square miles ; and including
gulfs and bays the total area Is 15,760
square miles. There is a slight preponder-
ance of females In the population. Forty-
one per cent of the population is urban.
The largest towns are Amsterdam, 640,-
993 ; Rotterdam. 500,221 ; The Hague, 344,-
636; Utrecht, 135,368.
The last religious census showed 2,588,-
261 members of the Dutch Reformed
Church ; 746,186 oth^ Protestants ; 2,053,-
021 Catholics. The government budget
contains allowances for the churches of the
several denominations.
Education. — The educational system is pe-
culiar. In that primary instructional es-
tablishments are encouraged by State aid
while public Institutions are provided
(where private enterprise is lacking) by
local taxation. Primary education is com-
pulsory between the ages of 7-13, the av-
erage attendance being 95 per -cent. (Jf the
enrolment. Technical education is highly
efficient, horticulture and agriculture being
Netherlands
Encyclopedic Index
Netherlands
a feature of special schools. There are
State Universities at Leiden (founded in
1575), Groningen (1585), and Utrecht
(1634), and a municipal University at Am-
sterdam (1877) and a technical university
at Delft (1864). There are 33 classical
public schools, with 535 teachers and 3,465
students ; 515 schools for the working peo-
ple, with 4,000 teachers and more than 47,-
000 pupils, of whom 8,000 are females ;
3,388 public elementary schools, with 19,-
624 teachers and 629,316 pupils ; 2,396 priv-
ate elementary schools, with 14,826 teach-
ers and 433,000 pupils ; 1,334 Infants'
schools, chiefly private, with 5,023 teachers
and 145,094 pupils.
Finance. — For the last year for which
figures are available, the revenue was 591,-,
000,000 guilders and the expenditure was
541,000,000 guilders. More than half the
expenditure was devoted to defence. The
last figure for the public debt was 1,850,-
646,000 guilders, with annual interest of
82,000,000 guilders. One guilder is equal
to $0,402 in United States currency.
Towns. — Capitals, Court : The Hague ;
Commercial : Amsterdam and Rotterdam. In
1918 there were 11 communes with a popu-
lation exceeding 50,000, 12 others exceed-
ing 30,000 and 7 more over 20,000. The
chief ports are Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
Flushing, Terneuzen, Harllngen, Delfzyl,
Dordrecht, Zaandam and Schiedam.
Oommunications. — There are about 2,000
miles of canals, 3,000 miles of roads, and
1,826 miles of street-car lines. The four
principal railways, with a 4 ft. 11 in. gauge,
have a length of 2,377 miles. The railways
are under private control. The telegraph
systems are chiefly state lines, which have
S lenath of 5,215 miles, with more than 27,-
000 miles of wire and 1,272 offices. The
telephone system is also a state system ; it
has 2,218 miles of line and 65,000 miles
of wire.
Production and Industry. — Of the total
area of some 8,000,000 acres, about 1,200,-
000 are uncultivated land, 300,000' are mo-
rass and water, 2,100,000 are arable land,
3,000,000 are pasture. The last annual
yield of the more important crops was as
follows : — •
Crop Acreage Yield
Sugar Beets 114,262 1,458,000a
Oats 385,372 4,201,437b
Eye 470,849 3,212,687b
Wheat 122,059 957,000b
Barley 51,992 485,687b
Flax 30,675 3,617c
Potatoes 432,722
a-tons ; b-quarters ; c-cwts.
The latest figures for the live-stock
showed 2,048,872 cattle, including 1,130,-
908 cows ; 692,324 sheep, and 600,133 pigs.
There are a few coal mines in Limburg,
chiefly belonging to the state. The last
annual coal production was slightly more
than 3,000,000 metric tons. There are no
official returns of the manufacturing in-
dustries, but distilling and brewing, sugar
refining, cotton, woolen and linen weaving
are important branches of industry. There
are some 6,300 vessels, with 18,000 in the
crews, engaged in fishing. The last annua!
herring catch was valued at 195,000
guilders. ,
The Netherlands operate under free trade.
The annual imports for home consumption
before the World War were valued at 3,-
918,000,000 guilders and the exports of
home produce, at 3,083,000,000 guilders.
In terms of value, the chief Imports are
gold and silver, cereals and flour, coal, iron
and steel goods, and textiles. The chief
exports are condensed milk, margarine
cheese, butter, tobacco, and eggs. The im-
ports come chiefly from the United King-
dom, Germany and the United States ; and
the exports go chiefly to Germany and the
United Kingdom. During the last fiscal
year, the United States exported to the
Netherlands goods valued at $254,450,000
and imported from the Netherlands goodS'
valued at $100,635,000.
NETHERLAND INDIA.— Ues between 6°
N. and 11° S. lat. and 95°-141° E. long
.and is divided into two administrations,
Java (with Madura) and the "Outposts,"
under a Governor-General.
■ ^K^^Sr '^^BST INDIBS.— The possessions
in the West Indies are divided into two
administrative areas, Surinam (Netherland
Guiana) on the mainland of South America
and the island of Curasao with its depend-
encies. ^
Netherlands (see also Hague, The):
Accounts of bankers of United States
in Amsterdam, rendered, 113.
Claims of United States against, 852,
1109, 1456, 1693.
Payment of, 1750.
Coffee imported into United States
from, duties on, 2250.
Commercial relations with, 599, 918
1369.
Consular convention with, 4437, 4520.
Convention with, 2696.
Coronation of Queen of, 6335.
Discriminating duties —
On production of Dutch East In-
dies imported from Holland.
4626, 5088. '
Fisheries of, referred to, 1127.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2910, 2952.
2994, 4542, 4562, 5176, 5397.
Withdrawn from consideration of
Senate, 2916.
King of, umpire between Great Brit-
am and United States. (See North-
eastern Boundary.)
Leaf tobacco from, taxation of, dis-
cussed, 4979, 4986, 5088.
' Loan contracted by United States
m —
AMsterdam, 120.
Holland, 73, 78, 98, 133, 167, 169.
Minister of, to United States-
Received, 4718.
Refuses to testify in courts of Dis-
trict of Columbia, 2952
Petroleum in Helland, etc., taxation
of, referred to, 4979, 4986.
Postal convention with, 3775, 3883
*^"b^..To °^' coroiation of, referred to,
0413.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Buchanan, 2994.
Cleveland, 5176, 5397.
Netherlands
Encyclopedic Index
Neutral Rights
Fillmore, 2696.
Hayes, 4437, 4542, 4562.
Johnson, 3722.
Pierce, 2835, 2910, 2952.
Van Buren, 1728, 1749.
Withdrawn from consideration of
Senkte, 2916.
Vessel of United States, captured by,
1612.
Claims arising out of, 1693.
Vessels of —
Discriminating duties on, re-
ferred to, 918, 933, 1369.
Should be abolished, 2250.
Duties on suspended, 5154.
Possession and control of, taken,
8477, 8478.
War with Acheen, neutrality of Unit-
ed States in, 4192.
Netherlands, Treaties with. — The treaty
of commerce and navigation of 1839 was
In part superseded by the treaty of pom-
merce and navigation of 1852. Together
they provide for equitable imposition of
duties of import and export, together with
the extension to one of the contracting
parties of such additional rights, privileges,
or exemptions as may hereafter be granted
by either of them to a third power. The
reciprocal. equality of the flags is recognized
In home ports and in the colonial posses-
sions. The coasting trade is exempted from
the provisions of the treaty. Holland does
not relinquish her right of imposing dis-
criminating duties on trade between the
home ports of Holland and her colonies ;
nor does the United States relinquish her
right to sustain her discriminating duties
on coffee and tea. But in the event of the
abolition of these discriminating duties by
the one power, the other shall reciprocate.
International arbitration was agreed to by
a convention signed in Washington May
2, 1908. (For the consular convention of
1878, see Consular Conventions ; for the
terms of the extradition treaty of 1887, see
Extradition Treaties.)
Neutral Flags, protest against use of,
by belligerents, 8056.
Neutral Eights.— The most recent defini-
tion of the rights and duties of neutral
powers and persons during war is set forth
in a convention concluded Oct. 18, 1907, at
The Hague ; ratification advised by the
Senate of the United States March 10,
1908 ; ratified by the President Feb. 23,
1909, and the ratification deposited with
the Netherlands government Nov. 27, 1909 ;
proclaimed Feb. 28, 1910. Katiflcatlons
were deposited at The Hague Nov. 27, 1909,
by Germany, United States, Austria-Hun-
gary, Denmark, Mexico, the Netherlands,
Russia, Sweden, Bolivia and Salvador.
His Majesty the German Emperor, King
of Prussia; the President of the^ United
States of America ; the President of the
Argentine Republic ; His' Majesty the Em-
peror of Austria, King of Bohemia, ' etc.,
and Apostolic King of Hungary ; His Maj-
esty the King of the Belgians ; the President
of the Republic of Bolivia ; the President
of the Republic of the United States of
Brazil : His Royal Highness the Prince of
Bulgaria; the President of the Republic
of Chile ; the President of the Repubjic of
Colombia ; the Provisional Governor of the
Republic of Cuba ; His Majesty the King
of Denmark ; the President of the Domini-
can Republic ; the President of the Republic
of Ecuador ; His Majesty the King of
Spain ; the President of the French Repub-
lic ; His Majesty the King of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
and of the British Dominions beyond the
Seas, Emperor of India ; His Majesty the
King of the Hellenes ; the President of the
Republic of Guatemala ; the President of
the Republic of Haiti ; His Majesty the
King of Italy ; Ills Majesty the Emperor
of Japan ; His Royal Highness the Grand
Duke of. Luxemburg, Duke of Nassau ; the
President of tbe United States of Mexico ;
His Royal Highness the Prince of Monte-
negro ; His Majesty, the King of Norway;
'the President of the Republic of Panama ;
the President of the Republic of Paraguay ;
Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands ;
the President of the Republic of Peru ;
His Imperial Majesty the Shah of Persia ;
His Majesty the King of Portugal and of
the Algarves, etc. ; His Majesty the King
of Roumania ; His Majesty the Emperor
of All the Russias ; the President of the
Republic of Salvador ; His Majesty tfie King
of Servia ; His Majesty the King of Slam ;
His Majesty the King of Sweden ; the
Swiss Federal Council ; His Majesty the
Emperor of the Ottomans ; the President
of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ; the
President of the United States of Venezuela.
With a view to laying down more clearly
the rights and duties of neutral Powers in
case of war on land and regulating the
position of the belligerents who have taken
refuge in neutral territory ;
Being likewise desirous of defining the
meaning of the term "neutral," pending
the possibility of settling, in its entirety,
the position of neutral individuals in their
relations with the belligerents ;
Have resolved to conclude a Convention
to this effect :
The territory of neutral powers Is in-
violable.
Belligerents are forbidden to move troops
or convoys of either munitions of war or
supplies across the territory of a neutral
power.
Belligerents are likewise forbidden to
erect on the territory of a neutral power
a wireless telegraphy station or other ap-
paratus for the purpose of communicating
with belligerent forces on land or sea ; or
to use any installation of this kind estab-
lished by them before the war on the ter-
ritory of a neutral power for purely mili-
tary purposes, and which has not been
opened for the service of public messages.
Corps of combatants cannot be formed
nor recruiting agencies opened on the terri-
tory of a neutral power to assist the bel-
ligerents.
A neutral power must not allow any of
the acts referred to in preceding para-
graphs to occur on its territory.
It is not called upon to punish acts in
violation of its neutrality unless the said
acts have been committed on its own terri-
tory.
The responsibility of a neutral power is
not engaged by tbe fact of persons cross-
ing the frontier separating to offer their
services to one of the belligerents.
A neutral power is not called upon to
prevent the export or transport, on behalf
of one or other of the belligerents, of arms,
munitions of war, or, in general, of any-
thing which can be of use to an army or
a. fleet.
Neutral Rights
Encyclopedic Index
Neutral Rights
A neutral power Is not called upon to
forbid or restrict the use on belialf of tlie
belligerents of telegraph or telephone cables
or of wireless telegraphy apparatus belong-
ing to it or to companies or private indi-
riduals.
Every measure of restriction or prohibi-
tion taken by a neutral power in regard to
transportation and communication must be
impartially applied by it to both bellig-
erents.
A neutral power must see to the same
obligation being observed by companies or
private individuals owning telegraph or
telephone cables or wireless telegraphy ap-
paratus.
The fact of a neutral power resisting,
even by force, attempts to violate its neu-
trality cannot be regarded as a hostile act.
A neutral power which receives on its
territory troops belonging to the belligerent
armies shall intern them, as far as possible,
at a distance from the theater of war.
It may lieep them in camps and even
confine them in fortresses or in places set
apart for this purpose.
It shall decide whether officers can be
left at liberty on giving their parole not to
leave the neutral territory without permis-
sion.
In the absence of a special convention to
the contrary, the neutral power shall sup-
ply the interned with the food, clothing,
and relief required by humanity.
At the conclusion of peace the expenses
caused by the internment shall be made
good.
A neutral power which receives escaped
prisoners of war shall leave them at lib-
erty. If it allows them to remain in its
territory it may assign them a place of
residence.
The same rule applies to prisoners of
war brought by troops taking refuge in
the territory of a neutral power.
A neutral power may authorize the pas-
sage into its territory of the sick and
wounded belonging to the belligerent armies,
on condition that the trains bringing them
shall carry neither personnel nor war mate-
rial. In such a case, the neutral power is
bound to take whatever measures of safe-
ty and control are necessary for the pur-
pose.
The sick or wounded brought under
these couditions into neutral territory by
one of the belligerents, and belonging to
the hostile party, must be guarded by the
neutral power so as to ensure their not
taking part again in the military operations.
The same duty shall devolve on the neu-
tral sxate with regard to wounded or sick
of the other army who may be committed
to its care.
The Geneva Convention applies to sick
and wounded interned in neutral territory.
The nationals of a state which is not
taking part in the war are considered as
neutrals.
A neutral cannot avail himself of his
neutrality : If he commits hostile acts
against a belligerent : if he commits acts
in favor of a belligerent, particularly if he
voluntarily enlists in the ranks of the
armed force of one of the parties. In
such a case, the neutral shall not be more
severely treated by the belligerent as
against whom he has abandoned his neu-
trality than a national of the other bellig-
erent state could be for the same act.
The following acts shall not be consid-
ered as committed in favor of one bellig-
erent in the sense of the above paragraph :
Supplies furnished or loans made to one
of the belligerents, provided that the per-
son who furnishes the supplies or who
makes the loans lives neither in the
territory of the other party nor in the
territory occupied by him, and that the
supplies do not come from these territories ;
services rendered in matters of police or
civil administration.
Railway material coming from the ter-
ritory of neutral powers, whether it be
the property of the said powers or of com-
panies or private persons, and recognizable
as such, shall not be requisitioned or util-
ized by a belligerent except where and to
the extent that it is absolutely necessary.
It shall be sent back as soon as possible to
the country of origin.
A neutral power may likewise, in case
of necessity, retain and utilize to an equal
extent material coming from the territory
of the belligerent power.
Compensation shall be paid by one party
or the other in proportion to the material
used, and to the period of usage.
The provisions of the present Conven-
tion do not apply except between contract-
ing powers, and then only if all the bellig-
erents are parties to the Convention.
Forty-four countries became ^ parties to
this Convention, as follows :
United States, Mexico,
Argentina, Montenegro,
Austria-Hungary, Netherlands,
Belgium, Nicaragua,
Bolivia, Norway,
Brazil, Panama,
Bulgaria, Paraguay,
Chile, Peru,
China, Persia,
Colombia, Portugal,
Cuba, Eoumania,
Denmark, Russia,
Ecuador, ' Salvador,
France, Santo Domingo,
Germany, Servia,
Great Britain (with Slam,
reservations), Spain,
Greece, Sweden,
Guatemala, - Switzerland,
Haiti, Turkey,
Italy, Uruguay,
Japan, Venezuela.
Luxemburg,
Neutral Eights (see also Neutrality):
Defined by Hague Conference, 7120.
Discussed, 2808.
Disregarded by —
Belligerent nations, 439.
Great Britain, 486.
Measures taken with Great Britain
for settlement of, not acceded to
by United States, 433.
New principles to be introduced in
regard to, injurious, 384.
Proposal made to Great Britain,
Prance, Spain and Prussia to ad-
just complaints, 119.
Prussia agrees to enter into conven-
tion on subject of, 2809.
Referred to, 2773.
Sicily agrees to enter into conven-
tion on subject of, 2809.
Treaty regarding, with —
Peru, 2953.
Neutral Rights
Encyclopedic Index
Neutrality
Eussia, 2777.
Eeferred to, 2809.
Sicily, 2836.
Violation of, by United States, dis-
cussed, 3328.
Neutral Vessels deemed lawful prize
by-
France, 253, 432.
Spain, 432.
Neutrality (see also Foreign Policy):
Alleged violation of, by United
States referred to, 1738, 3377.
Appeal by Wilson to citizens to main-
tain, during European war, 7978.
Armed. (See Armed Neutrality.)
Armed, in Middle States, discussed,
3225.
Canal Zone, proclamation of, for, 8008.
Confederacy of armed, discussed,
2808.
Discussed, 8052.
Execution of laws of, by United
States, discussed by President —
Adams, John, 228.
Buchanan, 2998, 3037, 3089, 3174.
Fillmore, 2715.
Grant, 4043, 4045, 4051, 4192.
Harrison, Benj., 5618.
Hayes, 4418.
Jackson, 1370.
Johnson, 3581, 3712.
Lincoln, 3444.
Monroe, 582, 627, 639, 657, 685, 762.
' Pierce, 2864.
Taylor, 2548.
Van Buren, 1698, 1699, 1702.
Washington, 131, 148.
In address of House, 136.
Wilson, 7888, 7978, 7998, 8053, 8079,
8102, 8286.
Expressions of, by President Wilson,
7978, 8053, 8079, 8102.
Foreign Powers preserve in Spanish-
American War, 6312.
Government officials enjoined to pre-
serve, in Eusso-Japanese War, 6892.
Neutrals, protection of, 3377.
Panama Canal Zone, 8008.
Powers to be invited to accede to
rules of, in treaty of May 8, 1871,
4462.
Eecommendations respecting, 4828.
Panama, protocol with, concerning,
8011.
Eules of, in treaty of May 8, 1871,
foreign Powers to be invited to ac-
cede to, 4462.
Traditional policy of Unite(J States,
regarding, 8154.
Treasury Department officials author-
ized to enforce, 7964.
United States proclaims and main-
tains in —
Boer War, 6371, 6407, 6423^qE
Brazil revolution, 586" -^'2**'.^-'
Cuban insurrection, 6023, 0068,
6126.
Slesvig-Holstein War, 2548.
War between*—
Acheen and Netherlands, 4192.
France and allied powers, 148.
France and Germany, 4050.
Proclaimed, 4040, 4043, 4045.
Great Britain and France and
China, 3037, 3089, 3174.
Great Britain and Russia, 2864.
Italy and Austria-Hungary, 8065.
Mexico and Texas, 1370.
Eussia and Japan, 6868.
Eussia and Turkey, 4418.
Spain and her colonies, 582, 627,
639, 657, 685, 762.
War in —
Canada, 1702, 1748.
Proclaimed, 1698, 1699.
Europe. (See Neutrality, Proc-
lamation of, and World War,
■post; and Wilson, supra.)
' Japan, 3888.
Proclaimed, 3712.
Mexico, 3444, 3581, 7888. (See
also Mexico and Wilson, Wood-
row.)
South Africa, 6371, 6407, 6429.
World War, 7969, 7974, 7975, 7976,
7977, 8014, 8053, 8079, 8102,
8286.
Terminated, 8297.
Violation of —
By army on Eio Grande, 3574.
By Germany. (See Germany; World
War ;, International Law; Wilson,
Woodrow.)
By United States, alleged, referred
to, 1738, 3377.
In Department of Texas, action
of Government regarding, dis-
cussed, 5877.
Wireless stations ordered to observe,
7962.
Neutrality, Armed. (See Armed Neu-
trality.)
Neutrality, Froclamation of.— Neutrality,
in international law, is the attitude and
conditions of a nation or state which does
not take part directly or indirectly in a
war between other states, but main-
tains relations of friendship with all the
contending parties. In ancient times war
between any two nations was likely to
involve any other, either through sympathy
or by its being drawn unwillingly into the
controversy on accusation of favoring one
or the other of the belligerents. Modern
civilization has made it possible for a peace-
fully inclined nation to avoid entanglements
in quarrels not of its own making. The
position which a state intends to take in
case of war between its neighbors should
be clearly defined. It is customary, there-
fore, on the breaking out of hostilities for
ivery nation not participating therein to
"^' its position with reference to the
s. This is usually done by a
pro7)aJ])^tt^p by the chief ruler of a state
Neutrality
Encyclopedic Index
New England
proclaiming its neutrality and calling upon
Its citizens to refrain from any acts of
hostility or special favor toward eitlier ol
tlie parties to the strife. It is also custo-
mary for every nation>to put on its statute
books general laws regulating the acts of
its citizens with reference to foreign wars.
Upon the declaration of war between France
and Great Britain in 1793 it was decided
unanimously by Washington and his Cab-
inet that a proclamation of neutrality
should issue and that a French minister
should be received. The proclamation was
drafted by John Jay and declared the
intention of the United States to pursue a
policy of friendship toward both nations,
and enjoined upon ail citizens to avoid a
contravention of that disposition upon pain
of prosecution. It is a curious fact tliat
the word "neutrality" was omitted from
this proclamation, but it was enforced with
fairness. President Roosevelt on Feb. 11,
1904, issued a proclamation declaring the
neutrality of tills country in the Russo-
Japanese War. With the outbreak of the
European war of 1914 President Wilson
Issued a number of proclamations all of the
same general tenor. (See pages 7969 et seq.)
Nevada. — One of the western group of
states ; nickname, "The Sage Brush State" ;
motto. " All for our country." Nevada
extends from lat. 35° to 42° north and from
long. 114° to 120° west. It is bounded on
the north by Oregon and Idaho, on the east
by Utah and Arizona, and on the west'
■ and southwest by California, and has an
area of 110,690 square miles. The State
is rich in precious metals, the principal
products being silver and gold. The terri-
tory was ceded by Mexico in 1848. and the
first settlements were made in 1848 and
1850. Silver was discovered in 1859. Ne-
vada Territory was organized In 1861 and
was admitted to statehood in 1864.
Nevada Is a Spanish word meaning
"snowy" or "white as snow," and the name
of the State was derived from the Sierra
Nevada. The State ranks sixth in size in
the Union. Its length from north to south
is 484 miles, its width 321 miles, and its
area 109,821 square miles.
The history of Nevada is chiefly the his-
tory of her mines. Since the discovery of
the Comstock lode and other famous ore
bodies periods of activity and prosperity
have alternated with periods of depression.
Each discovery of high-grade ore In note-
worthy quantity has been followed by rapid
settlement in that locality and the estab-
lishment of one or more towns. In 1890-
1898 a sharp decline In the price of silver
Initiated or accompanied a period of depres-
sion In Nevada's mining and general Indus-
trial prosperity. Silver Is so Important a
resource of the State that to a large extent
even now her prosperity depends upon the
market for that metal. Of late years, how-
ever, an Increased production of gold, cop-
per, and recently of platinum has accompa-
nied a gradual and. It is hoped, substantial
industrial progress. Permanent towns have
grown up and agriculture and related pur-
suits are becoming firmly established.
In 1910, the population was 81,875. The
1920 census figure put it at 77,407. In
1910, there were about 20,000 foreign-born
within the state. Only 16%% of the popu-
lation In that year was urban. The major-
ity of the Inhabitants are Roman Catho-
lics.
Latest educational statistics show 378
public elementary schools, with 735 teach-
ers and 14,518 enrolled pupils. There are
41 public high schools,', with 70 teachers
and 875 pupil."!. '
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows : —
Crop Ac^reage Bushels Value
Hay 225,000' 526,000a $10,310,000
Potatoes ... 6,000 900,000 1,350,000
Wheat 29,000 668,000 1,429,000
Barley 12,000 420,000 630,000
Oats 12,000 384,000 384,000
a-tons.
The latest figures for the farm animals
showed 75,000 horses, valued at $4,500,-
000 ; 35,000 cows, $3,080,000' ; 535,000 other
cattle, $24,075,000 ; 1,596,000 sheep, $16,-
439,000; and 32,000 swine, $448,000. As
will be seen, stock-raising Is an Important
activity. The last annual wool clip was
10,500,000 pounds.
The last statistics for the mineral pro-
duction showed gold and silver as the' lead-
ing minerals. The annual gold output was
551,683 fine ounces and the silver, 14,460,-
000 ounces. There were also produced 105,-
116,000 pounds of copper, 32,000,000
pounds of zinc ; and lead, iron, quicksilver,
tungsten, borax and other minerals also'
are mined.
The manufacturing Industries are com-
paratively unimportant. They were chiefly
flour and grist mills, car-making and -re-
pairing, butter, and printing. In 1915, there
were 180 manufacturing establishments,
with 3,650 employees, representing an in-
vestment of $13,600,000.
Nevada:
Admission of, into Union proclaimed,
3430.
Eeferred to, 3450.
Condition of, referred to, 3405.
Creation and organization of, as Ter-
ritory referred to, 3254.
Legislation in, recommended, 3272.
Payment of settlers for improve-
ments on lapds in Duck Valley in,
referred to, 4664, 4776.
New Brunswick, Canadian Province;
area, 2,000 square miles; popula-
tion, estimated, 380,000:
Aggressions on rights of American
citizens by citizens of, 963.
Imprisonment of American citizens
by, 963, 969, 990. 1575, 1622, 1687.
(See also Great Britain.)
New Caledonia. — A French Island In the
Padflc Ocean east of Australia, formerly a
penal settlement. The area Is about 7 650
S^^^'^^J?""® '^"'J tl^s population, about 50,-
000. The chief products are coffee, copra
and cotton and there are some local indus-
tries. There is also some attention to
cattle-raising. The nickel product is valu-
able.
New England.— A name applied to the
northeastern section of the United States by
Capt John Smith In his map of the New
World published in 1616. Though composed
of separate Colonies, there was always a
similarity in the customs and habits of the
people New England formed part of North
Virginia, granted to the Plymouth Company
by James I. in 1606. In 1643 most of the
New England Colonies were united for de-
fpSlrI?i„^n''PT® "t.""? N«^ England Con-
federation. New England is now applied
collectively to the States of Maine, Ww
SfJ^S^^i^^' ^"'"''IV Massachusetts, 'Rhode
Island, and Connecticut.
New England
Encyclopedic Index
New Hampshire
New England Emigrant Company.—
The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska law
in 1854 made the institution of slavery in
Kansas dependent upon the will of the
majority of the people of the state. Pro-
slavery advocates in Missouri set to work
to establish slavery by assisting In the
emigration of Southern families. In 1855
an association was formed in Boston to
oCEset this movement by assisting New
England farmers to establish homes in the
debatable territory. This organization was
known as the New England Emigrant Com.,
pany, and did much toward making Kan-
sas a free state.
New England ShlUing.— The general court
of Massachusetts on May 27, 1652, estab-
lished a mint at Boston and installed John
Hull as mint master. The first coins which
were struck were but rude plancbets
stamped "N. B.," near the border on the
obverse and the denomination mark (XII)
on the reverse, signifying the value of 12d.
This was known as the New England
shilling and was valued at 181 cents.
New Fiance. — A French expedition under
Verrazano formed a settlement in America
as early as 1524, on land discovered by John
and Sebastian Cabot in 1497. In 1535
Jacques Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence
River as far as the site of Montreal. The
first permanent settlement in New France
was founded at Quebec by Champlain in
1608. The colonists cultivated friendly jre-
l;itions with the Indians, and Jesuit mis-
sionaries extended the French influence
through the region of the Great Lakes to
the headwaters of the Mississippi and down
that stream to the French possessions in
rbe South. The country was conquered by
the English in 1629 and restored in 1632.
At the beginning of the Seven Years' War
New France was made the scene of a part
of the struggle between France and Eng-
land. By 1750 New France, with Louisiana
added, comprised the St. Lawrence and
Great Lakes basins and the Mississippi
basin, though the settlements were scat-
tered. In 1759 Canada was reconquered by
ihe English and its possessions confirmed to
them by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763,
The result of this treaty was the cession of
iUl the country east of the Mississippi to
I'Ingland and that west to Spain. The
French laws were continued in force and
religious liberty was extended to Roman
Catholics.
New Granada. — A name by which that
part of South America now called Colombia
was known. (See Colombia.)
New Granada (see also Colombia) :
American citizens in, outrages on,
2948, 3049.
Claims of United States against,
2116, 2193, 2948, 3049.
Adjustment of, referred to, 2116,
3175.
Commission to settle, extension of
time for, recommended, 3268.
Convention for adjustment of, re-
ferred to, 3329.
Mail transported across Isthmus of
Panama, complaints regarding,
2552.
Minister of United States to, reasons
for not presenting credentials dis-
cussed, 3348.
Postal convention with,- 2168.
Eelations with, discussed, 2978.
Tonnage duties levied on American
vessels by, in contravention of
treaty discussed, 2948, 3049.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 2217, 2359, 2361, 2576,
2577, 2581, 2582, 2902, 3063, 3122,
3174, 3349.
Contravention of, by New Grrana-
da, 2948, 3049.
Provisions of, discussed, 2361.
Eegarding Panama Canal. (See
Panama Canal.)
Eight of passage over Isthmus of
Panama guaranteed by, 2361,
2555, 2902, 3048, 6807.
Wars in, discussed, 3349.
New Guinea. (See Oceania.)
New Hampshire. — One of the thirteen
original states ; nickname, "The Granite
State." It extends from lat. 42° 40' to
45° 18' north and from long. 70° 43' to
72° 33' west. It Is bounded on the north
by the Province of Quebec (Canada), on
the east by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean,
on the south by Massachusetts and on the
west by Vermont (separated by the Con-
necticut River) and Quebec. New Hamp-
shire is called the "Switzerland of Amer-
ica," being noted for the grandeur of its
mountain scenery and the beauty of its
lakes. It has an area of 9,341 square
miles. It is one of the leading states in
the manufacture of boo'ts and shoes, and
produces also cotton, woolen, and worsted
goods, lumber and timber products, hosiery,
and foundry and ma,chine shop products.
New Hampshire was visited by Pring in
1603 and by Capt. John Smith in 1614. It
formed part of the territory granted to
Gorges in 1621. It was settled by the
English at Portsmouth and Dover in 1623.
Between 1641 and 1679, and at various
times thereafter, it was a part of Massa-
chusetts. Its final separation was in 1741.
Vermont was claimed as part of New Hamp-
shire until 1764.
About three-fifths of the area of the
State consists of forests.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
farms in the State at 27,053, comprising
3,249,438 acres, valued, with stock and
improvehients, .at $103,704,196. The aver-
age value of farm land per acre was ?13.70,
an increase of ?9.83 in 1900.
Latest figures for the annual agricultural
production were as follows ; —
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Hay 450,000 675,000a $16,200,000
Corn 21,000 1,050,000 1,785,000
Potatoes .. 20,000 2,400,000 4,200,000
Oats 33,000 1,221,000 1,038,000
a-tons.
In addition, there i.i an Important apple
crop. The latest reports indicated farm
animals in the state as follows : — Horses,
40,000, valued at $5,760,000; cows, 103,-
000, $8,858,000; other cattle, 70,000, $2,-
920,000 ; sheep, 39,000, $382,000 ; swine,
67,000, $1,608,000. There is some quarry-
ing of granite and some attention to clay
products.
New Hampshire
Encyclopedic Index
New Jersey
The number o( manufacturing establish-
ments in New Hampshire having an annual
output valued at $500 or more at the begin-
ning o( 1915 was 1,736. The amount of
capital invested was $156,749,000. giving
employment to 85,013 persons, using mate-
rial valued at $114,993,000, and turning
out finished goods worth $182,844,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid amounted to $48,524,-
000. The most important industry is boots
and shoes, followed by cotton and woolen
goods. Aside from forest products, the
manufactures are chiefly in the southern
portion of the state.
In 1910, the population was 430,572.
The 1920 census showed it as 443,083. Of
the 1910 population, 96,667 were foreign-
born, of whom almost 60,000 were Cana-
dian. More than half the inhabitants of
the state are Roman Catholics.
Latest figures show 67,461 pupils en-
rolled in the public elementary schools, with
2,493 teachers ; and 10,640 pupils in the 88
public high schools, with 554 teachers.
New Hampshire:
Claims of for maintaining jurisdic-
tion over Indian stream, 269.
Eeferred to, 1498.
Constitution of United States, evi-
dence of ratification of amend-
ments to, by, 65, 107.
Light-Houses ceded to United States
by, 102.
Northeastern boundary, correspond-
ence regarding. (See Northeastern
Boundary.)
New Hebrides. ^See Oceania.)
New Hope Church, or Pumpkin Vine
Creek (G-a.), Battle of. — When Gen. John-
ston withdrew the Confederate forces from
Eesaca, Ga., May 16, 1864, he retired by
way of Cassville across the Etowah and
occupied a strong position commanding the
Allatoona Pass. May 23 Sherman crossed
the Ktowah and moved towards Dallas.
Hooker, with the Twentieth Army Corps,
moving from Burnt Hickory toward Dal-
las, May 25 encountered a force of Con-
federate cavalry at Pumpkin Vine Creek.
They were driven across the stream, and
about two miles to the eastward the Fed-
erals encountered Johnston's entire army.
Here a severe battle took place. The Con-
federates retired and occupied a strong po-
sition from Dallas to Marietta. The losses
of each army in these operations were about
2.500 men killed and wounded.
New Ireland.— Jan. 12, 1779, Capt. Mo-
watt, with three British sloops of war,
landed Gen. MeLane and 900 troops on the
peninsula of Biguyduce (now Castine), on
the south coast of Maine. On the 25th of
the following July an expedition of nine-
teen armed vessels and twenty-four trans-
ports under Gurdon Saltonstall, a Connecti-
cut sea captain, and 1,500 men from Massa-
chusetts under Gen. Lovell. arrived at
Penobscott for the purpose of dislodging the
British. They delayed making the attack,
however, and the arrival of five British
ships from New York on the 13th of August
forced them to burn • their ships and dis-
perse. As a result of their success the Brit-
ish during the next year attempted to erect
Maine into a province under the name of
New Ireland.
New Jersey. — One of the thirteen original
states. It extends from lat. 38° 56' to
41° 21' north and from long. 73° 54' to
75° 33' west. It is bounded on the north
by New York, on the east by New York (sep-
arated by the Hudson River, New York
Bay and Staten Island Sound) and the -it
lantic Ocean, on the south by Delaware
Bay and on the west by Pennsylvania and
Delaware (both separated by the Delaware
River.) It has an area of 8,224 square
miles.
New Jersey was first settled by the Dutoh
at Bergen, probably about 1617. There were
succeeding colonies there of Swedes. Finns,
and English. In IBiU it was granted by the
Duke of York to Sir George Carteret, lieu-
tenant-governor of the Isle of Jersey, to
be a perpetual inheritance and to be called
New Jersey. It was reconquered by the
Dutch in 1673 and restored to England in
1074, and sold to the Quakers. Proprietary
government ceased in 1702 and New Jersey
was made a royal province. It was under
the same governor as New York until 1738.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
farms in the State at 33,487, comprising
2,573,857 acres, valued, with stock and im-
provements, at $254,832,665. The average
value of land per acre was $48.23.
The latest annual agricultural produc-
tion was as follows : —
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Potatoes . . 110,000 10,560,000 $17,846,000
Corn 270,000 10,800,000 16,524,000
Hay 325,000 488,000a 14,200,000
Wheat 109,000 1,960,000 4,315,000
Rye S3.000 1,295,000 2,075,000
Sw. Potatoes 14.000 1,750,000 3,850,000
Cranberries. 10,200 161,000b 1,290,000
a-tons ; b-barrels.
The latest figures for farm animals show
88,000 horses, valued at $13,200,000 ; 153,-
000 cows, $19,584,000'; 77,000 other cattle,
$4,390,000 : 30,000 sheep, $330,000 ; and
210,000 swine, $5,292,000. In addition to
the crops given above, fruit-growing is a
most important activity. Of the mineral
deposits, only iron and zinc are worked
to any extent, but the clay-working indus-
tries are most important.
In 1910, the population was 2,537,167.
The 1920 census put it at 3.1.^.1,374. Of the
population in 1910, 91,273 were colored.
In 1915, there were 734,052 foreign-born,
of whom 144,848 were Italian, 115,711
were German, 7."i,444 were Irish and 55,-
357 were English. In 1910', 75% of the
population was urban. More than half of
the population is Roman Catholic.
The latest figures show an enrolment of
561,825 in the public day schools. The
average daily attendance was 423,570 and
there were 17,743 teachers. There was
also an enrolment of 33,588 in the 'night
schools. There are 136 public high schools,
with 1,960 teachers and more than 47,000
students.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in New Jersey having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the begin-
ning of 1915 was 9,742. The amount of
capital invested was $1,352,382,000. giving
employment to 431.003 persons, using ma-
terial valued at $883,465,000, and turnlnfi
out finished goods worth $1,406,633,000.
Salaries and wages paid amounted to
$280,984,000. By value of product, the
leading Industries were oil-refining, explo-
sives, foundry and machinery, silk goods,
chemicals and wire. ,
New Jersey:
Boundary line with New York, 1268.
New Jersey
Encyclopedic Index
Wew Mexico
Cold storage regulation in, referred
to, 8815.
Pemoerats, letter of President Wil-
son, to 8473.
Eatification of —
Amendment to Federal Constitu-
tion by, referred to, 70, 249.
Fifteenth amendment by, 4081.
Fourteenth amendment by, dis-
cussed, 3836.
Bequest from the governor of, that
Congress consent to an agreement
made with New York State regard-
ing boundary, 1268.
New Jersey, The, interference by Amer-
ican minister to France in case of,
38^.
New Jersey Plan. — At the convention held
in Philadelphia in 1787 to amend the Ar-
ticles of Confederation William Paterson,
of New Jersey, proposed a constitution
providing for a single house of Congress,
with power to regulate taxation and com-
merce and choose the President ; that
reguis!tion| from states should be contin-
ued as under the Articles of Confedera-
tion ; that a judiciary 'should be cstab.
llshed ; that the executive should coerce
refractory states or individuals, and other
matters of general l)ut minor interest.
The plan was unfavorably reported. The
convention accepted the Virginia plan with
extensive modifications.
New Loudon (Conn.), Capture of.— Sept.
6, 1781, Benedict Arnold's expedition against
Connecticut arrived in the harbor of New
London. The' only defense of the town
was the unfinished Fort Trumbull, manned
by about 25 or 30 State militia under
Capt. Shopley. About a third of these were
lost while escaping in boats to Fort Gris-
wold after firing one volley, disabling 4 or
5 of their assailants.
New Madrid (Mo.), Battle of.— On the
surrender of Fort Donelson to Grant the
Confederates abandoned Columbus, Ky., on
the Mississippi, and fell back to New
Madrid, Mo., about eighty miles below Cairo.
It was defended by Fort Thompson and sev-
eral batteries and by 6 gunboats mounting
heavy guns under Commodore Hollins.
March 4, 1862, Gen. Pope appeared before
New Madrid with an army of ,20,000, which
he had been commanding in eastern Mis-
souri. On the 14th, having received heavy
guns from Cairo, he gave the place a severe
cannonading, disabling several of the gun-
boats. Gen. McCown, unable to hold New
Madrid, removed his garrison during the
night and in the midst of a thunderstorm
to Island No. 10. Pope lost 51 men Ijilled
and wounded.
New Mexico.— One of the southwestern
group of states ; nickname, "Adobe State ;"
motto, "Crescit eundo" ("It increases
as it goes"). It extends from lat. 40 20
to 37° north and from long. 103 2 to
109° 2' west. It is bounded on the north
by Colorado, on the east by Texas and Okla-
homa, on the south by Texas and Mexico,
and on the west by Arizona.
New Mexico was visited by NIza in 1539,
and Francisco Vasquez de Cpronado con-
ducted an expedition consisting of 400
Spanish and 800 Indians as far north as
the present city of Santa F6 in 1540 Near
the close of the sixteenth century Spanish
missionaries made settlements about the
head waters of the Rio Grande, and in
1605 Santa Ffi was founded. The Spanish
were temporarily expelled by the Indians
in 1680. In 1846 the region was conquered
hy the Americans under General Kearny,
who proclaimed himself provisional gover-
nor. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
proclaimed in 1848, New Mexico became
a part of the United States. A territorial
government was established by act of Con-
gress approved Sept. 9, 1850. In 1853 a
part of the Gadsden Purchase was added
to New Mexico, making the present area
122,634 square miles. On June 20, 1910,
Congress passed an enabling act permitting
New Mexico to chose statehood ; and on
January 6, 1912, President Taft issued the
proclamation admitting New Mexico as one
of the states of the Union.
In 1910, the population was 327,301. By
1920, it had become 360,247. The 1910
population Included 23,146 foreign-born, of
whom 11,918 were Mexicans. Fourteen per
cent of the population was urban. The pre-
vailing religion is the Koman Catholic.
There are 1,413 public elementary schools,
with an enrolment of 121,829 and a teach-
ing staff of 2,641 ; and 71 high schools, with
97 teachers and 1,258 pupils.
The chief economic activities of New
Mexico ure concerned with cattle-raising
and mining. The last annual agricultural
production was reported as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Hay 235,000 646,000* $11,757,000
Corn 240,000 7,200,000 10|,872,000
Wheat 383,000 6,100,000 12,200',000
Sorghums .238,000 7,140,000 9,282,000
Beans 128,000 960,000 3,.552,000
Oats 65,000 2,840,000 2,223,000
Potatoes 11,000 495,000 940,000
•Tons
The latest statistics of farm animals
showed 232,000 horses, valued at $13,776,-
000 ; 20,000 mules, $2,080,000 ; 87,000 cows,
$7,221,000 ; 1,378,000 other cattle, $62,700,-
000 ; 2,538,000 sheep, $23,603,000 ; and 83,-
000 swine, $1,809,000. The last annual
wool clip was 15,076,000 pounds. The
state contains a large national forest area
(see Forests, National). Much of the land
is cultivable only by the atd of the large
irrigation projects (see Irrigation).
The 1910 federal census gave' the state
35,676 (arms with an area of 11,270,021
acres, of which 1,467,191 were improved
land, and a value of all farm property of
$159,448,000.
There are extensive Indian reservations
within the state (see Indians).
The most valuable of the minerals ex-
tracted is copper. In a recent year, the
annual mineral production included 92,747,-
000 pounds of copper, 36,571,000 pounds of
zinc, 824,000 pounds of lead, 66,877 fine
ounces of gold, 1,766,000 fine ounces of
silver. The last annual coal production
was 4,241,000 tons.
The last federal census of manufacturee
showed 368 manufacturing establishments,
employing 3,776 wage-earners, representing
a capital Investment of almost $9,000,000
and producing annually products valued at
$9,320,000.
New Mexico:
Abduction of citizens from, referred
to, 2643.
New Mexico
Encyclopedic Index
New Orleans
Admission of, to Union —
Act providing for, vetoed, 7630.
Discussed, 2556, 7020, 7229.
Eecommended, 7435, 7598.
Appropriations for, requested, 3666.
Approval of constitution recom-
mended, 7598.
Boundaries of, discussed, 2446.
Boundary line with Texas, 2566, 2568,
2586, 2587, 2601, 2628.
Proposition of United States re-
garding establishment of, ac-
cepted, 2630.
Proclamation regarding, 2643.
Views of President Fillmore on set-
tlement of, 2603, 2630.
Capitol at Santa Fe, appropriation
for completion of, recommended,
4737.
Cession of California and, to United
States by Mexico-
Area and value of, discussed, 2449,
2484.
Discussed and recommendations re-
garding, 2306, 2309, 2344, 2356,
2386, 2426, 2437, 2444, 2484.
Treaty for, transmitted, 2437.
Claims of Texas to portion of. (See
Boundary line, ante.)
Condition of, discussed, 444.
Constitution adopted by, transmitted,
2611.
Forces to be employed in, 2454.
Government of, discussed, 2557, 2564.
Indian hostilities in, discussed, 4528.
Indians in —
Enslaved, discussed and orders re-
garding, 3540.
Hostilities of, referred to, 3121.
Number of, 2453.
Land laws, extension of, over; recom-
mended, 2623.
Lands granted to, in aid of colleges
accepted, 3358.
Lands in — ■
Claims under Spanish and Mexican
grants, discussed, 5484, 5510,
5561.
Records of Mexican Government
regarding, 4257.
Set apart as public reservation by
proclamation, 5686, 6872.
Legislative sessions of —
Law providing for time for com-
mencement of, referred to, (4675.
Eecommendation by territorial gov-
ernor foir holding, 4736.
Mines in, referred to, 2493.
Officer commanding in, 2587.
Proclamation of, referred to, 2601.
rersons convicted of treason in, re-
ferred to, 2448.
Prohibition by authorities of Spain
to land American cargoes at, 334.
Revenue laws over, recommended,
2493.
Slavery in, right to introduce, dis-
cussed, 2490. (See also Slavery.)
Surveyor-General's office in, recom-
mended, 2493.
Territorial government over —
Deemed inexpedient, 2567.
Difficulties in organizing, 2663.
Proposition and proclamation re-
garding, 2630, 2643.
Recommended, 2392, 2439, 2488.
Unlawful combinations in, proclama-
tions against, 4441, 5932.
New Netherlands. — The second in order of
settlement of the thirteen Colonies." It
was the name of the region lying between
the Delaware and Connecticut rivers. It
was claimed by the Dutch by virtue of its
discovery by Henry Hudson, an English
navigator in charge of a Dutch expedition.
In 1609. A trading post, the germ of a
colony, was established, 1613-14, and main-
tained. In 1614 the States-General of the
Netherlands granted the exclusive privilege
of trading in New Netherlands to the ex-
plorers. In 1613 the New Netherlands Com-
pany was formed to trade in furs, but little
attempt was made to settle families before
1621. In 1623 the new country was made
a province of Holland and granted the
armorial distinction of a count. Charles II.
of England in 1664 granted the country to
his brother, the Duke of York, and the
garrison of the little block-house at New
Amsterdam, being menaced by six times Its
number, was compelled to surrender. The
Elace was recovered by the Dutch in 1673,
ut restored the following year. In 1674
the name was changed to New York. The
question of the priority of the settlement of
New York by the Dutch to that of Plymouth
by the expatriated English Pilgrims, fresh
from Holland, is one that still divides the
historians. Dr. Brodhead, on the authority
of Holland documents, seems, however, to
have shown that the early trading post set
up by the Dutch in 1613 was never aban-
doned and was really a settlement befor?
the date of the Plymouth colonization. A
similar post was established, 1614, near tlie
present site of Albany. '
New Orleans, La.:
Alarm excited at, over report that
Aaron Burr would assemble armies
in, 403.
Blockade of port of, removed by
proclamation, 3290.
Branch mint at —
Seizure of, by authorities of Loui-
siana, referred to, 3199.
Capture of, referred to, 3315.
Cincinnati and Louisville expositions,
4819.
Defense of, should engage attention
of Congress, 394, 447, 688.
Investigations of Gen. Smith and
James T. Brady at, referred to,
3683.
Italians lynched in, discussed, 5617.
Indemnity 'for, paid by United
States, 5751.
New Orleans
Encyclopedic Index
New York
Memorial from, regarding irregular-
ity in mail service, 2883.
Eights of deposit at port of, suspend-
ed, 338.
Eestored, 346.
Eiot at, referred to, ^3662.
Spanish subjects in, assaulted, 2654.
Claims arising out of, discussed,
2688.
Title to lots in, referred to, 430.
Vessels bound for, for military neces-
sities allowed to enter port of,^
3378.
World's Industrial and Cotton Cen-
tennial Exposition at, discussed
and recommendations regarding,
4773, 4802, 4804, 4863, 4923.
Board on behalf of Executive De-
partments designated, 4815,
4817.
Also placed in charge of Cincin-
nati and Louisville expositions,
4819.
Instructions to, 4819, 4820.
Proclamation regarding, 4746.
Eeport of board of management
transmitted, 4953.
New Orleans (La.), Battle of.— Within
a week after the battle of Rodriguez Caifal
• both Jackson and Sir Edward Pakenham
received reenforcements. Jackson's whole
force on the New Orleans side of the river
on Jan. 8, 1815, was about 5,000, of
which only 2,200 were at the front. Only
800 of the latter were regulars. On the
opposite side of the river was Gen. Morgan
with 800 militia. This force of 5,800, in-
differently armed and disciplined, was con-
fronted by 10,000 of the finest soldiers in
the world, most of them fresh from the
continental campaign under Wellington. The
Americans were intrenched behind their for-
tifications, which the British were com-
pelled to approach across an open plain.
In the conflict 2,600 were lost to the Brit-
ish, of Whom 700 were killed, 1.400 wound-
ed, and 500 taken prisoners. The Americans
lost only 8 killed and 13 wounded. Prob-
ably no other battle in history presents
this disparity in the number lost. The bat-
tle was fought after peace was proclaimed,
but before this news reached New Orleans.
(See illustration opposite page 553.)
New Orleans (La.), Capture of.— Feb. 20,
1862, Commodore Farragut, with his flag-
ship, the sloop of war Hartford, arrived at
Ship Island, 100 miles north-northeast of
the mouth of the Mississippi. He was in
command of the Western Coast Blockading
Squadron, with directions to take posses-
sion of New Orleans. A military force to
cooperate with Farragut arrived at Ship
Island March 25, under Gen. B. F. Butler.
The defenses of New Orleans were Fort
Jackson, on the right bank or south side
of the river, near its last great bend before
it separates into the Delta, and Fort St.
Philip, a little farther upstream on the
opposite side. The former, with its water
battery, mounted 75 guns ; the latter 40.
Just above the forts was a fleet of 15 ves-
■ sels including the ironclad ram Manassas
and a floating battery, covered with rail-
road iron, called the Louisiana. These were
In command of Commodore J. E. Mitchell.
A heavy chain was also stretched across
the river below Fort Jackson. Farragut's
fleet consisted of 6 sloops of war, 16 gun-
boats, 21 schooners, each carrying a 13-inch
mortar, and 5 other vessels. The fleet car-
ried more than 200 guns.
Farragut bombarded the forts for six days
with his mortar boats without much effect.
The Confederate loss was 14 killed and 39
wounded. It was then decided to run by
the forts. The obstructions were opened In
the face of a heavy fire, and the fleet formed
In three divisions and awaited the signal.
It was given at half past 3 o'clock on the
morning of April 24, 1862. Capt. Bailey
led off with his division of 8 vessels. Un-
der the storm of shot and shell they passed
the obstructions and ran by the forts
against the current In a stream less than
half a mile wide, escaping the blazing rafts
only to be met at the end of their Journey
by the Confederate gunboats eager to begin
the fight. 'The second division of the fleet
was led through the fiery gauntlet by the
Hartford, with Farragut on board. The Sci-
Ota, carrying Fleet Captain Bell, led the
third division. The Kennebec, Itasca, and
Winona failed to pass the forts, becoming
entangled in the rafts and floating dSbrls
and delayed beyond the dawn. The latter
lost all but one man of her rifled-gun crew.
Having passed the forts the fleet savagely
attacked the small Confederate gunboats
beyond and their destruction was speedily
accomplished. May 1 New Orleans was for-
mally occupied by the United States troops.
The Federals lost in the taking of New
Orleans 37 killed and 147 wounded. The
Confederate loss was stated as only 40
killed and wounded.
New Orleans Massacre.— On March 15,
1891, a mob broke into the .1ail at New Or-
leans and killed a number of Italians, who
were hel(T charged with the murder of Mayor
Hennessey. (The Mayor had been active in
investigating a secret society of Sicilian
origin, called "Mafiosi.") Secretary of
State Blaine immediately urged the Gov-
ernor of Louisiana to proceed apainst the
guilty parties. The Italian Premier, through
diplomatic correspondence, urged punishment
of the members of the mob and indemnity
tor the death of the Italians. Blaine in-
sisted that the. United States was without
authority to act, and that the State of"
Louisiana had full power. Thereupon tlie
Italian Minister at Washington, Baron Fav.i,
quit his post, thus substantially cutting off
diplomatic relations. President Harrison
restored friendly relations with Italy by
reversing Blaine's position and by offering.
In the name of the United States, to pay the
indemnity demanded, which amounted to
something over $24,000.
New Panama Canal Company, treat-
ment of, by Colombia, 6922.
New South Wales, Australia:
International exhibition at Mel-
bourne to celebrate founding of,
discussed, 5176.
Postal convention vyith, 4882.
New York. — One of the thirteen original
states ; nickname, "The Empire State" ;
motto. "Excelsior." It extends from lat. '
40° 30' to 45° 1' north and from long. 71 "
51' to 79° 46' west. It is bounded on the
north and northwest by Ontario, Canada
(separated for the most part by Lake On-
tario and the St. Lawrence River) ; on the
east by Vermont (partly separated by Lake
Champlain), Massachtisetts, and Connecti-
cut ; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean,
New York
Encyclopedic Index
New York
New York Bay, New Jersey and TenLsyl-
vanla (partly separated by tho Delaware
River), and on the west by Pennsylvania
and Ontario (separated by Lalse Erie and
the Niagara Kiver). Long Island, Staten
Island, and several small islands are in-
cluded in the State. The area is 49,204
square miles. It is mountainous in the
eastern part, along the Hudson River. A
beautiful rolling country constitutes the
watershed separating the north and south
drainage of the western and central parts
of the State. To the north the surface
descends in undulating terraces toward Lake
Ontario. To the south the country is
higher, In places reaching an altitude of
2,(300 to 2,500 feet. The valley of the Mo-
hawk extends westward from the Hudson
for nearly 150 miles. New York is the first
state of the Union in commerce, manufac-
tures, population, and estimated value of
property, and the second state in value of
farms.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
farms in the State at 215,597, comprising
22,030,367 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at .$1,451,481,495. The aver-
age value of land per acre was $32.13,
against $24.34 in 1900.
The latest figures for the annual agri-
cultural production were as follows : —
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Hay . . .4,386,000 6.579,000*$134,870,000
Corn 820,000 35,260,000 58,532,000
Oats 1,160,000 29,580.000 24,551,000
Wheat . . 524,000 11,178,000 24,032,000
Potatoes .363,000 39,567,000 57,372,000
Buckwheat 233,000 5,126,000 7,433,000
Beans 100,000 1,450,000 7,105,000
Tobacco. . 3,000 3,750,000t
•Tons. fPounds. '
There Is also a large production of sugar
beets, and the fruit crop is extremely Im-
portant.
The latest figures of (arm animals showed
560,000 horses, valued at $78,960,000 ; 6,-
000 mules, $1,036,000 ; 1,493,000 cows,
$159,750,000 ; 910,000 other cattle, $43,-
900,000 ; 824,000 sheep, $10,218,000 ; and
920,000 swine, $20,700,000. The last annual
wool clip was 4,022,000 pounds.
The most valuable mineral product U
iron ore, of which some 1,350,000 psunds
are produced in normal years. The state
also contains extensive fields of petroleum
and natural gas. Other important mineral
products are talc and gypsum. The out-
put of granite, marble and other stones Is
valuable, as Is the output of cement and of
salt. There Is a large production of bricks,
tiles, pottery, etc.
In 1910, the population was 9,113,614.
Of these 134.191 were negroes and 2,748,-
011 were foreign-born. Of the foreign-born
480,000 were German, 437,000 were
Irish, 147,000 were English, 39,000 were
Scotch, 472,000 were Italian, 559,000 were
Russian, 245,000 were Austrian, 99,000
were Canadian French. In 1915, 75% of
the population was urban. The 1920 census
gave the population as 10,384,144.
The latest educational statistics showed
11,936 public elementary schools, with 1,-
030,419 pupils and 44,511 teachers. There
were 956 public high schools, with 191,087
pupils and 6,875 teachers. There are a
number of colleges and universities and pro-
fessional schools of highest standing.
The number of manufacturing estahlish-
ments In New York having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1913 was '48,203. The amount of capital
invested was $3,334,278,000, giving employ-
ment to 1,289,098 persons, using material
valued at $2,108,607,000, and turning out
finished goods worth $3,814,661,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid amounted to $873,771,-
000. Preeminent among the Industries of
the State is the manufacture of clothing.
This factory industry originated in the
State about 1835, and by 1880 It was first
among the Industries of the State. In 1905
New York was first in the production of
clothing.
New York (see also Hudson; New York
City):
Boundary line with New Jersey, re-
ferred to, 1268.
Branch mint in, recommended, 2352.
Canadian outrages on frontier of, dis-
cussed, 1618, 1676, 1695, 1840.
Canals In, recommendations regard-
ing, 3334.
Colonial history of, referred to, 1954.
Constitution of United States, evir
dence of ratification of amendments
to, by, 67, 164, 166.
Courts in —
Crowded condition of docket of,
discussed, 5119.
Eecommendations regarding, 4633.
Judge, additional, for southern dis-
trict of, recommended, 5098.
I Judges of United States circuit court
for district tof, opinion of, regard-"
ing pensions, 115.
Sheriffs in, duties of, respecting pris-
oners, 67.
Statue of George Clinton presented
to Congress by, 4214.
Unlawful expeditions in, 1616, 2697.
Women of, enfranchisement urged
for, 8376.
New York, The, mentioned, 6313.
New York and Montana Iron Mining
and Manufacturing Co., act to enable
purchase of lands by, vetoed, 3614.
New York Central Kailroad, conviction
and fine of, 7026.
New York City:
Act to authorize New York and New
Jersey Bridge Companies to con-
struct bridge across Hudson River
at, vetoed, 5912.
Ancient obelisk presented to, by
Egyptian Government, 4520, 4564.~
Branch mint in, recommended, 2352,
2407, 2500.
Centennial celebration of inaugura-
tion of President Washington to
be held in, 5371.
Proclamation regarding, 5453.
Custom-house in —
Affairs of, investigated, 1952, 2007,
4423.
Expenses of, referred to, 2010.
Eeport of commissioners referred
to, 2005, 2014, 4402.
New York Encyclopedic Index New Zealand
Authority for instituting investl- The agitation for the Improvement of
gation demanded, 1952. ?k'^*?°^ ?''?'^'^ ''SSan in 1891, and in 1895
Eeply of President 1952. L^'ed ^tlf fs^e of l'97nn^n°,^n^ ^*'^tl "^"t^"'-
r\ca c J i T t. J i issue or it>9,O0u,000 worth of 3 %
Ofttcers of, suspended and reasons bonds to deepen the Brie and Oswem rn
therefor, 4463. fals to nine feet and the Champlain Canai
Eegulations governing appoint- me&'rnVy t^^'^slt'li^natfndln^'ll.O^Te
ments and promotions in, 4502, P-§'«, "f ^%e^^tate ra«fied a measure t<> L!
Eeport on, discussed, 4588. ' p?i„^'/,.+?'l*: ^^^^^^S'T, ^^ '''''« *<> ac
Dock at, about completed, 2669. rfT^ot^l^o'^^et inVft^'ii''?ftirte^'?hat
East Eiver at, appropriation for re- from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of
moval of riood Bock in, recom- nuM^ "'vZv^ f^^^^K ^''^^''^^ ^^^ '"'"'''''^ ^'^-
™„„j„j A'ras nuauy. ihere are 35 locks on the Brie Ca-
mended, 4788. nal and 22 loclts on the other canals corn-
In 1790 and 1915, views of, 1305. ^^^'^S the canal portions of the system
Maltrpatment of na s-spn p'pt'? and spn- 2l, 4. !*''°'l*J.? ..'"'^'^ length is 311 feet, so
, maltreatment 01 passengers ana sea- that two 150 feet barges may be raised or
men on ships plying between As- lowered at the same time. The height of
pinwall'and, referred to, 3413. tbe lUts is from 6 to 40 feet, and they
Navy-yard at, new boiler for, recom- 0 o°00 ton, * Thoi2 o1'"''"?™°^n*'t, """'^ °*
^i^A^A /(fiQi ^.uuu tons There are also 40 dams com-
mended, 4681. prised within the system.
Post-ofSce in, rules governincr an- By January 1, 1917, more than 90% of
pointments and promotions in, Jhe actual work on the new Barge Canal
4507 had been completed. The entrance of the
■p,j„,,„j +„ /iKoa United States Into the^ World War hind-
Eeferred to, 4588. ered the utilization of the canal, because of
Provision for accommodation of the scarcity of skilled laborers and "the diver-
United States courts in, discussed, |'°° 2* ^'1 facilities for shipbuilding into
90Q0 governmental work. However, on May 15,
-D ■■ . jn . A,r, 1918, It was opeued f Or navigation through-
Provision for defense of, 447. out its entire length.
Steamship line between Havre and. New York World, spurious proclama-
leferred to, 2011, 2173. ^ tiou printed in, orders regarding,
Subtr.easury in, regulations govern- 3438.
ing appointments and promotions New Zealand.— The Dominion of New
in, 4502. Zealand is distant about 1,200 miles south-
New York Harbor: ^?l* of the mainland of Australia, and con-
ATmrrmTiatlnn for Tpmnvnl of Flnnd U^ •« "^™''^^ ,™^'° islands in the South
Appropriation lor removal oi JJiooa pacific Ocean, known as the North South
Eock in, recommended, 4788. and Stewart Islands, between 33'' -53° s'
Naval parade to be held in, 5760. IS^ii""^* ^""^ 1^2° e.-172° w. longitude;
•vr i_ -ij- J! 'i' ■ With several groups of smaller islands Ivin"
New buildings for recruiting service at some distance ^rom the principal group
at, referred to, 4664. > physical Features.— K mountain chain
Statue of Liberty Enlightening the traverses the west side of the South Island,
World to be placed on Bedlo.'s Is- £^|gT^'V"fe"No'^tTVsla%°'^isf s's*|e^1^4li?
land m. (See Liberty Enlighten- elevated. The North Island has a large
ing the World.) central lake (Taupo) 36 miles long, from
New York Indiana CSpp iTidian T'^V? ^^^ "''J^'' Waikato flows northwest
jNew KorK J.naiaus. (aee inaian to the sea. The celebrated "pink terraces"
Tribes.) of Rotcmahana, formed by the deposit of
New York Journal of Commerce, spu- si™yed"Sy''lorci*n^c''Sfon°in'iT86."bTt a',^
rious proclamation printed in, orders again in process of format-ion. The South
regarding 3438. Island has many Alpine lakes of great depth.
,+ „ , „ TT J TT _.... J The extremes of daily temperature vary
New York, New Haven and Hartford throughout the year only by an average of
Bailroad, criminal proceedings against 20°. The mean annual temperature of the
nffipinls of ordered 8023 yihoXe Dominion for the different seasons
omciais or, oraerea, ou^a. ig . spring, 55° ; summer, 63° ; autumn, 57° •
New York State Barge Canal. -A system and winter, 48°
of .inland waterways based upon the en- area and populatiox
largement and improvement of four canals isUnds Sq. Miles Population
previously existent — the Erie Canal (q. v.), ivr„„,.v, toi„« i aaiii^ „„T„_„
the Oswigo Canal, the Champlain Canal, North Island 44,130 651,072
and the Cayuga and Seneca Canal. (See Stewart Island '662 I 44S ^^7
also Canals.) The entire system represents Chatham Islands' 375 I ^**'^^^
790 miles of inland, waterways, of which other Islands ....'.■.■.■.■.■ "l.Ocio* 12800
440 miles represent improvements and new ' '°
construction. Seventy-two per cent of the Total 104 287 1 112 2oq
entire system is based upon lakes and riv- «Tr.=Hm<.tori '
ers, the canal portions of the system being iiisimmieu.
never less than twelve feet deep and sev- in addition to the a:bove population there
enty-five feet wide. Seventy per cent are about 50,000 Maoris. The latest esti-
of the area of the whole state of New mate of the total population is 1,170 000.
York is within fifty miles of the system. About 43% of the inhabitants are Angli-
New Zealand
Encyclopedic Index
New Zealand
cans, 24% Presbyterians and 14% Roman
Catholics. The last census gave the popula-
tion of the largest cities as follows : Auck-
land, 133,712; Wellington (capital), 95,-
235 ;_ Christchurch, 92,733 ; Dunedin, 68,716.
History. — The west coast of the South
Island of New Zealand was discovered by
Abel Jansen Tasman, the navigator (voy-
aging under the direction of the Nether-
lands' East India Company), on December
13, 1642. The islands were visited in 1769
by Captain Cook, who returned to them in
1773, 1774, and 1777. In 1793 the Gov-
ernment of New South Wales despatched
H.M.S. Daedalus to the islands on a dip-
lomatic mission. The first settlement of
Europeans was made in 1814, but no colo-
nization took place until 1825. In 1840
British sovereignty was proclaimed, and' on
May 3, 1841, New Zealand was, by letters
patent, erected into a separate colony dis-
tinct from New South Wales. In 1850, the
New Zealand Company surrendered its in-
terests to the British Government, and in
1853 a constitutional act was promulgated,
self-government getting into operation in
1856. For several decades thereafter, there
were serious troubles with the natives. Of
late years, New Zealand has become an out-
post of advanced political and social legis-
lation, such as woman suffrage, granted
in 1893, health insurance, old age and un-
employment pensions, compulsory labor
arbitration, maternity insurance, etc. In
recent years, the Government has been often
in the control of the Labor Party.
Government. — The Constitution rests upon
the Act of 1852, under which the execu-
tive authority is entrusted to a Governor
appointed by the Crown 'and aided by a
Council of Ministers, with a Legislature
of two houses.
The legislative power lies in the hands of
a Governor General appointed by the British
crown and a general assembly of two houses
— a legislative council and a House of Rep-
resentatives. The Governor-General has the
power of assenting to bills, vetoing them, or
returning them for amendment. He may
also draft bills, except that in the case of
appropriation bills he must first recommend
that the House of Representatives make
provision.
The legislative council consists of 24
members, later to be increased to 40. They
are elected for terms of seven years. Three
Maori members may be appointed by the
Governor-General. The House of Repre-
sentatives consists of 80 members, including
four Maoris, ele.cted for three-year terms.
There is a cabinet to carry out the executive
authority of the Government, headed by
the prime minister, who is the real head
of the administration.
Education. — Illiteracy in New Zealand,
exclusive of the Maoris, is less than 5%.
There are 37 secondary schools, with 323
teachers and more than 7,000 pupils. There
are also 60 district high schools, with 96
teachers and some 2,200 scholars. More
than 2,000 pupils are also : in attendance
upon technical high schools. There are
2,355 public primary schools, with 5,781
teachers and more than 185,000 pupils.
Education is compulsory between the ages
of 7 and 14. There are also more than 300
private schools, a number of professional
schools, 120 native village schools and
four colleges.
Finance. — The last annual public revenue
was between $95,000,000 and $100,000,000.
Thfe public debt Is $750,000,000. The
British system of currency is In use.
Production and Industry. — The wealth
of New Zealand derives chiefly from wool
and gold. About two-thirds of the area is
suitable for grazing and agriculture, and
about one-fourth of it is under crops, chiefly
grasses. About one-fourth of the area is
still under forests. There are almost 1,000,-
000 acres of surveyed Crown lands avail-
able for selection.
Of the crops, wheat is grown on about
275,000 acres, with an annual production
of some 6,500,000 bushels ; oats on 153,000
acres, with an annflal production of 5,000,-
000 bushels (attention to oats is on the
decline) ; and barley on some 20,000 acres,
with an annual production of 575,000
bushels.
The last census showed live-stock as
follows : Sheep, 26,540,000 ; horses, 380,-
000 ; cattle, 2,888,000 ; pigs, 258,000. The
last industrial census showed 4,670 plants,
employing 57,800 workers, with a capital of
$110,000,000 and an annual production
valued at $225,000,000. According to value
of output, the chief industries were meat
freezing and preserving ; butter and cheese ;
tanning and wool-scouring ; grain milling ;
saw mills, etc. ; printing and bookbinding ;
clothing ; engineering ; tailoring.
During the last year for which figures arc
available, only $6,000,000 worth of gold
was exported. The coal production was
2,260,000 tons, valued at more than $6,500,-
000, of which 325,000 tons were exported.
In a recent year, exclusive of gold and
specie, the imports amounted to $100,000,-
000 and the exports to $150,000,000. By
order of value, the chief imports were
textiles, machinery and metal manufactures,
apparel, sugar, oils, paper and bookn. The
chief exports were wool ($60,000,000).
frozen meat, butter and cheese, hides and
skins, fibres. ,
The trade is chiefly with the United King-
dom, followed by the United States and
Australia. In the last calendar year, later
than that of the above figures, the tfnited
States exported to New Zealand goods
valued at $28,171,535 and Imported from
New Zealand goods valued at $21,329,035.
Communications. — Under New Zealand
register are 560 vessels of some 88,000 tons,
including 376 steamers of 65,000 tons.
About 650 vessels, of some 1,700,000 tons,
visited New Zealand in a normal year be-
fore the World War. Most of these flew
the British flag.
There are 1,270 miles of railway (Gov-
ernmental) in the North Island and 1,714
in the South Island, with some 30 miles
of private railroad, a total of more than
3.000 miles. The chief towns have street
railway systems. There are 13,700 miles
of line and more than 50,000' miles of
wire on the Governmental telegraph sys-
tem, with the telephone system also Gov-
ernmental. •
Dependencies of New Zealand. — Antipodes
Group, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands
and Campbell Islands, all uninhabited.
Chatham Isla:nds and Cook Islands. The
Cook and other islands, annexed to the Brit-
ish Empire in October, 1900, and included
in the boundaries of New Zealand since
June, 1901. consist of the islands of Raro-
tonga, Aitutakl, Mangaia, Atiu. Mauke, Miti-
aro. The Herveys and Takutea.
Ne.w Zealand:
Sequestration of lands in, claimed hv
William ■\Volister, referred to, 4,327,
TTew Zealand
Encyclopedic Index
Newfoundland
Titles to lands in, claimed by Ameri-
can citizens, referred to, 5179.
Newbem (N. C), Capture of.— After se-
eming Roanoke Island Burnside proceeded
to the execution of another clause of his
oidei's by advancing upon Newbern. March
14, 1862, he landed a force of men on the
banks of the Neuse River, eighteen miles be-
low the city. They advanced within five
miles of the place where they encountered a
redoubt,' which was taken by assault. The
bridge over the Trent, a tributary of the
Neuse, was burned by the Confederates as
they retreated. With the capture of New-
bern 46 heavy guns, 3 batteries of light
artillery, and a large amount of stores fell
into Burnside's hands. The Federal loss was
90 killed and 466 wounded. The Confed-
erate loss was 23 killed, 58 wounded, and
about 2,500 prisoners.
Newburg Addresses. — There were many
things to criticise and much to complain
of in the conduct of the Revolutionary
War, but heroic achievement and devotion
to the cause of freedom, as a rule, over-
shadowed the jealousies of officers and the
complaints of men. Gen. Horatio Gates
had always been a rival of Washington
for command of the army, and frequently
conspired against the latter's popularity.
In 1783, while Washington's army was en-
camped at Newburg, two anonymous ap-
peals were issued to the officers, urging
them to hold a meeting to consider the
question of the money due them by Con-
gress. The appeals were written by Capt.
Armstrong, of Pennsylvania, and were sup-
posed to liave been instigated by the
Gates faction. Washington immediately
denounced the meeting as subversive of
discipline and called a regular meeting
of the officers to consider the matter. Gates
was placed in the chair. Washington's
friends carried motions characterizing as
"infamous proposals" the suggesMons of the
Newburg addresses, and furthermore de-
claring their unshaken confidence in Con-
gress.
Newfoundland. — The island of Newfound-
land is situated between 46° 37'-57° 39' N.
latitude and 52° 35'-59° 25' W. longitude,
on the northeast side of the Gulf St. Law-
rence, and is separated from the North
American Continent by the Straits of Belle
Isle. The island is about 317 miles long
and 316 miles broad, and is triangular in'
shape, with Cape Bauld north. Cape Race
southeast, and Cape Ray southwest at the
angles.
Physical Features. — The coast is extreme-
ly rugged, and the coastal regions are moun-
tainous, the north and east being excessively
cold owing to the quantities of ice brought
down from the Greenland seas. The interior
is undulating and is covered with tolts
(I'ound hills) interspersed with lakes, rivers,
and swamps, but Containing many fertile
valleys, where the climate is favorable to
agriculture, and a great wealth of forests,
mainly of pine and birch. The climate is
salubrious, and the people are a strong,
healthy, hardy, industrious race. The ther'
mometer seldom falls below zero in winter,
and ranges in the shade In summer from
70° to 80°.
Area ani Population. — A recent census
of Newfoundland gives the area as 42,-
734 square miles and the population as
252,464. Of these, more than 67,000 were
engaged in the fisheries. The capital is
St. John's, with a population of 34,000. In
religious faith, the population is divided
almost evenly among Roman Catholicism,
Church of England and Methodism.
History. — Newfoundland is the oldest
English colony in America, for it was dis-
covered by John Cabot on June 24, 1497 ;
the first land seen was hailed as Prima
Vista — the present Cape Bonavista. The
Island was afterwards visited (1500) by the
Portuguese navigator, Caspar de Cortereal,
and soon became the centre of an extensive
fishing industry, with settlements of Portu-
guese, Biscayans, and French. In August,
1583, the island was formally occupied by
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in the name of Queen
Elizabeth, and by the Treaty of Utrecht
(1713) the whole island was acknowledged
to be IBritish. A Governor was first appoint-
ed in 1728, and in 1885 "Responsible gov-
ernment" was accorded to the island.
Bovernment. — Tie executive is entrusted
to a Governor appointed by tlie Crown, aid-
ed by an Executive Council, with a Leg-
islature of two houses.
Production and Industry. — The inhabit-
ants are chiefly located on the coast-line of
the shore and bays, and for the greater part
are engaged in fishing — for cod in summer,
and seal fishing in winter and spring ; agri-
culture, mining, and lumbering are also en-
gaging attention, while large pulp and pa-
per mills have been erected. The larger
portion of the interior is practically in a
state of nature ; but the railways have
opened up large tracts of rich agricultural,
mineral, and timber lands liitherto of small
value.
I It is estimated that some 80 vessels and
1,300 men are engaged in the bank cod
fisheries and 15,000 vessels and 43,000 men
in the shore cod fisheries. There is also
extensive fishing for .seals and lobsters.
The chief agricultural products are hay,
potatoes, cabbage, oats and turnips. The
average annual production of all crops
does not exceed $3,000,000 in value. The
last census of agriculture showed 13,288
horses, 40,427 cattle, 110,447 sheep and
27,575 swine. Of the mineral deposits,
large beds of iron ore have been found and
more than 1,0'00,000 are exported annually.
Copper ore, pyrites and coal beds are
worked, and some deposits of gold, silver
and lead ore have been discovered.
In the last fiscal year, the imports
amounted to $27,500,000 and the exports
to $30,100,000. In order of value, the
chief imports were flour, hardware, textiles
and coal. The chief exports were dried cod-
fish, pulp and paper, seal and cod oil, iron
and other ore and herring. Canada and
the United States supplied imports almost
equally, but the larger share of the ex-
ports went to the United States.
There are some 850 miles of Govern-
mental railroad (narrow gauge) and 50
miles of private line. Communication along
the coast is maintained by a fieet of fast
.steamers. There are some 750 post-offlees.
1,600 miles of telegraph and 1,000 miles of
telephone wire.
The legal monetary standard is the gold
dollar.
The normal annual budget is between
$5,000,000 and $6,000,000.
LABRADOR, a dependency of Newfound-
land, forms the most easterly part of Amer
lea, and extends from Blanc Sablon, in the
Straits of Belle Isle, on the south, to Cape
Chudleigh, at the entrance to Hudson's
-Straits (or to Cape Wolstenholme), on the
north ; the boundaries between Quebec and
ijabrador being a matter of keen controversy
ITewfoundland
Encyclopedic Index'
Nicaragua
which is expected to come up for settlement
before the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council. Labrador possesses valuable cod,
herring, trout, and salmon fisheries. One
of the grandest spectacles in the universe
is provided by the Great Falls of Labrador,
on the Hamilton River. The inhabitants of
this 850 miles of coastal America are main-
ly Eskimos, engaged in fishing and bunting.
There are no towns, but there are Moravian
mission stations at Maggovik, Hopedale,
.N'alu, Okak, Hebron and Killinek. Pulp
and paper mills have been founded at Sand-
wich Bay and Hamilton Inlet, to deal with
Lhe almost inexhaustible supply of timber.
The area of Labrador is 120,000 square
miles and the population, 4,100.
During the last calendar year, the United
States exported to Newfoundland and
Labriidor goods valued at $15,188,905 and
imported thence goods valued at $5,361,441.
Newfoundland:
Certain articles of treaty at Wash-
ington extended to, 4227, 4243.
Commercial intercourse with, re-
ferred to, 2867.
Importations from, proclamation re-
moving duties on, 2922.
Postal convention with, 4203.
Reciprocity with, 6717.
Newlands Act. — ^A law enacted in 1913,
as a result of the railroad strike threaten-
ing at that time. This legislation was an
amplification of the existing Erdman Act,
which provided machinery for arbitration
and mediation. The Newlands Act provided
for a permanent board of mediation under
a commissioner aiid assistant commissioner,
with two other membprs. It provided also
that the awards of disputes must be con-
fined to the questions submitted and to
problems definitely allied to them. (See
Labor Arbitration.)
Newport, Vt., privileges of other ports
granted to, by proclamation, 3428.
Newspaper Reports and Editors, dis-
cussed by President Wilson, 8033,
8053.
Newspapers, American, in foreign lands,
urged, 7790.
Newspapers, transportation of:
Referred to, 120, 124.
Repeal tax on, recommended, 134.
Nez Perce Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Nez Perce War. (See Indian Wars.)
Niagara, The, employed to return ne-
groes to Africa, 3058.
Niagara Falls:
American victory on Canadian side
of, 533.
Attack of American forces upon Brit-
ish troops near, unsuccessful, 501.
Ship canal around, discussed, 4150.
Nicaragua. — Nicaragua is the largest of
the Central American Republics and is situ-
ated between 10° 45'-l5° N. lat. and 83°
40'-87° 38' W. long. It Is bounded on the
north by Honduras and on the south by
Costa Rica, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
washing the east and west coasts. The
Atlantic (Caribbean or Mosquito) coast of
about 300 miles is low and swampy, with
numerous lagoons and estuaries, with har-
bors at Gracfi^ a Dlos, in the extreme
northeast, Bluefieids, and San Juan del
Norte or Greytown in the extreme south.
The Pacific Coast of about 200 miles is
rocky and elevated, but possesses good har-
bors in Fonseca, Corinto, Brito and San
Juan del Sur. The area Is 49,200 square
miles.
Physical Features. — A mountain range
known in the southeast as the Cordillera de
Yolaina runs from the Caribbean coast to
the northwestern boundary. Parallel with
this range and close to the Pacific is a range
of volcanic peaks, of which several are liable
to eruption. Between these ranges are low-
lying plains and the Lakes of Nicaragua and
Managua and east of the main range the
country slopes gradually to the low-lying
Mosquito Coast.
The principal rivers are the Wanks or
Coeos or Segovia, which forms part of the
northern boundary with Honduras : the Rio
Grande, with its tributary, the Tuma ; the
San Juan, which forms part of the southern
boundary with Costa Rica and flows from
Lake Nicaragua to the Caribbean at San
Juan del Norte. The main hydrographieal
features of the country are the vast lakes,
Nicaragua and Managua. Lake Nicaragua
bas a total area of almost 3,000 square
miles and a total length of over 100 miles.
The lake contains numeroxis islands and is-
lets, the largest containing the two volcanic
peaks of Ometepe and Madera. Lake Mana-
. gua is about thirty miles long and has a
total area of 580 square miles. The Pane-
loya channel connects the two lakes, but the
higher level of Managua presents a navi-
gable connection between the two lakes.
There is little direct communication be-
tween the eastern and western halves of
the country. Passengers between them
usually go by way of Costa Rica, and goods
by way of Panama.
History. — Nicaragua was discovered by
Columbus in 1502 and was overrun by the
Spaniards under Davila in the first quarter
of the sixteenth century, and formed part
of the Spanish Captaincy-General of Guate-
mala until the revolt of the Spanish Colo-
nies.' In 1821 Nicaragua declared its inde-
pendence of Spain and from 1823-1839
formed part of the Federation of Central
American States, but since 1839 the Repub-
lic has been Independent.
Government. — The present constitution
came Into operation In 1913. Under It the
President holds office for a term of four
years. He is assisted in the exercise of the
executive power by a cabinet composed of
, the heads of the executive departments. Con-
gress consists of a house of 40 deputies,
elected by direct suffrage for terms of
four years, and a Senate of 13, elected for
six years.
There is a supreme court at the Capital,
and courts of appeal at Leon, Masaya and
Bluefieids, with courts of first instance in
all centres of population.
Service in the Army is compulsory and
universal between the ages of 17 and 55.
Ethnography. — On • the east coast are
many uncivilized tribal Indians known as
Mosquitos, their numbers being estimated
at 30,000, while pure-blooded Indians are
still living in the central districts. There
is also a sprinkling of Europeans and their
descendants, the greater number being Span-
ish and German. The total population is
about 800,000.
Nicaragua
Encyclopedic Index
Nicaragua
Most of the Inhabitants live In the west-
ern half of the country, and are racially
different from those in the east. The pre-
yalling form of religion is Roman Catho-
licism. There are some 360 elementary
schools and 10 secondary schools.
Production and Industry. — The principal
agricultural product is coffee, which is
grown, principally in the department of
Matagalpa, under German management and
exported to Hamburg. Bananas are also
grown in the eastern districts and on the
Mosquito coast. Hice, beans, sugar, cocoa,
and tobacco are also cultivated, but large
quantities of foodstuffs are imported. The
live stoclj includes cattle, horses, and pigs.
The forest products are important, mahog-
any and rubber being exported.
There are several gold mines and copper
and precious stones also are found. The
Inst annual export of gold was valued at
almost $1,000,000. It is estimated that the
annual coffee crop amounts to 22,500,-
000 pounds, and in the last year for which
figures are available the value of the tim-
ber shipped, chiefly to the United States,
was $1,250,000.
Finance. — The last annual budget was
about $1,500,000. The total debt is about
$6,000,000. The Internal debt amounts to
some 10,000,000 cordobas. The unit of cur-
rency, the gold nordoba, has the same value
as the gold dollar of the United States.
Commerce. — The latest figures show
annual Imports of $6,350',000 and exports
of $5,590,000. The chief exports, in rank
of value, were coffee, timber, hides and skins,
and bananas. The chief imports were cotton
goods, flour and other food, and iron and
steel goods. The trade is chiefly with the
United States, although a proportion goes
to France. Figures for the last calendar
year show that the United States exported
to Nicaragua goods valued at $6,694,497
and Imported from Nicaragua goods valued
at $5,496,275.
Communications. — Most of the trade
passes through the two good ports on
the west coast, Corinto and San Juan del
Sur. During the last year, 932 ships of
378,000 tons visited Nicaraguan ports, of
which 318 were steamers of 362,884 tons.
There are few good roads in the country.
The single railroad has a length of 170
miles. There are 3,637 miles of telegraph
wire, with 130 telegraph ofllces, also 800
miles of telephone wire.
The capital is Managua, on Lake Mana-
gua, with a population of some 35,000. The
other large town is the former capital,
Leon, with some 63,000 Inhabitants.
Nicaragua (see also Mosquito Indian
Strip) :
Adventurers undertake to establish
government in, 2814.
American citizens in, outrages on,
3048.
Arrest of William Walker in, dis-
cussed, 2997, 3001, 3017.
Bombardment of San Juan. (See
San Juan, Nicaragua.)
Boundary line with Costa Eica —
Arbitration of, referred to Presi-
dent of United States and award
of, discussed, 5369.
Proposition for settlement of, re-
ferred to, 2736.
Settlement of, indispensable to
commencement of ship canal,
2702.
Survey of port and river San Juan
to be made, 3444.
British authority and aggressions in,
discussed, 2571.
British troops landed at Bluefields.
(See Mosquito Indian Strip.)
Civil convulsions in, discussed, 2657.
Civil war in, outcome of, 7500.
Claims of United States against,
3048, 31(J0, 3175.
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 4460.
Settlement of, 7417.
Clayton-Bulwer treaty for protection
of canal through, discussed, 2580,
2617, 2903, 2943, 3117.
Correspondence regarding, transmit-
ted, 2722, 2894.
Diplomatic relations with, discussed,
2948, 4562, 6264, 6427.
Distracted condition, referred to,
2869, 2905, 2947.
Expedition against —
Discussed, 2978, 2997, 3000.
Proclamation against, by Presi-
dent—
Buchanan, 3027.
Pierce, 2921.
Referred to, 3001, 3017.
Forfeiture of concessions of, to Nic-
aragua Canal, referred to, 5960.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 4067, 4100.
Grant of exclusive right of transit
over territory of, to European, re-
ferred to, 3987.
Greytown —
Bombardment of, and reasons for,
discussed, 2814. (See illustra-
tion opposite 2849.)
Claims arising out of, 2995, 8049.
Complaints of foreign powers re-
garding, 2814.
Vessels from, duties on, suspend-
ed by proclamation, 4872.
Honduras and, treaties with, proposed
by Taft, 7663.
Intervention of United States in,
7773.
Measures for protection of American
citizens and property in, recom-
mended, 3048, 3069, 3100, 3181.
Minister of, to United States, re-
ceived, 2906.
Eeturn of, referred to, 2948.
Ministers from two contending par-
ties in, not received by United
States, 2948.
Mosquito Indian Strip, affairs of, dis-
cussed. (See Mosquito Indian Strip.)
Negotiations with, transmission of in-
Nicaragua
Encyclopedic Index
Nicaragua Canal
formation regarding, refused/
2690.
Transmitted, 2695.
Report of T. C. Reynolds on, trans-
mitted, 5116.
Revolutions in, discussed, 5870, 6432.
Rupture with Costa Rica amicably
settled, 6325, 6426.
Tariff laws of, evidence of modifi-
cations of, proclaimed, 5698.
Discussed, 5747.
Transit way across, discussed and
measures for protection of, rec-
ommended, 2813, 2901, 2947, 3046,
3069, 3100, 3181. (See also Nica-
ragua Canal.)
Treaty regarding, between United
States and —
Honduras, 3116.
Nicaragua, 3047, 4825, 4843.
Treaty and negotiations with, regard-
ing Nicaragua Canal. (See Nica-
ragua Canal.)
Treaty of, with —
France, 3121.
Great Britain, 3170.
Treaty with, proposed, 7663.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Arthur, 4825, 4843. ,
Buchanan, 3100, 3108.
Fillmore, 2602.
Grant, 4067, 4100.
Johnson, 3779, 3885.
Lincoln, 3273.
Pierce, 2870, 2883.
Taylor, 2571.
Ratification of, discussed, 3273.
Failure of, referred to, 3114.
Withdrawn, 4888.
Discussed, 4912.
Vessels of —
Discriminating duties on, suspend-
ed by proclamation, 3416.
Duties on vessels from San Juan
del Norte suspended by procla-
mation, 4872.
Zelaya government in, crimes and
overthrow of, 7418.
Nicaragua, Treaty with. — The treaty of
friendship, commerce, navigation, and as
to istlimian transit, was denounced by
Nicaragua to take effect in 1902. The ex-
tradition treaty of 1870 was aiso denounced
by Nicaragua to talje effect in the same
year. The protocol with Nicaragua of 1900
for the construction of an interoceanic ca-
nal provided that the President of the
United States is empowered to acquire con-
trol of such port ion of the territory of Nica-
ragua as may be necessary or advisable to
construct a ship canal from a point near
San Juan del Norte on the Caribbean Sea,
through Lake Nicaragua to Brlte, on the
Pacific Ocean. As a preliminary to nego-
tiations it is agreed that the details of
the canal construction be the same as those
contained in a treaty with Great Britain
pending decision of the Senate of the Unit-
ed States. (See Extradition Treaties.)
Nicaragua also became a party to the
convention between the United States and
the several republics of Soutb and Central
America for the arbitration of pecuniary
claims and the protection of inventions,
etc., which was signed in Buenos Aires in
1910 and proclaimed in Washington July
29, 1914. (See South and Central America,
Treaties with.)
Nicaragua Canal. — A proposed ship canal
across the Republic of Nicaragua to con-
nect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. As
early as 1522 Lake Nicaragua was entered
from the western coast and explored by
Spanish navigators. In 1550 Antonio Gal-
vao, a Portuguese, proposed four routes
for a ship canal across the Isthmus, one
by way of Lake Nicaragua and the San
Juan River. Later surveys were made by
the Spanish and Central American govern-
ments. In 1850 Col. O. W. Childs sur-
veyed a canal route from Lake Nicaragua
to the Pacific. More complete surveys
were made for the United States in 1872-
1873 and 1885, and the cost of construc-
tion was variously estimated at from $40,-
000,000 to $140,000,000. The Nicaraguan
Government made concessions to Ameri-
cans for constructing a c^nal in 1849 and
1880 and to a Frenchman in 1858, but
they all lapsed without results. In 1884 a
treaty was signed for the construction of
a canal by the United States, but the
Senate refused to ratify it. In 1887 a
new concession was granted by Nicaragua
and confirmed by Costa Rica. A company
was immediately formed and chartered by
the United States, work was begun, but
ceased in 1892 for lack of funds, and final-
ly in 1893 the company was placed in the
hands of a receiver. President McKihley
in 1899 appointed a commission to report
on the question of ,the best route for an
interocean canal and in 1901 a report was
presented advising the Nicaragua route,
mainly on the ground of the difHculty of
acquiring rights and control in Panama.
In 1900 the House passed a bill providing
for the construction of a Nicaragua Canal
but the Senate refused to pass it. An-
other bill of a similar character passed
the House in January, 1902, but before
it went to the Senate, a report was re-
ceived from the Canal Commission recom-
mending the Panama route. The construc-
tion of the Panama Canal settled the ques-
tion of the isthmian route. '
Nicaragua Canal (see also Panama Ca-
nal):
Clayton-Bulwer treaty for protection
of, discussed, 2580, 2617, 2903, 2943,
3117.
Construction of, referred to, 5120,
5544, 5623.
Importance of, discussed, but Gov-
ernment aid to, not recommend-
ed, 2553.
Report on, transmitted, 6097.
Contract of Interoceanic Canal Co.
discussed, 5470.
Control of, should not be held by
one nation alone, 2554.
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 5120.
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4843."
Buchanan, 3116.
Cleveland, 5870.
Fillmore, 2617.
Nicaragua Canal
Encyclopedic Index
Non-Partisan
Harrison, Benj., 5470, 5544, 5623,
5752.
Hayes, 4521.
McKinley, 6265, 6326, 6366, 6433.
Pierce, 2901.
Taylor, 2553, 2571, 2580.
Forfeiture of Nica^aguan concessions
to, referred to, 5960. '
Government aid to, recominended,
5624, 5752.
Report on, transmitted, 6185.
Eight of way for, referred to, 2569.
Should be accomplished under Ameri-
can auspices, 5870.
Treaty regarding, with —
Great Britain, discussed, 2580, 2617,
2943, 3117.
Nicaragua (see also Nicaragua) —
Discussed, 2571, 2601, 4825, 4843.
Withdrawn, 4888, 4912.
Nicaragua Canal Commission discussed,
6326, 6366.
Nicaragua, The, indemnity to owners
of, 6826.
Ninety-Six (S. C), Siege of.— Immedi-
ately after the sui'render of Charleston
(May. 12, 1780) Clinton sent Lieut. Conger
up the Saluda to Ninety-Six. a village in
South Carolina, about seventyrfive miles
from Columbia. May 21, 1781, a part of
Gen. Greene's army laid siege to the pl|M:e.
liosclusko planned the approaches and The
condition of the garrison had become criti-
cal, when, on June 20, the siege was raised
on the approach of Lord Kawdon with the
flank companies of three regiments.
Nipsic, The, disabled at Samoan Is-
lands, 5479.
Niter, appropriation for improvement
in manufacture of, recommended,
2957.
Nitrate plants, board, appointed to lo-
cate, 8218.
No Man's Land.— A small island three
miles southwest of Martha's Vineyard,
Mass., to which it belongs.
The term was also applied to a strip of
land ceded by Texas to the United States
in 1850. It lies between lat. 36° 30' and
37° north and long. 100° and 103° west.
It was not included under any government,
though often called part of the Indian Ter-
ritory. The name originally proposed for
the district was Cimarron. In 1890 it be-
came part of Oklahoma, and is now known
as Beaver County.
The name was also applied during the
World War to the stretch of territory, often
hut a few yards in width, lying between
the trenches of the opposing belligerents.
Nobel Prize. — The Swedish scientist, Al-
fred B Nobel, the inventor of dynamite,,
died in 1896, bequeathing his fortune, esti-
mated at $9,000,000. to the founding of a
fund, the interest of which should yearly
be distributed to those who had mostly con-
tributed to "the good of humanity." The
Interest ■ is divided in five equal shares,
given away, "One to the person who in
the domain of physics has made the most
important discovery or invention, one to
B-6
the person who has made the mo.st Impor-
tant chemical discovery or invention, one
to the person who has made the most im-
portant discovery in the domain of medi-.
cine or physiology, one to' the person who
In literature has provided the most excel-
lent work of an Idealistic tendency, and
one to the person who has worked most
or best for the fraternization of nations,
and the abolition or reduction of standluK
armies, and the calling in and propagating
of peace congresses."
A cominlttee of the Norwegian Storthing
awarded the prize for the promotion of
peace between nations to President Roose-
velt in 1906. The money value of the
prize was about ,1140,000, and the President
devoted It to the Fonndation for the Pro-
motion of Industrial Peace at home. In
accordance with his wishes, Congress passed
an act creating a board of trustees, con-
sisting of the Chief Justice of the United
States, the Secretaries of Agriciilture and
Commerce and Labor, a representative each
of labor and capital, and two persons rep-
resenting the general public, to administer
the fund. An industrial peace committee
of nine members was autnorlzed to meet
in Washington each year during the ses-
sions of Congress to discuss differences
arising between capital and labor. (See In-
dustrial Peace Committee.)
Nominations. (See Executive Nomina-
tions.)
Nominating Convention. (See Conven-
tions, Nominating.)
Naminating conventions, abolition of,
7910.
Nonimportation Agreement. — In 1765 the
merchants of New York and Boston unani-
mously agreed to order no new merchandise
from England, and to countermand old or-
ders. This was done in retaliation for the
passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament.
The agreement was strictly observed until
1770, when only tea was prohibited. The
members of the Continental Congress signed ,
a nonimportation agreement in 1775.
Nonintercourse Act. — In consequence of
the interference with American commerce
by vessels of France and England, whd
were then at war, Congress in 1807 passed
the embargo act prohibiting foreign com-
merce. This was found to work unneces-
sary Injury to American shipping interests,
and in 1809 it was repealed and the non-
intercourse act substituted. It forbade
I the entrance to American ports of public
or private British or French vessels, all
commercial Intercourse with France or
Great Britain, and the importation aft^r
May 20, 1809, of all goods grown or manu-
factured in the two countries or their co'-
onies. The act was to continue until the
next session of Congress, but was revived
by acts of June 28, 1809, May 1, 1810, and
March 2, 1811.
Non-Fartisan League. — An association of
farmers of the Northwest. It was formed in
North Dakota in 1915, and within several
years had captured the political government
of the state, putting much of its program
into effect there. Although the League
stands for the accomplishment of the re-
forms for which it was organized through
the ballot, it does not form a third political
party in the states where it is active, but
endeavors to utilize the existing machinery
of one of the old parties by dominating It.
Non-Partisan
Encyclopedic Index
North America
The farmers who comprise the League are
almost entirely the workers ot compara-
tively small farms, and the League's, pro-
gram calls for the reform of the economic
system from which the farmer claims to
suffer. In particular, the League is directed
against the alleged exploitation of the farm-
er by banks and trust companies, by rail-
roads and • grain elevators, by speculators,
by middlemen, by retail marketers and re-
•tail store-keepers and by "big business"
generally. Accordingly, the League has
moved for such specific reforms as state-
owned grain elevators, a state bank, state-
owned flour mills, state-owned meat pack-
ing houses, state cold storage plants, co-
operative retail and wholesale stores, state
Inspection of grain and grain dockage, state
hail insurance, rural credit banks on a
non-profit ' basis, exemption of farm im-
provements from taxation. The League pub-
lishes its own newspaper, and has been
active in obtaining control of the educa-
tional system of the states where it is in
control.
The activities and 'program of the League
have bitterly antagonized most of the nbn-
agrlcultural interests in the districts where
it has been active, although it has usually
received the cordial support of organized
Labor. During the participation of the
United States in the World War, it was
widely charged that the League and its
officials were not wholly loyal, and legal
prosecutions and illegal violence were prac-
tised upon many of its leaders and meet-
ings. The League retorted that the patriotic
issue was being raised by "big Business" in
order to dodge the issue raised by the
League, and to prejudice the country against
it.
The organizer, president and moving
spirit in the League is A. C. Townley. He
and many of his associates were formerly
connected with the Socialist Party. At
present, the members of the League pay
annual membership dues of eight dollars
each to meet the League's expenses. By
1919, the League claimed a membership of
some 200,000 in thirteen states, all west of
the Mississippi (except Wisconsin). It
twice elected its candidate for Governor of
North Dakota. elected several candi-
dates to the United States Congress, and
for several years controlled the state
legislature and government of North
Dakota.
Norfolk Island, copyright privileges
granted to, 8480.
Norfolk, Va.:
Blockade of port of, reinoved by .
proclamation, 3431.
Eeferred to, 3446.
British officers treated at hospital at,
3404.
Surrender of, referred to, 3313,
3315.
Vessels entering and leaving port of,
order regarding, 3225.
Norfolk (Va.), Burning of.— Lord Dun-
more, the royal governor of Virginia, as-
sumed military control of Norfolk in No-
vember, 1775. He was defeated in an effort
to dislodge some Virginia and Maryland mi-
litia who had taken up a position near the
town. He thereupon embarked in a Brit-
ish vessel which lay in the Elizabeth River.
Col. Woodford, with the Second Virginia
Militia, and Col. Howe, with one regiment
from North Carolina and two companies of
Maryland militia, occupied the town. On
Jan. 1, 1776, Dunmore began a bombard-
ment, and sent ashore a party who set fire
to the town. Its destruction was completed
by the Americans to prevent its becoming a
Bhelterfor the British.
Norfolk IVa.), Surrender of.— The move-
ment of the Federal Army up the peninsula
of Virginia, in May, 1862, led to the with-
drawal of the Confederate force from Nor-
folk and to the destruction of the ironclad
Merrimac. This left the Jatbes River open
to navigation. An expedition was sent out
from the Fortress Monroe, under Gen. Wool,
May 10, to take possession of Norfolk. It
was turned over by the mayor without a
struggle.
Norsemen. — In the sagas or accounts of
Scandinavian heroes the vikings of Norway
are represented as having visited the coast
of America as early as 861 A. D. The
narratives of the early voyages of the
Northmen to America are more or less in-
termingled with fiction. Enough has been
verified, however, to warrant some reliable
historians giving credence to the more like-
ly part of their claims. We are told that
Norsemen had established a settlement in
America in 875 A. D. (probably in Iceland,
visited by Nadodd twelve to fifteen years
previously), and that Gunbiorn, a Norse
navigator, sighted land- farther west.
Eric the Red discovered and named
Greenland in 982, and three years later
made a second voyage to the riew cbuntry.
During the same year an expedition under
BJarni sailed from Iceland to Greenland,
but was driven south by a storm and sight-
edj land at Newfoundland and at Cape Cod
or Nantucket. Thence he returned to
Greenland. In the year 1000 Leif, son of
Eric the Red, sailed with one ship and
thirty-five men in search of the land seen
by Bjarni. He touched on the coast of
Labrador and, journeying southward,
stopped for the winter near the site of the
present city of Boston. Leif called the
place Vinland, from the abundance of
grapes found. This. seems to be the earli-
est authentic account of Norse discoveries
in America.
Thorvald, Leit's brother, visited Vinland
in 1002, wintered'near Mount Hope Bay, R
I., and in the spring of 1003 sent a party
of his men to explore the coast, probably
as far south a,g Cape May. In 1004 Thor-
vald was killed near Boston by Skrelings
(the Icelandic name for the aboriginal
Americans), and his companions returned
to Greenland. About 1007 or 1008 Thorflnn
Karlsefne sailed from Greenland with three
ships and 160 persons. He landed at Rhode
Island and spent three years in Vinland.
The latest tidings of Vinland were re-
ceived in 1347, and communication with
Greenland ceased about 1400. Before Co-
lumbus was born European navigators had
journeyed westward and touched land and
several maps of the Atlantic Ocean had
been made. Prior' to 1470 Columbus had
visited Iceland, and it has been suggested
that he there learned of the Western Con-
tinent from the Norse navigators.
North America.*-The area of North Amer-
ica, including Jlcxico, is about 7 '>00 -
t22i-^'S^'^ ""'^^' ^, "t*'" 's-ss tban twice
that of Europe. Its extreme longitudes
lSo°w^'om a -little west of 170° W to
Ft=^ ^^- '" "J^.."^"!.' of Newfoundland, and
its extreme latitudes from about 80° N
latitude to 15° N. latitude in the-south of
Mexico. It is surrounded by seas on all
sides except in the south, where it Joins
the Isthmian States of General America
North America
Encyclopedic Index
North Carolina
The nations of North America, with the
form of government and capitai of eacli
foilow :
Canada (Dominion), Ottawa.
Mfxico (llepublic), Mexico City.
Newfoundland (British), St. John's.
United Slates (Republic), Washington.
Alaska (United States), Juneau.
Three main divisions can be made in
the relief of North America. The Eastern
Mountains, the Great Plains, and the West-
ern Mountains. The Eastern Mountains ex-
tend from Labrador to Alabama. The
(ireat Plains from a comparatively level
and continuous surface from the Arctic
Ocean and the shores of Hudson Bay to
the Gulf of Mexico. This is brolsen in only
three places by elevations of importance —
the Ozarli Mountains, the Lake Plateau
(on which stand Lakes, Superior, Michi-
gan and Huron) and the Black Hills of
South Dakota. A distinction must ue made
between the Prairies, which are open plains
with few trees, rising to about 80(5 feet
in Minnesota at the watershed between
Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico and
the high plains to the west, which are
far dryer and less fertile than the prairie
wheat lands. In parts these rise to over
6,000 feet, and are much higher than the
Appalachians. In Canada these high
plains form the ranching lands of Alberta.
In the Arctic plains there are many
marshes and lakes. The Western Moun-
tains consist, in the United States, of the
Rockies, with summits exceeding 14,000
feet, among which Pike's Peak forms a
conspicuous dome, the Sierra Nevada, the
highest point of which is Mount Whitney
(14,522 feet) and the Cascade range, with
Mount Rainier (14,525 feet) and Mount
Shasta, and the Coast ranges, which reach
7,500 feet in the densely forested Olympic
Mountains of Puget Sound.
Between the Rockies and the Sierra Ne-
vada is the Great Basil) traversed by
ridges, which rise to no great elevation
above the plateau. There is little rainfall,
and there are numerous salt lakes, of
which the Great Salt Lake in Utah is the
most important. The Death Valley in
California is several hundred feet below
sea-level. The Valley of California is a
depression between the Sierra Nevada and
Cascade ranges and the Coast ranges. The
Western Coast ranges rise to great eleva-
tions in Alaska, where Mount St. Elias
and Mount McKinley, over 20,000 feet,
are the most prominent summits.
Mexico is a tableland, generally above
6 000 feet, which Is bounded by two escarp-
ments, the Eastern Sierra Madre, not a dis-
tinct mountain range but the margin of
the plateau, and the Western Sierra ffladre,
which is from 8,000 to 12,000 feet and
falls steeply to the Pacific. Here, is a
broad volcanic zone in which Orizaba,
18 252 feet, Popocatepetl, 17,250 feet, and
Ixtachihuatl, 16,960 feet, are the highest
summits. Colima is the only active vol-
cano. The rivers are mostly short and
torrential. The peninsula of Yucatan is a
low limestone plateau flat and treeless with
few running streams.
Five drainage areas may be distinguished,
the Arctic, the Atlantic, the Gulf, Inland
and the Pacific. In the Arctic , Basin the
Mackenzie is the only large river. The
Atlantic Basin contains the St. Lawrence
dralntag the Great Lakes and the Hudson.
The Delaware, Susquehanna and Potomac
cut deeply into the northern AUeghanies,
but south of Chesapeake Bay the rivers
rise on the eastern margin. The Alabama
and Tennessee form longitudinal va.lleys
In the southern AUeghanies. The Missis-
sippi occupies the southern portion of
the Great Plains. It has numerous large
tributaries, the Ohio on the east, and the
Missouri, Platte, Kansas, Arkansas and
Red River on the west. The Rio Grande del
Norte rises in the San Juan mountains. On
the Pacific Coast the Colorado rises in the
Rockies and flows in deep canons through
the Arizona deserts. Use has been made of
its water to irrigate the Salton depression to
the northwest of its mouth. From the Colo-
rado to the Columbia there are no large
rivers except In the valley of California,
where the Sacramento and San Joaquin
are invaluable for irrigation. The Snake
tributary of the Columbia River rises in
the Yellowstone National Park, and cuts
great caiions through a lava plateau. The
Frazer, iilse the Columbia, has a long north
and south valley. The Yukon rises not far
from the coast in the northwest, and flows
into Bering Sea. The Inland Basin, be-
tween the Rockies and tl^e Sierra Nevada,
has no large rivers.
North Ann Crossing (Va.), Battle of.—
Proceeding southward after the battle of
Spottsylvania, Giant's army arrived at the
North Ann River May 23, 1864. Warren,
whose corps was on the right, crossed the
river at Jericho, Hancock at a point four
miles below, and the Sixth Corps at Jericho.
Lee meantime had retired to a position
south of the^ North Ann, and his left wing
rested on the river at a point between the
two sections of Grant's army. Burnside's
corps was unable to cross the river. Lee's
position was impregnable and Grant was
compelled to withdraw his army to the
north side of the river after a loss of 1,607
in killed and wounded. May 27, having
been rejoined by Sheridan, the Army of the
Potomac moved toward the Pamunky River.
North Atlantic Fisheries Dispute with
Great Britain arbitrated, 7779.
North Carolina. — One of the thirteen
original states ; nicknames, 'The Tar
State," "The Tar-Heel State," and tlie
"Old North State ;" motto, "Esse quam
viderl" ("To be rather than to seem"). It
extends from lat. ,33° 50' to 36° 33' north
and from long. 75° 27' to 84° 20' west. It
is bounded on the north by Virginia, on the
east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the south by South Carolina and Georgia,
and on the west by 'Tennessee (separated
by the Smoky and other ranges of moun-
tains). It has an area of 52,426 square
miles. The surface is mountainous in the
west, rolling or gently undulating in the
center, and toward the eastern coast or
lands bovdering on the Albemarle and Pam-
lico Sounds generally level.
Unsuccessful attempts at colonization
were made by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1518-
1587. Scattering settlements were made
prior to 1663, probably- as early as 1653.
The territory was granted to proprietors in
1663 by Charles II. The first two colonies
are known in history as the Albemarle and
the Clarendon. In 1669 a constitution was
introduced modeled by the philosopher, John
Locke, upon principles of a landed aristoc-
racy and feudal service. The constitution
was not a success and was abandoned after
twenty-five years. Citizens of North Caro-
lina passed a set of resolutions In 1775
similar to the Declaration of Independence.
(See Mecklenburg Declaration.) It was
the first colony to Instruct its delegates In
'Congress to vote for Independence. The
State seceded from the Union May 20, 1861,
and was readmitted by act of Congress
June 25, 18C8.
North Carolina
Encyclopedic Index
NcJrth Dakota
statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
Sarms In the State at 253,725, comprising
22,439,129 acres', valued, with stock and im-
provements, at $375,716,210. The average
value of land per acre was $15.29, as
against $6.24 in 1900.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop
Tobacco
Acreage Bushels Value
554,000 310,240,000«$166,289,000
Cotton 1,568,000
Corn ..2,900,000
Hay . . . 800,000
Wheat . . 850,000
Peanuts 116,000
S. P'toes 106,000
Potatoes 58,000
Cowpeas 243,000
Oats 322,000
•Pounds. tBales
875,000t 154,000,000
55,100,000 101,935,000
l,040,000t
7,225,000
4,7,56,000
9,858,000
4,930,000
2,284,000
3,767,000
JTons.
25,168,000
16,834,000
11,605,000
13,604,000
8,036,000
6,167,000
3,993,000
The latest figures of farm animals showed
183,000 horses valued at $28,000,000 ; 236,-
000 mules, $44,840,000 ; 318,000 cows, $25,-
584,000; 394,000 other cattle, $13,908,000;
144,000 sheep, $1,368,000; and 1,592,000
swine, $31,840,000.
Minerals are found in great variety but
not great quantities. The chief are mica,
Iron and quarry products.
In 1910, the population was 2,206,207.
Tn 1920. It was given as 2,556,486. Of the
1910 population, 697,843 were negroes.
There were only 6,092 foreign-born. The
urban population formed 14%% of the
whole. About one-half of the church mem-
bers are Baptists and one-third Methodists.
The latest figures for education showed
7,854 public elementary schools, with 14,550
teachers and 649,246 pupils enrolled. There
were 212 public high schools, with 464
teachers and 10,379 pupils.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in North Carolina having an annual
output valued at $500 or more at the begin-
ning of 1915 was 5,507. The amount of
capital invested was $253,842,000, giving
employment to 151,333 persons, using mate-
rial valued at $169,942,000, and turning out
finished goods worth $289,412,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $56,283,000.
North Carolina (see also Confederate
States):
Admission of, into United States
referred to, 57, 59, 61.
Branch mint in, referred to, 1383,
1495.
Ceding of jurisdiction of lands to the
United States by, 64, 105, 167.
Clerks of Federal courts and United
States marshal in, referred to, 3661.
Constitution of, referred to, 3831.
Constitution of United States —
Evidence of ratification of, amend-
ment to, by, 62, 68, 182.
Fourteenth amendment to, ratified
by, proclamation announcing,
3854.
Governor of, referred to, 64.
Jails in, use of, granted to United
States, 103.
Judges, United States, in, opinion of,
regarding pensions, 125.
Lands ceded to United States by,
referred to, 64, 105, 167. (See also
Enc. Art., Franklin.)
Light-house —
Lands ceded to United States for
erection of, 103.
Lands, jurisdiction of, for, ceded
to United States, 182.
Military governor of, referred to,
3281.
Obstruction to lavrs in, proclamation
regarding, 3743.
Copies of, for executive clerks,
3756.
Provisional governor for, appointed
and restoration of, into Union dis-
cussed, 3510.
Survey of coast of, 636, 680.
Unlawful combination in, discussed,
4071, 4072.
North Carolina, The:
Seizure and imprisonment of crew of,
by Spanish authorities referred to,
2761.
Sent to Mediterranean Sea, 826.
North Dakota. — One of the western group
of states; niclsname, "Cyclone State;"
motto, "Liberty and Union now and for
ever, one and inseparable." It extends
from lat. 40° to 49° north and from
long. 96° 30' to 104° 5' west. It is bound-
ed on the north by the Dominion of Canada,
on the east by Minnesota, on the south by
South Dakota, and on the west by Mon-
tana. Its area is 70,837 square miles. Its
■surface Is generally undulating and level.
Dakota was Brst settled at Pembina by
French traders in 1780. The territory ot
Dakota, comprising the present States o£
North and South Dakota, was organized
from Nebraska Territory by act of March
2, 1861. It was divided on the forty-sixth
parallel and the upper portion admitted to
the Union Nov. 2, 1889 (5455).
Under the Federal reclamation act much
Improved farm land is subject to irrigation.
The tillable area of the State is more than
15,000,000 acres, of which 10,000,000 Is im-
proved. The live stock reported Jan. 1,
1910, was 712,000 horses, valued at $81,-
168,000; 8,000 mules, $1,040,000; 270,000
milch cows. $8,373,000 ; 616,000 other
cattle, $12,628,000 ; 621,000 sheep, $2,484,-
000 : 206,000 swine. $2,266.000 ; the wool
production was 715,000 pounds scoured.
The last annual agricultural production
was reported as follows :
Crop
Wheat .
Oats . .
Corn . .
Hay . . .
Eye . . .
Barley .
Potatoes
Flaxseed ,
.♦Tons.
Acreage
7,770,000
2,400,000
. . 508,000
. 60,->,000
1,945,000
1,300,000
. 90,000
760,000
Bushels
53,613,000
38,400,000
16,764,000
908,000"
15,560,000
14,950,000
5,670,000
3,800,000
Value
$129,207,000
25,728,000
23,470,000
' 12,803,000
18,828,000
16,146,000
9,072,000
16,758,000
Live stock is most important. The last
figures for farm animals showed 825,000
horses, valued at $66,825,000 ; 464,000 cows,
$35,728,000 ; 617,000 other cattle, $25,544,-
000; 286,000 sheep, $3,146,000; 428,000
North Dakota
Encyclopedic Index
North Polar
swine, $8,888,000. The last annual wool
clip was 1,654,000 pounds.
The- mineral resources are Inconsiderable,
the chief mineral value being represented
by coal, of which about 800,000 tons are
mined annually.
The last federal industrial census (1914)
showed 699 manufacturing establishments
in the state, with a capital of $14,213,000,
3,275 worliers.and an annual output valued
at $21,147,000. The most important Of
these industries was flour and grist milling.
The dairy and creamery industry put out
piroducts valued at almost $17,000,000 in
1916.
In 1910, the population was 577,056. The
1920 census put it at 645,730. In 1915, the
state census showed a population 'of 636,-
956. Of the population in 1910, 156,654
were foreign-born, of whom some 46,000
were Norwegian, 32,000 were Russian, 21,-
500 were Canadian and 16,600 were Ger-
man. The urban population was but 11%
of the whole. Of the church membership,
38%% is Komau Catholic and 37%% is
Lutheran.
The latest educational statistics show
a school population of 200,532 with an en-
rollment of 162,572, an average attendance
of 114,582 and a teaching staff of 7,712.
There are some 300 high schools and 5,400
elementary schools.
North Dakota:
Admission of, into Union —
Discussed, 5485.
Proclaimed, 5455.
Lands in —
Open to settlement by procla-
mation, 5707.
Set apart as public reservation by
proclamation, 5579.
Lottery in, efforts to secure charter
^or, discussed, 5515.
Unlavyful combinations in, proclama-
tion against, 5485.
North German Lloyd, property of, taken
over, 8536.
North Point (Md.), Battle of.— After
burning Washington in 1814 Gen. Ross with-
drew to Admiral Cockburn's fleet and the
invaders ran up the Chesapealce Bay to the
mouth of the Patapsco River. On the morn-
ing of Sept. 12, 1814. the British forces
9 000 strong were landed at North Point,
twelve miles from Baltimore, with provi-
sions for three days and eighty rounds of
ammunition per man. Baltimore was de-
fended by about the same number of troops
under Gen. Samuel Smith. Hearing of the
landing of the British, he sent Gen. Strieker
with 3,200 men to oppose their advance.
Gen Ross was killed in a preliminary
skirmish. The battle was carried on for
four hours, when the Americans fell back '
to<vard the city and the British bivouacked
on the field.
North Polar Regions. — The arctic Ocean
consists of a deep sea over 2,000 fath-
oms on the southern margin of which
there is a broad continental shelf with
numerous islands. Into this deeper sea
there is only one broad channel, about 700
miles, between Greenland and Scandinavia.
Bering Strait is only 49 miles wide and 27
fathoms deep. The southern boundary of
the Arctic Ocean is the Wyville-Thomson
and Faeroe-Icelandic submarine ridge,
which separates the North Atlantic from
the Norwegian and Greenland oeas. Most
of the Icebergs are formed on the east
and west coasts of Greenland and are car-
ried south by the Polar currents. The
lowest temperature observed is -63° in 85°
N. latitude, a good deal less than that of
Verkhoyansk (-90°, the least recorded tem-
perature of the globe). Forests of pine
and larch reach 73°, N. in Siberia, and to
the north of this are dwarf birches; wil-
lows, mosses and lichens. There is suffi-
cient vegetation to the north of Greenland
to support rodents and ruminants. Among
sea animals are the right whale and the
narwhal, which is found further north
tlian any other species, and the walrus.
The right whale is now almost extinct.
Numerous seals are found on the Arctic
margin. Numerous races are found along
the fringe of the Arctic. The Lapps are
the original inhabitants of Arctic Norway ;
there are wandering tribes of Samoyedes,
Tunguses and Yakuts ; the Chukches of
Bering Peninsula are more numerous than
most of the nomadic tribes. The most
northerly of the polar peoples are the Eski-
mo. Peary owed the success of his expe-
dition to the North Pole largely to the help
of these tribes, who were called the Arctic
Highlanders by Sir J. Boss.
Exploration. — The first discoveries in the
Arctic were made by the Norsemen, Ice-
land being reached in 861 A. D. and Green-
land before 1.000 A. D. Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia were visited from the set-
tlements made in Greenland. Modern Arc-
tic exploration may be said to commence
with the search for the Northwest Passage.
In 1496 John Cabot and his son Sebastian
reached 58° N. latitude. In 1527 Robert
Thorne, of Bristol, actually set out for the
North Pole, but the records of his voyage
are unsatisfactory. The first attempt on
the Northeast Passage was made by Sir
Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor.
The latter succeeded in reaching the north
coast of Russia at a point which after-
wards became the port of Archangel, and
in opening up trade with that country.
The second expedition in this direction was
made by Stephen Burrough, who discov-
ered Novaya Zemlya. In 1576 Martin ITro-
bisher sailed for the Northwest Passage
and 'discovered Frobisher and Hudson
Straits.
In 1585 John Davis made the most im-
portant series of early voyages. He
reached 75° N. latitude as a result of three
expeditions, but was unable to make the
passage round North America to the west.
He demonstrated, however, ttie commercial
Importance of the Arctic in whales, seal
and deer skins. In 1580 an expedition
reached the Kara Sea, under the auspices
of the Muscovy Company, who in 1594
and 1596 again fitted out ships for the ex-
ploration of the Northeast Passage. The
Pilot, Wiliam Barent, was the first Arctic
explorer known to pass a winter in the
Polar ice.
In 1607 Henry Hudson began his remark-
able voyages. His first two expeditions,
in which he reached 80° 23' N. latitude,
were to the northeast. His last voyage in
1610 was again directed toward the North-
west Passage. The Discovery was ice bound
lu Hudson Bay, and Hudson was deserted
by his crew, who mutinied in the ensuing
summer, and nothing is knpwn of his fate.
In 1615 William Baffin was appointed pilot
to the Discovery and sent out by the Mer-
chant Adventurers to search for the North-
west Passage. In 1616 he penetrated north
along the west coast of Greenland to lati-
tude 77° 45', a record not afterwards
passed for two centuries.
North Polar
Encyclopedic Index
North Polar
In 1725 Russian exploration began, and
between that date and 1760 Bering mapped
a large part of tbe northeast coast of Asia
and opened up the fur trade. In 1773
another strictly Polar expedition was
planned, and John Phipps reached 80° 40'
N. latitude, to the north of Spitzbergen.
In 1817 two expeditions were sent out
with geographical and scientific aims, un-
der Buchan.and Franklin, and under Ross
and Parry. .In 1821 Parry made an at-
tempt to the south of Lancaster Sound.
A further voyage in 1823 was also unsuc-
cessful. Meanwhile Franklin made an
overland journey to the mouth of the Cop-
permine River, where a canoe voyage was
undertaken to Point Turnagain, 68° 18'
N. and 109° 25' W. longitude. Franklin's
second overland journey (1825-1827) re-
sulted in further exploration on the Arctic
coast of North America. Parry's last Are-
tic voyage in 1827 was an attempt to
reach the Pole by sledge boats. From the
north of Spitzbergen, traveling for the first
time by night alone, he reached latitude
82° 45'. In 1829 Ross made another at-
tempt on the Northwest Passage in the
Victory, and reached Bellot Strait, the real
channel leading to the Arctic Sea, but
failed to recognize it as a passage, and re-
turned without success after spending four
winters in the ice. In the course of these
voyages he attained the Magnetic Pole.,
The anxiety at Ross's long absence led to
Black's relief voyage in the Terror. The
Erebus and Terror, which had returned from
the Antarctic, were fitted out with steam,
and Franklin was commissioned in 1845 to
attempt the entrance to Lancaster Sound.
The two ships were last sighted near this
point by a whaler, but were never seen
again. In 1847 relief expeditions were
sent out from the east through Lancaster
Sound, from the west through Bering
Strait, and from the south to the Arctic
shores of North America.
The final result of these search expedi-
tions was the completion of the Northwest
Passage by M'Clure, who returned home in
1854. The first authoritative news of the
fate of Franklin was obtained by Rae in
his exploration of the west coast of Booth-
ia. In 1857 Lady Franklin fitted out a last
search expedition, which was commanded
by M'Clintock, and finally Franklin's last
record was found on the east coast of
King William's Land. From this it was
learned that his ship had been caught in
the ice and never released. Till 1874
further Polar exploration was left to Amer-
ican, German, and Austrian explorers.
The Northeast Passage was discovered
by Nordenskieid, who reached the mouth
of the Yenisei in two successive years, and
attained the East Cape in 1879, after a
winter in the ice not far from Bering
Strait.
The first crossing of the lofty ice-cov-
ered plateau of Greenland was accom-
plished by Nansen in 1888. Another re-
markable journey over the inland ice was
carried through by Peary, who proved
the insular character of Greenland. In
1892 Nansen attempted to reach the Pole
by a novel method. His plan was to fol-
low the course taken by the ill-fated
Jeannette, which had been caught in the
ice near Wrangel Land, and had drifted to
New Siberia. The From was constructed
to withstand enormous, ice pressure, and
preparations were made for drifting across
the Polar Basin in the hope that the cur-
rents would bring the ship close to the
Pole. Finding that the ship's tvTck did
not approach sufficiently near to the Pole,
Nansen and Johannsen left the ship in 1805
with dogs and sledges, and reached N. lati-
tude 86° 14'. the farthest point attained
up to that time. The Fram, under the
commsmd of Otto Sverdrup, finally reached
Norway in safety, after drifting to near-
ly as high a latitude as that attained by
Nansen.
In 1896 an attempt to reach the North
Pole by balloon was made by Andree, but
the expedition was never seen again. In
1909 the Duke of the Abruzzi made an
expedition in the Stella Polare, and Captain
Cagni succeeded in reaching latitude 8(i°
32', a little north of Nansen's record, by
a sledge journey over the ice.
The honor of first reaching the Pole was
reserveu- for Commander Robert Edwin
Peary, of the United States Navy, w,iii
finally, after many voyages in the north
of Greenland, attained success by a re-
markable sledge journey during the winter
night, reaching the North Pole on April
6, 1909.. (See Article Explorations.)
. Peary's expedition left the United States
m the summer of 1908. Besides Peary, the
personnel of the expedition comprised Doc-
tor Goodsell, Professors Donald MrMiiian
and Ross G. Marvin, Matthew Henson
(colored), George Borup, and Captain Bart-
let^and crew of Peary's ship, the Roosevelt.
Etah, the farthest North settlement on
Greenland, was reached without much diffi-
culty, whence the party proceeded to Camp
bheridan, whore the long winter night was
spent. When at length the first indications
of the passing of the Arctic winter were
seen, the explorers advanced to the north
shore of Grant Land, where they encamped
at a spot which they christened "Camp
Columbia," and from which the dash for
"the Pole was made, with the men named
above and 17 Eskimos with their numerous
sledges and dogs.
By March 14, 1909, lattitude 84° 29' was
reached, and the first supporting party
turned back under the command of Doctor
Goodsell. By March 20, 83° 23' was at-
tained, and Borup turned back with the
second supporting party. ■ On March 2.";
Marvin retired with the third supporting
party at 86° 38', only to be drowned in the
■icy waters by a miscalculation of the
strength of the ice to which he entrusted
his weight. On -April 1, the continually
favoring conditions enabled Peary to reach
88». With success ,thus opening up before
him, Peary turned back Bartlett with the
fourth supporting party, and made his final
dash for the Pole accompanied only by
Henson, four Eskimos, with their sledges
and dogs, and with supplies which at the
utmost would last only for forty days.
Every circumstance was propitious. The
ice was smooth and offered comparatively
few obstacles to progress, while there was
need for little climbing — a striking con-
trast to the conditions which Amundsen and
Scott were to meet not many mouths latei
at the South Pole (see South Polar
Regions). The weather became much warm-
er, rising to only 15 below zero, and the
party plugged ahead with hope high in
their breasts when they found that they
could average almost three miles an hour.
Numerous observations showed that the
distance to the Pole was becoming shorter
and shorter, until finally 32 miles were
covered in a march of 12 hours, at the end
of which an observation showed that the
party had stopped at 89° 57' ; and the at-
tainment of 9Q° was a matter only of min-
utes.
North Polar
Encyclopedic Index
Northwest
As far as eye could see, a level plain of
ice covered the pole. No land was visible,
but a hut was erected, with a flag pole to
which the Stars and Stripes were firmly
fastened. The return Journey presented
few diflScultles — -Camp Columbia was
reached on April 23, and on September 6,
1909, the entire world was thrilled by the
news that the goal at which so many
attempts had been made and for which so
many' costly sacrifices had been ungrudg- •
Ingly paid, had been attained.
For further description of the Arctic re-
gions, and of attempts to conquer them, see
the article, Arctic Explorations.
Iforth Pole, discovery of. (See North
Polar Eegions and Arctic Explora-
tions.)
North Star, The. (See Rodgers, The.)
Northeastern Boundary.— By the treaty
of 1783 the northeastern boundary of the
United States was defined as extending
from the source of the St. Croix River
due north to the highlands or watershed
between the Atlantic and St. Lawrence
systems, thence along those highlands to
the northwesternmost head of the Connec-
ticut Eiver. There was a continual dis-
pute over this boundary, and the claims
of Americans and Canadians were pressed
so vigorously as to lead to preparation for
hostilities. The matter was referred to
arbitration. In 1831 the King of the Neth-
erlands, as arbitrator, made an award which
neither Great Britain nor the United
States would accept. Finally by the Web-
ster-Ashburton treaty of 1842 the present
boundary was agreed upon, not far from
that suggested by the Dutch King. The
United States secured about seven-twelfths
of the disputed territory and Great Britain
five-twelfths.
Northeastern Boundary'between United
States and Great Britain:
Amicable settlement of, discussed,
1747, 1811, 1820.
Appropriation for survey of, neces-
sary, 1845.
Arbitration committed to citizens of
Maine, 1007.
Ashburton treaty discussed. (See
Ashburton Treaty.)
Commissioners appointed to fix, 188,
191, 242, 264, 1821.
Convention with Great Britain re-
garding, 347, 351, 958.
Conventional agreement to be ar-
ranged, 1811.
Correspondence in regard ' to, 1564,
1622, 1648, 1687, 1738, 1785, 1791,
1798, 1812, 1945, 1965, 2023.
Eeferred to, 1448, 1784, 2278.
Depredations committed on disputed
territory, 1733.
Correspondence regarding, 1738,
178.5, 1791.
Disagreement in decision of, 819,
947.
Eeport of, 1846, 1945, 1965, 2024,
2087.
Discussed, 64, 65, 191, 242, 264, 268,
1156, 1239, 1316, 1368, 1455, 1591,
1820, 1931, 2047.
Excitement growing out of, partially
subsided, 1820.
Imprisonment of American citizens
charged with trespassing, 963,
969, 990, 1123.
Release of, 1110.
Joint commission for survey of —
Appointment of, referred to, 1702.
Eeport of, 2024.
King of Netherlands selected as ar-
bitrator, 974.
Award of, referred to, 1110, 1122,
1123, 1126.
Great Britain agrees to, 1123.
Protest of United States min-
ister against, 1122.
Maps regarding transmitted, 960.
Proposition of United States for
settlement of —
Declined by Great Britain, 1368.
To be acceded to by Great Britain,
1811.
Eeferred to, 922, 946, 1070, 1133,
1156, 1200, 1346, 1448, 1697, 1729,
1784, 1796, i805, 1954.
Reports of commissioners on, 1846,
1945, 1965, 2024, 2087.
Eesolutions of Maine legislature re-
garding, 1126.
Survey of, referred to, 1845, 1931,
1945.
Treaty regarding, discussed, 2015,
2047.
Northern Cheyenne Indians. (See In-
dian Tribes.)
Northwest Territory.— The portion gf the
United States known in history as the
Northwest Territory comprises all the coun-
try lying between the Ohio Elver, the Mis-
sissippi River and the Great Lalies, im-
mediately west of the original states, and
now forming the states of Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The
original states severally laid claim to this
territory by their charters, which granted
possession from ocean to ocean. New York
ceded her claims to this region to the
General Government in 1782, and was fol-
lowed by Virginia ip 1784, Massachusetts
in 1785, and Connecticut in 1786. The
latter state, however, retained a small tract
as the foundation for her school fund.
This became known as the Western Re-
serve.
Congress in July, 1787, passed an ordi-
nance for the government of this territ»ry,
and to the wise measures incorporated into
that law the states formed from the terri-
tory are indebted for much that is wise
and judicious in their constitutions. It is
claimed by some that the foundations for
future national greatness were laid by the
manner in which Congress dealt with the
question of territorial government at this
time. A clause forbidding slavery after
1800 was at first voted down, but after-
wards was adopted. The ordinance pro-
vided that no land should be taken up
until it had been purchased from the In-
dians and offered for sale by the United
Northwest
Encyclopedic Index
Norway
states : no property qualification was to be
required of electors or elected ; a tempo-
rary goverumeut uiighl be established uuiil
the male population o£ the territory reached
S.OOO, then a permanent representative
government would be permitted, with a
Representative in Congress entitled to de-
bate but not to vote. When the inhabi-
lants of any one of the five divisions of
Ibe territory reached 60,000 it should be
admitted as a state, these states to re-
main forever a part of the United States,
pay their portion of the Federal debt, and
in their government uphold republican
forms and prohibit slavery ; but fugitive
slaves were to be surrendered. Arthur, St.
Clair was governor from 1788 to 1802.
Northwest Territory:
Government established in, and lec-
ommendations made to enable the
governor and secretary to visit the
posts in, 190.
Northwestern Boundary.— The territory
hounded on the north by lat. 54° 40', on
the east by the Rocky Mountains, on the
'outh by lat. 42°, and on the west by the
Pacific Ocean, has been variously claimed
by Russia, tjpain. Great Britain, and the
ITnited States. Rxissla's claim rested for
the most part upon occupation by fur trad-
ris, and was settled by a treaty of Jan.
11. 1825, under the terms of which the
Inited States were to make no settlements
north of lat. 54° 40' ^and Russia none
south of that latitude. England made a
treaty with Russia on the same terms. By
the treaty which ceded Florida in 1819 the
Spanish claims were confined to the south
of lat. 42°. This left the territory be-
tween 42° and 54° 40' to the Americans
and English. Great Britain had no claim
liy discovery. The claim of the United
States rested upon the voyage of Gray up
the Columbia River in 1792 and the ex-
plorations of Lewis and Clark through the
Rocky Mountains and the Oregon country
in 1805 and 1806 under the orders of Jef-
ferson. By the treaty of Oct. 20, 1818,
the entire country west of the Rocky
Mountnins wa.s to be opened to both coun-
ti'les for ten years, and at the end of this
period joint occupation for an indefinite
time was agreed upon. This arrangement
produced much dissatisfaction ' and was
made a political issue In the- United States
in 1844. (See 'Fifty-four Forty or Fight")
After considerable negotiation lat. 49° was
agreed upon (in 1846) as the boundary
from the Rocky Mountains to the channel
between Vancouver Island and the main-
land. (See also San Juan de Fuca ex-
plorations.)
Northwestern Boundary between Unit-
■ed States and Great Britain.
Commission for settlement of, recom-
mended and referred to, 2810, 2866,
3989, 4056.
Convention for adjustment of, 958,
2243, 2299, 3380.
Concluded and signed, 2302.
Exchange of ratifications referred
to, 2307.
Correspondence regarding, 890.
Eeferred to, 2127.
Discussed, 705, 922, 946, 956, 1133,
1614, 161,5, 1684, 2049, 2063; 2110,
2127 2180, 2190, 2214, 2242, 2277,
2484, 3092, 3197, 3894, 3899.
Emperor of Germany chosen as arbi-
trator, 4097.
Award of, 4139.
Thanks of United States tendered,
4140.
Final settlement of, 4357, 4382.
Joint commission for marking, 4141.
Eeport of, 4191.
Marking and tracing of, recom-
mended, 2655, 2741.
Settlement of —
By arbitration, 4139.
Becommended, 3198, 3213.
Proposition regarding, by —
Great Britain —
Declined, 2243.
Eeferred to, 2305.
Submitted, 2299.
Accepted, 2302.
Eatification of, referred to,
2307.
United States declined, 2111,
2243.
Eeferred to, 2305.
Eeferred to, 2484.
Treaty regarding, 3894, 3956.
Warlike preparations made by Great
Britain on account of, 2277.
Norwalk Harbor, Conn., survey of, re-
ferred to, 1043.
Norway. — Norway occupies the west and
north of the Scandinavian peninsula, be-
tween 57° 58'-71" 11' N. latitude and A°
,W 31° 11' E. longitude. Within these
limits lie the mainland and a multitude of
Islands and inlets, estimated at 150,000
in- all. The boundaries on the north, west,
and soiith are the Arctic and Atlantic
Oceans and the North Sea, and the south-
east coast is washed by the Skager Rack,
which separates the kingdom from the
Danish promontory of Jutland. The Swed-
ish frontier forms the eastern boundary,
but beyond this frontier to the northeast
the Norwegian Amt of Finmarken extends
along the boundary of the Russian Grand
Duchy of Finland.
Physical Features and Climate. — Thd
coast Is extremely rugged, broken by inlets
or fjords, and studded with islands. The
fjords run inland for a great distance,
with precipitous clitts on either side, and
down many of them the mountain torrents
find their way to .the sea in picturesque,
elevated waterfalls.
The coast is fringed with a "fence of
islands" (sklsergaard). almost throughout
its length from southeast to northeast.
In the extreme north is the large Island
of Magero. which contains, in North Cape,
the most ifortherly point of Norway and
of the continent of Europe.
Norway consists of an almost continuous
plateau, 'with frequent peaks and valleys.
In addition to the fjords there are count-
less inland lakes, the largest being MjSsen,
sixty miles in length. 'The principal river
of Norway is the Glommen. Many of the
rivers run in precipitous beds, and mag-
nificent waterfalls occur in the course of
many of them, the most famous being
Sarp'sfos on the Glommen, Rjukanfos, or
"Smoking Fall." on the Maan, Lotefos and
Espelandstos. which discharge into Har-
danger Fjord, and Vbringsfos, on thg Bjoreia
River.
Norway
Encyclopedic Index
Norway
The climate of Norway is in no way
typical of tile latitndes in whieli tlie king-
dom is situated, for although a great part
of the land lies within the Arctic Circle,
the coast Is kept free of ice by the pre-
vailing southwest winds and the Gulf
Stream drift of warm waters from the At-
lantic Ocean. The direction of» the Gulf
Stream is not only along the west, but
round the north and northeast coast, and
the most northerly point of the kingdom is
thus kept free from the icy currents which
cause many lands in lower latitudes to be
Ice-bound ; in fact, the Skager Rack of
the south is liable to be closed by ice al-
though the seas of nprthernmost Norway,
1,000 miles nearer the North Pole, are
free all the year round. The highest mean
annual temperature is 45° Fahrenheit on
the southwest coast, and the lowest mean
is 1° above freezing in the extreme north,
when the summer average is as high as
53° Fahrenheit, as against 62°, the sum-
mer mean at the capital.
History. — The Kingdom of Norway had
been established for some centuries and
Christianity had been introduced about 150
vears when King Harald III. fell at Stam-
ford Bridge in England (1066 A. D.), and
from 1389-1521 the kingdom formed part
of the tripartite League of Kalmar (see
Denmark), by which Norway, Sweden and
Denmark were united under King Eric
(1389-1397). In 1521, the secession ot
Sweden left Norway in union with Den-
mark, and in 1814, by the Treaty of
Kiel (Jan. 14, 1814) this union was dis-
.lolved, and the kingdoms of Norway and
Sweden were united under one crown. In
1905 the Norwegian Storting adopted a
resolution dissolving the union with Swe-
den (June 7), and later in the same year ,
a -referendum resulted in an overwhel«iing
majority (368,211 votes to 184) in favor
of the dissolution of the union. Negotia-
tions between representatives of Norway
and Sweden settled the terms of the sever-
.Tuce, which was ratified by the Norwegian
Storting and the Swedish Eiksdag on Oct.
9. On Oct. 27 King Oscar of Sweden and
Norway issued a proclamation relinquish-
ing the crown of Norway, and -a Nor-
wegian referendum authorized the Stor-
ting to. offer the crown to Prince Charles
of Denmark, who entered the Norwegian
capital with his consort on Nov. 25, and
was crowned in Trondhjein Cathedral In
1906, as King Haakon VII., the first of that
name (HaaKon the Good)-, having reigned
over Norway from 935-961 A. D.
Government. — According to its Constitu-
tion, dating from 1814, Norway is a Consti-
tutional and hereditary monarchy. The
king may twice veto an act of congress,
but a bill passing three successive con-
gresses formed by separate elections be-
comes law without his assent. The king is
the commander-in-chief of the army and
navy, and makes most of the public nomina-
tions.
The Congress, or Storting, is elected by
direct suffrage, male and female. The vot-
ing age is 25. Elections are held every three
years, and the congress meets annually. The
number elected is 126, 42 from the towns
and 84 from the rural constituencies. The
entire body then selects the one-fourth of
its membership to compose the upper house,
or Lagting. The lower house Is called the
Odelsting. In case of disagreement, a joint
session is held, when the law In . dispute
may be passed by a two-thirds vote of the
combined membership.
The king exercises his executive power
through a council of state, composed of
the premier, the true head of the Govern-
ment, and a number of ministers In charge
of the executive departments.
For local government, the country is
divided into twenty districts. These again
are further divided for the purposes of
municipal and district government.
There are separate courts for civil and
criminal cases. Civil cases are generally
brought before a court of mediation (for-
lilcskommisslon) from which appeals may
l3e brought to local court or to the three
superior courts of appeal (overretter) at
Christiania, Bergen and Trondhjem. Crimi-
nal cases are tried by jury courts or at
assizes. The final court of the Kingdom
is the Supreme Court at Christiania.
AREA AND POPTTLATION
Population
Governments Area Last Last
Sq. Mi. Census Estimate
Akershus 2,021 128,042 163,0.54
Aust-Agder 3,608 76,456 79,825
Bergen 5 76,867 90,733
Buskerud ...... 5,719 123,643 134,383
Finmark 18,366 38,065 44,777
Hedmark 10,608 134,555 146,831
Hordaland 6,024 146,006 157,000
Kristiana 6 241,834 259,445
More 5,786 144,622 156,876
Nordland 14,917 164,687 172,700
Nord Trondelag 8,683 84,948 88,773
Olstfold 1,600 152,306 159,289
Orland 9,756 119,236 127,675
Eyfolke 3,531 141,040 168,792
Sogn og Fjordane 7,134 90,040 91,080
Sor Trondelag .7,184 148,306 167,522
Telemark 5,863 108,084 124,740
Troms 10,131 81,902 89,608
Vest-Agder 2,804 82,067 87,184
Vestfold 895 109,076 121,723
Totals 124,643 2,391,782 2,632,010
Of the population enrolled at the last
census, about 70% was rural. The national
church is the Evangelical Lutheran and it
is endowed by the state, with Its clergy
nominated by the king. Education Is com-
pulsory to the age of 14. The latest educa-
tional statistics show 6,130 public rural
elementary schools, with 283,136 pupils ;
and 3,345 public urban elementary schools,
with 98,876 pupils. There were also 9
secondary schools, and a number of pro-
fessional and special schools. The Univer-
sity of Kristiania Is attended by almost
2,000 students.
Finance. — The last budget was In the
neighborhood of 625,000.000 crowns, the
crown being equal to about ,$0.27 in the
TTnited States currency. The public debt
amounts to about 455,500,000 crowns.
Production and Industry. — The barren-
ness and ruggedness of the country makes
agriculture difficult and infrequent. Only
about 3%% of the total area is under cul-
tivation, "with about 21 % % under forests.
The latest annual report of agricultural pro-
duction in acreage and yield in terms of
quarters was as follows :
Crop Acreage Quarters
Potatoes 145,000 42,586,097»
Hay 2,526,356t
Oats .S55,220 1,757,308
Barley 115,646 462,917
•Bushels fTons.
There are also small crops of rye, mixed
corn and wheat. The live-stock of Norway
Is reported as 220,900 horses, 1,053,743
Norway
Encyclopedic Index
Nutrias
cattle, 1,216,291 sheep, 203,582 goats and
224,803 swine.
The chief wealth of the country is to
be found in its forests and fisheries. There
are about 26,500 square miles of forests,
chiefly pine. The value of the timber ex-
ported annually has risen to some 100,'-
000,000 crowns, and of the wood pulp,
to 200,000,000 crowns.
Pyrite, with its copper and sulphur con-
tent, Is the most valuable mineral product.
There are fields of iron ore, but there is a
shortage of coal for smelting. Silver and
nickel are also found.
About half of Norway's annual export
value comes from fisheries. There are about
120,000 persons engaged in the fisheries,
chiefly in • cod-fisheries. In value, the
herring product runs a close second to the
cod. The whale, seal, shark and walrus
fisheries are also highly profitable.
, In manufacturing, the chief industry is
the production of varipus nitrates and
other electro-chemical products. The last
industrial census showed the chief indus-
tries as follows :
Industry No. Plants Workers
Machinery, Metals 944 36,706
Wood, bone, horn, etc 2,044 24,526
Pood Products 1,652 24,472
Paper 197 15,484
Chemicals, Oils, etc 311 12,167
Textiles 263 11,639
Clothing 436 11,275
The total number of establishments was
6,886 and the total number of industrial
workers was 161,722.
Foreign Trade. — For the last year for
which figures are available, the imports
amounted to 1,353,664,900 crowns and the
exports of Norwegian products to 974,475,-
000 crowns. Of the import values 387,900,-
000 crowns came froVn the United States,
374,000,000 from United Kingdom, 176,-
471,000 from Germany, and 132,441,000
from Sweden. Of the export values, 291,-
776 crowns went to Germany, 274,424,000
to the United Kingdom, and 98,000,000
crowns to Eussia and Finland.
Of the export values; 326,648,000 crowns
were represented by food products, 180,-
000,000 by timber and wooden goods, 119,-
000,000 by mineral manufactures, 91,000,-
000 by oils, tallow, etc. Of the Imports,
the chief, in order of value, were vessels,
carriages, machinery, etc. ; raw minerals ;
breadstuffs ; textiles ; unwrought and
manufactured metals.
In the last fiscal year, the United States
exported to Norway goods valued at $115,-
333,000 and impoirted from Norway goods
palued at $15,025,000.
The Norwegian merchant marine consists
of some 3,424 vessels of 1,500,000 net tons,
of which 2,761, of 1,165,000 tons are steam
and motor vessels. In the last year for
which figures are available, some 4,570
vessels of 2,560,000 tons entered and cleared
from Norwegian ports, chiefiy from Kris-
tianla and Bergen.
Communications. — The length of the Gov-
ernment railroads is 1.720 miles and of the
private lines. 290 miles. The Government
telegraph and telephone lines have a length
of more than 15,000 miles, with 68,000
miles of wire. There are 1,725 telegraph
ofllces.
Cities. — The capital is Kristiana, 260,-
000. Other large towns are Bergen, 91,-
000 ; Trondhejm, 54,000 ; Stavanger, 46,-
000 ; Drainmen. 26.000. There are 12 other
towns with a population above 10,000.
N'Quentl-ma-mlsh Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Nuestra Senora, The, seizure of, and
claims arising out of, discussed, 3795.
Nullification. — The general meaning of
nullification is the act of invalidating or
making void. In American politics it is
almost exclusively -applied to the doctrine
set forth by John C. Calhoun and his friends
in the South Carolina controversy with the
Federal Government, 1828-1833. This doe-
trine asserted the right of any state to
declare the unconstitutionality of any
United States law, though it should have
been enacted in the proper manner and
held to be constitutional by the Supreme
Court of the United States. It was further
claimed that any attempt to enforce such
law in a state which had refused to ac-
knowledge its validity would justify it in
at once leaving the Union. The immediate
cause of this declaration of principles was
that the existing tariff law bore unjustly,
so it was claimed, on the non-manufac-
turing and raw-material-producing states
of the south. The arguments in fa-
vor of nullilication were mainly based upon
language used by Jefferson and Madison in
the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of
1798 and 1799 in regard to the alien and
sedition laws. Here it was asserted that
the General Government was not "the final
or exclusive judge of the powers delegated
to itself, but that, as in all other cases of
conipact among powers having no common
judge, each party has an equal right to
judge for itself, as well of infractions as
of the mode and measure of redress." Sen-
ator Hayne, of South Carolina, was the
first to advocate this doctrine in Congress.
On the advice of Calhoun the governor of
South Carolina called a convention, and ah
ordinajice of nullilication was passed on
Nov. 19, 1832. This ordinance declared
the Federal tariff law "null and void" and
authorized the citizens to refuse payment
of duties under it. It also denied the
right of the Supreme Court of the United
States to pass upon the nullilication ordi-
nance. The legislature was on the point
of enacting a bill in accordance with this
ordinance when the necessity was partly
obviated by the passage of Clay's com-
promise measures (c. v., in 1833). The
attempt to interfere with the execution
of Federal laws was met by President
Jackson's prompt instructions to the reve-
nue oflicers at Charleston, his proclama.
tlon of Dec. 10, 1832 (1203), and his spe,
eial message to Congress on the subject
(1173). March 3, 1833, a new tariff bill
was passed which gave satisfaction to the
nuUifiors, and on March 16 a state conven.
tion of South Carolina repealed the ordi.
nance of nullification. ,
IfuUification:
Message regarding, 1173.
Proclamation regarding, 1203.
Referred to, 1185, 1197.
Nutrias, The, seizure of, and claims,
arising out of, 4114, 5198, 5547,
5673, 5873, 5962.
Avcard in case of, 6070.
Oath
Encyclopedic Index
Ocean Cables
Oath. — A solemn appeal to the Supreme
Being in attestation of the truth of some
statement or the binding character of some
covenant, undertaking, ■ or promise. In
point of law an oath is a solemn declaration
which is necessary as a condition to the
fllling of some office more or less public or
of giving evidence in a court of justice.
The Constitution requires that before the
President shall "enter on the execution of
his office he shall take the following oath
or affirmation : 'I do solemnly swear (or
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office of President of the United States,
and will to the best of my ability preserve,
protect and defend the Constitution of the
United States.' " The first act of Congress
provided for oaths of office. An oath sim-
ilar to the foregoing is required of all offi-
cers of the executive, legislative, and ju-
dicial departments of states and the na-
tion.
Congress in June, 1778, directed Wash-
ington to administer the following oath of
allegiance to the officers of the Army be-
fore leaving Valley Forge; "I, [name and
office] in the armies of the United States
of America, do acknowledge the United
States of America to be free, independent,
and sovereign states, apd declare that the
people thereof owe no allegiance or obedi-
ence to George III, King of Great Britain,
and I renounce, refuse, and abjure any
allegiance or obedience to him ; and I do —
that I will to the utmost of my power
support, maintain, and defend the United
States agafnst the said King George III,
his heirs and successors, and his or their
abettors, assistants, and adherents, and
will serve the said United States in the
office of which I now hold, with fidel-
ity according to the best of my skill and
understanding." By an act of Congress of
Aug. 3, 1861, the oath of allegiance for
the cadets at West Point was amended so
as to abjure all allegiance, sovereignty, or
fealty to any state, county or country
whatsoever and to require unqualified sup-
Dort of the Constitution and the National
Government. In 1865 oaths of allegiance
were required as a condition of pardon of
nersons who had participated in the rebel-
lion. The oath required of persons ap-
pointed to office from the southern states
declaring that they had in no way aided
or abetted the rebellion, was called the
"iron clad oath," and was modified as soon
as all apprehension of further difficulty
with the South had passed away.
The oath admiriistered to jurors enter-
in" upon their duties is substantially as
foUows : "You shall well and truly try the
issue between the parties and a true ver-
dict give according to the evidence, so
help you God" : and the juror sometimes
kisses the New Testament. Witnesses
mnst be sworn in a similar manner, the
word being, "The evidence you shall give
shall be tie truth, the whole truth and
nothing but the truth, so _help you God.
Witnesses must hav.e sufficient understand-
ing to know the nature of an oath, and
on tills ground young children are excluded
as wltnlsses. A religious belief was for-
merly required before an oath could be
considered as binding.. Several statutes of
Congress permit a simple affirmation in
lieu of an appeal to the Almighty. Any
person having conscientious scruples
against oaths now makes a solemn affirma-
tion' Jews are sworn on the Pentateuch,
keep on their hats, and conclude their
oaths with the words "so help me Jeho-
vah " A Mohammedan is sworn on the
Koran. A Chinaman is sworn by break-
ing a dish on the witness box or behead-
ing a fowl. The form of taking an oath
is immaterial, the essential thing being
that the witness acknowledge some bind-
ing effect derived from his sense of moral
obligation to tell the truth. (See also
Perjury.)
Oath of Allegiance, army officers di-
rected to subscribe, anew, 3219.
Taken by insurgents in the Philip-
pines, 6692.
Oath of Office:
Act prescribing, for participants in
War between the States discussed,
4076.
Modification of, recommended, 3580.
Observatories. (3ee Meteorological Ob-
servatory; Naval Observatory.)
Obtrusive FartizanShip. — An expression
often incorrectly quoted as "Offensive Parti-
zanship" (used by Grover Cleveland, 5079).
In the same message he used the term "Per-
. nicious Activity." Both these expressions
referred to efEorts on the part of office-hold-
ers to influence voting, and became very
popular.
Occupations in the United States. — The
occupations of women in the United States
are treated in the article "Women in In-
dustry." The following figures relate to the
occupation of males, as shown by the last
federal census.
81.3% of all males of ten years and
above were gainfully employed, as com- ,
pared with 78.7% In 1880. Of all males
between the ages of 10 and 13, 16Vi% are
employed ; of . those between 14 and 15,
41 H% "ire employed; of those between the
ages of 16 and 20, 79% ; of those between
21 and 44, 97%; and of those over 45,
86%. Of the total number of males ten
years of age and over who were gainfully
employed in 1910, 2%% were between 10
and 13; 3% between 14 and 15; 12%
between 16 and 20; 56%% between 21 and
44 ; and 26% above 45. The age limits are
both inclusive. , >
The total number of males of ten years
of age and above gainfully employed was
30,091,564. In agricultural pursuits were
10,760,875 or 36% ; in manufacturing and
mechanical pursuits were 9,035,426 or
30% : in trade and transportation were
6,403,378 or 21% ; in domestic and per-
sonal service were 2,740,176, or 9% ; and
in professional pursuits were 1,151,709 or
4%.
The numbers in typical occupations were '
as follows : Farmers, 5,607,297 ; farm
laborers, 4,460,634 ; coal miners, 613,519 ;
other miners, 191,381 ; carpenters, 817,082 ;
laborers, 3,394,461 ; teamsters, etc., 408,-
396 ; clerks, 275,589 ; commercial travellers,
161,027 ; retail dealers, 1,127,927 ; sales-
men, 863.410; clergymen, 117,333; lawyers,
114,146 ; doctors, 142,117.
Ocean Cables:
Amount expended for telegraphing
by, referred to, 4123.
Atlantic telegraph referred to, 3329,
3382, 3445, 3653.
Between .France and America to be
landed on Massachusetts coast
discussed, 4519.
Communication recommended with —
Australia, 4567.
Ocean Cables
Encyclopedic Index
Oceania
Guam, Island of, 6354.
Hawaiian Islands, 4565, 5086, 5368,
5761, 6354.
Surveys for, in progress, 5623,
5663, 5679.
Japan, 4565.
Philippine Islands, 6354.
Concessions to companies and rights
of United States regarding, dis-
cussed, 3989, 4297, 4519.
Convention regarding, 5119, 5176.
Corporate company proposing to
< operate cable between France and
America discussed, 3989, 4297, 4519.
International agreement regarding
interchange of messages recom-
mended, 6401.
International convention at Paris for
protection of, in —
1880, 4714.
1884, 4799. '
Declaration of, transmitted to
Senate, 5117, 5187.
Discussed, 5084.
Legislation to carry into effect
recommended, 5180.
Landing of, on American shores re-
ferred to, 4853, 5124.
Legislation for protection of, recom-
mended, 4864.
Plan for connecting American and
European telegraph lines by, re-
ferred to, 2952.
Eate charges imposed upon American
corporation, questions with Argen-
tine Eepublic regarding, 6323.
Eecommendations of International
American Conference regarding, re-
ferred to, 5511.
Stipulations with Trench Cable Co.
referred to, 4738, 4744.
Ocean Freight Kates, discussed, 8028.
Oceania. — One of the geographical divi-
sions of the globe. It embraces the Conti-
nent of Australia and the islands of the
Pacific Ocean east to Easter Island (109°
W.). The islands generall.v are grouped
in two divisions — Australasia and Poly-
nesia.
Australasia is subdivided into Australia
proper and Melanesia, "islands of the
blacks." The latter Includes New Guinea,
Bismarck Archipelago, New Caledonia Isl-
and, and Solomon, Santa Cruz, New Heb-
rides, and Loyalty gronps. The Fiji Isl-
ands (Polynesia), are usually treated with
Australia, as are New Zealand and Tas-
mania.
Polynesia comprises Polynesia proper —
Elliee, Samoan, Phoenix, Palmyra, Society,
and Tuamotu Islands — and Micronesia, "the
little islands." The latter embraces the re-
maining Islands of the Pacific, including
Marianne and Caroline west and Hawaiian
east. Land area of Oceania. 3,460,000
square miles — more than throe-fourths be-
longing to Australia. (See Australia.)
For the Oceanic possessions of the Unit-
ed States see Hawaii and the Islands of
Wake and Guam.
British Possessions. — Besides the Islands
constituting Australasia, the principal
groups, and isolated Islands belonging to
Great Britain are Cook Islands, Manlblkl,
Tokelau and Phoenix groups, Elliee Islands,
Gilbert Islands, Santa Cruz Islands, British
Solomon Islands, and the Islands of Pit-
cairn, Fanning, Maiden, ■ and Christmas.
The New Hebrides Islands are jointly pro-
tected by Great Britain and France.
French Possessions. — New Caledonia and
dependencies, and the Society Islands, the
Marquesas, Tuamotu, Gambler, and Tubual
groups, and the Island of Bapa.
Former German Colonies. — Before the de-
feat of Germany In the World War, the
German colonies in Oceania comprised
KalserwUhelmsland, the northern section
of southeast New Guinea ; the Bismarck
Archipelago ; the German Solomon Islands ;
Nauru ; the Caroline Islands ; the Marschall
Islands ; and the Marianne or Ladrone
Islands, with the exception of Guam. These
possessions were occupied by the Entente
Allies In the World War, chiefly by Aus-
tralian and 'New Zealand troops, with
Japanese capturing the Caroline, Marschall
and Marianne Islands. The Peace Confer-
ence at Paris embodied in the Treaty of
Versailles provisions for the complete sur-
render of these possessions by Germany.
They were to be assigned to various Entente
Powers as mandatories. The exact disposi-
tion was the subject of lengthy negotiations
after the conclusion of peace, but It was
generally understood that the Marschall,
Caroline and Marianne Islands were to be
assigned to Japan ; and the remainder
chiefly to Great Britain, with Australia re-
ceiving the mandate for some of the
territory.
New Ouinea. — ^Discovered by Portuguese
In 1511 ; named Papua in 1526 ; New
Guinea in 1545. Visited by Dutch 1676.
Circumnavigated by Dampier 1699. The
Dutch took possession of the country west
of 141° E. in 1828. The southeastern por-
tion became a British protectorate in
1884 ; a Crown Colony in 1888. A Ger-
man protectorate was established in the
northeast in 1884. Total area about 312,-
000 square miles. Interior wide plains and
lofty mountains; greatest elevation 16,000
feet. The chief rivers are the Kalserln
Augusta and the Fly. The coast line is
deeply Indented and has fine harbors. 'The
forests contain cedar, sandalwood, ebony,
India rubber, areca and sago palms, bam-
boos, etc. The soil Is adapted to tobacco,
rice, tea, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, fruits,
etc. German settlers established cotton
and tobacco plantations. The chief indus-
tries are wood carving and manufacture
of rope and pottery- Leading exports^
Copra, pearl shell, trepang, gold, pearls, and
sandalwood. Gold,' coal, and plumbago are
found. The population Is about 1.800.000
Area of Papua (British), 90,540 square
miles : population 270,000. The govern-
ment is administered by a Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor. New South Wales, Victoria, and
Queensland furnish funds and have a voice
In its affairs. Port Moresby is the capital ;
population 1,500.
Kaiserwllhelmsla^d under Germany had
an area of about 70,000 square miles and
a population whose estimates varied at from
110,000 to 250,000. The most important
harbor was Frledrlch Wilhelmshaven.
Samoan Islands. — ^Flrst explored by Bou-
gainville in 1768; Christianity was intro-
duced in 1830. Neutrality and independ-
ence was guaranteed by Great Britain,
United States, and Germany In 1889. The
Oceania
Encyclopedic Index
Officers
islands were divided between Germany and
United States in 1899. They are situated
in the middle of the Pacific about 400 miles
northeast of Fiji ; the largest, Savall and
Upolu, went to Germany, and Tutuila and ad-
jacent islands to United States. Total area
1,701 square miles. Chief products are su-
gar, coffee, cotton, maize, and tropical fruits.
Apia is the chief trading center ; popula-
tion 3,742. Pago-pago, Tutuila, is a fine
natural harbor. The natives are Christians.
(See also Samoan Islands and Tutuila.)
New Hebrides. — Discovered by Spani^ in
1606 ; explored and named by Cook In
1774. The group is northeast of New
Caledonia and stretches northwest and
southeast 500 miles. Area, 5,700 square
miles. Cocoanuts (for copra), maize, mil-
let, coffee, and bananas are grown. Popu-
lation about 80,000. Jointly administered
by France and England.
Solomon Islands. — Discovered by Mendana
in 1567-1568 ; rediscovered by Bougainville
1768. An archipelago in Melanesia, 50()
miles east of New Guinea. Area 16,950
square miles, in large part covered with
thick forests. Chief commercial products
tortoise shell, copra, ivory nuts, and san-
dalwood. The German dependencies before
1920 were in the north, while the southern
portion of group is under British riile ;
Choiseul and Isabel were ceded to Great
Britain by Germany in 1899.
Trade With United States. — During the
last calendar year, the United States ex-
ported to Oceania, exclusive of Australia,
New Zealand and the Philippines, goods
valued at $2,328,264 and imported thence
goods valued at $8,129,326.
Ocean Mail Fost-Office, establishment
of, discussed, 5633.
Ocean Mail Service. (See Postal Ser-
vice, steamship.)
Ocean Trade, more ships for, 7362. (See
also Merchant Marine.)
Offenders against Government, diffi-
culties of prosecuting, 6918, 7003.
Offenses on High Seas, acts to provide
for punishment of, returned, 5769.
Office for I*oreign Affairs, term used by
Washington to describe the later
State Department, 50.
Office Naval Operations, Navy Depart-
ment.— This ofSce was organized in May
1915, under the Chief of Naval Operations,
who has the title of admiral, and who is
aided by no less than 15 assistants of or
above the rank either of lieutenant-com-
manders in the Navy or majors in the
Marine Corps (q. v.). The Chief of Naval
Operations is charged with the preparation
of plans for use of the United States fleet
in time of war, and also is responsible for
the readiness of such plans. Accordingly,
he is virtually responsible for the war
plan of the Department, which determines
its activities, and his work covers even the
development of aeronautics, (q. v.), repairs
to ships, gunnery, and fleet operations and
manoeuvers in times of peace. (See Navy
Department; Navy.)
Officers, Public (see also the several
officers.)
Act regulating tenure of certain civil
officers vetoerl- (See Terure-of-Of-
fice Act.)
Application of public money by, for
private uses, should be made a
felony, 1709.
Appointment of. (See Executive
Nominations.)
Availing themselves of benefits of
insolvent-debtors act must be dis-
missed, 1107.
Bonding system of, discussed, 1611.
Books of, should be carefully in-
spected, 1709.
Breach of duty in publishing Senate
executive business discussed, 2691.
Bribery of, recommendations regard-
ing punishment for, 2714.
Commissions claimed by, should be
regulated, 1730.
Compensation of. (See Salaries.)
Compensation withheld from, in ar-
rears, 775.
Defalcation of —
Freedom from, in collecting rev-
enue discussed, 5542, 5746.
Inquired into, 2218, 2918.
Delinquency in handling public
money a cause of removal, 1905.
Disbursing officers should deposit
moneys in legal depositories, 2941.
False entries by, should be made a
felony, 2818, 2870.
Fee system, abolition of, in certain
cases discussed and recommended,
■4939, 5879, 5968, 6161.
Hours of labor of. (See Hours of
Labor.)
Militia called forth to protect, 154.
Nomination of. (See Executive
Nominations.)
Number of, should be diminished,
316, 1018.
Oath of. (See Oath of Office.)
Offenses against court officers, etc.,
should be made cognizable in Fed-
eral courts, 5477, 5633.
Papers of, must be handed over, 2818.
Partisan interference in elections
by-
Discussed by President Tyler, 1905,
1942.
Order regarding, by President —
Cleveland, 5079.
Hayes, 4402.
Persons holding Federal positions
must not accept State offices,
4172.
Application of, explained, 4173.
Presents to, from foreign govern-
ments referred to, 1258, 1260.
Eecords and papers should pass to
their successors, 2818.
Eef erred to, 1911.
Removal of. (See Removals from
Office.)
Officers
Encyclopedic Index
Official Etiquette
Eolls of, transmitted to Congress, 508.
Salary of. (See Salp,ries.)
Officers' Training Camps. (See Army.)
Official Bulletin. — A dally Government
newspaper, published by the Public Infor-
mation Committee (q. v.), during the par-
ticipation of the United States in the
World War and for a short time there-
after. It gave official information about
the War and other Government activities.
Official Btiquette. — As- state social func-
tions in America are not hedged about by
the privileges and prerogatives to which
rank, station and birth alone entitle the
holder in monarchical courts, American cere-
monies, observances and ritual are, in com-
parison, simple and meagre. No special les-
sons are required nor are rehearsals needed
to carry off with proper dignity any of the
observances of state courtesy. Nevertheless,
although there is an absence of that ostenta-
tious display which marks the ceremonies of
the .courts of Europe, official etiquette in
America is prescribed by a rifrid code estab-
lished by the highest authorities, which is
not disregarded.
It is only natural that state receptions
should be governed by more arbitrary rules
than those which direct purely social inter-
course. It must be remembered that" when
an official reception is held, it is always an
official duty that is being performed. The
state forms and ceremonies which have ob-
tained in America have varied from time to
time according to the usages of the day and
the taste of the national Iiostess. They
have, at times, been further modified by
periods of national calamity, war and the
death of immediate relatives, but through all
this variation and modification there has
run the golden thread of democratic sim-
plicity so dear to the national heart.
The period of Washington's administration
must be regarded a.f a time of transition.
Nor is there cause for wonder that much
formality and stateliness marked the dis-
pensation of nationa/ hospitality in the be-
ginning of the nation's development. The
term "colonial" is today associated in our
minds with a courtly, stately conventionality
peculiarly its own. Men and women or tliat
time, who, either at first hand or through
their mothers and fathers, had received their
education in courtesy, grace and proper be-
havior from the customs of England, could
not easily shake off their second nature :
and no doubt fretted over the meagre means
of gratifying their wishes ; but as soon as
they were cut off by their own desire from
this influence and became self-dependent,
that pure simplicity nurtured by individual
worth became evident. It is not surprising
that in the earliest period the Executive
Mansion was a place of stately and con-
tinuous reception, and that Martha Wash-
ington Is famous for the dignity, grace and
splendor of her social reign ; but, on the
other hand, the simplicity of Jefferson's
time has passed Into a proverb, and was
such as to excite comment even abroad. The
youth, gaiety and impetuous brilliancy of
"Dolly Madison" contributed largely to the
breaking down of much of the severity and
, conventionality which preceded her time.
The President is the leader of social as
well as of official life. Although he is ac-
cessible to all to the extent that all may
call upon him, he is not expected to return
any visits. He, of course, has the privilege
of calling upon a friend. The same is
equally true of the wife of the President.
He is always addressed as "Mr. President."
lie does not leave the country, as a rule,
and in this respect is under greater restric-
tions than are any of the crowned heads of
Europe. Under this "unwritten law" a for-
eign legation in Washington is construed as
being foreign ground and may not be entered
by the President. Neither may he set foot
upon a foreign vessel. The only formal calls
that he may make are those upon a Presi-
dent-elect, an ex-President, or a President
or reigning monarch of a foreign state visit-
ing Washington. He carries no personal
card, but one reading simply "The Presi-
dent." He may not accept valuable gifts ;
and if such are tendered, they are usually
placed in the National Museum.
The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
ranks next to the President socially. Below
him in turn socially come the Vice-President,
the Speaker of the House, the General of the
Army and the Admiral of the Navy. It is
considered one of the first duties of the
Members of the House of Representatives to
call upon these when coming to Washington.
The social rank of women is decided by that
of the husband or father.
The Inaugural Ball, held upon the even-
ing of the day of inauguration, was the first
social event in the life of the newly inaugu-
rated President, until it was abolished by
President Wilson. It partook more of the
nature of a reception than a ball, for it was
so largely attended that dancing was an im-
possibility. It was usually held In one of the
departmental buildings. For several days
after the President's Inauguration, public
informal receptions follow and a week or
more is consumed in receptions during the
day and dinners at night. These latter are
classified, to a certain extent, so that all
branches of the official service are formally
recognized. Saturday is the offlciaj recep-
tion day at the White House. The public
receptions which are held from the first of
January until the beginning of Lent were
inaugurated by President Jackson. Tlie
guests assemble in the East Room and as
quickly as this Is filled the President greets
them as they pass out. The formal recep-
tions are not held Bo frequently as pre-
viously, on account of the great Increase in
the number of Senators and Representatives.
This is compensated for by inviting some
Members of Congress to state dinners and
entertaining others with less ceremony.
The scene at a formal or official reception
is a brilliant one. The Government officials,
the oflicers of the Army and Navy, and the
foreign legations mingle in uniform, and the
ladies are not in full dress, but in reception
toilettes. Diplomats and attaches wear their
court costumes. The President stands at
the head of the line, next to him his wife,
who invites several prominent ladies to as-
sist her in receiving. As the guests enter,
they pass down the receiving line until they
have greeted all of the ladies of the receiv-
ing party. ' The daughters of the household
of a state official are not invited to state
dinners unless the daughter is the female
representative of the family.
The general conduct of, and the social
observances at these several ceremonies are
the same as those which direct social ob-
servances elsewhere in good society. The
cards of invitation and responses to the
ordinary receptions do not differ from tbosi>
in other American homes ; but at the state
dinners and official receptions, which are to
be regarded in some sense as an Interchange
of international courtesy, the rules of at-
tendance are very strict and no one would
think of neglecting to attend without an
eminently satisfactory excuse.
Official Publications
Encyclopedic Index
Ohio
Official PuWications. (See Eecords and
Documents.)
Official Register. (See Biennial Eeg-
ister.)
Official Secrets, no punishment for di-
vulging, 7003.
Ogallala Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Ogden vs. Saunders.— An important United
States Supreme Court case limiting tlie
operation of State banlsruptcy laws. Og-
den, of Louisiana, declared upon certain
bills of exchange drawn in 1806 upon tlie
defendant Saunders, a citizen of Kentucky,
but then -living in New York. Saunders
pleaded a certificate of discharge under
the act of the New York legislature of
1801 for the relief of insolvent debtors.
The district court of Louisiana gave judg-
ment for the pialntitE. On a writ of error
the case was taken before the Supreme
Court of the tJnited States, which decided
In 1827 that the power to pass bankruptcy
laws did not belong exclusively to the
United States, and that the fair and ordi-
nary exercise of that power by the States '
need not Involve a violation of the obliga-
tion of contracts, but that State law could
not discharge a debt due to a citizen of
another State. Justice Johnson delivered
the opinion. In which concurred Chief Jus-
tice Marshall and Justices Duval and Story.
Ogdeu, Utah, bill to authorize city of,
to assume increased indebtedness ve-
toed, 5518.
Ogdensburg (N, Y.), Capture of. — in
September, 1812, Gen. Brown was sent to
Ogdensburg, N. Y., at the mouth of the
Oswegatchie River, to garrison Fort Pres-
entation and attempt the capture of some
British stores that were reported as being on
the way up the St. Lawrence ■ River. Oct. i
2, about forty British bateaux, escorted by
a. gunboat, were seen approaching. On the
4th two gunboats and twenty-flve bateaux,
containing 750 men, started for Ogdensburg.
Tlie American force amounted to about 1,200
Sffectlve men. After two hours of firing the
Invaders withdrew with a slight loss. No
one was injured on the American side.
Later Maj. Forsyth was placed in command
of the garrison at Ogdensburg. With a
party of citizens. and militia he crossed over
to Blizabethtown,. Canada. Feb. 6. 1813, and
rescued a number of prisoners held there.
In retaliation for this exploit Lleut.-Col. Mc-
Dotiell, with about 800 men, crossed the
river on the ice Feb. 22, 1813. and 'after
a short engagement gained possession of
the town, wWch they gave over to plun-
,derers.
Ollio. — One of the central western group
of states ; nickname, "The Buckeye State."
Ohio extends from lat. 38° 24' to 41° 57'
north and from long. 80° 34' to 84° 49'
west. It is bounded on the north by Michi-
gan and Lake Erie, on the east by Ponnsyl-
vania and West Virginia (separated by the
Ohio River), on the south b.y Kentucky
(separated by the Ohio River), and on the
west by Indiana, and has an area of 41,0-10
square miles.
Ohio was first visited by the French under
La Salle at the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury. It was claimed by both the French
and- English. It was ceded to Great Brit-
ain in 1763 and to the United . States In
1783. In 1787 it became part of the North-
west Territory. The first settlement was
made at Marietta in 1788. The State was
admitted to the Union in 1802.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal Census, place the number of
farms In the State at 272,545, comprising
24,105,708 acres, with stock and Improve-
ments, valued at $1,902,694,589. The
average value of farm land per acre was '
$53.34, an increase from $33.35 in 1900.
The last annual agricultural production
was estimated as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Corn ..3,700,000 162,800,000 $196,988,000
Wheat .2,860,000 54,440,000 115,413,000
Hay ...2,879,000 3,973,000* 86,611000
Outs ...1,548,000 51,858,000 37,338 000
Tobacco 90,000 77,400,000t 26,084,000
Potatoes 150,000 9,300,000 17,856,000
♦Tons. fPounds.
There is also a large output of sugar
The latest statistics of farm animals
showed 873,000 horses, valued at $95,157.-
000 ; 28,000 mules, $3,360,000 : 1,061 000
cows, $97,610,000; 1,113,000 other cattle
$54,203,000; 3,010,000 sheep, $30,401,000-
and 4,351,000 swine, $83,539,000. The last
annual wool clip was 13,104,000 pounds.
The mineral resources are especially im-
portant, and in recent years the mineral out-
put of the state has been exceeded by those
of only several other states. The two most
valuable products are coal and clay pro-
ducts. The last annual coal production
was 46,464,000 net tons. The annual petro-
leum output Is about 7,700,000 barrels, and
the value of the natural gas greatly exceeds
that of the petroleum. In a recent year,
the value of the clay products was almost
$40,000,000. The pig iron production is
also extremely valuable. Other mineral pro-
rlucts are cement, salt, lime, sandstone and
limestone.
In 1910, the population was 4,767,121.
In 1920, the figure was 5,759,368. Of the
population in 1910, 111,452 were negroes ;
and the foreign-born numbered, 598,374, of
whom 175,095 were German, 72,887 were
Austrian, 43,347 were English, and 40,062 .
were Irish.. Of the total population In
1910, 36% was urban.
The latest figures show 11,232 public ele-
mentary school, with 27,600 teachers and
865,331 enrolled pupils. There were 582
public high schools, with 5,627 teachers and
115,418 pupils.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Ohio having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 15,658. The amount of capital
invested was $1,677,532,000, giving employ-
ment to 606.807 persons, using material
valued at $1,020,782,000, and turning out
finished goods worth $1,782,808,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid amounted to
$424,189,000.
Ohio (see also Columbus; Dayton;
Portsmouth) :
Boundary of —
Act respecting, executed, 637.
Controversy with Michigan, regard-
ing, 1404, 1407.
Eeferred to, 1173.
Lands in —
Eeferred to, 833.
Title of United Brethren to, 801.
Michigan boundary line dispute with,
Ohio
Encyclopedic Index
Oklahoma
and the necessity of an early set-
tlement of, by Congress, 178.
National Guard of, expiration of en-
listment of, referred to and thanks
of President tendered, 3440.
Ratification of fourteenth amendment
withdrawn by, 3836.
Ohio Companies.— Id 1749 George II.
granted to a band of wealthy citizens
of Virginia and Maryland, calling them-
selves the Ohio Company, a tract of land
containing 500,000 acres, lying in the
Ohio Valley south of the Ohio River.
Thomas Lee was the projector of the com-
pany, but it was later conducted by Law-
rence Washington. The terms of the grant
required that 100 families should be es-
tablished upon the tract, a fort should be
built, and a garrison maintained. A num-
ber of storehouses were also established.
In 1783 the territory east of the Missis-
sippi, north of the Ohio River, and west of
Pennsylvania, which before the Revolution
had been part of the Province of Quebec
and afterwards had been claimed by Vir-
ginia, was ceded to the United States,
with the proviso that it was to be settled
and formed into states. March 1, 1786,
Eufus Putnam suggested a second Ohio
company, and two days later he and
Messrs. Cutler, Brooks, Sargent, and Cush
ing formed an association and issued l.UUC
shares at $1,000 each in Continental cer-
tificates or $125 in gold. A year after-
wards Congress granted certain lots free
of charge, and an enormous tract was
bought at about eight or nine cents per
acre in specie. Colonization was imme-
diately begun. Slavery was prohibited.
This company had large influence in shap-
ing the ordinance for the government of
the Northwest Territory, of which it be-
came a .part,
Ohio River:
Canal from Chesapeake Bay to. (See
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal.)
Canalization of, discussed and urged,
7465.
Navigation on, 824, 909.
Appropriation for, 934.
Mode of improving, referred to,
1]P6, 2685.
Referred to, 1104, 1491.
Ship canal around fall of, 3819.
Survey of, appropriation for, 768.
Oil Dealers licensed, 8584.
Oil Industry. (See Paints and Oils.)
Oil Industry:
Freight rates in connection with,
7293.
Investigation of, urged, 7288.
Oil Lands. (See Lands, Oil.)
Ojihwa Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Oklahoma. — One of the southern group of
states formed in 1907 by the Union of
Oklalioma with the Indian Territory.
Nicltname. "Boomer State." Motto, "La-
bor omnia vincit." (Labor conquers everv-
thins:i. It extends from latitude 33°
•So' ro 37° north and from longitude 94"
20' to 10.1° wast. It is bounded on the
north hv Kansas and Colorado, on the east
by .Wkanpas and Missouri, on the south br
Texas (separated by the Red River) and
on the west by Texas and New Mexico. It
has an area of 70,057 square miles.
Oklahoma Territory was formed in 1890
from the western part of Indian Territory
and the public strip called No Man's Land
(q. v.). Invasions of the Indian Territory
took place in 1879 but the settlers were
ordered out by proclamations of President
Hayes (pages 4499, 4550). Several subse-
quent invasions of the Territory were made
in defiance of Federal law. but all expedi-
tions of settlers were arrested and their
towns broken up. Finally delegates of the
Creek Nation met at Washington and sold
the western half of their domain to the
United States Government for $2,280,857.
Congress ratified this agreement March 1,
1889. By proclamation of President Harri-
son (5450) Oklahoma was opened to settle-
ment at noon April 22, 1889. and during
the afternoon of that day 50.000 settlers.
who had been encamped on the border,
rushed into the territory, formed a pro-
vincial government, and laid out town sites.
In 1893 the Cherokee strip was ceded by
the Indians to the Government for $8,300,-
000. Agriculture and stock-raising are the
principal industries.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
farms in the state at 1.908,192, comprising
28.859.353 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $918,198,882. The aver-
age value of land per acre was $22.49, an
increase from $6.50 in 1900.
The last annual agricultural production
was estimated as follows :
Bushels Value
52,640,000 $107,912,000
74,400,000 " ■ ■
49,500,000
1.540,000*
33,120.000
3,520,000
94,488,000
34,650,000
23,254,000
49,680,000
7,216,000
930,000t 163,680,000
Crop Acreage
Wheat . . 3,760,000
Corn . . . 3,100,000
Oats . . . 1,500,000
Hay 700,000
Sorg'ms 1,440,000
Potatoes . 44,000
Cotton .2,841,000
*Tons. fBales.
The latest statistics of farm animals
showed 550.000 cows, valued at $37,400.-
000 ; 1,300,000 other cattle, $54,210,000 ;
943,000 swine, $14,239,000 ; 131.000 sheep,
$1,454.000 ; 729,000 horses, $60,507,000 ;
and 288,000 mules, $34,560,000. The last
annual wool clip was 526,(100 pounds.
The chief mineral product of Oklahoma is
petroleum, the last annual output being
estimated at 107,510,000 barrels. Natural
gas is also obtained in large quantities. The
last annual coal production was 4.785,000
net tons. Lead and zinc are also produced.
In 1910, the population was 1,657,155.
In 19?,0 It had become 2,027,564. Of the
population in 1910, 137,612 were negroes,
and 74,825 were Indians. There were 40,-
442 foreign-born, of which 10,090 were Ger-
mans and 5,807 were Russians. Nineteen
per cent of the copulation was urban.
The latest educational statistics show
473.702 white pupils and 41,791 negro
pupils. There were 12,721 teachers. The
588 public high schools had 1,467 teachers
and 27,040 enrolled pupils.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Oklahoma having an annual out-
put valued at $500 or more at the beginning
of 1915 was 2,518. The amount of capital
invested was .'S65.478.000. ^giving employ-
ment to 22.700 persons, using material val-
ued at $70,970,000. and turning out finished
!:nods worth 15102,006.000. Salaries and
wages paid amounted to $14,213,000.
Oklahoma
Encyclopedic Index
Old Age Pensions
Oklahoma:
Admission to Union discussed, 7020.
Appropriation for settlement under
treaties of freedom, etc., upon lands
in, recommended, 4785.
Boundary line with Colorado, 6937.
Lands in —
Agreement for cession of, 5648,
5649, 5768.
Opened to settlement by proclama-
tion, 5450, 5591, 5710, 5838, 6020,
6695.
Eeferred to, 5637.
Reservation of, 6695, 6889.
Laws of Nebraska in force in, contin-
uation of, recommended, 5566.
Memorial from Wichita and Caddo -
Indians regarding claims to lands
in, 5671.
Organization of, discussed, 5393.
Act regarding returned, 5503.
Eeservations in, ceded to United
States, 5591.
Suffering among settlers in, recom-
mendations regarding, 5516.
Memorial from legislature ashing
for relief, 5567.
Unauthorized occupancy of, 4832,
4943.
Proclamations against, 4811, 4888.
Oklahoma Central Bailroad, act to au-
thorize construction and operation of
railway bv, through Territories, ve-
toed, 6014".
Oklahoma City, Okla., act authorizing
issuance of bonds by, to provide the
right of way for railroad, vetoed,
5571.
Old Age Pensions.— Pensions granted to
persons who have reached the age at which
they can no longer support themselves, and
who would otherwise become dependent.
Systems to this end, compulsory, or volun-
tary, or combining the compulsory and
voluntary features, are in effect in Ger-
many (1889), France (1910-1912), Sweden
(1913), Luxemburg (1911), the Netherlands
(Itfl.S), Eoumania (1912), Great Britain
(1908-1911), New Zealand (1898), Austra-
lia (1908-1912), Italy (1919). Spain (1919),
and practically all other industrial Euro-
pean countries. Uruguay also adopted such
a system in 1919.
The Initative for general compulsory old
age pensions was assumed by Germany. As
early as 1854, there was such a system in
operation for the miners, and in 1889 it
became general. All working-people above
the age of 16 who were earning less than
$500 a year had to contribute to the fund
for old age pensions, and those earning
$500-$750 might also contribute. Employers
and employees contributed to the fund
equally, on a scale based upon the wages
of the employee, and the state added .$12.50
yearly to the pension derived. The amount
of the pension varierl with the wages re-
ceived previously and hence with the
amount contributed to the fund from which
the pensions were drawn. Up to 1916, per-
sons who had reached the age of 70 were
eligible, but in 1916 the limit was lowered
to 65.
Other complicated machinery provided for
the payment of pensions to other classes
of persons, so tHat practically all in need
of them receive them. In 1913, 95% of
the wage earners were so insured. In 1911,
the law was altered to cover salaried em-
ployees earning less than $1,250 annually.
The old age pensions, however, especially
in recent years, have proved much less
popular than the invalidity insurance pen-
sions, and most persons in Germany pre-
ferred to draw sustenance in their old age
from the latter, as the returns were higher.
Indeed, in 1913 there were 87,000 persons
deriving old age pensions as against
almost 1,000,000 persons drawing invalidity
Insurance pensions. (See Health Insurance.)
For instance, a man earning $1,000 annual-
ly before he had been made Industrially
an invalid because of old age would pay
before that time $5.00 monthly, and re-
ceive as pension $265 annually if he had
contributed to the fund for 25 years, and
a proportionately higher sum if he had con-
tributed for a longer time, as would be
probable.
The French system differs slightly from
the German. In France, the system is left
to the commune for administration, the cost
being divided among the commune, depart-
ment and state. Persons over 70 are eligi-
ble. France pays particular attention to
the encouragement of thrift in this con-
nection. , As early as 1850 a method was
established whereby workers could deposit
their savings as Insurance against old age.
The system was elaborated in 1891 and
1895, and in 1910 there were 1,900,000
depositors, of whom 30% were minors and
65% were laborers. In 1908, there were
being paid some 325,000 pensions. The
present national system dates from 1906.
In 1911, 400,000 old age pensions were
being paid to persons over 70, 108,000
invalid pensions to persons between 60 and
70, and 105,000 special pensions to elderly
persons. About 20% of the population
over 70 was thus insured. The French
system was made compulsory in 1910, al-
though it allows insurance in different
voluntary and local organizations as well
as in the state fund. Minors under 18
contribute 90c annually, women $1.20 and
men $1.80.
The English system was established in
1909, and In 1919 there were almost l.OOOr
000 pensions in force. In 1919, the maxi-
mum limit for old age pensions was made
ten shillings weekly, but are so graduated
that the total income of the recipient from
this and all other sources must not ex-
ceed twenty shillings weekly. No pension
is granted to those with annual incomes
above 150 pounds. The pensions begin at
the age of 70. All the European countries
have had to face the task of rising prices
as a result of the war in this connection,
and the present rates of pensions cannot
be determined with accuracy.
The United States has been almost the
only great country to make little provision
for old age pensions. The system is repre-
sented in this country offlcially only by the
military and civil service retirement pen-
sions ; and privately by the generosity of
corporations and other employers to thpir
super-annuaterl employees, by pensions from
voluntary beneficial and fraternal organiza-
tions, occasionally by pensions from charit-
Old Age Pensions
Encyclopedic Index
Oman
able bodies, stipends from trade unions
to tlieir members, and enaowment insur-
ance. Certain state; and municipalities
make provision for the payment of old age
pensions to certain groups such as police-
men, firemen, teachers. In 1907, Massachu-
setts passed legislation providing for volun-
tary payment for insurance against old age
through the savings banks, and her exam-
ple -vyas followed by Wisconsin in 1911,
and subsequently other states have taken
step.s looking toward voluntary or com-
pulsory systems of old age pensions.
In 1916, a well-known American insur-
ance expert declared that the German sys-
tem of pensions against bid age and ill-
ness had prolonged the life of the working-
class population for an average of 12 years.
Old Age Pensions recommended, 7206.
Old Colony. — -^ popular name for Plym-
outh County, Mass. The territory was for-
merly included in the Plymouth Colony,
but, being unable to obtain a charter from
the British Crown on account of its out-
spoken opposition to the established
church, was in 1691 absorbed into Massa-
chusetts Bay Colony.
Old Domllfion. — A name popularly applied
to the State of Virginia. In colonial docu-
ments Virginia is frequently referred to as
"His Majesty's Dominion of Virginia."
Old Hicfeory. — An affectionate nickname
given to Andrew Jackson in 1813 when, dis-
regarding the order of the Secretary of War
to disband his troops, he assumed the re-
sponsibility of marching them in a body
from Natchez, at his own expense. The Gov-
ernment afterwards approved Jackson's dis-
obedience, and reii^bursed him. The nick-
name stuck to him evpn through his
Presidency, and to his grave. ^
Office of ExhilDits. (See Exhibits, Office
of.)
Office of Far^ Management. (See Farm
Management, Office of.)
Office of Indian Affairs. (See Depart-
ment of the Interior.)
Office of Inspection. (See Inspection,
Office of.)
Office of Public Boads and Rural Engi-
neering. (See Public Roads and
Eural Engineering, Office of.)
Old Point Comfort, Va., school for ar-
tillery instruction at, 824.
Old Winnebago Reservation, Dakota,
restoration of, to public domain,
order regarding, declared void,
4890.,
Discussed, 4943.
Oldenburg:
Commercial relations with, 820.
Exequatur issued consul of, revoked,
Eeferred to, 3720.
Treaty with, 2479.
Vessels of, discriminating duties on,
suspended, 666, 1059.
Oleomargarine, act defining butter and
imposing tax on, approved and dis-
cussed, 4992.
Olive Branch, The, condemnation of,
indemnification asked for, ]268.
Olmstead et al. vs. Rittenhouse's Exec-
utrixes.—in 1778 Olmstead and other citi-
zens of Connecticut were pressed into the
service of the British aboard the sloop
Active. They revolted and took posses-
sion of the vessel, and were in turn cap-
tured by the Pennsylvania armed bng
Oonvention. The State court of admiral i.v
of Pennsylvania adjudged the Active lawful
prize and awarded the proceeds of her sale
to the State, officers and crew of the Con-
vention, and the owners, officers, and crew
of Le Gerard, a privateer, which assisteu
in the capture. Olmstead and the others
claimed' the whole prize, but were awarded
only one-fourth. They then appealed to
the Federal commissioners of appeals and
received a favorable verdict. The State
court of admiralty of Pennsylvania set
aside this verdict and ordered that the
money be brought into court. May 1.
1779, the loan certificates for the prize
money were deposited with State Treasure''
Rittenhouse. In 1803 the district court of
the United States for the State of Penn-
sylvania entered a anal decree that the
money be paid over to the libellants.
The case having come before the United
States Supreme Court,, March, 1808, that
Court ordered a mandamus as against the
district judge, and in 1809 judgment was
executed in favor of the plaintiSs in spit?
of violent opposition from Pennsylvania,
which opposition had prevented Judge
Peters from carrying out his decree. The
facts in the matter are all given in thr
Peters case. (See also 456, Peters ;:s.
United States.)
OlUStee (Fla.), Battle of.— In February
1864, a Federal expedition was sent to Flor-
ida from Port Koyal under command of Gen.
Seymour. It was composed of twenty steam-
ers, eight schooners and about 5,000 troops.
Feb. 7 the land forces occupied Jacksonville.
On the 18th they marched inland, encoun-
tering the Confederates on the 20th at Olus-
tee, a railroad station about fifty miles west
of Jacksonville. The battle was unexpected
and was fiercely fought from 2 o'clock till
dark, when the vanquished Federals retired
twenty miles' to Barbers. Seymour lost
nearly 2,000 men, as well as five piecos of
artillery, in this disastrous flght, and the
expedition returned to Hilton Head.
Olympia, The, mentioned, 6297.
Omaha, The. (See Ikisima Island.)
Omaha Indi3;ns. (See Indian Tribes.)
Omaha, Nebr., act to extend privileges
to port of, vetoed, 4999.
Oman. — Oman is an independent sultanate
of southeast Arabia, with a Mohamme-
dan population that is mainly Arab, but
contains many foreign elements. Including
Indians, Persians, "Baluchis, and Swahili
negroes. The territory of the sultanate ex-
tends, from th'e peninsula of El Katar, on
the Persian Gulf, to the promontory of Ras
Sair, on the Arabian Sea, a total length of
coast of close on 1,500 miles. Tlie north-
west extremity is in 51° 30' B. longitude,
and Oman extends to the easternmost
point of Arabia in 59° 48' B. longitude,
■ind thence southwest to a point about
54° 28' B. longitude and 16° 50' N. lati-
tude. The most northerly point is Ras
Musandum in 26° 30' N. latitude. The
area is 82,000 square miles, and the pop-
ulation is estimated at 500,060.
Oman
Encyclopedic Index
Open Door
Physical Featurrs. — The northwest and
southwest extremities are in the form of
a horse-shoe, the intervening land being
the arid and sandy desert of central and
southern Arabia, the great Ruba el Khali,
or Dahna Desert, which covers the penin-
sula, from Oman in the east to Yemen in
the west. The northern coast of Oman Is
washed by the Persian Gulf ; the Cape of
Ras Musandum reaches to the narrow
Strait of Ormuz : the eastern coast is
washed by the Gulf of Oman, and the
southeastern coast by the Arabian Sea.
The promontory (Ras Jebel) which termi-
nates in Ras Musandum is formed by the
western horn of a range of mountains,
which stretches across northeastern Oman,
from Musandum to El Hadd, and shuts out
the coastal districts from the interior. The
west coast of the Ras Jebel promontory,
known as the Pirate Coast, and the re-
mainder of the Persian Gulf littoral, are
low lying and sandy, and many rocky islets
lie close inshore.
History. — Oman was established as an
independent sullanate in 1741 by Ahmed
ben Said, an imam (or sultan) of Yemen,
who consolidated his power at the expense
of the Ottoman empire In the earlier
years of the nineteenth century Oman was
the most powerful state in Arabia; and
the rule of the Sultan was extended over
the Makran coast of the Arabian Sea and
over parts of East Africa, including So-
cotra and Zanzibar. In 1856 the sultanate
was divided b.v the two sous of Sultan Sey-
yid, and Zanzibar was formed into a sepa-
rate sultanate.
Government. — Theoretically, the govern-
ment is absolute and hereditary, but the
authority of the Sultan has been generally
repudiated by the mixed Arab and negro
population except along the coast. In prac-
tice, each tribal group takes the government
into its own hands. The country has long
been under the nominal protection of Great
Britain, and the Sultan receives an annuity
from the Government of India. An Anglo-
French agreement of 1862 guarantees the
independence of the country.
Commerce and Industry. — Commerce is
chiefly by sea, but there is much Inland
trade by caravan. There is some breeding
of camels in the interior, and it is re-
ported that the coast regions hold some
possibility of agriculture. Little Is known
of the mineral resources. The chief ex-
ports are dates, and the imports are varied.
The capital and chief port is Muscat on the
east coast.
Omnibus Bill. — Early in the first session
of the Thirty-first Congress Henry Clay in-
troduced a series of six resolutions as a
basis for the compromise of the slavery
question. These resolutions provided for
the admission of Califoraia as a free
state ; territorial governments for New
Mexico and Utah without conditions as to
slavery ; a territorial boundary line be-
tween Texas and New Mexico favorable to
the former ; payment of the Texas debt ;
suppression of the slave trade in the Dis-
trict of Columbia ; a more effective fugitive
slave law, and a denial of the power of
Congress to interfere with the slave trade
between the slave states.
On Feb. S and 6, 1850, Clay ably advo-
cated the passa^'e of his resolutions by
the Senate. That body was strongly
Democratic, though the administration was
Whig. Debate on Clay's resolutions lasted
two months and was participated In hv
Webster (Mass.), Calhoun (S. C), Benton
(Mo.), King (Ala.), Davis and Foote
(Miss.), Hamlin (Me.), Cass (Mich.), Sew-
ard and Dickinson (N. Y.j, Chase and Cor-
win (Ohio), Douglass (111.), Frfemont
(Cal.), Souie (La.), Hale (N. H.), Mangum
(N. C), Hunter and Mason (Va.), Bell
(Tenn.), and others of note. On April 19
the resolutions were referred to a com-
mittee of thirteen, with Clay as chairman,
and consisting of . six other Whigs and
six Democrats. On May 8 this committee
submitted an elaborate series of bills em^
bodying the substance of Clay's resolu-
tions. These several bills were known
collectively as the "Omnibus bill." and
the last was passed on Sept. 20. (See also
Compromise of 1850.)
Oneida, The. (See Aroostook, The.)
Oneida Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Oneota, The, purchased for Peru, de-
tention of, 3831, 3835.
Onondaga Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Ontario, Lake. (See Lake Ontario.)
Open Door in China. — with China foreign
commerce Is a matter- of modern history.
As early as 1516 the Portuguese had es-
tablished a trading port in China and, to-
gether with the Dutch, English and Amer-
icans, who followed them, carried on an
irregular and unsatisfactory trade for a
hundred years without government protec-
tion or favor besides being looked upon
with suspicion and hatred, as barbarians.
From 1664 to 1834 England's China trade
was in the hands of the East India Com-
pany, whose monopoly came to an end in
the latter year. The opium trade, worth
$5,000,000 to /$8. 000,000 annually to liu'
government of British India; liad long
been illegal, and China, in 1837, decided
to suppress it. England's refusal to make
traffic in opium a crime punishable with
death brought on a war in 1840. This was
concluded by a treaty which opened to
British trade the five ports of Canton, Am-
oy, Fu-Chow, Ning-Po, and Shangbai.
Caleb Cushing, heading an embassy from
the United States, negotiated a similar
treaty in 1844. By its terms a customs
duty was established and in Considera-
tion of a transit duty, goods were given
free conveyance to all places in China.
In 1856 England again found a pretext
for war with Cliina and was joined by
Prance in 1857. This was teriulnated in
1858 by the treaty of Tien-Tsiu, which
granted toleration to tlie Christian mis-
sionaries in China, and freedom of Chinese
rivers to English and French merchant
vessels. At the ' same time Russia signed
a treaty by whicn she acquired the Amur
territory.
While these powers were gaining con-
cessions in China, President Buchanan sent
William B. Reed to open negotiations on
behalf of the United States. The result
of Mr. Reed's efforts was a treaty of
amity and commerce, guaranteeing that no
American vessel should engage in contra-
band trade with China.
Anson Burlingame, United States min-
ister to China from 1861 to 1867, won
the confidence of the Orientals and se-
cured a treaty granting further conces-
sions. Burlingame later headed a (Chi-
nese embassy accredited to eleven differ-
ent nations. In June, 1873, the Chinese
Emperor for. the first time gave personal
audience to the ministers of the United
States, Russia, Great Britain, France, Ger-
many, Holland, and Japan. By the war
with Japan, in 1894-1895 China was forced
Open Door
Encyclopedic Index
Orders in Council
to concede the independence of Korea, and
cede to Japan the island of Formosa, ' the
Liaotung peninsula and the Pescadore Isl-
ands and an indemnity in money. '
While China was thns embarrassed Rus-
sia, through France, advanced a loan of
$77,290,000 to help pay the Japanese in.
demnity. In 1896 American and German
capitalists loaned $80,000,000 and in 1898
another $80,000,000 was advanced by the
English and German banks. In return for
these loans valuable railway and trading
concessions were exacted with a view to
establishing spheres of influence which
would serve as an excuse for mliitary oc-
cupation.
Until 1904 only twenty-one ports had
been opened to foreign trade. In that
year three others were opened, and in
1906 sixteen more allowed the ships of
the western world to enter. The opening
of these ports was looked upon by China
as a great concession wrung from her by
the overpowering military strength of the
allied commercial world. The agreements
of 1897-1898 provide that "the administra-
tion of the Imperial Maritime Customs
Service shall be conducted by representa-
tives of foreign powers until 1943."
An outbreal; of the anti-foreign feeling
in China, directed against Americans in
particular, on account of the Chinese ex-
clusion laws of this country, was shown
in the boycott against American goods
which began in the southern provinces in
1905. This was entirely dispelled by the
wise policy of the Roosevelt administration,
carried into execution by Secretaries John
Hay and Elihu Root.
William H. Taft, when Secretary of War,
declared in a speech made in China that
the United States would actively interfere
whenever necessary to preserve the open
door in all parts of the Chinese empire.
Further acts of friendship on the part of
the United States were the remission of a
part of tlie Boxer indemnity, upon recom-
mendation of President Roosevelt, and the
liberal contributions, under Presidential
patronage, to the famine fund in 1908.
Open Door, in the Orient, policy of the
United States to be firm in contro-
versies, 6797. . (See also China.)
Open Shop. — A term used to describe the
conditions of employment in an establish-
ment where men are and may be employed
irrespective of their membership or non-
membership in a trade union or other labor
organization. (See Trade Unions, Closed
Shop.)
Opequan, Battle of. (See Winchester,
Battle of.)
Opium Conference at The Hague dis-
cussed, 7781.
Opium Traffic, treaty with China for re-
pression of, and recommendations
regarding, 4629, 4986.
International Commission, 7671.
Report of, transmitted, 7469.
Legislation regarding, recommended,
5983.
Referred to, 7596.
Taxes and laws regulating traffic in,
recommended, 7419, 7470, 7596.
Orange Free State. (See Union of
South Africa.)
Orange River Colony.— A British colony
in South Africa. It was formerly an Inde-
pendent republic known as the Orange Free
State, and was founded by the Boers in 1836
11 nd recognized by Great Britain ten years
later. In consequence of the part taken in
the Boer War it was annexed to the British
Crown in 1900. Area, 48,326 square miles ;
population in 1890 (estimated), 77,716
white and 129,787 blacks, natives of the
country.
Order of Indian Wars of the United
States. — This order was organized at Chi-
cago 111., June 10, 1896, and received Its
charter from the State of Illinois. The
order consists of two classes of companions :
First, commissioned officers of the army,
navy, and marine corps, and of state and
territorial organizations, which have been,
or may hereafter be, engaged in conflicts,
battles or actual field service against hos-
tile Indians in the United States ; second,
sons of living members of the first class.
The object of the Association Is to perpetu-
ate the history of the services rendered by
the American military forces in their cori-
filcts and wars within the territory of the
United States, and to collect and secure for
publication historical data relating to the
instances of brave deeds and personal de-
votion by which Indian warfare has been
illustrated.
Order of the Founders and Patriots of
America. — This order was founded in 1896,
its object being "to bring together and as-
sociate congenial men whose ancestors
struggled together for life and liberty, iome
and happiness, in the land when it was a
new and unknown country and their patriot
descendants : from tbem came thorough
patriots who sustained the Colonies in the
struggle for independence in the Revolution-
ary War : to teach reverent regard for the
names and history, character and persever-
ance, deeds and heroism of the founders of
this country and their patriot descendants :
to teach that the purpose of the founders
could have had no lasting result but for
their patriot sons ; to inculcate patriotism ;
to discover, collect, and preserve records,
documents, manuscripts, monuments, and
history relating to the first colonists and
their ancestors and their descendants, and
to commemorate and celebrate events in the
history of the Colonies and the Republic."
Eligibility — Any man above the age of
twenty-one years, of good moral chai'acter
and reputation, and a citizen of the United
States, who is lineally i descended in the
male line of either parent from an ancestor
who settled in any of the Colonies now in-
cluded in the United States of America
prior to May 13, 1657, and whose intermedi-
ate ancestors in the sanie line during the
Revolutionary period adhered as patriots to
the cause of the Colonies, Shall be eligible
for membership. There are state societies
in New York, Connecticut, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania.
Orders in Council. — As the sovereigns of
Great Britain can act only through privy
councilors or upon their advice, the more
formal acts of the administration must
proceed from the authority of the sovereign
in council, and their execution is directed
at a meeting of the privy council, and laid
before Parliament within thirty days if in
session, and if not in session within thirty
days after assembling. Those of most in-
terest in the United States were issued in
1793 and 1794, prohibiting trade with
France and directing the seizure of neutral
ships engaged in such traffic. In 1806 an
Orders in Council
Encyclopedic Index
Oregon
order was issued declaring tlie wliole coast
of Europe from tlie Bibe to Brest, France,
under blocl^ade. Tlie specific order wliieli
caused tlie greatest Indignation in America
and provolted retaliatory measures by both
France and the United States was that of
1807, which prohibited neutral trade direct-
ly with France or her allies. All goods
were ordered to be landed In England, to
pay duties there, and to be reexported under
British regulations. (See also Berlin De-
cree ; Embargo ; Milan Decree. )
Ordnance and Fortification, Board of,
War Department.— The Board of Ord-
nance and Fortification in the Department of
War, by act of September 22, 1888, has
charge of the design and construction of
the guns, powder, shells, armor, torpedoes,
mines, and other military equipment util-
ized by the Department of War. (See War
Department.)
Ordnance (see also Arms and Ammuni-
tion) :
Board of !Fortifieations, and, dis-
cussed, 5373.
Cannon —
Exportation of, order prohibiting,
3326.
Foundry for making, recommended,
1607, 1714, 4797>
Manufacture of, discussed, 323,
4724, 4833.
Discussed, 5550, 5878, 5972, 6159.
Foundry for heavy, bpard appointed
to select location for, 4748.
Discussed, 4767.
Eeport of, referred to, 4791, 4797,
4833.
Gunpowder manufactory, recom-
mended, 1608, 1714. .
Proving and experimenting ground
for, site for, recommended, 4148.
Small arms, manufactory for, rec-
ommended, 1608.
Statement of, in fortifications, etc.,
transmitted, 6287.
Ordnance, Bureau of. Navy Department.
(See Bureau of Ordnance, Navy De-
partment.)
(Ordnance Department:
Board for determining screngta and
value of iron, steel, etc., ap-
pointed, 4281.
Continuance of, recommended, 4378.
Machine purchased from A. H. Em-
ery by, appropriation for, recom-
mended, 4540.
Eeport of, referred to, 4321, 4438,
4534.
Expenses of, referred to, 766, 771.
Increase in crops, recommended, 1448,
1475, 1607.
Manufacturing operations of, recom-
mendations regarding, 4362, 5878.
Progress in, 2942.
Eegulations for distributions of arms,
stores, etc., 5159, 5462.
Oregon. — One of the Pacific coast states ;
motto, "The Union ;" nickname. "Webfoot
country," from the excessive rainfall. It
extends from lat. 42° to 46° 15' north and
from long. 116° 40' to 124° 32' west. It
is bounded on the north by Washington
(partly separated by the Columbia River),
on the east by Idaho (partly separated by
the Snake River), on tlie south by Nevada
and California, and on the west by the
Pacific Ocean. It has an area of 96,699
square miles. Oregon Is traversed by the
Coast Range and Cascade and Blue Moun-
tains, which run parallel to the coast In
the eastern portion of the state. It is
drained largely by the Columbia, though
there is a large inland basin in the south-
east. The chief Industries are fishing and
agriculture. ,
The mouth of the Columbia River was
discovered by Capt. Gray, an American, in
1792. The river was partly explored b.v
Lewis and Clark in 1804-5. A trading post
was founded at Astoria in 1811. The terri-
tory, long in dispute, was finally made part
of the United States by the treaty with
Great Britain in 1846. It was organized as
a territory in 1848 and was admitted to the
Union in 1859.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
last Federal census, place the number of
farms in the state at 45,502, comprising
11,685,110 acres, ^lued, with stock and
improvements, at $528,243,782. The value
of domestic animals, poultry, etc., was $59,-
461,828, including 725,255 cattle, valued at
$17,570,685; 271,708 horses, $25,181,143;
9,927 mhles, $185,788; 217,577 swine, $1.-
570,949; 2,699.135 Sheep, $12,213,942;
poultry, $1,067,743.
The last annual agricultural production
was estimated as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Wheat ...1,126,000 20,495,000 $43,449,000
Hay 854,000 1,452,000*27,733,000
Oats 347,000 11,104,000 10,216,000
Hops 8,000 6,400,000t 5,120,000
Barley 82,000 1,886,000 2,829,000
Corn 71,000 1,860,000 2,883,000
Potatoes ...45,000 4,230,000 6,345,000
•Tons. tPounds.
The last figures for the farm animals
showed 282,000 horses, valued at $23,970,-
000 ; 224,000 cows, $20,064,000 ; 708,000
other cattle, $32,710,000; 2,547,000 sheep,
$28,017,000 ; "and 314,000 swine, $6,123,-
900. The last annual wool clip was esti-
mated at 14,040,000 pounds. The fruit crop
is particularly valuable.
Sugar, beets and hops are also important
crops. Apples and plums are raised i;j
great abundance and shipped to all leading
markets. West of the Cascade Mountains
almost every crop common to the temperate
zone is grown, but east of the mountains
the country Is arid.
The chief mineral output is that of gold,
of which the annual production amounts
to some $2,000,000. Other minerals found
and worked are silver, coal, copper, silver,
granite and other quarry products.
Much of Oregon is semi-arid and much of
the farming is done on land which has
been irrigated by the Government irriga-
tion 'projects (see Irrigation).
Much of the state's wealth is represented
by its forests, and lumbering is the state's
most important Industrial activity.
Oregon
Encyclopedic Index
Oriskany
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments In Oregon having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
]nis was 2,320. The amount of capital in-
vested was $139,500,000, giving employment
to 35,449 persons, using material valued at
$63,258,000. and turning out flnisbed goods
worth $109,762,000. Salaries and wages
paid amounted to $26,614,000.
In 1910, the population was 672,765. The
1920 census gave it as 783,389. Of the
population in 1910, 113,136 were foreign-
born. The urban population was 46% of
the whole.
There are 2,560 public schools with 5,913
teachers and 148,546 pupils. There are
190 high schools with 1,102 teachers and
23,348 pupils.
Oregon:
Aid and protection of United States
invoked by, 2434.
President Polk's message regard-
ing, 2434.
Boundary of, in dispute. (See North-
western Boundary.)
Correspondence regarding, referred
tOi 2279.
Emigrants to, should be protected,
2246.
Establishment of* surveyor-general 's
office in, recommended, 2409.
Extinguishment of rights of Hudsons
Bay Company in, referred to. (See
Hudsons Bay Co.)
Force to be employed in, 2454.
Geological survey of, referred to,
3016.
Grants of land to settlers in, recom
mended, 2308, 2409.
Great Britain desires that boundary
line with, be marked out, 2655.
Hudsons Bay Co., in. (See Hudsons
Bay Co.)
Indian schools in, 4576.
Indians in —
Appointment of Indian agents
among, recommended, 2496.
Depredations of, discussed, 2434.
2494, 2873, 2894, 2896, 2900, 291i;
2941.
Number of, 2453.
Eeferred to, 3015, 3016.
Land office in, recommended, 2663,
2714.
Lands in —
Granted for Construction of wagon
roads, frauds in, 5195.
Granted to, for Willamette Valley
and Cascade Mountain "Wagon
Eoad Co., 4665.
Granted to Hudsons Bay Co. by
Great Britain, 2073.
Grants of, to settlers, recom
-mended, 2308.
Opened to settlement by proelama
tion, 6018.
Eeferred to, 2662.
Set apart as public reservations by
proclamation, 5719, 5859, 5864.
Light-houses to be erected in, 2557.
3902.
Mail facilities to, recommended, 2247
2307, 2354, 2489, 2560.
Provisions for, 2409.
Military posts in, recommended, 2190.
National rights in, must be main
tained, 2247.
Officers of, referred to, 2494.
Overland mail route, recommended,
2247, 2354.
Population of, 2435.
Eeferred to, 2272, 2305.
Report on, by Lieut. Wilkes, referred
to, 2013.
Seat of government of —
Conflict of opinion respecting es-
tablishment of, and recommenda-
tions regarding, 2685.
Correspondence with Governor
Gaines relative to, 2684.
Territorial government over, recom-
mended, 2307, 2354,, 2408, 2434.
Approval of act to establish, and
reasons therefor, 2456.
Oregon, The —
Mentioned,, 6317.
"Voyage and arrival of, from San
Francisco, discussed, 6316.
Oregon Boundary. (See Northwestern
Boundary.)
Oregon Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Orient, importance of, for American ex-
ports, 6914. (See also the several
countries and Asia.)
Original Package; — In the enforcement of
the prohibitory liquor law in the State of
Iowa the officers were frequently charged
with exceeding the limits of the state's
jurisdiction in interfering with the traffic
In spirits. State officers seized and confis-
cated liquors which It was claimed by the
owners were sent Into the state for reship-
ment to points outside the jurisdiction of
the state courts. State officers defended
themselves under the prohibition amend-
ment to the constitution. In 1890 the Su-
preme Court of the United States, in the
ease of Leisy & Co. vs. Hardin, held that
the plaintiffs, brewers in Illinois, had the
right to carry liquors into any state and
sell them In the original package without
reference to local prohibitory or restrictive
laws. The decision of the Court rested on
the right of Congress to have exclusive con-
trol of interstate commerce. Congress there-
upon passed a law giving states control of
the liquors so imported, although in the
original package.
Oriskany (N. Y.), Battle of.— In August,
1777, Gen. Burgoyne sent a detachment of
his army, consisting of 200 regulars, Sir
John Johnson's Royal Greens, and some
Canadian rangers and Indians, under Col.
St. Leger, to operate in western and cen-
tral New York and ultimately to join the
main army under Howe at New York. St.
Leger proceeded by way of t'he St. Law-
rence Elver, Lake Ontario, and the Oswego
and Oneida rivers to within a few miles
of Fort Stanwix (now Schuyler, near the
Oriskany
Encyclopedic Index
Ozania
present city of Rome, on the Mohawk Klver.
The post was garrisoned by iess than 1,000
men, under Colonels Gansevoort and Willet.
Gen. Herliimer collected the militia of Try-
on County and advanced to the assistance
of the fort. On Aug. 6 when about six
miles from the post, near Oriskany, he fell
Into an ambush and was fiercely assailed
by the British and the Indians under Brant.
By reason of a successful sally by WiUet
the assailants were repulsed, but not with-
out the loss' of 400, including many of the
leading patriots of that region. St. Leger
made no official report of his loss except
that of his Indian allies. The flght lasted
several hours and was one of the most
fiercely contested conflicts of the war. St.
Leger, deserted by liis Indian allies, retired
precipitately to Canada.
Orkney Islands, loss of American troops
near, 8637.
Orleans, Territory of.— The old name for
the present State of Louisiana. In March,
1804, after the purchase of Louisiana from
France, Congress divided the territory, cut-
ting off that portion between Texas and the
Mississippi River and from the Gulf of Mex-
ico north to the parallel of lat. 33° north
and establishing it as a territory, with Wil-
liam C. C. Claiborne as governor. In 1810
the citizens of Baton Rouge, territory of St.
Francisville, overcame the local Spanish gar-
rison, shot the Spanish governor and es-
tablished the Territory of West Florida
After the people of West Florida had elected
a governor and framed a constitution Presi-
dent Madison issued a proclamation (465)
directing Governor Claiborne, of the Terri-
tory of Orleans, to take possession of West
Florida and annex it to .Orleans. In Feb-
ruary, 1811, an act was passed "to enable
the people of the Territory of Orleans to
form a constitution and state government."
April 12, 1812, an act was passed for the
admission of the State of Louisiana into the
Union, extending the limits to include all
between the Mississippi and Pearl Rivers
south of lat. 31° north.
Orleans Territory:
Admission into Union applied for by,
483.
Citizens of, must be protected, 372.
Indians inhabiting, 386.
Territory south of Mississippi Terri-
tory and eastward of Mississippi
Eiver, added to, 465, 469.
Expenses incurred incident thereto,
482.
Osage Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Payment of interest due, referred to,
4058.
Treaty with, 464, 474, 554, 614, 616,
767, 883, 889, 912, 1040, 3393, 3578,
3833, 3843.
Osbom vs. United States Bank, Ohio.—
A leading case in the Supreme Court, Sep-
tember term, 1819. involving the right of
a State to tax United States property.
Osbom, auditor of the State of Ohio,
through his deputy forcibly took from the
United States Bank at Chillicothe $100,-
000 and delivered it to the State treas-
urer as payment to the State under the
act which was passed by the legislature
Feb. 8, 1819, levying taxes upon banks do-
ing business In the State without author-
Izltlon of the State Iaw_. The United
States circuit court of Ohio decreed that
a restitution be made with interest. The
Supreme Court of the United States, hav-
ing been appealed to, affirmed the decision
of the circuit court, but gave no interest.
The opinion was delivered by Chief Justice
Marshall and was very elaborate. Justice
Johnson dissented on the point of juris-
diction. Clay, Webster, and Sergeant ar-
gued for the right of the bank to sue in
the circuit court of the United States.
(See also McCulloch va. Maryland.)
Osette Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Ostend Manifesto. — In 1852 France and
England, fearful of the filibustering expedi-
tions against Cuba and the possible future
favor of the United States toward such ex-
peditions, suggested a tripartite convention
in which each nation should disclaim all
Intention to obtain possession of Cuba and
should discountenance such possession hy
another power. With a view to promoting
negotiation with Spain for the purchase of
Cuba by the United States, Pierre SoulS,
American minister to Spain (empowered to
negotiate for the purchase of Cuba), John
T. Mason, minister to France, and James
Buchanan, minister to Great Britain, met
at Ostend, Belgium Oct. 9, 1854, and after
three days' session adjourned to meet at
Aix-la-Chapelle. They wrote to the United
States Government their views of the policy
the Administration should pursue. Their
message or communication is known as the
Ostend Manifesto. It declared that, as
Spanish oppression in Cuba was such that
the Island would speedily resort to arms to
free herself, the United States should offer
Spain a sum not to exceed $120,000,000 for
Cuba, and in the event of Spain's refusal
to sell, the United States would be justi-
fied In taking forcible possession of Cuba
rather than see it Africanized, like Santo
Domingo. President Pierce did not think
it prudent to act upon this suggestion, and
Soule, disgusted, resigned soon afterwards
and returned home.
Otoe and Missouria Reservation, Nebr.:
Right of way for railroad through, re-
ferred to, 4681.
Sale of, bill for, 4'656.
Ottawa Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Ottoman Empire. (See Turkey.)
bunalaska, The, condemned by Salva-
dor and subsequently presented to
United States, recommendations re-
Outrages on American Citizens. (See
Central America; Costa Eica; Mexi-
co; New Granada; Puerto Eieo; the
several powers.)
Over-capitalization (see also Business
and Corporations):
Evils of, discussed, 6647, 6712, 6976,
7039, 7077, 7130, 7132, 7139.
Power of Congress to regulate, 6647,
6712.
Overman Bill commended, 8493.
Overt Act (see also Act of Hostility) :
Avoided temporarily, 8210.
Necessary to persuade United States
of German hostility, 8209.
Ozania Eiver, , building of bridge over,
at Santo Domingo City by American
citizens, 5784.
Paciiic Forest
Encyclopedic Index
Pacidc Railroads
Pacific Torest Reserve, Washington.
(See Mount Eanier Forest Reserve.)
Pacific Highways. (See Transcontinen-
tal Highways.)
Pacific Ocean:
Claims of foreign powers to territory
on. (See Northwestern Boundary.)
Commerce on, force should be em-
ployed to maintain, 827, 928, 1115.
Harbor and breakwater on coast of,
recommended, 4572.
Junction between Atlantic and —
Desired, 2813, 2988.
Eeferred to, 2128, 2676.
Railroad from Mississippi Eiver to,
recommended, 2714, 2754.
Vessels to examine harbors in, 984.
War on, referred to, 4667.
Pacific Ocean Exploring Expedition, ex-
penses of, referred to, 994.
Pacific Bailroads.— In 1848 Asa Whitney,
a 'New York merchant, zealously advocated
the building of a railroad by the Federal
Government to the Pacific Ocean from some
point on the Missouri or Mississippi Elver.
A bill providing for such a road was Intro-
duced in the Senate. It was opposed by
Thomas H. Benton and finally tabled by a
vote of twenty-seven to twenty-one. The
next year Benton introduced a Pacific rail-
road measure of his own. In March, 1853,
an act was passed providing for surveys.
By 1855 Government surveyors had ascer-
tained practicable passes through the Rocky
Mountains. The rapid growth of the Pa-
clflc States in consequence of the "gold
fever" and the difficulty of communication
between the East and the West, on ac-
count of the vast extent of intervening
plains made railroad communication more
and more desirable. The hopelessness of
undertaking so stupendous a work with
private capital led many who otherwise
were opposed to the principle of Federal aid
to internal improvements to advocate the
building of the Pacific railroads under Gov-
ernment subsidies. In 1860 both the leading'
political parties in their platforms declared
in favor of building a road under national
supervision. The outbreak of the Civil War
and ttie necessity for closer military com-
munication aided the movement
The bill providing for the TJnlon Pacific
and Central Pacific roads was approved
July 2, 1862, and granted as subsidies 6
per cent gold bonds of the United States.
It gave to the Union Pacific $16,000 per
mile for the great plain west from Omaha,
Nebraska, $48,000 per mile for 150 miles
over the Rocky Mountains, and $32,000 per
mile for the remainder — In all, 1,034 miles,
$27,236,512 ; to the Central Pacific $16,000,
$32,000, and $48,000 per mile — in all, 883
miles, $27,855,562. Each company also re-
ceived 12,800 acres of land per mile of
road — 25,000,000 acres in all — by a subse-
quent act July 1, 1864. The companies
were allowed to Issue an equal amount of
their own bonds, which were to be a first
lien on the road, the Government bonds the
second. The time fixed for opening was set
at July 1, 187S, and the road was actually
opened May 10, 1869. The two lines were
;oined, with Impressive ceremonies, at
Promontory Point, Utah. The last tie, of
laurel wood, with a plate of silver upon It,
was laid, and the last spike, made of Iron,
silver and gold, was driven in the presence
of distinguished men. The officers, of the
road and a large concourse of visitors from
East and West were present. Telegraph
wires were attached to the last rail, and
the last blows were signaled upon bells In
Washington and other large cities. In many
places large crowds had gathered to receive
the first Intimation, conveyed almost In-
stantaneously over the electric wires, that
the great work was complete. When the
signal was received In San Francisco and
elsewhere all the church bells were rung,
and cannons were fired. The general direc-
tion Is nearly east and west on or about the
fortieth degree of latitude. The total
length of the road built by the two com-
Eanles from Omaha to San Francisco is 1,-
17 miles. July 2, 1864, a charter with
subsidies was granted to the Northern Pa-
cific from Lake Superior to Puget Sound,
a distance of 1,800 miles, and thence to
the Columbia River, 200 miles. The land
granted to this road amounted to 47,000,000
acres, or 73,000 so. miles. The road was
commenced In 1870 and was to have been
finished In 1879, but In 1873 the company
became embarrassed and ceased work. In
1875 the company was reorganized and the
time for construction extended. On Sept. 9,
1883, the last spike was driven at a point
fifty miles west of Helena, Mont. The
Great Northern extension from Pacific Junc-
tion. Mont., to Lowell, on Puget Sound,
was completed Jan. 6, 1893.
July 27, 1866, the Atlantic and Pacific
road was chartered to run from Springfield,
Mo., to the Pacific on or near the thirty-
fifth parallel of latitude, a distance of 2,-
000 miles, and subsidized with 42.000.000
acres of land. March 3, 1871, the Southern
Pacific road was chartered to run from Mar-
shall to El Paso, Tex., thence through- New
Mexico and Arizona to Los Angeles, Cal.,
along the thirty-second parallel of latitude.
The act granted the same amount of land
per mile as the others had received.
In May, 1878, an act. known as the Thur-
man Act, was passed, prescribing more
stringent terms for the repayment of gov-
ernment advance. In addition to the
amounts retained out of sums due for gov-
ernment service, the Act of 1862' provided
for the payment of five per cent of the
net earnings of the company. The Act of
1878 retained the entire amount due to the
companV^s for government service, one-half
to be applied to Interest payments, one-half
and it required, moreover, the annual pay-
ment of a fixed sum ($850,000 for the Union
Pacific and $1,200,000 for the Central Pa-
cific), or so much thereof as might be
necessary to make the total obtained by
adding the five per cent of net earning;:
and the whole of the compensation retained,
equal to twenty-five per cent of the net
earnings. The method of computing the net
earnings was prescribed, and it was pro-
vided that the additional payments thus re-
quired were not to be exacted unless the net
earnings were sufficient to meet the Interest
on the bonds prior In lien to the government
mortgage.
A recent memorandum of the Secretary of
the Treasury shows that there is due the
United States from the Central Branch of
the Union Pacific Railroad, on account of
bonds issued, the sum of $3,570,304.87, of
which $1,600,000 represents the principctl
and the remainder, interest accrued.
Pacific . Bailroads :
Condition and obligations of, dis-
cussed, 6169.
Construction of, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Buchanan, 2988, 3057, 3103, 3181
Fillmore, 2622.
Pacific Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Paints
Johnson, 3560, 3651.
Lincoln, 3333, 3388, 3451.
Taylor, 2558.
Funding of debt of, recommended,
4837.
Government aid to, recommended,
2988, 3057, 3103, 3181.
Indebtedness of —
Change of plan for payment of,
suggested, 5111.
Commission to report plan for set-
tlement of, recommended, 5640.
Commission to settle, 6343, 6389.
Discussed, 6169.
Order regarding, 6233.
Eeport of Commissioner of Eail-
roads on, discussed, 5640.
Eeports of commissioners on, dis-
cussed, 5181, 5384.
Lands granted in aid of, discussed,
2823, 3651, 4065, 4944, 5384.
Forfeiture of, discussed, 4837, 5379.
Eevocation of withdrawal of, re-
ferred to, 5197.
Kansas Pacific, sale of, discussed,
6342, 6390.
Northern Pacific agreements with In-
dians for sale of lands for use of,
4657, 4740, 4779, 4864, 4954, 5178.
Southern Pacific, contracts and leases
of, referred to, 4958.
Union Pacific —
Bonds issued to, referred to, 3794.
Completion of section of, extension
of time for, recommended, 3582.
Construction of—
Discussed by President —
Johnson, 3560, 3651.
Lincoln, 3333, 3388, 3451.
Eeferred to, 3891, 4003.
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 6169.
Johnson, 3881.
.Injunction restraining election of
officers of, referred to, 3963.
Location of, referred to, 3578.
Points of commencement of, dis-
cussed and order regarding,
3401, 3435.
Reorganization of, recommended,
5969.
Eeport of Attorney-General regard-
ing, referred to, 4434.
Eeport of Government directors of,
referred to, 4661, 474.5, 4780,
4850, 4958, 4959.
Sale of, discussed, 6273, 6342. 6389.
Subscriptions to capital stock of,
order designating place for re-
ceiving, 3476.
Pacific Squadron. (See Manila Harbor
(Philippine Islands), Battle of.)
Pacific Telegraph, referred to, 3329,
3382, 3445, 3564, 3643.
Pacific Trade, economic possibilities of,
discussed, 7052. (See also Commerce
and Trade.)
Pacifists, stupidity of, 8389.
Packing Industry. (See Meat Packing
and Beef Packers.)
Pact of London. (See Secret Treaties.)
Pactole, The, referred to, 1172.
Padroni System, discussed, 6065.
Painting presented to Congress, Lincoln
and Cabinet at reading of Emanci-
pation Proclamation, 4435.
Paintings of Presidents.— Offleial por-
traits of the presidents as they hang in the
White House have been selected as the best
woi-k of contemporary artists. Most of
them have been painted by order of Con-
gress. They are :
George Washington Gilbert Charles Stuart
John Adams George P. A. Healy •
Thomas Jefferson Eliphalet F. Andrews
James Madison Unknown
James Monroe Unknown
John Quincy Adams George P. A. Healy
Andrew Jackson Eliphalet F. Andrews
Martin Van Buren George P. A. Healy
, ; H. Harrison Eliphalet F. Andrews
John Tyler. George P. A. Healy
James K. Polk George P. A. Healy
Zaohaiy Taylor Eliphalet F. Andrews
Millard Fillmore George P. A. Healy
Frankhn Pierce George P. A. Healy
James Buchanan Eliphalet F. Andrews
Abraham Lincoln Unknown
Andrew Johnson Unknown
U. S. Grant Thomas LeClear
R. B. Haj^s Daniel Huntington
James A. Garfield Eliphalet F. Andrews
Chester A. Arthur Daniel Huntington
Grover Cleveland S. Frost Johnson
Benjamin Harrison S. Frost Johnson
William McKinley Joel Benziger
Theodore Roosevelt John S. Sargent
William Howard Taft Max Zorn
Paints, Oils and Varnishes. — As early
as 1795 the use of paint for houses was
common in the United States. In cities
and towns the inside of the house, at least
was painted, and in all but the cheaper
wooden buildings the outside carried a coat
of paint. The white house with green win-
dow Winds, was for many years of our
early history the typical American dwell-
ing.
A small mill for making linseed oil was
started In New York City in 1715, and in
1718 John Prout, Jr., erected a linseed oil
mill in Connecticut. In 1786 four oil mills
were in operation in Lancaster County Pa
These greatly stimulated the use of paints
and in 1804 Samuel Wetherill made the
first successful attempt to manufacture
white lead. Red lead, as well as white
was made by him of as good a quality as
that imported.
In 1806 experiments in cofor making
were carried on by Anthony Tiemann, and
within the year he began the regular manu-
facture of paints. His first productions
were rose pink. Dutch pink, French green
and blue. The manufacture of Prus-
sian blues was begun in 1809, nnd in 1820
chrome yellow was added to the products
of this establishment. By 1811 Philadel-
phia mills were turning out twenty-two
difrpmnt colors of paint, and Ihree small
red-lead factoiips at Pittsburg (the first
west of the Alleghanies), were luaklug au
Paints
Encyclopedic Index
Paints
annual product of $13,000. Chrome paints
of first quality in the early days of the In-
dustry commanded as much as $3 a pound,
and the business was profitable. Extensive
deposits of chromic iron, discovered in
Chester County, Pa., gave an added impetus
to paint grinding, and its growth was strong
and steady. The succeeding decade saw
the Industry firmly established in New
York. By 1820 there were extensive works
in Brooklyn and New York, producing red
and white leads, chrome and other colors,
while a factory in Rensselaer County. N. Y.,
was turning out annually $4,500 worth of
Prussian blue extracted from the by-product
of a tannery.
Before 1828 all the varnish used in this
country was imported. Its use, while less
general than that of paint, was common
enough to recommend it to manufacturers
as a profitable business, and the first estab-
lishment for its manufacture was founded
by P. B. Smith in -New York City in 1828.
Tilden & Hurlburt, the first permanent con-
cern in the business, was esiablished in
1830. This firm made the first importa-
tions of gum copal from Zanzibar and the
west coast of Africa, and was the first to
export American varnish, consigning a
quantity to Mexico and South America in
1836. The quality of the American goods
proved so exceptional that they not only
competed with, but in a great measure sup-
planted, the exportations of the European
manufacturers. The stimulation of a heavy
foreign demand added to increased domes-
tic consumption so swelled the business
that the matter of obtaining supplies of
the gums used became of serious impor-
tance. In 1857 such quantities of these raw
materials were used that the manufacturers
were obliged to establish a system of direct
trade with the west coast of Africa.
The growth of the paint and varnish
business had in the meantime affected the
oil mills. Up to 1836 these mills had used
only home grown seed, and a capacity of
fifty bushels a day was a fair average out-
put. With the growing use of linseed oil
new methods were found necessary, and the
firm of J. & Xj. K. Bridge, of Brooklyn, in
that year imported the first carffo of flax-
seed from Sicily. Odessa, Alexandria and
Calcutta, were successively opened as supply
points of this rapidly increasing trade.
In 1850 the paint industry entered upon
a new era. The zinc deposits of New .Jer-
sey, opened in that year, gave an adequate
and cheaply worked supply of ore from
which the oxide could easily be reduced.
This zinc oxide, in the form of white pow-
der, had long been recognized as a valuable
substitute for white lead as a body for
paints. It had up to this time, however,
received little attention owing to the small
amount available for the market. The new
and abundant supply turned the attention
of manufacturers to experiments in this di-
rection, and its use has since become gen-
eral. Several mines were opened and soon
were placing the white powdery zinc oxide
on the market.
Mineral paints, made from different
earths,' came into prominence about this
time, tinder strong claims of being fire-
proof and Indestructible. Ready mixed
paints were introductd to the trade in 1852.
About 1857 D. F. Tiemann & Co. made
carmine from cochineal, a monopoly there-
tofore held by France. In 1860 they made
a blue, soluble in water, for laundry use,
and free from acid. They also established
the manufacture of quicksilver' vermilion,
' previously monopolized by England.
The National Lead Company, which con-
trols.the greater part pf the output of white
lead in this country, includes and operates
its own oil and paint grinding mills, as
well as the lead factories proper, and with
a capitalization of about $.SO,0Oq,OO0. is
the largest concern in the paint business.
Reports were received from 855 establish-
ments engaged in the paint and varnish in-
dustry in 1914, the total products of which
for the year were valued at $149,049,820.
Of these 855 establishments, the principal
business of 799 was the manufacture ol
paints or varnishes, and 56 were engaged
primarily in other industries but produced
paints or varnishes to the value of $3,507,-
182 as subsidiary products.
The products in 1914 comprised colors or
pigments valued at $17,407,955 ; oil paints,
$70,582.461 ; water paints and kalsomine,
$2,202,281 ; varnishes and .iapans, $36,061,-
203 : fillers, including putty, $3.2,39,174 ;
bleached shellac. $;1,806.802 ; and other prod-
ucts to the value of $17,749,944.
The more important materials used in the
manufacture of paint and varnish are lead
in the form of pig lead or as oxides and.
white lead, zinc white, iron oxides and
other earth colors, barytcs, dry colors, gums,
and solvents or vehicles such as linseed oil.
turpentine, benzine, and wood and grain
alcohol. , ,
Returns were received from 108 establish-
ments engaged in the production of essential
oils in 1914, the total products of which tor
the year were valued at $2,565,361.
Including the by-products and the essen-
tial oils distilled for others, the total produc-
tion in 1914 comprised 363,991 pounds of
peppermint, valued at $601,617; 94,20:1
pounds of spearmint, valued at $238,074 ;
41.178 pounds of black birch, valued at
$67,691 ; 6,000 pounds of wintergreen,
valued at $24,538 ; 4.702 pounds of worm-
wood, valued at $9,040 ; and oils of camphor,
cedar, cloves, lemon, parsley, patchouli,
pennyroyal, sandalwood, sassafras, tansy,
etc., to the value of $348,522.
Petroleum Refining. — Petroleum or rock
oil was first found in the United States In
1635, in what is now southwestern New
York or northwestern Pennsylvania. A
well in Kentucky in 1829 yielded such great i
quantities that it was drained into the Cum-
berland River or burned. It was only used
to a small extent for lighting a^d in medi-
cine. The petroleum districts of the United
States are western Pennsylvania, Ohio, In-
diana, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Texas, California, Oklahoma, and in smaller
quantities in other western states. The re-
fining of petroleum is based upon the sepa-
ration of the component hydrocarbons by
a process of fractional distillation.
The method of mining or drilling for
petroleum is the same as that used In sink-
ing gas or artesian water wells. Cheap
and rapid transportation Is secured by
means of a series of tanks about thirty
miles apart, connected by underground
pipes, . and the oil is forced from one set
of tanks to another by means of pumps.
Pennsylvania has about 25,000 miles of
such pipe line.
The main sources of petroleum are shale
and bituminous coal. Most of the American
petroleum comes from the Devonian and the
Upper Silurian, and is usually found in
sandstone, etc. (old sand} between layers
of slate or shale. The origin of petroleum
is in doubt, but it is commonly believed that
It is due to the destructive distillation of
plant and animal matter by heavy pressure
Paints
Encyclopedic Index
Palestine
Year
Barrels
1900 .
. . 63,620,529
1905 .
..134,717,580
1910 .
..209,537,248
1915 .
..281,104,104
1916 .
. .S00,767,l.">8
1917 .
. ,33n.,Sl.'),fi01
1918 .
..355,927,716
1919'
..377,719,000
from above. The fact that petroleum Is
usually touuc] in • the neighborhood of gas
and coal would seem to bear out this theory.
When the petroleum comes from the well,
it is thick and darli, with a specific gravity
of about .8. It usually contains, as it
emerges, ' gas, ethane, propane and butane,
but these soon escape. There is also usually
sand and water in it, which are easily sepa-
rated.from the potroleum proper by allow-
ing it to settle in tanks.
The distiUinK process separates the pe-
troleum into three components : 1, benzine
distillate ; 2, burning oils ; 3, residuum. The
first is re-distilled anil yields gasoline anil
naphtha. From the second, kerosene is
obtained. From the third, lubricating oils,
vaseline, etc.
About two-thirds of the petroleum of the
world in normal years comes from the
United States.
The following table shows the growth of
the petroleum production in the Uniti'd
States :
Tear Barrels
1856 . . . 2,000
1860 . . . 500,000
1865 ... 2,497,700
1870 . . . 5,260,745
1875 . . . 10,926,94.-.
1880 ... . 26,286, 12.S
•1885 . . . 21,858,785
1890 . . . 45.823,572
1895 . . . 52,892,276
♦Subject to revision.
The total production in a recent ycai-, in
barrels of 42 gallons, came from the fol-
lowing fields :
Appalachian 29,232,000
Lima, Indiana 3,444,000
Illinoi.'! 12,430,000
.Mid-Continent 396,891,000
Gulf Coast 20,568,000
Rocky Mountain .' 13,584.000
California 101,564,000
The proportion of petroleum burnished hy
the se^'eral states of production may be seen
from the following table for the number of
barrels produced in a recent year :
Oklahoma 103,347,070
California 9T,.-j31,997
Kansas 45,4,-|l,017
Texas 38,750,031
Louisiana 16,042,600
Illinois 1.3..365,974
Wyoming 12..^n6,287
West Virginia 7.866,628
Pennsylvania 7,407,812
Ohio 7,2S.),005-
Kentucky 4,367,968
iNew York 808,843
The exports of domestic petroleum from
the Dnited States in a recent fiscal year
were as follows :
(rallons
Illuminating oil 014,137,071
Has oil and fuel oil 090,895,418
Lubr., heavy parafllne oil, etc. .338,801,134
Crude oil 334,3.-.7,795
Gasoline 294,939,131
All other naphthas 185.265,961
Eesiduum, including tar 48,300,361
The above figures do not include about
20,000,000 barrels of bunker oil. , Most of
the exports of crude oil go to Canada, Cuba
and Argentina.
In a recent fiscal year the imports of
petroleum, coming almost entirely from
Mexico, were as follows : Crude, 2,826,-
860,902 gals. ; benzine, gasoline, naphtha,
22,037,592 gals.; all other refined, 59,851,-
312 gals.
The following table shows the world pro-
duction of crude petroleum In a recent year :
i Country Barrels Percentage
United States 355,928,000 67.82
Mexico 63,828,000 13.58
Russia 40,456,000 7.89
Dutch East Indies 13,285,000 f 2.63
Eoumania 8,730,000 1.74
India - 8,000,000 1.52
Persia 7,200,000 1.43
Galicia 5,592,000 1.11
All Othei;* 13,263,221 2.63
♦Includes, in order of production, Peru,
Japan, including Formosa ; Trinidad, Egypt,
Argentina, <4erma"ny, Canada, Venezuela,
Italy and Cuba.
Of the world's production of petroleum
from 1857, the United States has accounted
for 61%, Russia for 25%, Mexico for 4%.
Of the 176 refineries in 1914, 48 were in
Pennsylvania, 38 in California, 23 in Okla-
homa, 13 in Kansas, 9 in Texas, 0 in Illinois.
8 in New Jersey, 7 in Ohio, (i in New York,
4 in Colorado, 3 In Maryland, 3 in West
Virginia, 2 in Wyoming, and one each in
Indiana, Louisiana, and Missouri.
Palestine. — The modern country to which
this name is applied extends eastward from
the southeast shore of the Mediterranean,
although its exact boundaries are indefinite.
The natural and historic boundaries, how-
ever, run from the desert on the east : along
Mount Hermon over to the Litanl on the
west to the plateau of the Lebanon, thence
to the sea for the northern boundary ; and
in the south to the Gulf of Aktiba and the
Sinaiti'' Desert, although of old Palestine
proper was usually considered as not ex-
tending beyond a line drawn east and west
through the southern end of the Dead Him.
In 1917 Palestine was conquered from the
Turks by a British army under General
Allenby. In November, 1917, the British
Government gave notice of a willingness
to turn the land over for a National Home
for the Jewish race, in accordance with the
aspirations of Zionism (q. v.). In April,
1920, the Supreme Council of the Allied
Powers gave Great Britain a mandate over
Palestine.
According to the former Ttirkish admin-
istrative divisions, Palestine consisted of
13,724 square miles, with a population of
675,000. Under British occupation, how-
ever, Palestine included only the laud west
of the Jordan, consisting of about 9,000
square miles, with a population of 647.850.
Of these. 515,000 were Mo'slems, 63,300
were .Jews and 62,500 were Christians. The
population of the largest towns was as
follows : Jerusalem, 60.000 : Jaffa, 54,000 :
Shechem (Nablus), 28,000; Hebron, 22,000;
Haifa, 20,000 ; Bethlehem, 15,000 ; Nazareth,
15,000.
During the twentieth century, a number
of Jewish colonies were established in Pal-
estine, largely on the cooperative basis.
These are doing much to restore the fer-
tility of the soil, which for generations had
been barren and uncultivated. By 1920.
there were 20 of these colonies in Judea ;
8 in Samaria ; 14 in Lower Galilee, .and 6
in Upper Galilee. Altogether, there were
more than 15,000 persons in these settle-
ments. The language in common use, as
well as in the schools, in these colonies is
Hebrew.
Schooling for the Christian and Jewish
population is chiefly in the hands of pri-
vate agencies, the schools maintained by the
British administration being for the greater
part for the Mohammedan population. At
latest reports, the Zionist organization eon-
Palestine
Encyclopedic Index
Pan-American
trolled 36 kindergartens, with 2,800 pupils ;
48 elementary schools, with 7,000 pupils ;
12 intermediate schools, with 1,250 pupils,
in addition to a number of trade, technical
and agricultural schools.
It Is reported that there are some 250,000
sheep, 320,000 goats and 15,000 camels in
I'alestine. The chief crops are wheat,
barley, maize, peas, grapes,, oranges. The
inost common minerals are limestone, gyp-
sum, rock salt, phosphates, asphalt, sul-
phur.
The most important ports of Palestine are
Jaffa, Haifa, Acre and Gaza. The railroads
in operation are the Kantara-Haifa line,
'■lol miles ; the Ludd-Jerusalem, 42 miles ;
the Hapha-Beersheba, 37 miles ; the Haifa-
There are approximately 800 miles of public
roads.
Palestine:
American citizens outraged in, 3015.
Disposition of, 8841, 8878. (See also
Turkey.)
Jewish state in, favored, 8575.
Palisades Interstate Park. — The State of
New York possesses several forest reserva-
tions and also several parks. One, the
Niagara reservation, comprises the land
about the great cataract, purchased at a
cost of $1,000,000. The State Forest l-re-
serve in the Adirondack region on Oct. 1,
1913, contained l,495,257.29i acres, and the
Catskill Forest Preserve on the same day
contained 112,750.15 acres. There are also
Letchworth Park, about the falls of the
Genesee River ; John Boyd Thatcher Park,
about the Indian Ladder, in Albany County,
and islands in the St. Lawrence river.
Lastly, there is the Palisades Interstate
Park, partly in the state of New Jersey and
partly in the state of New York, extending
along the Hudson river in its I'alisades re-
gion, and extending north so as to include
Bear mountain. The development of this
park to its present great dimensions began
in 1910, when Mary D. Harriman, widow of
the late Edward H. Harriman, informed
Governor Hughes of New York that, follow-
ing the wishes of her husband, she was will-
ing to convey 10,000 acres of land in the
counties of Orange and £ockland to be used
as a park, and also give $1,000,000 toward
the park project.
In the following years, by contributions
from private and public sources, and by
bond issues, the Interstate Park Commis-
sioners added more than 20,000 acres to the
Harriman gift ; constructed roads ; devel-
oped a great recreation ground at Bear
Mountain ; connected sections of the Park
with land at Bear Mountain donated by
New York State ; and opened up generous
facilities for camping. At the present time,
the Interstate Park comprises the strip of
land along the Palisades from Fort Lee
north across the New Jersey-New York line
to a point opposite Dobbs Ferry ; a rectan-
gular section of land near Blauvelt ; and
the great stretch of land stretching south-
westward into the Ramapo Mountains from
the Hudson River at Bear Mountain.
In a recent year, more than 50,000 per-
sons spent an average of ten days at the
camps in the Park ; more than 400,000 per-
sons came to Bear Mountain by way of the
Hudson River boats ; with probably as many
more coming by automobile and on foot,
and almost 650,000 persons visited the
Palisades at the Dyckman Street ferry, with
130,000 crossing the Hudson at Alpine, op-
posite Yonkers.
Palo Alto (Mexico), Battle of.— Jiay 7,
1846, Gen. Taylor started from Point Isa-
bel, with a force of 2,288 men, to relieve
Fort Brown, twenty-seven miles away. At
noon on the following day, when about half
way between Point Isabel and Fort Brown,
Taylor's army sighted the enemy at the
water hole of Palo Alto. The regular Mexi-
can force under Arista numbered 6,000 men.
and there were some irregular troops' and
twelve pieces of artillery. Battle was imme-
diately begun and fiercely fought until sun-
set. By the light of the moon and the
burning prairie grass the belligerents buried
their dead. The Mexicans lost 200 killed
and 400 wounded. The American loss was
only 4 killed and 40 wounded.
Palo Alto, Mexico, Battle of, referred
to, 2295, 2300, 2342.
Pan-American Congress. (See Interna-
tional American Conference.)
Pan-American Exposition.— To illustrate
the progress of civilization in the western
hemisphere during the nineteenth century,
there was held at Buffalo, N. X., from May
1 to Nov. 2, 1901, an International Amer-
ican Fair, participated in officially by the
various states of the Union, by Canada, and
the South and Central American countries.
The site covered an area of 350 acre's and
the buildings were artistically designed and '
arranged so as to present an allegorical
study of man's struggle with the elements
and his final triumph. The color scheme,
as well as the artistic beauty, gained for
the grounds the name of the Rainbow City.
The total attendance was 8,179.674. The
cost of the exposition was $8,860,757, and
the receipts $5;5.S4,643, a deficit of $3,326.-
114. President McKinley was shot by an
assassin in the Temple of Music while hold-
ing a reception there Sept. 6, 1901, and died
eight days later at the home of the presi-
dent of the Exposition.
Pan-American Exposition, referred to,
6675.
Pan-Americanism, spirit of, 8071, 8104.
Fan-American Bailroad, discussed, 6864.
Pan-American TJnion.— The Pan-American
Union (the new name given to the Interna-
tional Bureau of American Republics by thcj
Fourth International American Conference,
which met at Buenos Aires in July and
August, 1910) was established under the
recommendation of the First Pan-American
Conference, held in the City of Washington
in 1889-90 for the purpose of developing
and maintaining closer relations of com-
merce and friendship between the twenty-
one Republics of the Western Hemisphere.
Its first report was transmitted to Congress
in 1891 (5047). It was reorganized by the
Third and Fourth Pan-American Confer-
ences, "held. In Rio de Janeiro in 1906, and
in Buenos Aires in 1910. respectively, and
its scope widened by imposing many new
and important duties. The Pan-American
Union regularly communicates with these
governments, and furnishes such informa-
tion as it possesses or can obtain on a great
variety of subjects to all of the Republics
and to their officials and citizens. It is
the custodian of the archives of the Pan-
American Conferences, and is especially
charged with the performance of duties im-
posed upon it by these conferences. 'The
Pan-American Union is sustained by con-
tributions from the American Republics in
proportion to their population and is gov-
erned by a board composed of their dlplo-
Pan-American
Encyclopedic Index
Panama
matle representatives at Washington, and
the Secretary of State of the United States,
who IS ex-oflicio its chairman. It Is there-
fore strictly an international Institution
and not a subordinate bureau of any one
government. Its chief executive officer Is
the Director-General, elected by this gov-
erning board. It publishes a monthly bulle-
tin containing the latest Information re-
specting the resources, commerce, and gen-
eral progress of the American Republics, as
well as maps and geographical sketches of
these countries, handbooks of trade, travel,
and description, and special reports on
commerce, tariffs, Improvements, conces-
sions, new laws, etc. It also conducts a
large correspondence not only with manu-
facturers and merchants in all countries
looking to the extension, of Pan-American
trade, but with writers, travelers, scientists,
students, and specialists, for the purpose
of promoting general Pan-American Inter-
course. Another and pi-actlcal feature ot the
Pan-American Union is the Columbus
Memorial Library and reading room, which
contains 22,000 volumes relating to the
American Republics. (See also Interna-
tional American Conference and American
Republics, Bureau of.)
An illustration of the Pan-American
Union's building at Washington will be
found opposite page 8346.
Fan-American Union:
Discussed, 7664.
Financial conference, 8071.
Practical work of, 7415.
Pan-Germanism denounced, 8230, 8278,
8295, 8389. (See also Germany.)
Panama. — The Republic of Panama occu-
pies the Isthmus which connects the conti-
nent of North and South America, and
lies between Costa Rica and Colombia, hav-
ing formed a department of the latter Re-
public until Nov. 4, 1903. The isthmus of
Panama lies between 7° 15'-9° 39' N. lati-
tude and 77° 15'-83° 30' W. longitude, and
has an area of 32,380 square miles. The
northern coast Is washed by the Caribbean
Sea (Atlantic) and the southern coast by
the Pacitic Ocean.
Physical Features. — The country is every-
where mountainous, with a ridge, more or
less defined, extending from the western
to the eastern boundary, and consists of
a succession of hills and valleys with little
open plain. ThS Cordilleras of Chlrlqui
and Veraguas of the west are continued
eastward by the Cordilleras of Panama and
Darien.
The largest rivers are the Tulra, or Rio
Darien, of the eastern province, rising
close to the Caribbean shore and flowing
into the Pacific in 'the Gulf of San Mi-
guel ; the Chepo, or BayanoJ with a simi-
lar course to the Bay of Panama ; and the
Chagres which flows northward through
Gatun Lake to the Caribbean, part of its
course being utilized for the Panama Ca-
nal. The only lake is that of Gatun, which
has been formed by the construction of a
dam in order to raise the water level of the
Canal.
Although lying within the tropics the
climate Is not unhealthy, and the mean
temperature varies little throughout the re-
public, being about 80° Fahrenheit. The
wet season lasts from April to December,
and the drv season Is bracing with dry
northeast winds from the Caribbean.
Hintory. — Panama seceded from Colom-
bia on November 4, 1903, and was recog-
nized as independent by the United States
on the following November 13. In 1914, a
treaty was signed by the Colombian and
United States Governments whereby Col-
ombia recognizes the Independence of Pana-
ma. It was ratified by the United States
Senate in 1921.
Government. — By the constitution adopted
In February, 1904, apd amended in De-
cember, 1918, there is a Chamber of
Deputies of 33 members. The President is
elected for a term of four years. There are
three vice-presidents, and a cabinet of five
members. Each of the eight provinces into
which the country is divided has its gov-
ernor.
The President appoints diplomatic repre-
sentatives, Judges of the Supreme Court and
the governors of the ^>rovinces. His veto
power over legislation is similar to that of
the President of the United States.
There Is no standing army, but tho In-
tegrity of the republic has been guaranteed
by the Unltid States. Order Is maintained
by a small national police force.
Population. — The census of 1920 showed
the population as 401,428, not Including
Indians. The chief religion is Roman (Cath-
olicism.
Education. — Primary education is nomi-
nally free and compulsory. The Republic
maintains 398 public schools, which have
more than 300 teachers and 22,000 pupils.
There are also a National University and a
number of private schools.
Finance. — The latest annual budget was
in rhe neighborhood of $3,500,000. The for-
eign debt, issued in the United States for
railway construction, is about $3,(100,000,
and there is an internal debt of about
$2,500,000, more than halt of which is owed
to the United States. The Republic has
about $6,000,000 in United States banks and
some $750,000 in the National Bank of
Panama. The unit of currency is the bal-
boa, equal to $1.00 in United States cur-
rency.
Production and Industry. — The soil is ex-
tremely fertile, but there is little cultiv.i-
tion, and nearly one-half the land is un-
occupied. The greater part of the culti-
vated portion Is under bananas, other crops
including coffee, tobacco and cereals, while
cacao grows wild In the northwestern
province, of Bocas del Toro. The forest-
clad hills provide valuable medicinal plants
and dyestufts, India rubber, mahogany and
other timber and cabinet woods. The live
stock is being greatly Improved and there
are excellent grazing grounds. Immigra-
tion is encouraged by the grant of small
farms to likely settlers on favorable terms.
The fisheries are important, and the pearl
industry is being largely exploited with
profitable results. Gold Is mined in the
eastern provinces, and copper is found in
the west, where also valuable coal depos-
its exist and await development. Iron is
also found, and there are productive salt
mines on Parlta Bay, while mineral springs
abound.
The most Important product Is bananas.
About 500,000 bushels of coffee and 40,000
quintals of sugar are produced annuallv.
The live-stock estimates include 200,000
cattle, 15,000 horses, 2,000 mules, 30,000
pigs and 5,000 goats.
The latest figures showed imports of
about $8,000,000 and exports of about $5.-
000,000. Most of the trade is with the
United States. The chief exports are ba-
nanas, cocoanuts, balata, hides and gum.
Transportation. — The only railway runs
along the canal route from Colon (or
Asplnwnll) to Panama and was included
In the purchase by the United States.
This interoceaulc Hoe is fifty miles in
Panama
Encyclopedic Index
Panama
length and was built by United States
capitalists In 1855. In the province of
Bocas del Toro the United Fruit Company
(American) has constructed about 150
miles of railway (including spurs) on their
banana plantations, which cover an area of
35,000 acres. This line is being extended
toward Port Llmon (Costa Rica), .ind only
twenty miles separate the tonninul from
that port. The Chiriqni line is 65 miles
long. There are about 100 post-offlcfjs and
40 telegraph offices.
Citim. — The capital is Panama, with a
population of 62,000. Colon has sonio 2fi,-
000 Inhabitants, and other towns are David,
Los Santos, Santiago, Las Tablas, Bocas
del Toro.
Panama:
Constitution of, submitted, 6862.
Consul of TJnited States in, absence
of, referred to, 3844.
Costa Rica and, arbitration of dis-
pute between, 7657.
Federal district created in, 5083.
Government of, organization of, 68fi5.
Independence gained, 6741, 6771, 6787,
6809, 6814, 6833.
Neutrality protocol with, 8011.
Police reform in, under United States
guidance, 7416.
President of, congratulations to and
from, on armistice of World War,
8626.
Eelations with, 7664.
Eevolts against Colombia, details of,
6810, 6811, 6832, 6833.
Revolution in, correspondence relat-
ing to, 6747, 6809, 6825. (See also
Panama Canal and Colombia.)
Sailors, United States, indemnifica-
tion for outrages against, 7417.
Treaty with, for canal, 6816, 6823,
7020.
United States grants $10,000,000 to,
6855.
United States minister to, status of,
6938.
United States removes discriminat-
ing tonnage duties against, 6954.
Vessels from, duties on, suspended
by proclamation, 4871.
Panama, Treaties with. — By The treaty
concluded In 1903 for the construction of
a ship canal, it was agreed that the United
States guarantees and will maintain the
Independence of Panama. The United
States receives in perpetuity the use, occu-
pation, and control of a zone of land for
the construction, maintenance and protec-
tion of a canal ; said zone to be ten miles
in width and extending five miles in width
on both sides of the central line of the path
of the canal, and three marine miles at
each end out to sea. Grant Is also made
of other parts of territory adjacent which
may be necessary for the construction and
mamtenance of the canal. This grant in-
cludes the islands of Perico, Naos, Cu-
lebra, and Flamenco.' The rights, power,
and authority of the United States within
the zone shall be the same as though the
territory were an integral part of the Unit-
ed States. The use of rivers, streams and
bodies of water is included in the grant.
The Republic of Panama acknowledges
a monopoly to the United States of the
construction of the canal within the limits
of its possessions. At the same time the
grants hereby conveyed do not in any de-
gree Invalidate the claims of private land-
holders within the area ; nor does the grant
interfere with the rights of the public to
roads and means of conveyance within the
territory. Damages arising from the occu-
pancy by the United States are to be ap-
praised by a joint commission of Panama
and the United States and awards for dam-
ages resulting from the construction of the
canal shall be paid solely by the United
States.
The United States has the power to make
such alterations in the sanitary arrange-
ments of the cities of Panama and Colon
as It may deem desirable for the supply
of water and tlie distribution of sewage ;
and for such improvements made at the
cost of the United States, that government
has the authority to impose reasonable
taxes upon the inhabitants of the cities.
Authority is granted to the United States
to adopt the measures necessary for the
maintenance of law and order within the
limits of these cities. The Republic of
Panama transfers to the United States all
rights of sovereignty over the canal, the
New Panama Canal Company, and the Pan-
ama Railroad Company which it has in-
herited from the Republic of Colombia, and
authorizes the United States to exercise all
such rights and privileges in the construc-
tion of the Canal.
The only charges, imposts, and duties
which are to be levied by the United States
at the entrance to the canal and by the
Republic of Panama shall be the ordinary
charges of toll for the use of the canal
and the imposition of customs duties upon ■
such merchandise as is destined to be con-
sumed within the Republic of Panama.
No national, state, or municipal taxes shall
be Imposed upon the can^l or upon any
machinery, or material of construction, or
auxiliaries and accessories of all kinds.
The telegraph and telephone lines within
the zone shall be at the service of the gov-
ernment of the Republic of Panama for the
transmission of official messages at the cus-
tomary and usual rates. There shall be
free and safe access permitted by Panama
to the Immigration to the zone by persons
of all classes and nationalities.
The United; States agrees to pay to Pan-
ama for the rights, privileges and conces-
sions herein grnnted ten millions of dollars
in gold on ratification of this treaty and
an annual sum of two hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, beginning nine years after
ratification.
The canal shall be neutral in perpetuity
and shall be opened In accordance with
the treaty between the United States and
Great Britain on this subject. Free trans-
portation of vessels, troops, and munitions
of war Is granted to Panama. If any terms
or conditions of this treaty shall prove in-
compatible with later terms or conditions
granted to a third power, the Republic of
Panama agrees to waive its rights on such
points. No anterior pledges, debts, liens,
trusts, or liabilities granted by the Republic
of Panama shall operate to the detriment
of the United States and any damages re-
sulting therefrom shall be liquidated by
Panama.
AH claims for remuneration in connec-
tion with the canal construction which have
been arranged for or any profits which
might accrue to the advantage of Panama
are hereby .renounced by that power.
Panama
Encyclopedic Index
Panama Canal
The United States has full power to po-
lice, fortify, and station tioops to preserve
order or maintain safety in the canal zone.
The rights hereby granted to the United
States shall not be lessened or Impaired
bv any changes In the laws or In the po-
litical integrity of Panama. Naval or coal-
. Ing stations will be conve.ved by Panama to
the United States by sale upon terms to
be agreed upon should such become neces-
sary for the better maintenance or preser-
vation of the canal.
An extradition treaty was signed in 1904,
the terms of which will be found In the
Encyclopedic article. Extradition Treaties.
Panama also became a party to the con-
vention between the United States and the
several republics of South and Central
America for the arbitration of pecuniary
claims and the protection of inventions,
etc., which was signed in Buenos Aires in
1910 and proclaimed in Washington July
29, 1914. (See South and Central America,
Treaties with.)
Panama Canal.— The idea of constructing
a ship canal between the Atlantic and Pa-
cific oceans occurred to navigators as soon
as the form of the continents of Korth and
South America became known. As early
as 1.527 H. de la Serna surveyed a canal
route from Chagres to Panama. Lopez de
Gomarfa in 1551 proposed to the Spanish
Government the building of a canal. In
. 1698, when William Paterson, an adventur-
ous Scot, had established an English colony
on the Isthmus of Darien which he called
N'ew Caledonia, he advocated constructing
a canal across the narrow strjp of laud sepa-
rating the two great oceans. Many sur-
veys have been made of the Isthmus with
the view of piercing it with an artificial
waterway. The United States obtained
some very complete maps of the country by
the explorations of Col. Hughes in 1849,
Lieut. Strain in 1854, Lieut. Michler In
1858, and Commodores Selfridge and Tuli
in 1870 and 1875. (See pages 2580, 2670.)
In 1869 a treaty was signed by representa-
tives of the United States of Colombia and
the United States, providing for the con-
struction of a canal by the latter nation,
but there was so much delay and the
treaty was so amended b.y the Colombian
Congress that the matter was temporarily
dropped by the United States. In 1877
the Colombian Government granted a con-
cession to a Frenchman named Wysp for
constructing a canal giving him "exclusive
privilege for the excavating of a canal
between the two oceans," the terminal ports
and waters to be neutral.
At the invitation of Ferdinand de Les-
seps, an International Scientific Congress,
met at Paris in 1879 and hastily decided
upon the Panama route for a canal, the
American members of the congress refrain-
ing from voting. The Panama Canal Com-
pany was then formed, with De Lesseps aa
president, and the Wyse concession was pur-
chased for 10,000,000 francs. The route
selected was close to the present line of
the Panama Railroad, crossed the Chagres
Eiver six times and contemplated a long
and deep cut through the Cordillera. The
cost had been estimated at $169,000,000,
and shares of the company had been talsen
by French citizens, many of them of the
middle class, to the amount of $260,000,-
000. Work was begun in 1881, but the
affairs of the company were conducted with
so great corruption, that it became bank-
rupt in 1889, and a year later suspended
work. In 1892, after an investigation of
the affairs o' the company, De Lesseps, his
son, the contractor EifEel and others in
?iublic life , were arrested on charges of
raud in the management of the funds In-
trusted to them for use In the construction
of the canal, and In March of the follow-
ing yvm-. the New Panama Canal Company
was formed, with renewed concessions to
terminate in April, 1910.
, In the meantime American Interest in an
interoceanic canal had revived, and there
was much discussion of a route across the
territory of Nicaragua. The Nicaragua
Canal Association obtained concessions from
Mcarajiua and carried on work of construe
tiou from 1889 until 1893, when it became
bankrupt. In 1899 a commission was ap-
pointed by Congress to determine the most
feasible route for an isthmian canal. It
reported that if the rights and property
of the New Panama Canal Company could
be purchased for a reasonable price a canal
across Panama could be built more eco-
nomically than one across the territory of
Nicaragua, and recommended the Panama
route. In order that the United States
might have exclusive control over the pro-
posed canal the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
(q. v.), between Great Britain and the Unit-
ed States, was superseded by the Hay-
Pauncefote Treaty on Dec. 17, 1901. In
1902, in accordance with the report of its
commission appointed in 1899, Congress
passed an act (approved June 28), author-
izing the President to secure for the United
States the property of the New Panama
Canal Company, at a cost of $40,000,000
It was further provided In the act, that
"should the President be unable to obthln
for the United States a satisfactory title
to the property of the New Panama Canal
Company and the control over the neces-
sary territory of the Republic of Colombia
* * * within a reasonable time and upon
reasonable terms, then the President should
endeavor to provide for a canal by the
Nicaragua route." The Colombian Govern-
ment, however, on Aug. 12, 1903, rejected
the Hay-Herrau Treaty, which had been
negotiated between it and the United States,
thereby refusing the United States' final
offer of $10,000,000 down and $250,000 an-
nually for the Panama concession. (See
Hay-Herran Treaty, page 6828.)
On Not. 3, 1903, the Department of Pana-
ma proclaimed its independence of Colom-
bia, and having been recognized as an in-
dependent republic by the United States,
on Nov. 18, the Isthmian Canal Treaty be-
tween the United States and the Republic
of Panama was signed at Washington.
According to this treaty the Republic of
Panama granted to the United States the
perpetual use, occupation and control of a
zone of land ten miles wide (five miles on
each side of the central line of the route of
the canal) across the Isthmus, complete
sovereignty to which was to pass to the
United States. The price paid the Republic
of Panama by the* United States was $10,-
000,000 down and $250,000 annually as long
as the convention should continue, beginning
nine years after the date of ratification.
The United States also guaranteed the
neutrality of the canal and the independ-
ence of the Republic of Panama. Ratifica-
tions of the treaty were exchanged at Wash-
ington on Feb. 26, 1904. According to an
act of Congress approved April 28, 1904,
the President took possession of the Canal
Zone, and organized Its government. The
President also appointed an Isthmian Canal
Commission of seve.n members, and directed
that the War Department, through this
Commission, should undertake the supervis-
ion of the construction of the canal and the
government of the Canal Zone. On April
4, 1905, this Commission was dismissed and
a second appointed, the responsibility being
Panama Canal
Encyclopedic Index
Panama Canal
placed chiefly upon the executive committee
o( three members.
The circumstances under which Panama
seceded from Colombia and was recognized
by the United States have caused much com-
ment unfavorable to the United States in
foreign countries and more particularly in
Central and South America. It was charged
that the United States had practically in-
duced Panama to secede, and then had
recognized it as independent, so that Col-
ombia would be unable to put down the
secession. President Eoosevelt emphatically
denied these charges, and in return charged
that Colombia had been trying to overcharge
. the United States for permission to con-
struct the Ca^al. His account of the cir-
cumstances under which Panama seceded
and was recognized by the United States
as independent will be found on pages 6747,
6809, 6815, 6825, 6857, 6862, 6865, 7020.
In 1914, during the administration of Presi-
dent Wilson, a treaty was signed with Col-
ombia whereby the United States agreed to
pay a sum of money to Colombia (finally
fixed at $25,000,000) and expressed regret
that aaything had occurred to mar the
good relations between the two countries ;
whereas Colombia agreed to recognize the
Independence of Panama and to resume dip-
lomatic relations with the United States.
In 1921 the United States < Senate ratified
the treaty, after deleting the clause express-
ing regret.
Illustrations of the Canal and of its
construction will be found opposite pages
6668, 6700, 6828, 6892, 6988, 7020, 7052,
7146.
Up to a recent date the construction of
the Canal had cost the United States about
$375,000,000. In addition, some $30,000,000
had been expended for fortifying the Canal.
Including the purchase of rights, cost of
operation, etc., the total appropriations by
Congress for the Canal have been about
$475,000,000. Against this sum had to be
set about $35,000,000 received as tolls.
The canal is about fifty miles in length
from deep water in the Caribbean Sea
(Limon Bay) to deep water in the Pacific
Ocean. The minimum width is 300 feet
and the depth is forty-one feet. Vessels
entering the canal from the north, or
Caribbean, end pass through a sea level
channel for about seven miles to the Gatun
dam and locks, where, by a series of three
lifts, they are raised to eighty-five feet
above sea level.
The Gatun dam, which Is one of the larg-
est ever built, crosses Charges River where
it flows between two hills. It Is 8,000
feet long across the top and 2,100 feet
thick at its greatest width at the base.
Its crest is 115 feet above sea level, or
thirty feet above the level of Gatun Lake.
The dam expands the waters of the river
and lake Into one continuous body of water
164 square miles in area, backing them
through the Culebra cut thirty-one miles
to Pedro Miguel lock. A spillway 285 feet
wide carved 1,200 feet through solid rock
carries o£E the surplus water.
The Culebra cut, which ranks with the
Gatun dam as one of the engineering won-
ders of the age, pierces the highest part
of the mountain range on the Isthmus.
Gold Hill, 330 feet high, had to be cut
down to within forty feet of sea level,
necassltating the removal of nearly a hun-
dred million cubic yards of earth. The cut
ia 300 feet wide at the bottom and nine
miles long.
After reaching this elevation through the
locks at Gatun. vessels proceed thirty-one
miles to Pedro Miguel lock and are lowered
thirty feet to MIraflores Lake, whence, by
two more locks, they are lowered to the
level of the Pacific Ocean, eight miles from
deep water.
There is a' 1,000-foot dry dock at the
Pacific side, and the locks are each 1,000
feet long and double. The time of transit
through the canal of an ordinary ocean-
going vessel is from seven to eight hours.
Passage through the locks Is aided by elec-
tric "mules" or locomotives on tracks at
each side, and vessels may proceed under
their own steam at the entrances and
through Gatun Lake.
The canal puts the United States on an
equa' footing with Europe in trading with
Australia, New Zealand, China, Japan,
Hawaii and the Philippines. A ten-knot
ship can now run by way of the canal
from New York to Yokohama in fifteen
days less than It takes to go by the Suez
route, bringing the Japanese city nearer to
New York than Liverpool by 1,805 miles.
Prom New York to all Paeifle American
ports north of Panama, there will be a uni-
form reduction by way of the canal of
8,415 miles and to such ports south of
Panama a uniform reduction of about
5,000 miles. Between New York and Hawaii
or Manila the saving is about 5,800 miles.
Distances from Liverpool and Antwerp to
points on the Pacific coasts of North and
South America are shortened about 6,000
and 2,600 miles, respectively. Wellington,
New Zealand, by canal is 2,542 miles nearer.
New York, and the distance between them
2,759 miles less than between Wellington
and Liverpool.
The chief engineer in charge of the work
was Col. George W. Goethals, U. S, A,
The construction of the canal was made
possible largely through the sanitation work
of Gen. W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., under
whose supervision the fever germs and
■disease breeding mosquitoes were eliminated
at' a cost to the government of more than
twenty million dollars. The number o£
men on the work reached the maximum In
March, 1913, when 44,733 were employed,
of whom between 5,000 and 6,000 were
Americans. From that date the number be-
fan to decrease. Work was begun in
'ebruary, 1910. The oflSclal opening was
set for Jan. 1, 1915, but work progressed
so far beyond expectations that vessels
and cargoes passed tnrough six months
earlier.
Early in May, 1914, cargoes of sugar
from Hawaii were transferred to barges
and towed through the canal, reloaded ajid
landed in New York May 27th. June 8th,
the Allianca, 4,000 tons, was towed through
the locks. The question of the exemption
of American coastwise vessels from payment
of tolls is discussed by Presidents Wilson
and Taft. (See also Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty.)
During a recent fiscal year, there passed
through the Canal 2,478 commercial ves-
sels, with cargoes of 9,374,499 tons, and
on which $8,935,872 was levied for tolls and
other charges. Of these ships, 1,129 were
United States, 753 were British, 106 were
Norwegian, 60 French, 79 Chilian, 118 Jap-
anese, 9 Danish, 75 Peruvian, 26 Italian
41 Spanish, and 29 Dutch. Two hundred
sixty-seven non-commercial vessels also
passed- through the Canal. The expenses
for operation and maintenance during the
year were $6,548,272.
The tolls are as follows : On merchant
vessels carrying cargo or passengers, $1.20
for each 100 cubic feet of actual earning
capacity, with 40% less for vessels in
ballast without passengers or cargo. Upon
Panama Canal
Encyclopedk Index
Panama Canal
naval vessels other than hospital ships,
transports, colliers and supply ships, $.50
per displacement ton. Upon army and navy
transports, colliers, hospital ships, supply
ships, $1.20 per net ton.
Panama Canal:
Act for control of, said to violate
Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 7758, 7933.
American citizens left destitute by
stoppage of work on, to be trans-
ported to United States, 5437.
American control of, to encourage
coastwise trade, 7761.
Army officers detailed to duty on,
7923.
Belligerent vessels, rul^s for use, of,
by, 8008.
Board of Engineers, pay of, 6976.
Bonds — ■
Available for new purposes, 8112.
Issue of, to relieve stringency, 7198.
British protest against tolls, 7760.
Canal Zone. (See Canal Zone.)
Clayton-Bulwer treaty for protection
of, discussed, 2580, 2617, 2903,
. 2943, 3117, 4628.
Coastwise trade tolls. (See Tolls, he-
low.)
Commission, 7020.
Expenses of, 6730.
Reorganization of, 7100.
Committee created to open, 7944.
Construction, progress of —
Earthquake, 7278.
Engineers' report, 7269.
Gatun dam, 7269.
Lock system, 7268.
Organization, 7275.
Bock excavation, 7278.
Type of, 7277.
Water supply, 7279.
Control and supervision of, 4713.
Control of —
Compared with Suez Canal, 7758,
7759.
Discriminates only in favor of
coastwise trade, 7761.
Controlled and owned by United
States, 7759.
Defensive Sea Area proclaimed for,
8338.
Description of, 7305.
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4628, 4713.
Buchanan, 3048, 3116.
Cleveland, 4888, 4912.
Grant, 3987.
Hayes, 4474, 4537, 4562.
Jackson, 1491.
Johnson, -SeeS, 3885.
Pierce, 2901, 2943.
Polk, 2361.
Koosevelt, 6663, 6718, 6806, 6827-
6857, 7020, 7022, 7100, 7229, 7268,
7287, 7348.
Taft, 7374, 7518, 7688, 7758.
B-7
Taylor, 2554, 2580.
Wilsoh, 7920, 7923, 7930, 7933.
Dock facilities, supplies and repairs
furnished by Government, 7688.
Employees —
Appointments and pay of, 7924.
Compensation for, when injured and
for' relatives, when killed, 7990.
Conditions of work for, 7923, 7926.
Pay of, regulations concerning,
8806.
Engineers accompanying Mr. 'Taft,
report of, 7268.
Engineers on plans of, pay of, 6970.
Exemption from tolls. (See Tolls,
below.)
Fortification of, necessary, 7519.
Trench interests on and title to, ac-
quired, 7020, 7348.
Governor of, vested with authority
under Espionage Law, 8539.
Great Britain protests against remis-
sion of tolls, 7758, 7933. '
Hay-Pauneefote treaty invoked in
opposition to control of, 7758, 7933.
Illustrations of, 6668, 6700, 6828, 6892
6988, 7O20, 7052, 7146.
Legislation for maintenance and con-
trol, 7687, 7903, 7905, 7918, 7920.
Maintenance and management by
government, 7521.
Memorandum to accompany signature
of act for control of, 7758.
Neutrality and protection of, during
World War, proclaimed, 8266.
Neutralization of, 7759.
Opening of, committee to supervise,
7944.
Opening of, official, proclaimed, 8859.
Operation of, under War Department,
7923.
Rules for, changed, 8557.
Permanent organization for govern-
ment of, 7920.
Progress of, 7686, 7805.
Railroad companies forbidden to own
and operate ships using, 7521, 7962.
Referred to, 1647.
Roosevelt, President, inspecting. (See
illustration opposite 6892.),
Route, history of negotiations for,
6808.
Ships owned by railroads forbid use
of, 7762.
Suez Canal and, compared respecting
control, 7761.
Tolls-
Discussed by President —
Taft, 7758, 7761.
Wilson, 7933.
Bates proclaimed, 7766, 7806.
Remission of, to American ship-
ping, 7688. '
Repeal of, requested, 7933.
Should be fixed by President, 7688.
Tonnage estimated, 7519.
Panama Canal
Encyclopedic Index
Panama-Pacific
Treaty regarding, with —
Colombia, 3900, 4011, 4068.
Discussed, 6740, 6816, 6828, 6829.
Great Britain, 2580, 2617, 2903,
2943, 3117, 7933.
New Granada, 2361, 2902, 3048,
3116.
Panama, text of, in full, 6816-6823.
Zone of United States influences,
6815, 7903, 7905, 7918, 7920, 7930.
Type of, 7020.
Use of —
By warships oi belligerent nations,
8008.
Denied owners ©f ships violating
anti-trust law, 7763.
To be in interest of public, 7762.
War regulations for, 8266.
Washington cf&ce established for,
7930.
Zone. (See Canal Zone.)
Panama Canal Commission, 7020.
Panama City, quarantine regulations
for, 7966.
Panama Congress. — A congress called by
the several South and Central American
Republics to meet at Panama lb June, 1826,
to consider the rights of those states.
Only one preliminary meeting was held,
and the adjourned session of the con-
gress for 1827 never occurred. Among
the objects of the proposed congress were
the regulations of commercial Intercourse,
assent to the doctrine that free ships make
free goods, and an agreement that "each
will guard against the establishment of
any future European colony within Its
borders." The failure of the congress
demonstrated the Inadvisabillty of an alli-
ance between the United States and the
smaller Republics. President Adams warm-
ly favored the establishment of closer rela-
tions with the Central and South American
Republics, and was supported in the Cab-
inet by Henry Clay, whose Influence In
Congress was considerable. In opposing
the alliance of American Republics in a
speech in the Senate in April, 1826, John
Randolph referred to the coalition of Adams
and Clay as a "coalition between the Puri-
tan and the blackleg." This remark pro-
voked a duel between Clay and Randolph.
Panama Congress. (See Panama, Isth-
mus of.)
Panama, Isthmus of:
Affairs of, discussed, 5083.
Congress of nations assembles at,
868. (See also Tacubaya.)
Adjournment of, 922.
Compensation to American repre-
sentatives at, 936.
Discussed, 884, 895, 922.
Measures for protection of rights
of American citizens, 2949, 3046,
3100, 5083, 5391.
Purposes of, discussed, 895.
Eeferred to, 887, 893, 906, 911, 933,
997.
Treaties concluded at, not ratified,
951.
United States invited to be repre-
sented at, 868, 884.
Appropriations for, recommend-
ed, 894.
Ministers nominated for, 886.
Death of one of, 922.
Instructions to, '997.
Secretary to mission appointed,
886.
Forces of United States sent to keep
transit across, open, 4911.
Freedom and security of communica-
tions across, must be preserved,
2978.
Measures for protection of American
citizens and' property in, recom-
mended, 2949, 2978, 3046, 3100,
3181, 4622, 4911, 5083, 5391.
Naval stations on, recommended
4573, 4586.
Outrages committed on American cit
izens in, 3072.
Bailroad across —
Discussed by President —
Buchanan, 2978, 3116.
FiUmore, 2657.
Pierce, 2901, 2948.
Taylor, 2555, 2580.
Treaty regarding, with —
Great Britain, 2580.
New Granada, 2361, 2555, 3116.
Survey of —
Authority for diverting appropria-
tions to, referred to, 4000.
Discussed, 3987.
Taxation of American citizens when
in transitu across, referred to, 2636.
Panama-Pacific Exposition in 1915.— An
International Exposition to commemorate
the opening of the Panama Canal to com-
merce and celebrate the four hundredth
anniversary of the discovery of the Pacific
Ocean was held in San Francisco in 1915.
Congress, In February, 1911, decided the
rival claims of San Francisco and New
Orleans for Federal recognition as the site
of the exposition In favor of the former
city, the vote of the House of Representa-
tives being 259 to 43. The act of Feb. 15,
1911, provided that "Whenever It shall be
shown to the satisfaction of the President
of the United States that a suitable site
has been selected and that the sum of not
less than $15,000,000 will be available to
enable the Panama-Pacific International
Exposition Company, a corporation organ-
ized and existing under and by virtue of
the laws of the State of California, for the
purpose of inaugurating, carrying forward
and holding an exposition at the city and
county of San Francisco on or about Jan.
1, 1915," then the president Is authorized
to Invite by proclamation all foreign coun-
tries and nations to such proposed exposi-
tion. By act of March 4, 1911, the presi-
dent was further authorized to invite tiii>
representatives of foreign nations and their
fleets to assemble at Hampton Roads, Va.,
and thence the representatives to go to the
city of Washington to be formally wel-
comed by the president, after which he will
there review the assembled fleets as thev
proceed with them to Hampton Roads anij
start on their voyage for San Frunclsco.
Panama-Pacific
Encyclopedic Index
Paoli
In pursuance of this authority. President
Taft, on Oct. 14, 1911. in the eit.v of San
Francisco, in the presence of a great as-
semblage, turned the first spadeful of earth
at the fair site. The exposition, which was
the third of Its class held in the T'nited
States and the twelfth held In the world,
was opened on February 20, 1915, and
closed at midnight on the following De-
cember 4. Thirty-nine foreign nations and
thirty-seven states and three territories
were represented in the exhibits, the value
of all the displays at the Exposition being
placed at more than $350,000,000.
The average daily attendance at the Ex-
position was about 62,000, with the highest
daily attendance, 348,472 on November 2.
The total attendance was 18,413,399. There
were more than eight hundred congresses
and conventions held at or in conjunction
with the Exposition.
The site of the, permanent buildings of
the' Exposition was Golden Gate Park, with
. the temporary structures on the bay shore
overlooking the harbor. A huge perma-
nent convention hall, however, constructed
in connection with the exposition, was
placed in the civic center of the city.
Paiiama-Pacific International Exposi-
tion, services of, 7819.
Panama Eailroad, employees of, com-
pensation to be paid for injuries to,
7990.
Panama Bailroad Steamship Line, pier
at Hoboken leased to, 8873.
Panchita, The, seizure of, on African
coast, 3017.
Panics. — A word formed from the name of
the Greek god of shepherds, who is said
to have had the power of inspiring sudden
fright without apparent cause. It is now
commonly used to describe a state of fear
bordering on frenzy, from whatever cause
induced. In history great commercial crises
are spoken of as panics. England, Hol-
land and France have experienced them,
and the United States has passed through
several notable ones. Those most disas-
trous have usually followed general Inju-
dicious speculation in lands or inflated
securities. The crisis of 1816-1819 in the
United States, it is claimed, was due to the
speculation and disorder following the War
of 1812. The next occurred in 1825. A
very memorable panic was that of 1837.
The few years preceding had been marked
by extraordinary speculation, » carried on
with an unsound banking system. Jack-
son's "specie circular" caused many banks
to suspend, and credit was generally Im-
paired throughout the country. Govern-
mental aid was invoked by mapy flnancial
institutions, but without avail, as Van
Buren, who had succeeded to the Presi-
dency, insisted upon individuals righting
their own affairs. In 1857 another period
of inflation was followed by another panic.
Again in 1873 there was a severe mone-
tary crisis. Just twenty years later occurred
the last panic from which the country has
suffered. (See also Black Friday.)
The crisis of 1873 is usually 4ated from
the failure of Jay Cooke & Co., Sept. 18th.
The New York Stock Exchange closed on
the 20th and was not reopened until the
end of the month. Clearing House loan
certificates were issued in large quantities,
the last of which were redeemed Jan. 14,
1874. Thet-e had been certain premonitory
symptoms of the approaching collapse, and
there followed a long period of depression.
which did not reach Its lowest point
until three years later. The number of
business failures reported by commercial
agents in 1872 was 4,069, and by 1876, the
year of the deepest def)ression, the number
had steadily increased to 9,084.
The depression of 1893 was preceded
by reckless investments in foreign secur-
ities and was brought on by the shipments
of gold to Europe caused by the operation
of the act of Congress of July 14, 1890,
which required the purchase by the United
States Treasury of 4,500,000 ounces of
silver per month. When the gold reserve
held In the Treasury for the redemption of
United States notes fell to near $100,000,-
000, panic seized the business centers of
the country. Bank reserves in New York
fell from $25,439,925 In May to $5,481,975
In June. The financial tension was ren-
dered more acute by the news that the
Indian government had suspended the pub-
lic coinage of sliver. This caused insistent
demands for the repeal of the silver pur-
chase law. President Cleveland called an
extra session of Congress and the vicious
measure was repealed, whereupon recovery
was rapid, aided materially by imports of
gold and easier money.
Renewed activity in all lines of manu-
facture and commerce succeeded the panic
of 1893 and the year 1906 witnessed the
culmination of the remarkable industrial
expansion. In 1907 many great railway
and Industrial enterprises endeavored to
sell securities to augment their working
capital, with the result that the stock
markets felt the oversupply and prices fell
with a crash ; bank loans were called in
and debtors failing to respond were sold
out. The crisis was accentuated by the ef-
forts of a few men to corner certain stocks,
and their failure caused the suspension of
banks which held their securities as col-
lateral for loans. It transpired that the
market manipulators were in some Instances
officers of the banks making the loans, and
criminal indictments were secured against
them. This panic was relieved by J. Pier-
pont Morgan, who formed a pool of $25,-
000,000 to lend on approved security. (See
Currency Laws.)
Panics:
Bank of United States attempts to
bring about, 1250.
Banking system must be amended in
order to provide safeguard against ,
6654. (See also Banks and Bank-
ing.)
Derangement in moneyed institutions,
623.
Failures frequent in large cities, 630,
Labor, fall in price of, 630.
Pecuniary embarrassments existing
in Union, 629.
Prostrations of business, discussed by
President —
Buchanan, 2968, 3051.
Cleveland, 5833.
Grant, 4189, 4197, 4238.
Hayes, 4397.
Eoosevelt,'7040, 7050.
Tyler, 2057.
Van Buren, 1,541.
Paoli (Pa.) Massacre.— After the retreat
from Brandywlne Washington moved out on
the Lancaster road as far as Warden's Tav-
PaoU
Encyclopedic Index
Paper
ern Finding that Howe did not contem-
plate an attacli upon Beading, Washington
stationed Gen. Anthony Wayne with 1,500
men at Paoli, a retired and well-chosen
position, to be ready to fall upon the rear
o£ Howe's army. On the night of Sept. 20,
1777, Wayne was surprised, through the
treachery of the people of the country, and
T;00 of his men were Itilled. wounded, or
captured, with a loss of only an inconsider-
able number of the enemy. Wayne saved
his artillery and most of his baggage.
Papago Eeservatiori. (See Gila Bend
Eeservation, Ariz.)
Papal States.— A former dominion of Italy,
comprising the Romagna, the Marches,
Umbrla, and the present province of Rome,
and governed directly by the Papal See. it
was bounded on the north by the Lombardo-
Venetian Kingdom, on the east by the Adri-
atic Sea, on the southeast by the Kmgdom
of Naples, on the southwest by the Medi-
terranean Sea, and on the west by Tujcany
:ind the Duchy of Modena. In 1860 the
liirger part was annexed to Italy, ana the
remainder in 1870.
Papal States (see also Italy):
Annexation of, to Italy, refewed to,
4098. ,
Outrages on American citizens in,
3110.
Revolutions in, 2551.
Vessels of, discriminating &aties on,
suspended by proclamation, 942,
3022.
Paper and Wood Pulp Industry. — Re-
turns were received by the Department of
Commerce from 727 establishments engaged
in the paper and wood pulp Industry in
1914. Of the total number, 503 establish-
ments manufactured paper only, 63 wood
pulp only, and 161 both paper and wood
pulp.
The production of wood pulp in 1914
amounted to 2,894,650 tons, as compared
with 2,498,955 tons In 1909, the increase
being 15.8 per cent. In addition to the
domestic production there were used 534,395
tons of Imported pulp in 1914 and 301,392
tons In 1909, the increase for this item
l)eing 77.3 per cent.
The total value of the paper produced In
1914 was $294,355,873, as compared with
$235,242,437 in 1909, the Increase being
25.1 per cent.
The production of news paper in 1914
amounted to 1,313.284 tons, valued at
$52,942,774, as compared with 1,175,554
tons, valued at $46,850, .560, in 1909, the
increase in quantity being 11.7 per cent.,
and in value, 13 per cent. There were
manufactured in the later year 934,979 tons
of book paper, valued at $73,499,514, and in
the earlier, 694.905 tons, valued at $54,798,-
840, the Increase in quantity being 34.5 per
cent., and In value, 34.1 per cent.
The production of fine paper amounted
to 247,728 tons, valued at $34,054,918, In
1914, and to 198,213 tons, valued at $29,-
076,638. in 1909, tlie increase in quantity be-
ing 25 per cent, and in value, 17.1 per cent.
The production of wrapping paper was
881,799 tons, valued at $49,'372,753, In
1014, and 766,760 tons, valued at $42,456,-
427, in 1909, the increases being 15 per
cent, in quantity and 16.3 per cent, in value.
COMPARATIVE SUMMAEY OB- THE MANDFAC-
TUllE OF PAPEB A-N"D WOOD PULP.
Census
1914
1909
Number, of estab-
lishments
Persons engaged in
manufacture
Proprietors and
firm members
Salaried em-
ployees
Wage earners
Primary horsepower
Capital
718
95,616
221
6,838
88,457
1,613,916
1534,625,000
66,164,000
12,918,000
53,246,000
213,181,000
332,147,000
118,966,000
777
81,473
250
5,245
75,978
1,304,265
$409,349,000
50,315,000
9,510,000
40,805,000
165,442,000
267,657,000
102,215,000
7.6»
17.2
11.6'
30.4
16.4
23.7
30.6
Services
31.5
Salaries
Wages
35.8
30.5
Materials
28.9
Value of products. .
Value added by
manufacture
24,1
16.4
* Decrease.
LocaMon of Establiahmenta. — Of the 727
establishments reported in 1914, 152 were
located In New Yorlt, 86 in Massachusetts,
59 in Wisconsin, 54 in Pennsylvania, 48 in
Ohio, 44 in Connecticut, 39 In Michigan, 38
in Maine, 34 in New Jersey, 31 in New
Hampshire, 24 in Indiana, 23 In Vermont,
22 in Illinois^ 13 in Maryland, 8 each In
Minnesota, Virginia, and West Virginia, 7
In Delaware, 5 each in California and Ore-
gon, 3 each In Iowa, Kansas, North Caro-
lina, and Washington, 2 in Texas, and 1
each In the District of Columbia, Georgia,
Mississippi, Rhode Island, South Carolina.
Bistory. — The earliest form in which
paper is Itnown to history is the Egyptian
papyrus, made from the plant of the same
name, which is reputed to have been white
and strong, but all samples of which pre-
served to the present prove to have become
brown and brittle after, many centuries.
Paper In the modern sense of the word was
probably first made by the Chinese, as early
as the beginning of the Cliristian era. About
the seventh century A. D., Arabs of Samar-
cand had learned the process sufficiently to
make paper of cotton fibre, and that knowl-
edge never died out, although little paper
was made or used from about the tenth cen-
tury to the Renaissance. The Renaissance
naturally stimulated the demand for paper,
and in the fourteenth century the value of
linen as the* basts for paper was discovered
and put to use.
Early In the eighteenth century, Reamur,
the French scientist, through his study of
wasps' nests, spoke of the practicability of
making paper of wood, straw, grasses and
other fibres, but modern paper pulp was
made first in England about 1850, and its
manufacture for some years afterwards was
confined to that country.
In the United States, paper was first
manufactured near Philadelphia as early as
1690. The growth of the industry, how-
ever, was slow until within the last forty
years, during which time the introduction
of improved machinery and the use of wood
fibre as a material have brought about a
remarkable growth in the Industry. In the
decade 1899-1909 the value of products
Increased $140,330,802 or 110.2 per cent,
this percentage being higher than that for
any other decade since 1869. Some part
of this increase, however, was due to ad-
vance In prices, particularly during the
first half of the decade.
Paper
Encyclopedic Index
Paraguay
Up to 1899 native spruce and poplar
were used almost exclusively for pulp wood.
Since tliat time, however, the advancing
price of the native stock has led to the
Increased importation of these woods from
Canada and to the use of other and cheaper
native woods.
It is usually considered that 80% of the
paper manufactured becomes waste within
two or three years, and that, chiefly be-
cause of the cost of collection, only 25%
of this latter amount is redeemed.
Paper Currency. (See Currency; Fi-
nances discussed.)
Papua. — A British possession in the south-
eastern part of the island of New Guinea
(see also Oceania). The area, with that
of the attached islands, is 90,540 square
miles, with a population of some 250,000
natives and 1,000 Europeans.
The principal cultures are cocoanuts,
rubber and sisal hemp. The timber is espec-
lallj' valuable. There is much mining of
gold, and copper ore is being produced. The
trade is chiefly with Australia. The chief
exports are copra, sisal hemp, pearls and
pearl shells, gold, rubber and timber. The
latest figures showed annual imports of
$1,250,000 and exports of $850,000. The
administration of Papua is in the hands of
the Commonwealth of Australia. The
capital is Port Moresby.
Papua, copyright privileges granted to,
8480.
Paraguay. — Paraguay proper is an in-
land state of South America, lying between
the rivers Paraguay and Alto ParanS., and
bounded on the north by the Brazilian
province of Matto Grosso, while the Chaco
territory lying between the rivers Para-
guay and Pllcomayo (and bounded on the
north by Bolivia), is also claimed to be
Paraguayan, but forms the subject of a
long-standing dispute between Paraguay
and Bolivia. ' The whole country may be
said to -be bounded on the north by Bo-
livia and Brazil, on the east by Brazil and
Argentina, and on the south and west by
Argentina. The area of Paraguay proper
is about 65,000 square miles, and that of
the Chaco district is more than 100,000
square milea.
Physical Features.— The country consists
of a series of plateaus. The Paraguay and
Alto Parana Rivers are navigable at all
seasons. The Pilcomayo River is navigable
for 180 miles from Asuncion. The plateaus
are covered with grassy plains and dense
forest. The Chaco is practically a dead
level, pierced by great rivers ; It suflfers
much from floods and still more from
drought.
Historv. — Paraguay was visited in .1527
by SebasWan Cabot, and in 1535 was set-
tled as a Spanish possession. From that
date to 1776 the country formed part of
the vice-royalty of Peru, from which ft
was separated in 1776 and made an ad-
junct of the vice-royalty of Buenos Aires.
In 1811 Paraguay declared its independ-
ence of Spain, and from 1814-1840 was
Koverned by Francla, a Paraguayan despot,
who was succeeded by Lopez, 1840-1S62.
In 1862 Francisco Solano Lopez succeeded
his father, and in 1864 declared war
against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay be-
ing involved in the struggle. Against
these three nations Lopez conducted a Ave
rears' war, which terminated in his defeat
and death at the Battle of Cerro Cori,
March 1, 1870. This dogged struggle re-
duced the country to complete prostra-
tion, and the population, which was 800,-
000 in 1857, Is alleged to have fallen In
1870 to 250,000, of whom barely 30,000
were men.
Oovernment. — The present constitution
was adopted at the close of the war, and
under its provisions the head of the ex-
ecutive Is the President, elected by an
electoral college for four years and ineligi-
ble for office for eight consecutive years
after the expiration of his term. A Vice-
President is similarly elected, and succeeds
automatically in case of the death, expul-
sion or absence of the President. There is
a cabinet of five ministers.
Congress consists of two houses. The
upper nouse (Senate) has twenty members,
elected by direct vote for six years, one-
third renewable every two years ; the
Chamber of Deputies is composed of forty
members, elected by direct vote for four
years and renewable as to one-half every
two years.
There is a supreme court at the capital
with three judges, two courts of appeal,
a court of jurymen, and nine judges of
first instance.
Population. — The Inhabitants of Paraguay
are mainly of Guarani Indian descent.
The old Spanish stock has, to a lar^e ex-
tent, become mixed with the primitive in-
habitants, but during the last fifty years
a considerable number of Europeans have
settled in the country. The Paraguayan
Chaco is only partially explored and is in-
habited almost entirely by tribes of no-
madic Indians, estimated as 50,000 in num-
ber. The total population is estimated as
1,000,000, with some 60,000 foreigners. The
official language is Spanish, but Guarani is
the language of common usage. Roman
Catholicism is the established religion.
Production and Industry. — The chief nat-
ural products are timber and yerba mat€
(Paraguayan tea). Tobacco and fruit,
chiefly oranges, are grown for export, su-
gar cane, roots and frain for home con-
sumption. The chief industry is stocl;
raising. The primitive coi-dltlons of the
country and the scarcity of labor appear
to be, at present, unfavorable to agricul-
ture. The soil and Climatic conditions,
however, are said to be exceptionally prom-
ising.
Marble, lime and salt are found and
worked in small quantities. Iron ore Is
said to exist in large quantities, but coal
has not been found. Copper manganese
and other minerals exist, but the mineral
resources are practically unexplored.
The principal exports are oranges, bides,
tobacco, yerba mat6, timber, dried meat,
meat extracts, and quebracho extract.
The Imports are textiles, hardware, wines,
foodstuffs, fancy goods, drugs and cloth-
lng.i The principal sources of revenue are
Import and export duties, land tax, stamps,
stamped paper and sundry internal taxes.
Finance. — The last annual budget was
In the neighborhood of $5,000,000. The
standard of value Is the gold peso, equal to
$1.00 In United States currency, with a
paper peso in circulation whose value has
depreciated to almost nothing. The latest
figures for the foreign debt placed It at
about $5,500,000, with an internal debt of
some $2,750,000, not Including the paper
currency.
A recent cattle census showed 5,250,000
cattle, 600,000 sheep, 478,000 horses, 17,000
mules, 18,()00 asses, 61,0()0 pigs and 87,000
goats. There are seven sugar refineries in
Paraguay, the last annual sugar production
being 1,7(J0 tons.
The actual value of the goods exported
annually Is about $12,000,000, with about
Paraguay
Encyclopedic Index
Parcel Post
$10,000,000 for the imports. In the last
calendar year, the United States exported
to Uruguay goods valued at $1,813,798 and
imported from Uruguay goods valued at
^51,179,992. The chief , export from the
United States was sugar.
Commumcationa. — The main port Is the
capital, Asuncion. In a recent year, It was
visited by some 3,705 vessels, representing a
tonnage of 415,000. There Is a railway
from Asuncion to Encarnaclon, a distance
of 232 miles, affording through train serv-
ice between Asuncion and Buenos Ayres.
There are several smaller railroads under
construction and in contemplation. There
are practically no good roads and transport
is difficult and costly. There are 64 tele-
graph offices, with 2,050 miles of line, and
some 400 post-offlces.
Cities. — -The population of Asuncion is
more than 100,000. Other towns are Vil-
larrica, 26,000 ; Concepcion, 15,000 ; Cara-
pegua, 15,000 ; Luque, 15,000 ; Encarna-
clon, 12,500.
Paraguay:
Affairs in, referred to, 4069.
Boundary question v^ith Argentine
Republic, submission of arbitra-
tion of, to President of United
States, referred to, 4449.
Claims of United States against,
2980, 3050, 3091, 3114, 3195, 3270,
3281.
Commissioners appointed to adjust,
3050.
Convention regarding, 3108.
Naval force sent to, to av^ait con-
tingencies, discussed, 3050, 3091.
Satisfactorily settled, 3091.
Convention with, award of commis-
sioners under, discussed, 3195, 3268.
Imprisonment of American citizens
in, 3884, 3898.
ilinister of United States to —
Controversy with President of, dis-
cussed, 3883.
Difficulties, referred to, 3890,
3898, 3899.
Withdrawn, 3987.
Questions with, regarding right of
asylum discussed and referred- to,
3883, 3890, 3898, 3899.
Treaty with, 2759, 2813, 3091, 3108,
3114.
Ratification of —
Delayed, 2914.
Refused, 2980.
Vessels of United States seized or in-
terfered with by, 2952, 3046, 3091,
3195.
War with Brazil —
Good offices of United States ten-
dered, 3776, 3883.
Referred to, 4078.
Paraguay Expedition. (See illustration
opposite page 2428.)
Paraguay, Treaties with. — A treaty of
friendship, commerce, and navigation was
concluded in 1859. Concessions to the
United States include free navigation of
the Paraguay River as far as the bound-
aries of Brazil and of the right side of
the Parana in the dominions of Paraguay
on like terms as are conferred upon other
nations ; vessels may discharge all or part
of the cargo at the ports of Pilar or may
proceed to Asuncion. Rights and conces-
sions enjoyed by other nations are conferred
and shall accrue to the United States.
Equitable imposition of charges, tolls, and
fees ; freedom of importation and exporta-
tion is equally enjoyed by the United States
and Paraguayan vessels.
The rights of citizens of the United
States to conduct trade, commerce, and to
follow trades, vocations, and professions, in
Paraguay are equal to those of subjects
of Paraguay. The transfer and holding of
property, succession to real or personal
property by will or otherwise and free
and open access to courts of justice are
secured to citizens of the United States.
The consular office may act as executors or
administrators of estates.
No military exactions of service or forced
loans or contributions other than those to
which all subjects of Paraguay are law-
fully subject shall be imposed. Consular
appointment is provided for as in consular
conventions. In the event of war it is
agreed that citizens of each country re-
siding or doing business within the con-
fines of the other shall suffer no injustice,
persecution, or spoliation and shall be free
to continue in business or to close out as
they may elect ; nor shall debts, stocks, or
interest be sequestered or detained. Re-
ligious freedom is secured to citizens or
subjects in the dominions of the other con-
tracting party.
International arbitration on the lines laid
down by The Hague Convention of ISiilJ
was agreed to by a treaty signed at Asun-
cion March 13, 1909.
Paraguay also became a party to the con-
vention between the United States and the
several republics of South and Central
America for the arbitration of pecuniary
claims and the protection of inyentions,
etc., which was signed in Buenos Aires in
1910 and proclaimed in Washington Julv
29, 1914. (See South and Central America,
Treaties with.)
Parcel Post. — The agitation for a parcel
post in the United States dates back to
1875 at least.
In 1907 Postmaster-General Meyer advo-
cated the establishment of a general and
a local parcel ppst system. His plan for
the general parcel post he described as
follows : "The present rate for the trans-
mission of fourth-class matter through the
mails Is 16 cents a pound, and the limit
of weight is four pounds. Under our postal
treaties the rate from any American post
Qffice to 29 foreign countries is 12 cents a
pound, and the limit of weight to twenty-
tour of these countries is eleven pounds.
The Department has simply recommehded
that* our citizens be permitted to dispatch
parcels to each other, in our own country,
at as liberal a rate as that at which they
are allowed to send them to a foreign
country.
"The general parcels post system is in
iiperation in Great Britain, New Zealand.
Australia, Germany, Austria, France,
Belgium, Italy, Holland, Chile and Cuba.
The weight limit in each case (with the
exceptions of Austria and Belgium) is
eleven pounds. In England 26 cents will
mail an eleven-pound package, the rate
being 6 cents for the first pound and 2
cents for each additional pound. Germany
has scheduled Its rates by zones; thus all
Parcel Post
Encyclopedic Index
Parcel Post
packages conveyed not more than 10 miles
are charged 6 cents, and for greater dis-
tances they are charged 13 cents, and when
the parcels exceed 12 pounds, the rates are
for each additional Z pounds carried 10
miles, 2 cents; 20 miles, 3 cents; 50 miles,
5 cents; 100 miles, 8 cents. The weight
limits in Austria and Belgium are, respec-
tively, 143 and 132 pounds."
Postmaster-General Hltchcoclc, in Decem-
ber, 1910, recommended the establishment
of a general parcel post throughout the
country "as soon as the postal savings
system is thoroughly organized." As the
preliminary step he hoped that Congress
would authorize- the local parcel post,
which, he said, would entail little if any
additional expense, and which, if successful,
might lead to the general one. However,
he urged Congress to appropriate a fund
for further investigation of the cost and
possibilities of the general system at the
time when it authorizes the local parcel
post.
In accordance with an act of the Sixty-
second Congress a parcel post system was
inaugurated Jan. 1, 1913.
The limit of weight for parcels of fourth-
class matter for delivery within the first
and second zones was extended by act of
Dec. 6, 1913, to fifty pounds, anij delivery
in other than the first and second zones
was fixed at twenty pounds. By 1920, the
limit had been raised to seventy pounds for
the first three zones and to fifty pounds for
the last five zones. The limit of size had
been raised to eighty-four Inches In length
and girth combined. (The greatest dis-
tance between Its ends is taken as the
length, and the distance around the parcel
at its thicltest part is taken as its girth.
Thus a parcel 35 Inches long, 12 inches
wide and 5 inches high measures 6!) inches
in length and girth combined.)
All parcel post matter must bear the
name and address of the sender. It cannot
be registered. Parcel post matter must also
be unsealed. The special delivery fee Is ten
cents.
Parcels weighing 4 ounces or less, except
books, seeds, plants, etc., are sent at the
rate of one cent for each ounce or fraction
of an ounce, regardless of distance. Parcels
weighing 8 ounces or less, and containing
books, seeds, plants, etc., are sent at the rate
of one cent for each two cftmces or fraction
thereof, regardless of distance.
Insurance and O. 0. D. — ^Fourth-class
domestic mall (parcel post) may be insured
against loss, rlfiing, or damage in an amount
equivalent tp its actual value or the cost of
repairs, but not to exceed $5 upon payment
of a fee of three cents, $25 upon payment of
five cents, $50 upon payment of ten cents, or
$100 upon payment of twenty-five cents, in
addition to the postage, but indemnity will
not be allowed for the loss of such mail
addressed to the Philippine Islands, unless
the loss occurred in the postal service
of the United States. Such mail may be
sent C. O. D. between domestic money-order
offices upon payment of a fee of ten cents in
stamps affixed to the parcel when the
amount to be remitted does not exceed $50,
and upon payment of a twenty-five cent fee
in stamps when the amount to be remitted
does not exceed! $100. Parcels cannot
be sent C. O. D. to the Philippine Islands
or foreign countries. C. 0. D. parcels are
automatically insured, by the payment of
the C. O. D. fee, for their value up to $50
and $100, respectively, according to the fee
paid.
Masha, Hawaiian and Philippine Islands,
etc, — The eighth zone rate of 12 cents for
each pound or fraction thereof on all par-
cels weighing more than 4 ounces (exc(^pt
books, seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, scions,
and plants, weighing 8 ounces or less) ap-
plies (1) between the United States and the
Hawaiian Islands ; (2) between the United
States and its postal agency at Shanghai,
China ; (3) between any two points in
Alaska and between any point m Alaska
and any other point in the United States ;
(4) between the United States and the
Canal Zone ; (5) between the United States
and the Philippine Islands ; (6) to, from,
or between Guam, Tutuila, and Manua and
other Islands of the «amoan group east of
longitude 171 degrees west of Greenwich,
and the United States and its other posses-
sions ; (7) between the United States and
Its naval vessels stationed in foreign waters :
(8) between the United States and its Ex-
peditionary Forces in Europe and Siberia.
Canada, Onta, Meanco and ReptiMie of
Panama. — ^Twelve cents for each pound or
fraction thereof also applies to fourth-class
matter, including seeds, cuttings, bulbs,
roots, scions, and plants (but excepting
books and other printed matter on which
the rate is 1 cent for each 2 ounces or frac-
tion thereof In all cases), weighing more
than 4 ounces and not exceeding 4 pounds,
6 ounces, when mailed to Canada, Mexico,
Cuba, and the Republic of Panama. (Par-
cels weighing up to 20 pounds may be seut
to Mexico and the Kepublic of Panama as
foreign parcel post mall under the parcel
post conventions with those countries.)
Packages of merchandise that weigh over
4 ounces and not over 4 pounds, 6 ounces,
may be sent to Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and
the Republic of Panama, at the eighth zone
rate of postage (12 cents for each pound
or fraction thereof). Parcels for Cuba,
Mexico, and the Republic of Panama must
be accompanied by customs declarations re-
gardless of their weight. Packages of mer-
chandise weighing not more than 4 ounces
may be mailed, at the postage rate of 1 cent
for each ounce or fraction of an ounce, to
Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and the Republic of
Panama. Customs declarations are required
on such parcels of merchandise of 4 ounces
or less to Mexico and the, Republic of Pana-
ma. Packages of merchandise cannot be in-
sured or sent C. O. D., but may he regis-
tered for Canada, Cuba, Mexico and the Re-
public <Jf Panama. Mailable merchandise for
Mexico and the Republic of Panama, at the
option of the sender, may also be sent by
international parcel post if it conforms to
the requirements.
List of Articles Included in Fourth-Class
Matter. — ^Albums, photograph and auto-
graph, blank ; artificial flowers ; bees, when
packed as prescribed ; bill heads ; blank
address tags and labels; blank books, blank
book with I printed headings, blank cards or
paper, blank diaries, and blank post and
postal cards ; blotting paper, blank ; books ;
botanical specimens ; bulbs ; calendar pads,
mainly blank ; calendars or other matter
printed on celluloid ; card coin-holders, not
printed ; cards, blank ; cards, printed play-
ing, of all kinds ; catalogues (in the form
of books) ; celluloid, printed or unprinted ;
check books ; Christmas and Easter cards
printed on other material than paper ; coin ;
combination calendar and memorandum,
pads, , mainly blank ; crayon pictures ; cut
• flowers ; cuts, wood or metal ; dissected
maps and pictures ; drawings, framed or un-
framed ; dried fruit ; Easter cards, when
printed on other material than paper ; elec-
trotype plates ; engravings, when framed ;
envelopes, printed or unprinted, except
when addr^sed and inclosed singly with
third-class matter ; flowers, cut or artifi-
cial ; forms, order, legal, etc.. mainly blank ;
Parcel Post
Encyclopedic Index
Parcel Post
Local*
Zones
Weight in
pounds
1st
Up to 5C
miles
2d
50 to ISO
miles
3d
150 to
300
miles
4th
300 to
600
miles
5th
600 to
1,000
miles
6th
1,000 to
1,400
miles
T'th
1,400 to
1,800
miles
8th
Over
1,800
miles
1
1
$0.05
.06
.06
.07
.07
.08
.08*
.09
.09
.10
.10,
.11'
.11
.12
.12
.13
.13
.14
.14
.15
.15
.16
.16 \
.17
.17
.18
.18
.19
.19
.20
.20
.21
.21
.22
.22
.23
.23
.24
.24
.25
.25
.26
.26
.27
.27
.28
.28
.29
.29
.30
.30
.31
.31
.32
.32
.33
.33
.34
.34
.35
.35
.36
.36
.37
.37
.38
.38
.39
.39
.40
SO. 05
.08
.07
.08
.09
.10
.11
12
.13
.14
.15
.16
.17
.18
.19
.20
.21
.22
.23
.24
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
.30
.31
.32
.33
.34
.35
,36
.37
.38
.39
.40
.41
.42
.43
.44
.45
.46
.47
.48
.49
.50
.51
.52
53
.54
.55
.56
.57
.58
.59
.60
.61
.62-
.63
.64
.65
.68
.67
.68
.69
.70
.71
.72
.73
.74
$0.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
.10
11
12
.13
.14
.15
,16
.17
.18
19
.20
.21
.22
.23
.24
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
.30
.31
.32
.33
.34
.35
.36
.37
.38
.39
.40
.41
.42
.43
.44
.45
.46
.47
.48
.49
.50
.61
;i
.54
.55
.66
.57
.68
.59
.60
.61
.62
.63
.64
.65
.68
.67
.68
.69
.70
.71
.72
.73
.74
$0.06
.08
.10
.12
.14
.16
.18
.20
.22
.24
.26
.28
.30
.32
.34
.36
.38
.40
.42
.44
.46
.48
.50
.52
.54
.56
.58
.60
.62
.84
.66
.88
.70
.72
.74
.76
.78
.80
.82
.84
.86
.88
.90
.92
.94
.96
.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1 10
$0.07
.11
.15
.19
.23
.27
.31
.35
.39
.43
.47
.51
.55
.59
.63
.67
.71
.75
.79
.83
.87
.91
.95
.99
1.03
1 07
1 11
1.15
1 19
1.23
1.27
1 31
1.35
1.39
1.43
1 47
1.51
1.55
1.69
1.63
1.67
1.71
1.75
1.79
1.83
1.87
1.91
1.95
1.99
2 03
$0.08
.14
.20
.26
.32
.38
.44
.50
.56
.62
.88
.74
.80
.86
.92
.98
1.04
1 10
1 16
1.22
1.28
1.34
1.40
1.46
1.52
1.58
1.64
1.70
1.78
1 82
1-88
1.94
2.00
2.06
2.12
2.18
2.24
2.30
2.36
2.42
2.48
2.54
2.60
2.66
2.72
2.78
2.84
2.90
2.96
3.02 >
$0.09
.17
.25
.33
.41
.49
.57
.85
.73
.81
.89
.97
1.05
1.13
1.21
1.29
1.37
1.45
1.53
1.61
1 69
1.77
1.85
1.93
2.01
2.09
2.17
2.25
2.33
2.41
2.49
2.57
2.65
2.73
2.81
2.89
2.97
3.05
3.13
3.21
3.29
3.37
3.45
3.53
3.61
3.69
3.77
3.85
3 93
4.01
$0.11
.21
.31
.41
.51
.61
.71
.81
.91
1.01
1.11
1.21
1.31
1.41
1.51
1.61
1.71
1.81
1.91
2.01
2.11
2.21
2.31
2.41
2.51
2.61
2.71
2.81
2.91
3.01
3.11
3.21
3.31
3.41
3.51
3.61
3.71
3.81
3.91
4.01
4.11
4.21
4.31
4.41
4.51
4.61
4.71
4.81
4.91
6.01
SO. 12
2
.24
3
.36
4
.48
5
.60
6
.72
7
.84
8
.96
9
1.08
10
1.20
11 ,.•■■
12 ?. ...
1 32
1.44
la
1.58
14
1.88
15
1 80
16
1.92
17
2.04
18...
2.16
19
2.28
20
2.40
2.52
22
2.84
23
2.76
24
2.88
25
3.00
26
3.12
27
3.24
28. . . :
3.38
29
3.48
30
3.60
31
3.72
32.:
33
34.. .
3.84
3,96
4.08
35
4.20
36
4.32
4.44
as
39
40
4.56
4.68
4.80
41
4.92
42
5.04
43
5.18
44
5.28
45
5.40
46
5.52
5,64
48
6 76
6.88
50
51
6,00
52
53
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.42
1.44
56
57
58
59
60
1
62
63
64
65
66
67
. . . . fr. .
70
* The local rate applies to parcels mailed under the following conditions: 1 . At any post office for
local delivery at such office. 2. At any city letter carrier office, or at any pomt wi thm its delivery limits, for
delivery by carriers from that office. 3. At any post office from, which a rurar route starts, for delivery on
such route, or when mailed at any point on a rural route for dehvery at any other point thereon, or at the
office from which the route starts, or for deKvery on any other rural route starting from the same office.
Parcel Post
Encyclopedic Index
Paris
framed engravings, pictures and other
printed matter ; game ; geological speci-
mens; grain; letter-heads; maps, printed
on cloth ; meat and food products ; mer-
chandise samples: memorandum books;
merchandise, sealed proprietary articles, put
up and labeled in printing as prescribed ;
metals and minerals ; napkins, paper or
cloth, printed or unprinted ; oil paintings,
framed or unframed ; order blanks and
report forms, mainly blank (spaces
covered by ruled lines being regarded as
blank), are fourth-class matter; however,
one copy may be Inclosed with third-class
matter mailed at the rate for that class ;
paper bags and wrapping paper, printed or
unprinted ; patent medicines ; patterns,
gWnted or unprinted ; pen or pencil draw-
igs ; photograph albums ; photographic
negatives and kodak films ; plants and plant
products ; postal and post cards, mainly
blank ; printed matter, miscellaneous, when
mailed In parcels weighing more than four
pounds ; printed matter having samples of
merchandise permanently attached covering
20 per cent, or more of the space ; printed
matter on other material than paper ; roots ;
rulers, wooden or metal, including those
bearing printed advertisements ; samples of '
cloth ; samples of flour or other manufac-
tured grain ; scions ; sealed packages of pro-
prietary articles of merchandise put up and
labeled In printing as prescribed ; seeds ;
soap ; soap wrappers, complete (printed cou-
pons cut from such wrappers are third-class
matter) ; stationery ; tags, blank ; tape
measures ; tintypes ; tobacco ; "Valentines
printed on material other than paper ; wall
paper ; water color painting ; wrapping
paper, printed or unprinted.
Parcel Post, eatabUsliment and ex;ten-
sion of, reeommended, 7102, 7227,
7528, 7694, 7732, 7814.
Pardons:
Amnesty proclamation of President
Lincoln, 3414.
Discussed, 3390, 3455.
Persons entitled to benefits of, de-
fined, 3419.
Eeferred to, 3508.
Amnesty proclamations of President
Johnson, 3508, 3745, 3853, 3906.
Authority for, discussed, 3895.
Circular regarding, 3539.
Persons worth more than $20,000
to whom special pardons issued,
referred to, 3583.
Eeferred to, 3659, 3669, 3722, 3779.
General amnesty and removal of po-
litical disabilities recommended,
4107, 4209.
Granted —
American citizens by Queen of
Spain, 2689, 2692.
Counterfeiters, forgers, etc., re-
ferred to, 3818.
Deserters from Army, 413, 497,
499, 528, 1062, 3364, 3479, 4189.
Act authorizing, 3365.
Foreigners on condition of emigra-
tion to United States discussed,
3653.
Insurgents in Pennsylvania, 173,
293.
Eeferred to, 176.
Persons carrying on lawless trade,
but who aided in defense of New
Orleans, 543.
Persons guilty of unlawful cohabi-
tation under color of polygamous
marriage, 5803, 5942.
Political disabilities, removal of, rec-
ommended, 4107, 4209.
Queen of Spain grants, to American
citizens, 2689, 2692.
Senteijces of deserters condemned to
death commuted, 3434.
Paris, The, mentioned, 6313.
Paris, Declaration of. — in the treaty of
Paris, which was concluded March 30, 1856,
between Russia and Turkey, Great Britain,
France, and Sardinia, the following decla-
rations with regard to the conduct of war
were subscribed to by all the parties to the
treaty and have since been accepted by
nearly all civilized nations : First, Priva-
teering is and remains abolished. Second,
Neutral goods in enemies' ships, enemies'
goods in neutral ships, except contraband
of war, are not liable to capture. Third,
Paper blockades are unlawful The United
States refused to agree to this declaration
on account of the clause doing away with
privateers, as the country was compelled to
rely largely upon such service in naval war-
fare. This refusal cost it heavily in the
Civil War, although it was willing to sub-
scribe to the declaration in 1861. In 1871
the declaration was censured by the British
Parliament.
Paris, Prance:
International Congress of Electri-
cians at, 4581, 4625, 4714. (See
also National Conference of Elec-
tricians. )
International convention at —
For pTotection|of —
Industrial property, 4560, 4794,
4857, 5118.
Ocean cables —
In 1880, 4714.
In 1884, 4799.
Declaration of, transmitted to
Senate, 5117.
Discussed, 5084.
On the subject of trade-marks,
4714.
International exhibition at —
In 1878, 4405, 4419, 4447.
In 1889, 5181, 5471.
International Monetary Conference
it—
In 1867, 3776, 3792.
Eeport of S. B. Buggies on, re-
ferred to, 4013.
In 1878, 4447, 4464, 4474, 4510.
In 1881, 4625.
In 1882^ 4697.
International Postal Congress at, dis-
cussed, 3387.
New convention adopted by, 4453.
Official publications, agreement
reached for interchange of, 471S,
Peace Conference at. (See Peace
Conference at Paris.)
Paris
Encyclopedic Index
Parks
Spanish-American Peace Commission
at, 6321, 6322.
Universal exposition at — •
In 1867, 3569, 3592, 3660, 3776.
Commissioners of "United States
to, 3798, 3828.
Correspondence regarding, 3668.
Memorial to Congress concern-
ing, 3668.
To be held in 1900, 6061.
Representation of United States
at, discussed, 6247, 6267, 6275,
6329, 6368, 6411, 6427, 6461.
Paris, Monetary Conferences at. —
There have been three important interna-
tional monetary conferences held in Paris.
The first assembled June 17, 1867, at the
solicitation of France, to "consider the
questioD of uniformity of coinage and
seek for the basis of ulterior negotiations."
The United States sent representatives, as
did also nearly every European nation.
The conference adjourned after about a
month without having arrived at any defi-
nite conclusion.
August 16, 1878, a second International
monetary conference convened at Paris,
this time at the Instance of the United
States, "to adopt a common ratio between
gold and silver for the purpose of estab-
lishing internationally the use of blmetalUe
money and securing fixity of relative value
between those metals." The collective de-
cision of the European delegates was that
this would be impossible, monetary ques-
tions being governed by the special situa-
tion of each State or group of States.
With this as the final conclusion the con-
ference adjourned August 29.
The conference of April 8, 1881, assem-
bled at the call of France and the United
States to adopt a permanent relative value
between gold and silver, but adjourned
July 8 without arriving at any agreement.
(See also Brussels, Belgium; Paris,
France.)
Paris, Treaties of. — Paris has been the
scene of numerous important diplomatic
conferences, both between France and other
powers and between neighboring nations,
who found hospitable neutral ground of
the French capital.
Among the most important of treaties of
Paris is that of Feb. 10, 1763, between
Great Britain on one side, and France,
Spain, and Portugal on the other. France
ceded to Great Britain Canada, Prince Ed-
ward Island, Cape Breton, Mobile, all the
territory east of the Misslssipp", Dominica,
Tobago, St. Vincent and Granada. Eng-
land restored to France Guadeloupe, Mar-
tinique, St. Pierre, Miquelon and Pondi-
cherry, and ceded St. Lucia to her. Spain
ceded Florida to Great Britain, England
restored Havana to Spain, and France
ceded Louisiana to Spain.
The treaty of Paris of 1782-83 between
Great Britain on one side and France,
Spain, and the United States on the other,
was arranged in 1782 and formally ratified
Sept. 3, 1783. John Jay, John Adams,
Eenjamm Franlsiin, and Henry Laurens
formed the American commission. The ab-
solute independence of the United States
was recognized ; Florida and Minorca were
returned to Spain ; navigation of the Mis-
sissippi was made free to both Spain and
the United States ; the Americans relin-
quished their pretensions to the territory
north of Lake Erie ; the St. Lawrence Elver
system from the western end of Lake Su-
perior to the forty-flfth parallel was made
the boundary between the United States
and the British possessions (from the forty-
flfth parallel to the sea the boundary fol- \
lowed the highlands after an uncertain
fashion and was long a matter of dispute) ;
loyalists and tories were to be protected in
America ; English troops were to be with-
drawn without destroying any property or
taking away any negro slaves belonging to
Americans ; the right of fishing on the Ca-
nadian and Newfoundland coasts was
granted to Americans. The portion of the
treaty which directly affected America was
signed at Paris, but that 'between Great
Britain, France, and Spain was signed at
Versailles, by which name the entire treaty
is sometimes called.
At Versailles the region of Senegal was
granted to France and neutral restitution
of conquests in the West Indies was made.
In 1908 commissioners were appointed
by the Governments of the United States
and Spain to meet at Paris and frame a
treaty of peace in accordance with the
terms of the protocol signed Aug. 12, 1898.
The commissioners began their sessions
Oct. 1 and ended with the signing of a
treaty of peace, Dec. 10. (See also Treat-
ies with the various countries.)
The Peace Conference which met at the
close of the World War held its sessions
In Paris, but the peace treaty arising from
its deliberations was signed at Versailles,
so that it Is called the Treaty of Versailles.
(See World War and Peace Conference at
Paris.) The treaty between the Allies
and Austria-Hungary after the War is
known as the Treaty of St. Germain.
Paris Tribunal of Arbitration:
Acts to give effect to award of, pro-
claimed, 5926, 6123.
Award of, discussed, recommenda-
tions regarding, 5958, 6062.
Case of United States at, prepared
by John W. Poster, 5748.
Convention for settlement of claims
under, 6097.
Discussed, 5869.
Enforcement of regulations in ac-
cordance with decision of, referred
to, 6000.
Failure of negotiations of, to pro-
tect fur seals of Alaska, 6182.
Eeports of agent of United States to,
transmitted, 5909.
Parks, Municipal. — Practically all of the
cities in the United States having a popu-
lation above 30,000 contain areas set apart
by the municipalitifes as public parks. In
'■s\°A« *°^™ ^^""^ 3,857 such, of the ' area
of 183 square miles. Washington, D. C. has
the greatest number of parks, 417, but the
largest park area, about twelve square
miles, lies m New York City. Philadelphia
contains 5,500 acres of public parks, Los
^^^f}^^' -J'^iJ '■ <^hicago, 3,815; Denver,
2'I1§' Washington, 3,067; Minneapolis,
3,038. The largest single park is Fairmount
Park, Philadelphia.
Parks In cities are as old as civilization
Itself. Ancient records of Egypt, Assyria
Persia all indicate that parks and gardens
occupied a prominent place in the physical
development of cities, although it may well
be doubted if they were available to any
except the upper classes ; whereas the public
places in Greece are famous as the seat of
the education of the time and those of Rome
became renowned as meeting-places, or fora
Parks
Encyclopedic Index
Parks, National
of citizens for public discussion. In tlie
Middle Ages, there was little interest in
parks, but the re-birth of interest in art
which we call the Renaissance led to the
foundation of many of the notable parks
of today. In mjiny European cities, espe-
cially Paris and Vienna, parks were estab-
lished on the sites of abandoned city walls,
military camps and training grounds, and
chateaux.
In the United States, the establishment
of the first considerable municipal park
dates with the establishment of Central Park
(2% miles by Vz ) in New York City in
1857, although the co;umons of New England
towns must be considered our first city
parks.
Parks, National. — On occasions, Congress
has set aside certain territory because of
its picturesqueness or historic associations.
Most of this territory enjoys the status of
National Parks, although much of it also
is known as National Monuments (q. v.).
In addition, many of the famous battle-
fields of the Civil War, such as those of
Gettysburg, Chickainauga, Shiloh. Vicksburg
(see Cemeteries, National) have been set
aside as Governmental reservations.
The first national park was created at
Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1832. Yellow-
stone Park was set aside as a national park
in 1872, Yosemite in 1890, Glacier in
lUlO and Mount ilcKinley in 1917. There
are at the present time 19 national parks,
with a total area of 10,859 square miles.
The national parks and reservations men-
tioned below are under the supervision of
the Secretary of the Interior. General in
formation, the annual administrative re-
ports, copies of the rules and regulations,
and compilations of the laws relating to
the parks may be obtained from the Sec-
retary of the Interior or from the super-
intendents of the parks.
Yellowstone National Park is in Wyo-
ming, Montana, and Idaho, and has an area
of 2,142.720 acres. The superintendent's ad-
dress is Yellowstone Park, Wyoming. The
park can be reached by the following rail-
roads : Northern Pacific Railroad to Gardi-
ner, the northern entrance, via Livingston,
Mont. ; Oj'egon Short Line Railroad to Yel-
lowstone, Mont., the western entrance ;
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad
to Cody, Wyo., 4rom which the eastern en-
trance to the park is accessible. Stage and
private transportation connections for the
reservation are made at all these points.
The tourist season extends from June 1 to
Sept. 15, but accommodations are furnished
at Mammoth Hot Springs the entire year.
Yosemite National Park, California, in-
eluding the Yosemite Valley and Mariposa
Big Tree Grove, embraces an area of 719,-
622 acres; The superintendent's address
is Yosemite, Cal. The park can be reached
from Merced on the Atchison, Topeka and
Santa F6 and the Southern Pacific rail-
roads, by way of Yosemite Valley Rail-
road, which runs to the western boundary,
and by connections of the same roads to
Raymond on the southwest ; stage lines run
from the terminus of the Yosemite Valley
Railroad and from Raymond to Yosemite
Valley within the park.
Glacier National Park, Montana, has an
area of approximately 915,000 acres, of
which 15,000 acres have been surveyed.
Within the limits stated there are 250
lakes, ranging from ten miles to a few
hundred feet in extent. There are more
than sixty glaciers between five square
miles and a few acres in area. There are
wild, animals, plants, and rocks in num-
bers and quantity to satisfy the most ar.
dent student, and views of great variety,
beauty and grandeur to gratify the artist
and the lover of nature. The park can be
reached via the Great Northern Railway.
Mount Rainier National Park, Washing-
ton, has an area of 207,360 acres. The
superintendent's address is Ashtordj Wash.
The park Is reached by sta^'e or private
transportation from Ashford, Wash., on
the iacoma Eastern Railroad, imd by trail
from Fail-fax, on the Northern I'acific Rail-
road. The tourist scnsou extends from
June 15 to Sept. 15.
Sequoia National Park, California, has
an area of 161,597 acres. The address of
the superintendout is lianger, Cal., during
the tourist months (June 1 to Sept. 15) and
Three Rivers, Cal., the balance of the ye^r.
This park may , be reached from Visalia,
on the Southern Pacific and the Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Ff railroads by way of
the Visalia Electric Railroad Company to
Lemon Cove, thence by stage or private
conveyance.
General Grant NationnI Park, California,
has an .area of 2,536 acres. This reserva-
tion is administered jointly with Sequoia
National Park, and the tourist season ex-
tends from June 1 to Sept. 15. The ad-
dress of the superintendent is given above.
The park m.iy be reached by stage and pri-
vate conveyance from Sanger, on the South-
ern Pacific Railroad.
Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, has
an area of 159,360 acres. The address of
the superintendent during the tourist
months (June 15 to Sept. 30) is Crater
Lake, Ore., and during the balance of the
year Klamath Palls, Ore. This park may
be reached by steamer line and stage from
Klamath F-nlls, Ore, or by private convev-
ance from Medford, on the Southern Pacific.
Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota,
contains 10,522 acres. The superintendent's
address is Wind Cave, S. Dak. This park
may be reached by private conveyance from
Hot Springs, on the Chicago, Burlington
and Quincy and the Chicago and Northwest-
ern railroads, or by similar conveyance from
Custer, on the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroad. The reservation is open
to tourists the entire year.
Sullys Hill Park, North Dakota, on the
shore of Devil's Lake, has an area of 780
acres. The address of the superintendent
is Fort Totten, N. Dak. Devil's Lake, Nar-
rows, and Tokio. on the Great Northern
Railroad, are close to the park, and from
these points the reservation can be ap-
proached by wagon, or by boat (private
conveyance).
Piatt National Park, at Sulphur, Okla-
homa, has an area of 848.22 acres. Sul-
phur is the post-ofl3ce address of the su-
perintendent. The town is accessible by
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Pfi and
the St. Louis and San Francisco railroads.
The park, which is open to tourists the
entire year, is within walking or riding
distance of the railroads.
Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, has
an area of 42,376 acres, and the five-mile
strip under the park jurisdiction for the
protection of ruins, which abuts the park,
contains 175,360 acres. The address of
the superintendent is Maneos, Col., the near-
est railroad station, on the Rio Grande
Southern Railroad. This station is about
twenty-five miles from the ruins, -frhicii
may be reached only by horseback or afoot.
Casa Grande Ruin, Arizona, a reserva-
tion, has an area of 480 acres. The near-
est railroad station is Casa Grande, on the
Southern Pacific Railroad. It may also be
reached by private conveyance from Plor-
Parks, Nationat-
^Encyclopedic Index
Passports
enee, Ariz,, on the Phoenix and Eastern
Railroad. The address of the custodian
Is Florence. The Mesa Verde Natlojial Pari!
and the Casa Grande Reservation were set
aside to protect the instructive prehistoric
ruins and otiier objects of antHjuity which
they contain. These ruins are being ex-
cavated and repaired and are open for the
inspection of visitors. Reports on the re-
Ealr of such ruins have been Issued by the
department of the Interior, and more de-
tailed accounts are distributed by the Bu-
reau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian
Institution.
Hot Springs Reservation, Arkansas (the
permanent reservation), has an area of
911.63 acres. Eleven bathhouses on the
reservation and thirteen in the city of Hot
Springs, as well as several hotels operated
in connection with bathhouses, receive hot
water from the springs, under lease with
the Secretary of the Interior. The address
of the superintendent is Hot Springs, Arls.
Rocky Mountain National "Park, created
by the act of Jan. 26, 1915, is in Colorado,
about 45 miles in an air line northwest of
Denver. It has an area of approximately
229,000 acres, and is on both sides of the
Continental Divide in the neighborhood of
Long's Peak. The park may be reached
from Lyons, on the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroad ; from Loveland, on the
Colorado and Southern Railroad, and from
Granby, on the Denver and Salt Lake Rail-
road.
Lassen Volcanic National Park, the bill
creating which President Wilson signed in
August, 1916, is California's fourth national
park. Lassen Peak, which showed volcanic
activity only a few years ago, was set apart
as a national monument In 1906. Cinder
Cone, in its immediate neighborhood was
also thus distinguished at the same time.
The park, which has an area of 124 square
miles, contains also hot springs and mud
geysers.
Hawaiian National Park, in the territory
of Hawaii, was established on August 1,
1916, and has an area of 75,295 square
miles. It contains three famous active
volcanoes, a remarkable lake of lava and
vast tropical forests.
Mount McKlnley National Park, in South
Central Alaska, with an area of 2,200 square
miles. Includes the highest mountain In
North America.
Grand Canyon National Park, in north
central Arizona, with a total area of 958
square miles, contains the famous canyon
of the Colorado, the \ most magnificent
example of erosion in the world.
Lafayette National Park, eight square
miles of the Maine coast, contains a group
of granite mountains on Mount Desert
Island. ^
Zion National Park, In southwestern
Utah, with an area of 120 square miles,
contains Zion Canyon.
On August 25, 1916, a law went into
effect which created the National Park
Service in' the Department of the Interior
to supervise and manage the national
parks. At the head is the Director of the
Service, appointed by the Secretary of the
Interior.
In a recent year, the National Parks were
visited by 755,325 persons, as compared
with 198,606 in 1910 and 335,000 in 1915,
the year of the Pacific expositions.
The seven national military parks under
the administration of the Secretary of
War are at Chickamauga and Chattanooga,
Georgia and Tennessee ; Shiloh, Tenn. ;
Gettysburg, Pa. ; Vicksburg, Miss. ; Antle-
tam Battlefield, Md. ; Lincoln Birthplace,
Ky. ; Guilford Court House, N. C.
Parks, National:
Additions to, suggested, 0911.
Bureau of, establishment of, recom-
mended, 7724.
Control of, by Forest Service, 7224.
Discussed, 7013. '
Yosemite, given by California for,
7012.
Parties, Political, essential to popular
government, 7405.
Partisanship:
Evils of, 210.
Foreign policy of country should be
free from, 7767.
Passamaciuoddy Bay, between Maine
and New Brunswick, commissioners
to mark international boundary in,
referred to, 6063.
Passport. — A document Issued by compe-
tent civil authority, granting permission to
the person specified in it to travel or au»
thenticatlng his right to protection. In some
nations no person is allowed to leave the
country without a passport from his gov-
ernment ; but the regulations of the differ-
ent jurisdictions regarding the use of pass-
ports have greatly varied and of late years
have exhibited a tendency toward a relaxa-
tion of stringency, extending in many coun-
tries to their total abolition. Passports
of the United States, which are given under
the seal- of the Secretary of State, request
that the person named therein be permitted
to pass freely and safely, and in case of
need that aid and protection be aSEorded him.
The extent to which an American pass-
port held by a naturalized citizen of this
country is recognized in his native land,
depends principally upon whether that coun-
try has concluded a treaty of naturalization
with the United States, althoug'h, under the
law of this country, no distinction is made
between native and naturalized American
citizens so far as their right to protection
is concerned. The United States has trea-
ties of naturalization with the following
European countries : Austria-Hungary, Bel-
glum, Denmark, the German States, Great
Brltahi, Norway, and Sweden.
Passports:
Abolishing fees for and providing
for certification of, 7968.
Alien enemies required to obtain, for
departure from U. S., 8826, 8858.
Americana traveling abroad required
to procure, 8169.
Authentication of, denial of, by Eus-
sian consuls to Jews, discussed,
6067.
Cancellation and re-issue of, 8170.
Charge for, for citizens visiting for-
eign countries, referred to, 4985.
Control over, continuance of, ursed.
8778. ^
Issuance of, to residents of insular
possessions, authorized, 6707.
Laws regarding issue of, revision of,
recommended, 5370.
Passports
Encyclopedic Index
Patents
Order amending rules governing
grafting of, 7966i
Order regarding, rescinded, 3537.
Persons not permitted, to enter Unit-
,ed States without) 3475.
Order modifying, as to Canada,
3483.
Regulations for, during World War,
8275, 8561.
Eegulations of foreign powers re-
garding, printing of reports on, res-
ommended, 6181.
Patagonlan Boundary, between Chile
and Argentine Eepublic, referred to,
4629.
Fatapsco River, Marylancl, act for im-
provement of, vetoed, 2921.
Patent Congress, International, at
Vienna, 4215.
Patent Law. (See Patent Oface.)
Patent Laws, German, non-working pro-
visions of, made inapplicable to
Americans, 7412.
Patent Medicines. (See Medicines,
Patent.)
Patent Oflce. (See Patents and In-.
terior Department.)
Patent Office:
Accounts of, deficiency in, 1031.
Analytical digest of patents recom-
mended, 2708.
Appropriations, estimates for, 4676.
Building for, recommended, 1133.'
Illustration of, frontispiece. Vol-
ume VI.
Deficiency appropriation for pay-
ment of salaries in, recommended,
4668.
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 4945, 5110.
Grant, 3995, 4065, 4155, 4206, 4306.
Harrison, Benj., 5553.
Jackson, 1096.
Johnson, 3652, 3774, 3880.
Lincoln, 3253.
MoKinley, 6345, 6388, 6453.
Pierce, 2750.
Establishment of, recommended, 556.
Fire in, referred to and recommenda-
tions regarding, 4405, 4407.
Inventions — -
Examination of, to prevent explo-
sions, referred to, 1726.
Referred to, 1728, 1732.
Protection to American inventors
in Europe secured, 4190.
Should be encouraged, 58, 60, 2750.
Laws relating to improvement of,
recommended, 881, 1120, 2750.
Receipts and expenditures of. (See
discussed, ante.)
Reciprocity with foreign countries in
relation to patents, recommended,
6802.
Reorganization of —
Discussed, 4155.
Recommendation regarding, 4115.
Separation of, from Interior Depart-
ment, recommended, 4155, 4206.
Transfer of, from State Department
to Attorney-General, recommended,
2265.
Patents.— Literally, open letters. In Eng-
land the word Is applied to all licenses and
authorities granted -by the Crown. Patents
for titles of nobility were first granted by
Edward III. in 1334. The earliest patent
for the exclusive privilege of printing books
was granted in 1591. Tbe property right
of Inventors and discoverers to their arts
and manufactures was first secured by let-
ters patent by an act passed In 1623. In
the tJnited States a patent is generally
understood to mean the right to the exclu-
sive use for a limited number of years, of
a new or" useful invention or discovery by
the inventor or discoverer or his h^irs or
assigns. A few patents had been Issued by
the states. In 1790 the first patent law
was passed by the General Government, and
granted letters patent for fourteen years to
both citizens and foreigners. Application
had formerly to be made to the Secretaries
of War and State and the Attorney-Gen-
eral. In 1793 an act was passed permitting
the issue of patents to citizens only and
requiring a fee of $30. The states were
not permitted to issue patents. This was
decided in the case of Gibbons ve. . Ogden
(q. v.), from New York. In 1836 the patent
laws were revised and the present patent
system in this country may be said to date
from that year. One of the most important
changes then introduced was the regulation
requiring a preliminary examination of tbe
novelty and patentability of an invention.
In 1839 an inventor was given the right to
use his invention before applying for a pat-
ent, but such use was limited to two years.
Under the law of 1842 patents were granted
for a term of seven years ; the term was
subsequently extended to fourteen years,
and finally in 1861 the present seventeen-
year term was granted. The patent laws
were revised in 1870 and patents were al-
lowed to all persons, both citizens and for-
eigners, who could prove the novelty and
usefulness of their inventions. The salient
features of the patent laws of to-day, how-
ever, are still those of the law of 1836.
The number of patents granted annually is
about 30,000. Since the yea 1836, no less
than 88o,635 patents have been issued by
the tJnited States, while the combined total
of foreign countries amounts to 1,863,836.
(Sea also Department of the Interior.)
Patents are Issued In the name of the
United States, and under the seal of the
Patent GflBce, to any person who has in-
vented or discovered any new and useful
art, machine, manufacture, or composition
of matter or any new and useful' improve-
ment thereof, or any new original and orna-
mental design for an article of manufac-
ture, not known or used by others in this
country before his invention or discovery
thereof, and not patented or described in
any printed publication In this or any for-
eign country, before his inventibn or dis-
covery thereof or more than two years prior
to his application, and not in public use or
on sale In the United States for more than
two years prior to his application, unless
the same is proved to have been abandoned,
upon payment of the fees required by law
and other due proceedings had.
Every patent contains a grant to the
patentee, his heirs or assigns, for the term
Patents
Encyclopedic Index
Patents
of seventeen years, except in the case of
design patents, of the exclusive right to
make, use, and vend the Invention or dis-
covery throughout the United States and
file torritories. referring to the specification
for the particulars thereof.
If it appear that the Inventor, at the time
of making his application, believed himself
to be the first inventor or discoverer, a pat-
ent will not be refused on account of the in-
vention or discovery, or any part thereof,
having been known or used in any foreign
country before his Invention or discovery
thereof, if it had not been before patented
or described in any printed publication.
Joint Inventors are entitled to a Joint
patent ; neither can claim one separately.
Independent inventors of distinct and in-
dependent Improvements in the same ma-
chine cannot obtain a joint patent for their
separate inventions ; nor does the fact that
one furnishes the capital and another makes
the Invention entitle them to make appli-
cation as joint inventors ; but in such case
they may become joint patentees by means
uf a deed of assignment.
No person otherwise entitled thereto will
be debarred from receiving a patent for his
invention or discovery, by reason of its hav-
ing been first ijatented or caused to be pat-
ented by the inventor or his legal repre-
sentatives or assigns in a foreign country,
unless the application for said foreign pat-
ent was filed more than twelve months prior
to the filing of the application in this coun-
try, and four months in cases of designs,
in which case no patent shall be granted in
this country.
If an inventor wishes to file an applica-
tion for patent, a copy of the Rules of
Practice, containing forms and Instructions,
will be sent upon request. It is advisable,
in every case, that the services of a compe-
tent registered patent attorney be secured,
as the value of patents depends largely upon
the skilful preparation of the speciflcation
and claims.
Apjjlications for a patent must be made
in writing to the Commissioner of Patents.
The applicant must also file in the Patent
(Ifflce a written description of the invention
or discovery, and of the manner and process
of making, constructing, compounding, and
using it, in such full, clear, concise, and
exact terms as to enable any person skilled
in the art or science to which it appertains,
or with which it is most nearly connected,
to make, construct, compound, and use the
same ; and In case of a machine, he must
explain the principle thereof, and the best
mode In which he has contemplated, apply-
ing that principle, so as to distinguish it
from other Inventions, and particularly
point out and distinctly claim the part,
improvement, or combination which he
claims as his invontion or discovery. The
specification and claim must be signed by
the inventor and attested by two witnesses.
When the nature of the ease admits of
drawings, the applicant must furnish a
drawing of the required size, signed by the
inventor or his attorney in fact, and at-
tested by two witnesses. The applicant. If
required by the Patent Office, shall furnish
a model of convenient size to exhibit ad-
vantageously the several parts of his in-
vention or discovery, but a model should
not be sent unless first called for by the
Patent Office.
The applicant shall make oath that he
verily believes himself to be the original
and first Inventor or discoverer of the art.
machine, manufacture, comnosition, or im-
provement for which he solicits a patent ;
that he does not know and does not believe
that the same was ever before known or
used, and shall state of what country he
is a citizen and where he resides, and
wTiether he is the sole or joint inventor of
the Invention claimed in his application. In
every original application the applicant
must distinctly state under oath that the
invention 'has not been patented to himself
or to others with his knowledge or consent
in this or any foreign country for more
than two years prior to his application, or
on an application for a patent filed in any
foreign country by himself or his legal
representatives or assigns more than .twelve
months prior to his application In this
cpuntry, or four months in eases of de-
signs. If any application tor patent has
been hied m any foreign country by the
applicant in this country or by his legal
representatives. or assigns, prior to his ap-
plication in this country, he shall state the
country or countries in which such applica-
tion has been filed, giving the date of such
application, and shall also state that no
application has been filed in any other
country or countries than those mentioned ■
that to the best of his knowledge and be-
lief the invention has not been in public use
or on sale in the Ignited States nor de-
scribed in any printed publication or pateni
in this or any foreign country for more than
two years prior to his application in this
country.
Every patent or any interest therein shall
be assignable in law by an instrument In
writing ; and the patentee or his assigns or
legal representatives may. In like manner
grant and convey an exclusive right under
his patent to the whole or any specified
part of the United States.
A reissue is granted to the original paten-
tee, his legal representatives, or the as-
signees of the entire interest when by rea-
son of a defective or insufficient specifica-
tion, or by reason of the patentee claiming
as his invention or discovery more than he
had a right to claim as new, the original
patent is inoperative or invalid, provided
the error has arisen from inadvertence ac-
cident, or mistake, and without any fraudu-
lent or deceptive Intention. Reissue appli-
cations must he made and the specifications
sworn to by the Inventors, if they be living.
foiTowl "" nJ'%'?-^''' ™ adrance, and are as
Hoi fn,-- =°?=+'^"?^c.^*-'^'^ original applica-
tion for a patent. $15. On issuing each
original patent, $20. In design cases : For
• venrl ''lii;^ ^J"^ H'' months, $10; for seven
yeais, $15; for fourteen years, $30 On
lnfMSP"'Si'°?,.*''' the reissue of a pat
pS l,?Afl„?° ^' °S ^i^'=^ disclaimer, $10.
*or certified copies of patents and other
papers in manuscript, ten cents per hundred
words and twenty-fl,ve cents for the ce°
tificate ; for certified copies of printed olt-
ents, eighty cents. For*^ uncertified printed
copies of specifications and drawings of
patents, five cents each. For recordins
every assignment, agreement, power of at-
torney, or other paper, of three hundred
iSSi*" °^T °?f thousand words, $2 : for each
theieo°f°^«1 "'°°^a°'J .words, m- fraet^oS
theieof, $1. For copies of drawings the
reasonable cost of making them T^e Pat
ent Office IS prepared to furnish positive
photographic copies of the drawings of
pending patented or abandoned cS ?n
,1^%^ and at rates as follows : r,a?|f size
size ^8x]'2t'f;„„''^^°«*?;''^« *^<-"t'^ ; medium
^h^;„„ i?- 'hclies, fifteen cents. Negative
photographic copies of specifications and
nJ^^,'?P f '°™'Su patents, or of a^| p|"°
PJ Pai-t of page of any printed publlcatifn
In the possession of the office, will be ft??
Patents
Encyclopedic Index
Pea Patch Island
Dished on paperTxll Inches, for fifteen cents
peP sheet. Fee for examining and register-
ing trade-mark, $10, which includes certifi-
cate. Stamps cannot be accepted by the
Patent Office in payment of fees.
There Is now no law permitting the filing
of a caveat, the old law having been re-
pealed July 1, 1910. Patent No. 1,000,000
was granted August 8, 1911, to F. H. Hol-
ton. of Akron. O.. for an automobile tire.
In the most recent year for which figures
are available, 80,400 applications were filed
with the Pension Office. There were Issued
38,958 patents, of which 1,523 were designs
and 203 were reissues ; 4,208 trade-marks ;
520 labels ; 146 prints. The Census Office
received the sum of $2,417,072. The high-
est number of patents granted was In the
same year (45,927). The total number of
patents granted by the United States Is
more than 1,350,000 with more than 55,000
designs, 15,000 reissues, 130,000 trade
marks and 22,000 labels.
Patents:
Commissioner of reeommendatioiis of,
referred to, 4115.
Foreigners granted privileges of,
6802.
South American countries, treaties
with, for protection of, 7499, 7984.
Patriotic Societies, National (see En-
cyclopedic Index articles on follow-
ing subjects) :
American Continentals.
American Cross of Honor.
American Flag Association.
American National Red Cross Association.
Anti-Saloon League.
Army and Navy Union.
Aztec Club of 1847.
Carnegie Hero Fund.
Cincinnati, Society of.
' Colonial Dames of America.
Colonial Society of America.
Dames of the Kevolutlon.
Daughters 6( the American Revolution.
Daughters of the Revolution.
Grand Army of the Republic.
Huguenot Society of America.
Interstate National Guard Association.
Loyal Legion, Military Order of.
Medal of Honor Legion.
Mayflower Descendants.
Military Order of Foreign Wars.
Mount Vernon Ladies' Association.
National Association of Naval Veterans.
Naval Order of the United States.
Navr League of the United States.
Order of Indian Wars of the United
States.
Order of the Founders and Patriots.
Puritv Federation.
Regular U. S. Army and Navy Union.
Societies of Spanish War Veterans.
Societies of the Union Army of 1861-66.
Society of the Army and Navy of the
Confederate States.
Societies of the War of 1812.
Society of Colonial Wars.
Sons of the American Revolution.
Sons of the Revolution.
Sons of Veterans, U. S. A.
Tammany Society.
Union Veteran Legion.
United Confederate Veterans.
United Daughters of the Confederacy.
TTnlted Sons of Confederate Veterans.
United States Daughters of 1812.
Veterans of Indian Wars.
Washington Headquarters Association.
Woman's Relief Corps.
Patriotism, Principles of, announced by
President Wilson, 7952. ;
Patrons of Husbandry.— A secret society
organized for the purpose of establishing
cooperation among farmers. In 1876 It took
the name "Grangers" (q. v.).
Paul VS. Virginia. — An Important case be-
fore the United States Supreme Court.
The statutes of Virginia required the de-
posit in the State treasury of certain mon-
eys in State bonds by insurance companies
not incorporated under the State laws in
return for licenses to do business in the
State. This law was enacted Feb. 3, 1866,
and later in the month a supplemental act
was passed. In the same year Samuel
Paul, a citizen of Virginia, acting as agent
for a New York insurance company, was
indicted before the Circuit Court of Peters-
burg and sentenced to pay a flue of $50
for refusing to comply witli the above law.
The court of appeals of Virginia affirmed
the decree of the Circuit Court, and, the
case having been taken to the Supreme
Court of the United States, that tribunal
affirmed the judgment of the State court
of appeals on the ground that the State
law in question did not conflict with that
clause of the National Constitution which
declares that "the citizens of each State
shall be entitled to all privileges and im-
munities of citizens in the several States,"
nor with the power of Congress to "regu-
late commerce with foreign nations and
among the several States." Justice Field,
for the court, held that issuing a policy of
insurance is not a transaction of commerce.
The policies are local transactions and are
governed by the local law. Justice Field
stated that corporations are not citizens
wiihin the meaning of the Constitution.
Paiilus Hook (N. J.), Capture of.— In the
summer of 1779 the British had a garrison
of 388 men stationed at Paulus Hook. N. J.,
opposite New York City. At 3 o'clock on
the morning of Aug. 19, MaJ. Harry Lee,
with a force of 300 picked men, made a
descent upon the fort and in a short en-
gagement killed 30 men and took 160 pris-
oners. The British 'having retired to a
small circular redoubt too strong for Lee's
men, he returned to camp with his prisoners.
Congress rewarded Lee with thanks and a
gold medal.
Paupers, Foreign:
Introduction of, into United States,
1686, 2368.
Legislation respecting, recommend-
ed, 4757.
Bequest of President to withdraw
articles regarding, from consider-
ation of House, 1692.
Involuntary deportation of convicts,
idiots, insane persons, and, 1o
United States, referred to, 4219,
4588.
Pa'wnee Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Pawnee Reservation, Ind. Ter., enlarge-
ment of, bill for, 4695.
Paymaster General. (See War Depart-
ment and Army.)
Pea Patch Island, Delaware River:
Fortifications for, 1038, 172.5.
Pea Patch Island
Encyclopedic Index
Peace
Jurisdiction of, should be secured by
Government, 1725.
Private claims to, 695, 799.
Proceedings to try title to, referred
to, 1809.
Pea Ridge (Ark.), Battle of.— Called by
the Confederates the battle of Elk Horn.
In December, 1S61, Gen. Samuel R. Curtis
took command of the 12,000 Federal troops
at EoUa, Mo., and advanced against Gen.
Sterling Price, who retreated before him
into Arkansas. Gen. Price was joined by
Gen. Ben. McCuUoch. In January Gen. Earl
Van Dorn assumed command of the com-
bined Confederate forces, estimated at
16,000, including some 5,000 Cherokee In-
dians recruited for the service by Albert
Pike. Curtis had about 10,000 men In line
and forty-eight pieces of artillery. March
7, 1862, Van Dorn attacked Curtis in his
position on Pea Ridge, a line of bluffs along
Sugar Creek, in Benton County, Ark. Skill-
ful manipulation of the artillery in Sigel's
division did much toward determining the
result. Fighting continued all day, and
during the night both armies changed posi-
tions. The battle was renewed at sunrise
on the 8th, and after two hours Van Dorn's
forces retreated. The Confederate Generals
McCuUoch and Mcintosh were killed and
Price and Slack were wounded. The Con-
federate losses were about 1,300. The Union
army lost 1,351 in killed, wounded, and
missing.
Peace:
At any price, denounced, 6992.
Blessings of, 8034, 8051.
Commission (see also Arbitration, In-
ternational and the several cases
of arbitration) —
In 1867, treaties concluded by,
4005.
Russo-Japanese. (See illustration
opposite 6980.)
Spanish-American, at Paris, 6321,
6322.
Conference at Paris. (See Peace Con-
ference at Paris, helow.)
Conference at The Hague (see also
'Hague Peace Conference and Ar-
bitration, International) —
Discussed, 6992.
Monroe Doctrine accepted by, 6664.
Second, 7117.
"View of, opposite 7012.
Congress, International, at Washing-
ton—
Discussed, 4684, 4717.
Invitations extended to attend,
4685.
Postponement of, referred to, 4717.
Covenants of, should be open, 8423.
Desirability and undesirability of,
discussed, 145, 6666, 69'31, 6993,
7066.
' Establishment of Army and Navy.
(See Army and Navy.)
Formula, "No annexations, no con-
tributions, no punitive indemni-
ties," discussed, 8400.
German terms of, denounced, 8421.
League of nations to preserve. (See
League Of Nations.)
Navy and preservation of, discussed,
6666, 7066, 7117, 7150.
Note of President Wilson and replies
and analysis of, 8190, 8193, 8195,
8196, 8293.
Overtures (see also World War,
Armistice) from —
Austria-Hungary, dismissed, 8582.
Germany, 8187.
Analyzed, 8292, 8448.
Austro-Hungarian statement re-
garding, 8189.
Entente Allies' reply to, 8195.
Germany's reply to, 8197.
Pope, and replies thereto, 8340,
8344.
Pacifists cannot obtain, 8389. <
Palace at The Hague. (See illustra-
tion opposite 7012.)
Perpetual, bases of, 8200.
Plans for, discussed, 7372, 7494.
Resolution to declare state of, with
Germany and Austria-Hungary ve-
toed, 8849.
Terms —
Necessity for stating, 8192.
Stated, 8399, 8400, 8406, 8421, 8423,
8534.
Treaty with Germany. (See Ger-
many, Peace Treaty with.)
United States' influence for, 7062,
8033, 8105, 8292.
With justice, praised, 6921, 6993, 7066.
Without Victory —
Address of -President Wilson, 8199.
Analyzed, 8295.
Germany's response to, 8204.
Analyzed, 8295.
Necessity for, 8192.
Ee-afBrmation of principles of,
8402, 8406.
Peace Conference at Paris:
American delegation to, 8649, 8650.
Expenses of, 8781. 8888.
Appropriation asked for, 8780.
Discussed, 8691 ct seq., 8728.
Peace, International. (See Arbitration,
International; and Hague Peace Con-
ferences.)
Peace Societies. — Among the prominent
peace organizations active in the United
States may be mentioned the American
Union Against Militarism ; the Emergency
5.®"''l„^^''^''^tl°° (organized Feb. 7, 1917) ;
the Women's Peace Party; the American
Peace Society; the World Court League,
which alms for the establishment of an
international Supreme Court; the Carnegie
Peace Foundation, which seeks to prepare
the way for perpetual peace bv education ;
?;M tne League to Enforce Peace (q. v.).
Of these, the only ones actively to oppose
the entrance of the United States into the
European War were the first two men-
tioned which, after the declaration of war,
devoted themselves to opposing such war
measures as . censorship and conscription.
They also agitated for a statement of war
'Peace
Encyclopedic Index
Penitentiaries
aims and peace terms, and for • a confer-
ence on th^ possibility of peace. To this
. end, the People's Council was organized,
largely from the membership of the two
above-mentioned societies ; and later the
Civil Liberties Union, during and after
America's participation In the War, sup-
ported the conscientious objectors and
those imprisoned under the Espionage Act
and other war legislation It also func-
tioned actively, in combating alleged viola,
tions of the principle of freedom of speech,
petition and assemblage. The Religious
Society of Friends had committees working
for peace before the entrance of the United
States into the war ; but on the whole
supported America's war participation, once
it had been decided upon.
Peace Treaties. — When William Jennings
Bryan was appointed Secretary of State
by President Wilson in 1913, he conceived a
plan for the advancement of the cause of
peace throughout the world by means of
treaties pledging all nations to submit their
grievances with other nations to representa-
tives of disinterested nations for adjust-
ment Instead of resorting to war. "They
were on the same plan but on a broader
scale than President Taft's treaties with
Great Britain and France. These provided
for a year's delay on request of either party
before resort to arms, and in the meantime
a joint high commission of three to investi-
gate the dispute. The senate eliminated so
much of the Taft treaties as to make them
valueless and they were never clgned.
Bryan's idea was not so much arbitration
as delay for a year, or at least six months,
during which time Investigations should
be made and neither nation should Increase
Its army or navy. It was informally ad-
vanced at a banquet given to some forty
members of the diplomatic corps In Wash-
ington in April, 1913. President Wilson
acquiesced in the movement, and thirty-nine
treaties were prepared. (See Arbitration,
International).
Peace Treaties. (See Arbitration, In-
ternational; Germany, Treaty _ of
Peace •with; and the several treaties.)
Peace Without Victory Address, Presi-
dent Wilson's, 8199.
Peach Tree Creek (Ga.), Battle of.—
July 17, 1864. Sherman's army advanced
across the Chattahoochee Elver and John-
ston fell back toward Atlanta. Just at this
time Johnston was superseded in command
of the Southern army by Gen. John B. Hood.
Before the Federal forces could be brought
Into line of battle before Atlanta they were
attacked by Hood's army near Peach Tree
Creek, July 20, 1864. The attack fell main-
ly upon Newton's division of the Fourth
Corps, the Twentieth Corps, and Johnston s
division of the Fourteenth Corps. After a
severe battle the Confederates retired into
their intrenchments, leaving upon the field
500 dead, 1,000 wounded, 7 stand of colors,
and many prisoners. The Federal loss in
killed ' wounded, and missing was 1,500.
Gen Hood censured Hardee for the reverse.
Peacock The. — A United States sloop of
war. carrying eighteen guns, commanded by
Cant LeWls Warrington. On April 29, 1814,
wh?n off the coast of F orida. th s vessel
Ttta^ked the British brig ^pe^er aUo
rg"?Sf '^^Sn%^t^^ot%^- '^^
i?F-„ fiiYi^ir «T. wAnnrlfld. the Enervter siir-,
iRt5 the Peacocfc attacko-
WaMtitos! of fourteen guns. This capture
took & after the treaty of peace. Next
day, on ascertaining this fact Capt. War-
rington released the Nautilus, and returned
home.
Feat. — Peat is a dark-brown or black resid-
uum produce^ by the partial decomposition
of mosses, sedges and other vegetable
matter In marshes and other damp spots. In
the United States, peat Is found mostly in
depressions and poorly drained regions
where the temperature Is low in summer
and the humidity of the air is high. The
most extensive peat beds in the United
States are found in New England and
around the Great Lakes. In a recent year,
the peat production of the United States
was estimated at 107,261 short tons, valued
at more than $1,000,000.
It has been estimated that more than
11,000 square miles of swamp land in
the United States contain peat beds of good
quality, and that the total available fuel
in these beds would total more than 12,-
000,000,000 tons. '
Because of the abundant coal supply of
the United States, peat has seldom been
used as fuel here. In Europe, however, it
is estimated that 15,000,000 to 20,000,000
tons are used annually for the generation
of heat and power. The war stimulated the
use of peat, a United States Commerce
report stating that in Norway alone there
were 216 peat machines operated In a
recent year, as compared with 55 In 1916
and 36 in 1914. Peat consumed In a
properly designed gas producer yields gas
of good quality. Peat Is also antiseptic
and absorbent, and is often used as a
substitute for medicated cotton. It Is also
In general use as a fertilizer in agriculture.
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, improvement and
fortification of, recommended, 5623,
7104.
Pecuniary Claims, convention for Arbi-
tration of, with South and Central
American Eepublics, 7982. (See also
Claims.)
Pedro IVGguel Locks, Panama Canal (see
also Panama Canal), view of, 6700.
Pelagosa, island of, disposition of, 8837.
Pelegiac Sealing, consequences of, 7063.
(See also Seals.)
Pelew Islands. (See Oceania.)
Pembina, Minn., proclamation granting
privileges of other ports to, 2859.
Penitentiaries. — 'She first penitentiary in
the United States was founded In Phila-
delphia in 1786 through the Influence of
the Society of Friends. This was followed
soon afterwards by the New York prisons
at Sing Sing and Auburn. Sept. 23, 1789,
Congress recommended to the several states
to make it the duty of keepers of jails
to receive prisoners committed under au-
thority of the United States. In 1790 the
legislature of Pennsylvania passed a law
to try the system of solitary confinement
of prisoners at 'hard labor as a reformatory
measure. A society for the improvement
of prison discipline and for the reformation
of juvenile offenders was established in
Boston in 1815, and in 1825 the House of
Refuge on Blackwell's Island, N. Y., the
first institution in the United States for
reforming juvenile delinquents, was opened.
The contract system of leasing prisoners to
private parties began with the Mississippi
penitentiary Feb. 21, 1867.
Penitentiaries
Encyclopedic Index
Pennsylvania
Federal Penitentiaries. — AH territorial pen-
itentiaries were placed under control of
United States marshals and the Attorney-
General was authorized to prescribe rules
for their government by act of Congress of
June 10, 1871. In 1874 the United States
Military Prison was established at Fort
Leavenworth. In 1886 a United States .iall
was located at Port Smith, Ark. In 1891
Congress authorized three United States
prisons, there being now, besides those men-
tioned above, a United States penitentiary
at Atlanta, Ga., one on McNeil's Island,
State of Washington, a United States .iail
in the District of Columbia, and a Terri-
torial prison at Yuma, Arizona. There is
also one penitentiary in Hawaii, and in the
Philippine Islands two such institutions
for the confinement of ofEenders against the
civil law. In the several states, under state
jurisdiction, there are altogether flfty-six
prisons and penitentiaries. United States
prisoners not confined In Federal institu-
tions are kept in those of the various states.
The last federal census showed that there
were in the federal penitentiaries 1,904
prisoners. The total number of prisoners
in all the penal institutions was 111,498.
Of these, 53,359 were native-born whites,
.'!7.874 were negroes, 827 were of other
colored rates, and 19,438 were foreign-
born whites.
Penitentiaries:
State laws regulating, discussed, 5755.
Uniform credit for good behavior in,
recommended, 5755.
Penitentiaries, Government:
Erection of, recommended, 4836, 5102,
' 536,3, 5880, 5969, 6161.
Military prison at Fort Leavenworth,
use of, as discussed, 6161.
Recommended, 5969.
Penitentiary Congress, International, at
London, 4162.
Penn Yan, N. Y., special a,gent to take
charge of post-office in, referred to,
3799.
Pennamite War. (See Wyoming Con-
troversy.)
Pennsylvania. — Orie of the thirteen origi-
nal stales: nickname, "The Keystone
State" ; motto, "Virtue, Liberty and Inde-
pendence." It extends from lat. 39° 43' to
42° 15' north and from long. 74° 40' to 80°
.'A' west. It is bounded on the north by
Lake Erie and New York, on the east by
New York and New Jersey (separated from
both bv the Delaware River), on the south
by Delaware, Maryland and West Virginia,
and on the west by Ohio and West Vir-
ginia. It has an area of 45,126 square
miles. Pennsylvania was originally named
Sylvania ("forest country"). In 1681 Wil-
liam Penn obtained a grant of 40,000 square
miles of land from Charles II in payment of
a debt of £16,000 due Penn's father, an ad-
miral in the English navy. The King gave
the territory the name of Pennsylvania in
honor of Penn. In 1682 the city of Phila-
delphia was laid out on plans drawn in
England. Penn established a popular form
of proprietary government and ottered in-
ducements to immigrants by his wise ad-
ministration and honorable dealings with
the Indians. His rights passed to his
heirs, from whom they were purchased by
the state in 1776. Pennsylvania had been
settled by a colonv of Swedes in 1638, prior
to the grant of the territory to Penn. The
United States Constitution was ratified by
a state convention Dec. 12, 1787. A new
state constitution was made in 1790, an- '
other In 1838, and the present in 1873.
The state is traversed from northeast to
southwest by low parallel ranges of the Al-
leghanies, and Is drained by the Ohio, Sus-
quehanna, and Delaware Rivers. It Is the
first state in the production of petroleum
and the manufacture of iron and second
in general manufactures.
In 1910, the population of Pennsylvania
was 7,665,111. In 1920, it was 8,720,159.
In 1910, the foreign-born population num-
bered 1,442,874, of whom 251,774 were
Austrian, 240,985 were Russian, 196,122
were Italian, 195,202 were German, 165,-
109 were Irish, 123,498 were Hungarian
and 109,115 were English. In that year,
60%% of the population was urban.
The latest education statistics show 42,-
748 public elementary schools, with 44,992
teachers and 1,741,143 pupils ; and 911
public high schools, with 0,155 teachers and
124,015 pupils.
The latest figures for the annual agri-
cultural production were as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Corn ..1,490,000 67,050,000 $67,050,000
Hay ...2,837,000 3,970,000* 93,190,000
Wheat .1,524,000 25,284,000 42,983,000
Potatoes 317,000 36,455,000 45,204,000
Oats ...1,175,000 45,825,000 30,244,000
♦Tons.
The most recent flares showed 219,295
farms In the state, with a total farm area
of 18,586,832 acres, of which 12,673,519
were improved. Later figures of number of
farms only put them at 202,256 in number
The total value of all farm property
was $1,253,274,862. The last census gave
the farm animals as 560,000 horses, 46,000
mules, 970,000 cows, 727,000 other cattle.
940,000 sheep, and 1,420,000 swine. The
last annual wool clip was 4,435.000
pounds. The last annual fruit production
was given as 23,937,000 bushels of apples.
1,744,000 bushels of peaches- and 701,000
bushels of pears.
Principally because of the coal prorliic-
tion, Pennsylvania far outstrips the other
states in the value of its mineral produc-
tion. For the most recent year for which
figures were available, there were some 150.-
000 men emfjloyed in the anthracite mines
and 180,000 in the bituminous mines. The
output of anthracite coal was 99,446,000
short tons and the bituminous output, 177,-
217,000 short tons. There were also pro-
duced some 7.400,000 barrels of crude petro-
leum, $24,000,000 worth of natural gas,
516,000 long tons of iron ore, 14,700,000
tons of pig iron, valued at $466,000,000, and
26,724.000 short tons of coke. In 1917
the total mineral output was valued at
more than $880,000,000.
The manufacturing census of 1917
showed 18.531 manufacturing establish-
ments in the state, representing a capital
of .'82.577,000,000. with 107.335 salaried
officials and 1,078,000 wage-earners. The
salaries in the .vear amounted to $140,544,-
000 and the wages to .'F761, 151,000. The
value of the annual manufacturing output
was $5,652,927,000.
Pennsylvania (see also Philadelpliia) :
Buckshot War referred to, 1724, 1725.
, Combinations, unlawful, in, discussed
and proclamation issued against
4424, 4451.
Conflict at Lattimer, claims of Aus-
Pennsylvania
Encyclopedic Index
Pensions
tria-Hiingary regarding subjects
kiUed in, 6324.
Insurrections in —
Discussed, 154, 160, 162, 279, 282,
. 284, 287.
Pardons granted insurgents, 173, 293.
Referred to, 176.
Proclamations against, 150, 153, 276.
Referred to, 1724, 1725.
Suppression of, 293.
Judges, Federal, in opinion of, re-
garding pensions, 115.
Marine linspital at Erie tendered
United States by, for use as sol-
diers' and sailors' home, 4786.
Persons in, fleeing from justice re-
ferred to, 103.
Ratification of amendment to Federal
Constitution by, 66, 102, 249.
Resolutions of legislature of —
Pledging support to United States,
etc., 112, 446, 482.
Protesting against Supreme Court
decisions in case of Gideon 01m-
stead, 456.
Subjects of Austria-Hungary killed
in riots at Lattimer, in, 6324.
Suppression of insurrections in, and
authorization to employ armed
force, 293.
Transmitted, 456, 482.
United States Bank of. (See Bank
of Pennsylvania.)
Unlawful combination in, discussed
and proclamation against, 4401,
4424.
Whisky Insurrection in —
Discussed, 154, 160, 162.
Pardon granted insurgents, 173.
Referred to, 176.
Proclamations against, 150, 153.
Penobscot River:
Ship channel of, referred to, 1038.
Survey of, 1128.
Pensacola, Fla.:
Blockade of port of, removal by proc-
lamation, 3431.
Referred to, 3446.
Dry Dock at, referred to, 2414.
Pension Frauds. (See Pension Laws.)
Pension Fund, Naval. (See Pensions.)
Pension Laws:
Abuses and frauds discussed by Pres-
ident—
Adams, J. Q., 874.
Arthur, 4772.
Cleveland, 4945, 5109, 5363, 5382,
5884, 5978, 6169.
Fillmore, 2664, 2714.
Grant, 4207.
Jackson, 1333.
Lincoln, 3253.
Pierce, 2748.
Act to amend, by increasing pension
of soldiers and sailors who lost arm
or leg in service, returned, 4994.
Pension Office. (See illustration, frontis-
piece, Vol. X.)
Pension Vetoes. (See Cleveland, Gro-
ver; Grant, Ulysses S.)
Pensions. — The word "pension" Is derived
from the word pensio, a payment, and re-
fers to allowances of money paid In fixed
amounts, at certain intervals by a govern-
ment to such persons as liave rendered some
valuable public service, or to ttie dependent
relatives of such. In England pensions are
granted to those "who by their useful dis-
coveries in science and attainments in liter-
ature and tbe arts have merited the gra-
cious consideration of their sovereign and
the gratitude of their country." Aug. 26,
1776, the Continental Congress passed an
act to provide by pension for the disabled
soldiers of the Revolution. It was also re-
solved during the same year tbat all the
officers who should continue in the service
until the end of the war sbould receive
half pay for seven years after peace bad
been ^established. A few years later the
widows and orplians of those who had died
were included m the provision of this act.
In 1785 Congress recommended that the
several states provide for Invalid soldiers.
By laws passed in 1789 and 1808 the I'nii-
ed States assumed the pension obligations
of the several states.
Officers and seamen of the Navy disabled
in service were placed on the pension lists
by act of July 1, 1797, and by acts passed
in 1799 and 1800 money accruing from
prizes was made to constitute a fund for
the payment of naval pensions. By an act
passed April 24, 1816, the rate of pension
for total disability was fixed at $17 per
month for first lieutenants, $15 for second
lieutenants, and $8 for non-commissioned
officers and privates. In 1818 an act was
passed granting pensions to all who had
served nine months or more in the Rev-
olutionary Army and were in indigent cir-
cumstances. More claimants applied than
could possibly have survived from Wash-
ington's army. The amount required to be
paid the first year was eleven times what
had been estimated, and the second year
seventeen times the estimate. In 1868,
when all the Revolutionary pensioners had
died, there remained 888 widows of such
soldiers. There remained on the pension
roils as iate as 1908 two daughters of Revo-
lutionary soldiers. Acts of July 14, 1862,
and subsequent dates provided pensions for
soldiers and sailors disabled in the Civil
War and for the dependent relatives of
those Who had died. Under these acts ex-
penditures for pensions reached $34,443,895
in i871, and then declined until, on Jan.
25, 1879, the arrears act was passed, al-
lowing baclc pay on ail claims theretofore
allowed. In two years this act doubled the
total annual sum paid for pensions. Mean-
while, in 1871, another act had pensioned
all who had served a certain time in the
War of 1812, and their widows if married
before the treaty of Ghent. The last sur-
vivor of the War of 1812 wlio was on the
pension rolls was Hiram Cronk, of Ava,
N. y., who died May 11, 1905, at the age
of 105 years.
Pensions for Widows. — Act of May 1
1920. Under the provisions of the act of
May 1, 1920, the widow of any person whd
served in the Army. Navv, or Marine Corps
during the Civil War for ninety days or
more, and was honorably discharged, or
Pensions
Encyclopedic Index
Pensions
regardless of the length of service was dis-
charged for or died in service of a disability
incurred in the service i» line of duty, may
be entitled to pension, without regard to
her financial condition, provided she was
married to him prior to June 27, 1905. The
rate of pension Is $30 per month, and $6
additional for each of his children under
the age of sixteen years. Pension, If al-
lowed, commences from the date of filing a
valid declaration in the bureau.
Under the'provlslons of Sections 4702 and
4703, Revised Statutes of the United States,
the widow of an ofBcer or enlisted man of
the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the
United States, whose death resulted from
disability Incurred In the service in line of
duty, may be entitled to a pension from the
date of his death, regardless of the date of
her marriage to him or her financial status.
The rate of pension ranges from $12 to $30
per month, according to the rank of the
soldier or sailor, with $2 additional for
each of his children under the age of six-
teen years.
Under the acts of July 27, 1892, June 27,
1902, May 30, 1908, and March 4, 1917, the
widow of an officer or enlisted man who
served in any of the Indian wars, disturb-
ances, or campaigns, mentioned in said acts,
for the period stated therein, may be en-
titled to pension from date of approval of
the act giving her a pensionable status, or,
where soldier died subsequent to such date,
fr^m date of his death. No grant Is made
for minor children.
Under the provisions of the Act of July
16, 1918, the widow of an officer or enlisted
man of the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps
of the United States, who served therein at
least ninety days In the war with Spain or
the Philippine Insurrection or as a partici-
pant in the Chinese Boxer rebellion cam-
paign and was honorably discharged there-
from, may be entitled to pension, If her
marriage to him occurred prior to the pas-
sage of that act, without proving his death
to be the result of his army or navy service,
provided she has no means of support other
than her dally labor and an actual net In-
come not exceeding $250 a year. The rate
of pension is $12 per month, and $2 addi-
tional for each of his children under the
age of sixteen years. Pension, If allowed,
commences from the date of filing a valid
declaration with the Pension office.
The only general pension laws under
which a widow may have title to pension
based on service in the war with Spain or
the Philippine Insurrection are Sections
4702 and 4703, Revised Statutes of the
United States and the Act of July 16, 1918.
World War Pensions. — The act of October
7, 1917, as amended, provided that existing
pension laws should not apply to a person
entering the military or naval service after
that date, unless he has prior rights under
such law. Allowances for service after
that date were assigned to the hands of
the Bureau of War Kisk Insurance. (See
Soldiers' and Sailors' Compensation.)
Pensions for Soldiers and Sailors, — Any
officer or enlisted or appointed man of the
Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United
States, disabled by a wound. Injury, or
disease, Incurred In line of duty since
March 4, 1861, in a term of service which
ended prior to October 6, 1917, may be en-
titled to pension on account thereof under
the provisions of Section 4692, Revised
Statutes. Rates range from $6 to $100 per
month, according to the degree of disability
established. Pension commences from date
of filing of declaration except In claims of
certain Insane persons.
Act Df May 1, 1920. Any person who
served ninety days or more In the Army,
Navy or Marine Corps of the United States
during the Civil War, and who has been
honorably discharged, or who, having so
served less than ninety days, was discharged
for a disability Incurred In service In line
of duty, may be entitled to a pension at the
rate of $50 per month from the date of
filing a valid declaration.
A rate of $72 per month is provided for
any person who served as above and who
is now, or hereafter may become, by reason
of age and physical or mental disability,
helpless or blind, or so nearly helpless or
blind as to require the regular personal aid
and attendance of another person, pension
to commence from the date of the certi-
ficate of medical examination by a board of
surgeons, establishing the existence of the
requisite condition of disability, after May
1, 1920, the date of approval of the act. This
act also provides increased rates for specific
disabilities.
Act of June 5, 1920. Any person who
served ninety days or more in the military
or naval service of the United States dur-
ing the War with Spain, the Philippine in-
surrection, or the China relief expedition,
who has been honorably discharged there-
from, and who is suffering from any mental
or physical disability of a permanent char-
acter, not the result of his own vicious
habits, and thereby rendered unable to earn
support, may be entitled to a pension. Rates
range from $12 to $30 per month, propor-
tioned to the degree of inability to earn
support, pension to commence from date
of filing claim upon proof that the dis-
ability then existed.
Any person who served as noted above
and who has reached the age of 62« years
Is entitled to a pension of $12 per month ;
68 years, $18 per month ; 72 years, $24 per
month, and ' 7o years, $30 per month. This
act also provides increased rates for speci-
fic disabilities.
In addition to the 299,363 widows on the
pension rolls in 1920, there were 4,422
dependents, 2,273 minors, 913 helpless chil-
dren and 109 nurses. Of the total number
of pensioners, in 1920 there were 243,520
Civil War soldiers and 290,100. Civil War
widows, as against 298,808 and 288,815,
respectively, for 1918. There were surviv-
ing in 1920, 71 widows of the War of 1812,
148 soldiers and 2,428 widows of the
Mexican War, 30,432 pensioners of the
Spanish-American War. There were 6,228
pensioners of the Indian Wars, and 19,031
of the Regular EstabUshment.
In a recent year, the average pension
for all wars was $355.78. The average
pension for the Civil War was $373.39 • for
the War with Spain, $137.28 ; for the War
of 1812, $218.57; for the Mexican War,
$256.48 ; for the Indian Wars, $285.84 ; for
the Regular Establishment, $192.62, an-
nually.
The total amount paid by the United
States Government for pensions from 1790
is as follows :
Revolutionary War $ 70,000,000.00
War of 1812 46,049,268.15
Indian Wars 16,705,750.41
Mexican War 52,906.295.05
Civil War 5,299,859,509.39
Spanish War and Filipino
Revolts 65,211,665.71
Regular Establishnlent . . . 50,242,190.99
War of 1917 37,275.28
Unclassified 16,508,447.41
Total $5,617,520,402.39
Pensions
Encyclopedic Index
Pensions
The number of pensioners and the
amounts paid eadi year from 1869 to the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1920, as re-
ported by the Commissioner of Pensions,
follows :
Year
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1881
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1903
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1918
1917
1918
1919
1920
Number of Pensioners on
the Roils
Widows
InvaUds etc. Total
87,521
93,394
113,954
119,500
121,628
122,989
124,239
128,723
131,649
138,615
145,410
164,110
182,633
206,042
225,470
247,146
270,346
306,298
343,701
373,699
415,654
536,821
703,242
759,706
754,382
751,456
748,514
747,492
758,511
754,104
752,510
748,649
739,443
729,356
720,921
717,761
701,483
679,937
658,071
632,557
602,180
670,050
538,000
503,633
470,331
437,448
403,120
369,936
340,318
313,140
*285,110
111,165
114,101
118,275
118,911
114,613
111,832
107,898
103,381
92,349
104,140
105,392
104,720
103,064
97,616
97,286
97,979
95,437
99,709
108,856
116,026
122,290
139,339
172,826
206,306
215,162
219,068
222,164
228,522
235,203
237,415
241,019
249,086
260,003
267,189
273,841
280,680
284,488
287,434
293,616
313,637
318,903
322,048
322,294
316,567
314,908
310,699
306,452
303,175
306,582
311,287
*299,363
198,686
207,495
232,229
238,411
227,241
234,821
232,137
232,104
223,998
242,755
250,802
268,830
285,697
303,658
322,756
345,125
365,783
406,007
452,557
489,725
537,944
676,160
876,068
966,012
969,544
970,524
970,678
976,014
993,714
991,519
993,529
997,735
999,446
996,545
994,762
998,441
985,971
967,371
951,687
946,194
921,083
892,098
860,294
820,200
785,239
748,147
709,572
673,111
646,895
624,427
*592,190
Paid as
Pension^
S29,351
28,518,
29,752
26,982,
30,206
29,270,
27,936
28,182
26,786
33,664
56,689
50,583
54,313
60,427
67,912
65,171
64,091
73,752
78,950,
88,842,
106,093,
117,312,
139,394,
156,906
139,986,
139,812,
138,220
139,949
144,651
138,355,
138,462,
138,531
137,504
137,759
141,093,
141,142,
139,000
138,155
153,093
161,973.
159,974,
157,325
152,986
174,171
172,417
165,618,
159,155
160,895
179,835
222,159,
213,295,
,488.78
1,792.62
1,746.81
1,063.89
1,778.99
1,404.76
,209.53
,821.72
,009.44
1,428.92
,229.08
,405.35
,172.05
,573.81
,387.47
,937.12
,142.90
,997.08
,501.67
,720.58
,850.39
,690.50
,147.11
,637.94
,726.17
,294.30
,704.46
,717.35
,879.80
,052.95
,130.65
,483.84
,267.99
,653.71
,571.49
,861.33
,288.25
,412.46
,086.27
,703.77
,056.08
,160.35
,433.72
,660.80
,546.26
,266.14
,090.92
,053.94
,328.75
,292.70
,314.00
* Subject to revision.
Pensions:
Act—
For relief of dependent parents
and honorably discharged soldiers
and sailors now disabled and de-
pendent, vetoed, 5134.
To allow pension of $37 per month
to soldiers losing arm and leg, re-
turned for amendment, 4382.
, To provide for settlement of claims
barred by limitations, opinions
regarding, referred to, 115, 125.
Acts granting, vetoed. (See Cleve-
land, Grover; Grant, Ulysses S.)
Army officers not allowed, except in
certain cases, 1005.
Civil, approved, 7754.
Civil retirement and contributory
pension system, 7697.
Ci\'il Service, for age and disability,
approved, 7754.
Disability, pension act dismissed,
5552, 5762, 5883, 5977.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 874, 927, 958.
Arthur, 4645.
Cleveland, 4945, 5108, 5382, 5883,
5977, 6168.
Grant, 3995, 4066, 4156, 4207, 4254,
4307.
Harrison, Benj., 5484, 5550, 5552,
5639, 5762.
Jackson, 1019.
Johnson, 3560, 3650, 3652, 3774,
3880.
Lincoln, 3253, 3452.
MeKinley, 6345, 6388, 6452.
Madison, 482.'
Monroe, ' 588.
Eoosevelt, 6803.
Taft, 7425, 7536, 7551, 7697, 7754.
Tyler, 1902.
Expenditures for. (See Discussed,
ante.)
Foreign pensioners, provision for pay-
ment of expenses of obtaining evi-
dence regarding, recommended,
4668.
Frauds discussed. (See Pension
Laws.)
Laws in regard to. (See Pension
Laws.)
Names and ages of pensioners should
be taken with census, 1744.
Naval pensioners and pension fund
referred to, 1810, 1837, 440S,
6283.
Transfer of payment of, to Navy
Department recommended, 4060.
Old age. (See Old Age Pensions.)
Payments to invalids, order regard-
ing, 6308.
Pensioners entering Confederate
army should be stricken from rolls,
3253.
Pensioners in Southern States, recom-
mendations regarding restoration
of certain, 4254.
Pension obtained by fraud. (See
Pension Laws.)
Eeport regarding, transmitted, 3061,
4408.
Revolutionary War —
Amount paid pensioners of, re-
ferred to, 602, 927.
Compensation to agents in paying,
referred to, 2354.
Sums paid to, and residences of pen-
sioners referred to, 602.
Pensions
Encyclopedic Inde.'^
Persia
System of, for civil servants, diseusaed
and urged, 7425, 7536, 7551, 7697,
7754.
Pensions, Bureau of.— Up to 1833 the dis-
bursement of pensions had been under the
supervision of the Secretary of War and
the Secretary of the Navy. In that year
Congress estabiished the Pension Bureau
and placed J. L. Edwards in charge. He
immediately assumed the business thereto-
ITore under the War Department, and in
1840 the pension affairs of the Navy De-
partment were transferred to this Bureau.
In 1849, when the Department of the In-
terior was created, the Pension Bureau
was placed under its jurisdiction. The
chief oflScer of this Bureau is called the
Commissioner of Pensions.
Pensions, Bureau of:
Efficiency of, 6803, 6911.
Expenditures of. (See Pensions dis-
cussed.)
Increase in clerical force of, 5552.
Eeoommended, 4673.
Transfer of, from Interior Depart-
ment to War Department recom-
mended, 4060.
Work of, 6803, 7006.
Pensions, Commissioner of, provision
for continuance of, recommended,
1789.
(See Populist or Peo-
Peoples Party,
pies Party.)
Peoria Indians. (See Indian Tribesi)
"Perdicaris Alive or Eaizuli Dead." —
In 1904, Ion 11. Perdicaris, an American
citizen, was held for ransom by Eaizuli, a
bandit in Morocco. After mild negotiations
had failed to obtain the release of Perdi-
caris, John Hay, then Secretary of State,
by direction of President Roosevelt sent to
Mr. Gummere, the American Consul at Tan-
gier, the famous ultimatum cablegram: "We
want Perdicaris alive or Raizuli dead." The
result was the immediate release of Perdi-
caris.
Perjury.— In law the willful giving, under
oath lawfully administered in a judicial
proceeding, of false testimony in regard
to a matter or thing material to the issue
or point of inquiry. The early Romans
threw perjurers from the Tarpeian Rock.
The Greeks branded them with a mark of
infamy. After the Empire became Chris-
Liauized any person who swore falsely upon
the Gospels was sentenced to have his
tongue cut out. The canons of the early
church imposed eleven years' penance. In
some countries the perjurer was liable to
any punishment to which his false testi-
mony had exposed an innocent person. In
England perjury was punished by tine, the
pillory, and imprisonment. It is now in
both England and America a statutory
ofl'ense, punishable by line or imprisonment,
or both.
Pernicious Activity.- A phrase contained
iu an Executive order of President Cleve-
land. It occurred in the following sen-
tence : "Individual interest and activity in
puliticai affairs are by no means con-
demned. Officeholders are neither disfran-
chised nor forbidden the exercise of po-
litical privileges, but their privileges are
not enlarged nor is their duty to party
Increased to pernicious activity by offlce-
holdiug." (5079.) (See Obtrusive Par-
tisanship.)
Perpetual Emigrating Fund Co., suit
instituted by Government for termi
nation of, discussed, 5379.
Perry's Victory Exposition.— The one
hundredth anniversary of the victory of
Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry over the
British fleet unuer command of Captain
Barclay in the battle of Lake Erie, Sept.
10, 1813, was celebrated by an historical
and educational exposition at Put-in-Bay
Island during the summer of 1913 and a
dedication of a national memorial to Com-
modore Perry and the American seamen
who perished in that conflict, the remains
of many of whom have reposed in un-
marJsed graves on Put-in-Bay Island for
nearly: a hundred years. The memorial cost
more than a million dollars. Congress had
appropriated $250,000.
The exposition opened July 4, 1913, and
closed Sept. 10. Its historical and educa-
tional interests were under the direction
of the historical societies and the univer-
sities and colleges of the states participat
lug. The only industrial feature related
to an exhibit for the promotion of the ship-
ping interests of the great lakes. In con-
junction with the permanent memorial to
Commodore Perry the exposition commemo-
rated the one hundredth anniversay of Gen.
William Henry Harrison's northwestern
campaign.
Perry ville (Ky.), Battle of.— Oct. i, 1862,
the Confederate forces under Bragg and
Kirby Smith having united at Frankfort,
Ky., Bragg issued a proclamation calling the
people of Kentucky to his assistance. He
inaugurated a provisional government at
Frankfort, with Richard Hawes as governor.
Buell's army, divided into three corps, under
ilcCook, Gilbert, and Crittenden, advanced
aga,inst the Confederates by way of Louis-
ville. Oct. 8, McCook's corps was attacked
near Perryville, and after a fig'ht lasting all
day Bragg's army was repulsed. The engage-
ment, while not general all day, was severe.
During the night the Confederates retired,
and later retreated to Cumberland Gap,
leaving 1,200 wounded and sick behind. The
Federal losses were 916 killed (including
Generals Jackson and Terrell), 2,943 wound-
ed, and 489 missing — a total of 4,348. The
Confederates lost 510 killed, 2,635 wounded
and 251 missing— a total of 3,396.
Persia. — Persia Is a kingdom in the west
of the continent of Asia, and is bounded
on the north by Russian Transcaucasia, the
Caspian Sea, and Russian Transcaspia, on
the east by Afghanistan and British Balu-
chistan : on the south by the Arabian Sea
and the Persian Gulf ; and on the west by
Asiatic Turkey. The territory thus de-
fined lies, approximately, between 44°-63°
E. longitude, and between 25°-39° 45' N.
latitude, an -area of 630,000 square miles.
It is called Iran by the natives, and Is
referred to in the Bible as Elam.
Physical Features. — The kingdom occupies
the western and greater portion of the
Iranian Plateau (which extends between
the valleys of the Indus and the Tigris),
and consists of a series of plateaus. The
coast of the Caspian is low lying and for-
est clad ; the shores of the Persian Gulf
and Arabian Sea are low and sandy, but
elsewhere the country between the moun-
tain ranges is elevated. In the southeast
are two volcanoes, Kuh 1 Basman (dor-
mant), about 12,000 feet iu height, and
Persia
Encyclopedic Index
Persia
Kuh 1 Nnshadar (active), a triple-peaked
cone of 12,681 feet. The Kizll Uzafn, the
Herhaz, the Gurgan and the Atrek rivers
flow Into the Caspian Sea. Man^ rivers
into the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea.
The salt swamps of the depressions of the
interior are watered by many streams,
which soon lose themselves in the saline
swamps or dry salt area. There are many
lakes, the largest being Lake Urmia, about
4,000 feet above sea level, its area being
close on 1,000 square, miles and its waters
so salt that fish cannot live therein.
Population. — The population figures are
largely conjectural, but the usual estimate
is 9,000,000. There are only about 1,000
foreigners. The principal cities are the
capital, Teheran, and Tabriz, each with
more than 200,000 inhabitants ; Isaphan and
Kermanshah, with about 80,000 each ; and
Meshed and Kerman, with about 75,000
each. Practically all the people are
Mohammedans. The population is extremely
mixed, including Arabs, Turks, Armenians,
Jews, Kurds, Leks, Gypsies, Lurs, Baluchls.
History. — The country now known as
Persia formed part, at various times, of a
much greater kingdom, and under Cyrus
(560-528 B.C.) was included in a mighty
empire extending from Asia Minor and
Syria to the Indies. Attempts at a west-
ward extension under Darius (521-485
B.C.) and Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) were
cheeked by the victories of the Greeks at
the battles of Marathon (490), Thermopy-
lae (480), Salamis (480) and Platse (479
B.C.).' Under a later dynasty (226-651
A.D.), known as the Sassanians (Assassins
or Isma'ilites), the Persian empire was ex-
tended once again, to be consolidated by
Chosroes (or Khosra). over an area from
the Eed Sea to the Indus, and from Arabia
Into the heart of Central Asia. From the
eighth to the tenth centuries A.D. Persia
fell under Moslem rule, and with a short
Interval of independence was afterwards
overrun by the Mongols from the north-
east, forming part of the territories of
Jenghiz Khan at his death in 1272. A fur-
ther neriod of independence was inter-
rupted bv the conquest of Persia by Timur
(Tambur'lane the Great), from whose death
(1405) to the present time the kingdom
has been independent, under the rule of
a Shah, the reign of Nadir Shah (1736-
-1747) being the most brilliant in the an-
nals of modern Persia. After the death of
Nadir, Afghanistan asserted its independ-
ence, and the nineteenth century witnessed
the gradual decay of the kingdom. The
rule of the Shah was absolute and despotic
from the earliest times, but many internal
dissensions, culminating in the revolution
of 1905-1906, have marked the later years
of Persian history and have further weak-
ened the powers of resistance to external
forces. Owing'1:o increasing popular discon-
tent with a corrupt and incompetent ad-
ministration and an extravagant Court, a
nationalist movement began in December,
1905. After a period of revolt and inter.
ference by Great Britain and Russia, the
movement for constitutional Government
failed, and at the present time the Gov-
ernment is once more in the hands of the
Shah and his cabinet. However, in prac-
tise the Government is extremely weak,
and the people largely govern themselves.
In 190t, Great Britain and Russia signed
an agreement respecting Persia, the control
of which had become the objective of each
country. By this agreement, a British
zone of protection was established over the
southeastern portion and a Russian zone
over the northern portion, with a neutral
zone intervening. With the collapse of
Tsarist Russia and the Success of the
Entente Allies In the World War, control
over Persia passed, for practical purposes,
to the British Empire.
Oovemment. — ^For administrative pur-
poses, the country is divided into 33 pro-
vinces, each under a Governor appointed by
and responsiblp to the Central Government.
There Is also some local government, but
in practise the olBcials concern themselves
chiefly with collecting the taxes.
Finance. — ^The latest figures for the out-
standing public debt place it as about $15,-
000,000. The latest financial report showed
an annual budget of about $10,000,000.
Most of the revenue consists of payments
in kind levied upon the lower classes. In
1917-8, the customs receipts were around
$4,000,000.
Production and Commerce. — ^Persia pro-
' duces wheat, barley, fruits, gums, drugs,
wool, cotton. The silk production Is im-
portant, as is the opium. Persian hand-
made carpets are very valuable. The
minei;al deposits are varied, but un-
developed.
The last official figures showed Imports
of $75,000,000 and exports of $55,00(1,000.
In order of value, the chief exports are
petroleum, fruits, opium, animals, cotton :
and the chief imports are cotton goods and
sugar. The countries of chief trade arc
the British Empire and Russia. In a recent
year, the United States imported from
Persia goods valued at $3,932,600 and ex-
ported to Persia goods valued at $749,-
722j chiefly pipes and fittings, and oils.
Communications. — ^The total railway mile-
age is less than 100 miles. There are
several good roads of length. The telegraph
system. Is about 6,300 miles long and has
some 130 stations. There are gome 225
post-offices in the country.
Persia:
Constitutional government in, progress
of, 7414.
Diplomatic relations with, 2977, 4678,
4718. 4761, 5088.
Diplomatic representation of, in
United States, 5368.
Minister of United States to, recom-
mended, 2977.
Legation established, 5088.
Protection of American citizens in.
referred to, 4678.
Kesourees of, developed by American
citizens, discussed, 5471.
Treaty with, 2682, 2956.
Referred to, 2977.
Persia, Treaties with. — A treaty of
friendship and commerce was concluded in
1856. Provision is made for the reception
and protection of ambassadors and diplo-
matic agents on terms of the most favored
nation; freedom of travel is secured to all
citizens, and of trade in conformity with
the laws of the coantry in which such is
carried on. Such privileges as may at any
time be conferred upon other powers are to
be enjoyed by citizens and subjects of the
two contracting powers. No exceptional
or discriminating tax upon import or ex-
port is to be charged. Suits and disputes
are to be tried before the proper Persian
officer in the presence of the consul or of
his agent or representative at the place nf
consular residence. Disputes between citi-
zens of the United States are to be settle!
by and before the consul.
Persia
Encyclopedic Index
Peru
Disputes between cltizeus of the United
states and subjects of other powers in
Persia are to be settled by their consuls.
The goods and effects of a citizen or sub-
ject dying in the country of the other shall
be delivered to his heirs or successors ;
when such are not represented, the effects
shall be delivered to the consul for disposi-
tion. Each country shall appoint a diplo-
matic agent to reside at the seat of gov-
ernment of the other, and three consuls,
those of the United States to reside at
Teheran, Bender feushir, and Taurls ; those
of Persia at Washington, New York,i and
New Orleans. No greater number of do-
mestics may be retained by the diplomatic
agent In Persia than are allowed to Eussia
by treaty.
Personal-Liberty Laws.— A name given to
laws passed by some of the northern states
for the purpose of impeding the operations
of "fugitive-slave laws." In 1840 and the
years immediately prior and subsequent
thereto most of the northern states enacted
statutes for the protection of negroes with-
in their borders. Indiana and Connecticut
had previously provided that fugitive slaves
might have trial by Jury. After the Prigg
decision many of the states forbade the
use of their jails for the detention of fugi-
tives. The bitter opposition in the north
to the fugitive-slave law of 1850 induced
many of the state legislatures to enact
personal-liberty laws. Besides prohibiting
the use of state jails, these laws forbade
state judges and officers to assist claim-
ants or issue writs. Trial was to be given
all alleged fugitives. Such acts were passed
by Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island,
Massachusetts, Maine, Michigan, Wiscon-
sin, Kansas, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and
heavy penalties were provided for their
violation. New Jersey and California alone
of the northern states sanctioned the re-
turn of fugitives. It was claimed by the
people of the South that these laws were
in violation of Article IV., section 2, of the
Constitution, which reads as follows : "No
person held to service or labor in one
state, under the laws thereof, escaping
into another, shall, in consequence of any
law or regulation therein, be discharged
from such .service or labor, but shall be
delivered up on claim of the party to whom
such service or labor may be due."
Perthshire, The, appropriation to own-
ers for detention of, recommended,
3247.
Peru. — Pern is a maritime country on the
northwest of the South American Conti-
nent, between 1° 31'-17° 47' S. latitude (the
territory between 17° 47'-19'' 13' being the
department of Tacna, occupied by Chile),
with a coast-line on the Pacific of about
1,200 miles. It Is bounded on the north by
Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Bo-
liyia and Brazil, and on the south by
Chile.
Physical Features. — The country Is trav-
ersed throughout its length by the Andes,
running parallel to the Pacific coast, the
highest points being Huascaran (22,050
feet), Huandoy (21,100 feet), Arequipa (or
Mlstl) volcano (20,013 feet), Hualean (20,-
000 feet), and Llrlma, Tocora, and Sara-
sara, all over 19,000 feet. There are four
distinct regions, the costa, west of the An-
des, a low arid desert except where wa-
tered by transverse mountain streams, but
capable of Irrigation ; the sierra or western
slopes of the Andes, the punas or moun-
tainous wastes below the region of perpet-
ual snow, and the inward slopes and bound-
less forests of the Amazonian basin.
History, — P3ru was conquered in the
sixteenth century by Francisco Pizarro,
who subjugated the Incas (a tribe of the
Qulchua Indians), who had Invaded the
country some 500 years earlier, and for
nearly three centuries Peru remained un- .
der the Spanish rule. A revolutionary
war of 1821-^824 established Its independ-
ence, declared on July 28, 1821.
The exact boundaries of Peru are In dis-
pute with her neighbors. By the treaty
after the war with Chile, signed in 1883.
Chile was to occupy the provinces of
Tacna and Arica until 1894, when a refer-
endum was to have been held. Arrange-
ments for the referendum have never been
agreed upon, however, and up to the
present, Chile has refused to surrender the
provinces. A boundary dispute with Bolivia
was settled in 1912, and one with Brazil
some years later. A region north of the
Maranon from the Pongo de Manseriche, at
present occupied by Peru, Is claimed also by
Ecuador and Colombia. '
The capital is I,ima, with a population
estimated at 150,000. The other large
cities are Callao, 40,000, and Arequipa. 37,.
500.
There has been no official census of the
population since 1876. Soman Catholi-
cism is the state religion.
ABEA AND POPULATION
Area in
Departments English Estimated
Sq. Miles Population
Araazonaa 13,941 53,000
Ancacbs 16,659 317,000
Apunmac 8,i86 133,000
Arequipa 21,947 172,000
Ayaouoho 18,188 227,000
Gajamaroa. . , 12,545 333,000
Callao 14 34,000
g"^™----,-. 131,305 313,000
Huanoavehca 9,264 168,000
Huanuco 13,896 109,000
l"^: 8,685 68,000
J^iJ 23,314 306,000
Lambayeque 4,593 93,000
l/iberdad 10,190 188,000
f™^ 13,278 250,000
Loreto . 254,507 120,000
Madre de Digs 24,645 16,000
Moquegua 5,714 32000
g"™ 14,822 154,000
J™o-;---. 41,000 403,000
SanMartin 31,243 33,000
Taona 12,590 39,961
Tnmbez 1,930 8,000
Total 692,616 3,569,961
f./iJ'J''^ *"*''' ™^y ">« assumed at 3,500,-
n?9 ^wJf^^^ ?^Jn^?>'^PP,™*l™^tely stated
at: Whites, 480,000; Indians (Qulchua
and Aymai-a tribes and "wild" Indians of
Wk%^°^^^I °* t'^® eastern interior), 2,000-
000; Half-castes (Cholos or Spanish Indi-
ASn?",? Zambos or Spanish Negro), 875.-
?y°°Ch&)r'6MbT= ^"-^ Asiatfcs''(mairi-
,„i^"?,°"^'' elementary education Is theo-
retically compulsory, illiteracy is general
There are about 2,900 public primary
schools, with an enrolment of 200 000 Thi
government maintains some thirty hiehe?
schools, and there are a number of pri-
vate seminaries of learning. Including
several universities. mnuaing
ao'vemment.--The constitution rests upon
the fundamental law of Oct. 18 iS^fi
(amended 1860 and 1920), and is that of n
democratic Republic. The President and
Peru
Encyclopedic Index
Peru
two Vice-Presidents are elected for four
years by direct vote of the people, and are
Ineligible for a succeeding term of office.
The President exercises Ms executive power
through a cabinet of six members.
Congress consists of a Senate and Cham-
ber of Deputies, and meets annually on
Independence Day (July 28) for ninety
days. The Senate is composed of flfty-
seven njembers, the Chamber of 128 mem-
bers, in each case elected by the direct
vote of all male citizens aged twenty-one
who can read and write or possess a small
property or tax-paying quallflcatlon.
There Is a Supreme Court at Lima, the
members of which are appointed by Con-
gress, and Superior Courts at Arequipa,
Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cuzco, Huaraz, Pl-
ura, Funo, and Truxillo. i
The nineteen departments and thriee
Provinces are divided into Provinces (113
In all), which again are parcelled out into
873 districts. At the head of the Depart-
ment Is a Prefect, with a sub-Prefect over
each Province.
Army. — By a law of Dee. 27, 1898, service
In the Army is compulsory for all citizens.
(For the Army, see Armies of the World.)
Navy. — The Peruvian Navy consists of 2
modern protected cruisers (Almirante Grau
and Coronel Bolognesl), one modernized
cruiser (Lima), and two submarines; with
certain miscellaneous craft, school ships,
sailing vessels, etc.
Production and Industry. — The eastern
provinces are of vast extent and fertility
with a tropical climate, while the valleys
running from the Andes to the coast are
very fertile and are capable of develop-
ment by irrigation. The staple agricultural
firoduct is sugar, while cotton is grown in
ar^e and increasing quantities. The me-
dicmal products of the eastern provinces
are valuable, and Include cinchona (Peru-
vian bark), sarsaparilla, copaiba, cocaine,
etc. -India rubber is a product of the Ama-
zonian basin, and coSee and cocoa are in-
creasingly grown, while the sugar planta-
tions are mainly in the costa west of the
Andes. The Live Stock includes herds of
guanaco, llama, and alpaca, the wool be-
ing a valuable item of the export trade.
Guano is brought from the Lobos and other
Islands on tbe Pacific coast.
The latest figures show 140,000 acres
given over to cotton, with an annual pro-
duction of 29,000 *^ons ; and 100,000 acres
to sugar with an annual production of 340,-
000 tons. About 50,000 tons of rice are
also produced annually, and the production
is increasing rapidly.
^he mountains are rich in minerals,
among which silver, quicksilver, copper
and coal (of inferior quality) are conspicu-
ous ; while In the department of Tumbez,
In the northwest, there are important beds
of petroleum. The last available figures
showed an annual mineral production
valued at $40,000,000, of which almost
820,000,000 was represented by copper,
810,000,000, by refined petroleum and .$8,-
000,000 by sliver.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the value of the imports was
$48,000,000 and of the exports, $98,000,-
000. In order of value, the imports were
coal, iron and steel goods, textiles, wheat,
lumber and oils ; in order of value, the
exports were sugar, cotton, copper, wool
and petroleum. Most of the trade Is with
the United States, although a considerable
proportion goes also to (Treat Britain and
Chile. In a recent year, the United States
imported from Peru goods valued at $63,-
730,964 and exported to Peru goods valued
at .$47,087,128.
Finance. — For the collection of most
taxes, there Is a private syndicate formed
under Government approval (Companla Re-
caudadora de Impuestos). Salt is a Gov-
ernment monopoly. The most recent budget
was in the neighborhood of $23,p00,000.
Due to the contraction of a large foreign
debt, many of the important resources of
the country have been conceded to foreign
corporations. The unit of currency is the
gold libra, equal in value to the British
sovereign. Ten soles equal one libra. '
Communications. — The total length of the
railroads is about 1,900 miles. There are
263 telegraph offices and 7,850 miles of
telegraph wire. There are telephone sys-
tems and a number of wireless stations.
The latest reports showed 650 post-offices
in the country. In a recent year, 395
vessels, of 790,000 tons, entered Callao in
the foreign trade, and 364, of 717,000
tons, cleared. Of the vessels entering. 111
were Chilean, 82 were United States and
37 were British steamers.
Peru (see also Peru-Bolivian Confed-
eration) :
Alleged agreement between ministers
of United States, Great Britain,
France, and Italy in, 4745.
Bolivia, boundary dispute with, arbi-
tration of, discussed, 7414.
Claims against, of —
Members of Hydrographic Commis-
sion of the Amazon, 6099.
United States, 1594, 2193, 4463,
4919, 5988, 6092, 6335.
Arbitration of, 6335.
Convention for adjustment of,
referred to, 1933, 1944, 2135,
2193, 2294, 2400, 2586, 3353,
3381, 3396, 3893, 3987, 5088.
Amendment' to, recommended,
3553.
Indemnity paid, 2400.
Indemnity stipulated to be paid,
2586.
Payment of mutual claims, 3445.
Claims of, against United States
(see also Georgiana, The; lAeisie
Thompson, The) —
Appropriation for, 4013.
Convention for adjustment of, 3893,
4013.
Commercial relations with, 1159,
2745.
Domestic disturbances in, 5960.
Earthquakes in, 3885.
Ecuador, dispute with, arbitration of,
7499.
Fugitive criminals, oonvention with,
for surrender of, 4068, 4247.
Termination of, referred to, 4919.
Government in, restored, 5088.
Guano imported from. (See Guano.)
Gunboats constructed by Spain in
and near New York to operate
against, discussed, 3987.
Imprisonment of American citizens
Peru
Encyclopedic Index
Petition
by, and claims arising out of, 5988,
6092, 6335.
Lobos Islands, discussed. (See Lobes
Islands.)
Naval force of United States on
shores of, 875.
Neutral rights, treaty with, regard-
ing, 2953.
Proceeds of cargo of the Macedonian
seized in, by authorities of Chile.
(See Macedonian, The.)
Eailroads operated by American cit-
izens in, questions affecting Ameri-
can interests in connection with,
5470.
Relations of, with Chile, referred to,
4662, 4673.
Treaty with, termination of —
Notification of, given by Peru,
6335.
Referred to, 4919.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Buchanan, 3001.
Cleveland, 5179, 5369.
Fillmore, 2600, 2680.
Grant, 4068, 4212, 4247.
Pierce, 2952.
Polk, 2422, 2479.
Tyler, 1944, 2116, 2135.
Vessels purchased for, from United
States, detained, 3831, 3835.
'Vice-President of, refuge given to,
by the St. Louis, 1133.
War between Chile, ■ Bolivia, and,
4522, 4563, 4628, 4717.
Claims of United States arising out
of, 4913, 5083, 5369, 5514.
Conditions of peace proposed by
Chile, discussed, 4662, 4717, 4760.
Efforts of United States to bring
about peace, discussed, 4522,
4563, 4582, 4662, 4717.
Stable government restored in
Peru, 5088.
Terminated, 4822.
Treaty of peace, discussed, 4760.
Peru, Treaties with. — A convention de-
claring the rights of neutrals at sea was
concluded In 1S36. Both parties recog-
nize the principle that free ships make
free goods and that thfe property of neu-
trals on an enemy's vessel is not subject
to detention or confiscation unless contra-
band of war. The rights resulting from a
formal recognition of these principles shall
be conferred upon all other countries who
desire to accede. "Arbitration and natu-
ralization conventions are also In force.
(For extradition terms of 1899, see Extra-
dition Treaties.) i
Peru also became a party to the conven-
tion between the ITnited States and the sev-
eral republics of South and Central America
for the arbitration of pecuniary claims and
the protection of Inventions, etc., which was
signed in Buenos Aires In 1910 and pro-
claimed In Washington July 29, 1914. (See
South and Central America, Treaties with.)
Peru-Bolivian Confederation (see also
Bolivia; Peru) :
Dissolution of, referred to, 1751.
Treaty with, 1563, 1694, 1706.
Pet Banks. (See Banks, Pet.)
Petersburg, Va., explosion of mine in
front of, referred to, 347L
Petersburg (Va.), Siege of.— When Grant
crossed the Eapidan, May 4, 1864, with the
Army of the Potomac to operate against
Lee, he ordered Ben. Butler, with the Army
of the James, to proceed up the James River
toward Richmond. Butler's army consisted
of the Tenth and Eighteenth army corps,
under Generals Gillmore and W. F. Smith,
and numbered 38,648 oflBcers and men and
ninety guns. May 5, he occupied City Point
and Bermuda Hundred, eighteen miles south-
east of Richmond. On the evening of May
13 and the morning of the 14th he carried
a portion of the first line of defenses of
Richmond at Fort Darling, on Drury's Bluff.
On the 16th Butler was attacked and driven
back to Bermuda Hundred. June 10 he sent
a force under Gillmore and Kautz against
Petersburg. The cavalry entered the town,
but were driven back, and the expedition
returned to Bermuda Hundred. Jvme 15,
after a march of flfty-flve miles from Cold
Harbor in two days. Grant was ready to
cross the James. "The army of 130,000 men
crossed by pontoon bridge in three days.
The two armies were now united and pre-
pared for final operations against Richmond.
The first step toward taking Richmond
seemed to be the occupation of Petersburg,
twenty-two miles to the south, on the Rich-
mond and Petersburg Railroad. June 16,
1864, after the junction of the Army of the
James and the Army of the Potomac, an
attack was made on Petersburg by W. F.
Smith's corps. The assaults were continued
for four days. Reenforcements were sent
from Richmond to defend the place, and the
attempts cost Grant 7,881 men.
During parts of June and July a powder
mine was dug beneath portions of flie Pe-
tersburg Intrenchments. It was Intended to
explode this and make an assault through
the breach thus made. The mine, known
as "the Crater," was charged with 8,000
pounds of powder, and at 4 o'clock A. m.,
July 30, 1864, was exploded. A Confederate
battery and most of a regiment were blown
up. The assault, which was njade by 50,-
000 men under Burnside, Warren, and Ord,
was a total failure, and 4,000 men were
lost in it. Gen. Mahone commanded the
Confederate force that recovered the line
broken by the explosion. During this siege
a number of brilliant sorties were made.
The losses in Lee's army are not fully re-
ported. Elliott's brigade lost 677 men. Pe-
tersburg was not surrendered until April
3, 1865, nearly a year afterward.
Petition.— The Constitution prohibits Con-
gress from making any law to abridge "the
right of the people peaceably .to assemble
and to petition the Government for a re-
dress of grievances." Feb. 11, 1790, a
petition signed by Benjamin Franklin was
offered to Congress, praying for the aboli-
tion of slavery; but no notice was taken of
it. Between 1830 and 1844 numerous peti-
tions from Abolitionists poured into Con-
gress. May 26, 1836, the House resolved,
by a vote of 117 to 68, that "all petitions,
memorials, resolutions, propositions, or pa-
pers relating in any way to the subject of
slavery or the abolition of slavery shall,
without being printed or referred, be laid
Petition
Encyclopedic Index
Philippines
on the table, and that no furcac? action be
taken thereon." This was the first of the
famous "gag rules" of Congress. John
Quiucy Adams championed the cause of
the Abolitionists and opposed the gag rules
for ten years, finally securing their repeal.
In 1837 he presented a petition to Congress
purporting to come from slaves. This was
the first of the kind ever offered, though in
1800 Congress was thrown Into an uproar
of debate by a petition from freed negroes.
In his annual message to Congress, Dec.
2, 1835, President Jackson asserted that
publications addressed to the passions of
slaves and stimulating them to insurrec-
tion were being circulated through the
malls, and suggested laws to prohibit, un-
der severe penalties, such circulation
(1394). One of the most noted laws under
this recommendation was the Atherton gag,
introduced by K. G. Atherton, of New
Hampshire. It wao rescinded in 1845. The
rules of Congress now provide that peti-
tions, when presented, shall be Indorsed
with the name of the member presenting
them and the committee to which they
were referred. They are entered by the
Clerk on the Journal and then transmitted
to the proper committee.
Petrel, The, mentioned, 6297.
Petroleum. (See Paints, Oils, etc.)
Petroleum:
Eesources —
Of Mesopotamia, disposition of, dis-
cussed, 8877, 8879.
Of Netherlands East Indies, dis-
position of, 8956.
Of world discussed, 8880.
Specifications left to Fuel Administra-
tion, 8560.
Taxation of, in Holland, etc., referred
to, 4979, 4986.
Pettaoiiamscut Purchaaers.— in i860
John Hull, who had become well known
through his coinage of pine-tree money
(q. v.), organized a company and pur-
chased a tract of land from the Narragan-
sett Indians, about Pettaquamscut Kock,
on the south shore of Rhode Island, be-
tween Point Judith and Wickford. About
'the same time lands near Wickford had
been purchased by a company headed by
Hiimphrey Atherton, of Massachusetts, the
two companies claiming the same territory.
When the boundary line between Connec-
ticut and Rhode Island was settled, in
1662, the Atherton Company had its re-
gion placed under the government of Con-
necticut. In 1665 the royal commlssioh
ordered the Indian* to returii the price
paid by the Atherton Company, and that
the lands be returned to them. The dis-
puted territory became the King's prov-
ince. It was later made part of Rhode
Island and was known as King's County
until the Revolution, when the name was
changed to Washington County. It was
a subject of contention between Connecti-
cut and Rhode Island for fifty years.
Pewter Muggers.— A faction of the Demo-
m-atic party in New York City which In
1828 bolted the Tammany candidates.
These dissatisfied Democrats held their
meetings over a resort In Frankfort Street,
Xew York, locally famous for its refresh-
ments served in pewter mugs ; hence the
name.
Philadelphia, The:
Attacked by vessel of Morocco, 352.
Disavowal of, by Emperor of Mo-
rocco, 353.
Wrecked on coast of Tripoli, 356, 362.
Claims of oflEieers and crew arising
out of, 1025.
Philadelphia (Pa.), Occupation of.— The
defeat of Washington's army at Brandywine
Creek and the disaster to Wayne's forces at
PaoU rendered Howe's occupation of Phila-
delphia merely a successful manoeuvci'.
Sept. 25, 1777, he entered Germantown, and
the next day sent CornwalUs to occupy Phil-
adelphia. The occupation was effected with-
out a battle.
Philadelphia, Pa.:
Centennial anniversary of framing
Constitution, proposition to cele-
brate, in, discussed, 5118.
Centennial Exposition held in, dis-
cussed, 4158, 4215, 4254, 4808.
Appropriation for, recommended,
4270, 4314.
Commission, referred to, 4272, 4315.
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 4311.
Executive orders, regarding, 4235,
4280.
Government aid to, recommended,
4215.
Proclamation regarding, 4181.
Removal of Government exhibit to
Washington for permajient ex-
hibit, recommended, 4364.
Exhibits of foreign nations con-
tributed for, 4365.
Report of board on behalf of Ex-
ecutive Departments, printing
and distribution of, recommend-
ed, 4381, 4429.
Report of commission, referred to,
4364, 4465.
Results of, discussed, 4355, 4364,
4465.
Congress assembles in, 240, 244, 247.
Courts, Federal, in, provision for ac-
commodation of, discussed, 2832.
Appropriation for, recommended,
2899.
Dry dock at, 2414.
Completed, 2669.
National Conference of Electricians
at, referred to, 4956.
Officers continued in, without eon
sent of Senate referred to, 3663.
Post-office building to be erected in
2911.
Appropriation for, recommended
2912.
Seat of Government transferred to
Washington from, 281, 295, 298.
Sickness prevalent in, does not pre
vent convening of Congress at
240.
Philippine Commission, mentioned
6692, 6861.
Philippines. — The Philippine group, ly
Philippines
Encyclopedic Index
Philippines
ing o£f the southern coast of Asia, extend-
ing almost due north and south from
Formosa to Borneo and the Moluccas, be-
tween longitude 116° 40'-126° 34' and
latitude 4° 40'-21° 10', approximately num-
bers about 3,141 islands and Islets, of
which 1,668 are listed by name, while
1,473 are, so far as known, without names.
The actual land area is given as 114,420
square miles. The six New England
States, New York, and New Jersey have
about an equal area. The island of Luzon,
on which the capital city (Manila) is situ-
ated, is the largest, most populous, and
wealthiest member of the group, being about
the size of the State of New York. Min-
danao is nearly as large, but its population
Is very much smaller. There are two islands
with areas exceeding 10,000 square miles
each, namely, Luzon, witli 40,814, and Min-
danao, with 36,906. There are nine Islands
each of which has an area of more than
1,000 square miles and less than 10,000.
There are twenty between 100 and 1,000
square miles, seventy-three between 10
and 100 square miles, and two iiundred
and sixty-two between 1 and 10 square
miles. The remaining number, 2,775, or
seven-eighths of all, have areas less than
a square mile each. Tlie islands more im-
portant because of their size or popula-
tion are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Palawan,
Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Negro, Cebu and
Bohol.
A census of the Philippines was taken
In 1903 under the auspices of the Cen-
sus OflBce. The population returned was
7,635,426. Of this number about seven
millions are more or less civilized. The
wild tribes form about 9 per cent, of the
entire population. Racially the inhabi-
tants are principally Malays. The civil-
ized tribes are practically all adherents
of the Catholic Church, the religion being
that introduced into the country by the
Spaniards when they took possession of the
Islands in 1565. The Church has since
then been a strong ruling power and the
priesthood is numerous. The Moros are
Mohammedans.
The climate is one of the best in the trop-
ics. The thermometer during .loly and Au-
gust rarely goes below 79° or above 85°.
The extreme ranges in a year are said to
be 61° and 97°, and the annual mean 81°.
Although agriculture Is the chief occupa-
tion of the Filipinos, yet only one-ninth
of the surface is under cultivation. The
soil is very fertile, and even after deduct-
ing the mountainous areas it is probable
that the area of cultivation can be very
largely extended and that the islands can
support population equal to that of Japan
(42,000,000).
The chief products are hemp, rice, corn,
sugar, tobacco, cocoannts, and cacao, hemp
being the most important commercial prod-
net and constituting 43 per cent, of the
value of all exports. Coffee and cotton
were formerly prbduced in large quantities
—the former for export and the latter for
home consumption ; but the coffee plant has
been almost exterminated by insects and
the home-ma-de cotton cloths have been
driven out by the competition of those
imported from England. The rice and
corn are principally produced in Luzon
and Mindoro and are consumed in the
Islands. The cacao is raised In the south-
ern islands, the best quality of It at Min-
danao. The sugar cane is raised in the
Visayas. The hemp Is produced in South-
ern Luzon, Mindaro. the Visayas, and Min-
danao. It is nearly all exported In bales.
Tobacco Is raised in many of the islands,
especially Luzon and Negros.
The last census gave the population as
10,350,640. About 1,000,000 of the inhab-
itants are non-Christian, and there are
about 12,000 Americans and Europeans on
inSo *^J?i?,''^' exclusive of troops. Since
1902, Chinese immigration has been pro-
hibited, the present number of Chinese being
about 35,000. The natives are mostly of the
Malayan race, but there are some tribes of
Negritos.
The capital is Manila, with a population
?f ■?''°yf. 300,000. Other large towns are
Ml?n'°T'^*'"'y.>.?„*8,000; Cebu (Cebu), 46,-
iS'i.k.f ^°^^' 46,000: Albay, 43,000 ; Vlgau,
18,000, and Naga, i2,000, (all on Luzon)
and Zamboanga (Mindanao), 30,000.
1 History and Government. — ^The Islands
were discovered by Magellan In 1521 and
were conquered by Spanish forces about
ffi^t ?^"J! i**^'-^. ^^^l ■^'''■e ™'led to the
United Mates after the Spanish-American
War, during which they had been occupied
by American forces. (See Spanish-Anieri-
can War and Manila Bay, Battle of.) After
the cession, the natives revolted against the
rule by a new Power, and the insurrections
were not qBelled for several years. In the
S.?*.,."'^. toe temporary government of the
Philippines of 1902, a civil Governor and
innl'"'."^ Commission were established. In
1907, local elections were held for the
"fi'P/^^'^™'>'y' a°'i later acts further pro-
vided for extension of self-government. Bv
DhiiiS*.*^""^''^^^ °° August 29, 1916, the
Philippines were practically granted auton-
^^?; * ^° *•'* following years, the move-
ment for complete independence has grown
in JS* rf'^Si^^^^'o^"^ ^'"'^ *°"°<1 "iicli support
In the United States, although there is also
a feeling thkt the m'oment for complete n
dependence has not yet arrived.
+1,?"??'' *'"' provisions of the act of 1916,
rwh„*^.°/^';'""'"ii^°^'''''' ^^^ Viee-Governoi-
(who Is also the secretary of the Denart-
nen,^tv*f"i'-l''' Education ),'^ the AudlKnd
?pJPt n^f ^K'^'t'?''-?''! ISPolited by the Presi-
nf th2*Df?,-^'?'^^'^^^'at«s- Both branches
?L ^f Philippine Congress are elected by
the people. The 24 members of the Senate
are elected for six years each and the 90
members of the House of Kepresentative" "
for three years each. The Congress electi
the two resident commissioners to the Unit-
ed States, who hold office for the term of
three years. The secretaries of the six ,
executive departments are selected by the
Governor-General, by and with the consent
?L?®/?.!"PS"^® ^^"^t"^' aid each, except
that of the fiepartment for Public Educa-
tion, must be a native. ^uui.a
The power of the Governor-General over
legislation is practically that enjoyed by
the President of the United States ove?
the legislation of the United States Con-
gress. However, all acts of the Phllipp?^e
Congress are generally subject to the Jurist
diction of the United Stntc-s President Con-
gress and Supreme Court. "^=""™i. ^on
Tlie Islands are divided Into fortv-flvp
provinces, of which thirty-three are classed
as regular and the remainder as specUu
provinces. Each of the regular provinces "^
administered by a GovernSr anrf two othe
members of a Governing Board, the thre
tt^}^^- a7^^ Governors of the special prov-
inces with one exception, are selected bv
the Governor-Generah Municipal govern^
ment Is almost entirely autonomous.
There are a Supreme Court of nine and
twenty-nine district Judges. There are
about 6,000 officers and men in the Phillnt
pine Constabulary, and there is al^n b
^h lippine NationaY Guard, o? mil tia Thl
United States in normal times keeps about
Philippines
Encyclopedic Index
Philippines
15,000 soldiers In the Islands, more than
half of these being Philippine scouts.
Education. — The Islands are divided Into
forty-eight educational divisions. The teach-
I'ls include more than 400 American and
1 1,800 native teachers. English Is taught
in all the public schools, which have an
enrollment of about 700,000. There are
also a number of special schools maintained
by the Government for the non-Chrlstlan
population, and many private and profes-
sional schools. There are a number of news-
papers and periodicals published In English,
Spanish and the native dialects.
Finance. — In recent years the budsct has
been in the neighborhood of ,$35,000,000.
The public debt Is about $1,000,000. Be-
sides the United States currency, the is-
lands have the Mexican dollar, which Is
worth $.50 In United States currency ; and
there is also a silver peso In circulation.
The sole Government depository Is the
Philippine National Bank.
Production and Commerce. — The most Im-
portant products are rice, Manila hemp,
sugar cane, cocoanuts, corn, tobacco. The
total area cultivated Is about 7,000,000
acres, of which more than 3,000,000 are
given over to rice, the annual production
of which runs above 2,000,000,000 litres.
Except for sugar and the production of
hemp, agriculture Is still largely primitive.
The timber is especially valuable. More
than one million dollars' worth of gold is
produced annually. Other minerals are
found. Including silver, copper, platinum
and petroleum.
For the last fiscal year, the value of _the
imports Was $107,774,263, of which almost
$65,000,000 came from the United States,
with $7,000,000 from the French, West In-
dies, $6,500,000 from China and $13,000,-
000 from Japan. The value of the exports
was $122,729,238, of which more than
$79,000,000 went to the United States, $15,-
000,000 to the United Kingdom, $7,000,000
to Japan, almost $6,000,000 to Honkong
and $5,000,000 to China. In the last cal-
endar year the United States Imported from
the Philippine Islands goods valued at
$112,950,779 and exported thither goods
valued at $99,830,055.
By far the most important import Is cot-
ton goods, followed in ordej of value by iron
. and steel goods, rice and food products.
Almost half of the value of the exports Is
represented by Manila hemp, followed by
sugar, tobacco and copra.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most important products ex-
ported from the United States to the Phil-
ippines, In order of value, were as fol-
lows : Iron and steel goods. Including ma-
chinery ; cotton goods, mineral oils, auto-
mobiles and parts, meat and dairy products,
leather goods.
Communications. — In the last fiscal year,
there entered and cleared in the foreign
trade some 650 vessels, with a tonnage of
1,500.000. There are more than 800 post-
offices. There are 5,500 miles of tele-
graph and almost l,0OO miles of cable.
There are about 800 miles of railroad, chief-
ly on Luzon ; and 6,000 miles of roads, of
which more than 2,000 are hard-surfaced.
."Philippines:
Administration of, 6661, 6663, 6800.
Allegiance, oath of, taken by insur-
gents, 6692.
Amnesty for insurgents in, 6690, 6720.
Army of United States in, 6694, 6720,
6947. -
Business conditions in, 6662, 6738,
6800, 7375.
Cable pommunieations with, 6348,
6663.
Cattle plague in, 7015.
Civil and military government in,
6692, 6720, 6740, 6815, 6861, 6886.
Civil servants in, eulogy of, 6929.
Civil service extended to employees
in, 6892.
Coastwise laws governing trade with,
7017.
Commission, report of, 6732, 6861.
Commissioners to, and duties of, set
forth by President, 6584.
Competition of, with United States.
7017. '
Contributions to be levied upon. (See
.Military occupation of, post.)
Cruelty by soldiers in, 6720.
Debt limit of, extension of, 7689.
Disasters to agriculture in, 7015.
Distress in, 6732, 6738.
Education in, 7015.
Expeditions to, under command of
Gen. Merritt, 6315. '
Exports and imports of, 1908-1910,
tabulated, 7516.
Force, etc., suggestions from com-
manders regarding, requested by
President, 6580.
Fortifications in, completion of,
urged, 7429, 7516.
Free trade with, proposed, 7017, 7050.
7374. "^ r , , ,
Friars' lands, disposition of, 7689.
Gen. Otis directed to avoid conflict
with insurgents in, 6584.
Government for. (See Military occu-
pation of, post.)
Governor-general of, to report to Sec-
retary of "War, 8170.
Grants of public or corporate rights
in, order regarding, 6583.
Greetings sent to, 8169.
Improvement in, 7015.
Independence of —
Opposed, 7801.
Proposed for future, 7911.
Urged, 8887.
Insurrection in, ended, 6690.
Lands, public, in, disposition of, 6815.
Legislation needed for, 6663, 6799.
Luzon, land in, reserved for naval ■
purposes, 6701.
Merritt, General, expeditions to,
under, 6315.
Military occupation of, by United
States and government for, or
ders regarding, 6569, 6571, 6572,
6581.
Joint occupation with insurgents
not to be permitted, 6579.
Misfortunes in, 7015.
Native congress assembled in, 8169.
Philippines
Encyclopedic Index
Phonograph
Naturalization of natives recom-
mended, 7689.
Naval base in, propose^, 6806.
Oath of allegiance to United States
taken by insurgents, 6692.
Otis, General, to avoid conflicts with
insurgents, 6584.
Peace in, 6692, 6720, 7015.
Policy of United States in, 6661, 6720,
6799, 7801, 8100.
Progress of, 6928, 7015, 7017, 7051,
7232.
Relief urged for, 6732.
Eevenue of, 7015.
Scientific surveys in, proposed, 6944.
Secretary of War's visit to, 7104.
Self-government for, 6661, 6720, 6929,
7051, 7232, 7911, 8017, 8110.
Survey of coast of, 7540.
Tariff in, discussed, 6738, 6930, 7017,
7050, 7374, 7380, 7406, 7516.
Troops to IloUo, order to send, 6583.
Value of, 6928.
Vessels of Spain from, discriminat-
ing duties on, suspended by proc-
lamation, 5155.
Victory of —
American squadron over Spanish
fleet in bay of Manila dis-
cussed, 6297, 6315.
Commander of American squad-
ron—
Appointed acting rear-admiral,
6297, 6568.
Sword to be presented to, and
medals to men under, 6302.
Thanks of Congress to, and
men under, 6298.
Eecommended, 6297.
Eeply of, 6302.
Thanks of President tendered,
6568.
Eeferred to, 6297.
Commander of the Hugh ,McCul-
locli, in recognition of services
of, recommended, 6305.
American squadron and land forces
at Manila discussed, 6319.
Thanks of President tendered
commanders and men, 6579.
Phoenix, Arizona, office of Surveyor-
General located at, 6704.
Phonograph. — The word phonograph is In-
' di^criminately applied to all talking ma-
chines or instruniGnts used for the repro-
duction of previously recorded sounds,
whether ol the voice or of musical Instru-
ments. A pencil attached to one prong of
a tuning fork and passed lightly over a
sheet of paper while the fork vibrated pro-
duced the first recorded sound. The earliest
device tor registering speech was made by
Leon Scott in 1855. He called his machine
the phonautograph. It consisted of a sort
of cone, the larger end of which was open
to receive the sound. From the smaller
enclosed end, projected a tube, across which
was stretched a flexible m«mbrane. To this
membrane was attached a bristle which
moved in consonance with the slightest mo-
tion of the membrane. In front of the
membrane was a horizontal cylinder or roll
of paper covered with lampblack, against
which the bristle touched lightly. Sound
waves entering the open end of the cone
were transmitted to the bristle by the vibra-
tions of the membrane, and as the blackened
cylinder was made to revolve and advance
slowly the faintly moving bristle cut
through the lampblack, leaving a white
wavy line which was an exact graphic rec-
ord of the sounds entering the cone.
In 1877 Edison constructed a form of this
machine, substituting a metal diaphragm
for the membrane, a sharp metallic point for
the bristle and a wax or tin-foil-covered
cylinder for the lampblack coated paper. In
this machine the microscopic sound waves
were indented Instead of traced on the sur-
face of the cylinder.
By reversing the machine and causing the
metal point to retrace the indentations pre-
viously made in the cylinder the original
sound was reproduced by the diaphragm.
Charles S. Talnter and C. A. Bell in 1885
substituted a wax cylinder for the tin-foil,
and. an up and down line was cut rather
than indented in the wax.
In 1887 Emil Berliner, a German-Ameri-
can of Philadelphia, patented the gramo-
phone, wherein the sound waves of a dia-
phragm are recorded on a disk as a wavy
line in a horizontal plane. Instead of as a
vertical cut in a cylinder. As this line Is
cut in a continuous spiral, no feed screw
is necessary to propel the metal point or
the recorded sound waves, only a clock
spring being necessary to rotate the disk.
This was incorporated in the machine by
Bldridge E. Johnson. With the expiration
of the Talnter and Bell patents on wax
records the etching process was abandoned
for the wax cutting process, which now be-
came common property, but horizontal re-
cording was retained. Berliner made elec-
trotyped reverses of these wax records, and
from the plates so obtained duplicate copies
of the records may be turned out like
printed sheets from the printing press. The
records, formerly stamped In celluloid or
vulcanized rubber, are now printed on light
fibrous compositions similar to paper pulp
coated with shellac.
The manufacture of disk records began
in 1897, and soon became recognized as an
important industry. The cylinder machines
remained in use under the names dictaphone
and dictograph, and are used for recording
conversation for future reproduction, such
as testimony, instruction, commercial corre-
spondence, etc., and the reproductions have
been accepted as legal evidence by judges of
criminal courts.
Opera singers, orators, musicians, orches-
tras, bands, and other entertainers were
soon in demand for making records for re-
production, and the voice that once en-
thralled a contemporaneous audience but a
brief hour may now become immortal and
be heard by millions after life has left the
human tones. The field thus vridened has
afforded new and increased popularity and
earning power for all who sing or talk "r
play an instrument for hire. Some of the
favorite singing artists are paid outright
for the records of their voices, while others
receive a percentage of the price of every
record sold. An idea of the extent of the
business may be had from the statement
that the royalties of an individual singer
have exceeded $100,000.
In 1889 there were but two establish-
ments in the country making records and
Phonograph
Encyclopedic Index
Pierce
reproducing Instruments. In ten years the
numti^ had increased to eleven, with a
capital of $3,348,282, and a yearly output
valued at $2,246,274. in 1909 there were
18 establishments with a total capital of
$14,363,361, and an output valued at $11,-
725,996. In 1914 the eighteen establish-
ments turned out products which they val-
ued at $27,115,916, an increase of 139.7
per cent, in five years. Although the num-
ber of records and blanks increased but one-
tenth of 1 per cent, in the Ave years the
declared value of the goods increased from
$5,007,104 to $11,111,418, an increase of
121.9 per cent. This is said to be due to
the increased price obtained for disk records
over cylinders.
Phosphate Lands. (See Lands, Phos-
phate).
Phosphates discovered on coast of Bra-
zil, 4795.
Physicians in Indian Service, allovred
private practice, 6893.
Piankeshaw Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Pictures, Films and Publications, Divi-
sion of, created under Public Infor-
mation Committee, 8360.
Piegan Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Pierce, Fjranklin. — 1853-1857.
Seventeenth Administration — Democratic.
Vice-President— William K. King.
Secretary of State —
William L. Marcy.
Secretary of the Treasury —
James Guthrie.
Secretary of War —
Jefferson Davis.
Secretary of the Navj/ —
James C. Dobbin.
Secretary of the Interior —
Robert McClellan.
Postmaster-General —
James Campbell.
Attorney-General —
Caleb Cushing.
•2fomin(itUm. — Pierce was elected as a
Democrat. At tne national convention
which met at Baltimore in June, 1852, thir-
ty-five ballots were taken for a Presiden-
tial candidate without a choice being
reached and without mention of Pierce's
name. -, Up to that point Lewis Cass and
James Buchanan were leaders in the bal-
loting. Virginia then presented Pierce's
name and he was chosen on the forty-
nlntli ballot.
Platform. — The platform of the Demo-
cratic party commended rigid economy in
public expenditure and a tariff for revenue
and for the gradual payment of the pub-
lic debt ; opposed the national banking sys-
tem as being unconstitutional ; favored
free Immigration and ease of naturaliza-
tion ; deprecated Federal Interference In
domestic affairs, and especially in imposing
restrictions upon slave-holding ; supported
the Fugitive Slave Act ; characterized the
war with Mexico as just and necessary;
and condemned monopolies and exclusive
legislation for the benefit of the few.
Opposition. — The Whig National Conven-
tion at Baltimore, in June, 1852, nominated
General Winfield Scott on the fifty-third
ballot, over Millard Fillmore and Daniel
Webster. The party stood upon a plat-
form embodying strict eonstruciion of the
Constitution ; freedom from entangling alli-
ances with foreign countries ; a tariff for
reveuue and for the encouragement "of
American industry ; Internal improvements,
.ind support of the Fugitive Slave Act.
The Free-Soil Democrats met at Pittsburg
in August, 1852, and nominated John. P.
Hale, on a platform setting forth strict
construction of the Constitution ; "no more
slave s^tates. no slave territory, no nation-
alized slavery, ana no national legislation
tor the extradition of slaves" ; the aboli-
tion of slavery ; the repugnance of the
Fugitive Slave Act to the Constitution ; the
inconsistence with Democracy of the Com-
promise I Measures of 1850 ; the natural
right of ail men to the soil ; the holding in
trust of the public lands for the landless
settlers ; the keeping of government funds
separate from banking institutions ; the
provision by Congress of internal Improve-
meucs ; the hostility of the Free Demo-
cratic party to both the Whigs and the
Democrats ; and embodying the principles
of the party in the phrase "Free Soil, Free
Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men."
Vote. — The popular vote in thirty-one
states — California participating for the
first time — gave Pierce, 1,601,274 ; Scott,
1,386,580; and Hale, 155,825. The elec-
toral vote, counted on Feb. 9, 1853, gave
Pierce 254 votes, and Scott 42.
Party Afflltation. — Pierce gave his earliest
political aileaiance to the cause of General
Jackson, whom he sunported throughout.
In Congress he opposed the abolition of
slavery within the District of Columbia,
and the policy of internal improvements.
When he left Congress and retired tempo-
rarily to private life, he favored the an-
nexation of Texas ; and led the Democrats
of his state in the memorable struggle
against John P. Hale. In 1850, he reluc-
tantly supported the several compromise
measures, including the Fugitive Slave Act
and the admission of California as a free
state. He was thus in hearty accord with
the principles enunciated by his party when
elected to the Presidency.
Political Complexion of Congress. — In the
Thirty-third Congress the Senate was com-
posed of 62 members, of whom 38 were
Democrats, 22 Whigs, and 2 Free-Soil.
The House was composed of 234 mem-
bers, of whom 159 were Democrats, 71
Whigs, and 4 Free-Soil. In the Thirty-
fourth Congress the Senate, of 62 members,
was made up of 42 Democrats, 15 Republi-
cans, ,and 5 Americans. The House, of 234
members, was divided as follows : 83 Dem-
ocrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Americans.
Firkance.—Ttie platform of the Democratic
party upon which Pierce was elected com-
mitted the administration to a policy of
rigid economy In the expenditure of the
public funds. The practice of this econ-
omy, and opposition to internal improve-
ments, curtailed the expenditure and left
a surplus In the Treasury, which was
applied to the rednetlon of the public debt;
and made the subject of an argument in
favor of a reduction In the tariff. The
condition of the public finances is re-
ferred to and discussed In each of the an-
nual messages, but as the statements cover
dissimilar periods, the following table will
better show the financial status of the
country during the administration at the
end of each fiscal year: —
^ Si
B
3
Ed
B
^-
b
O
I
Pierce
Encyclopedic Index
Pierce
Public Debt, Receipts,
Year. Less Cash, Total Net,
in Treasury. Ordinary.
1853 J59,803,117.70 $61,587,032.00
1854 42,242,222.42 73,800,341.00
1855 35,586,956.58 6.5,350,575.00
1856 10,965,953 . 01 74,056,699 . 00
Expenditures, Total Money
Year. Total Net, in Ciroula-
Ordinary. tion.
1853 $44,078,156.00 $402,238,107.00
1854 51,967,528.00 425,551,240.00
1855 56,316,198.00 418,020,247.00
1856 66,772,528 . 00 425,846,625 . 00
Foreign Policy. — In his Inaugural Ad-
dress (page liTSO) President Pierce advo-
cated tlie cultivation of peace with the
nations of the world. He said : "The
rights, security and repose of this Con-
federacy reject the idea of interference or
colonization on this side of the ocean by
any foreign power beyoi^d present juris-
diction as utterly inadmissible." During
this administration, no fewer than twenty-
eight treaties with foreign powers wore
signed. Among the most important of them
was that with Japan by Commodore Per-
ry ; the settlement with Great Britain of
the fisheries rights in Canada, and the free
navigation of the St. Lawrence, and the
Gadsden Treaty with Mexico. Complica-
tions with Nicaragua caused the bombard-
ment of Greytown in the spring of 1854,
by the United States vessel Cyane, in re-
taliation for property stolen from Ameri-
cans ; and in 1856, William Walker con-
ducted a filibustering expedition against
Nicaragua with such temporary success
that President Pierce recognized the Min-
ister sent by him to the United States.
The British Minister and the Consuls at
New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati
were dismissed by President Pierce for
complicity in recruiting in the United
States for the Crimean War, in 1854 and
1855. Bills for the reorganization of the
diplomatic and con.sular systems were
signed by the President in 1855. The at-
tempts to gain Cuba from Spain, in which
the Ostend Manifp.sto (q. v.) was an inci-
dent, in 1854, proved abortive by reason
of the unfriendly attitude of European
powers and the excitement at home over
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. In his Fourth
Annual Address he said (page 2950) : "In
foreign relations we have to attemper our
power to the less happy condition of other
Repnblics in America and to place our-
selves in the calmness and conscious dig-
nity of right by the side of the greatest
and the wealthiest of the Empires of Eu-
rope."
Blwoet<v. — In his Inaugural Address (page
2730) the President set forth his convic-
tion that slavery was constitutional, as
was also the Fugitive Slave Act, and de-
nounced slavery agitation. "Such," he
says, "have been, and are, my convictions,
and upon them I shall act. I fervently
hope that the question is at rest, and
that no sectional or ambitious or fanatical
excitement may again threaten the durabil-
ity of our institutions or obscure the light
of our prosperity." Doubtless he was,Bln-
cere in his liopes and wishes, but the
enforcement of his policies was fraught
with tremendous and lasting results. The
two most important pre-slaveEy measures
supported by the Pierce administration
were the Ostend Manifesto and the Kan-
sas-Nebraska Bill. President Pierce re-
views the historical and constitutional as-
pects of slavery in his Third Annual
Message (page 2860), and, in concluding
his denunciation of abolitionist reformers,
B-8
"I know that the Union is a thou-
sand times stronger than all the wild and
chimerical schemes of social change which
are generated one after another in the
unstable minds of visionary sophists and
interested agitators."
In bis Fourth Annual Message (page
2930) he is especially severe in his ar
ratgnment of the slavery reformers, of
whom he said : "They are perfectly aware
that the change In the relative conditions of
the white and black races in the slave-hold-
ing states which they would promote is be.
yond their lawful authority ; that to them
it is a foreign object ; that It cannot be
etEected by any peaceful instrumentality
of theirs ; that for them and the states of
which they are citizens the only path to
its accomplishment is through burning cit-
ies, and ravaged .fields, and slaughtering
populations, and all there is most terrible
in foreign, complicated with civil and
servile, war; and that the first step in
the attempt is the forcible disruption of n
country embracing in its broad bosom a
degree of liberty and an amount of indi-
vidual and public prosperity to which there
is no parallel In history, and substituting
in its place hostile governments, driven at
once and inevitably into mutual devasta-
tion and fratricidal carnage, transforming
the new peaceful and felicitous brotherhood
Into a vast permanent camp of armed men,
like the rival monarchies of Europe and
Asia."
But for the wanton opening of the
slavery question, Pierce's administration
would have been one of the most creditable
In the nation's history. But for the repeal
of the Missouri Compromise and the popu-
lar excitement attending the whole question
of slavery the defection from the Demo-
cratic pajty and the formation of the Re-
publican party in 1856 would have been
at least longer delayed.
Internal Improvements. — In his First An-
nual Message (page 2751) President Pierce
declares that the subject of internal im-
provements "has stood as a deep graven
line of division between statesmen of emi-
neilt ability and patriotism" ; refers to
President Jackson's message of May 27,
1830, on the subject ; and asks Congress
for a reconsideration of the subject, with
a view to adopting a settled standard of
action. In vetoing certain bills making
appropriations for works coming under this
head (page 2790), the President fully dis-
cusses the several phases of the question
and clearly defines his opposing attitude,
summing up with these words : "On the
other hand, so long as these Improvements
are carried on by appropriations from the
Treasury the, benefits will continue to in-
ure to those alone who enjoy the facilities
afforded, while the expenditure will be a
burden upon the whole country and the
discrimination a double injury to places
equally requiring improvement, but not
equally favored by appropriations." He
seeks to illustrate the difiiculty of knowing
what Improvements may properly be pro-
vided by the national government and what
should be left to individual or state enter-
prise, by concrete examples of railroads
and harbor improvements. Again, In 1856,
several bills of the same nature were ve-
toed by the President. In fact, nearly all
of the vetoed measures during this admin-
istration were bills of this nature.
Com'merce.^-\n his Second Annual Mes-
sage (page 2808) President Pierce wns
able to say: "Our foreign commerce has
reached a magnitude and extent nearly
equal to that of the first maritime power
of the earth, and exceeding that of any
Pierce
Encyclopedic Index
Pierce
other." Especial emphasis was laid in this
message upon the necessity of securing
by treaty with the other world powers a
recognition of the rights of neutrals in
time of war as the best means of conserv-
ing the commercial interests and safety of
the country. Great progress was made by
the administration in securing from Euro-
pean nations a treaty agreement to the
principle that free ships make free goods,
except In the case of articles contraband
of war, and that neutral property other
than contraband, though on board enemy's
ships, shall be exempt from confiscation.
The condition of the commercial aspects
of the country during the four years ad-
ministration is presented in the following
table :
1S53 1854
Imports S263J77,265 $297,803,794
Exports 203,489,282 237,043,761
Miles of Railway 15,360 16,720
Tons of Vessels Built. 427,494 636,046
No. of Immigrants.... 368,645 427,833
1855 1856
Imports $267,808,708 $310,432,310
Exports 218,909,503 281,219,423
Miles of Railway 18,374 22,016
Tons of Vessels Built. 683,450 469,293
No. of Immigrants.... 200,877 195,857
Tariff. — In his First Afinual Message,
President Pierce (page 2747) asks the at-
tention of Congress to the consideration of
a decrease in duties, in view of the sur-
plus in the Treasury. Again, in his Third
Annual Message he says (page 2871) : "The
conspicuous fact that the annual revenue
from all sources exceeds by many millions
of dollars the amount needed for a prudent
and economical administration of public
affairs, can not fail to suggest the propri-
ety of an early revision and reduction of
the tariff of duties on imports.'' In his
Fourth Annual Message (page 2941) he
urges a reduction so that the revenue
from customs should not exceed forty-
eight or fifty millions. Congress according-
ly passed the act of March 3, 1857, "re-
ducing the duty on imports, and for other
purposes."
Army. — In his Second AnnnaT Message
President Pierce (piige 281'J) urges that
the forces be increased to prevent the
Indian atrocities on the frontier, and adds :
"Without increase of the military force
these scenes T\'ill be repeated, it is to be
feared, on a larp-er scale and with more dis-
astrous consequences." At the previous
session of Congress a bill was passed in-
creasing the pay of the rank and file of
the Army, which the President reports
"has had beneficial results, not only in fa-
cilitating enlistments, but in obvious im-
provement in the class of men who enter
the service." He regrets that the increase
had not been extended to the officers. To
meet the present needs of the nation, he
asks for four new regiments, two of in-
fantry and two of cavalry. Several sug-
festlons are made in this message to re-
orm the Army organization, especially in
the direction of the creation of a retired
list in order to provide for officers who,
having rendered distinguished or even
meritorious service, would, by the standard
of seniority be promoted to posts which
impairment by age would render them unfit
to fill. He asks that a test of one year
be made of the efficacy of the plan pro-
posed. The organization of the artillery
is subjected to criticism because the force
as then organized required infantry duty
from the force, because of its arrangement
In regiments instead of batteries.
In his Fourth Annual Message (page
2941) he commends the work of the Army
In suppressing the hostile demonstrations
of the Indians and reiterates his recom-
mendation for the adoption of measures of
reform in the organization and in the in-
crease of the force which "during the past
year has been so constantly employed
against the hostile Indians in varioua
quarters that It can scarcely be said to
have been a peace establishment."
Navy. — The Navy was substantially in-
creased during this administration by the
addition of six new steam frigates, of
which the President says (page 2942) :
"The condition of the Navy Is not merely
satisfactory but exhibits the most gratify-
ing evidences of increased vigor. . . .The
new frigates ordered by Congress are now
(1856) afloat and two of them are in ac
five service. They are superior models of
naval architecture and with their formid-
able battery add largely to public strength
and security." 'i
Among the reforms in the organization
of the Navy carried through by this admin-
istration were the apprentice system by
which boys were trained for service on a
three years' cruise in national vessels, the
permission granted to honorably discharged
seamen to enlist after a few months with-
out cessation of pay. and the law for the
promotion of discipline in the naval force.
Pierce, Franklin:
Annual messages of, 2740, 2806, 2860,
2930.
Biographical, sketcli of, 2728.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 3979.
Domestic relations discussed by,
2874, 2930, 2950.
Exequaturs granted consuls of Great
Britain revoked by, 2924, 2925.
Finances discussed by, 2746, 2817,
2870, 2940.
Foreign policy discussed by, 2731,
2745, 2807, 2864, 2904.
Inaugural addresses of, 2730.
Intercourse with British minister
terminated by, 2908.
Internal dissensions discouraged by,
2755, 2930.
Internal improvements discussed by,
2751, 2789, 2790, 2919, 2920, 2921.
Large standing army unnecessary in
time of peace, 2733.
Portrait of, 2227.
Powers of Federal and State Gov-
ernments discussed by, 2751, 2755,
2780, 2789, 2790, 2855, 2874, 2919,
2920, 2921, 2930.
Proclamations of —
Boundary line -with Mexico, 2926.
Commercial agreement with Great
Britain, 2858, 2922.
Exequaturs issued consuls of Great
Britain revoked, 2924, 2925.
Extraordinary session of —
Congress, 2927.
Senate, 2959.
Military expeditions against —
Cuba, 2805. (See illustration op-
posite 2823.)
Mexico, 2804.
Pierce
Encyclopedic Index
Piracy
Nicaragua, 2921.
Privileges granted certain ports,
2859. -^ '
Unlawful combination in Kansas,
2923. '
Prosperous condition of country dis-
cussed by, 2755, 2950.
Eetirement of, from Presidency al-
luded to by, 2949.
Sectional agitation in the States dis-
cussed by, 2755, 2874, 2930.
Special session message of, 2927.
State of the Union discussed bv.
2740, 2806, 2874, 2930.
System of government discussed bv.
2745, 2825, 2874. ""
Tariff discussed by, 2747, 2871, 2941.
Veto messages of —
Deepening channel over —
St. Clair flats, 2919.
St. Mary's Eiver, 2920.
French spoliation claims, 2840.
Grant of lands for benefit of in-
digent insane, 2780.
Improvement of —
Des Moines Eapids, 2921.
Navigation of Patapsco Eiver,
2921. '
Ocean mail transportation, 2855.
Eemoving obstructions to naviga-
tion in Mississippi Eiver, 2919.
Eepair and preservation of public
works, 2789.
Seasons for vetoing, 2790.
Pilgrim Fathers.— A name given by Wil-
liam Bradford In his journal to certain
emigrants under the leadership of Brad-
ford, Brewster, Cushman, Carver, and Miles
Standish, who came to New England early
in the seventeenth century on account of
religious differences In England and founded
the colony of Plymouth. Those who came
in the first three ships are also called "old
comers" or "forefathers." The first ship,
the Mayflower, arrived on the coast in De-
cember, 1620, and had on board 108 souls.
The Fortune came in November, 1621, with
twenty-nine, and the Aniie and Little James
came in August, 1623, bringing forty-six
persons. In religion the Pilgrims were Sepa-
ratists or Independents, while the settlers
of Massachusetts Bay were Puritan, who
at first adhered to the Church of England
and endeavored to purify it. '
Pilgrims, tercentenary of landing of,
celebration of, 8861.
Flnchot-BalUnger Controversy. — James
K. Garfield, Secretary of the Interior un-
der Roosevelt, and Gifford Pinchot, Chief
Forester, attacised the policy and conduct
of Mr. B. A. Ballinger, Secretary of the
Interior under President Taft, in the mat-
ter of the conservation of the natural re,
sources in the public domain, using as their
principal text the course of Mr. Ballinger
with reference to the coal lands in AlasKa.
Congress, In January, 1910, appointed
a committee consisting of six members
from each house to investigate the charges.
In September the four Democratic mem-
bers and one "insurgent". Republican met
in Minneapolis, and drafted a report rec-
ommending the dismissal of Mr. Ballinger.
The seven "regular" Republican members
issued a majority report, Dec. 7, 1910, in
which It was declared that the evidence did
not exhibit Mr. Ballinger as being anything
but a competent and honorable gentleman,
honestly and faithfully performing the
duties of bis high office with an eye single
to the public Interest. The most Important
finding of the committee was that coal
mines on the public land should be leased,
not sold, by the Government. The attacks
on Mr. Ballinger, however, continued, and
he resigned his office before the close of
President Taft's administration.
Pine-Tree Money.— On May 27, 1652, the
general court of Massachusetts passed an
act establishing a mint at Boston. John
Hull was appointed mint master, and he
began the coiuuge of shillings, 6d. pieces,
and 3d. pieces. This was called pine-tree
money from a design on the obverse of a
pine-tree encircled by a grained ring, with
the legend "Masathusets. In." The coin-
age was discontinued on the death of the
mint master, Oct. 1, 1683.
Fines, Isle of. — An island, with an area
of almost 1,000 square miles, off the west
end of Cuba and comprised within the prov-
ince of Havana. (See Cuba.)
Pines, Isle of, Cuba, referred to, 6739.
Pioneering, illustrations of, opposite
843, 1083, 1777, 2019.
Piracy. — Robbery on the high seas. In the
law of nations the essential element of
piracy Is the intention of preying indis-
criminately on the human race, and not a
desire to interfere with the trade of some
distinct power. As the high seas are not
under the jurisdiction of any one state,
the crime of piracy is triable in any court.
The ditCerence between a pirate and a pri-
vateer consists In these facts, that where-
as the former is a sea rover who preys
on the vessels and goods of any nation he
may chance to run across, or who makes
descents upon land for purposes of plun-
der, a privateer, on the other hand, has
for his purpose the preying upon the com-
merce of a hostile nation only ; he Is
under bond to the state whose flag he flies
and of which he carries the commission
or letter of marque granting him a share
in the prizes taken. A privateer exceed-
ing his commission might not be consid-
ered a pirate, but one with commissions
from two opposite Belligerents would be, for
it would be apparent that his motive would
be plunder of both. A vessel of a part of
a country organized for rebellion has been
held to be piratical because, although it
may have a commission, such commission
Issued by an unknown and "unrecognized
power can not be admitted as valid, as It
offers no guaranty of legal belligerent be-
havior. Piracy in the international sense
of the word, however. Is a crime against
all nations ; but any nation may class other
crimes under this head.
The United States in 1820 made the
slave-trade piracy for any of its citizens
on any ship and for persons not citizens
on any of its vessels. Notwithstanding
this law passed by the United States, slave
trading was not piracy In the International
sense of the word. Search of a vessel by
a public ship of another state Is a war
right only, but the right to search on sus-
picion of piracy exists at all times. The
usual penalty for piracy is the confiscation
of the vessel and hanging of the crew,
while the penalty for privateering is at
most imprisonment. (See also Privateer-
ing.)
Piracy
Encyclopedic Index
Plattsburg
Piracy: ,
Cuba, piracies from, suppressed, 782.
Gulf of Mexico, force employed in,
for suppression of, 826.
Mediterranean Sea infested with
piracies, 929.
Practice of —
Death penalty for, discussed, 2203.
Must be suppressed, 848.
Prizes captured by pirates, recom-
mendations regarding recapture of,
3248.
Puerto Eico, piracies from, sup-
pressed, 783.
Sumatra, American vessels attacked
by pirates on coast of, 1159.
Vessels instructed to defend them-
selves against, 3248.
West Indies, 758, 765, 984.
Suppression of, in, 929.
Pittsburg Landing (Tenn.), Battle of.
(See Shiloh (Tenn.), Battle of.)
Pi-Ute Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Plague, The (see also Contagious Dis-
eases; International Sanitary Con-
ference; Quarantine Eegulatious) :
Eegnlations to prevent introduction
of, into United States, 4501.
Eevoked, 4509.
Plant Industry, Bureau of.— This bureau
o( the Department of Agriculture conducts
experiments in economic botany, physiology,
and diseases of plants and forest trees ; plant
breeding ; soil bacteriology ; biophysics ; ac-
climatization and adaptation of plants. It
also studies farm management ; demonstra-
tion work with farmers In improved farm
practice ; conditions of agriculture under dry
land, irrigation and other special conditions.
It also collects and tests seeds and plants
from foreign countries. It engages in the
purchase and distribution of seeds, largely
through members of Congress ; makes tests
of Imported and domestic seeds, and estab-
lishes standard grades of grain and cotton.
It takes care of department parks and con-
servatories, and manages the Arlington Ex-
perimental farm.
There are more than 6,300,000 farms in
theUnited States. The primary function of
this bureau is to assist the farmer to in-
crease the output per acre and at the same
time to build up and maintain the fertility
of the soil.
Study of the diseases of forest trees,
plants, fruit, potatoes, cotton and truck
crops engage the attention of the bureau.
In one recent year $2,730,892 was expended
in fighting diseases of plants. Standard .
grades of cotton and corn have been estab-
lished by the bureau and enacted into law
by Congress to the advantage of both buyer
and seller.
Plaster of Paris, restriction on importa-
tion of, removed by proclamation,
603, 605.
Platforms. — In politics the platform of a
party is the public declaration of the prin-
ciples that the party represents. In May,
1832, a national assembly of young men
was held In Washington, D. C.,, to Indorse
the nomiuatlon of Henry Clay by the Na-
tional Ki'publican party. They agreed to
the first platform ever adopted by a na-
tional convention. In 1844 both the Whigs
and Democrats drew up platforms, but in
1848 the Whigs refused to commit them-
selves by a platform. After this time the
adoption of party platforms by national
conventions became general.
Flatt Amendment. (See Cuba.)
Piatt National Park. (See Parks, Na-
tional.)
Plattsburg, The, surrender of persons
charged with murder on board of, re-
_f erred to, 1808.
Plattsburg (N. Y.), Battle of.— The
overthrow of Napoleon by the allied powers
In 1814 released many British soldiers from
service in Europe, and several thousand of
them were sent to reenforce the little army
in Canada. By Aug. 1, Governor-General
Prevost had 15,000 troops under his com-
mand at Quebec, most of them hardened
veterans from the Peninsula. One brigade
was sent west. The remainder were held
for a contemplated invasion of New York.
Wilkinson and Hampton had been retired
from the American Army and Gen, George
Izard was placed in command of the right
wing of the Army of the North, May 4, 1814, .
with headquarters at Plattsburg, N. Y., near
the head of Lake Champlain. Notwithstand-
ing It was evident that the British contem-
plated a descent upon New York by way
of Lake Champlain and the Hudson, Izard
was detached from his command and sent
with 4,000 men to the Niagara frontier,
leaving Gen. Macomb in command with
about 3,500 men. Sept. 6, 1814, the British
army, fully 14,000 strong, already upon
American sqll, marched toward Plattsburg.
Maj. Wool, with a body of about 300 regu-
lars, met the Invading army at Beekman-
town, about four miles north of Plattsburg,
and subjected it to a harassing fire all
the way to the Saranac River. Wool's re-
treating column crossed the stream to
South Plattsburg and destroyed the bridges.
Though in overwhelming force, the British
army was checked, with a loss in killed and
wounded of more than 200 men. The Amer-
ican loss was 45.
From Sept. 7 to 11. Provost's army
rested, preparatory to acting in conjunction
with the fleet on Lake Champlain. On the
11th, while the forces of Macomb and Pre-
vost contended on land, a desperate naval
battle was fought on Lake Champlain be-
tween the American and British fleets, the
former under Macdonough and the latter
under Downle. This battle lasted for two
hours, resulting In victory for the Ameri-
Qans. The British lost 200 men and the
commodore of the fleet. The news of the
naval victory reached the contending armies
at a critical point of the battle and turned
the tide In favor of the Americans. Prevost
fled with his army to Champlain, leaving
behind his sick and wounded and large
quantities of stores. Sept. 24 the British
returned to Canada, having lost in the ex-
pedition about 2,000 men. (See Lake Cham-
plain, Battle of, and illustration opposite
page 651.)
Plattsburg, N. Y., battle of, British
troops defeated in, 534.
Plattsburg Training Camp— The wave of
Preparedness (q. v.) which swept over the
country in 1914, 1915, and 1916, was respon-
sible for the establishment of a training
canip for college graduates and business, and
professional men at Plattsburg, N Y.. in
1915. The camp was under the direction of
the United States Regular Army, and di-
Plattsburg
Encyclopedic Index
Pocket, The
leetly under Major-General Leonard Wood,
commander of the Department of the East.
The camp was so successful and attracted so
much attention that other similar camps
were established in different parts of the
country during the following year. The
I'lattsburg camp was held again in 1916, and
in 1917 was used as a training center for
officers TOlunteering for service in the Euro-
pean War. Attendance at the camp was
voluntary, and did not increase the attend-
I ant's military obligations to the Govern-
ment ; and the camp was established pri-
marily for those men who wished to increase
their potential military effectiveness for the
country, but who were unable to assume
service in the National Guard.
Playgrounds. — The playground movement
owes its origin in the United States to a
realization of the importance of organized
recreation in the development of the indi-
vidual and of the community, together with
the growth of urban congestion and com-
mercialized amusements which has altered
radically the facilities for recreation within
the past few decades. The establishment
of recreation centers, botli daytime and
evening, both separate and in the public
schools, has gone along band in band with
the establishment of playgrounds.
From their organization, cities in New
England had set apart land for common
usage, known as "Commons," which became
naturally the center of the public recrea-
tion in those localities. In the third de-
cade of the nineteenth century, an enthus-
iasm for outdoor, gymnasium work led to
the establishment of an outdoor gymnasium
in Salem, Massachusetts In 1821, followed
by others in surrounding towns ; but the
movement had died out by 1830. There is a
record of a vacation school in Boston in
1866, and of others in 1879 and 1881. In
1872, Brookline, Massachusetts, became the
first city to purchase land for playground
purposes, and the first park playground and
recreation center was opened in Chicago in
1876. In 1886, a number of sand gardens
for children were started in Boston, where
in 1889 arose the first public gymnasium for
adult men. New York State provided in
1888 for the incorporation of societies to
further public recreation, and a landmark
in the playground movement is 1903, the
date of the formation of the Public School
Athletic League. Later developments of
playgrounds in large cities have been asso-
ciated with general reform endeavors con-
cerned with the abolition of the slums, the
lesson being early learned that evils can
best be combated by substituting channels
for normal development.
Latest available figures indicate that
there are in the United States 414 cities
maintaining 3,270 public recreation centers
and playgrounds. The paid workers num-
ber 7 122, of whom 1,038 are employed
throughout the year. Six hundred and
seventy-five of the centers are open through-
out the year, and 65 cities maintain train-
ing classes for their playground directors
and teadiers. The most common forms of
activity are folk dancing, _ ^tory-telling,
civics, industrial work, swimming, tramping,
singing. (See also Social Settlements.)
Pleasant HiU (La.), Battle of.— After
the defeat of the Federal army under Gen.
Banks at Sabine Cross Roads, April 8, 1864,
it retreated by way of Pleasant Grove to
Pleasant Hill, about eighteen miles south,
where Banks was Joined by Gen. A. J.
Smith with 10.000 men. Occupying a
strong position here, the Federals awaited
the pursuing force under KIrby Smith and
Dicb Taylor. April 9, about 4 o'clook in
the afternoon, the Confederates came up and
began the attack. In the battle which eu-
sued they were checked and some of tbi'
guns they bad taken the day before at Sa-
bine Cross Roads were retaken. Banks now
returned to the Red River at Grand Score.
having lost in the campaign 18 guns, 5,000
men, 130 wagons, 1,200 horses, and mauy
small arms.
Pleuro-Pneumonia among cattle, dis-
cussed, 4578, 4508, 4771, '5112, 5383,
5764, 5887.
Plumed Knight of Maine. — A soubriquet
given to James Q. Blaine.
Plymouth, celebration of tercentenary
of landing of Pilgrims at, 8861.
Plymouth Colony. — The earliest settlement
in Massachusetts. It was founded by a
party of English Separatists who arrived
in this country Dec. 21, 1620, and landed
for permanent settlement in the following
January. These Separatists were dissent-
ers from the Church of England. Unlike
the Puritans, who sought to purify the
church, they regarded such purification as
hopeless, and therefore advocated and prac-
ticed separation. The Plymouth colonists
came to America from Delft, Holland,
whither they had emigrated from Plym-
outh, England. One of the chief objects
in coming to America was to enjoy their
religion without molestation. The com-
pany named their settlement Plymouth,
partly because it had been so called by
Capt. John Smith, who had previously sur-
veyed the harbor, and partly because the
people of Plymouth, England, had treated
them kindly. Miles Standish was made
captain, with military authority, soon after
landing, and John Carver was chosen the
first governor of the colony. They en-
tered into a treaty with Massasoit, chief
of the Wampauoags, which was faithfully
kept for fifty-five years. No royal charter
was ever granted. With the arrival of the
ship Fortune and twenty-nine immigrants
in 1621 came a land patent from the Coun-
cil for New England. The patent did not
fix territorial limits, but allowed 100 acres
of land to each immigrant and 1,500 for
public buildings, and empowered the gran-
tees to make laws and set up a government.
After enduring many hardships and priva-
tions the first colonists were joined by
others from England and material pros-
perity followed. Plymouth Colony became
a member of the New England Confedera-
tion in 1643. By the Massachusetts char-
ter of 1691 it was united with the Colony
of Massachusetts Bay.
Plymouth Company.— in 1606 a company
of merchants of Bristol and Plymouth,
England, were incorporated under a char-
ter granted by James I. and called the
North Virginia Company. They became a
rival of the London Company. In 1607,
having obtained a grant of land between
Long Island and Passamaquoddy Bay, they
sent out two ships carrying a company
of colonists commanded by George Pop-
ham. A settlement was attempted on the
Kennebec, but Popham died and the other
colonists returned home. The company con-
tinued to exist till ,1620, when it was
reorganized as the New England Compauv
or Council for New England.
Plymouth, N. C, capture of, referred to,
3458.
Pocket, The, convention with Texas,
for adjustment of claims in case of
1686.
Pocket-Borough
Encyclopedic Index
Poland
Pocket-Borough. — An opprobrious term re-
ferring to a political division supposed to
be completely controlled by a leader or boss ;
especially with the implication that It Is
controlled by the use of money fronj his
pocket.
Pocket Vetoes. (See the several Pres-
idents; the several messages.)
Point Barr^ow, .Alaska, refuge station
established at, 5476.
Pola assigned to Italy, .8704.
• Poland.. — A country of central Europe,
bounded on the west by Germany ;• on the
south by Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary and
Roumania ; on the east by Ukraine and
Russia ; and on the north by Lithuania,
East Prussia, Danzig and the Baltic Sea.
Even several years after the close of the
World War, its eastern boundary was in
dispute with Soviet Russia ; its northern
boundary in dispute with Lithuania ; and
with territories to its north and southwest
to be determined by plebiscites. However,
its probable final area was carefully com-
puted at 150,000 square miles, with a popu-
lation of some 30,000,000.
Bistonj. — The history of Poland is en-
tirely legendary until the middle of the
ninth century, when there is some evidence
for believing that a central kingdom was
established from a number of tribes. How-
ever, it is not until the latter half of the
tenth century, when the country became
Christianized, that Poland swings into the
orbit of European history. About 1200,
Pomerania separated itself from Poland,
and in 1241 the country was overrun by
Mongol tribes, was conquered, and was gen-
erally subdivided. Soon after this, German
and Jewish colonists entered the country,
and helped to add to its economic growth.
In the fourteenth century. Poland regained
its territorial integrity, with Cracow as the
capital. At this time, Gallcia also was an-
nexed.
From 1386 to 1572, Poland was under the
.Tagellpn dynasty, which brought the coun-
try to its greatest power, eventually reach-
ing an area of about 375,000 square miles
and a population of 15,000,000. Lithuania
was added in 1549, and later much of the
Ukraine and Livonia. The Protestant Re-
formation swept through Poland, but soon
gave way before a strong Catholic reaction.
In the seventeenth century, Poland was
drawn into wars with Sweden, and with the
Cossacks of Russia. She was defeated in
the Battle of Warsaw In 1656, and much
Polish territory had to be ceded to Russia.
In 1674, the crown was given to John So-
bieski, who, with German forces, saved
Vienna from the Turks : and in the follow-
ing years Poland was engaged in struggles
with the Turks, the Saxons and later with
Sweden again.
The early years of the eighteenth cen-
tury saw the beginning of Russian pene-
tration into Poland, and the decline of
Polish power. The Russian court allied It-
self with certain elements among the Pol-
ish nobility, and began to control the selec-
tion of the Polish rulers. The country
hence became torn by civil wars. In 1764,
Poland was invaded by a Russian army, and
the Russian successes made inevitable the
cession of further territory to the Tsar's
domain. In order also to proilt by the
Polish reverses, Austria and Prussia joined
Russia in the first partition of Poland. By
treaty of August 6, 1772, Russia got part
of old Lithuania, Prussia got West Prnn'sift
and other territory and Austria got Galieia.
Again Russia allied herself with the reac-
tionary Polish nobility, and invaded tho
country again in 1792. The Poles rallied
under the leadership of Kosciuszko, and
defeated the enemy at Dublenka on July
17, 1792 ; but a Prussian invasion was fol-
lowed by the second partition. In 1793, Rus-
sia taking more of Lithuania and Polish
Ukraine, and Prussia adding a large slice
of territory on the west.
Again the Poles rose under Kosciuszko,
and the Russians were driven from War-
saw, but again internal dissensions proved
fatal, and on October 10, 1794, the Poles
went down in complete defeat. In 1795,
therefore, the partition of all the remainder
of Poland occurred, and Poland ceased to
exist as an Independent country. Under
Napoleon, the Duchy of Warsaw was cri^-
ated in Polish territory, but vanished with
the final defeat of Napoleon. The Congress
of Vienna in 1815 confirmed the final par-
tition of Poland by distributing the Duchv
of Warsaw among Russia, Prussia and
Austria, so that in all Russia obtained
some 220,500 square miles of Poland, Prus-
sia 26,000 square miles, and Austria 30,500
square miles. (
In Austria (GaUda), the Poles were well-
treated, whereas in Prussia they were sub-
jected to suppression and colonization, so
that the ^problem of racial antagonism con-
tinued m Prussian Poland Into the
twentieth century. For a period of years
after the Congress of Vienna, the majority
of the Poles, who were In Russian Poland
were well treated ; but a revolt In 1831 saw
the beginning of suppression and deporta-
tion. Further revolts against Russian rule
occurred m 1846 and In 1848, but In ISo.T
the Russian Government granted amnestv
and conditions became better. But In the
sixties further revolts occurred, so that in
1868 Poland was annexed to Russia out-
right, and whatever of autonomous govern-
ment had existed in Russian Poland came
to an end. Russia colonized the country
dispersed many of Its inhabitants, exiled the
Polish nationalist leaders, banned the Pol-
ish language, and In other ways tried to
thwart the expression of Polish national
consciousness. In the World War. Russian
Poland was overrun by the Austro-German
torces m 1915, and remained in their hands
until the end of the War.
The creation of an independent Polish
state was in the program of the Entente
Allies and the United States, and with
their victory, the independence of Poland
was proclaimed on November 9, 1918 On
June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles
recognized the independence of Poland In
the following months, Poland opened war
upon Bolshevist Russia, and Invaded it but
was defeated. However, the final terms o*
peace with Russia gave the Poles an eastern
boundary beyond that which had been ten-
tatively set by the Allies. Poland also wa=
engaged m war with Lithuania, with the
hope of extending her northern boundary
and for a time hoped to include much of the
Ukraine within the territory flying the Pol-
ish, flag. The country was In a wretched
economic condition as a result of the
World War, and suffering and disorganiza-
tion were acute. Poland was in close under-
standing with France, who dictated its
foreign pobcy.
Cities.— "^SK capital is Warsaw, -with a
population of 820,000. Lodz has 460 000
inhabitants, Lwoav and Wilno about 240 -
000; Cracow, 200,00 and Poznan, 175,000.
Religion. — The great majority of the peo-
ple are Roman Catholics, but there is no
established church, and there is theoretical
Poland
Encyclopedic Index
Political
equality for all faiths. HoweTer, there are
about 3,500,000 Greek Catholics, 2,400,000
Protestants and 3,000,000 Jews In the
country.
Finance. — ^Fop the nine months ending
March 31, 1920, the receipts were 3,000,-
000 Polish marks and the expenditure, 15,-
000,000,000. The internal debt is given
as 5% milliards of Polish marks, probably
since Increased ; and the foreign debt as
follows : To the United States, $143,000,-
000; to France, 114,000,000 francs; to
Great Britain, 929,000 pounds; to Italy,
6,500,000 lire; to Holland, 16,500,000 flor-
ins. The mark was fixed as the temporary
unit of currency ; It Is equal to about $0.23
In United States currency at Its normal
Talue, and to 100 Polish pfennigs.
Production and Commerce. — ^Poland Is
predominantly agricultural, being divided
chiefly Into small farms and the large
estates of the nobility. In 1912, about half
of the farms were under 5 hectares, with
22%% between 5 and 25 hectares. About
85% of the area of Poland Is productive,
of which about 25% Is forest land, with
more than half of the remainder arable, and
the rest pasture and meadows. Excluding
the Wilno and Grodno Provinces, the
annual production of present Poland before
the World War was 3,100,000 metric tons
of wheat; 8,300,000 of rye; 2,300,000 of
barley; 4,400,000 of oats; 32,600,000 of
potatoes ; and 6,300,000 of beets. Before the
War there were In this territory 2,850,000
horses, 16,375,000 cattle, 8,210,000 sheep,
12,000,000 swine ; but the distress during
and after the War has sharply reduced these
figures. There are maqy distilleries and
some sugar refineries. The most important
industries are the textile, food, metal and
mining.
The most important minerals found and
worked are cow ; iron ore ; zinc and lead
ore ; mineral salt ; rock oil ; potassium salt.
The petroleum deposits In Gallcla are ex-
tensive.
In 1920, the United States exported to
Poland and Danzig goods valued at $69,929,-
171, and Imported from Poland and Danzig
goods valued at $739,114.
• Oommutdcationa. — There are more -than
30,000 miles of roads. The railways, which
are owned by the state, have some 7,300
miles open for operation. There are about
1,800 post-offlces, more than 1,200 post and
telegraph offices, 60,000 miles of telegraph
line, 8,900 miles of telephone line.
Poland:
Food to be given, 8685.
Germany and, difficillty of dratying
boundary between, 8791.
Independence of —
Discussed, 8696, 8731.
Eeoognition of, 8689.
Eesolution of peace does not pro-
vide for, 8851.
Urged as necessary, 8202, 8403,
8425, 8451, 8862, 8866.
Koseiuszko statue to be erected in
Washington by citizens of, 6860.
Eussia and, war and negotiations
between, discussed, 8861.
Situation in,' referred to, 8910.
Suppression of, discussed, 8788.
Ukrainians, three million, included in
boundaries of, 8837.
Polar Congress, International, at Ham
burg, Germany, 4535.
Policemen's Strikes condemned, 8796.
Policy, Foreign. (See Foreign Policy."
Poliomyelitis. (Infantile Paralysis.)—
So far as can be discovered, this disease is
^ of recent origin. At least, the first serious
poliomyelitis outbreak occurred in New York
In 1907. The disease, which Is acutely in-
fectious, Is caused by a strong virus which
distributes itself generally throughout the
body, but attacks In particular the brain
and the spinal cord. Infection may be either
direct, as from the noBe or mouth of a per-
son suffering from the disease or carrying
the virus without Injury to himself; or In-
direct, as from the use of a towel or drink-
ing glass after such a person. The name ht
Infantile paralysis, generally used to de-
scribe the disease, owes Its origin to the
fact that the disease usually attacks young
children, especially those under five : and to
the fact that paralysis, complete, partial, or
Bjlght, often IS an after-result. However,
so many cases of Infantile paralysis pass un-
noticed because of the absence of evil after-
effects that It has been estimated that
paralysis does not occur in the majority of
cases, although it may well occur In the
majority of those cases where the infection
is strong enough to make Its presence evi-
dent. The most frequent symptoms are
fever, stiffness of the neck, digestive disturb-
ances, and vomiting. If paralysis Is to de-
velop. It usually occurs from 2 to 8 days
after the Illness of the patient has become
pronounced.
The most severe epidemic of poliomyelitis
in the world occurred in N'ew York City in
the summer of 1916, and to a lesser extent
in different parts of the country. It is esti-
mated that 12,000 cases broke out In that
period, of which almost 25% were fatal.
AH efforts to find a cure proved futile —
drugs being useless and the best results be-
ing obtained by Injecting Into the spinal
canal of the patient a blood serum from a
person who had had the disease some years
previously. The best treatment would seem
to be scientific after-care, and convalescence
should last for from one to two years after
the disease has departed.
Political Contributions:
Appropriations should replace, 7106.
Corporations, from, discussed, 6990,
7023. '
Evils of, discussed, 6990.
Political Economy: (See Economics.)
Political Methods the only road to re
form in America, 8820.
Political Parties. — ^The following is a list
of the principal political parties extant and
heretofore existent in the United States.
(See respective names) : Abolition, Ameri-
can, Ann-Federalists, Anti-Masonic, Demo-
cratic. Democratic-Republican, Farmer-La-
bor, Federalists, Free Soil, Greenback, In-
dependence, Independence National, Liberal
Republican, Liberty, National, National
Anti-Slavery, National Republican, National
Silver, Non-Partisan League, Patrons of
Husbandry, People's, Progressive, Prohibi-
tion, Populist, Republican, Social Democrat,
Socialist, Socialist Labor, Sound Money
Democrats, Strong Government Men, Tory,
Whig.
Political Parties essential to popular
government, 7405.
V
%%
% 1?,
!S5
\l
Political
Encyclopedic Index
Polk
Political Prisoners. (See Civil War and
Espionage Law.)
Politics should be separated from
local offlceSj 7698.
Polk, James K.— 1845-1849.
Fifteenth Administration — Democratic.
Vice-President — George M. Dallas.
Secretary of State —
James Buchanan.
Secretary of the Treasury — -
Eobert J: Walker.
Secretary of War —
William L. ilarcy.
Secretary of the Saey —
George Bancroft.
John y. Mason.
Postmaster-General —
Cave Johnson.
Attorney-Oeneral —
John Y. Mason.
Nathan Clifford.
Isaac Toucey.
Polk was elected by the Democratic party,
Nov. 5, 1844. He was the first "dark-horse"
candidate ever nominated by a prominent
party. At the Democratic National Con-
vention .held in Baltimore, May 27-29, 1844,
Van Buren and Cass were the leaders in the
first eight ballots. On the ninth ballot,
folk's vote rose from 44 in the eighth
to 2o'S, sufficient for the nomination.
Platform. — The platform of the party re-
affirmed the nine sections of the platform
of 1840 and added three more sections.
These specified that the public lands should
be held a^ the Constitution provides, and
that proceeds from the sale should not be-
distributed among ' States ; that the veto
power of the I'resident should In no wise
be curtailed: and that, all of Oregon be-
longed to the United States, and that Texas
should be reannexed as soon as practicable.
Opposition. — At the Whig National Con-
vention held at Baltimore in May, 1844,
Henry Clay was endorsed for the Presidency,
and the first Whig national platform was
formulated. It advocated a well-regulated
currency, tariff for revenue and protection,
distribution of the money derived from sales
of public lands, a single term for the Presi-
dency, curtailing of Executive Power, and
an effective, careful, and economical gov-
ernment. The Liberty party met at Buffalo
in convention on Aug. .".0, 1843, and nomi-
nated James G. BirneJ for the Presidency.
The platform adopted at that convention an-
nounced belief in human brotherhood, the
abolition of slavery.
Vote. — The popular vote cast by twenty-
six States gave Polk, 1,337,243 ; Clay, 1,-
299,068 ; and Birney, 62,300. The elec-
toral vote, counted on Feb. 12, 1845, gave
Polk 170 and Clay 105.
Party AfflUation. — Polk was brought up
a Jeffersonian in politics and, during the
whole period of Jackson's administration,
he was a leading supporter of his policies.
As Speaker of the House (1835-1839) he
supported Van Buren's administration. His
opposition to the reforms advocated by the
anti-slavery party was firm but not rabid.
As Governor of Tennessee (1839-1841) he
! opposed the national bank. Federal taxation
for revenue surplus, and the policies of the
Abolitionists, He strongly favored the re-
annexation of Texas, and it was upon this
issue that he was elected President.
Political Complemion of Congress. — In the
'I'wenty-ninth Congress (1845-1847) the
Senate, of 56 members, was composed of
30 Democrats, 25 Whigs, and 1 vacancy:
and the House, of 225 members, was made
up of 141 Democrats, 78 Whigs, and 6
Americans. In the Thirtieth Congress
(1847-1849) the Senate, of 58 members,
was composed of 37 Democrats and 21
Whigs ; and the House, of 227 members,
was made up of 108 Democrats, 115 Whigs,
and 4 Independents.
PubUc iJeftt.— The public debt of the
United States during the years of Polk's
administration stood as follows : 1846, $15.-
550,202.97; 1847, $38,826,534.77; 1848,
$47,044,862,23; 1849, $63,061,858.69.
In his First Annual Message (page 2252)
President Polk referred to the total extin-
guishment of the public debt by a previous
administration and cherished the hope that,
by especial effort, his administration might
bring about the same most desirable result.
But the expenses due to the wars in which
the country became Involved soon dispelled
ail hope of accomplishing bis purpose.
Tariff. — In his • First Annual Message
(page 2253) President Polk discusses the
tariff in theory and the scale of the tariff
of 1842 specifically. He points out the
difference between the revenue standard
and the protection standard, and says : "It
does not follow that Congress should levy
the highest duty on all articles of import
which they will bear within the revenue
standard, for such rates would probably pro-
duce a much larger amount than the eco-
nomical administration of the Governmeilt
would require." Such incidental protection
as a tariff for revenue carries with it should
in his opinion be so regulated that the tax
may be made to bear equally upon consum- •
ers, and should be so arranged as to justly
protect all industries alike. He refers to
the fact that the tariff of 1842 was passed
by a majority of only one vote in the Sen-
ate and two in the House (page 2255). He
recommends a reduction in the tariff and
prefers the ai valorem to the specific duty.
"Such a system, when once firmly estab-
lished, would be permanent, and not be
subject to the constant complaints, agita-
tions, and changes, which must ever occur
when duties are not laid for revenue, but
for the protection merely of a favored in-
terest."
In a special message of June 16, 1846,
the President presents a plan from the Sec-
retary of the Treasury for the modification
of the duties. He says (page 2301) : "The
high duties at present levied pn many
articles totally exclude them from importa-
tion, whilst the quantity and the amount
of others which- are imported are greatly
diminished. By reducing these duties to a
revenue standard, it is not doubteil that a
large amount of the articles on which they
are Imposed would be Imported, and a cor-
responding amount of revenue be received
at the Treasury from this source." On July
30, 1846 Congress passed an act "reducing
the duty on imports, and for other pur-
poses." This act went into effect on Deo.
1, 1846. In his Third Annual Message the
President (page 2403) reports the satisfac-
tory working of this act In Its first year,
and says : "All the beneficial effects which
were anticipated from its operation have
been fully realized." The revenue for the
year was Increased over $8,000,000. "While
the repeal of the prohibitory and restrictive
duties of tl J act of 1842 and the substitu-
tion In their place of reasonable revenue
rates levied on articles Imported according
to their actual value has increased the rev-
enue and augmented our foreign trade, all
the great Interests of the country have
been advanced and promoted." These re-
sults are reported as continuing during the
following year (page 2497). The Presi-
dent's attitude on the question of protection
Polk
Encyclopedic Index
Polk
is fully enunciated in his discussion of the
American System in his Fourth Annual
Message (page 2504).
Foreign PoUoy. — On the annexation of
Texas and the possible Interference by for-
eign powers, the President said in his In-
augural Address (page 2230) : "I regard
the question of annexation as belonging ex-
clusively to the United States and Texas.
They are independent powers competent to
contract, and foreign powers have no right
to interfere with them or to take excep-
tions to their reunion. Foreign powers do
not seem to appreciate the true character
of our government. . . . Foreign powers
should therefore look on the annexation of
Texas- to the United States not as the con-
quest of a nation seeking to extend her do-
minions by arms and violence, but as the
peaceful acquisition of a territory once her
own, by adding another member to our con-
federation, with the consent of that mem-
ber, thereby diminishing the chances of war
and opening to them new and ever-increas-
ing markets for their products." In his
First Annual Message (page 2237) the Pres-
ident, in referring to the same subject, said :
"We may rejoice that the tranquil and per-
vading influence of the American principle
of self-government was sufficient to defeat
' the purposes of British and French interfer-
ence, and that the almost unanimous voice
of the people of Texas has given to that
interference a peaceful and effective rebuke.
From this example, European governments
may learn how vain diplomatic arts and in-
trigues must ever prove upon this continent
against the system of self-government which
seems natural to our soil, and which will
ever resist foreign interference." In the
same message he reviews the conditions of
the war with Mexico.
War with Memico. — The proclamation of
war against Mexico (page 2320) was issued
by President Polk on May 13, 1846. In his
Second Annual Message (page 2321) the
President goes fully into the Mexican War
history.
In his Third Annual Message, in speak-
ing of the Mexican War (page 2394), he
says : "I am persuaded that the best means
of vindicating the national honor and in-
terest and of bringing the war to an hon-
orable close will be to prosecute it with
increased energy and power in the vital
parts of the enemy's country." In his
Fourth Annual Message (page 2481), In
speaking of the effects of the Mexican War,
the President says : "One of the most im-
portant results of the war into which we
were recently forced with a neighboring
nation is the demonstration it has afforded
of the military strength of our country.
. . . The great results which have devel-
oped and been brought to light by this
war will be of immeasurable importance in
the future progress of our country. They
will tend powerfully to preserve us from
foreign collisions, and enable us to pursue
uninterruptedly our cherished policy of
'peace with all nations, entangling alli-
ances with none.' "
Panama. — A special message (page 2361)
accompanies the treaty with Granada, Which
by its thirty-fifth article confers upon the
United States the right of passage across
the Isthmus of Panama. The President
says : "The importance of this concession to
the commercial and political interests of
the United States can not be easily over-
rated. The route by the Isthmus of Pan-
ama Is the shortest between the two oce.ins,
and from the information herewith com-
municated it would seem to be the most
practicable for a railroad or a canal."
Slavery. — In his Fourth Annual Message
President Polk gives his views on slavery
(page 2491) in these words: ". . . No duty
imposed on Congress by the Constitution re-
quires that they should legislate on the sub-
ject of slavery, while their power to do so
is not only seriously questioned but de-
nied by malay of the soundest expounders
of that Instrument. Whether Congress shall
legislate or not, the people of the acquired
territories, when assembled in convention to
form State constitutions will possess the
sole and exclusive power to determine for
themselves whether slavery ^all or shall
not exist within their limits. . . . Any and
all of the states possess this right, and
Congress can not deprive them of it. The
people of Georgia might If they chose so
alter their Constitution as to abolish slav-
ery within its limits, and the people of
Vermont might so alter their Constitution
as to admit slavery within its limits."
Polk, James K.:
Acquisition of Yucatan, discussed by,
2431.
Advice of Senate desired by, 2299.
American system, discussed by, 2.'504.
Annex:ation of Texas, discussed by,
(See Texas.)
Annual messages of, 2235, 2321, 2382,
2479.
Biographical sketch of, 2221.
Cession of California and New Mex-
ico, discussed by. (See California
or New Mexico.)
Constitutional treasury recommended
by, 2256.
Successful operation of, discussed
by, 2406, 2498.
Death of announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 2546.
Declaration of war against Mexico,
facsimile of, opposite 2312.
Discretionary power of President
over nominations, removals, and
other acts, discussed by, 2232, 2281,
2416, 2452, 2529.
Finances discussed by, 2252, 2346,
2401, 2406, 2496.
Foreign policy discussed by, 2229,
2236, 2248, 2276, 2322, 2337, 2361,
2386, 2431, 2437, 2444, 2480.
Geographical distinctions in country,
discouraged by, 2413.
Inaugural address of, 2223.
, Internal improvements, discussed by,
2310, 2460, 2506.
Large standing army unnecessary in
time of peace, >2263.
Mexican War discussed by, 2287,
2295, 2300, 2306, 2321, 2363, 2383,
2415, 2437, 2481.
Monroe Doctrine, reasserted by, 2248,
2390, 2432.
National banks, discussed by, 2504.
Pocket veto of, 2460.
Portrait of, 2220.
Powers of Federal and State Govern-
ments, discussed by, 2310, 2456,
2460, 2490, 2506.
Polk
Encyclopedic Index
Population
Principles of laws of war, discussed'
by, 2444.
Proclamations of —
Discriminating duties suspended on
vessels of —
Brazil, 2372.
France, 2371.
Existence of war between United
States and Mexico, 2320.
Extraordinary session of Senate,
2539.
Privileges of other ports granted
Lewiston, N. Y., 2319.
Eetroeession of Alexander County
to Virginia, 2320.
Treaty with Mexico, 2477.
Request of House for — '
Account of expense for foreign in-
tercourse refused, 2281.
Information regarding foreign in-
tercourse refused by, 2416, 2452.
Eeferred to, 2529.
Eequest of Senate for information
regarding annexation of Texas re-
fused by, 2232.
Slavery discussed by, 2490.
State of the Union discussed by,
2321, 2382, 2479.
TarifE discussed by, 2253, ,2301, 2348,
2366, 2403, 2497, 2506.
Texas, relations with, discussed by.
(See Texas.)
To cultivate peace and good will with
aU nations, policy of American
people, 2383.
Yeto messages of —
Continuing works in Wisconsin,
reasons for applying pocket veto,
2460.
French spoliation claims, 2316.
Improvement of rivers and harbors,
2310.
Veto power of President discussed
by, 2512.
Warehousing system, discussed by,
2405.
Poll Tax, — An Individual or head tax lev-
ied upon the male citizens of some for-
eign countries and a portion of the United
States. The Federal GoTernment has the
power to levy such a tax in proportion to
the census (20) but has never exercised
it. Before the Revolution the Colonies
ievied poll taxes at various times. In
18!>8 twenty-seven states and territories
levied and collected a poll tax. Some
states, as South Carolina, have constitu-
tional provisions for levying the poll tax.
In Ohio and some other states any tax on
polls is prohibited by the constitution. In
others, as in Massachusetts and Tennes-
see, its payment is made a qualification for
voting. , M.iny of the states devote their
revenue from poll taxes to free schools.
Pollock vs. Farmers' Loan and Trust
Co. (See Income Tax Cases.)
Polygamy (see also Mormons) :
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4644, 4731, 4771, 4837,
Buchanan, 2985.
Cleveland, 4946, 5379.
Garfield, 4601.
Grant, 4105, 4157, 4309, 4310.
Harrison, Benj., 5553, 5641.
Hayes, 4511, 4557.
Roosevelt, 7048.
Pardons granted persons guilty of
unlawful cohabitation under color
of polygamous marriage, 5803,
5942.
Ponca Commission, appointment and
report of, discussed, 4582.
Ponca Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Poncarar Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Pontiao'S War. — A war between the Eng-
' lish garrisons and settlers on the western
frontier and a confederacy of the Delaware,
Shawnee, Mingo, Ottawa, Chippewa, and
other Indian tribes, led by Pontiac, an Otta-
wa chief. Pontiac assembled a great council
of Indians near Detroit April 27, 1763, and
unfolded his plans for retarding or prevent-
ing white settlers locating west of Pittsburg.
To capture Detroit was Pontiac's special
tasls, and May 7 was the date selected, but
the commander of the ^ost was warned of
the plot by an Indian girl, and the attempt
was not made. The town was surrounded,
however, and July 31 the garrison made a
night attacir on the Indians In which 59
English were killed or wounded. Oct. 12
Pontiac raised the siege and retired. Forts
Sandusky, St. Joseph, Miami. Ouatanon,
Mackinaw, Presque Isle, Le Boeuf, and Venan-
go were taken and their garrisons massacred
by the Indians in this war. A treaty of
peace was made in 1766. Pontiac was mur-
dered by a Easkaskia Indian in 1769.
Pontifical States. (See Italy; Papal
States.)
Poor Bicbard's Almanac. — In 1732 Benja-
min Franklin began the publication of Poor
Bicbard's Almanac. It contained many
homely but very striking maxims, and for
this reason became famous.
Pope of Borne:
Mediation offer from, August, 1917,
8340.
Eeplies to, from —
Austria-Hungary, 8345.
Germany, 8344.
United States, 8341.
Note to, from Germany, suggesting
mediation in European War, 8188.
Sentiments of regard for President,
conveyed, referred to, 2761.
Population. — The first United States cen-
sus having been taken in 1790, all popu-
lation figures previous to that date are
based upon estimates.
Early estimates, of somewhat doubtful ac-
curacy, give the following population figures
for the colonies and states since incorporated
into the Union : ^
1688 200,000 1 1760 1,695,000
1714 434,000 1770 2,312,000
1750 1,260,000 I 1780 2,945,000
The people of New England were almost
purely English ; those of New York largely
Dutch, Pennsylvania and the countries to
the southward attracted many Germans,
Scotch, Irish, and Huguenot immigrants, the
Population
Encyclopedic tndex
Population
l>OO'S(NC0 Of-
00 P5 l>l <DC^ O eoi>
tDiO^OO_W^_»H<DO 00OT*O_O>C000rH tocoP4eQOeoc^
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(HOcO'^U^COCOOid •*Oir*-*U3«00«5 ^USMOONOXeO «<d-*icoio»«5 P
i-t CI'-' fHCOMN-HM
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-oaiocooo S'
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odo t-tP^TjTtDN
(DM 05«W<N0S
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iHt^ 0000—iMCOrt-HOsoi NQO»oco^wr-t" N N i-i eo o^o -h 00 ^• lO r- N in o> N CO (~
^N lC.-<(0»*'eo010Mt- C0'O'*t^"*<O»'H 00r;(O>HUT^lON «D«OeO'C'*(OM(C
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fHos aiTfim^cccof~ox LTOtoost-ntot^ua
(DO «00lCifflOair~O« rMTjl^csOSiHlOOOt^
TjJ'aS OOcToOTtleotDOeCOO oi'c>)«ffl"i-;OlNOi
(NO) ■<*<eC'*eoMCOX«>o wtO'^3;S3r3S2
(OO O OJ CD ffi t~- to t^ "-I '"' ^ C0'-<^oe<3
c-1 coi-H K •* V ^ if3 O MOffliHr-
cmoi'-'^towOT^O -^Qlajroeo
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00» i-(iom-«H^05»MiO iOMr-4 0(D^»i-4
NO) p-4rHi-io>Q>oo^o omo90or>u3co
0« OOiOS»COOt*Oi(N »00)^^_CQOXt>^W
Oi(0 WMtNX'OXMMO) ClCJ^'-cOOSOOt-
i-iw eof-eor-"*^H^xt^ ^H eoo> coo
stlM(D>fl
t^XtoO)
Orjr-tf
ffi01CO(Oi0^t^t«0
« r- 0)_w iC ^ r». xjH K-
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NOO eo(N -TfO
Population
Encyclopedic Index
Port Republic
latter settling largely In South Carolina and
Georgia.
The census of 1920 showed that in Con-
tinental United States the number of per-
sons living in cities and towns of more than
2,500 Inhabitants was 54,318,032, and the
number living elsewhere, classed as rural
population, was 51,390,739. Only slightly
more than 9% lived in incorporated places
of less than 2,500, so that about 39% of
the population lived in what may be called
purely rural districts.
Population, Center of.— (See Center of
Population.)
Populist or People's Party.— in Decem-
ber, 1889, a meeting of the Farmers' and
Laborers' Union of America was held at
St. Louis, Mo., for the purpose of con-
solidating the various bodies of organ-
ized farmers which had been formed at
different times and places' in the United
States since 1867, and which were known
under the general name of Grangers (q. v.).
rhe consolidated body was called the
Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union.
On Dec. 2, 1890, a national convention
was held at Ocala, Pla. Thirty-flve States
and Territories were represented by 163
delegates. Independent political action
was decided upon, and a platform was
adopted advocating free silver, the sub-
treasury plan, equal taxation, a graduated
Income tax, election of President, Vice-
President, and Senators by direct vote, and
prohibition of alien ownership of land.
The second convention was held at Cin-
tinnati, Ohio, May 19, 1891. Thirty States
and Territories were represented by 1,418
delegates. At this convention the Ocala
platform was heartily indorsed and the
name People's party was adopted. A third
national meeting was held at St. Louis,
Mo., in February, 1892. It was decided
to put In the field candidates for President
and Vice-President, and on July 2, 1892, a
national body of delegates met at Omaha,
Nebr., and nominated Gen. James B. Weav-
er, of Iowa, for President, and James G.
Field, of Virginia, for Vice-President.
Weaver obtained a popular vote of 1,041,-
028 and an electoral vote of 22.
In 1896 the People's party met at St.
Louis, Mo., and nominated for President
William J. Bryan of Nebraska, and for
Vice-President Thomas E. Watson, of
Georgia. Mr. Bryan had been previously
nominated for the Presidency by the Demo-
cratic party. In the popular vote the
Bryan and Watson ticket (straight Popu-
list) received 245,728 votes, and Bryan
and Sewall ticket (Democratic and straight
fusion ticket) 6,257,198 votes. In the
electoral college McKInley and Hobart (Re-
publican candidates) received 271 votes.
Bryan. 176, Sewall 149, and Watson 27.
On May 10, 1900, a convention of the
fusion wing of the party met at Sioux
Falls, S. D., and nominated William J.
Bryan for President and Charles A. Town
for Vice-President. Mr. Town withdrew
in favor of Adlal Stevenson, the Demo-
cratic candidate, and on Aug. 28th the ex-
ecutive committee nominated Mr. Steven-
son. The anti-fusion wing of the party
met at Cincinnati on May 10th and nomi-
nated Wharton Barker for President and
Ignatius Donnelly for Vice-President. The
Democratic and fusion nominees received
6 374,397 popular votes and 155 electoral
votes. The anti-fusion (middle of the road)
wing of the People's party received 50,373
popular votes. In 1904 the People's party
nominated Tbnma« ^.. Watson for President
and Thomas H. Tilihle« for Vice-President
and thev received 120,903 votes. In 1908
Watson and Samuel Williams of Indiana
were nominated to head the ticket. The
vote in that year fell to less than 35,000,
and the Party then ceased to exist.
Pork-BaireL — a term applied, in compara-
tively recent years, to the Congressional ap-
propriations for local Improvements, with
tile insinuation that they are not vital to
the cause of the country, but that they are
obtained as a result of "log-rolling" (q. v.)
and favoritism, and for the purpose of im-
pressing constituents with the importance of
their Congressmen or Senators, — such as
appropriations for rivers and harbors, post-
office buildings, etc.
Pork Products. (See Animals and Ani-
mal Products.)
Port Arthur Bombarded. (See illustra-
tion opposite 6549 and Eusso-Japancse
War.)
Port Gibson (Miss.)," Battle of.— On the
night of April 10, 1863, the Federal gun-
boats under Admiral Porter succeeded in
running past the batteries at Vicksburg.
Grant ordered Sherman to make a feint on
the Confederate batteries at Haines Bluff,
above Vicksburg, while Porter covered the
landing of McClernand's and MePherson's
corps at Bruinsburg, a few miles below
Grand Gulf. Immediately upon landing Mc-
Clernand pushed forward toward Port Gib-
son. A march of eight miles brought him
in sight of the Confederates, whom he forced
back until dark. The next day (May 2) the
Confederates held a strong position, which
they stubbornly defended. That night the
troops slept on their arms. Durmg the
night the Confederate forces retired across
the Bayou Pierre, pursued next day by Mc-
pherson's corps. The Federal loss was 3 31
killed. 719 wounded, and 25 missing — a total
of 875. One thousand prisoners and 5
cannon were taken from the Confederates.
Port Hudson (La), Surrender of.— As
early as August, 1862, Confederates began
to fortify Port Hudson, a point on the Mis-
sissippi Biver in Louisiana, at the terminus '
of the Clinton and Port Hudson Railroad,
twenty-five miles above Baton Rouge and
one hundred and forty-seven above New Or-
leans. Dec. 14, 1862, Maj.-Gen. N. P. Banks
took command of the Department of the
Gulf, and in March, 1863, made a demon-
stration against Port Hudson while Ibarra-
gut's fleet attempted to run the hatteries to
assist Porter in the naval Investment of
Vicksburg. The attempt was a failure. May
26, 1863, Banks again invested Port Hud-
son, and was reenforced by Maj.-Gen. Au-
gur, Brig.-Gen. T. W. Sherman, and Gen.
Weltzel, Increasing his forces to 12,000 men.
An unsuccessful assault was made on the
27th, which showed the place to be strongly
fortified. Banks lost 2,000 men in the as-
sault. Jane 14 a second assault was made
after a bombardment of several days by Far-
ragnt's fleff. This was also repulsed, with
a loss of 700 killed and wounded. Banks
now invested the place by a series of ap-
proaches. July 6 the news of the surrender
of Vicksburg reached Port Hudson, and
three days later Gardner surrendered, with
0,340 men and 51 guns. Besides, the gar-
rison lost about 500 prisoners or deserters
before the surrender, and about 700 killed
and wounded.
Port Bepublic (Va.), Battle of.— June 9,
1862, the morning after the skirmish be-
tween the forces of Ewell and PrSmont at
Cross Keys, Jackson drew in Ewell, crossed
the branch »f the Shenandoah, and destroy-
Port Republic
Encyclopedic Index
Porto Rico
Ing the bridges cut off two brigades of
Shields's advance from Frfimont, defeated
tliem in battle, and captured some 450 pris-
oners and 800 muskets.
Port Royal (S. C), Expedition to. — Oct.
29, 1861, a strong naval and military ex-
pedition left Hampton Roads under com-
mand of Commodore Samuel ¥. Du Pont
and Gen. Thomas W. Sherman. The first
was composed of the steam frigate Wahash,
fourteen gunboats, twenty-two first-class and
twelve smaller steamers, and twenty-six sail-
ing vessels. The land forces under Sherman
consisted of thirteen regiments of volun-
teers, forming three brigades and numbering
10,000 men. After a tempestuous voyage the
fleet arrived oft Port Royal, S. C, Nov. 3.
Upon each side of the mouth of the Broad
River is an island on which the Confederates
had built forts. On Bay Point Fort Beaure-
gard mounted twenty-three guns, and on Hil-
ton Head, opposite. Fort Walker had six,
some of them of the largest caliber. A
fleet of eight steamers lay inside the har-
bor. The guns of the fort were fully
manned by 1,700 South Carolinians, and a
field battery with 500 men supported one of
them. On the 7th Du Pont brought his gun-
boats into action. He manoeuvred his fleet
in a circle around the harbor between the
forts, firing broadsides as he passed the
Confederate batteries. His shells wrought
havoc in the works, but the moving ships
were little damaged. For four hours the
battle raged, when the garrison retreated
leaving everything behind. Forty-three guns
were capturnd. Hilton Head was made the
center of later naval operations.
Port Royal, S. C, blockade of, re-
moved by proclamation, 3290.
Portage Lake, Mich., act authorizing
establishment of new haibor lines in,
returned, 5506.
Portland Company, bill for relief of,
vetoed, 5527.
Portland, Ore., proclaimed port of de-
livery, 2588.
Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposi-
tion at, 6798.
Porto Rican Tobacco Company, referred
to, 7684.
Porto Rico. — The island of Porto Rico,
over which the fiag of the United States
was raised in token of formal possession
on October 18, 1898, is the most eastern
of the Great' Antilles in the West Indies
and is separated on the east from the
island of Saint Thomas by a distance of
about fifty miles, and from Haiti on the "
west by the Mona passage, seventy miles
wide. Distances from San Juan, the capi-
tal, to important points are as follows :
New York, 1,411 miles ; Charleston, S. C,
1,200 miles ; Key West, Fla., 1,050 miles ;
Havana, 1,000 miles.
The islnnd is a parallelogram in general
outline, 108 miles from the east to the west
and from 37 to 43 miles across, the area
being about 3,600 square miles, or some-
what less than half that of the State of
New Jersey (Delaware has 2,050 square
miles and Connecticut 4,990 square miles).
The population according to an enumeration
made by the United States Government in
1900 showed a population of 953,243, of
whom 589.426 are white and 363,817 are
colored. The density was 260 tp the square
mile in 1900 ; 83.2 per cent of the popula-
tion could not read.
Porto Rico is unusually fertile, and its
dominant industries are agriculture and lum-
bering. In elevated regions the vegetation
of the temperate zone is not unknown.
There are more than 500 varieties of trees
found in the forests, and the plains are
full of palm, orange, and other trees. The
principal crops are sugar, coffee, tobacco,
and maize, but oranges, bananas, rice, pine-
apples, and many other fruits are important
products. The largest article of export from
Porto Rico is sugar. The next is tobacco.
Other exports in order of amount are coffee,
fruits, molasses, cattle, timber, and hides.
The principal minerals found in Porto
Rico are gold, carbonates, and sulphides
of copper and magnetic oxide of iron in
large quantities. • Lignite is found at Utuado
and Moca, and also yellow amber. A large
variety of marbles, limestones, and other
building scones are deposited on the Island,
but these resources are very undeveloped.
There are salt works at Guanica and Salina
on the south coast, and at Cape Rojo on
the west, and these constitute the principal
mineral industry In Porto Bico.
The 1920 census gave the population as
1,297,772, an increase of 16% over 1910.
The largest cities are San Juan, 70,707 ;
Ponce, 41,561 ; Mayaguez, 19,069 ; Caguas,
12,154 ; Bayamon, 10,411 ; and Arecibo, 10,-
039. There were In addition 10 towns with
between 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants and 16
with between 2,500 and 5,000. These towns
account for about 22% of the population,
the remainder being classed as rural. Most
of the population is white, negroes consti-
tuting about 30-35% of the total number of
inhabitants. In 1910, 63% of the popula-
tion was engaged in agriculture, mining
and fishing; 21% in domestic and personal
service ; 8 % in manufacturing ; and 8 % in
trade and transportation.
The latest figures show 1,725 public
schools, with almost 3,000 classrooms. The
enrolment was 160,794. There are also
night schools, kindergartens and private
schools. In 1910, the percentage of illit-
eracy was 66%%.
History. — Porto Rico was discovered by
Columbus in 1493. It was conquered by
Ponce de Leon with Spanish forces in 1510-
20, from which- time until it was occupied
by American troops in the Spanish-Ameri-
can war the island existed in comparative
tranquility as a Spanish possession. It
was formally ceded to the United States by
the treaty with Spain of December 10, 1898.
Government. — By the act of the United
States Congress for the Government of Porto
Rico, approved on March 2, 1917, the people
of Porto Rico are granted United States
citizenship. The executive power is wielded
by a Governor appointed by the President.
The legislature consists of a Senate of
nineteen and a House of Representatives of
thirty-nine. The resident commissioner to
the United States is selected by the people
for a term of four years. The Governor is
assisted by an Executive Council of six heads
of the executive departments^
Finance. — The most recent annual budget
was in the neighborhood of $13,000,000. The
assessed valuation of the property on the
island is $254,170,000. The outstanding
bonded lndej)teduess is about $9,500,000.
Production and Commerce. — The last
annual sugar crop was slightly above 400-
000 tons, of which more than 350,000 were
exported, valued at $48,000,000. In 1919
Porto Rico
Encyclopedic Index
Portsmouth
more than 180,000,000 cigars, 6,400 000
cigarettes and 17,000,000 pouEds of leaf
and scrap tobacco were exported. The
coffee exports were about 28,000,000
pounds. The 1910 census showed 939 indus-
trial establishments, employing 15,582 wage-
farners, with a total capital of $25,544,-
LnS: r-'yjy^^'*'' *" annual product valued at
■poD,7uU,000.
Tn 1919, the imports into Porto Eico were
valued at $62,400,360 and the exports from
Porto Rico at $79,496,040, Practically all of
the trade is with continental United States.
In a more recent year, the United States
shipped to Porto Rico goods valued at $121,-
561,574 and imported from Porto Rico goods
valued at $158,322,088.
Communications. — About 1,300 vessels, of
more than 3,000,000 tons, visit Porto Rico
annually. The chief port Is San Juan,
with a harbor 1,800 feet wide and 30 feet
deep. There are more than 1,100 miles of
road on Porto Rico and about 340 miles of
railroad. There are 1,600 miles of telephone
and telegraph wire, 90 post-offlces and 75
telegraph stations.
Porto Eico:
American citizens in, unlawfully pun-
ished, 783.
Autonomy of, to be established cau-
tiously and gradually, 7386.
Campaign against, under command of
_Maj.-Gen. Miles, 6318.
Citizenship for islanders of, urged by
President —
Eoosevelt, 7018, 7051, 7104, 7233,
7300.
Taft, 7467, 7801.
Civil government of, 6681, 6772, 7018.
Commercial relations with, 1260, 1347,
4826, 4921, 5089, 5470, 6069. .
Treaty regarding, 4842, 4847, 4848.
Draft registration days in, 8302, 8524.
Expeditions against, referred to, 2741.
Forest reservations in, 6778.
Government deadlock in, discussed,
7381.
Governor of, report of, attention
called to, 6921.
Grants of public or corporate rights
in, order regarding, 6583.
Justice to, 8110, 8186.
Lauds reserved in, for public pur-
poses, 6778.
Military commission to superintend
Spanish, evacuation of, 6322.
Needs of, discussed, 7051.
Obligations to, discussed, 7911.
Organic law of, amendment to, urged,
7383, 7467, 7517.
Piracies from, suppressed, 783.
Privateering in ports of, 2345.
Progress of, under United States, dis-
cussed, 6660, 7018, 7384, 7800.
Prosperity of, 6720, 7375.
Railroad and light companies of,
ordinances for, 6730, 6825, 6932,
6934.
Railroads in, 6730.
Relations of, with United States,
6658, 7018.
Eoosevelt, President, report of visit
of, to, 7299.
Sanitary problems connected with, re- .
ferred to, 6341.
Slavery in, discussed, 4100.
Release of persons held in, dis-
cussed, 4194.
Suffrage in, should eventually be lim-
ited to United States citizens, 7467.
Tariff laws of, evidence of modifica-
tions of, proclaimed, 5583.
Referred to, 5615, 5747.
Telephone line for, 6732.
Vessels from certain ports of, duties
on, suspended by proclamation,
4871.
Vessels of Spain from, discriminating
duties on, suspended by procla-
mation, 4810, 5075, 5155.
Discussed, 5089.
Suspension revoked, 5074.
Vessels of United States, discrimi-
nating duties and fines on, in,
4626, 4714, 4763, 4786, 4788, 5961.
Abolished, 4810, 5155.
Retaliatory measures, discussed,
4763.
Visit of American naval oflScer to,
referred to, 845.
Ports. (See Rivers and Harbors.)
Portsmouth, N. H., dry dock at, about
completed, 2669.
Site for, 934.
Portsmouth, Ohio, act to erect public
building at, vetoed, 5152.'
Portsmouth, Treaty of. — A treaty of
peace between Russia and Japan, at
Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 5, 1905, bring-
ing to a close the war that had been waged
between those two countries since Feb. 11,
1904.
Shortly after the battle of the Japan
Sea, May 27-29, 1905 (see Japan), Presi-
dent Roosevelt, after conference with the
Russian Ambassador and the Japanese
Minister, sent Identical notes to the Gov-
ernments of the- two countries, urging them
to begin direct peace negotiations with
each other, and offering the services of
the United States in bringing their envoys
together. Japan accepted the proposition
two days later, and Russia within a week.
Various places were proposed for the meet-
ing : Paris. The Hague, Chefoo, Geneva,
and Washington. As the summer heat
made the latter place unsuitable, the
United States Government ottered the use
of a building at the United States Navy
Yard, at Portsmouth, N. H., and the offer
was accepted. The envoys appointed were,
on the part of Japan, Baron Komura,
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Kogoro
Takahlra, Mini.ster to the United States ;
and on the part of Russia, Count Sergius
Wltte and Baron Rosen, Ambassador to
the United States.
On Aug. 5 the envoys assembled on the
U. S. Presidential yacht, Mayflower, near Oys-
ter Bay, L. I., and were Introduced by
President ^Roosevelt. The sessions of the
conference began Aug. 9, when the Japa-
nese presented their terms : I. Eecognltfou
Portsmouth
Encyclopedic Index
Portugal
by Eussia of the preponderatilig iufluence
of Japan in Korea ; 11. Simultaneous evac-
uation of Manchuria by Russia and Japan ;
III. Transfer to Japan of the Russian
leases of Port Arthur and Dalny ; IV. The
return of Manchuria to China according
to the previous agreement between Russia,
and China ; V. The cession of Sakhalin
Island to Japan ; VI. The transfer to Japan
of all public property In Port Arthur and
Dalny, rights of private property to be re-
spected ; VII. The transfer to Japan of the
Manchurlan railroad between Port Arthur
and Dalny and Harbin; VIII. Russia to
retain the main line in Vladivostok; IX.
The reimbursement of Japan^ for the ex-
Senses of the war ; X. The surrender to
apan of the Russian warships interned at
neutral ports ; XI. Limitation of Russia's
naval strength in the Pacific ; XII. Fishing
rights for citizens of Japan in Russian wa-
ters.
To some of these Eussia agreed at once ;
but the questions of indemnity and the ces-
sion of the Island of Sakhalin still remained
open, and by the 19th of August the nego-
tiations seemed certain to end in failure.
The pressure of neutral nations, brought
to bear on both parties, and especially the
influence of President Roosevelt, led to a
compromise. Japan waived the question of
Indemnity, and withdrew her demand for
the interned warships ; while Russia con-
sented to the surrender of the southern
half of the island of Sakhalin. Each na-
tion agreed to pay the cost of the main-
tenance of its prisoners of war, an arrange-
ment much to the advantage of Japan.
An agreement was reached August 29, and
the formal treaty was signed Sept. 5, 1905.
Ratifications of the treaty were exchanged
on Oct. 14, 1905. (See also Japan.)
Portugal. — Continental Portugal occupies
part of the maritime district of the Iberian
Peninsula, between 6° 15'-9° 30' W. longi-
tude, and 37*-42° 8' N. latitude, and is
bounded on the north and east by Spain,
and on the south and west by the Atlantic
Ocean. The Azores and Madeira Islands
form an integral part of Portugal for ad-
ministrative purposes.
Physical Features. — Portugal is generally
hilly, but with no great heights, and there
are many plains. The principal rivers are
Douro, Tagus, Gruadiana and Minho. The
climate is equable and temperate, the south,
western winds bringing an abundant rain-
fall. Lisbon has an annual mean tempera-
ture of 61° F., but there Is a difference of
50° F. in the extremes.
History. — From the close of the eleventh
century until the revolution of 1910 the
government of Portugal was a monarchy,
and in the year 1500 the King of Portugal
was "Lord of the conquest, navigation, and
commerce of India, Ethiopia, Arabia and
Persia," the territories of the Empire In-
cluding also the Vice-Royalty of Brazil,
which declared Its independence in 1822
(see Brazil). In 1910 an armed rising
drove the King and the Royal family into
exile, efCected a separation of Church and
State, and established a Republic. In
accordance with treaty obligations with
(Jreat Britain, Portugal joined the struggle,
against the Central Powers In 1916, and
dispatched troops to the western battle-line,
where they remained until the end of the
War.
Government. — The National Assembly of
Aug. 21, 1911, sauctioned the Republic and
adopted a Constitution, with a President
elected by Congress for four years, a Con-
gress of two Chambers, and an Executive
appointed by the President but responsible
to the Legislature. The Republic was for-
mally recognized by the Powers on bept. 11,
1911. The Constitution makes provision for
a Congress of two houses, the Senate and
the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate con-
sists of seventy-one members, elected by the
Municipal Councils of the Republic for six
years, one-half renewable every three years.
The Chamber of Deputies (or National
Council) consists of 164 members, elected by
direct vote for three years.
There are Courts of first instance in each
of the 193 judicial districts or comarcas,
with Courts of Appeal (trlbunaes de rela-,
Qao) at Lisbon and Oporto and at Ponta
Delgada in the Azores. There is a Supreme
Coort of Appeal at Lisbop.
The Republic is divided into twenty-one
Districts (Continental Portugal seventeen,
Azores three, Madeira one), governed by an
appointed Governor, a District Auditor and
an elective council of three members.
ABBA AND POPULATION
Area in
Districts English
.Sq. Miles Population
Aveirc, 1,064 336,243
Azores 922 242,560
Beia 3,938 192,499
Braga 1,041 382,276
Braganca 2,512 192,024
Castello Branco 2,581 241,184
Coimbra 1,507 359,387
Evora 2,856 148,295
Faro 1,937 272,861
Guarda 2,114 271,616
Leiria 1,316 262,632
Lisboa 3,085 852,854
Madeira 314 169,783
Portalegre 2,404 141,481
Porto 892 679,640
Santarem 2,554 325,775
Vianna do Castello 857 227,250
Villa Real 1,649 245,547
Vizeu 1,937 416,744
Total Portugal 35,500 6,960,056
Portuguese Colonies 804,841 9,675,000
Grand Total 840,341 15,635,056
In 1911 there were 41,197 foreigners resi-
dent iu Portugal, of whom 20,517 were
SpiinlsU, 12,143 Brazilians, 2,516 British,
1,832 French, 1,645 Americans.
Of the population in 1911, there were 11
females to every 10 males. The urban
population was slightly more than 30% of
the total. The capital i^ Lisbon, with a
population estimated at 500,000 ; Oporto has
an estimated population of 225,000. Prac-
tically all the people are Roman Catholics,
' although freedom of worship is guaranteed.
The latest education statistics show 6,706
public elementary schools, with 342,763
pupils ; anrl 32 secondary schools, with 11,-
791 pupils. There are three universities,
with a combined enrolment of some 3,000 :
and some private and professional schools.
Finance. — The most recent figures show
an annual revenue of about $125,000,000,
and an annual expenditure of about $260,-
000,000. The latest figures for the foreign
debt place it at $175,000,000, and the in-
ternal debt at almost $800,000,000, of which
$385,000,000 was held by the Government.
The unit of currency is the gold eseudo
(divided Into 100 centavos), which is equiv-
alent to the former gold milreis and is
normally w.orth about $1.08 in United States
currency. However, tne country Is practi-
cally on a paper basis, due to the disappear-
ance of almost all gold and silver.
Portugal
Encyclopedic Index
Portugal
ProdueUon and Industry. — The principal
products are wheat, barley, oats, ma'lze, flax
and ' hemp, while the vine Is extensively
cultivated, the best wine being produced
in the elevated tracts, and the commoner
Isinds in the low-lying country. In the
plains and lowlands rice, olives, oranges,
lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds are
abundantly grown. The vine and the olive
are the chief branches of industry, the
rich red wine known as "port" being grown
in the Paiz do Vluho and carried down the
Douro partly in sailing vessels but mainly
by rail, for shipment at Oporto. The Live
Stock (1910) included cattle, sheep, pigs,
and horses.
There are extensive forests of oak, chest-
nut, seapine and cork, covering nearly 20
per cent of the cultivated area of the coun-
try, and cork products are largely manu-
factured for export, whiie the wine trade
requires much timber for the numerous
cooperages, much of which, however, is
imported from abroad.
The most recent figures for the annual
production show 5,560,000 bushels of wheat ;
2,900,000 bushels of rye ; 3,630,000 of oats ;
1,420,000 of barley ; 1,075,000 of beans :
and 80,000 tons of potatoes. The area of
the vineyards is put at 780,000 acres, with
an annual vintage of more than 90,000,000
gallons. The last annual wool production
was 6,245,000 pounds.
The mineral wealth is reported to be con-
siderable, but Is worked but little because
of the scarcity of coal and cheap trans-
portation.
Latest figures show some 50,000 persons
and 11,500 vessels engaged In the fisheries,
especially the sardine and tunny.
The latest available figures show annual
imports of ,?140,000,000, and annual ex-
ports of $60,000,000. The chief imports, in
order of value, are raw materials, food sub-
stances and textiles ; the chief exports are
food substances. In a recent year, the
United States exported to Portugal goods
valued at $24,426,592, and imported from
Portugal goods valued at $9,323,165.
In order of value, the most Important pro-
ducts exported by the United States to Por-
tugal in the last year for which figures are
available were as follows ; — Cotton, unman-
ufactured ; Wheat : Leaf Tobacco ; Mineral
Oils; Staves; Leather.
Communications. — ^TJiere are two State-
railways, with a combined length of 733
miles, and five private lines, with a com-
bined length of 1,315 miles. Before the
World War, 4,265 post-oflces and 580 tele-
craph offices were reported. There were
approximately 6,000 miles of telegraph hnc
and 13,500 miles of wire. In a recent year,
1,285 vessels, representing a tonnage of al-
inost 10,000,000, entered Portuguese ports.
P0RTVOVE8E INDIAhUB an area of 1,470
SQuare miles, with an estimated population
of 605,000. The Portuguese dominions con-
sist of Goa on the western coast of India,
about 265 miles southeast of Bombay ; Da-
mao, on the east side of the Gulf of Cam-
bav and of Diu, a town and fort on an
island on the west side of the same zulf.
These settlements form a single adminis-
trative province under a Governor-General.
MAOAO is a settlement on the western
side of the estuary of the Canton River,
occupied by the Portuguese In the sixteenth
century, and finally ceded by China in 1887.
, POBTVOVBSE TIMOR consists of the
northern portion of Timor, a large island to
the Malay Archipelago, of^an enclave on
the northwest coast of the island, and of the
neighboring Island of Pulo Cambing, with
area of 7,450 square miles, and an estimated
population of 300,000.
CAPE VERDE ISLANDS are an archipel-
ago of the west African coast, between 14°
47'-17° 13' N. latitude and 22° 40'-:i5° 22'
W. longitude, consisting of twelve Islauds.
They were settled by the Portuguese, wlio
Imported negroes from the African coast to
work the plantations, slavery being Anally
abolished in 1876. The Inhabitants are
mainly negroes and mulattoes, who speak
a debased form of Portuguese, and belong to
the Roman Catholic Church. Coffee is the
principal product, maize, millet, sugar cane,
manioc, oranges, tobacco and cotton being
also grown. The exports are coffee, physic-
nuts, millet, sugar, spirits, salt, live ani-
mals, skins .and fish ; the imports being
coal, textiles, food stuffs, wine, metals,
tobacco, pottery, machinery and vegetables.
PORTUGUESE GUINEA extends along the
west coast of Africa between the Casamanci
district of Senegal (French) and French
Guinea. The settlement includes also Or-
ango, Bolama, Blssao and other islands, and
has a total area of abbut 14,000 square
miles, with an estimated population of 300,-
000 to 500,000, of various negro tribes.
The interior is dense forest with palms,
ebony and mahogany.
SlO TBOMS aud , PRINCIPE are two isl-
auds in 'the Gulf of Guinea. The principal
product of both islands is cocoa, the exports
of which were about one-sixth of the world's
supply in 1907. Exaggerated reports as to
the conditions of indentured laborers
stopped the cocoa exports from 1909-1910,
but the conditions have now been radically
altered.
ANGOLA lies south of the Kongo River
in West Africa and extends eastward as
far as Rhodesia. The northern boundary is
that of the Belgian Kongo, and the southern
boundary is conterminous with German
Southwest Africa.
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA lies be-
tween German i^ast Africa on the north and
Natal on the south. The area is estimated
as 425,000 square miles, with population
not exceeding 3,200,000, of whom about
10,000 are Europeans. Of the natives, 90
per cent are Bantu negroes. The Province
of Mosambique is administered by a Gov-
ernor-General, with headquarters at Lou-
rengo Marques. Large portions of the terri-
tory are leased to the Companhia de Mo-
gambique (headquarters, Beira), the Com-
panhia dl Zambezia (Quelimane), and the
Companhia do Nyasa (Porto Amelia). The
mineral resources nclude coal and ironstone,
malachite, copper, gold, petroleum and bitu-
men. The agricultural products are wheat
and other cereals, sugar-cane, rice, ground-
nuts, coffee and tobacco. The exports are
principally rubber, sugar, coal, beeswax,
coco-nuts, copra and mangrove bark, ivory,
cattle, skins and hides, ground-nuts, cotton,
tobacco and gold ; the imports being cotton
goods, hardware and foodstuffs. The spe-
cial trade of the Province is about 30,000,-
000 escudos annually, the transit trade be-
ing of approximately the same value, on
the way to and from the Transraal (via
Lourengo Marques and Beira).
Portugal (see also Lisbon; Oporto):
Blockade established by, claims of
United States growing out of, 1098,
1113, 1243.
Brazil, questions with respecting es-
cape of insurgent Admiral Da
Gama, 5956.
Portugal
Encyclopedic Index
Post-office
Citizens of, effort made to improve
condition of, 762, 786.
Claims of United States against,
1071, 1113, 1157, 1243, 1317, 2268,
2453, 2550, 2618, 2680, 2759. (See
also General Armstrong, The;
Miles, The.)
Admitted, but payment of, delayed,
1456.
Convention for adjustment of, re-
ferred to, 2618, 2642, 2655. '
Payment of, 1157, 1243, 1368, 1749,
2655.
Commercial relations with, 811.
Vessels sent to protect American in-
terests, 1099.
Copyright privilege extended, by
proclamation, 5830-
Cotton culture in African possessions
of, referred to, 3267.
Diplomatic relations with, resumed,
1008.
Duties on rice reduced by, 1243.
Friendly disposition of, toward Unit-
ed States, 919.
Government of, removed to Lisbon,
674.
Internal tranquility restored to, 1317.
Minister of United States in, 90.
Salary of, referred to, 3667.
Railroad in, operated by American
citizens, seized by Government
of, 5470.
Claim regarding, submitted to arbi-
tration, 5546.
Relations with, 89, 168, 820.
Republic of —
Establishment of, 7495.
Recognition of, 7669.
Revenue laws of United States, com-
1 plaints of, against, referred to,
1956.
Slavery in colonies of, abolition of,
discussed, 4289.
Treaty with, referred to, 1821, 1839,
1894, 2127.
Vessels of —
Discriminating duties on, suspend-
ed by proclamation, 4080.
Report regarding, 1135, 1443.
Requested by Portugal, 1442.
Duties on, 1135.
Proclamation levying duties on,
1589.
Referred to, 1592.
Vessels of United States seized or in-
terfered with by, 1070, 1098, 1113,
1243.
Vice-consul of, to United States, ex-
equatur of, revoked, 4038.
Wines of, duties on, referred to, 2127,
2250.
Portugal, Treaty with. — A reciprocal
commercial arrangement was made with
Portugal in 1900. It provides for a piefor-
ential tariff on goods (clilefly wines, their
products, and worlss of art) coming into
tlie United States ; and on certain classes
of goods (cliiefly food-stuffs, machinery,
oils, tar, and pitch) entering Portugal,
the Azores, and Madeiras from the United
States. Should the United States at any
time impose high duties on crude cork
and coffee from Portugal, that country re-
serves the right to arrest the operation of
this convention on three months' notice.
Arbitration, extrauitlon and naturalization
conventions are also in force.
Portuguese East Africa, Guinea^ India,
Timor. (See Portugal.)
Post-Office. See Post-Offiee Depart-
ment.)
Post-Offices. — First - class post - offices are
those in which the postmaster receives a
salary of. more than $3,000 yearly ; second
class, those in which the postmasters' sal-
aries are between $3,000 and $2,000 yearly ;
third class, those in which the postmasters'
salaries are between $2,000 and $1,000
yearly ; and fourth-class, those in which the
postmasters' salaries are below $1,000
yearly. The salaries of postmasters in the
first three classes depend upon the gross
receipts of their offices, although third-class
postmasters receive an additional three cents
for each money order they issue. Fourth-
class postmasters receive a commission on
the cancellation of stamps in their offices.
The scale provides that fourth-class post-
masters receive the full amount of theif
cancellation up to $50 quarterly, with slid-
ing scales between this amount and cascella-
tion up to $250 quarterly, and in addition
they receive rents of boxes in their offices.
(See Post-Office Department.)
Post-Offtce Building:
Destruction of, by fire referred to,
1483.
Erection of — j
Appropriation for, recommended,
1483, 1911.
Recommended, 1477, 1720.
Erection of, for joint use of Wash-
ington City post-ofSce and Post-
Office Department recommended,
5479.
Extension of, referred to, 2915,
2917.
Heating and ventilating of, referred
to, 3110, 3112.
Illustration, frontispiece. Vol. TV.
Referred to, 1798.
Uniform standard in amount of gross
receipts to fix right of community
to, recommendations regardins,
5377.
Post-Office Department.— This department
of the executive branch of the federal gov-
ernment was established under the Constitu-
tion Sept. 26, 1789, but the work then offi-
cially taken up by it had been in continuous
operation from early colonial times. Up to
1693 the postal service was entirely carried
on by the towns and villages. From that
year until 1707 It was administered under
the patent granted Thomas Neale by the
Kmg in 1691, Andrew Hamilton having been
appomted PostmaBter-Geueral of America.
Post-office
Encyclopedic Index
Post-Office
He established a weekly service from Ports-
mouth, N. H., to Virginia, and so success-
ful was his administration that he has
been called "The Father of American posts."
He was succeeded by his son, John Hamil-
ton, in 1703.
On Dec. 25, 1774, Postmaster-General
Foxcroft announced the end of the British
postal system in North America, and on
July 26, 1775, nearly a year before political
independence was declared, the Continental
Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin Post-
master-General of the Colonies. When
Franklin was sent to Europe in 1776, Rich-
ard Bache, his son-in-law, was made Post-
master-General. In the passage of the pos-
tal ordinance of Oct. 18, 1782, which uni-
fied all previous postal acts. Congress re-
quired the payment of postage in silver or
its equivalent, and newspapers were admit-
ted to transportation In the mails. The
rates were fixed at 7.4 cents for single let-
ters carried less than sixty miles ; 11.1
cents for distances between sixty and a
Inundred miles and three cents for each ad-
ditional hundred miles. It was in this year
that the Post-Office Department, in distinc-
tion from the postal service, was practically
created, and from this time the modern
American post-office dates Its origin. In
the same year Bbenezer Hazard was ap-
pointed Postmaster-General. Under tiis ad-
ministration an American Atlantic service
was established and the domestic service
perfected and extended, until, at the end
of his term, 1789, there were eighty-five
post-offices in the country and 2,399 miles
of post-roads, the volume of business being
about 300,000 letters a year.
Up to this time the means of transporta-
tion had been almost entirely by horseback,
but an act of Congress of Sept. 6, 1785,
gave the Postmaster-General power to make
contracts for the transmission of mall by
stage-coach. After the establishment of the
Constitution, in 1789, the postal service was
for a time carried on under the direction
of the Treasury Department, although the
postal ordinance of 1782 remained in force
until 1792, when a new postal law reform-
ing the postage tariff was passed.
The law permanently and definitely estab-
lishing the Department was passed May 8,
1799. In 1810 the office of Second Assist-
ant Postmaster-General was created, a new
postage tariff (8 to 25 cents, according to
distances for single letters, and one cent
each for newspapers not going beyond the
State of publication) was established, and
the various post-routes connected In one
system. In 1811 the Department established
a service between I3altimore and Philadel-
phia in coaches owned by the Government,
and two years later the Postmaster-General
was authorized to make use of steamboats
in the transportation of mall.
The organic law of the Department was
again changed in 1825, provision being made
for the building of a General Post-Office at
the seat of Government, and the Postmas-
ter-General being given great powers In the
conduct and development of the service. In
1827 the salary of the Postmaster-General
was made $6,000 a year, the same as that
of heads of the other Executive Depart-
ments, and two years later he was called
to a seat in the Cabinet.
By the act of July 2, 1836 the accounting
was transferred to the Auditor of the Trea-
sury for the Post-Office Department, and It
was required that all revenues of the De-
partment be paid Into the United States
Treasury. Until the passage of this act all
postmasters had been appointed by the Post-
master-General, but from this time those
whose commissions amounted to $1,000 or
more a year were to be appointed by the
President, with the advice and consent of
the Senate, for a term of four years. The
four assistants are appointed in the same
way.
Railway mail service was authorized In
1838.
Postage rates were 'fixed on a weight
basis in 1845, but with distance limita-
tion (half ounce 800 miles, five cents).
Stamps were authorized in 1847. (See
Postage, Postage Stamps, Postage Rates).
Postal Savings Banks were authorized by
act of June 25, 1910, and the Parcel Post
began operations Jan. 1, 1913.
The money-order system was established
on May 17, 1864 ; and the special-delivery
system on Oct. 1, 1883.
The free rural-delivery system was be-
gun in 1897, and two years later the reg-
istry system was extended in cities so that
letters might be registered at the home of
the sender;
Airplane postal service between New York
and Washington, with stops at Philadelphia,
was inaugurated May 15, 1918. The air-
plane service was rapidly extended.
For more detailed ' information as to the
scope and activities of the Post-Office De-
The present extent and recent growth of the service is shown in the following table ;
Number
of Post-
Offices
Revenue of
the
Department
Expenditure
of the
Department
Amount Paid For —
Fiscal Years
Compenea-
tion to'
Postmasters
Transporta-
tion of
the Mail
1900
1901
190 '^
76,688
76,945
75,924
74,169
71,131
68,131
65,600
62,659
61,158
60,144
59,580
59,237
68,729
58,020
66,810
66,380
65,938
55,418
54,345
53,084
$102,354,679
111,631,193
121,848,047
134,224,443
143,582,624
152,826,685
187,932,782
183,586,005
191,478,663
203,562,383
224,128,657
237,879,823
246,744,015
266,619,525
287,934,565
287,248,165
312,057,688
329,726,116
388,975,962
436,239,126
$107,740,268
115,554,920
124,785,697
138,784,488
152,362,117
167,399,169
178,449,778
190,238,288
208,351,886
221,004,102
229,977,224
237,648,926
248,525,450
262,067,641
283,543,769
298,646,026
306,204,033
319,838,718
324,833,728
362,497,636
$19,112,097
19,949,614
20,783,919
21,631,724
22,273,344
22,743,342
23,544,585
24,575,696
25,699,397.
26,569,892
27,621,013
28,284,964
28,467,726
29,162,662
29,968,515
30,400,145
31,135,230
31,946,104
31,420,636
33,676,764
566,374,206
68,264,040
61,163,775
1903
65,321,711
1904
69,820,732
1905.
72,862,605
76,174,945
1907
81,090,849
81,381,421
1909
84,052,596
85,259,102
1911
88,068,922
89,164,811
1913
92,278,517
1914..
98,002,421
1915
1916
.04,701,200
102,189,229
1917
111,522,255
1919::::::::::
Post-office
Encyclopedic Index
Postage
partment consult the Index references to
the Presidents* Messages and Encyclopedic
articles under the following headings :
Division of Rural
Assistant Postmas-
ters-General.
City Delivery, Divi-
sion of.
Civil Service.
Division of Dead
Letters.
Division of Finance.
Division of Miscel-
laneous Transpor-
tation.
Division of Money
Orders.
Division of Railway
Adjustment.
Division of Regis-
tered Malls.
MaUs.
Division of Stamps,
Foreign Mall Service.
Mall Matter.
Parcel Post.
Postage Stamps.
Postal Conventions,
Postal Currency.
Postal Rates.
Postal Savings.
Postal Service.
Postmaster-General.
Post-Offlces.
Railway Mall Serv-
ice.
Star Routes.
Following Is a list of the Postmasters-
General and the Presidents under whom
they served :•
Fbebident
Washington
«
Adams. . . .
Jefferson. . .
Madison.. .
Monroe
a
J.Q. Adams
Jackson
Van Buren.
Harrison. . .
Tyler
Samuel Osgood, Massachusetta.
Timothy Pickering, Mass
Joseph Habersham, Georgia
Gideon Granger, Conneotiout . .
Return J. Meigs, Jr., Ohio
John McLean, Ohio. .
William T. Barw, Kentucky.
Amos Kendall, Kentucky.-. . .
John M. NUes, Connecticut. .
Francis Granger, New York* . ,
Polk
Taylor....
Fillmore. .
Pierce
Buchanan.
Lincoln. .
Johnson.
Grant. . .
Hayes. .
Garfield. .
Arthur. . .
Cleveland .
B. Harrison
Cleveland..
McKinley..
u
Roosevelt..
Taft
Wilson. .
Harding .
Postmaster-General
Charles A. Wickli£Fe, Kentuolgr .
Cave Johnson, Tenn^see
Jacob Collamer, Vermont
Nathan K. Hall, New York. . . .
S. D. Hubbard, Connecticut. . .
James Campbell, Pennsylvania .
Aaron V. Brown, Tennessee ....
Joseph Holt, Kentucky'.
Horatio King, Maine .*. . .
Montgomery Blair, Maryland . .
William Deanison, Ohio
Alex. W. Randall, Wisconsin
John A. J. Cresswell, Mai^yland. . .
James W. Marshall, Virginia
Marshall Jewell, Connecticut. . . .
James N. Tyner, Indiana
David McK. Key, Tennessee
Horace Maynard, Tennessee
Thomas L. James, New York
Timothy O. Howe, Wisconsin. . . .
Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana
Frank Hatton, Iowa
William F. Vilas, Wisconsin
Don M. Dickinson, Michigan. . . .
John Wanamaker, Pennsylvania . .
Wilson S. Bissell, New York
WilUam L. Wilson, West Vir-
ginia
James A. Gary, Maryland
Charles Emory Smith, Fenn . . .
U (I
Henry C. Payne, Wisconsin
Robert J. Wynne, Pennsylvania. . .
George B. Cortelyou, New York . .
George von L. Meyer, Mass....
Frank H. Hitchcock, Mass
Alberts. Burleson, Texas
Will H. Hays, Indiana.
a
1789
1791
1795
1897
1801
1801
1809
1814
1817
1823
1825
1829
1835
1837
1840
1841
1841
1841
1845
1849
18S0
1852
1853
1857
1859
1861
1861
1864
1865
1866
1869
1874
1874
1876
1877
1880
1881
1881
1883
1884
1885
1888
1889
1893
1895
1897
1898
1901
1901
1904
1905
1907
1909
1913
1921
*The Postmaster-General was not considered
% Cabinet officer until 1829.
Fost-Office Depaitment:
Act regarding post-office, vetoed,
4339.
Assistant in, recommended, 4938, 5102.
Building for. (See Post-Offiee Build-
ing-)
Clerks in, referred to, 3585.
Discussed. (See Postal Service dis-
CIlSRSd I
Funds of, deficit in, 1335, 2943, 3107.
Issuance of commissions to officials
by Postmaster-General, recommend-
ed, 4063, 4193.
Laws of, recommendations regarding,
784.
Reforms in, recommended, 6163.
Revenues and expenditures of —
Appropriation for, 2202, 2992.
Bill providing for, failure bf, to
pass, 3102.
Deficit turned into surplus in two
■ years, 7693.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 877, 929, 956, 985.
Arthur, 4639, 4728, 4769.
Buchanan, 2992, 3054, 3056, 3107.
Cleveland, 4d37, 6101, 5377, 5880,
5969, 6161.
Fillmore, 2625, 2670.
Grant, 3994, 4151, 4203, 4250,
4363.
Harrison, Benj., 5551, 5633, 5756,
Hayes, 4426, 4452, 4526, 4574.
Jackson, 1023, 1090, 1253, 1335,
1393, 1476.
Johnson, 3561, 3650, 3775, 3882.
Lincoln, 3252, 3332, 3386, 3450.
McKinley, 6335.
Monroe, 784, 827.
Pierce, 2748, 2822, 2872, 2943.
Polk, 2264, 2355, 2502.
Roosevelt, 6675, 6677, 6723, 6798,
6913, 7102.
Taft, 7433, 7525, 7693, 7732, 7733,
7814.
Tyler, 1902, 2056, 2202.
Van Buren, 1610, 1719, 1755, 1836.
Second class mail matter, report of
commission on, 7733.
Treasurer for, should be appointed,
1336.
Post-Offices:
Classification of fourth-class, recom-
mended, 6172.
Clerks in, legislation regarding clas-
sification of, recommended, 5378.
Consolidation of, 6164, 6172.
Number of, 784, 6344.
Increase in, 877, 933, 956, 985,
1610, 1719, 1755, 2355, 2035,
3670, 2992, 4303, 4574, 4769,
5376, 5756, 5881, 5971.
Post Roads. (See Mail Eoutes.)
Postage. — The price established by law to
be paid for the conveyance of a letter
or other mailable matter by a public post.
i-O
o
CO
O
s:?
q
tTi
p
n
U)
n
^*
o
O
n
D
T3
fD
»
?:?
1-1
3
3
1
r^
. ?3
a
3
<.
• ,g
^
;p
L
Postage
Encyclopedic Index
Postal
Rates of postage were fixed by the Con-
tinental Congress In 1789 as follows : Sin-
gle letters under 60 miles, 7.4 cents ; be-
tween 60 and 100 miles, 11.1 cents ; be-
tween 100 and 200 miles, 14.8 cents, and
3.4 cents for each additional 100 miles.
As early as 1794 a delivery system was
inaugurated, a fee of 2 cents being re-
quired for eacli letter delivered. In 1814
the rates of postage were increased by 50
per cent, but the old rate was restored in
1816. Mails were first carried on horse-
back, later by stage coach, and in 1834 by
railway. July 7, 1838, Congress declared
every railroad to be a mail route.
The free-delivery system was established '
in 1872 in cities of 50,000 population or
over, and in 1887 the system was extended.
Rural Free Delivery. — In 1896 the experi-
ment of free delivery in rural districts was
tried and proved to be a success ; since that
date the principle has been adopted and Is
being extended all over the country. (See
also Post-Offlce Department.)
The following table exhibits the growth
of the rural free delivery service in recent
ypars ;
1900
1901
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
19W
191 1
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Carriers
(Number)
148
1,276
4,301
15,119
24,566
32,055
35,318
37,582
39,143
40,499
40,997
41,559
42,199
42,805
43,652
43,710
42,766
43,338
43,338
43,210
Daily
Mileage
2,960
28,685
100,299
332,618
552,725
721,237
820,318
883,117
891.432
979,541
993,068
1,007,772
1,021,492
1,028,603
1,050,266
1,073,099
1,063,305
1,112,556
1,127,110
1,143,467
Annual
Cost
$50,241
420,433
1,750,321
8,051,699
12,645,275
20,864,885
25,011,625
26,661,555
34,371,039
35,661,034
36,914,769
37,125,630
41,859,422
45,642,766
47,377,070
60,000,000
61,952,326
52,423,090
62,195,848
65,448,230
r
Postage (see also Franking Privilege):
Census papers discussed, 654.
Increase in, recommended, 3056.
On census papers discussed, 654.
Reduction in —
Discussed, 2202, 2264, 2412, 2560,
2671, 2713, 2943, 4835, 4937, 5101.
Eecommended, 1476, 1836, 2503,
2560, 2625, 4728, 4769, 4836.
Eevenne derived from. (See Post-
Office Department, revenues, etc.,
of.)
Postage Stamps. — An official mark or
stamp affixed to or embossed on letters
sent through the mails as evidence of the
prepayment of postage. Adhesive stamps
were made as an experiment by James
Chalmers in his printing ofBce in Dundee
in 1834, but they were- not made public
till November, 1837. In February, 1837,
Sir Rowland Hill proposed a postage stamp
for prepayment of letter postage. In 1840
-Mnlready's envelope was Introduced, bear-
ing an allegorical design of England at-
tracting the commerce of the world, but
this was soon superseded by the adhesive
stamp. Local stamps were in use in va-
rious cities in the United States as early as
1842 — in New York, St. Louis, Baltimore,
and Brattleboro. By act of May 3, 1847,
the use of postage stamps was authorized,
and issues of 5 and 10 cent stamps were
made by the Government bearing, re-
spectively, designs of the heads of Frank-
lin and Washington, In 1851 three new
values were added — 1, 3, and 12 cents.
From this time till 1860 a complete series
was issued in values from 5 to 90 cents.
In 1869 a new series was brought out in
various designs, such as a horseman, a
locomotive, eagle, steamship, landing of
Columbus, Declaration of Independence,
heads of Franklin, Washington, and Lin-
coln. The series of 1870-72 bore heads of
Franklin, after Rupricht's bust; Jackson,
after Powers ; Washington, after the bust
by Houdon ; Lincoln, after Volk ; Stanton,
from a photograph ; Jefferson, after
Powers's statue ; Clay, after the bust
by Hart ; Webster, after the Clevenger
bust; Scott, after the bust by Coffee;
Hamilton, after Cerrachi ; and Perry, from
Wolcott's statue.
At the International Postal Conference
held at Berne, Switzerland, in 1874, the
Universal I'o.stal Union was formed, with
rates of 5 cents per half ounce on all let-
ters passing between the countries compos-
ing the union. In 1875 a 5-cent stamp was
Issued for this foreign service, bearing the
head of Jnckson. taken from a photograph,
and in 1882 another of the same value'
with the he.id of Garfield. Stamped en-
velopes were issued in 1852 and postal
cards in 1872.
Postal Congress, International, at—
Berne, 4250. '
Lisbon, 4938.
Paris, 3387.
New convention adopted by, 4453.
Washington, 6164.
Postal Conventions.— At t)ie instance of
Montgomery Blair, Postmaster-General of
the United States, an international confer-
ence of postal delegates was held at Paris
in May and June, 1803. Hon. John a'
Kasson represented the United States. The
objects of the conference were to facilitate
postal intercourse between nations and to
inaugurate a general system of uniform in-
ternational charges at .reduced rates of
postage and to form the basis of future
conferences. President Johnson, iu bis third
annual message of Dee. 3, 1867 (page
3775), reported the ratification of postal
conventions with Great Britain, Belgium
the Netherlands, Switzerland, the North
German Union, Italy, and the colonial gov-
ernment of Hong Kong, largely reducing
the rates of ocean and land postage to
and from and within those countries.
In October, 1874, the general postal union
at Berne, Switzerland, reduced international
letter postage generally to five cents per half
ounce. A third convention for a Universal
??lo^' ■.^'"S\ "'^^ signed at Paris, June 1,
1878 by Jo'hn N. Tyner and Joseph H.
Blackfan on behalf of the United States.
1000 P°^t^' congress at Lisbon in April,
1886, confirmed the International rate of
five cents per half ounce for prepaid letters
and two cents for postal cards. The next
congress was held at Vienna in 1891, Presi-
."A."?,'"'^ save a good idea of the extent
of the Postal Convention in his second an-
nual message of Dec. 2, 1878 (page 4453).
The rate of postage or letters to foreign
countries now Is five cents for the first
ounce or less (each additional ounce three
cents), except Great Britain, Germany,
Postal
Encyclopedic Index
Postal Savings
Canada, Cuba and Mexico, where the rate
Is two cents.
Postal Conventions:
Discussed, 3387, 4152, 4938.
Embarrassment arising under, re-
ferred to, 4453.
With—
Bahama Islands, 5377.
Barbados, 5377.
Belgium, 3775, 3883, 4203.
Canada, 4836, 5377.
China, 4775.
Costa Eica, 3284.
France, 4250.
Germany, 3775, 3883, 4203.
Great Britain, 2528, 2560, 2724,
3650, 3775, 3833, 3883.
Honduras, 5377.
Italy, 3775, 3883.
Japan, 4203.
Mexico, 3235, 3264, 5377.
Eatification of, referred to, 3274.
Netherlands, 3775, 3883.
New South Wales, 4882.
Newfoundland, 4203.
Sweden and Norway, 4203.
Switzerland, 3775, 3883, 4250.
Postal Crimes:
Act relating to, etc., returned, 5204.
In Canal Zone, order relating to, 7964.
Postal Currency. — During the Civil War,
when silver became very scarce, a substi-
tute for fractional ciu^rency was Invented
by Gen. Spinner, United States Treasurer
under President Lincoln. It consisted of
postage stamps pasted upon paper used
for Government securities and representing
different sums. These pieces of paper
were circulated among tne clerks of the
Department and became for a while the
medium of exchange In a small way.
Postal Deposits in Canal Zone, interest
rate fixed on, 8140.
Postal Matter, abuse of classification
of, 6675.
Postal Notes. (See Money-Order Sys-
tem.)
Postal Savings Banks. — To encourage
people of small means to deposit their sav-
ings where they would be immediately
available in emergency, and at the same
time be secure from misappropriation while
earning a small interest, postal savings
banks have been established in most other
progressive countries, and in the United
States the question was long discussed be-
fore being put In operation.
Post-office savings banks were established
in England in 1861 to meet the growing
wants of the people for a secure and con-
venient place of deposit for savings.
Congress appropriated $100,000, June 25,
1910, to start the postal savings system,
and named as trustees the Postmaster-Gen-
eral, the Secretary of the Treasury, and
the Attorney-General. On Jan. 2, 1911, a
selected post-offlce in each of the forty-
eight states was prepared to accept deposits.
(See Banks, Postal Savings.)
An act of Congress approved June 25.
1910, authorized the establishment of postal
savings depositary offices, created a hoard
of trustees, consisting of the Postmaster-
General, the Secretary of the Treasury, and
the Attorney-General, with power to desig-
nate such post offices as they may select
to be postal savings depositary offices.
Changes were made in the laws regulat-
ing postal savings until by 1921 the follow-
ing regulations pertaining to postal savings
were In effect :
The limit of an Individual deposit has
been increased from $1,000 to $2,500. No
sum of less than $1 will be accepted for a
deposit. Interest is allowed at the rate of
2 per cent. An account may be opened and
deposits made by any person of the age of
10 years or over, in his or her own name,
and by a married woman In her own name
and free from any control or interference by
her husband. Deposits will be accepted only
from individuals. No account will be opened
in the name of any corporation, association,
society, firm, or partnership, in the name
of any person as an officer of a corporation,
association, or society, in the name of any
person as a member of a firm or partner-
ship, or in the name of two or more persons
jointly. No account will be opened In the
name of one person in trust for or on behalf
of another person or persons.
A person may open a postal savings
account at any depository post-offlce, but no
person may at the same time have more than
one postal savings account either at the
same office or at different offices. Amounts
less than %1 may be saved by purchasing lO-
cent postal savings cards and 10-cent postal
savings stamps. A postal savings card with
9 postal savings" stamps affixed will be
accepted as a deposit of $1 either in opening
an account or in adding to an existing
account, or it may be redeemed In cash.
Postal savings cards ^ and stamps are not
valid for postage, and postmasters will not
give them In exchange for postage stamps,
nor give postage stamps In exchange for
postal savings cards and stamps. Deposits
are evidenced by postal savings certificates
issued in fixed denominations of $1, $2, $5,
$10, $20, $50, $100, $200, and $500, each
bearing the name of the depositor, the num-
ber of his account, the date of issue, the
name of the deposltoir office, and the date
on which interest begins.
The following table shows the growth of
the postal savings system of the United
States, the figures being for June of the
several years, except for 1911, when the
first figures are for January, the postal sav-
ings system getting into operation in that
month :
Year
De posiioTies^
Depositors
Deposits
1911...
48
$ 60,101
1911...
400
iV.gis
571,671
1912...
10,170
243,801
18,586,042
1913. . .
12,820
331,006
31,512,337
1914...
10,347
388,511
40,919,673
1915...
9,546
525,414
60,086,319
1916...
8,421
602,937
80,775,586
1917. ..
7,161
674,728
126,840,820
1918. . .
6,666
612,188
140,658,608
1919...
6,439
565,-509
135,942,981
As will be seen, the average principal per
depositor Increased from $56.82 in 1911,
through $111.82 in 1915, to $295.88 in
1919.
Postal savings certificates are not trans-
ferable or negotiable. A depositor may
exchange the whole or any part of his de-
posits for registered or coupon United
States postal savings bonds, issued In de-
nomlnaflons of $20, $100, and $500, bearing
Interest at the rate of 2% per cent, per
annum, payable semi-annually, redeemable at
Postal Savings
Encyclopedic Index
Postal Service
the pleasure of the United States after one
year from date of issue, and payable 20
years from such date. Both principal and
interest is payable In United Stalies gold
coin. The bonds are tax-free. The exchange
may be made as of January 1 and July 1
of each year.
Postal Savings Banks:
Kecommeuded by President —
Arthur, 4639.
Grant, 4152, 4204.
Hayes, 4574.
Eoosevelt, 7102, 7226, 7346.
Taft, 7373, 7434, 7525.
Statistics of, 7814.
Three months of experiment, 7693.
Postal Service. — The first mention of a
postal service in the United States is that
of the General Court of Massachusetts in
1G39 ; "It is ordered that notice be given
that Richard Fairbanks, his house in Boston
is the place apoointed for all letters which
are brought from beyond the seas, or are
to be sent thither to be left with him, and
he is to take care that they are to be
delivered or sent according to the direc-
tion. And he is allowed for every letter
a penny, and must answer all miscarriages
through his own neglect in this kind." Out
of this humble beginning grew the present
Post-Office Department whose operations for
a recent fiscal year may be thus summarized
in tabular form :
Total Revenues $ 436,239,126
Money-Order Revenue . . . 8,530,512
Postal Savings Revenue. . 1,939,413
Total Expenditures 362,497,636
Excess of Revenue over Ex-
penditure 73,741,490
Excess due to War Revenue
Rates 71,392,000
Actual Postal Surplus 2,349,490
Sales of stamps, postals, etc. 392,991,168
Second-Class Postage 16,059,248
Third and Fourth Class
Postage 10,458,300
Cost of services in Post-
Offlcos 185,837,306
Cost of Railway Mail Serv-
ice 32,899,147
Cost of Rural Free Delivery 65,145,437
Cost of transporting mail. . 78,441,541
Postal Savings Depositors,
No 565,509
Postal Savings Deposits $ 135,942,981
Domestic Money Orders : —
No. Issued 131,896,880
Amount Issued $ 1,109,612,850
Fees Received 8,637,064
International Money Orders : —
No. Issued 2,477,899
Amount Issued $ 39,766,077
Fees Received 345,860
Lbs. Second Class Matter
Mailed 1,182,297,966
No. Pieces Registered Mail. 65,373,394
Amount Collected for Regis-
tering $ 5,453,978
Insured Parcel Post Pieces
No 69,997,889
Fees Collected for Insurance $ 4,453,886
Collect on Delivery Pieces,
No 14,383,668
Pees Collected for C. 0. D.. .$ 1,473,960
Special Delivery Pieces Sent 58,544,887
Extent of Post Routes, Miles 455,498
Miles of Mail Service Per-
formed 624,731,638
Postage Stamps Issued 15,020,470,168
Stamped Envelopes and
Wrappers Issued 1,844,884,905
Postal Cards Issued 456,924,490
Dead Letters Received 22,982,605
No. Pieces all Kinds Mall
Handled (Estimated for
1913) 18,567,445,160
City Delivery Offices 2,018
City Delivery Carriers 35,024
Cost City Delivery Service.. $ 59,527,296
Rural Delivery Carriers.... 43,210
Rural Delivery Mileage 1,143,487
Cost Rural Delivery $ 65,448,230
Motor Trucks in Service... 1,518
Post-Offlces, Presidential 10,825
First Class 665
Second Class 2,539
Third Class 7,621
Post-Offlces, Fourth Class.. 42,259
jpQof- gi S6rvic6 •
Abuses of, discussed, 4640, 4730, 5970,
6162.
Civil Service in (see also Railway
Mail Service) —
Discussed, 5972, 6172.
Established in first-, second-, third-
class postofaees, 8225, 8964.
Exception in, 8875.
Extension of, urged, 7526, 7732,
7739.
Local postoffiees should be included
under, 7739.
Postmasters should all be under,
7814.
Communication with Santiago, Cuba,
order regarding, 6577.
Consolidation of post-ofSees recom-
mended, 6164, 6172.
Correspondence with foreign coun-
tries, security required in, 1477.
Deficit in, should be reduced by in-
creasing second-class mail rates,
7433, 7528.
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 877, 929, 956, 985.
Arthur, 4639, 4728, 4769, 4835.
Buchanan, 2992, 3056, 3101, 3107,
3184.
Cleveland, 4937, 5100, 5376, 5880,
5970, 6161.
Fillmore, 2625, 2670, 2713.
Grant, 3994, 4063, 4103, 4151, 4203,
4250, 4305, 4363.
Harrison, Benj., 5478, 5551, 5559,
5633, 5756.
Hayes, 4426, 4452, 4526, 4573.
Jackson, 1023, 1089, 1168, 1252,
1335, 1393, 1476.
Johnson, 3561, 3650, 3775, 3882.
Lincoln, 3252, 3332, 3386, 3450.
McKinley, 6344, 6386.
Monroe, 784, 824.
Pierce, 2748, 2822, 2872, 2943.
Polk, 2264, 2355, 2412, 2502.
Roosevelt, 6677, 6723, 6798, 6913,
7102.
Taft, 7433, 7525, 7693, 7732, 7733,
7814.
Taylor, 2559.
Tyler, 1902, 1941, 2056, 2123, 2202.
Van Buren, 1610, 1719, 1755, 1835
Washington, 58, 75, 99, 120, 124.
Postal Service
Encyclopedic Index
Postal Service
Employees in —
Continuity of service for efficient,
urged, 7526.
Number of, 6344.
Expenditures for. (See Post-Offlee
Department.)
Foreign postal arrangements and
routes referred to, 2175, 2411, 2413,
2428, 2502, 2560, 2697, 2724, 3332,
3565, 3586, 3650, 3883, 4151, 4203,
4522, 4640, 4938, 5101, 5559, 5634.
Foreign, unsatisfactory nature of,
7107.
Franking system embarrasses, 7527.
(See also Franking Privilege.)
Frauds in, discussed, 4640, 4730.
Free-delivery System —
Discussed and recommendations re-
garding, 4204, 4769, 4836, 4937,
5103, 5376, 5756, 5881, 5971,
6451.
Extension of to towns of 5,000
population recommended, 5633.
Growth of, 6677, 6724, 6913.
In Spanish-American War discussed,
6344.
Inadequate facilities extended rural
communities discussed and recom-
mendations regarding, 5633.
Inspector service, recommendations
regarding, 6163.
Interference with, by Entente Allies,
8165.
Mail-
Communication with Australia, rec-
ommendations regarding, 5559.
Depredations on, allowance to wit-
nesses in eases of prosecution
referred to, 1756.
Import duty on foreign, recom-
mended, 4527.
Modification of law regulating
rates upon second-class matter
recommended, 5970, 6162.
Publications for instigating slaves
to insurrection sent through, dis-
cussed, 1394.
Mail routes. (See Mail ^Routes.)
Mail transportation —
Act making appropriations for
transportation by steamers and
otherwise vetoed, 2855.
Annual cost of, 2670, 2823, 2872,
3056, 4151, 4250.
Between Atlantic and Pacific dis-
cussed, 2901, 3127, 3184.
Between Washington and New
Orleans, irregularity of, referred
to, 2883.
Cost of, to Pacific coast, etc., re-
ferred to, 4077.
Fraudulent bonds accompanying
bids and contracts for, 4655.
Joint resolution in regard to carry-
ing mail from St. Joseph, Mo., to
Placerville, Cal., reasons for ap-
plying pocket veto to, 3073.
Laws to prevent transmission of
lottery advertisements discussed
and recommendations regarding,
5479, 5515, 5551.
Legislation to protect, recom-
mended, 4081.
Money-order system discussed, 985,
4639, 4937, 5377, 5756, 5881, 5971.
Money orders, international, dis-
cussed, 5881, 5971.
Ocean mail post-ofiSce, establishment
of, discussed, 5633.
Penalties extended to Canal Zone,
7964.
Penn Yan, N. Y., agent to take
charge of post-oflaee at, referred to,
3799.
Post routes. (See Mail Routes.)
Postal notes. (See Money-Order-Sys-
tem, ante,')
Postal treaties. (See Postal Conven-
tions.)
Bailway —
Authority to compel railroads to
carry mail recommended, 5378.
Compensation for —
■ Change in, recommended, 3994.
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 5100.
Taft, 7815.
Exorbitant, 1393, 1941, 2748. '
Eeduetion of, 4527.
Should be regulated by Congress,
1394, 1941. '
Contracts demand attention of Con-
gress, 1476, 1720, 1756, 2943.
Contracts for, should be made by
Postmaster-General on equitable
basis, J476.
Discussed. (See Postal Service
discussed.)
Bailway Mail Service. (See Railway
Mail Service.)
Reforms in, accomplished, 7526.
Registry system discussed, 4639.
Report on, 7693.
Rural service of, 6677, 6724, 6798.
Second-class mail matter —
Laws regarding should be changed
5970, 6162. ■
Rates of, should be increased, 7433,
7528.
Report of commission on, 7733.
Special delivery stamps —
Discussed, 5881, 5971.
Recommended, 4836.
Star routes —
Decrease in, referred to, 4639.
Fraudulent bids referred to, 4655.
Increase in, recommended, 4527.
Prosecution of frauds in service,
4640, 4730.
Postal Service
Encyclopedic Index
Potato
steamboat —
Discussed, 3650, 4640.
Eeferred to, 1756.
Steamship —
Advertisements issued for lines of,
5634.
American vessels compelled to
carry mail discussed, 4832.
Between TJnited States and Brazil
referred to, 3565, 3586, 4522.
Contracts for, referred to, 2502,
4938, 5757, 5971.
Differences with companies dis-
cussed, 5101. /
Discussed, 5634, 5757.
Establishment of lines of, recom-
mended, 2203, 4574, 5492, 5757.
Expenses of, referred to, 2611, 2748,
4151, 4640.
Extension of, act of, urged, 7108.
Lines, establishment of, 7231.
Post-offices established on, 5633.
Service, discussed, 6788.
Should be extended to South Ameri-
can and Pacific foreign ports,
7231. ..
Special grants to, recommended,
3450.
Subsidies to, 4306.
Views of Postmaster-General re-
garding, 3561.
Union of telegraph system and, dis-
cussed. (See Telegraph Lines,
Government control of.)
Unit of weight in rating first-class
matter discussed, 4836.
Unlawful publications, prohibited
from osing, 1394.
Postal Treaties. (See Postal Conven-
tions.)
Postal TTnion, International (see also
Postal Congress, International) :
Convention for establishment of,
4250.
Postal Union, Universal, discussed,
4574, 4640, 5971, 6164.
Fostmaster-General. — ^The head of the
Post-Offlce Department, and as such the
director of tbe entire postal service of the
country. The postmaster-general has been
a member of the Cabinet since 1829, and
Ms salary Is $12,000 a year. By act of
.Tune 8, 1872, his tenure of office is during
the term of the President by whom he is
appointed and for one month thereafter, un-
less removed with the advice and consent of
the Senate. His powers over his department
are particularly untramelled and broad. He
appoints all the important officers in his de-
partment, except the assistant postmasters-
general (q. V.) and the purchasing agent,
who are appointed by the President. He
makes the contracts with railroad lines,
steamship companies and other agents of
transportation for the conveyance of the
mails ; and concludes postal contracts with
otber countries, although tbese latter must
receive the approval of the President. He
adds new post-offices to the list and aban-
dons old ones, according to his judgment;
and his discretion is the sole factor in en-
larging or contracting tbe postal system In
its various details. (See Post-Offlce Depart-
ment.)
Postmaster-General :
Censorship administration during
World War assigned to, 8371.
Disclaims any intended disrespect in
communication to Senate, 1745.
Post-office building report of, recom-
mending erection of, 1483.
Postmasters appointed by, referred
to, 2571.
Report of, recommending erection of
new post-office building, 1483.
Eeport for year ended June 30, 1911,
773L
Postmasters:
Amount due from, 784.
Appointment of, by Postmaster-Gen-
eral, referred to, 2571.
Appointments of, referred to, 2008.
Assistants more efficient in classified
service, 7732.
Civil Service requirements fixed for
appointments of first, second and
third class, 8225, 8964.
Exception in, 8875.
Classification of fourth-class, dis-
cussed and recommendations re-
garding, 6172, 7102.
Compensation to, discussed, 784, 2943,
4363, 5377.
Interference with, discussed, 4363,
5550.
Relative merit of, plan to indicate,
recommended, 5479, 5489.
Potato. — The so-called Irish potato is na-
tive to tbe west coast of South America,
and is said to have been introduced into
Ireland by Sir Walter Raleigh, who grew
the roots on his large estate in County Cork.
Though now so universal an article of food
it was scarcely known prior to the 17th
century, and was not generally cultivated
until the middle of the 18th.
The estimated acreage, production in
bushels and farm value on December 1 of
tbe potato crop in the United States, ex-
clusive of sweet potatoes, for recent years
are as follows :
Year
Acreage
1866, . .
1885. . .
1900. . .
1910...
1915, . .
1,069,000
2,266,000
2,611,000
3,720,000
3,734,000
1917. . .
1918...
1919...
1920. . .
4,384,000
4,295,000
4,013,000
3,849,000
Bushels
107,201,000
148,290,000
210,927,000
349,032,000
359,721,000
Farm Value
S 50,723.000
78,153,000
90,811,000
194,566,000
221,992,000
442,108,000 542,774,000
411,860,000 491,527,000
357,901,000 577,581,000
430,458,000
The production in bushels and value of
the potato crop in our lending potato-pro-
ducing states in 1919 are shown in the
™J?,S'thr"^g- ^H "SU'^^s *»'• tbe potato
crop of the other states are given separately
under the headings of the states.
Potato
Encyclopedic Index
Powers, Foreign
Stale
California. . .
Colorado
Illinois
Kentucky. . .
Maine
Michigan. . .
Minnesota. .
Missouri
Bushels lvalue
11,352,000 519,412,000
11,040,000 18,768,000
8,060,000 15,798,000
5,040,000 10,584,000
2-1,480,000 34,272,000
28,688,000 38,729,000
26,100,000 .39,933,000
8,250,000 15,180,000
6,325,000 12,018,000
10,560,000 17,846,000
39,567,000 57,372,000
9,300,000 17,856,000
25,400,000 39,166,000
11,495,000 18,047,000
7,250,000 10,512.000
28,200,000 39,480,000
The acreage, bushels produced and yield
per acre of the great potato-producing
countries of the world in a recent year are
given by the Department of Agriculture as
follows :
Per
Acre*
95.0
Nebraska
New Jersey. . .
New York. . .
Ohio ..
Penns.vlvania. .
Virginia
Washington. . .
■ Wisconsin. ...
145.6
122.2
116.3
205.7
i67'.9
222.8
Country Acreage Bushels
United States . . .4,210,000 400,106,000
Canada 713,000 102,189,000'
Austria^) 3,105,000 466,485,000
Hungary(B) 1,521,000 180,103,000
France(*) 2,884,000 228,443,000
GermanvM) 6,740,000 1,082,816,000
Netherlands 405,000 123,978,000
Russia proper(i:).5,879,000 662,169,000
Poland(^S) 2,628,000 373,917,000
tfnited I^ng-
rio m 1,505,000 334,336,000
England 597,000 148,848,000
Ireland 70^000 144,230,000
(a)Average for the five years, 1909-1913.
(&)Pre-\var boundaries. (c)The yield per
acre is for European Russia. ((t) Pre-war
boundaries ; the bushels produced are ex-
clusive of Alsace-Tjorraine. •Except for the
United State.'?, the yield per' acre Is in terms
of bushels of 60 pounds.
Potomac, The, instructions given com-
mander of, at Sumatra, 1138. ■
Potomac River:
Bridges over, in District of Columbia.
(See District of Columbia.)
Improvement of, recommended, 4430,
4458, 4532, 4579, 4651.
Bill for, submitted, 4533.
Lands lying on, referred to, 128.
Pottawatomie Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Pottery Industry. — The growth of this
ancient industry in the United States was
due to the immigration hither of skilled pot-
ters and workmen from England. In 1685,
Governor Coxe of New Jersey established
the first pottery In this country, at Burling-
ton, New Jersey, and others were established
from time to time. In 1850, 484 potteries
were reported in the United States. Until
the twentieth century, however, it was
necessary to import for the industry here
skilled potters from abroad, mostly from
England, and even up to the outbreak of the
World War it was often necessary to get
managers from England.
The industry for the manufacture of
tableware, etc., got its start in Trenton,
which until recently remained the centre
for this branch of the pottery Industry.
In 1910, there were 30,000 persons en-
faged In the pottery Industry in the United
tates, not Including brick, tllfe, terra cotta
or other clay industries.
The value of the products in the last nor-
mal year before the advent of abnormal war
coi^dltlons was $37,992,375. This figure al-
most doubled before the end of the World
War.
In 1912, 42%% of the products came
from Ohio and 24%% from New Jersey;
and these two states, together with West
Virginia, New York, Pennsylvania and In-
diana produced 92% of the total value of
the product. White earthenware, of which
70% is produced in Ohio, represents about
40% of the total value of the pottery
industry.
In a more recent year, there were re-
ported to the Census 48 potteries with 4.'i3
kilns. Of these, 4, with 37 kilns, manu-
factured American vitreous china.
For 44 of these potteries, using 416
kilns, the net value of the annual product
in a recent year was $128,00,0,000. The
value of the investment of the 32 of the
potteries which gave figures under this
head was $94,000,000.
In earthenware establishments, 24% of
the cost of production is for materials ; 59 %
for labor; 8% for kiln fuel; 2% for power,
heat and light ; and 7 % for general expenses
and fixed charges.
Of the workers, 81% are male and 19%
female.
Poultry Dealers licensed, 8498.
Powder, Smokeless:
Adoption of, recommended, 6128.
Development of, 5759.
Powers, Foreign (see also the several
powers):
Claims against, referred to, 306S,
3067.
Claims of, arising out of War be-
tween the States discussed, 3328,
4086.
Collection of commercial relations of,
referred to, 632, 775.
Commerce of. (See Commerce of
JPoreign Powers.)
Commerce with. (See Commerce.)
Duties levied by, export, referred to
and recommendation, 4744.
Expeditions against —
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4640.
Buchanan, 2978, 2997, 3180.
Fillmore, 2643, 2649, 2697.
Jefferson, 394, 395, 400, 417.
Johnson, 3655, 3658.
Monroe, 582, 583, 590, 592, 601,
609, 620, 769.
Pierce, 2741, 2779.
Polk, 2455.
Taylor, 2549, 2585.
Van Buren, 1616. i
, Washington, 146.
Proclamations against, by Presi-
dent—
Buchanan, 3027.
Cleveland, 6023, 6126.
Fillmore, 2647, 2648.
Grant, .4039, 4045.
Jefferson, 392.
Johnson, 3631.
Madison, S46.
Powers, Foreign
Encyclopedic Index
Preparedness
Pierce, 2804, 2805, 2921.
Taylor, 2555.
Tyler, 1910.
Washington, 149.
Explosives, order to prevent shipment
of, abroad, 4815.
Export duties levied by, referred to,
4744.
Imprisonment of American citizens
by. (See Imprisonment.)
linprisonment of citizens of, by
United States/ (See the several
powers.)
Intermeddling of, with Indians re-
ferred to, 1728.
Ministers of, to United States. (See
the several powers.)
- Ministers of the United States to.
(See Ministers of United States.)
Neutral rights of. (See Neutral
Eights.)
Peace with, should not be interfered
with by American citizens, 120.
Relations with, referred to, 3285.
Eevenues and finances of, referred to,
3272.
Subjects of, in United States. (See
Aliens; Naturalized Citizens.)
Treaties with, referred to, 2538, 3888,
4851. (See also the several
powers.)
Vessels of United States seized by
authorities of. (See Vessels, United
States.)
Powers of Federal and State Govem-
m^ts discussed by President —
Arthur, 4707, 4771, 4808.
Buchanan, 2962, 2981, 3028, 3074,
3084, 3130, 3139, 3145, 3150, 3157,
3168, 3186.
Cleveland, 4960, 4992, 4996, 5142,
5363, 5412, 5422, 5924, 6070, 6109.
Fillmore, 2626.
Grant, 3992, 4126, 4170, 4196, 4259.
Harrison, Benj., 5489, 5562, 5766.
Hayes, 4445, 4466, 4475, 4484, 4488,
4493, 4497, 4512, 4543, 4544, 4553.
Jackson, 1014, 1024, 1046, 1071, 1077,
1082, 1120, 1141, 1201, 1224, 1275,
1288, 1337, 1351, 1395, 1450.
Jefferson, 397, 444.
Johnson, 3551, 3570, 3593, 3596, 3603,
3611, 3620, 3643, 3670, 3681, 3687,
3690, 3696, 3729, 3734, 3756, 3766,
3781, 3820, 3837, 3844, 3846, 3848,
3849, 3870, 3889.
Lincoln, 3206, 3221, 3269, 3274, 3286,
3335.
Madison, 474, 475, 540, 569.
Monroe, 587, 711, 713.
Pierce, 2751, 2755, 2780, 2789. 2790,
2855, 2874, 2919, 2920, 2921, 2930.
Polk, 2310, 2456, 2460, 2490, 2506.
Tyler, ]9]6, 1921, 1941, 2036, 2043,
2183.
Washington, 186.
Wilson, 7875.
Prairie Gro^e (Ark.), Battle of.— Sept.
19, 1862, President Lincoln directed that
Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and the east-
ern portion of Indian Territory should con-
stitute the Department of the Missouri, to
be commanded by Brig. -Gen. Samuel R. Cur-
tis. The only important engagement that
occurred in this department while Curtis
was in command was at Prairie Grove, Ark.
The Confederate General Thomas C. Hind-
-man was on his way north into Hissoui'i
with a large force when, on Dec. 7, 1862,
he encountered the united forces of Gen-
erals James G. Blunt and Francis J. Her-
ron. During the engagement which ensued
the Federals lost 1,148 and the Confeder-
ates, 1,317. The latter retired during the
night.
Prayer, Days of. (See Pasting and
Prayer, and Thanksgiving Proclama-
tions.)
Predatory Wealth, acts of representa-
tives of, 7135.
Preemption Laws.— The first law regulat-
ing the preemption of and payment for pub-
lic lands was passed Marcli 3, 1801. It was
a special act affecting the Symmes colo-
nization scheme on the Miami River. A
number of preemption laws were passed,
most of them of a more or less special na-
ture. The first general law was passed in
1830. The law of 1841 granted. In consid-
eration of residence and improvement, free-
dom of entry upon 160 acres of public lands
to any person over twenty-one years of age ;
twelve to thirty-three months were allowed
for payment, and the cmount to be paid va-
ried with the situation and value of the
tract preempted. (See Lands, Public.)
Preemption Laws:
Discussed, 1713, 1753, 3651, 4064, 5484.
Eecommended, 1606, 2259.
Amendments to law recommended,
2408, 2500.
Eepeal of preemption act recom-
mended, 4770, 4837, 5107.
Preparedness. — The movement for ade-
quate protection on land and sea against
war which arose as a result of the World
War. For years, there had been certain
elements in American life urging the need
for a larger navy and a larger army, and
also universal military training ; but these
received little popular support until the
danger of America's entrance into the war
in Europe became pressing.
The traditional first line of defence of
the United States lay in its Xnvy, so that
it was natural that Preparedness looked
toward an extensive Increase in our lantl
forces. The unwieldiness and the lack of
centralized authority in the National Guard,
so far ag availability for Federal purposes
was concerned, were well revealed by the
mobilization of troops on the Mexican bor-
der in 1916. (See Mexico.) The smashing
victories of the Teutonic armies early in the
European War could be explained only bv
the attention long paid military prepared-
ness tiy Germany, while the same explana-
tion arose for the sturdy resistance of the
French and the Immediate and complete
domination of the English Navy over all the
seas. On the other band, the length of time
Preparedness
Encyclopedic Index
Preparedness
taken by England to get her land flghtlng-
machine under way, despite the most earnest
efforts, proved the weakness of a country
which waited until thfe declaration of war In
order to prepare.
As the danger of America being plunged
.ii)to the European vortex daily became more
acute, the Preparedness movement also de-
voted itself largely to the question of mak-
ing our Navy better available for service.
The prominent part played by submarines
and aeroplanes in the European War had
almost revolutionized naval tactics, and
grave doubts arose whether our navy, de-
spite its strength, was sufficiently prepared
in the newer fields of naval activities.
Preparedness became almost the leading
subject of discussion in private so well as In
public gatherings all over the United States.
The resignation of Secretary of War Garri-
son on Feb. 10, 1016, because of a difference
of opinion with President Wilson concerning
the federalization of the National Guard,
created intense excitement ; and the country
was virtually divided into "two camps on the
issue Involved. Many new organizations
such as the National Security League and
National Defense Society were created in
order to assist the preparedness movement,
while organizations like the Navy League
redoubled their efforts for naval Prepared-
ness. Mass-meetings and parades were held
all over the United States in support of
Preparedness, and there were few meetings
of public or semi-public bodies In which the
subject was not discussed. An idea of the.
amount of interest involved may be gathered
from the fact that the great Preparedness
Parade held In New York on May 13, 1916
took 12 hours to pass a given point, and
consisted of no less than 125,683 men and
women marching in support of the cause.
Preparedness became a political event of
the first magnitude, not only in the national
election of 1916, but also in state and
municipal elections.
On the other hand, the opponents of Pre-
paredness were by no means few or Inactive.
To some extent, the opposition came from
citizens and non-citizens of Teutonic de-
scent, called in this crisis, fairly or unfairly,
German-Americans (q. v.) ! but the majority
of the opponents, although not necessarily
those most active in the propaganda against
Preparedness, were Americans sincerely con-
vinced that Perparedness was the first step
towards a war which they wished to avoid.
The Women's Peace Party, the Emergency
Peace Federation, and the Union Against
Militarism were particularly active. The
position taken by them and by their sup-
porters was that the European conflict arose
irom the fact the countries of Europe had
l>een prepared for it. They asserted further-
more that by resorting to Preparedness
America was betraying the Interests of
peace, and was abandoning the position
which would logically accrue to her after
the war was over as the nation which had
shown by her record that she, and she alone,
could be entrusted to lead the warring na-
tions to a new and perpetual peace. It was
claimed, in addition, that America was
geographically not Involved in a European
quarrel, and that her geographical position
made aggression against her an impossi-
bility.
On October 6, 1915, In a speech in New
York, President Wilson definitely committed
himself to the Preparedness program ; and
his administration devoted Itself to having
•enacted many measures carrying out the
Preparedness idea. The army re-organiza-
tion act, approved on June 3, 1916, made
new and elaborate increases in the army of
the United States, and attention was paid
also to strengthening the Navy. Numerous
administrative changes in behalf of prepar-
edneBS, such as the organization of new
boards for Industrial and scientific integra-
tion and preparedness, were made ; but even
with all this preparation, when the United
States finally entered the conflict on April
6, 1917, she was still only partially prepared
to assume her burden of the conflict; and
many months elapsed in the formation and
completion of the plans necessary to place a
strong American army on the battlefields of
Europe. There was strong criticism of the
Wilson administration for not having pre-
pared more adequately for American partic-
ipation in the World War, after the partic-
ipation was an actual fact ; and that criti-
cism was used with great effect by the Re-
publican Party in the national elections
of 1918 and more particularly in the Pres-
idential election of 1920. After the con-
summation of peace with Germany, the
movement for universal military training
persisted, but lost some of Its strength ; so
that bills introduced to that end failed
to pass the Sixty-Sixth Congress.
An Illustration of President Wilson ad-
dressing Congress in behalf of Prepared-
ness will be found opposite page S028.
Preparedness:
America not to be turned into an
armed camp, 8021.
' Armed neutrality, powers for, asked,
8021.
Army (see also Army) —
Increase in —
Ordered, 8172.
Eecommended, 8106.
Citizen army, outlines of, 8084.
Adequacy of, 8105, 8022.
Statistics of, 8106.
Diplomacy ineffective without, 7372.
Navy the natural means for defence.
8022. (See also Navy.)
Policy of President —
Eoosevelt, 6666, 6669, 6721, 6805,
6992, 6999, 7066, 7109, 7117.
Taft, 7371, 7514.
Washington, 57, 132, 193, 210.
Wilson, 8021.
Principles of, 8020, 8302.
PreparedoeSB Societies. — (See Prepared-
ness.) Among the many societies called into
existence by or aiding in the Preparedness
movement in this country may be mentioned
the following : The Navy League, the first
preparedness society, with 330.000 members
In 1917, which was organized in 1902, to
assist in the enactment of laws constantly
making for the increased efficiency of the
Navy, until it becomes the greatest navy in
the world ; The Army League, which is or-
ganized to promote interest in and legisla-
tion for the increased efficiency of the Army ;
The Universal Military Training League,
organized for the establishment of Compul-
sory Military Service (q. v.) and of a Na-
tional Defense Commission ; the National
Security League, which was organized on
Dec. 1, 1917, and had an enrollment of 100,-
000 members in its program for Increased
military preparation for the United States :
the American Rights Committee, organized
to end the violation of American rights on
the high seas. All these bodies were repre-
sented on the National Comnjittee of Patri-
otic and Defense Societies. (See Prepared-
ness. )
President
Encyclopedic Index
President
President, The. — Previous to the War of
1812 American commerce had suffered con-
siderably at the hands of British cruisers,
which hovered about our coasts and cap-
tured many United States vessels bound "(or
France. These cruisers also made many im-
pressments of sailors. In May, 1811, Commo-
dore John Rodgers, commanding the Amer-
ican frigate President was ordered to put
to sea from Chesapeake Bay and protect our
commerce. When thirty miles off Cape
Charles, May 16, Rodgers gave chase to the
Little Belt, a Britis'h frigate. The latter
fired upon the President, attempted flight,
and failed to show her colors. The Are was
returned by the President, and in eighteen
minutes the Little Belt wa.s disabled. A dis-
pute arose as to which of the commanders
was at fault, hut it was never decided, as
the discussion was dropped by mutual agree-
ment. In September, 1814, the President,
under Decatur, was captured by the Endy-
mion, and other British vessels.
President of a State. — Some of the earlier
organized states provided for a president as
the executive head. To avoid misunder-
standing and confusion, this was after-
wards changed to governor. The first con-
stitutions of Pennsylvania and New Hamp-
' shire, a,dopted in 1776, provided (or an
executive council of which one member was
president. Delaware, South Carolina and
the New Hampshire constitution of 1784
provided for a single head, but called him
president. South Carolina in 1778, Penn-
sylvania In 1790, and Delaware and New
Hampshire in 1792 altered the title to
fcOvernor.
President of United States.— The title of
the Chlfef Executive of the United States.
In 1696 William Penn proposed a plan for
a general government for the Colonies in
America. The plan comprehended a chief
executive with the title of president. The
Albany Convention proposed that of presi-
dent-general. The Continental Congress
had its president. In the Convention of
1787 It was decided that there should be a
single executive to whom the title of presi-
dent was given. In order to be eligible, the
president must be thirty-five years of age,
a native-born citizen of the United States,
and a resident within the United States for
fourteen years. He is elected for a term
of four years by electors chosen by the
different states. These electors are cfhosen
by direct vote of the people, on ballot tickets
usually headed by the names of the candi-
dates voted for as president and vice-presl-
dentj followed by the names of the electors,
who are pledged to vote for these candidates
only. (See Electoral Colleges.)
The president's duties and powers under
the Constitution are to approve or veto
bills ; to grant reprieves and pardons for
offenses against the United States, except
in case of Impeachment ; to make treaties ;
to nominate ambassadors and other public
ministers, consuls, judges of the Federal
courts, etc., and, by and with the consent
of the Senate appoint sucih officers ; to fill
vacancies that may occur during the recess
of the Senate by granting commissions
which shall expire at the end o( the next
session ; to convene one or both Houses of
Congress, and to adjourn Congress to such
a time as he may deem proper In case it can
not agree upon an adjournmeht. He is also
commander-in-chie( of the army and navy
and of the militia of the several states when
called into the service of the United States.
He Is- required to give information to Con-
gress (rom time to time regarding the state
of the Union and recommend to its con-
sideration such measures as he shall Judge
necessary and expedient; receive ambassa-
dors and other public ministers ; see that
the laws are faithfully executed, etc. He
receives a salary of $75,000 per annum. Up
to the time o( the ratification of the twelfth
amendment' (1804) the president and vice-.
president were not separately voted for,
but the candidate for president who received
next to the highest number of votes was
made vice-president. Jefferson and J. Q.
Adams were elected by the House of Repre-
sentatives, as provided by the Constitu-
tion, neither presidential candidate having
a majority of the electoral vote.
The strong will and determined charac-
ter of Jackson soon restored the presidency
to a position equal to if not superior in
power to the legislative and judicial
branches of the government. It was during
his administration that the congressional
caucus declined before the growing power
of the national convention, and the develop-
ment of party machinery based upon execu-
tive patronage. This national party ma-
chinery later became a source or weakness
by securing the election of second-rate party
men over flrst-rate statesmen 9f. unavowed
p^rty loyalty.
The arbitrary military powers of the
President reached their highest develop-
ment under Lincoln. As commander m
chief of the land and naval forces he de-
clared the existence of insurrection, sus-
pended the civil law and denied the writ of
habeas corpus to prisoners hundreds of
miles from the scene of the disorder.
The Constitution requires the President
to execute the laws and vests in him the
power of appointment of executive oflScers
and consequently the power of removal.
These, with the veto power. In the hands
of a judicious leader give him more power
than is wielded by most constitutional mon-
archs of Europe.
Although the Constitution requires all
treaties with foreign powers to be con-
cluded "with the advice and consent of the
senate," the President may direct the writ-
ing of treaties, and if amended by the
Senate against his wishes he need not sub-
mit them to the diplomats of other nations.-
He has the power to recognize the Indepen-
dence of a revolutionary faction in a for-
eign country and thus establish or destroy
a nation.
The Constitution declares that the Presi-
dent shall be compensated for his services,
but Washington desired to receive no
salary (see page 45). The salary was
finally fixed at $25,000 annually until the
second term of President Grant, when It
was increased to $50,000. An act approved
on March 4, 1907, appropriated thereafter
for the travelling expenses of the Presi-
dent, to he expended at his discretion and
accounted for solely by his certificate, the
sum of $25,000 annually. Since 1909, the
salary has been $75,000, in addition to
the travelling aUowanee.
Title and Term of the President. — ^The
address of the president is simply "The
President of the United States." In the
Fiirst Congress, there was debate over a
title and It was proposed by some members
that he be addressed as "His Excellency"
and by others as "His Highness," but a
committee reported that "it Is not proper
to annex any style or title other than that
expressed in the Constitution." In the Con-
stitutional Convention the first report fixed •
the term of office at seven years without
eligibility to re-election. In debate various
periods from "during good behavior" to
twenty years were favored. The limit to
President
Encyclopedic Index
President
four years was finally adopted In grand
committee and ratified by the convention.
Presidential Flag. — It Is usual In other
countries to have a special design to desig-
nate the presence on a vessel of the ruler
of the nation. It was not until lately that
the United States had such a flag. Presi-
dent Arthur suggested it in the early part
of 1882, and, as his Cabinet concurred In
his suggestion, decided on the design of a
blue ground bearing the arms of the Pres-
ident in the centre. The Navy Department
ordered that this flag should be displayed
at the mainmast of any vessel that bore the
president. Arthur first used it in 1883.
The theoretical model tor the President
ot the United States was the King of Eng-
land, but the practical model used by the
framers of the Constitution was a com-
posite of the colonial governors and the
executive heads of states alread.v formed.
Popular confidence In Washington was all
that prevented further limitation of the
powers of the Chief Executive. The ulti-
mate position of the American President
was not determined until the end of Jack-
son's administration. Washington estab-
Ished and maintained the ofiBce upon a
broad national basis, but even he could not
render it strictly nonpartisan. Jefferson
first exemplified the methods of a brilliant
statesman and a successful party leader.
Under the weaker partisanship of his Im-
mediate successors the congressional caucus
usurped many of the prerogatives of the
Executive.
President of United States (see also the
several Presidents) :
Act-
Fixing salary of, vetoed, 4334.
Of Congress approved but not
signed, whether in force dis-
cussed, 856.
Of Congress duly certified and
approved which had not passed
discussed, 1353.
Providing for performance of du-
ties of, in case of death, etc., of
Vice-President and, returned,
5674.
Appointees of, removal of, should be
vested only in, 8852.
Appointing power of. (See Execu-
tive Nominations.)
Appointment of members of House
by, in whose election they have
been ofiScially concerned discussed,
1011, 1120.'
Appointments of, referred to, 1965.
Arbitration of boundary dispute be-
tween Brazil and Argentine Re-
public submitted to. (See Cleve-
land, Grover.)
Arbitrator of claim of Italy against
Colombia. (See Cleveland, Grover.)
Armenian-Turkish differences to be
arbitrated by, 8854, 8881.
Bills considered by, time allowed for,
discussed, 2993, 3060.
Cabinet of. (See Cabinet.)
Civil service extended over employees
in oface of, 6232.
Communications of, to Congress not
to be questioned by foreign power,
1397.
Compensation due, referred to, 889.
Conduct of public officers, request of
House for documents concerning,
declined, 847.
Congressional encroachment on powers
of, 8845, 8852.
Constitutional amendment —
Designating officer to succeed, in
event of vacancy in Presidency
and Vice - Presidency recom-
mended, 3837, 3889. (See also
Successor to, post.)
Regarding election of, recom-
mended, 1010, 1081, 1120, 1168,
1253, 1336, 1395, 1478, 3838, 3889,
4196, 4397.
Eegarding selection of electors
recommended, 5644.
Eelative to approval of separate
items of bill and veto of others
recommended, 4196, 4725, 4774,
4840.
Constitutional function as commander
of Army, act interfering with,
discussed, 3670.
Eepe^l of, recommended, 3871.
Constitutional meaning of "inability
to discharge powers and duties of
office of," discussed and recom-
mendations regarding, 4652, 4734,
4774, 4840.
Death of. (See Garfield; Harrison, W.
H.j Lincoln; McKinley; Taylor.)
Discretionary authority of, to —
Invite nations to conference on
subject of coinage recommended,
5877.
Eetaliate in. cases of discrimi-
nating duties levied on American
vessels recommended, 4763, 5205.
Send delegates to foreign con-
ventions, recommendations re-
garding, 4714, 4763, 4827, 5546,
6325.
Discretionary authority which can be
regulated by Congress should not
be exercised by, 1387.
Discretionary power of, over nomi-
nations, removals, and other acta
discussed by President —
Cleveland, 4960.
Jackson, 1255, 1261, 1272, 1346,
1351.
Monroe, 847.
Polk, 2232, 2281, 2416, 2452, 2529.
Tyler, 1903, 1941, 1958, 2073, 2080.
Washington, 186.
Efficiency, Bureau of, proposal to
transfer from jurisdiction of, 8848.
Election of —
Act providing for, and regulating
counting of votes in, approved
and reasons therefor, 4376.
President
Encyclopedic Index
Presidential
Constitutional amendment regard-
ing, recommended, 1010, 1081,
1120, 1168, 1253, 1336, 1395, 1478,
3838, 3889, 4196, 4397.
Legislation respecting ascertain-
ment and declaration of vote rec-
ommended, 4365, 4651, 4734, 4822.
Elections discussed —
1864, 3453.
Table showing number of votes
cast in, as compared with
election of 1860, 3456.
1876, 4398.
1880, 4553.
1884, 4822.
1896, 6146.
Electors, method of appointment of,
and effect of gerrymander dis-
cussed, 5643.
Constitutional amendment regard-
ing, recommended, 5644.
Executive acts performed during ab-
sence of, from seat of Govern-
ment discussed, 4315.
Jlemorandum accompanying mes-
sage, 4318.
Pines remitted by. (See Pines.)
Foreign intercourse, request of Sen-
ate and House for information
regarding, refused, 186, 2281,
2416, 2452, 2690, 2691, 2695, 6101.
Eeferred to, 2529.
Free confidential communication with
Senate should be preserved, 893.
Home of. (See Executive Mansion.)
Impeachment of. (See Impeach-
ment.)
Information regarding annexation of
Texas refused by, 2232.
Law conferring power upon —
To employ forces for protection of
American citizens abroad recom-
mended, 2978, 3070, 3100.
To employ naval forces for pro-
tection of American vessels rec-
ommended, 3100.
Meets and advises with Senate re-
specting treaty with Southern In-
dians, 53.
Militia can not be called into service
by, except by authority of Con-
gress, 2640.
Modification in laws regarding,
recommended, 2641.
Nominations of. (See Executive
Nominations.)
Oath of, and ceremonies attending
administration of. (See the sev-
eral Presidents.)
Personal interviews with, respecting —
Appointments to office, rules regu-
lating, discussed, 5831.
Business transactions unnecessary,
order regarding, 3546.
Pocket vetoes of. (See the several
Presidents; the several messages.)
Power should be given, to prevent in-
juries to citizens of neighboring
nations, 1616.
Presents offered, by Imaum of Mus-
cat, recommendations regarding,
1809, 2169.
Printing, executive, powers of, over,
8845.
Provisions and laws respecting elec-
tion of, etc., 3866.
Public money, authority of, over, dis-
cussed, 1541.
Eemovals from office discussed. (See
Removals from Office.)
Eight of, to make public confidential
information of predecessors dis-
cussed, 2283.
Successor to, in event of vacancy in
Presidency and Vice-Presidency
discussed, 3837, 3889, 4950.
Act regarding, returned, 5674.
Term of, recommendations regarding
limitation of, 1011, 1336, 4397.
Thanks of, tendered. (See Thanks
of President.)
Treaties —
Power to make, vested in President
with consent of Senate, 187.
Eequest of House in correspond-
ence regarding, declined, 186.
Vacancies, power of, to make pro-
visional appointments to fill, dis-
cussed, 3190.
Veto messages of. (See the several
Presidents; the several messages.)
Veto power of, discussed, 2512, 2561.
War, power to declare, discussed, 3100.
Executive authority to furnish in-
stant redress recommended, 3100.
Presidential Elections.— The record of any
popular vote for electors prior to 1828 Is
so meagre and imperfect that a compila-
tion would be useless. In most of the
states, for more than a quarter century fol-
lowing the establishment of the Govern-
ment, the State Legislatures "appointed"
the Presidential electors, and the people
therefore voted only indirectly for them,
their choice being expressed by their votes
for members of the Legislature.
1789. — Previous to 1804, eadi elector
voted for two candidates for President.
The one wlio received the largest number
of votes was declared President, and the
one who received the next largest number
of votes was declared Vice-President. The
electoral votes for the first President of
the United States were : George Washing-
ton, 69 ; John Adams, of Massachusetts,
34; John J'ay, of New York, 9; R. H.
Harrison, of Maryland, 6 ; John Rutledge,
of South Carolina, 6 ; John Hancock, of
Massachusetts, 4 ; George Clinton, of New
York, 3 ; Samuel Huntingdon, of Connecti-
cut, 2 ; John Milton, of Georgia, 2 ; James
Armstrong, of Georgia ; Benjamin Lincoln,
Presidential
Encyclopedic Iffdex
Presidential
ELECTORAL AND POPULAR VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRHSroBNT
Year
of -Candidates for President
Election
Popular
Vote .
Plurality
Elec-
toral
Vote
Candidates for Vice-President
Eleo-
toral
Vote
1828— Andrew Jackson,* Tenn. (Dem.)
John Q. Adams. Mass. (Nat. R.)
647,231
509,097
138,134
178
83
John C. Calhoun,' S. C. (Dem.)
Richard Rush, Pa. (Nat. R.)
WilUam Smith, S. C, (Dem.)
171
83
7
1832— Andrew Jaokson,* Tenn. (Dem.)
687,602
530,189
} 33,108
157,313
219
49
11
7
M. Van Buren,' N. Y. (Dem.)
189
Henry Clay, Ky. (Nat. R.)
John Serceant Pa (Nat R )
49
11
7
30
John Floyd, Ga. Ond.)
■Wilham Wirt (c), Md. (Anti-M.)
Amos EUmaker (c). Pa. (Anti-M.) ....
Wm. Wilkms, Pa. (Dem.).. .
1836— Martin Van Buren * N. Y. (Dem.)
W. H. Harrison, Ohio (Whig)
Hugh L. White, Tenn. (Whig)
761,549
736,656
24,893
170
■■ 73
26
14
, 11
H. M. Johnson (d)' Ky. (Dem.)
Francis Granger, N. Y. (Whig)
John Tyler, Va. (Whig)
147
77
47
Daniel Webster, Mass. (Whiu)
William Smith, Ala. (Dem.).
23
Waiio P. Mangum, N. 0. (Whig)
1840— W. H. Harrison,' Ohio (Whig)
1,275,017
1,128,702
7,059
146,315
234
60
John Tyler,* Va. (Whig)
234
Martin Van Buren, N. Y. (Dem.)
R. M. Johnson, Ky. (Dem.). .
48
James G. Bu-ney, N. Y. (Lib.)
L. W. Tazewell, Va. (Dem.).
11
James K. Polk, Tenn. (Dem.)
I
Thomas Earle, Pa. (Lib.)
1844 -James K. Polk,' Tenn. (Dem.)
Henry Clay, Ky. (Whie).
1,337,243
1,299,068
62,300
38,175
170
105
George M. Dallas,' Pa. (Dem.)
T. Frelinghuysen, N. J. (Whig)
Thomas Morris, Ohio (Lib.)
170
105
■James G. Burriey, N. Y. (Uk)
1848— Zaohary Taylor,' La. (Whig)
1,360,101
1,220,544
291,263
139,657
163
127
Millard Filhnore,' N. Y. (Whig)
William 0. Butler, Ky. (Dem.)
Charles F. Adams, Mass. (F. Soil). . .
Lewis Cass, Mich. (Dem.) : .
Martin Van Buren, N. Y. (F. Soil).. . .
1852— Franklin Pierce,' N. H. (Dem)... :
Winfield Scott, N. J. (Whig)
1,601,474
1,380,576
156,149
1,670
220,896
254
42
William R. King,' Ala. (Dem.)
William A. Graham, N. C. (Whig). , . ,
George W. Julian, Ind. (F. Soil)
254
John P: Hale, N. H. (F. Soil) (i)..
Daniel Webster (k), Mass. (Whig)
1856 — James Buchanan,^ Pa. (Dem.). .
1,838,169
1,341,264
874,538
496,905
174
114
8
J. C. Breckinridge,* Ky. (Dem.)
William L. Dayton, N. J. (Rep.)
A. J. Donelson, Tenn. (Amer.)
174
John 0. Fremont, Cal. (Eep.)
Millard Filhnore, N. Y. (Amer.) . ...
1860— Abraham Lincoln,' 111. (Hep.)
1,866,352
1,375,157
845,763
589,581
491,195
180
12
72
39
Hannibal Hamlin,' Me. (Rep.)
H. V. Johnson, Ga. (Dem.)
180
,T C. RrpcHiiri^gi', TTy (Dpm )
Joseph Lane, Ore. (Dem.).
72
John Bell, Tenn. (Union)
Edward Everett, Mass. (Union)
39
1864— Abraham Lincoln,' 111. (Eep.)
2,216,067
1,808,725
407,342
e 212
21
Andrew Johnson,' Tenn. (Rep.)
George H. Pepdleton, Ohio (Dem.).. . .
212
George B. MeClellan. N. J. (Dem.). . . .
21
1868 — Ulysses S. Grant ' 111. (Rep )
3,015,071
2,709,615
305,456
f 214
80
Schuyler Colfax,' Ind. (Rep.).. .... . .
214
Horatio Seymour, N. Y. (Dem.)
F. P. Blair, Jr., Mo. (Dem.).
80
1872^Ulysaes S. Grant,* 111. (Rep )
3,597,070
2,834,079
29,408
5,608
762,991
286
S ■■■
Henry Wilson,' Mags. (Rep.)
286
Horace Greeley, N. Y. (D. & L.).
B. Gratz Brown, Mo. (D. & L.)
47
Jam^ Black, Pa. (Temp )
John Russell, Mich. (Temp.)
42
18
2
1
George W. iihan, Ind. (Lib.)
A. H. Colqintt, Ga. (Dem.)
5
5
Charles J. Jenkins, (Ja. (Dem )
John M. Pahner, 111. (Dem.)
3
T. E. Bramlette, Ky. (Dem.)
3
W. S. Groesbeck, Ohio (Dem.)
Willis B. Machen, Ky. (Dem.)
N. P. Banks, Mass. (Lib.)
1
1
1
1876-Samuel J. Tilden, N. Y. (Dem.)
4,284,885
4,033,950
81,740
9,522
2,636
250,935
184
h 185
184
William A. Wheeler,' N. Y. (Rep.)....
Samuel F. Gary, Ohio (Gre'nb)
185
Peter Cooper N. Y (Gre'nb)
1
Gideon T. Stewart, Ohio (Proh)
D. Kh-kpatrick, N. Y. (Amer.)
1880— James A. Garfield,' Ohio (Rep.)
W. S. Hancock, Pa. (Dem.)
4,449,053
4,442,035
307,306
10,305
707
7,018
214
155
Chester A. Arthur,' N. Y. (Rep.)
William H. English, Ind. (Dem.)
B. J. Chambera, Tex. (Gre'nb)
214
155
H. A. Thompson, Ohio (Proh.)
John W. Phelps, Vt. (Amer.)
S. C. Pomeroy, Kan. (Amer.)
' Elected, (a) The firat Republican Party is claimed by the present Democratic Party as its progenitor, (b) No
candidate having a majority of the electoral vote, the House of Representatives elected Adams, (c) Candidate of the
Anti-Masonic Party, (d) There being no choice, the Senate eleeted Johnson, (e) Eleven Southern States, being within
the belligerent territory, did not vote, (f) Three Southetn States disfranchised, (g) Horace Greeley died after election,
and Democratic electors scattered their votes, (h) There being a dispute over the electoral vote of Florida, Louisiana,
Oregon, and South Carolina, they were referred by Congress to an electoral commission composed of eight Republicans and
seven Democrats, which, by a strict party vote, awarded 18S electoral votes to Hayes and 184 to Tildes, (i) Fiee Soil.
B-9
Presidential
Encyclopedic Index
Presidential
ELECTORAL 4ND POPTILiS VOTES TOE PEESIDENT AND VIOli-PBIlflmiINT— ConKniiei.
Year
of Candidates for President
Electioa
Popular
Vote
Plurality
Elec-
toral
Vote
Candidates for Vice-President
Elec-
toral
Vote
1884— Grover Cleveland,* N. Y. (Dem.)
4,911,017
4,848,334
151,809
133,825
62,683
219
182
T. A. Hendricks,* Ind. (Dem.). . . ... . .
219
182
Jnhn P St John Kan fProh.)
William Daniel, Md. (Proh.)
Benjamm F. Butler, Mass. (Gre'nb).. . .
A. M. West Miss (Gre'nb).
1888— Grover Cleveland, N. Y. (Dem.)
Benjamin Harrison,* Ind. (Rep.)
5,640,050
5,444,437
250,125
146,897
2,808
1,591
95,713
168
233
Allen G. Thurman, Ohio (Dem.)
Levi P. Morton,* N. Y. (Rep.)
16S
23:,
Alson J. Streeter, 111. (U. L.)
R H Cowdrv III (U'd L.) . . . .'.
C. E. Cunningham, Ark. (U. L.)
W. H. T. Wakefield, Ean.'(U'd L.). . .
, James L. Curtis, N. Y. (Amer.)
t
1892— Grover Cleveland,* N. Y. (Dem.)
Benjamin Harrison, Ind. (Rep.)
James B. Weaver, Iowa (Peop.)
John Bidwell Cal fProh )
5,554,414
5,190,802
1,027,329
271,058
21.164
363,612
277
145
22
Adlai E. Stevenson,* 111. (Dem.)
Whitelaw Reid, N. Y. (Rep.)
277
145
James G. Field, Va. (Peop.).
2"'
James B. Cranfill, Tex. (Proh.)
Simon Wing, Mass. (Soc. L.) . .^.
Charles H. Matchett, N. Y. (Soc. L.)..
1896— William McKinley • Ohio (Rep.)
William J. Bryan, Neb. (Dem.) \
William J. Bryan, Neb. (Peop.) /
7,035,638
6,467,946
141,676
131,529
36,454
13,969
567,692
{
271
176
Garret A. Hobart,* N. J. (Rep.)
Arthur Sewall, Me. (Dem.)
271
149
Thomas E. Watson. Ga. (Peop.)
Hale Johnson. 111. (Proh.)
27
John M Palmer 111. fN. Dem )
Simon B. Bucfcner, Ky. (N. Dem.)., . .
Matthew Maguire, N. J. (Soc. L.). . . .
James H. Southgat*, N. C. (Nat. (j), .
Charleg H Matchett N Y fSoc. L )
Charley E. Bentley, Neb. (Nat. (j).... .
1900— William McKinley,* Ohio (Rep.)
William J. Bryan, Neb. (Dem. P.)
7,219,530
6,358,071
209,166
50,373
94,768
32,751
1,059
5,698
861,459
292
155
Theodore Roosevelt.* N. Y. (Rep.). . .
Adlai E. Stevenson, III. (Dem. P.). . . .
Henry B. Metcalf, Ohio (Proh.) .
292
155
John G WooUey, III (Proh )
Wharton Barker, Pa. (MP(m)
Ignatius Donnelly, Minn. (MP(m). . . .
Job Harriman, Cal. (Soc. D.)
w'
Eugene V. Debs, Ind. (Soc. D.)
" .
Jos. F. MaDoney, Mass. (Soc. L.(k) ....
J. F. R. Leonard, la. (U. C (n)
Velentine Remmel, Pa. (Soc. L.)
John G. Woolley, III. (U. C. (n)
1^..
y,i-' -
Seth H. Ellis, Ohio (U. R. (o)
Samuel T. Nicholson, Pa. U. R. (o)...
■ 'i-'
1904— Theodore Roosevelt,* N. Y. (Rep.). . . .
Alton B. Parker, N. Y. (Dem.) . . .
7,628,834
5,084,491
402,460
259,257
114,753
33,724
2,544,343
336
140
Charles W. Fairbanks,* Ind. (Rep.). . .
Henry G: Davis, W. Va. (Dem.)
Benjamin Hanford, N. Y. (Soc ).
3i6
403
Eugene V. Debs, Ind. (Soc.)
Silas C. Swallow, Pa. (Proh.)
George W. Carroll, Tex. (Proh.)
Charles H. Corrigan, N. Y. (Soc. L.). . .
WilUam W. Cox. 111. (Soc. L.)
.... ,
1908— William H. Taft,* Ohio (Rep.)
7,679,006
6,409,106
420,820
252,683
28,131
13,825
83,562
1,269,900
321
162
James S. Sherman,* N. Y. (Rep.)
John W. Kern, Ind. (Dem.)
vV'
William J. Bryan, Neb. (Dem.)
Eugene V. Debs, Ind. (Soc.)
Benjamin Hanford, N. Y. (Soc.)..
Eugene W. Chafin, Ariz. (Proh.). . . .
Aaron S. Watkins, Ohio (R-oh.)
i
Thomas E. Watson, Ga. (Peop.)
August Gillhaus, N. Y. (Soc. L.).. .....
Donald L. Munroe, Va. (Soc. L.). . . . .
John Temple Graves Ga. (Ind )
Thos. L. Hisgen, Mass. (Ind.)
1912-Woodrow Wilson,* N. J. (Dem.)
William H. Taft, Ohio •(Rep.)
6,286,214
3,483,922
4,126,020
897,011
208,923
29,079
2,160.194
435
8
88
Thomas R. Marshall,* Ind. (Dem.).'. .
Nicholas'M. Butler, N.Y. (Rep.) (p)
Hiram W. Johnson, Cal. (Prog.)
Emil Seidel, Wis. (Soc.)
435,./
8
Theodore Roosevelt, N. Y. (Prog.)
Eugene V. Debs, Ind. (Soc.)
88
Eugene W. Chafin, kni. (Proh.)
Aaron S. Watkins, Ohio (ftoh.)
Arthur E. Reimer, Mass. (Soc. L.)
August Gilhaus, N. Y. (Soc. L.)
1916— Woodrow Wilson,* N. J. (Dem.)
Charles E. Hughes, N. Y. (Rep.)
J. Frank Hanly, Ind. (Proh.)
9,129,606
8,538,221
220,506
685,113
13,40^
591,385
277
254
Thomas R. Marshall,* Ind. (Dem.) . . .
Charles W. Fairbanli, Ind. (Rep.).. . .
277
254
Allan L. Benson, (Soc.)
George R. Kirkpatrick, (Soc.)
Arthur E. Reimer, Mass. (Soc. L.)
404
127
1920— Warren G. Harding,* Ohio (Rep..)... .
James M. Cox, Ohio (Dem.)
Eugene V. Debs, Indiana (Soc.)
Parley P. ChriBtenBen,Utah.(Far.-I/Bb.)
16,152,200
9,147,353
919,799
265,411
189,408
31,175
6,837
7,004,847
Calvin Coolidge,* Mass. (Rep.)
Franklin D. Roosevelt, N. Y. (Dem)
404
127
Max S. Hayes, Ohio (Farmep-LaBor)
D. Leigh Colvin, N.Y. (ProhJ
August Gillhaus, N. Y. (Soc. L.)
Richard C. Barnum,Ohio (S. Tax).. .
j'
Aaron S. Watkins, Ohio (Proh.)
:::i|
William M. Cox, Mo. (Soc. L.)
Robert C. Macauley, Pa. (S. Tax)
,....>
In Texas, 47,968 votes were also oast for the American Party and 27,247 tor the Black and Tan Party. In Oregon,
the Industrial Laborticket polled 1,516 votes and in Maryland, the "Third Party" ticket polled 1,645 votes.
• Elected, (i) Free Silver Prohibition Party, (k) In Massachusatte. There was also a Native American ticket in
that State, which received 184 votes, (m) Middle of the Road or Anti-Fusion Party, (n) United Christian Party
(o) Union Reform Party, (p) The Cosvention nominee, James S. Sherman, died several days before election
Presidential
'Encyclopedic Index
Presidential
ELECTORAL YOTH FOB PRESIDENT,
BT PBUJOIPAL POLITICAI. PAETIE8 AND BT STATES, 1900 TO
1916
a900
1904
1908
1912
' 1916
SUte
pub-
lican
Dem-
Qcrat-
io
Total
Re-
pub-
lican
Dem-
ociat-
io
Total
Re-
pub-
lioan
Dem-
ocrat-
ic
Total
Re-
pub-
lican
Dem-
ociatr
k
Pro-
grca-
Bive
Total
Re-
pub-
lican
Dem-
ocrat-
ic
Total
Alabama
11
11
11
11
U
11
12
3
9
2
6
7
3
6
14
4
29
15
13
10
13
10
6
8
18
"11
"is"
12
"38"
.....
12
3
9
13
6
7
3
6
14
4
29
15
IS
10
13
10
6
8
18
15
12
10
18
4
8
3
4
14
3
45
12
6
24
10
6
38
5
9
5
12
20
4
4
12
7
8
13
3
■j-
3
"29"
15
13
'"'e"
"is"
15
12
"u
'45
■5"
38
S
'"■5
"4"
.....
13
12
3
9
13
6
"e"
14
4
"io"
13
10
"8
''io'
18
4
8
3
4
■3
■'12'
5
24
10
■9'
"12'
20
4
"12"
7
1
"3'
12
3
Arkansas
Calif oraia
Colorado
"9
8
13
3
"is
8
■■'9
17
3
■■■3
8
9
4
6
3
4
13
3
24
15
13
10
13
8
6
8
15
14
9
9
17
3
8
3
4
10
■'io'
5
7
3
"3
27
15
13
10
"e
1
16
14
11
"is'
3
-8
3
4
12
9
'5
13
"is'
9
"io'
9
10
5
7
3
5
13
3
27
15
13
10
13
9
6
8
16
14
11
10
18
3
8
3
- 4
12
"io
■■•j-
3
"3
27
15
13
10
""6
2
16
14
11
"is"
3
12
9
"5
"6
13
"is
9
"""e"
"io
"'s
3
9
10
5
7
S
5
13
3
27
15
13
'10
13
9
6
8
16
14
11
10
18
3
8
3
4
12
9
13
CoimeQticut
Delaware
6
3
7
3
Geoieia.
14
Idaho
lUinoiB
Indiana
24
15
13
10
29
15
13
13
TioiiifiiaTia
10
Maine
6
8
15
14
9
Maryland
8
18
15
12
Mississippi
Misflouri . .
10
18
4
8
3
4
14
3
45
12
5
24
10
5
10
18
4
Nebraska
8
■■■4"
10
8
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
3
4
14
3
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
36
■3
23
' ii
36
11
3
23
39
23
12
39
12
4
23
39
"4
23
12
"9
""i2"
13
"12
39
12
4
23
7
■ 4
34
4
9
4
12
18
3
4
12
5
7
13
3
45
12
5
24
10
Oregon —
4
32
4
■■■4
'■'9
"ii'
15
12
4
32
4<
9
4
12
15
3
4
12
4
6
12
3
4
34
4
'i'
■3
4
■5
7
13
3
"9
"ia
18
"n
4
34
4
9
4
12
18
3
4
12
5
7
13
3
4
34
4
■■'4'
""■3"
4
"■5
7
13
3
5
38
Rhode Tfiland
South Carolina
South Dakota
..^..
5
9
5
9
Tennessee
"4
4
12
20
12
20
Utah
3
4
4
4
12
•j-
12
Wsehington
West Virginia
4
6
12
3
7
8
13
3
8
13
3
Total . ..
292
155
447
336
140
476
321
162
483
8
435
88
531
254
277
531
Pluralitv
137
196
169
347
21
Of Massachusetts, and Edward Teltalr, of
Georgia, 1 vote eacli. Vacancies (votes not
cast), 4. George Wastiington was chosen
President and John Adams Vice-President.
1792. — George Washington, Federalist,
received 132 votes ; John Adams, Federal-
ist, 77 ; George Clinton, of New York, Ee-
pubiican (a), 50; Thomas Jefferson, of
Virginia, Kepublican, 4 ; Aaron Burr, of
New York, Republican, 1 vote. Vadandes,
3. George .Washington was chosen Presi-
dent and John Adams Vice-President.
1796. — John Adams, Federalist, 71 ;
Thomas Jefferson, Eepubllcan, 68 ; Thomas
Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist,
59 ; Aaron Burr, of New York, Kepublican,
30 : Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts, Re-
publican, 15 ; Oliver Ellsworth, of Con-
necticut, Independent, 11 ; George Clinton,
of New York, Eepubllcan, 7 ; John Jay, of
New York, Federalist, 5 ; James Iredell,
of North Carolina, Federalist, 3 ; George
Washington, of Virginia ; John Henry, of
Maryland, and S. Johnson, of North Caro-
lina, all Federalists, 2 votes each ; Charles
Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina,
Federalist, 1 vote. John Adams was
chosen President and Thomas Jefferson
Vice-President.
1800. — Thomas Jefferson, Bepubllcan,
73 ; Aaron Burr, Republican, 73 ; John
Adams, Federalist, 65 ; Charles C. Pinck-
ney, Federalist, 64 ; John Jay, Federalist,
1 vote. There being a tie vote for Jeffer-
son and Burr, the choice devolved upon
the House of Representatives. Jefferson
received the votes of ten states, which
being the largest vote cast for a candidate,
elected him President. Burr received, the
votes of four States, which being the next
largest vote, elected him Vice-President.
There were 2 blank votes.
1804— The Constitution having been
amended, the electors at this election voted
for a President and a Vice-President, in-
stead of for two candidates for President.
The result was as follows :■ For President,
Thomas Jefferson, Bepubllcan, 162 ;
Presidential
Encyclopedic Index Presidential Primaries
The following table shows the pot
and electoral vote for president by states In
1920:
Po pular Electoral
States Harding, R., Cox, D., R. D.
'Alabama 74,690 163,254 12
Arizona 37,018 29,546 3
Arlcansas 71,117 107,409 9
California 624,992 229,191 13
Colorado 173,248 104,936 6
Connecticut 229,238 120,721 7
Delaware 52,858 39,911 3
Florida 44.853 90,515 6
Georgia 43,720 109,856 14
Idaho 91,351 46,930 4
Illinois 1,420,480 534,395 29
Indiana 696,370 611,364 15
Iowa 634,674 227,921 13
Kansas 369,268 185,464 10
Kentucky 452,480 456,497 13
Louisiana; 38,538 87,519 10
Maine 136,355 58,961 6
Maryland 236,117 180,626 8
MassachusettB 681,153 276,691 18...
Michigan 762,865 233,450 15
Minnesota 519,421 142,994 12
Mississippi 11, 576 69,277 10
Missouri. 727,521 674,924 18
Montana 109,430 57,372 4
Nebraska 247,498 119,608 8
Nevada 15,479 9,851 3....
New Hampshire... 95,196 62,662 4
New Jersey 616,333 256,761 14....
New Mexico 57,634 46,668 3
New York 1,871,167 781,238 45
North Carolina 232,848 305,447 12
North Dakota 160,072 37,422 5....
Ohio 1,182,022 780,037 24....
Oklahoma 243,831 217,053 10
Oregon 143,592 80,019 5
Pennsylvania 1,218,215 603,202 38
Rhode Island 107,463 65,062 5. . . .
South Carolina 2,244 64,170 9
South Dakota 109,874 36,938 5
Tennessee 219,829 206,558 12
Texas 114,538 288,767.... 20
Utah 81,665 56,639 4
Vermont 68,212 20,919 4
Virginia 87,456 141,670 12
Washington 223,137 84,298 7
West Virginia 282,007 220,789 8
Wisconsin 498,576 113,422 13
Wyommg 35,091 17,429 3
Total 16,152,200 9,147,353 404 127
Charles C. Plnckney, Federalist, 14. For
Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican,
162 ; Eufus King, of New York, Federalist,
14. Jefferson was chosen President and
Clinton Vice-President.
1808 — For President, James Madison, of
Virginia, Republican, 122 ; Charles C.
Plnckney, of South Carolina, Federalist,
47 ; George Clinton, of New York ; Repub-
lican, 6. / For Vice-President, George Clin-
ton, Republican, 113 ; Rufus King, of
New York, Federalist, 47 ; John Langdon,
of New Hampshire, 9 ; James Madison, 3 ;
James Monroe, 3. Vacancy, 1. Madison was
chosen President and Clinton Vice-President.
1812. — For President, James Madison,
Republican, 128 ; De Witt Clinton, of New
York, Federalist, 89. For Vice-President,
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, 131 ;
Jared IngersoU, of Pennsylvania, Federal-
ist, 86. Vacancy, 1. Madison was chosen
President and Gerry Vice-President.
1816. — For President, James Monroe, of
Virginia, Republican, 183 ; Rufus King, of
New York, Federalist, 34. For Vice-Presi-
dent, Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York,
Republican, 183 ; John Eager Howard, of
Maryland, Federalist, 22 ; James Ross, of
Pennsylvania, 5 ; John Marshall, of Vlr-
finia, 4 ; Robert 6. Harper, of Maryland,
Vacancies, 4. Monroe was chosen
President and Tompkins Vice-President.
1820. — For President James Monroe, of
Virginia, Republican, 231 ; John Q. Adams,
of Massachusetts, Republican, 1. For Vice-
President, Daniel D. Tompkins, Republi-
can, 218; Richard Stockton, of New Jer-
sey, 8 ; Daniel Rodney, of Delaware, 4 ;
Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, and Rich-
ard Rush, of Pennsylvania, 1 vote each. Va-
cancies, 3. James Monroe was chosen Presi-
dent and Daniel D. Tompkins Vice-President.
1824. — For President, Andrew Jacksoii, of
Tennessee, Republican, 99 ; John Quincy
Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 84 ;
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, Republican, 37 ;
William Ef. Crawford, of Georgia, Repub-
lican, 41. No candidate having a majority
of the electoral vote, John Quincy Adams
was elected by the House of Representa-
tives. For Vice-President, John C. Cal-
houn, of South Carolina, Republican, 182 ;
Nathan Sanford, of New York, Republican,
30 ; Nathaniel Macon, of North Carolina,
Republican, 24 : Andrew Jackson, of Ten-
nessee, Republican, 13 ; Martin Van Buren,
of New York, Republican, 9 ; Henry Clay,
of Kentucky, Republican, 2 ; Calhoun was
chosen Vice-President.
Fresldeutlal Electors.— Persons chosen by
the people of the several states to elect the
President and Vice President. As a matter
of custom, though not of legal requirement,
the electors exercise the choice in accord-
ance with the expressed wish of the voters
at the polls.
Presidential Electors:
Constitutional amendment regarding
selection of, recommended, 5644.
Method of appointment of, and effect
of gerrymander discussed, 5643.
(See Electors; Electoral Colleges).
Presidential Primaries.— The presiden-
tial primary is a device to enable the voters
at large to record their choice for candi-
dates for the presidency. It was little
heard of previous to 1911, but in that year
it became a leading topic of political dis-
cussion. Provisions for the presidential
primary exist as statutes in six States —
New Jersey, Wisconsin, Nebraska, North Da-
kota, Oregon, and California. The Cali-
fornia law, which is typical of the others,
provides that the name of any person may
be put upon the ballot at the presidential
primary election to be held In May, pre-
ceding an election for president, through the
filing of a petition signed by one per cent
of any party In each Congress district. The
chief merit of such a prCnary, in the opin-
ion of those who support it, would be the
practical elimination of the national nom-
inating conventions and the opportunity
given the people at large of recording their
choice for the presidency. The main ob-
jections urged by the opponents of the
presidential primary are that it would in-
tensify factional bitterness and add to the
expense of elections. The presidential
primary had its chief supporters in 1911
among the members of the progressive
wings of both Democratic and Republican
parties. An attempt was made to indorse
the idea at the meeting of the National Re-
publican Committee held In" Washington In
December, 1911, but it failed. In addition
to the states which 'have provided for presi-
dential primaries by statute South Caro-
lina and Louisiana observe them as party
rules, and some other states have what is
equivalent. Pennsylvania delegates to the
Presidential Primaries Encyclopedic Index
Printing
National Conventions are elected by direct
primaries and candidates for delegate are
permitted to print on the ballot the name
of the candidate for the presidency they
wish to support.
Presidential primaries or some equivalent
expression of opinion were held In 1912 in
California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachu-
setts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jer-
sey, North Dakota, Ohio. Oregon, Pennsyl-
vania, South Dakota and Wisconsin, and
upon the results In these states Mr. Roose-
velt based his assertion that he was the-peo-
ple's choice, but It was found that only two-
thirds of the voters expressed their choice.
Presidential Primaries, discussed by
President Wilson, 7910.
Presidential Succession.— The Constitu-
tion provides for the succession of the vice-
president in case of the death, removal,
resignation, or disability of the president,
and gives Congress power to provide what
officer shall succeed in case of the death,
removal, etc., of the vice-president. In
1793 Congress enacted that In such case the
president of the Senate should succeed, and
then the speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives. This was attended with some
inconvenience and danger and there was
some doubt of its constitutionality. An act
of Congress, approved Jan. 19, 1886, pro-
vided that the succession should pass to the
members of the Cabinet in the following
order : Secretary of State. Secretary of the
Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-Gen-
eral, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the
Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. The
Secretaries of the Department of Agricul-
ture, and of the Department of Commerce
and Labor, whose offices 'have been created
since the passage of the Succession Act.
are not eligible for presidential succession.
The following Vice-'Presidents have succeed-
ed to the Presidency on account of the
death of the President; John Tyler, Mil-
lard Fillmore, Andrew 'Johnson, Chester A.
Arthur, and Theodore Roosevelt. (See Vice-
Presidents, and Cabinet, also Atchison, Df
R., in Index.)
President's Flag, proportions of, 8173.
Presidents of United States, Portraits
of. (See Paintings of Presidents.)
Presiding Ladies of the White House.
(See biographies and portraits in text
volumes at the beginning of the ad-
ministrations of the respective Presi-
dents.)
Presque Isle, Pa.: - , ^
Obstructions to entrance of harbor
of port of, 786.
Title to, proffered by marine hos-
pital of Pennsylvania, 4735.
Press Freedom of.— The first amendment
to the Constitution, introduced in the First
Congress, established freedom of speech,
religion, and the press. Though the Fed-
eral Constitution was originally silent upon
the subject, nearly all of the states In-
serted In their constitutions clauses per-
mitting freedom of speech and publication
to every citizen. Abuses of this liberty
were punishable under the cornmon law.
New York and New Jersey made no pro-
vision in their first constitutions, but
clauses were later embodied insuring the
widest liberty of expression. During
Britilh rule o! the Colonies this freedom
was much restricted by the star chamber
press censorship regulation of 1637, which
was confirmed by Parliament In 1643.
Press, Functions of the, discussed bv
President Wilson, 8051.
Pretoria, Republic of, joint resolutipn
relating to congratulations from, ve-
toed, 4384.
Prices:
Fixing of —
Authority needed for further, 8404.
Coal, for, 8327, 8398.
Farmers discriminated against by,
8405.
Food Administrator to determine,
8398.
Principles to be followed in, 8311-
3, 8346.
Trade Commission cannot obtain,
7819.
Wheat, for, S^46.
Marking of, on interstate foodstuffs,
urged, 8816, 8886.
Primaries. (See Presidental Primaries.)
Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, referred
to, 6697.
Princeton (N. J.), Battle of.— The be-
ginning of the year 1777 found the 'British
array of 7,000 or 8,000 men encamped at
Princeton, N. J. , On Christmas night, 1776,
Washington had turned back his retreating
army, recrossed the Delaware, overcome the
Hessians at Trenton, and again crossed the
Delaware into Pennsylvania. To relieve
Cadwalader he again crossed the river and
was ready to march upon Princeton. Corn-
wallis, who had been sent by Howe from
New York, advanced to meet him with most
of his army. Washingt6n skilfully passed
around the left wing of Cornwallls'S army,
and on Jan. 3, 1777, encountered the Brit-
ish rear guard, consisting of three regiments
and three troops. These were scattered,
with the loss of about 500. The American
loss was 25 or 30, besides officers. Corn-
wallis retreated to New Brunswick and
Washington occupied a strong position at
Morristown. remaining there until the latter
part of May.
Princeton, The, construction of, re-
ferred to, 2130.
Principe. (See Portugal.)
Printer, Public. (See Public Printer.)
Printing and Engraving. (See Engrav-
ing and Printing, Bureau of.)
Printing • and Publishing. — At the
close of the Revolutionary war the printing
trade was carried on almost exclusively In
the Atlantic coast cities. The earliest
establishments set up in Inland cities were
at Lexington, Ky., Pittsburg, Pa., and Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. The main printing centers
have always been New York, Philadelphia,
Chicago and Boston.
The growth of the business has been ac-
celerated by the invention of electrotyp-
ing, stereotyping, type-setting machines,
the cylinder press and the web press (print-
ing from a continuous roll of paper, in-
stead of separate sheets.) The manufacture
of wood-pulp paper cheaply in large quanti-
ties has also been an important factor.
Governmental encouragement, in the form
of special rates of transportation by the
Printing
Encyclopedic Index
Printing
Postoffice, has always been a large asset of
the ^publishing business.
According to the census of 1910 there
were 31,445 establishments engaged in
printing books, periodicals, newspapers,
music and Job work in the United States.
These were capitalized at $588,345,708, and
gave employment to 388,466 persons, pay-
ing them in wages and ^ salaries an aggre-
^gate of $268,086,431. The value of the out-
put is placed at $737,876,087.
Printing has been the most generous con-
tributor to human progress, and perhaps
the most powerful factor in making the
nineteenth century the leader of all cen-
turies in genius and invention. The con-
struction of the 10-cylinder press by Robert
Hoe in 1853 was considered one of the
greatest steps forward recently made in
printing. The first practical improvement
upon typesetting was made by Mergenthaler
with his linotype machine, by which a row
of brass matrices assembled in a line of
desired length by means of a keyboard
became the mould in which the writer's
words were cast in softer metal ready for
the ink and press. Other type-composing
machines were invented, and new methods
of cutting and casting ornamental styles
and sizes of display type gave artistic tone
to the printed page.
The greatest advances in press building
since 1880 have been made in perfecting
presses. These machines are now construct-
ed of such enormous size and with such
great capacity that it is possible to obtain
at short notice a newspaper press which
will produce 100,000 impressions per hour
printed in twelve colors.
In 1862 the kind of news paper ordi-
narily used was made of cotton rags. It was
imperfect, poor in color and made in the
crudest manner. The price was 24 cents a
pound. At present wood pulp paper of uni-
form quality can be bought for two cents
per pound.
The volume of advertising circulars,
booklets and pamphlet literature was never
before so large or of such mechanical ex-
cellence as during the last decade.
Machinery for folding printed sheets,
gathering, stitching and building them into
book form has been so perfected that the
costliest literary treasures of the past gen-
eration may be reproduced and placed in
the reader's hands today at trifling cost.
A notable ffeature of the printing industry
of the past decade has been the growth of
monthly magazines. By sensational articles
on timely subjects, wide circulation and
enormous sales have been secured. This
brought increased advertising, and the
transportation of this class of merchandise
through the mails at reduced rates granted
tor the purpose of disseminating learning
caused President Taft to call attention to
the propriety of increasing the rates to off-
set a deficit in the PostofBce Department.
(See pages 7433, 7528, 7733.)
According to the census classification the
printing and publishing industry is made up
of three branches, comprising: (1) estab-
lishments whose chief business is book and
,iol> printing, hook printing and publishing, or
book publishing only; (2) establishments
wIioKp solo or chief business is music print-
ing, or music printing and publishing, or
music publishing only ; and (3) establish-
ments which are engaged in the printing and
publishing, or in the publishing only, of
newspapers and periodicals, some of the first-
named doing Job work also. The number of
establishments in this industry in 1914
aggregated 31,612, and the total value of
their products amounted to $810,508,111.
Of the 31,612 establishments canvassed for
1914, those engaged in the printing and
publishing or in the publishing only of news-
papers and periodicals numbered 19,317.
Those engaged chiefly in the printing and
publishing of Iwoks and pamphlets or in job
printing, or both, numbered 12,115, and the
numher engaged solely or chiefly in music
printing, or music printing and publishing,
or music publishing only, numbered 180.
The total value of products reported for
1914, of establishments printing and pub-
lishing newspapers and periodicals, was
$493,905,984. The value of products of es-
tablishments engaged chiefly in book and job
work of all kinds aggregated $307,330,861 in
1914. The value of products of establish-
ments engaged chiefly in music printing and
publishing in 1914 aggregated $7,271,266.
The value of products of the newspaper and
periodical branch of the industry formed
61.2 per cent of the total in 1914 ; of the
book and job branch, 37.9 per cent ; and of
the music printing and publishing branch,
nine-tenths of 1 per cent. The dail^ news-
paper, according to the census definition, is
a publication issued on each of the secular
days of the week, Sunday editions being ex-
cluded. A morning and an evening paper
issued by the same plant are counted as two
papers. A total of 2,580 dailies was reported
for 1914. The aggregate circulation of the
dailies in 1914 was 28.436,030. The num-
ber of Sunday papers published in the United
States in 1914 was 570, as compared with
.">20 in 1909 ; and their combined circulation
in the later year, 16,445,820, represented
an increase of 23.2 per cent as compared
with the corresponding figure for the earlier
year. The number of weekly newspapers and
periodicals reported for 1914, 15,166, shows
a slight increase as compared with the cor-
rnsponding number in 190?, 15,097. The.
1914 circulation of such publications was
;"n.4.T4.738, an increase of 23.6 per cent as
compared with 1909.
Of the persons engaged in the industry,
78% were male and 22% female. In book
and Job printing, there were 77% male: in
newspaper and periodical printing, 84%
male; Jn bookbinding and blank-book mak-
ing, 53% male and in lithographing, 83%
male. More than half the wage-earners
worked in establishments where the pre-
vailing hours of labor were 48 or less per
week.
Of the establishments, about 19,000 were
owned by individuals, 8,500 by corporations
and 5,750 by other forms of ownership. But
the corporations employed 69 % of the wage- ■
earners and were responsible for 76% of
the value of the total product.
In eighteen of the establishments products
were valued at more than $1,000,000 an-
nually ; in 1,375, at between $100,000 and
$1,000,000; in 4,450, at between $20,000
and !?100,000 ; in 10,000 at between $5,000
and $20,000; and in 17,000 at less than
$5,000.
Separate products were as follows in
value :
Newspaper.^' $283,588,966
Other Periodical.s 135,620,735
Books and Pamphlets* .S7, 637' 429
,Tob Printing 249,730^932
•Total number printed, 175,166,698.
^Aggregate number printed, 14,041,921,
0G6.
„ The number of daily publications was
2,580, with a combined circulation per issue
of more than 30,000,000.
Printing executed by authority of the
several Departments referred to, 2911.
Printing, Gov't
Encyclopedic Index
Prize Courts
Printing Government:
Cost of, discussed, 6728, 6914, 6988.
Supervision over, discussed, 8841
Printing, Joint Committee on, powers
of, 8845.
Printing Offtce, Government. (See Gov-
ernment Printing Office.) '
Prison Congress, International, at-r-
St. Petersburg, 5117.
Stockholm, 4406, 4464..
Prison Congress, National, at Balti-
more, 4162.
Prisoners. (See Imprisonment.)
Prisoners of War. (See Civil War;
War of 1812.)
Prisons. (See Penitentiaries.)
Private and Govenmient Management
of Business. (See Government Man-
agement.)
Private Armed Vessels:
Depredations of, must be checked, 358.
Instructions were issued May 28, 1798,
to commanders of armed vessels of
United States to seize foreign ves-
sels attacking those of the United
States, especially those sailing un-
der the flag of the French Eepublic.
Issuance of commissions to, discussed,
779.
Eeferred to, 2774.
Proposition to forego resort to, in
case of war discussed, 2809, 2945.
Private Claims against United States:
Amount paid on, referred to, 1778,
1783.
Proceedings under act for payment
of, suspended, 565.
Eeport of commissioners referred to,
. 566.
Settlement of, by commission recom-
mended, 2627, 2673, 2714.
Private Land Claims. (See Court of
Private Land Claiins.)
Private Property. (See Property,
Private.)
Privateering:
Abolition of, discussed, 2945.
Issuance of commissions to vessels
for, discussed, 779, 2774.
Not to be resorted to by —
France in war with Spain, 779.
United States in war with Spain,
6474.
Eeferred to, 6312.
Proposition to forego resort to, in
case of war discussed, 2809, 2945.
Eeferred. to, 2909.
Privateers. — Armed vessels owned and ofB-
cered by private persons, but acting under
commissions from the government Isnown
as letters of marque. It was formerly the
custom of all nations in time of war to
legalize private vessels to assist the regu^
lar navy in blockading the ports of an
enemy, intercepting supplies, and capturing
prizes. Vessels so employed are called
privateers and are supplied with letters of
marque on condition of their conforming
to the rules and usages of wkr. Herein
lies the difference between privateers and
pirates (q. v.). These vessels and crews
may be hired or impressed, by the govern-
ment or they maybe owned, officered, and
sent to sea at private expense under gov-
ernment commission. The latter has been
a favorite w^y of employing sailors and
merchant ships when commerce has been
hampered by war, and to a nation with a
small navy it affords protection against
formidable naval foes.
The practice of privateering has long
been looked upon as an evil by the most
advanced nations. At the Declaration of
Paris in 1856 (q. v.) one of the rules of
warfare subscribed to was that "privateer-
ing is and remains abolished." The Uni:
ted States refused to agree to this clause
of the declaration on the ground that with-
out privateers it would have no adequate
eea force in time of war. As the agree-
ment was only binding on parties thereto,
American tommerce was left a prey to
the ships of ali\ other nations. In 1861
Secretary Seward, on behalf of the Uni-
ted States, made an otter to England and
France to come under the operation of
the rules of war subscribed to in the
Declaration of Paris, but the otter was
refused on the ground that it would im-
pose ah international rule of warfare upon
the Confederate States then in .rebellion.
In. the colonial wars Great Britain derived
much support from colonial privateers.
Upward of 400 were fitted out and
ravaged the French West Indies and made '
numerous captures along the coast of
France.
In March, 1776, the Continental Con-
gress accorded permission to citizens to fit
out privateers against the British. During
that year 342 British vessels fell a prey to
privateers fitted out at Salem, Cape Ann,
Newburyport, Bristol, and other seaports.
This sort of warfare became so lucrative
that sailors could hardly be induced to
enter the regular service. Jan. 28, 1778,
an American privateer surprised and cap-
tured the British fort of New Providence,
In the Bahamas, and a 16-gun man-of-war.
During the War of 1812 some 500 priva-
teers were fitted out. They were mostly
schooners or brigs of 200 or 300 tons and
carried *rom 80 to 100 men. Of 400
British vessels captured in 1813 four-fifths
were taken by privateers. Later in this
war larger vessels like the Reindeer, Avon,
and Blaheley were built. They did not
confine themselves to merchant vessels, but
attacked and frequently captured British
war ships. They hung about the coasts of
Great Britain, Ireland, and the Canary and
West Indian Islands, and greatly aided the
American cause.
Prize Agents, accounts of, referred to,
773, 816.
Prize Court, International:
Constitutionality of appeals to, from
United States courts, discussed,
7493.
Establishment and rules of, disouSSed,
7120, 7410, 7493.
Eatified by the United States, 7670.
Prize Courts. — Courts whiph adjudicate
the property in vessels captured at sea from
a belligerent. The general rule is that when
Prize Courts
Encyclopedic Index
Progressive Party
a faptor brings home a prize the tribunal
of his own country has sole jurisdiction
over it and the decision rendered is bind-
ing everywhere. A prize court differs from
other courts in that the property of for-
eigners is brought within its jurisdiction,
not Toiuntariiy, as id ordinary courts, but
by force. During the colonial wars prize
cases were adjudged by the admiralty
courts held by colonial governors as vice-
admirals, or by judges whom they ap-
pointed, with appeal to commissioners in
England. With the outbreals of the Kevo-
lution the states established admiralty
courts to hear prize cases. The Continen-
tal Congress established a court of appeals
for such cases when in dispute between the
states. Under the judiciary act of 1789
the United States district courts were made
prize courts, with appeal to the Supreme
Court.
Prize Money. — A dividend from the pro-
ceeds of a captpred vessel and her cargo,
etc., paid to the captors. Prior to March
3, 1899, prize money in the United States
was distributed according to an act of June
SO, ' 1864. If the prize was equal or supe-
rior to the captor, it became the sole prop-
erty of the latter. If inferior, the United
States tools half and the captors divided
the remainder. Privateers with letters of
marque kept the whole of the prize unless
otherwise stipulated In their commissions.
By the Navy personnel act of March 3,
1899, the law authorizing the distribution
of prize money among the captors of ves-
sels was repealed.
Prize Money referred to, 2570.
Probst, Webster and Company, report
of, on land elimination in Alaska dis-
cussed, 7604.
Process of La-w, Due. (See Due Process
of Law.)
Proclamations. (See the several Presi-
dents or the several subjects.)
Products. (See Agricultural Products;
Animals and Animal Products.)
Professional Point of View, harrafulnesa
of, 7950.
Profiteering denounced, 8312, 8404,
8507, 8814.
Profits:
And patriotism should not be men-
tioned in the same breath, 8312.
Reasonable, determination and en-
forcement of, 8398.
Profit-Sbaring. — A system of rewards in
industry by which the wage-eariaers share
in , the surplus remaining after normal
wages, salaries and profits have been paid.
The payment may be directly in cash or
indirectly by shares of stock, insurance,
educational and social benefits, etc.
The advantages of profit-sharing are
usually considered to be an increased inter-
est In the business on the part of the wage-
earner, a desire- to eliminate waste, and a
stimulus to effect his maximum output,
together with a lessening of the class feel-
ing , and hence of industrial disputes
between employer and employee. In many
instances, however, it is claimed that
profit-sharing has been used as a means of
exploiting the worker by denying him the
complete justice due him, and by preventing
him from striking. On the whole, profit-
sharing seems to oe more successful where
the industry is one for which the market is
stable and in which the cost of labor
represents a high percentage of the total
cost of production.
The origin of profit-sharing in modern
industry is unknown, one rumor ascribing
J a profit-sharing plan to as early a year as
1794. Undoubtedly, the general services
, of Robert Owen in England towards greater
democracy in industry quickened the move-
ment toward profit-sharing. A diaciple of
Owen definitely established a successful
profit-sharing scheme in Ireland in 1831.
Its first notable achievements, however, were
those in the large French painting establish-
ment of Le Claire, inaugurated In 1842 and
still in effect.
The movement soon spread and today has
assumed extensive proportions. In America,
however, profit-sharing is not so common as
in Europe — due undoubtedly to the greater
material resources of America and to the
greater ease with which a living may be
earned here. In 1917, there were some 60
large establishments in the United States
under a profit-sharing scheme which covered
at least 33% of the employees. Among
these establishments were Sears, Koebuck and
Company, United ' States Steel Corporation,
Eastman Kodak Company, Ward Bakery, In-
ternational Harvester Company, and the
Underwood Typewriter Company. In addi-
tion there were many more establishments
extending profit-sharing to a proportion of
their employees less than 33%.
Of these 60 establishments, only 7 had
instituted profit-sharing before 1900, and 40
of them since 1907. They were located
chiefly in Massachusetts, New York and
Ohio. Twenty-six of them were manufactur-
ing establishments and 14 were mercantile.
Thirty-four per cent of them employed
less than 100 wage-earners, and 36%
between 100 and 300, with 13% employing
piore than 1,000.
In the United States, profit-sharing
arrangements seem to fall Into several
classiiications. There Is that In which a
definite share of the profits is returned to
the workers. There is that In which the
same rate of dividend is given the workers
on their wages as is given the stock-holders
on their stocks. There is that in which the
workers are given shares of stock, or are
permitted to buy shares not otherwise open
to public purchase. There is that in which
the workers are given wages higher than
those prevailing in similar establishments or
than those necessary to obtain workers —
the plan of the Ford Motor Car Company.
There is that in which bonuses are given
for good work and for length of service, etc.,
or as a result of abnormally high profits.
It Is reported that in England, in the
eighty years preceding 1917, 133 profit-
sharing schemes survived and 155 failed,
but that practically all of the failures were
schemes providing for profit-sharing In the
form of direct cash payment.
Progressive Labor Party.— At the annual
session of the United Labor party held at
Syracuse, N. Y., Aug. 19, 1886, the radi-
cal or socialistic element withdrew and
formed the Progressive Labor party. They
advocated a common inheritance of land,
wealth, and industries and upheld all the
tenets of extreme socialism.
Progressive Party. — Theodore Roosevelt,
having been defeated for the Republican
nomination for President at the hands of
the National Convention In June, 1912,
allegedly by fraud In seating delegates.
Progressive Party
Encyclopedic Index
Prohibition
called a convention of his own followers
and people in general who were dissatis-
fied with the Kepubllcan party and its
managers to meet in conyehtlon In Chicago
In August, 1912. This convention formed
the Progressive party and nominated Mr.
Roosevelt for President and Hiram W.
Johnson, of California, for Vice-President.
The Convention adopted a platform
declaring In favor of direct primaries ;
nation-wide Presidential preference pri-
maries ; direct election of United States
Senators ; the short ballot and the Initiative,
referendum, and recall in the States ; a more
easy and expeditious method of amending
the Federal Constitution ; equal suffrage for
men and women ; limitation of campaign
contributions and expenditures, and pub-
licity before as well as after primaries and
elections.
Popular review of judicial decisions on
laws for securing social justice ; the review
by the Supreme Court of the United States
of decisions of State courts declaring legis-
lative acts unconstitutional ; the prohibition
of the Issuance of injunctions in labor dis-
putes when such Injunctions would not
apply If no labor dispute existed, and jury
trial for contempt in labor disputes ; effec-
tive legislation looking to the prevention of
Industrial accidents, occupational diseases,
overwork, involuntary unemployment, and
other Injurious effects incident to modern
industry ; the fixing of minimum safety and
health standards for the various occupa-
tions ; the prohibition of child labor ; mini-
mum wages standards for workingworaen, to
provide a "living wage" in all industrial
occupations ; the general prohibition of
night work for women and the establishment
of an eight-hour day for women and young
persons.
One day's rest in seven for all wage-
workers ; the eight-hour day In continuous
twenty-four-hour Industries ; the abolition of
the convict contract labor system ; publicity
as to wages, hours, and conditions of labor ;
full reports upon Industrial accidents and
diseases, and the opening to public inspec-
tion of all tallies, weights, measures, and
check systems on labor products ; standards
of compensation for death by industrial acci-
dent and injury and trade disease, transfer-
ing the burden of lost earnings from the
families of working people to the Industry ;
adoption of a system of social insurance
adapted to American use ; the establishment
of continuation schools for Industrial edu-
cation ; industrial research laboratories ; a
Department of Labor ; the development of
agricultural credit and cooperation ; the en-
couragement of agricultural education; the
establishment of a Country Life Commis-
sion ; full and immediate inquiry into the
high cost of living, and immediate action
dealing with every need disclosed thereby.
A National Health Service ; establishment
of a strong Federal administrative commis-
sion to maintain permanent active super-
vision over industrial corporations ; the
strengthening of the Anti-trust Law by
specific prohibitions ; giving the Interstate
Commerce Commission the power to value
the physical property of railways ; the
abolition of the Commerce Court ; Govern-
ment control over the Issue of currency
notes ; the retention of forest, coal and oil
lands, water and other natural resources
In the ownership of the Nation.
The retention of the natural resources
of Alaska in ownership by the Nation, and
their prompt opening to use upon liberal
terms ; the comprehensive development of
waterways ; the operation of the Panama
Canal so as to break the transportation
monopolies held and misused by transcon-
tinental railways ; a protective tariff equal-
izing conditions of competition between the
United States and foreign countries, and
maintaining for labor an adequate. standard
of living ; an immediate downward revision
of the tariff ; a non-partisan, scientific tariff
commission ; a graduated Inheritance tax.
At the presidential election the follow-
ing November the party polled a popular
vote of more than 4,119,50T votes, carrying,
the States of Michigan, Minnesota, Penn-
sylvania, California, South \ Dakota and
Washington, thus winning 88 electoral
votes. This split of the Republican vote
resulted In the election of Wilson, the
Democratic candidate, to the presidency.
In 1916, most of the Party followed the
example of Roosevelt and Johnson In
endorsing the nomination of Hughes by the
Republican Party, and in returning to the
Republican fold. However, Insurgent Pro-
fressives nominated a national ticket for the
'residential election of that year, with no
nomination for President and with John
M. Parker, of Lojilslana, as the nominee
for Vice-President. The vote obtained was
insignificant, and the Party thereafter
collapsed.
The emblem of the Progressive Party
was a Bull Moose.
Prohibition, National. (See also Pro-
hibition, State.) — The political movement
for National Prohibition arose soon after
the Civil War, because of the failure of
the temperance advocates to- gain a pro-
hibition plank In the platforms of either
of the two leading political parties, because
of the Interest aroused by experiments in
state prohibition (see below) ; and also
because there had been a marked Increase In
the extent of the liquor Industry after the
CIvU War.
The suggestion for a national Prohibi-
tion party was made by the Pennsylvania
Temperahce Convention In 1867, and In
1868 a Prohibition Party was organized in
Illinois and Michigan, the National Party
being definitely organized in Chicago in
1869. During the next three years, the
party made some nominations in state elec-
tions, but gained few votes. The first
organized national campaign was Inaugur-
ated In 1872. For the record of the Pro-
hibition Party in national elections, see
Presidential Blectlons.
The platform in 1872 declared for other
reforms beside national prohibition — in-
cluding equal suffrage and direct Presiden-
tial elections. This policy continued until
1896, when the majority In control of the
Prohibition convention decided to make
prohibition the sole consideration In the
platform. In later -years, however, the
Party adopted the earlier policy of Includ-
ing other planks In Its platform.
The prohibition movement was accelerated
by the decision of the Supreme Court In
1887 that the abolition of the liquor trade
did not contravene the Fourteenth Amend-
ment to the Constitution. It was not until
the twentieth century, however, that the
movement for national prohibition achieved
proportions sufficient to make its success
possible. The efiScIent propaganda of the
Anti-Saloon League aided materially in this
result. The World War . served to show
that the belligerent countries could not con-
serve all of their fighting strength unless
they limited somewhat the consumption of
grain for distilling purposes. Russia un-
deniably was strengthened by her complete
abolition of the whisky trade, and England
Prohibition
Encyclopedic Index
Prohibition
ana France also put many restrictions upon
Uquor consumption.
In 1916, the Supreme Court declared con-
stitutional the Webb-Kenyon Law (passed
on MarcB 1, 1913) which prohibited the
transportation of Uquor Into prohibition
states through the medium of interstate com-
merce. In 1917. after war had been declared
with Germajiy, other restrictions were
placed upon the sale of liquors, notably
those limiting the distilling of grain into
liquors and that forbidding liquor adver-
tisements in publications carried by inter-
state commerce into states where prohibi-
tion was enforced. Accordingly, many states
in which prohibition enactments had been
largely ineffectual became "bone-dry."
On \August 1, 1917, by vote of 65 to 20,
the Senate passed the amendment provid-
ing for national- prohibition. The House of
Representatives postponed action until the
regular session meeting in December of the
same year. The House of Representatives
passed the amendment on December 17,
1917, by a vote of 282 to 128. On December
18, by a vote of 47 to 8 the Senate again
passed the amendment, the ratification time
being extended to seven years, with the con-
currence of the House. Less than a month
later the state of Mississippi, by vote of its
legislature, became the first state to ratify
the amendment. The thirty-sixth state,
and last state necessary, registered its
approval of the amendment on January 16,
1920. The amendment was proclaimed on
January 29, 1919 (page 8688), and went
into effect on January 16, 1920.
However, before this time the country
was on a prohibition basis because of war-
time prohibition legislation. The manufac-
ture of distilled liquors was prohibited
after September, 1917 ; on December 1, 1918,
the breweries ceased making beer in accord-
ance with an executive order of President
Wilson issued some months previously in
accordance with power given him to con-
serve grains and fuel (see references
below) ; after May 1, 1919, the use of
grain and fruits in the manufacture of
liquor ceased, in accordance with the act
of Congress approved on November 21,
1918; and by virtue of the same act, the
sale of all intoxicants was prohibited after
June 30, 1919. Congress refused to heed
President Wilson's plea to repeal the war-
time prohibition legislation after the con-
clusion of hostilities in the World War, so
that war-time prohibition was still in force
at the time that national prohibition by
constitutional amendment became effective.
The Volstead Act providing for the strtngent
enforcement of prohibition, both war-time
and constitutional, passed Congress in 1919,
was vetoed by President Wilson on October
27, 1919, and was passed over his veto the
following day by a vote of 65 to 20 in the
Senate and 176 to 55 In the House of Repre-
sentatives.
ProhiMtion, State.— The prohibition of
the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks
has long been a subject of political discus-
sion in America. Long before the Revolu-
tion the liquor traffic was taxed, and the
Continental Congress advised the states to
pass laws prohibiting the distillation of
grain. Prohibition became a purely state
political issue first in the Maine legislature
in 1837, when a prohibitory bill was intro-
duced and defeated. In 1846 a bill with
the same purpose became a law, but did
not serve the purpose and was succeeded
In 1851 by a more effective measure drafted
bv Neal Dow. This law provided for search
and seizure, but the Prohibitionists lost
their majority and the law was repealed.
Later a second law was passed which was
made a part of the state constitution in
1864, and remained in force.
Between 1849 and 1856 prohibitory laws
were passed in the following states and
were repealed or made inoperative as in-
dicated below: Illinois repealed in 1863^;
Rhode Island repealed in 1863 ; Pennsyl-
vania repealed in 1866 ; Delaware repealed
In 1867 ; Massachusetts repealed in 1868 ;
Connecticut repealed In 1872 ; Michigan re-
pealed in 1675; New York declared uncon-
stitutional ; Iowa amended in 1894 so as to
be Ineffective ; Vermont repealed in 1902 ;
New Hampshire repealed in 1903.
In the first two decades of the twentieth
century, the movement for state prohibition
in the United States grew apace. The* pro-
hibitionists, for the greater part, instead of
exercising their strength through their own
political party, used it to influence the old
political parties and their candidates. In
increasingly wide sections of the country,
the prohibitionists began to gain the balance
of power in elections, so that it became diffi-
cult for a candidate not pledged to pro-
hibition to be successful. The various state
prohibition societies became reorganized on
an efficient basis, and the assistance given
by most of the Protestant churches became
stronger and more readily transferable into
pblltical strength.
The following list shows the states which
had adopted prohibition by 1920, together
with the dates when the prohibition legisla-
tion in effect when supplanted by the federal
legislation became law. The legislation was
by constitutional amendment except in
those states marked by a star, which indi-
cates that the legislation was by statute : —
1880. — Kansas.
1884. — Maine (see above).
1889. — North Dakota. (Later repealed,
but reenacted in 1914).
1907. — Oklahoma.
1908.— Georgia*.
1909. — North Carolina*, Mississippi*, Ten-
nessee*.
1914. — ^West Virginia.
1915. — ^Alabama* (passed in 1907, re-
pealed in 1911) ; Arizona.
1916 : — Virginia* ; Colorado ; Oregon ;
Washington* ; Arkansas* ; Iowa* (passed In
1882, declared invalid in 1883, repassed in
1884, practically repealed in 1894) ; Idaho ;
South Carolina*.
1917. — Nebraska; South Dakota (passed
in 1889, repealed in 1896) ; District of
Columbia*.
1918. — Alaska* ; Indiana* ; Michigan ;
New Hampshire* (passed in 1855, repealed
in 1903) ; Montana ; New Mexico ; Texas ;
Porto Rico ; Canal Zone ; Guam ; Hawaii.
1919. — Florida ; Utah ; Ohio (passed in
1883, repealed in 1889) ; Nevada* ; Virgin
Islands.
1920. — Wyoming.
Local option was the system by which
sub-divisions of a state were permitted to
vote upon the prohibition question as enti-
ties. The subdivision might be a county, a
city or a township. The first local option
law was passed in Connecticut in 1839,
and by the time of the adoption of federal
prohibition, local option was in effect in
practically all of the states not shown in the
table above as having adopted state prohi-
bition,, so that large areas of many of these
states were also "dry." Thus by the begin-
ning of 1919, the following states were
"dry" to the extent indicated : — California,
about one-half ; Connecticut, 101 of 168
Prohibition
Encyclopedic Index
Protection
towns ; Delaware, all except city of Wil-
mington ; Illinois, 55 counties, 46 partly,
and only 1 not at all ; Kentuclsy, 107
of 120 counties ; Louisiana, 30 parishes ;
Maryland, 18 counties ; Massachusetts,
about 40% of cities; Minnesota, about
05% ; Missouri, more than one-half ; New
Jersey, about 50 small municipalities : New
York, 20 of 59 Cities ; Pennsylvania, 14
counties ; Rhode Island, 15 toyvus (see
above) ; Vermont, 9 of 14 counties, and all
except 14 towns' (see above) ; Wisconsin,
about 75%, covering 40% of the popula-
tion. •
Prohibition: '
Act for enforcement of, vetoed, 8799.
Amendment to Constitution providing
for, text of, 8688.
Celebration. (See illustration oppo-
site 8760.)
Legislation for, in Pood Control Law,
inadvisable, 8305.
Malt liquors, proclamations regard-
ing, 8583, 8699.
War-time measures for —
Control over, vested in Congress,
8774.
Repeal of, urged, 8720.
Prometheus, The, firing into and seiz-
ure of, by British vessel, 2675, 2680.
Property at Sea:
International agreement to regard,
as exempt from capture by bellig-
erent povfers, recommended, 6338.
International conference at Washing-
ton for security of life and, 5468,
5493, 5498.
Maritime powers invited to attend,
5370.
Eecommended, 5180.
Treaty with Italy regarding, 4098.
Property, Captured:
Cotton captured and forfeited re-
ferred to, 3666.
Should not be adjudged without regu-
lar investigation, 485.
Property, Industrial, international con-
vention at Paris for protection of,
4560, 4794, 4857, 5118.
Property, Private:
Seizure and confiscation of, referred
to, 383L
Shall not be taken for public use
without just compensation, 435.
Proprietaries. — American territory was
parceled out by the various crowned heads
of Europe to personal friends or favorites
or in recognition of some useful service to
the sovereign. Persons to whom these
grants were made established what were
Ijnown as proprietary governments. The
proprietor appointed the governor, and in
general performed all those acts of gov-
ernment which are usually the prerogative
of the Crown. New Yorls, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, Delaware, and
.Maryland were proprietary governments.
The laws of Pennsylvania and Delaware
were subject to the supervision of the
Crown, but those of Maryland were not.
Prosperity, National (see also Busi-
ness) :
Dependent upon ecouomie policy.
6652.
Discussed, 6973.
Evidences of, 6710.
Law's effect on, 6645.
People's, due to dominant policy,
6894. '
Protection.— In political economy the prin-
ciple or system of imposing such duties on
imported goods as will protect or foster
domestic industries. Tariffs are either
chiefly to produce revenue or to afford
protection. Nearly all American tariffs
previous to that of 1824 come under the
former head. But the preamble of the first
tariff act of 1789 declared that one of its
objects was "the encouragement and pro-
tection of manufactures," and the principle
of protection was ably advocated by Sec-
retary Hamilton, in his elaborate report on
manufactures, in 1791, and by many mem-
bers of Congress from that time to the
present. The tariff of 1816 was claimed
as protective and proposed as such by
northern members, while Calhoun and
other southerners advocated it. Later the
relative views of north and south were
radically changed, and the north became
protectionist, while southern members (ex.
eept Clay and his Whig followers)" were
for a low, tarlfC for revenue only. The tar-
■ Ift bill introduced in the House of Repre-
sentatives in 1820 by Representative Bald-
win, of Pennsylvania, from the Committee
on Manufactures was franiily stated to be a
protective measure, and at that time the
question of a protective duty was first
suggested to be unconstitutional. This bill
did not pass, but in 1824 a tariff bill be-
came a law with average duties of 37 per
cent. The protectionists ■claimed that
many of the duties were too low for effect-
ive protection, and in 1828, after a pro-
longed commercial depression, a congress
opposed to protection passed a high pro-
tective taritt, which satisfied neither party,
and was denounced as "a bill of abomina-
tions." The failure of another act, passed
in 1832, to sufficiently reduce the rates of
the tariff of 1828 was the chief cause of
the nullification movement (q. v.). The
Clay-Calhoun tariff of 1833, Ijuown as the
"Compromise of 1833," gradually reduced
duties to a revenue basis. The act of 1842
was protective ; that of 1846 (the Walljer
tariff) was strictly a revenue tariff. The
Morrill tariff of 1861 and all subsequent
tariff acts have been protective. The du-
ties have been high, running from an aver-
age of 18 per cent to 48 per cent ad vjiiorem
on all dutiable articles.
In 1908, President Taft was elected on a
platform which advocated a revision pt the
Diugley Tariff. Immediately after his elec-
tion he called an extra session of Congress
(7379) and recommended a reduction of
duties. Congress, after deliberating nearly
all summer, passed a tariff law, taking away
all protection from hides, and making re-
ductions of 10 to 15 per cent on leather,
lumber, paper, coal. Iron and steel sheets,
and chemicals. The principle of protection
was abandoned in the Democratic tariff
law of 1913. (See Tariff; Import Duties.)
For a discussion of the principles of pro-
tection as opposed to those of free trade
and a tariff for revenue only, see the article
Free Trade.
Protection for Industry, policy of, advo-
cated by President —
Protection
Encyclopedic Index
Prussia
Harding, 8939.
Roosevelt, 6713, 7083.
Taft, '7404, 7795.
Washington, 193.
(,See also Tariff and Free Trade.)
Protection of Industrial Property Un-
ion, acts of international conference,
7671.
Protective Tariff. (See Protection and
Import Duties discussed.)
Protestant Church at American embassy
at Home, removal of, referred to,
3662. 3717.
Protestant Episcopal Church in Alexan-
dria, Va., act incorporating, vetoed,
474.
Protests. — The official papers of the Presi-
dents as they are sent to Congress are
properly designated "messages," but on
several Decisions the Chief Executives have
sent papers known as "protests." They are
sent jn the customary message form, but
contain the formal protest of the President
against the actions of Congress as a whole
or of one or the other of the two Houses.
Protests of President —
Buchanan to proceedings of House,
3145, 3150.
Jackson to resolutions of Senate
charging him with violating Con-
stitution and laws, 1288.
Additional statement regarding,
1312.
.Tohnson to act depriving him of com-
mand of Army, 3670.
Tyler to action of House in adopting
report assailing his official conduct,
2043.
Proteus, The. — Tl^e vessel In which Gen.
Adolphus W. Greely, with twenty-four men,
sailed from St. Johns, Newfoundland, July
7, 1881, and reached Discovery Harbor
(iat. 81° 44' north, long. 64° 45' west).
Aug. 12, 1881, where he established his
station. Tlie Proteus was lost in Smith
Sound, midway between Cape Sabine and
Cape Albert, July 23, 1883, while attempt-
ing to reach Lady Franklin Bay with a
relief party for Greely.
Proteus, The, loss of, and court of in-
quiry regarding, 4790.
FrOtOCOL — A preliminary agreement be-
tween countries or other conflicting forces, — •
reached, by diplomatic negotiation, and exe-
cuted by the signatory powers, — upon which
to base a permanent treaty or contract.
Providence Plantations.— in 1636 Roger
Williams and Ms followers, who advocated
complete separation of church and state and
toleration for all creeds, were banished from
Massachusetts Bay Colony. They journeyed
southward and founded Providence. Two
years later the followers of Anne Hutchin-
son founded Portsmouth, and in 1639 New-
port was settled. In 1644 Williams ob-
tained from the, parliamentary commission-
ers a patent which associated the three
towns in one community. Both Plymouth
and Massachusetts claimed the territory,
hut failed to make their claims good. In
1663 a new charter was granted, which
united Rhode Island to the Providence
Plantations and remained substantially the
fundamental law until 1842.
Providence Plantations. (See Bhode
Island.)
Providencia, The, appropriation for
seizure of, by American steamer rec-
ommended, 3263.
Provincialism of United States, dis-
■ appearance of, 8222.
Provisional Courts in Louisiana, order
regarding, 33^.
Provisional Governors (see also Eecon-
struction; Eestoration) :
'Appointment of, and restoration into
Union of —
Alabama, 3521.
Florida, "3527.
Georgia, 3516.
Mississippi, 3512.
North Carolina, 3510.
South Carolina, 3524.
Texas, 3519.
Referred to, 3577, 3643.
Restoration referred to —
Arkansas, 3423, 3452.
Louisiana, 3423, 3452.
Provisions, importation of, into foreign
countries and rates of duty on, re-
ferred to, 5503.
Prussia. — A Republic of northern Germany
It Is bounded on the north by the North Sea,
Denmark, Oldenburg, and the Baltic, on the
east by Russia, on the south by Austria,
Saxony, etc., and on the west by Luxem-
burg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. In
the northern and eastern portions the coun-
try is generally level, but in the south and
southwest it is hilly or mountainous. The
chief agricultural products are rye, wheat,
oats, potatoes, barley, millet, fruit, beet
root, tobacco, and maize. Prussia is very
largely engaged in manufacturing. The gov-
ernment until November 13, 1918, was a
hereditary constitutional monarchy admin-
istered by a king, who was the German Em-
peror, and by a Parliament of two cham-
bers. On the above date, Prussia was pro-
claimed a republic.
Prussia first became a great state in the
seventeenth century, under Friedrich Wil-
helm, the "Great Elector," who greatly en-
larged the previous territories of the ruling
family, the Hohenzollerns, and developed
the first standing army in Central Europe.
In the eighteenth century, the rulers of
Prussia continued to acquire territory and
influence, and after the Napoleonic Wars,
Prussia again increased her size until she
comprised more than 100,000 square miles.
Under the chancellorship of Otto von Bis-
marck In the nineteenth century, Prussia
rallied the separate German states around
her, and formed the German Empire in
1871 after her defeat of France in the
Franco-Prussian War. The kernel of the
German Empire remained the kingdom of
Prussia.
Before the World War, Prussia had an
area of 134,050 square miles, with a popula-
tion of 40,165,219, but her losses of terri-
tory by the Treaty of Versailles have re-
duced these figures to an estimated 103,385
square miles and an estiniated population
of 32,000,000. At(0Ut two-thirds of the
people are Protestants and one-third Roman
Catholics.
Prussia
Encyclopedic Index
Public Infonnation
The latest available figures showed an
annual budget estimate of 6,546,000,000
marks. The public debt on April 1 1919
was 14,725,00^,000 marks. ' '
In recent years, the chief crops. In order
of amount of production, have been potatoes
hay, rye, oats, wheat and barley. There Is
also much cultivation of vines and hops
The chief minerals produced are coal and
lignite,
Prussia (see also Germany) :
American citizens in —
Expelled from, 3123.
Impressed into military service of.
(See Naturalized Citizens.)
Commercial relations with, 820.
Confederate envoys sent to Great
Britain and France referred to.
■(See Mason and Slidell.)
Friendly disposition of, toward Unit-
ed States, 919.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2267, 2689, 2719.
Eatification of, referred to, 2450.
Immigration treaty with, 3827.
Imprisonment of American citizens
by, 1136.
Naturalization treaty with, 3827.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 287, 296, 968, 1002, 2267,
2689, 2719, 3827.
Impressment of American citizens
into military service, violating
treaty with, 3827.
Violation of, by United States com-
plained of, 2249.
Vessels of —
Application for rights regarding,
621.
Suspension of discriminating duties
on, recommended, 969.
Vessels of United States, discriminat-
ing duties on, abolished by, 969.
Prussia, Treaties with. — Of the treaty
of 1785 the only article that has survived
is that on the neutrality of vessels. The
treaty of amity and commerce of 1799
contained many articles which expired
by limitation In 1810, and some oth-
ers were revived by treaty of 1828.
Contraband goods may be detained ; ves-
sels are to be distinctively marked for
recognition in time of war by passport and
other specified documents. The examina-
tion and search of vessels in time of war
Is to be conducted with ease, freedom from
embarrassment and annoyance, according
to specified methods. Vessels taken by an
enemy and recaptured by one of the parties
thereto are to be restored to the other of
these parties. Humane treatment is to be
extended in cases of distress on shipboard
and in wrecks. ' Citizens of the one party
arc; not to act offensively against the other
when at war with a third party. The neu-
trality of vessels and the principle that
free ships make free goods are fully rec-
ognized. In case of war between the par-
ties thereto, citizens of the one In the coun-
try of the other shall be fully protected
In life, property and business. Prisoners
of war are not to be sent to unsafe or un-
healthy localities but are to be cared for
humanely and with regard to safety of life
and health.
The treaty of commerce and navigation
of 1828 extended freedom of trade without
discrimination In shipping charges or Im-
port duties by reason of the nationality of
the carrying vessels. The coastwise trade
is excepted from provisions. All commer-
cial privileges are upon the basis of the
most favored naflon. The establishment of
consuls and consular agents is permitted
and prescribed with full powers regarding
the arrest and detention of deserters and
the administration of the affairs of de-
ceased persons. (For extradition terms,
see Extradition treaties.)
Public Accounts. (See Accounts, Pub-
lic.)
Public Acts. (See Acts, Public; Bills
and Acts.)
Public Archives, building for, recom-
mended, 7728.
Public Buildings. (See Buildings, Pub-
lic.)
PubUc Buildings Commission, jurisdic-
tion of, discussed, 8848.
Public Buildings, Commissioner of. (See
Buildings, Public, Commissioner of.)
Public Buildings, Surveyor of. (See
Buildings, Public, Surveyor of.)
Public Credit. (See Credit, Public.)
Public Debt. (See Debt, Public.)
Public Defenses. (See Defenses, Pub-
lic.)
Public Deposits. (See Deposits, Public.)
Public Documents. (See Eecords and
Documents.) |
Public Domain:
Classification of, suggested, 7719.
In Alaska, 7719.
Mineral lands, leasing of, suggested,
Eeclamation act, amendments sue-
gested, 7719. ^
Public Health. (See Health, Public.)
Public Health (see also Quarantine
Begulations) :
Federal aid for State and City health
boards recommended, 7104.
Placing Federal bureaus of, under one
department recommended, 7229.
Public Health and Marine Hospital
Service, United States:
Land reserved for, in Puerto Eieo
6708.
Publib Health. Service. (See Health
Service.)
PutUc Information Committee.— By or-
der of President Wilson on April 13 1917 a
committee on Public Information Was
created. The committee Is composed of the
Secretanes of War, Navy and State, with a
civilian director. The appointment of civil-
ian director went to Mr. George Creel, for-
merly Director of Public Safety In Denver
Colorado, and later a writer of pFomlneuce
Public Information
Encyclopedic Index
Pyramid Lake
on political and social questions. Secretary
of State Lansing announced, on May 8, 1917,
that all further news from the State De-
partment would be given out through the
newly-created Bureau of Intelligence within
that department, and that all employees of
the Department Were forbidden to giv? out
to any one information of any character.
(See Censorship.)
Puljlic Information eommittee;
Created, 8247.
Divisions under, created, 8360, 8426,
8472.
Public Land Laws. (See Lands, Public.)
Public Land Oifices. (See Land Offices,
Public.)
Public Lands Oommission, report of,
4535, 6863, 6947, 7096.
Public Lands Division, Justice Depart-'
meat. — This bureau enforces the laws re-
specting the public lands (q. v.). (See also
Justice Department.)
Public Lands. (See Lands, Public.)
Public Libraries, discussed, 6676.
Public Money. (See Eevenue, Public.)
Public Officers. (See Officers, Public.)
Public Opinibn, force of, discussed by
President Wilson, 8081.
Public Printer. — The officer in charge of
the printing of Government documents, etc.
(See Government Printing OfBce.)
Public Printer, letter to, from chairman
of Joint Committee on Printing dis-
cussed, 8847.
Public Becords. (See Eecords and Doc-
uments.)
Public Reservatidns. (See Reservations,
Public.)
Public Revenue. (See Eevenue, Pub-
lic.)
Public Roads. (See Agriculture, De-
partment of, also Mail Eoutes.)
Public Statutes of United States. (See
Revised Statutes.)
Public Supplies. (See Supplies, Pub-
lic.)
Public Utilities GOmmission, recom-
mended for District of Columbia,
7547, 7821.
Public Works (see also Internal Im-
provements), resumption of, urged,
8642.
Publications, Division of, Agriculture
Department. — An office in the Department
of Agriculture to which Is entrusted the edit-
ing of agricultural publications, particularly
the Tear Book of the department. This
office also has charge of all the printing and
illustrating done for the Department of Agri-
culture, as well as the distribution of the
documents after, they are printed. The pub-
lications include regular "Farmers' Bulle-
tins." "Experiment Station Record," "Month-
•</ Weather Review." and "(irop Reporter,"
also works of more special character. These
are givep free to scientific institutions and
to collaborators of the department, libraries,
colleges and experiment stations. The ex-
penditures of the bureau in this line amount
to about $4,500,000 per year.
Publications, Official. (See Eecords
and Documents.)
Publicity:
Corporations and, 6711.
Diplomacy and, 8422.
Trust methods and, 6648.
Puebla (Mexico), Battle of. — After Gen.
Scott had proceeded on his march to the
City of Mexico, Gen. Rea, a guerrilla chief,
was joined by Santa Anna. Col. Childs,
commandant of the Puebla garrison left by
Scott, sent Capt. Blanchard with thirty-
three men to capture a band of guerrillas.
Blanchard and twenty-two men were am-
buscaded and liilled the latter part of Au-
gust, 1847. Sept. 25 Santa Anna demanded
the surrender of the forts at Puebla.
Childs. who had only about 360 men. re-
fused and maintained his position in spite
of an almost continuous fire of the Mexicans,
until relieved by reenforcements under Gen.
Lane, on Oct. 12.
Puerto Rico. (See Porto Eico.)
Puget Sound Agricultural Co.:
Claims of, against United States, re-
ferred to, ,3888.
Treaty with Great Britain regarding,
3395, 3401.
Commissioners appointed under,
3447.
Award of, and appropriation for,
recommended, 3989.
Value of possessory rights of, re-
ferred to, 2866.
Pumpkin Vine Creek (Ga.), Battle of—
(See New Hope Church (Ga.), Battle
of.)
Punishments in Army and Navy. (See
Army and Navy.)
Pure Food Act. (See Foods and Drugs
Act.)
Puritan, The, mentioned, 6318.
Purity Federation.— The object of this
Federation is to unite in national co-oper-
ation all those forces in America that are
striving to promote purity In the life of the
individual and In social relations through
preventive educational, reformatory, rescue,
law enforcement, legislative and sanitary
lines of effort. It is In every sense non-
sectarian, and is open to all who are sin-
cerely and seriously striving to promote its
object. Many of the leaders in religious,
philanthropic and reform movements in the -
United States are officially connected with
this Federation. Each year a largely at-
tended national purity congress is held un-
der the auspices of the Federation. ^
Puyallup Commission, report of, trans-
mitted, 5663.
Puyallup Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Pyramid Lake Reservation, Nev., aeree-
ment for cession of portion of, 5649.
Quadruple Alliance
Encyclopedic Index
Queen Anne's
Quadruple Alliance. (See Central Pow-
ers.)
Quallah Battoo, Sumatra, American citi-
, zens murdered in, 1138.
Quapaw Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Quarantine. — A term derived from the
French word "quarantalne" (m. Lat. qua-
rantena), meaning "forty days." Passen-
gers on vessels arriving at Venice from the
Levant were formerly required to remain
forty days In the House of St. Lazarus or
Lazaretto, This regulation was after-
wards adopted by other ports in southern
Europe, and, with various changes in the
period of detention, extended to travelers
from all ports whence contagion might be
carried. In the United States quarantine en-
actments were passed by the colonial legis-
latures and subsequently for many years
by the states. The flrst national quarantine
act was passed Feb. 23, 1799, and required
Federal officers to aid in the execution of
state or municipal quarantine regulations.
In . 1878, however, a national quarantine
law was passed authorizing the establish-
ment, in certain contingencies, of national
quarantines. In March, 1883, $100,000 was
appropriated by the Federal Government for
maintaining quarantine stations along the
coasts, and the authority for declaring
quarantine was conferred upon the Presi-
dent. Most of the quarantine stations are
under state supervision. The mode of pro-
cedure is as follows : On the arrival of a
vessel she is visited by the health officer,
who examines her bill of health, musters
the passengers and crew, and inspects the
vessel in every part. If free from con-
tagious disease, and if she does not hail
from an infected port, she is allowed to
proceed without further detention. If she
hails from an infected port, she is detained
until the expiration of the 4)eriod of incu-
bation of the disease prevalent at the port
whence she sailed. If disease is found on
,board, or if the vessel is in an unsanitary
condition, the diseased persons are removed
to a quarantine hospital and the vessel
allowed to proceed after, a thorough purifi-
cation.
Quarantine Kegulations (see also Con-
tagious Diseases; International
Sanitary Conference):
For Canal Zone, 7966.
On Virgin Islands, assigned, 8361.
Proclamation regarding, 4812.
Eeferred to, 4840.
Eecommendations regarding, by Pres-
ident—
Adams, John, 261.
Arthur, 4622, 4840.
Cleveland, 5877.
Harrison, Benj., 3765.
Hayes, 4444. i
Jefferson, 371.
Monroe, 854.
Eoosevelt, 6914, 6948, 7104, 7228.
Quarter Dollar.— in 1780 the Continental
Congress decided upon certain coins.
Among these was a quarter dollar, to be
made of silver. The United States Mint
was established In 1792 and began coinage
iT 1793; It was not until 1796. however,
that the silver quartet- was issued. Its
weight was fixed at 104 grains. It was
reduced to 93 grains in 1853, and by the
coinage act of 1873 was raised to 96.45
grains, or 0.200 of an ounce, the present
weight, and 900 fine. The coin is legal
tender to the amount of $10. The quarter
dollar of 1827 is one of the rare coins of
the United States. There were no issues
of this coin during the years 1798 to 1803,
1808 to 1815, nor during 1817, 1824, 1826,
and 1830.
Quarter Eagle, — A gold coin of the Unit-
ed States authorized in 1792 and flrst coined
in 1796. It is legal tender in any sum.
The present weight of the coin is 0.134
ounce, or 64.5 grains, and the fineness 900. '
It is coined under an act of Congress of
June 28, 1834.
Quartering Acts.— Certain acts of the
British Parliament distasteful to the Amer-,
lean colonists. The first was passed in
1765 and compelled the Colonies to pro-
vide the garrisons In America with fire,
candles, vinegar, salt, bedding, cooking •af.ea-
- sils, and liquors. This was the first act
requiring the colonists to tax themselves
for imperial object. In 1774 an act was
passed legalizing the quartering of impe-
rial troops in Boston.
Quartermaster Corps, establishment of,
7800.
Quartermaster-General. (See War De-
partment and Army.)
Quartermaster-General of Army, fire-
proof building for records in office of,
recommended, 4524.
Quebec (Canada), Battle of.— After tak-
ing Montreal Gen. Montgomery proceeded
down the St. Lawrence River to Quebec,
where on December 5, 1775, he joined the
expedition which had been sent by way of
the Kennebec and Chaudi6re rivers under
Benedict Arnold. Their combined forces
amounted to about 3,000 men, supported by
about a dozen light guns. Carieton had .for
the defense of Quebec one company of regu-
lars, a sloop of war, and a few marines, to-
gether with as many of the citizens as could
be induced to enlist — in all something like
1,600 men. On the night of Dec. 31 the
city was attacked. Montgomery was killed,
Arnold was wounded, and the troops retired
in confusion. Three thousand troops were
sent to reenforce Arnold, and 4,000 occupied
Montreal, St. Johns and Chambly. May
6, 1776, three brigades of infantry, besides
artillery, stores, ammunitions, transports,
and men-of-war, arrived from England and
the Americans retired, leaving Canada as it
was before the invasion. (See also Mon-
treal (Canada), Capture and Loss of.)
Queen Anne's War. — The name of which
the War of the Spanish Succession was
known in America. It broke out in 1702
and was ended with the treaty of Utrecht
In 1713. The New Ehglaud Colonies Suf-
fered from frequent inroads of French and
Indians from Canada, but the New York
Colony was protected by the barrier of the
Six Nations of Indians, then at peace with
the English. Aug. 10, 1703. Indians under
French leaders attacked Wells, Cape Por-
poise, Saco, Casco, Scarboro, Spurwlnk, and
Purpooduck, completely destroying the last
two. In 1704 and 1705 James Moore, of
South Carolina, with 50 whites and about
1,000 Creek Indians, attacked and destroyed
several Spanish settlements in Florida. (5ol.
Church organized an expedition in Maine In
1704 and proceeded up the coast as far as
the Bay of Fundy, destroying all the settle-
ments and taking 106 prisoners, with the
Queen Anne's
Encyclopedic Index
Quorum
loss of only 6 men. Feb. 28, 1704, about
350 French-Canadians and Indians burned
the town of Deerfleld, Mass., massacring 40
persons and talking 100 prisoners. After
three attempts by the New England troops
Acadia was finally captured. July 30, 1711,
Gen. Nicholson left Albany with an army of
4,000 men and Hovenden Walker sailed from
Boston with a fleet and 7,000 men, as well
as a fine train of artillery, to attaclt Quebec
and Montreal. The fleet was driven upon
the rocks at the mouth of the St. Lawrence,
losing eight transports and more than 1,000
men. The survivors sailed for England and
the army disbanded.
Queenston Heights (Canada), Battle of.
—Early In October, 1812, Ben. Van Rens-
selaer resolved to invade Canada from west-
ern New York. His headquarters were at
Lewlston, opposite Queenston, Canada. The
American army consisted of 3,650 regulars
and 2,650 militia. The British force on the
western bank of the Nis^gara River numbered
1,500, including about 250 Indians under
John Brandt. Maj. Ben. Brock, who had
taken Detroit in August, had returned to
the east and established his headquarters
at Fort George. He posted batteries every
mile along the river from there to Queens-
ton. On the morning of Oct. 13, 1812, the
Invasion was begun prematurely, insufficient
boats having been provided for transporta-
tion. Reenforcements came so slowly that
the advance guard was forced to surrender.
Gen. Brock was mortally wounded. Van
Rensselaer was disabled and the American
command fell upon Captain Wool. British
reenforcements and Indians pressing hard
upon the Americans, they were forced to
surrender. About 900 Americans were taken
prisoners, 90 were killed, and about 100
wounded. The British lost In killed, wound-
ed, and captured about 130 The number
of Indians killed Is not known.
Querfitaro, Treaty of. (See Guadalupe
Hidalgo, Treaty of.)
Quids.— A name applied to the antlMadl-
Bon faction of the Republican party, led
by John Randolph from 1805 to 1811. Jef-
ferson strongly favored the succession of
Madison and the Quids declared war upon
the administration, charging "backstairs"
Influence. They opposed the restrictive sys-
tem and nominated Monroe in 1808.
Quint. — One of the silver coins presented
by Robert Morris to the Continental Con-
gress In 1783 for consideration as a national
coin. It weighed 5 pennyweights and 15
grains and was equal to about 35 Cents.
On the obverse was an eye, 13 points
crossing (equidistant) a circle of as many
stars, and the legend -Nova Constellantlo" ;
on ithe reverse, "U. S. 500," surrounded
by a wreath and the legend, "Llbertas Jus-
titia." This coin was not accepted and
afterwards, wlt(i the mark, became known
as the Nova Constellatio coinage.
Qui-nai-elt Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Quil-leh-ute Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Quo Warranto. — The legal writ served upon
public officers calling upon them to show
cause why they should not perform certain
duties, or why they should not be removed
from office, whether they have acquired the
office legally or illegally.
Quorum.— A word adopted from the Latin,
meaning in the original tongue "of whom."
Legally it denotes a certain specified num-
ber out of a large number necessary to act
for certain purposes. Business In charge
of trustees or committees might often be re-
tarded on account of the absence of one
or more members if the actions of a quorum
were not legal. Unless otherwise stipu-
lated, a majority of the members of any
body is considered a quorum. In parlia-
mentary usage a c,uorum is the number that
must be present in order that business may
be transacted. It Is sometimes less than
1 per cent of the members, as In the case
of the British House of Lords, where 3 out
of 450 members constitute a quorum. Ac-
cording to the Constitution, a majority of
either, branch, of Congress constitutes a
quorum. For the first fifty Congresses the
presence of a constitutional quorum In the
House was determined by a count of votes.
No matter how many members were pres-
ent, unless a majority voted It was consid-
ered there was not a quorum present. This
sometimes led to obstructive tactics. In
1890, during the first session of the Fifty-
first Congress the Speaker of the House
ruled that a quorum was present when
enough members were visible to constitute
a quorum, whether they voted or not. The
Senate enforces the rule which requires a
majority of the body to vote In order that
a quorum may be counted.
Race
Encyclopedic Index
Railroads
^ace Hatred, discussed by President —
Eoosevelt, 7031.
Taft, 7377.
Race Suicide. (See Birth Rate.)
Kadicalism discussed, 8814, 8816. (See
also Bevolutions.)
Badlo Stations. (See Wireless Tele-
graph.)
Badio' Service, Navy Department. — The
name of this service has recently been
changed to the "Naval Communications
Service." It is in charge of the Government
Radio Service, and of all telegraph, tele-
phone, and cable communications connected
with the naval service. It also maintains a
censorship over all radio stations in time of
war, and in time of peace it maintains such
a censorship to the point of enforcing the
neutrality (g. v.) of the United States.
There are 51 radio stations in service, which
are operated both on shore and on light ves-
sels. There is an extensive radio system
operated from various points on the coasts
in order to control the movements of the
United States fleet, and the Navy Depart-
ment is connected at all times with all Its
naval stations, navy yards, and radio sta-
tions in the United States tjy means of tele-
phone, telegraph and cable connections. In
1916, the naval communications service car-
ried 628,997 official messages and 97,084
commercial messages. By act of Congress
approved August 13, 1912, radio stations
within the jurisdiction of the United States
may be talsen over b.Y the Government for
use in naval communicatl6ns. to the- exclu-
sion of other control and use ; and all radio
stations not necessary to Naval communica-
tions may "be closed for radio communica-
tion. By order of April 6. 1917, President
Wilson issued an order to this effect, to be
operative during the participation of the
United States in the World War.
Railroad Accidents. (See Railroads and
Interstate Commerce Commission.
Railroad Commission:
Eecommended, 5640, 5763.
Eeport of, on indebtedness of Pa-
cific railroads discussed and recom-
mendations regarding, 5181, 5384.
Railroad Employees, legislation for in-
creased safety in use of couplers and
brakes recommended, 5486, 5561,
5642, 5766.
Railroad Mission in Russia, withdrawal
of, 8825.
Railroad Transportation:
Bill authorizing payment of, trans-
mitted, 4674.
Discussed, 6172.
State laws regulating rates of, ad-
judged inoperative by Supreme
Court, 5111.
Railroad Underground. (See Under-
ground Railroad.)
Railroads and Equipment. — The first
railway in the United States is said to
have been the three-mile private tramway
running from the Quincy (Mass.) granite
quarries to tidewater at Neponset. over
which was hauled the stone to build Bunker
Hill monument. The road was completed
In 1826; at a cost of $34,000 and the cars
were di'awn by horses. This was followed
chronologically by the Mauch Chunk (Pa.)
switchback in 1827. The first railroad,
however, on which cars were actually
drawn by a locomotive was the Carbondale
Railroad, built in 1828, by the Delaware
and Hudson Canal Company from their coal
mines to Honesdale, Pa., a distance of six-
teen miles. In 1829 a locomotive named
the . "Stourbridge Lion," built In England
from plans of Horatio Allen, an American
engineer, was brought over and began run-
ning regularly on this road. Within the
year the multi-tubular boiler engine, which
succeeded the Allen type, was perfected by
Robert Stephenson, an Rnglish miner. It
was this locomotive, named the "Rocket,"
that made the present day railroad possible.
The first American focomotive to run
over an American railroad was the "Tom
Thumb," invented and built by Peter Cooper
and driven by him over the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad in 1830. This locomo-
tive was defeated by a horse on one of its
earliest trial trips, much to the humilia-
tion of its inventor.
The second American locomotive was
built at the West Point foundry, near Cold
Spring, N. Y.. (where the Parrott guns
were cast during the Civil war) after plans
by E.. L. Miller, and was equipped with a
common vertical boiler. It attained a speed,
unattached, of thirty to thirty-five miles
an hour ; and, with a train of five ears,
fifteen to twenty miles an hour. This loco-
motive named the "Best Friend" was built
for the South Carolina Railroad, which ran
between Charleston and Hamburg.
The bursting of the boiler of the "Best
Friend" caused the introduction of the
"barrier car" on this road. This was a ear
loaded with bales of cotton coupled between'
the locomotive and the passenger coaches,
to protect the travellers from being scalded
by steam in case of an explosion.
Among other very early American rail-
roads were the Baltimore and Susquehanna,
dating from 1830 ; the little four-and-a-
half mile line ' between New Orleans and
Lake Pontchartrain, starting the same year ;
the Boston and Lowell, incorporated in
1830 ; the Boston and Providence, and
Boston and Worcester, incorporated in
1831 ; and the Mohawk and Hudson, which
comdienced running in September, 1831.
For an illustration of an early railroad
train, see opposite page 1337.
The possibilities of the railway were at
once recognized by the rival seaports of the
Atlantic — New York, Boston, Philadelphia i
and Baltimore. The Erie Canal penetrat-
ing to the interior of the continent on the
line of least elevation above tidewater, had
made New York the national port of entry
and chief center of distribution. Even New
Orleans, with the Mississippi River as- a
feeder, felt the diversion of trade through
the Erie Canal. It was the effort to recover
this .trade that caused the Baltimore and
Ohio Railway to be projected. Philadel-
phia, too, began reaching toward the west
with a railway, and the Boston and Worces-
ter penetrated the Berkshire hills toward
Albany. New York capitalists, to maintain
the supremacy of the seaport, supplemented
the Erie Canal with the Erie Railroad. The
New York Central Railway iwas formed in
1853 by the consolidation of five small rail-
ways. The rapid increase of railway mile-
age in the United States is shown by the
following figures for the number of miles
in overation in the years indicated ;
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Railroads
1830 23
1835 .... 1,098
1840 ....2,818,
1845 4,633
1850 9,021
1855 18,374
1860 30,626
1870 52,922
1880 93,262
1890 166,654
1900 194,321
1910 240,439
1915 253,789
1919 253,529
Prior to 1850 there were tew raili'oads
west of the AUeghanies. The first to be
built in the Mississippi Valley were the
Clinton and Port Hudson, Incorporated, in
1833, and the Bayou Sara and Woodville
road, incorporated in Louisiana in 1831, as
the West Feliciana Railroad. These pioneer
railroads of the South have been operating
continuously since 1840. A system of land
grants did much to foster railroad building
in the West. The general government al-
lotted certain alternate sections of public
lands to the several States in the West and
these States ceded them under conditions,
in the nature of a subsidy, to the railroads.
The Illinois Central and the Mobile and
Ohio were the first to obtain these advan-
tages. During the Civil war railway build-
ing was impeded but the westward stride
was resumed In 1865, and only fell off dur-
ing the financial panic of 1873. Adverse
legislation checked the extension of rail-
ways between 1911 and 1915.
Transcontinental Lines. — April 1, 1850, a
meeting was called in Philadelphia to dis-
cuss the feasibility of a railroad to the
Pacific coast. The discovery of gold in Cal-
ifornia turned all Eastern eyes on the newly
acquired territory won from Mexico, Prom
a little known region where traders bar-
tered for hides with the Indolent Mexicans
the Pacific coast became the El Dorado
where the Eastern thousands longed to go ;
' and venturesome miners early on the spot
clamored for supplies the East was anx-
ious to exchange for Western gold. The
only communication between the Atlantic
and Pacific was around Cape Horn, across
-the Isthmus of Panama, or over land across
the plains and mountains, beset by hostile
Indians, hunger, thirst, and the parching
sun of the intervening prairies. The Phila-
delphia meeting was twenty years ahead of
its time. The second step toward trans-
continental railways was taken during the
administration of President Pierce, when
.lofferson Davis. Secretary of War, organ-
ized and carried out a great survey, laying
out several routes across the continent.
/An illustration of the completion of a trans-
continental railroad is shown opposite page
3866.
In response to the repeated demands
Congress ,Iuly 1, 1862, incorporated the
Union Pacific, which, in its junction, seven
years later, with the Central Pacific near
Ogden. Utah, completed the first transcon-
tinental line. (See Pacific Railroads.)
Equipment. — In 1831 Matthias W. Bald-
win, a maker of bookbinders' tools in Phila-
delphia, was engaged to build a model loco-
motive for exhibition in a local museum.
The success of this model resulted in Mr.
Baldwin being engaged to construct a loco-
motive for the Philadelphia, Germantown
and Norristown Railway Company. This
engine, "Old Ironsides," attained a speed of
thirty miles an hour with train, and, de-
tached, is said to have made sixty miles.
This was the pioneer of the Baldwin Loco-
motive Works, later owned by Burnham,
Williams & Co. The Rogers Locomotive
Works were established in Paterson, N. J.,
in 1836. and the Schenectady works in 1848.
After the war the Pittsburg works, those
at Providence, R. I., thei Brooks shops at'
Dunkirk, N. Y., and the Richmond, Va.,
works were established. The total number
of locomotives in use on the railways of the
T'nited States, Canada and Mexico in 1894
was given by Poor's Manual as 35,813. The
number erf establishments engaged in the
manufacture was thirteen.
The real progress In locomotive building
has been increasing the weight of trains
which can be hauled with certainty at rates
of speed previously regarded as phenom-
enal. September 11, 1895, a locomotive of
the New York Central hauled the Empire
State Express from New York to East Buf-
falo, 436 1-2 miles, ip 407 2-3 minutes, an
average speed of 64.26 miles an hour.
The Erie Railroad conducted a test at
Binghamton, N. Y., on July 24, 1914, of the
pulling power of the new Centipede locomo-
tive, which weighs 410 tons and has 24
driving wheels. The officials in charge kept
adding car after car of coal to the train
until it consisted of 250 fully loaded steel
cars, with a total weight of 21,000 tons.
The locomotive pulled this train 40 miles ■
at the rate of 15 miles an hour.
In 1857 Thomas Hall, of Boston, con-
structed and exhibited a small electric lo-
comotive, which took its current from a
stationary battery by means of the rails
and wheels. Electrical locomotives were
tried on the New York elevated "railroad In
1886. After 1890 electric locomotives were
common, especially on suburban lines.
The first passenger coach, used in Penn-
sylvania in 1832, was a stage coach slightly
enlarged. With the increased speed of the
locomotive attention was drawn to the
wheels, and Messrs, Knight, Edgar, Winans
and Davis of Baltimore developed and im-
proved the flange. The sleeping car had Its
origin as early as 1838. In 1858 two
sleeping cars were run between Cleveland
and Buffalo, but they were not popular. It
was while riding in one of these that George
M. Pullman designed the improvements
which have revolutionized railway travel.
His first car, the "Pioneer," was built in
1863. This car was used to convey Presi-
dent Lincoln's body from Chicago to Spring-
field, 111., for interment, and shortly after-
ward by General Grant to go from Detroit
to Galena, 111.
In the winter of 1868-69 the first West-
inghouse air brake was used on the Stcuben-
ville accommodation train running on the
Pittsburg, Cincinnati & St. Louis Railroad..
The transportation of various kinds of
products, such as live stock, coal, dressed
meat, oil, and timber, has called into being'
cars especially adapted to each class of
freight, and steel is gradually supplanting
wood in the construction of all cars.
Returns for 1914 were received from 242
establishments which manufactured 138,178
steam and electric cars, valued at $165,071.-
427. These totals include figures tor 118
railroad repair shops which reported the
construction of 11.049 new cars, valued at
$12,811,087, and 7 establishments engaged
primarily in other lines of manufacture but
which produced 4,481 railway cars, valued
at $3,178,677, as subsidiary products.
In 1914 there were built 185. .S57 steam-
railway cars, valued at $15o, 029,539. The
number of steam passenger 6ars built in
1914 was 3,558, and their value was $45,-
027,083. Of frelsbt and other cars for use
on steam railroads, the output in 1914 was
131,799, valued at $110,002,456.
The number of electric cars manufactured
In 1914 was 2,821, and their value was
$10,041,888. The output of electric cars in
1914 comprised 2.583 passenger cars, 110
freight cars, and 128 other cars.
Railroads
Encyclopedic^ Index
Railroads
Individual Roads. — The following table shows the mileage and operating revenues and
expenses of the more important railroads in the United States for the year ending January
Koaa Operating Ojierating
Eastern District. Mileage Revenues Expenses*
Baltimore and Ohio ' 5,154 J182,620,016 $169,869,125
Boston and Maine 2,258 72,583,880 66,023,668
Buffalo, Rooh. & Pittsburgh 590 13,955,592 15,028,727
Central R. R. of New Jersey 688 44,837,302 40,273,951
Chicago & Eastern-Illinois 1,131 24,795,181 23,996,050
C, C ., C. & St. Louis 2,399 73,856,456 57,427,452
. Delaware AHudson 875 34,749,709 31,671,504
Del., Laolsawaima & Western 956 71,824,047 56,065,261,
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern 829 19,310,380 14,752,523
Erie.- 1,989 91,797,507 87,815,836
Lehigh Valley ' 1,436 64,628,891 59,202,302
Long Island 398 24,381,974 20,586,850-
Michigan Central .' 1,862 78,844,386 '57,841,814
New Yoric Central 6,069 311,032,821 248,940,634
N. Y., N. H. and Hartford 1,986 106,545,119 92,473,381
Pennsylvania Lines 1,764 106,342,609 95,479,271
Pennsylvania Railroad 6,377 378,091,499 356,018,468
Fere Marquette 2,232 35,443,136 , 26,723,825
Philadelphia & Reading 1,127 72,871,823 64,608,174
Pittsburgh & Lalce Erie 225 28,034,188 23,927,306
■ Pitts,. C, C. and St. L 2,383 93,606,303 91,091,637
.Wabaah 12,476 48,847,085 44,391,737
Western Maryland 698 14,610,410 14,591,768
Southern District
Atlantic Coast Line 4,868 63,669,015 63,499,911
Central of Georgia 1,918 21,696,511 19,236,564
Chesapeake & Ohio 2,506 71,475,016 60,676,473
Illinois Central 4,793 107,886,836 98,911,080
Louisville & Nashville 5,033 107,614,966 92,644,138
Norfolk & Western 2,088 76,925,599 64,021,285
Seaboard Air Line , i • ■ ■ • 3,563 41,183,632 37,466,817
Southern 6,984 129,787,812 113,744,813
Yazoo & Miss. Valley 1,382 24,962,130 19,286,123
ffestern District.
Atchison, Top. & Santa Fe 8,650 179,904,498 130,502,244
Chicago & Alton . 1,051 25,272,334 23,653,711
Chicago & Northwestern 8,090 139,689,916 119,579,387
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy .• . . . 9,372 164,011,438 120,492,962
Chicago Great Western 1,496 22,128,189 ,19,305,163
Chic, Milwaukee & St. P 10,647 160,370,394 138,661,705
Chic, Rock Island & Pao 7,596 111,678,655 97.022,767
Chic, St. P., M. & Om 1,749 27,732,019 23,316,465
Denver & Rio Grande 2,593 33,016,257 25,656,971
Great Northern. 8,219 106,533,739 86,728,018
M., S. P. and St. Ste. M 4,243 42,661,595 34,406,785
Miss., K. and T 1,716 34,272,092 29,190,162
M., K. &T. ofT 1,796 26,244,514 25,162,041
Missouri Pacific , 7,205 93,577,081 83,367,624
Northern Pacific 6,692 100,739,354 76,179,715
Oregon Short Line 2,348 38,260,580 25,098,364
Or.-W. Ry. & N. Co 2,070 28,367,603 22,737,662
St. L.-San Francisco 4 ,757 78,468,730 60,343,916
Southern Pacific 7,047 169,728,932 129,448,486
Union Pacific 3,614 110,819,515 73,936,679
♦Exclusive of tax accruals.
Eight-Hour Day (Adamaon Law). — In the
summer of 1916, a great strike on the rail-
roads was threatened by the action of the
four great railroad Brotherhoods — Loco-
motive Engineers, Railroad Condvictors,
Locomotive Firemen and Bnginemen and
Railroad Trainmen. The men demanded
that eight instead of ten hours be fixed as
the standard day's work, which at that
time was fixed at either ten hours or a
run of 100 miles. The railroads refused the
demand, a referendum showed 95% of the
Brotherhood members ready to strike to
enforce their demands, efforts at arbitra-
tion in July and August came to naught,
and a strike would have completely para-
lysed trafiSc. Under those circumstances.
President Wilson, In order to avert the
strike, which had been called for September
4, went before Congress on August 29, and
asked that eight hours be fixed by legisla-
tion as the standard day's work on the
railroads. A bill to this effect, drafted by
Representative 4damson, passed the House
on September 1, by a vote of 239 to 56,
and the Senate on the following day by 43
to 28. The bill was approved by the'Pre^sl-
dent on September 3, and the strike was
called off.
The bill provided that after Jan. 1, 1917,
eight hours should be regarded as a basis
of reckoning for a day's pay of men engaged
in the operation of railroad trains in in-
terstate commerce (excepting roads less than
100 miles long and electric lines), that they
should receive pro rata pay for work in
excess of eight hours, and that their rate
of compensation should not be changed
pending an investigation for from six to
nine months of the effect of the eight-hour
day upon the railroads by a commission to
be appointed by the President.
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Railroads
UIVIDEN'DS ^
The following table shows the percentage of stock which yielded dividends, the amount
of the stock yielding dividends, the nmount of dividends declared, the average rate of the
dividend-yielding stock, and the ratio of dividends declared to all stock, for some recent
years.
) Ratio oj
Per Cent J mount Rate on Dividends
Stock Stock Dividend- Declared
Year Yielding Yielding Dividends Yielding to all
Beginning Dividends Dividends Declared Stock Stock
1919* 58 85,138,851,230 S33'9,185,6.58 ' 6.6, 3.8
1918* 62 5,610,774,033 381,851,548 ' 6.8 4.2 .
1917* 62 5,430,123,235 366,561,494 6.7ii 4.2
1916** 60 5,219,846,562 328,477,938 6.3 3.8
1914** 66 5,780,982,416 369,077,546 6.4 4.2
1911** 67 5,412,578,467 405,771,416 7.5 S.O
1906** 63 4,119,086,714 237,964,482 5.8 3.6
1901** 46 2,668,969,895 139,597,972 5.2 2.4
1896** 30 1,485,618,453 85,287,543 5.7 1.7
1891** 36 1,598,131,933 87,071,613 5.5 2.0
(*)January 1. (**)July 1.
In March, 1917, dissatisfaction with the
delay in obtaining the benefits of the Adam-
son Law caused a strike again to impend,
but the danger was averted by arbitration,
and by the Supreme Court's verdict in that
month, by a vote of 5 to 4, that the Adam-
son Law was constitutional. The Commis-
sion of three mentioned in the Adamson
Law, comprising Messrs. Goethals, Clark and
Rublee, reported their findings in January,
1918 ; but by that time the railroads had
been taken over by the Government, witS
the eight-hour day used as the standard for
a day's work.
Federal Control. — ^The circumstances lead-
ing up to federal control of the transporta-
tion systems of the country are adequately
described by President Wilson himself on
pages 8409 to 8413 and 8418 to 8421.
There remain to bd added only the facts that
much of the inability of private manage-
ment to handle the railroads of the country
satisfactdrily under war conditions was due
to priority orders for munitions, steel, food
and fuel, etc., and that private control was
unable to provide for new equipment to
the extent made possible by federal control
because of various legal restrictions ana
heeause of the abnormal condition of the
money and security markets.
A law enacted by Congress and approved
by the President on March 21, 1918, pro-
vided for the operation of the railroads
under federal control and for the compensa-
tion of their owners, etc. During the
period of federal control each carrier Is to
receive annually a sum equal to Its average
annual operating income for the three years
ending June 30, 1917. Any Income above
that amount remains the property of the
United States, the figures to be dbtainea
by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
War taxes for the period beginning with
January 1, 1918, and all taxes prior thereto
must be paid by the carrier from Its own
funds, later taxes being paid put of reve-
nues derived by the government under fed-
eral control. The government shall consider
as part of the expenses of operation the
cost of maintenance, repair, and deprecia-
tion and the creation of reserves, etc., neces-
sary to return the roads to the owners at
the end of federal control in the same con-
dition as when acquired. Wherever it is
apparent to the President that abnormal
conditions in 1914-7 make the above re-
muneration unfair, he may make with the
carriers concerned such other agreement as
seems to him just and fair.
Street and Interurban electric lines, how-
ever, are excluded from the, provisions of
the Act.
T^he average net' income of the railroads
for 1014-7 was the highest in 'the history
of the railroads of the country, as Indicated
by the following figures :
1915 S 728,212,079
1916 1,043,839,822
1917 1,069,750,514
Average 947,267,472
The railroads were returned to their
private owners by the Government on March
1, 1920, so that the period of Government
control comprised twenty-six months. Dur-
ing tl^at time, the administration of the
railroads lay in the hands of the United
States Railroad Administration, created for
that purpose. Its first head was William
G. McAdoo, who was succeeded by Walker
D. Hines. Two days before the roads were
returned to private control. Railroad Admin-
istrator Hines submitted to President
Wilson a report covering the twenty-six
months of federal control, of which the
salient features were as 'follows : —
The total estimated excess of operating
expenses, including the guarantee to the
roads, over operating revenues was $854,-
423,434. In addition, there was charged
against additions and Improvement of road-
ways and equipment, net, $318,924,673.
Allocated equipment funded through equip-
ment trusts amounted to $357,011,454, and
other items, Including general investments
of the Railroad Administration, brought the
total of Indebtedness and ' Investment to
$1,031,899,451. Items on account of the
express companies (q. v.) are included In
these figures. To meet this grand total of
$1,886,322,885, Congress had appropriated
$500,000,000 in the original Fed«ral Control
Act, $750,000,000 as a deficiency measure
and $200,000,000 in the bill returning the
railroads, leaving an additional stpproprla-
tlon of $436,322,885 to be met after March
1, 1920. ,
Passenger trafiic during Government op-
eration is seen from the following table of
passengers carried one mile on Class I
railroads for the preceding years :
Year Ending:
1914, June 30 34,496,782.289
1915, June 30 31,789,928,187
1916 December 31 34,585,952,026
1917, December 31 39,361,369,062
1918, December 31 42,498,248,256
1919, December 31 (partly
estimated) 46,351 ,863,983
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Railroads
During the Government administration of the railroads, wages were suhstantlally In-
creased ; and the eight-hour day was established as the general policy, whereas it previously
had been in effect for only some classes of employees prior to federal control. Thus the
number of employees increased in the' twenty-six months, but the paid-for hours of work
decreased as shown by the following table :
' 1916 191? 1918 1919*
Employees 1,647,09'? 1,723,734 1,820,660 1,891,607
Equated Hours Worked 5,189,790,716 5,406,878,384 5,641,820,405 5,126,142,664
Revenue Ton MUes 362,444,397,129 392,547,347,880 403,070,816,694 363,240,000,000
Passenger Miles 34,585,952,026 39,361,369,062 42,498,248,256 46,200,000,000
Average Hours per Employee,
Month 263 261 258 226
*Partly Estimated.
Ton-miles of freight per mile of road per
day by monthly averages for 1917, 1918 and
1919 are shown in the following table : '
1919 191S 1917
January 4,275 3,878 4,770
February j 4,002 4,591 4,511
March 4,059 5,273 6,192
April 4,124 5,471 6,257
May 4,524 5,226 5,617
June 4,615 5,423 5,694
July 4,878 5,487 5,441
August 5,075 5,691 5,351
September 5,625 5,731 5,217
October 5,651 6,684 6,386
November 4,711 6,155 5,298
December 4,688 5,184 6,121
The Railroad Administration, for pur-
poses of directing the railroads, divided the
•country into a number of sections, each of
which had its own administration and its
own administrator. To a great extent, the
Sfeveral railroads were managed so as to
preserve their identity, thus making pos-
sible their return to their, private owners.
Most of the railroad officials under private
management were utilized for administra-
tion by the Railroad Administration. In
the summer of 1918, during federal con-
trol, a substantial Increase in rates was
put into effect.
The revenue-ton miles of freight handled
by the railroads in the preceding four years
was given in Mr. Hines' report as follows :
1916 362,444,397,129
1917 392,547,347,886
1918 403,070,816,694
1919 (Partly Estimated) . . 363,240,000,000
Esch-Cummins Law. — The bill, known as
the Esch-Cummins Bill, prescribing the
conditions under which the * railroads were -
to operate after being returned to private
control, passed the House of Representa-
tives on February 21, 1920, by a vote of
250 to 150 and the Senate on February 23
by a vote of 47 to 11 ; it was approved by
President Wilson on February 28.
The bill provided that current rates,
classiflcations, etc., be not changed until
September 1, 1920, after which the Inter-
state Commerce Commission resumes con-
trol of them. All carriers were guaranteed
the same compensation as under Govern-
ment control for six months after the end
of that control. The bill created a revolv-
ing fund of $300,000,000 for the making of
new loans to the railroads within two years,
but these loans are obtainable only by the
authorization of the Interstate Commerce
Commission, and must be repaid within Ave
years of their issuance.
A Railway Labor Board of nine members,
appointed by the President, is created to
settle labor disputes on the railroads.
Labor boards for adjustment may also be
established by • agreement between the
carriers and the employees, and in case of
their failure to agree their dispute is
appealed to the Railway Labor Board of
nine. The latter shall consist of three
members representing Labor, three represent-
ing the railroads and three the public, and
their appointment by the President must be
ratified by the Senate. The salaries of the
members are fixed at $10,000 annually. The
Board must rely chiefly upon public opinion
to enforce its awards, as the bill contains
no provision for compulsory acceptance of
the award of arbitration.
The bill directs the Interstate Commerce
Commission to consider 5%% as a fair
return upon the valuation of railroad pro-
perty when it takes up rates, which may
be increased at the Commission's discretion
to 6%, during the two years beginning
March 1, 1920. If any carrier earns a ni't '
operating income of more than 6% in any
years, one-half of the excess must be
placed in a reserve fund and one-half in a
general contingent fund for loans to
carriers.
The power of the Interstate Commerce
Commission over the railroads before federal
control is restored, together with new
powers, such as that of authorizing the
issue of railroad securities. The Inter-
state Commerce Commission is increased
from nine to eleven members, and their
annual salaries from $10;000 to $12,000.
In accordance with the above provisions,
the Interstate Commerce Commission in the
summer of 1920 granted the railroads an
increase of rates, which went into effect in
August, 1920.
Physioal Evaluation. — ^For a number of
years, the Interstate Commerce Commission
has been engaged Upon the stupendous task
of fixing the physical valuation of all rail-
road property. On July 31, 1920, the Com-
mission announced that it tentatively put
the physical valuation at $18,900,000,000 as
against an estimate of $20,040,572,611 sub-
mitted by the railroads.
For the powers over the railroads enjoyed
by the Interstate Commerce Commission, and
for discussion of the subject, see the hearl-
ings under Interstate Commerce Commission.
Statistics of Raileoads.
Equipment. — The following table shows ■
the equipment of the Class I railroads of
the United States In service on January 1,
1920 :—
Locomotives 65,652
Steam 65,300
Other 352
Cars 2,529,012
Freight 2,370,050
Passenger 53,770
Company-service* 105,192
Floating Equipment* 2,745
Steam and tug-boats* 444
Barges, floats, canal boats* . . 2,020
Other* 281
•Jan. 1, 1919.
NOTE.— The term Olasa I Carriers In-
cludes railroads operating more than 23(1.-
000 miles of the total in the country of
about 260,000 miles actually operated.
Railroads
The following tables show the
in recent years :
Year Paying
Ending Passengers
Jan. 1 Carried
1920 1,177,554,221
1919 1,084,997,896
i91S ■. .1,066,638,474
1917 1,00,';,954,777
1915* 936,368,539
■ *June 30.
Year
\ Ending Tons
Jan. 1 Carried
1920 2,253,594,726
1919 2,540,853,830
1918 2,518,132,432
1917 2,426,557,938
1915* 1,904,798,701
*June 30.
ncyclopedic Index
Railroads
stent of the servl
re performed by our Class
1 I railroads
TRAFFIC-PASSENGEE
Passengers
Carried
One Mile
Average
Receipts
Jrom Each
Passenger
Average
Receipts
per Passen-
ger per Mile
Average
Journey
per Passen'
ger. Miles
46,331,863,983
42,676,379,199
39,476,858,549
34,585,952,026
31,789,928,187
$1.00
.95
.77
.70
.67
$.02S
.024
.021
.020
.020
39.4
39.3
37.0
34.4
34.0
TEAFFIC-FREIGHT
Tons Average
Carried Receipts
I Mile. Per Ton
Average
Receipts
Per Ton
Per Mile
Average
Haul
Miles
395,620,841,879
440,001,713,663
430,319,014,635
396,365,917,082
302,786,500,454
S1.745
1.492
1.242
1.175
1.174
$.0097
.0085
.0071K
.0071
.0072
180
176
174
166
163
Of the freight cars, there were 1,058,687
box cars ; 958,617 coal cars ; 109,120 flat
cars ; 84,565 stock cars ; 61,912 refriger-
ator cars ; 9,719 tank cars ; 86,430 other
freight-carrying. '
Of the Class I carriers, as grouped by the
Interstate Commerce Commission, the aggre-
gate capacity of the 2,325,562 freight cars,
on January 1, 1919. was 96,766,585 tons
making an average of 41.6 tons per car. Of
the total number, 612,255 were steel cars
and 832,472 were steel-underframe cars.
Of the 56,811 passenger cars in service,
there were on January 1, 1919, 29,694
coaches ; 11,979 baggage and express cars ;
;">.618 combination passenger cars ; 3,149
other combination car.'; ; 1,352 dining cars ;
1,280 postal cars ; ."i!i8 parlor cars ; 566
sleeping cars ; and 2,370 others.
Number and Classification of Envployees.
— A recent figure for the employees on the
Class I railroads of the United States was
1,837,663. Of these, 4,320 were general
officers with annual salaries above $3,000,
3,225 general oflicers with annual salaries
below $3,000, 1,880 ^division officers with
annual salaries above $3,000, 9,766 division
officers below that figure, 146,189 clerks
with annual salaries of $900 or more, and
5.1,522 clerks with annual salaries below
.$900.
The best represented other classifications
were as follows : Foremen, 70,273 ; ma-
chinists, 46,337 ; carpenters, 54,707 ; car
Inspectors, 21,734 ; car repairers, 72,766 ;
mechanics' helpers and apprentices, 98,106 ;
section men, 261,658 ; other unskilled labor-
ers, 115,942.
Construction gangs and work trains,
members, 35,785 ; telegraphers, telephoners
and block operators, 33,023 ; station agents,
34,232 ; station service employees, 114,191 ;
yard engineers, firemen, conductors, brake-
men and other yard employees, 134,551.
Enginehousemen, 63,652 ; road freight
engineers, 34,990 ; road freight firemen and
helpers, 38,102 ; road freight conductors,
27,(;79 ; road freight brakemen and fiag-
men, 69,048.
Road passenger engineers, 12,709 ; road
passenger firemen and helpers, 12,419 ; road
passenger conductors, 10,444 ; road pas-
senger baggagemen, brakemen, flagmen, 19,-
704 ; flagmen, gatemen and bridge opera-
tors, 18,360 ; floating equipment employees,
10,380; policemen and watchmen, 13,503.
Salaries and Wages. — For the year ending
January 1, 1919, the Class I railroads of
the United States paid in ' compensation to
all their oflicers and employees the sum of
$2,606,284,245. The hourly compensation
of some of the classes of employees was as
follows : Machinists, $.73 ; boilermakers,
$.72 ; carpenters, $.51 ; electricians, $5.11
(per day) ; car inspectors, $.52; section
men, $.29 ; other unskilled workers, $.34 ;.
train dispatchers and directors, $.79 ; tele-
graphers, telephoners and block operators,
$.43 ; station agents, non-telegraphers, $3.63
(per day) ; yard engineers, $.67 ; yard fire-
men, $.46 : freight engineers, $.81 ; freight
firemeJ, $.60 ; freight conductors, $.69 ;
freight brakemen and flagmen, $.53.
Passenger engineers, $.99 ; passenger fire-
men, $.71 ; passenger conductors, $.85.
Financial. — On January 1, 1919, the total
railroad capital actually outstanding was
$19,453,273,003. These figures do not in-
clude the Pennsylvania Company. In addi-
tion, there was capital of $486,602,296 of
switching and terminal companies. and their
non-operating subsidiaries.
The first figure above was divided as
follows :
Common stock $ 7,052,291,302
Preferred stock 1,794,425,212
Mortgage bonds 8,108,695,075
Collateral trust bonds 849,716,189
Income bonds 383,986,190
Miscellaneous obligations . . 993,242,271
Equipment obligations 320,916,764
Total capital $19,453,273,003
The par value of the railroad securities
owned or controlled by railroad corpora-
tions Is shown in the following table :
Issued or assumed by re-
spondent company $1,268,008,154
Of affiliated companies, held
for Investment 3,080,076,275
Of nou-afflliated companies
held for investment 393,224,012
Miscellaneous 28,074,638
In sinking, insurance, etc.,
funds 115,404,037
Special deposits 1,386,000
Controlled through other sub-
sidiaries 280.179,642
Total i '. $5,166.352,T.-)8,
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
kailroads
Freight ty Classes of Commodities. — The
following table shows the total freight ton-
nage carried by the Class I carriers for
the calendar year ending January 1, 1919 :
Commodity Tons Per Cent
Agricultural products :
Grain 93,206,032 4.04
Fruit and vegetables. 44,674,265 1.94
Flour 25,590,625 1.11
Hay 16,325,157 .71
Catton 9,077,446 .39
Other agricultural . .• 39,448,806 1.71
Animal products':
Live stock 27,062,217 1.13
Wool, poultry, flsh,
leather, etc 34,342,308 1.49
Mineral products : '
Coal, bituminous 699,739,697 30.33
Coal, anthracite 139,114,272 6.03
Coke 62,504,771 ' 2.71
Ores 199,016,241 8.62
Stone, sand, etc 122,S47,759 , 5.33
Other mineral 40,179,994 1.74
Forest products :
Lumber 151,041,006 0.55
Other forest 41,575,705 1.80
Manufactures :
Cement, brick, lime.. 55,698,311 2.41
Petroleum and oils.. 51,110,225 2.22
Bar and sheet metal. 48,439,182 2.10
Iron, pig and bloom . . 36,542,544 1.58
Rails, machinery, etc. 41,181,117 1.79
Other manufactures. 144,394,6512 6.26
Miscellaneous 184,013,803 7.97
The freight originating on the Class 1
~ carriers for the year ending January 1,
1920, was classified as follows :
Tons
Agricultural products 114,875,641
Animal products 35,459,544
Mineral products 589,735,112
Forest products 94,006,750
Manufactures 168,755,212
Miscellaneous 92,708,869
Total 1,095,541,128
Revenues and Expenses. — ^The following
table classifies the operating revenues and
expenses of the Class I steam railroads for
the year ending on January 1, 1920 :
Revenues— Freight $3,556,734,573
Passenger , . 1,178,119,954
Mail . 57,441,223
Express 127,663,836
All other transportation.. 126,928,774
Miscellaneous 132,206,661
Joint facility, Cr 7,300,115
Joint facility, Dr 2,164,892
Total operating revenues. $5,184,230,244
Expenses— Transportation . .$^,193,264,002
Maintenance way and struc-
ture 778,105,318
Maintenance of equipment. 1,232,701,638
. TraflSc 47,537,552
Miscellaneous and general. . 174,408,964
''Ter'.'f"."" .^°". . l"^!''.*: 6,028,724,
Total operating expenses $4,419,988,750
Net revenue from operation..? 764,241,494
Tax accruals 199,193,698
Uneollectable revenues ... WAla
Operating income 5o4,ldU,^zo
Equipment rents. Dr. bal.. 32,598,295
Joint facility rents, Dr. bal 15,738,644
Net operating income . . . 535,793,287
Balance Sheet.— mhe following table
elves the assets and liabilities of the Class
I railroads of the United States as under
corporate control, representing 179,970"
miles of line, a^ of January 1, 1920 :
Assets :
Road and equipment $15,272,518,671
Investments in affiliated
companies 8,885,397,663
Other investments 966,992,281
Current, including cash,
accounts receivable and
supplies and material. . 977,183,492
Deferred assets 1,797,873,769
Unadjusted debits '. 344,804,156
Total assets $23,244,770,032
Liabilities :
Stock $ 7,192,972,330
Governments grants .... ,2,477,062
Long term debts 9,276,873,602
Current liabilities 958,932,538
Deferred liabilities 1,826,745,187
. Unadjusted credits 1,232,005,501
Appropriated surplus .... 1,035,735,347
Profit and loss balance.. 1,719,028,465
$23,244,770,032
Mileage ty States. — ^The following table
gives the most recent figures for railroad
mileage by states, together with the mileage
.per 100 square miles' and per 10,000 in-
habitants :
MUm Per
100 Sq. 10,000
State Mileage Miles, Inh'bnty
Alabama 6,420 10.57 22.86
Arizona 2,424 2.13 91.29
Arkansas S,220 9.94 2945
California 8,359 5.37 27.42
Colorado 5,640 5.44 56.77
Connecticut 999 20.73 7.87
Delaware 335 17.06 15.56
District of Columbia. . 37 60.93 .99
Florida ' 5,249 9.57 57.01
Georgia 7,464 12.71 25.70
Idaho 2,861 3.43 63 69
Illinois I. 12,133 21.65 19.41
Indiana 7,436 20.63 26.19
Iowa 9,838 17.70 44.31
Kansas 9,383 11.40 60.54
Kentucky 3,859 9.60 16.10
Louisiana 5,363 11.81 28.99
Maine 2,270 7.59 29.16
Maryland 1,426 14.34 10.36
Massachusetts 2,135 26.56 5.64
Michigan 8,925 15.53 28.76
Minnesota 9,163 11.33 39.50
Mississippi 4,447 9.59 22.44
Missouri 8,231 11.98 23.97
Montana 4,954 3.39 104.15
Nebraska 6,167 8.03 47.91
Nevada 2,293 2.09 206.00
New Hampshire 1,253 13.88 28.17
New Jersey 2,344 31.20 7.74
New Mexico 2,974 1.17 69.67
New York 8,434 17.70 8.03
North Carolina 5,492 11.27 22.50
North Dakota 5,316 7.57 69.02
Ohio 9,044 22.20 17.31
Oklahoma 6.502 9.37 28.18
Oregon 3,232 3.38 37.27
Pennsylvania 11,681 26.05 13.44
Rhode Island 206 19.26 3.27
South Carolina 3,697 12.12 22.44
South Dakota 4.279 5.57 69.37
Tennessee 4,076 9.78 17 66
Texas 15,932 6.07 35.14
Utah 2,145 2.61 48.16
Vermont 1,056 11.57 28.88
Virginia 4,677 11.62 21.09
Washington 5,650 8.45 35.09
West Virginia 4,013 16.70 28.30
Wisconsin 7,668 13.88 30.27
Wyoming 1,924 1.97 103.70
Total, U. S 253,626 8.53 24.i9
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Railroads
Railroads of the World.— The following
table shows the railroad mileage of the
countries of the world for the years Indi-
cated :
R.B.
Country Year Mileage
Argentina 1918 21,880
Australia 1918 25,308
Austria 1914 15,739
Belgium 1914 5,451
Brazil . . . .• 1917 17,477
Canada 1917 38,604
Chile 1918 5.611
China 1920 6,836
Cuba 1916 2,359
Denmark 1918 2,645
Egypt and Sudan 1916 4.416
France 1914 31,958
Germany 1914 39,600
Greece 1913 1,396
Hungary 1914 13,589
India, British 1918 36,333
Italy 1917 11,649
Japan,' Formosa and Koroa 1918 9, .^18
'Mexico 1914 15,840
Netherlands 1918 2,113
Norway 1918 2,010
Peru 1916 1,724
Russia 1916 48,955
Spain 1917 9,354
Sweden 1917 9,.S03
Union South Afrira 1918 10,021
United Kingdom 1916 23,709
England 1912 16,223
Ireland 1912 3,403
Scotland 1913 3,815
United States 1919 253,529
' According to the latest available figures,
the railroads of the world have a total
length of approximately 730;000 miles.
Railroads (see also the several rail-
roads; Interstate Commerce; Inter-
state Commerce Commission; Rail-
road Commission; Eailroads, Com-
missioner of; Strike Commission):
' Accidents on, discussed, 6897, 7086.
Accounts of, supervision of, 7190.
Agreements among, when lawful,
7130.
Between United States and Mexico,
4562.
Block signals urged for, 6982.
Casualty list discussed, 6897.
Compensation to, for carrying mails.
(See Postal Service, Railway and
Railway Mail Service.)
Construction of, as military measure
recommended, 3247.
Control of, by Interstate Commerce
Commission, 7200. (See also Gov-
ernment Control over.)
Couplers and brakes upon freight
trains, legislation for increased
safety in use of, recommended,
5486, 5561, 5642, 5766.
Criminal acts of, 7025.
( Development of, for national use,
8159.
Director-general of —
Ability of, praised, 8420.
Agent for suits and legal actions,
8829.
Appointed, 8410, 8686, 8931.
Attitude of, toward shopmeii 's de-
mand for increased pay dis-
cussed, 8776.
Goal distribution control continued
in, 8826.
Express business placed under,
8632.
Powers of, continued, 8829.
Discriminations by, in coal and oil,
7287.
Disputes on, failure of arbitration in,
8145, 8184.
Eight-hour working day on,. 8144,
8183.
Employees of, character of, 6980.
Employers' Liability Law needed on, '
7912.
Executives of, praised for coopera-
tion with Government, 8412, 8418.
Early train on, illustration of, oppo-
site 1337.
Freight rates, establishment of maxi-
mum and minimum, 6977.
Prom —
Atlantic to Pacific States recom-
mended, 2988.
Missouri River to Pacific Ocean,
uniform gauge for, 3361.
Omaha, Nebr., to Sacramento, Cal.,
discussed, 3881.
Government aid to, under Constitu-
tion discussed, 2753.
Government control over, urged, 6978,
7074, 7087, 7200, 8117.
Government operation of —
Address of President Wilson to
Congress concerning, 8418.
Assumed, 8409.
Benefits, of, 8412, 8419.
Explained, 8412.
Referred to, 8810.
Relinquished, 8804.
Returns to private investors from,
suggested, 8420. \
Government ownership of, discussed,
. 6981.
Grant to American citizens for lines
of, through Mexico, 3665.
Guaranteed payments to, by Govern-
ment, referred to, 8885.
Hours of employees on, 6982, 7035.
In Europe, 3270. '
Interownership between competing,
prohibition of, 7447, 7552.
Investors in securities of, to be safe-
guarded, 8413, 8419.
Lands granted in aid of, discussed,
2749, 2823, 3580, 3651, 4065, 4944,
5384. ) . > ,
Forfeiture of, discussed, 4837, 5379.
Provocation of withdrawal of, re-
ferred to, 5197.
Military control over, suggested,
8184.
Railroads
Encyclopedic Index
Rambouillet
Military possession of, taken by-
United States, 3314, 3379..
National inspection and control of,
recommended, 6978, 7074, 7087.
N. Y., N. H. & H. B. R. Co., dissolu-
■tion of, directed, 8023.
Payments to, under Government guar-
antee referred to,. 8885.
Policy toward, discussed, 8644-6.
Publicity of accounts of, 6978.
. Bates —
Agreements concerning, approved
by Interstate Commerce Com-
mission, legalization of, urged,
7444, 7552.
Discussed, 712&.
Equality of, desirable, 6655.
Freight, increase in, suggested,
8148.
Governmental control of, 7038.
Increases in, attempted, -with-
drawal of, under injunction,
7487.
' Maximum and minimum, 6977.
Regulation and revision of, 6902,
6977, 7079.
Rebates of —
Evils of, 6977, 7025.
New York' Central case of, 7025.
Rebates, Federal abolition of, recom-
mended, 6900, 6901, 6976, 6977,
7024, 7025, 7026.
Referred to, 3479.
Return of, to owners, date for, 8719.
Right of way for, through reserva-
tions. (See Indian Reservations.)
Safety-Appliance law, 6803, 6897.
Safety appliances urged for, 6982.
Securities of —
Authority of Interstate Commerce
Commission over, 7342, 7368,
7447, 7552.
Holders of, to be protected under
Government operation, 8413,
8419.
Shipments by, abuses in, 6901.
Shopmen on, demands of, for in-
creased pay discussed, 8775.
Strikes discussed. (See Strike Com-
mission.)
Subsidies to —
Discussed, 4064.
Information regarding, transmit-
ted, 4958.
System of, condemned by Presi-
dent Wilson, 8018.
Survey for, across continent dis-
cussed, 2753.
Recommended, 2558.
Taxation of, discussed, 4730.
Total mileage of, discussed, 5741.
Traffic agreements on, need of, 7342.
Transcontinental, first, completion of,
illustration, opposite 3856.
Transportation rates. (See Railroad
Transportation. )
Travel on, incre&sed safety for, 6897.
Valuation of, by Interstate Com-
merce Comnlission, request for ap-
propriation for, 7533.
Railroads, Commissioner of, report of,
discussed, 5640, 5763.
Ball-vray Adjustment. (See Division of
Railway Adjustment.)
Railway Man Service:
Classification of employees in, 5429.
Amendments to, rules regarding,
5465, 5466, 5542, 5610, 5948.
5954, 5955, 6040.
Discussed, 5882.
Recommended, 4527.
Time for, extended, 5462.
Discussed, 5488.
Discussed, 5882.
Ball-way Mail Service, Di-rtsion of. — An
act of Congress of September 6, 1785, au-
thorized the Postmaster-general to contract
tor the delivery of mail by stage-coach. In
1811, the Post-Offlce Department established
a system of mail service between Baltimore
and -Washington in stage-coaches owned by
the Government, and in 1813 the Postmas-
ter-general was authorized to use sailing
vessels In the transportation of mail. The
first railway post-office was established in
1862 and the first definite railway mail
service was inaugurated in 1864, although
.railway post-offlces had been suggested to
' the Postmaster-general by assistant pbstmas'
ter-general Hobble, as early as 1847. The
present service is In operation over 217,462
miles of railroad, and covers 327,069,708
miles of actual service. It is estimated that
15,000,000,000 pieces of matter are trans-
ported and assorted by the railway mail
service in the course of a year. The appro-
priations for this branch of the post-office
service in 1917 were $31,931,669, and tha
estimate for 1918 is $31,108,410. The serv-
ice is administered under the second assist-
ant postmaster-general (q. v.), and com-
prises 34 officers, 114 chief clerks, and 18,-
649 permanent railway postal clerks. The
special dars used in the service are virtually
traveling post-offices, and although they
are furnished by the railroads, they are
manned by the Government postal service.
In addition to transportation by railroad,
mail Is transported by the Department by
wagon, by special messenger, by electric car,
by steamship lines, by dog sled, by motor
vehicles, by pneumatic tubes, and by aero-
plane. (See Post-Office Department, Postal
Service.)
Railway Postal Service. (See Postal
Service; Railway Mail Service.)
Baizuli. (See "Perdicaris alive or Rai-
zuli dead.")
Ealeigh, The, mentioned, 6297.
Bambouillet Decree. — March 23, 1810, af-
ter the American Congress had repealed the
non-intercourse act of March 1, 1810, Na-
poleon ordered the immediate seizure and
sale of all American vessels in the ports
of France or the ports of her teriltories
occupied by French armies. In this decree
Rambouillet
Encyclopedic Index
Reciprocity
Napoleon avowed his determination to pro-
hibit any commercial Intercourse with the
enemies of France which was not enjoyed
by that couatry also. Under this decree
132 vessels, with their cargoes, valued at
$8,000,000 were ordered sold. (See also
Berlin Decree ; Embargo ; Milan Decree ;
Noniotercourse Acts.)
Ramsey & Carmick, claims of, referred
to, 3065.
Banger, The, referred to, 1030.
Earitan, The, postponement of sailing
of, referred to, 2129.
Katification of Constitution.— The Con-
stitution, by its terms, was not to become
binding until ratified by nine of the thir-
teen states. It was signed by the dele-
gates in convention Sept. 17, 1787, and
by them submitted to Congress. Congress
immediately ordered copies sent to all the
states. Hamilton, Jay and Madison tools
loading parts in bringing about the ratifica-
tion b^ the states. Gen. Washington's
great influence was also thrown into the
scale. The commercial classes in most of
tlie states favored its adoption, but there
was much opposition to it on all sides.
Delaware was the first state to ratify the
new document, taking favorable action
thereon Dec. 7, 1787. , It was then ratl-
tied by the other states in the fpllowlng
order : Pennsylvania, Deo. 12 ; New Jersey,
Dec. 18 ; Georgia, Jan. 2, 1788 ; Connecti-
cut, Jan. 9 ; Slassachusetts, Feb. 6 ; Mary-
land, April 28 ; South Carolina, May 23 ;
New Hampshire, June 21 ; Virginia, June
25 ; New York, July 26 ; North Carolina,
Nov. 21, 1789 and Rhode Island, May 29,
1790. The Constitution went into effect
March 4, 1789, before North Carolina and
Rhode Island had ratified it.
Eatification of Constitution. (See Con-
stitution; Admission of States.)
Eaymond (Miss.), Battle of.— May 7,
1863, Sherman effected a junction with
Grant, swelling the force about to proceed
to the siege of Vlcksburg to 50,000 men, in-
cluding Infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
Grant immediately ordered a general move-
ment on two parallel roads on' the south-
east of the Big Black River. McPherson,
advancing on the road nearest the river, met
two brigades of the enemy, under Gregg 4nd
Walker, at Raymond, fifteen miles southwest
of Jackson, on May 12, and after a sharp
engagement defeated them. The Confeder-
ate loss was 103 killed and 720 wounded
and missing. McPherSjn lost 69 killed, 341
wounded, and 32 ihlsslng.
Rear-Admiral.— This is a naval grade cre-
ated by act of Congress In 1863. This
grade in the Navy ranks with that of
major-general in the Army. Until the spe-
cial acts creating the grades of admiral
and vice-admiral, that of rear-admiral was
the highest naval office. There are now
fifteen rear-admirals ranking with major-
generals in the Army, and nine rear-admi-
rals ranking with brigadier-generals.
Eear-Admiral, rank of acting, con-
ferred upon certain officers inquired
into, 4848.
Eehates, apparent conflict of decisions
by district judges concerning, 7024.
Holt CJudge), opinion and sentence
quoted, 7025.
Letter showing illegal payment in
California, 7135.
New York Central and Hudson Eiver
E. E. convicted for giving, '7026.
Eehecca, The, seizure and sale of, at
Tampico, 5123, 5502.
Eebellion Records. (See War of Ee-
bellion, Official Eecords of.)
Rebellion, War of. (See Civil War.)
Rebellions. (See Illegal Combinations.)
Recall. (See Initiative, Referendum
and Recall.)
Recall of Judges opposed, 7639-7644.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements. (See
Foreign Import Duties.)
Reciprocity. — Reciprocity is the granting
by one nation of certain commercial privi-
leges to another, whereby the citizens of
both are placed upon an equal basis in
certain branches of commerce. A reci-
.procity agreement between the United
States and Canada was concluded in 1854
and terminated in 1866. A similar one was
made with Hawaii in 1875. Other treaty
arrangements of a reciprocal character were
made from time to time. The subject de-
rived the greatest interest from attention
directed to it in 1888 and the final incor-
poration of the principal in the tariff of
1890. For many years previous to this
time the anti-protection or tariff-reform
party had attacked the existing tariff reg-
ulations on the ground that by levying
high duties on the products of South.
American Itepubllcs those countries had
not only to send their products elsewhere
for. sale, but as a natural consequence, to
purchase their goods in other markets than
those of the United States ; in other words
that a vast trade was diverted from us to
Europe because of the restrictions imposed
upon commerce by our tariff.
This discussion led to the adoption of a
reciprocity arrangement with Central and
South American countries. The first step
toward this end was the calling of the Pan--
American Congress (q. v.). Among the
numerous subjects of mutual interest dis-
cussed at this congress was a recommenda-
tion for reciprocity treaties. In June, 1890,
the Secretary of State, James G. Blaine,
sent a letter to the President for transmis-
sion to Congress, calling attention to the
proposed scheme. He suggested a prac-
, tical and prompt test of the reciprocity
principle by an amendment to the McKin-
ley tariff bill, then pending (see Tariff),
authorizing the President to declare the
ports of the United States free to all the
products of any nation of the American
hemisphere upon which no export duties
are imposed whenever and so long as such
nation shall admit to its ports, free of all
national, provincial, municipal, and other
taxes, certain specified articles from the
United States, '-"he "reciprocity section"
was incoroorated in the tariff law approved
Oct. 1, 1890. This clause was held to be
constitutional by the Supreme Court, and
the first treaty negotiated under it was
with Brazil, Feb. 5, 1891. Treaties were
also negotiated with Spain (for Cuba and
Porto Rico) ; with England (for some of
her West Indian possessions) ; with Santo
Domingo, Guatemala, Salvador, Costa Rica,
Honduras, Nicaragua, Germany, Austria-
Hungary.
Reciprocity
Encyclopedic Index
Reconstruction
These treaties were abrogated by the
passage of the Wilson bill (see Tariff) in
3 894. The Dingley law of 189T, provided
for reciprocity treaties, to be made by the
President, with regard to a limited number
of articles ; and for broader treaties to
be negotiated by the President, subject to
the ratification of the Senate. Of the first
class, agreeipents were made with France,
Italy and Switzerland; of the second class'
treaties were negotiated with Prance, Great
Britain (for Jamaica, Tur!£s and Caicos
islands, Barbados, and British Guiana),
Denmark (for the Danish West Indies),
San Domingo, Nicaragua, Ecuador and the
Argentine Republic, but none of them se-
cured the ratification of the Senate. A rec-
iprocity treatv with Cuba was ratified by
the Senate in March, 1903, and the addi-
tional legislation necessary to put it in force
was passed in December of the same year
The tariff law passed In 1909 contained
the maximum and minimum feature, which
prescribed certain rates to be enforced for
one year, at the end of which time 25 per
cent- ad valorem was to be added as the
maximum duty. The President is then au-
thorized to apply the minimum rates to the
imports from a country which gives its
best rates to the products of the United
States, and which accords to the United
States treatment which he considers recip-
rocal and equivalent. (See Tariff.)
On Jan. 26, 1911, President Taft sent
to Congress a special message transmitting
an agreement between the Department of
State and the Canadian Government, obli-
gating both parties to attempt to secure
legislation which will reciprocally lower
tariff rates on about six hundred items.
(See page 7581). In urging the passage of
the treaty, the President recalled Canada's
neighborliness and friendship as shown in
the settlement of all disputes and in the
co-operation between the boards of rail-
way control on both sides the border, dwelt
upon the necessity of conserving our own
resources by buying those of our neighbor,
pointed out the similarity in labor and
transportation conditions here and there,
mentioned the harm to Americans which
will accrue if the "imperial preference"
doctrine becomes a tenet of Canadian po-
litical faith, maintained that the accession
of a new supply of raw materials would
inure to the benefit of all sections and, in
prophetic vein, characterized the agreement
as a step toward closer friendship between
peoples related by blood, common sympa-
thies and identical moral and social ideas.
Animals, poultry, food stuffs, products of
farm, garden and dairy, fruits, fish, oysters,
salt, mineral waters, lumber, machinery,
minor metal manufactures, coal, meats,
flour, meal, farming utensils, fruit trees
and Portland cement are the articles on
which the tax is to be lowered or entirely
removed. The effect of the proposed treaty,
according to 1910 figures, would be to de-
crease the revenue of the United States
by S4,849,933,' and that of Canada by $2,-
560,579. On July 2B, 1911. the reciprocity
measure, having been passed by both
Houses, was signed by the President and
became law. _ _„^, ^^ _
Bv September 1, 1911, the Canadian
Parfiament had not yet ratified the agree-
ment and it finally failed.
Beciprocity:
Canada, preliminary steps toward,
with, 7502.
. Canada, with. (See Canada, Eecipro-
city with.)
Cuba, with, urged, 6«82.
Germany, arrangement of, with, 7283.
Netherlands, with, 6961.
Proteetion and, discussed, 6652.
' Spain, with, 6966.
Treaties of, discussed, 6653, 6714.
Reclamation of waste lands by dis-
charged soldiers urged, 8642, 871.">,
8813.
Beclamation Service, Interior Depart-
ment.— The Reclamation Service was estab-
lished by act approved June 17, 1909, in
order to redeem arid lands by irrigation
(q. v.). The act created a Reclamation
Fund from the sale of certain public lands.
In 1914, 761,271 acres were irrigated, and
plans made for the irrigation of 500,000
more acres. The average crop value on the
land thus newly redeemed for profitable
cultivation was $23.50 per acre. (See Inte-
rior Department.)
Beclamation Service, discussed, 6801,
6908. (See Irrigation.)
BeconcentradOS. — The name given the
agricultural Inhabitants of Cuba who were
by the edict of Feb. 16, 1896, of Captain-
General Weyler concentrated within the
lines of the Spanish armies and cities of
that island. This resulted in great suffer-
ing to the persons thus herded together,
many of them dying of disease and from
starvation. The mortality was so fright-
ful and their suffering so intense that
their condition excited universal pity. On
the suggestion of the President of the
United States, CJongress made an appro-
priation for their relief.
BeconcentradOS :
Appropriation for, recommended,
6292.
Policy of Gen. Weyler regarding, dis-
cussed, 6256, 6283, 6284, 6308.
Eevoked, 6285.
Beconstruction. — in American politics a
term signifying the restoration of those
1 states which had seceded of local self-
government and normal relations with the
Union. The period of reconstruction em-
braced the Administrations of Johnson and
Grant ahd presented some perplexing prob-
lems to the statesmen of the reunited coun-
try : Were the states still in the Union,
with no other disability than that of having
no legal governments, or had their act of
secession reduced them to the condition of
territories subject to the Union? Did recon-
struction mean their erection into new
states or their restoration with their old
names and boundaries? Did the power to
reconstruct lie in the states themselves or
In the General Government ; and if in the
General Government, did it lie with Con-
gress or with the Executive? If it lay
with the people of the disorganized state,
who or what defined that jfeople and de-
cided who might and might not vote in
the reorganization? If it lay with Con-
gress, could the Executive, without the
authority of Congress, proceed to recon-
struct, simply leaving it to Congress to ac-
cept or reject the states so reconstructed?
President Lincoln had proceeded upon the
theory that nothing more was necessary
than that a sufficient number of loyal citi-
zens should form a state government ot-
which the officials were loyally desirous of
maintaining constitutional relations with
the Union (3423). President Johnson pro-
ceeded upon nearly the same theory.
Reconstruction
Encyclopedic Index
Red Cross
The view held by the majority In Con-
gress was that the southern states couid
be readmitted only on such terms as that
body should impose. The ground taken In
support of this view was that the substan-'
tiai results of the war respecting the civil
rights of the negro could not be secured in
any otlier way, because of the reluctance of
some legislatures to accept these results.
Before Congress met in December, 1865,
President Johnson had recognized provi-
sional governments in all the so^ithern
states except one, on their acceptance of
the thirteenth amendment. Congress then
proposed the fourteenth amendment and in-
sisted upon its acceptance as a prerequisite
to readmission to the Union. The same
body on March 2, 1867, passed over Presi-
dent Johnson's veto, the military recon-
struction bill introduced in the House by
Thaddeus Stevens. Under this law the
south was divided Into five military dis-
tricts under the command of the generals
of tile Army, who were to effect a regis-
tration of voters, including negroes and
excluding those persons who had been dls-
qualiSed by the fourteenth amendment.
These voters were to make and ratify a
constitution and submit it, to Congress,
and if it was acceptable the state should
be reinstated whenever its legislature had
ratified the fourteenth amendment. (See
Illustration opposite 3754.) ■
Tennessee was readmitted to the Union
in 1866, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Geor-
gia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South
Carolina In 1868, and Mississippi, Texas
and Virginia in 1870. (See also Restora-
tion.)
Reconstruction Acts:
Interpretation of, 3750.
Proceedings of President and Cab-
inet regarding, as set forth in
National Ivtelligencer, discussed,
3725.
Eepeal of, recommended, 3760, 3870.
Vetoed. (See Eeconstruction.)
Reconstruction of Southern States (see
also Restoration):
Act providing for more efficient gov-
ernment or rebel States vetoed,
3696.
Acts supplementary to, vetoed,
3729, 3734.'
Assignments under, 3749, 3750,
3754, 3755, 3859, 3860, 3861, 3862,
3863, 3864, 3866, 3869.
Expenses of carrying act into ef-
fect discussed, 3719, 3725, 3764.
Joint resolution to carry act into
effect approved and reasons
therefor, 3719.
Joint resolutions to carry acts into
effect vetoed, 3743.
Acts to admit certain Southern States
into Union vetoed, 3846, 3848.
Discilssed by President —
Grant, 3965, 3982, 4050.
Eeferred to, 4354.
Hayes, 4394, 4410, 4445.
Johnson. (See Restoration.)
Government for Tennessee, more effi-
cient for, and other rebel states
vetoed, 3696.
Ratification of fourteenth amendment
proclaimed—
Alabama, 3857.
Georgia, 3858
Louisiana, 3856.
North Carolina, 3854.
South Carolina, 3855.
Record, Congressional. (See Congres-
sional Record.)
Records and Documents (see also Ex-
changes for Official Documents; In-
ternational Bureau of Exchanges) :
Building for, 4452, 4781, 6456.
Documents in care of legations re-
ferred to, 4070.
Laws for punishing persons abstract-
ing or mutilating, recommended,
2683, 2713, 3940.
Red Cloud Agency, Nebr., deficiency in
supplies at, 4312, 4313.
Red Cross, American National.— The Red
Cross Is "a confederation of societies In
different countries for the amelioration of
the condition of wounded soldiers in the
armies, in campaigns on land or sea." It
carries on its work under the sign of a red
cross on a white ground used as a flag, al-
ways with the national flag, or as an arm
badge. By Article 7 of the Geneva Conven-
tion this sign protects its wearers as neu-
tral. The society originated with Henri
Dunant after the battle of Solferino in 1859,
Gustave Moynier of Geneva, president of the
"Society of Public Utility of Switzerland,"
called a meeting "to consider the formation
of permanent societies for" the relief of
wounded soldiers." This was held Feb. 9,
1863, and resulted in an international meet-
ing Oct. 26, following, and a treaty between
twelve European governments, assuring neu-
trality and protection to ail working under
the Red Cross. This treaty Was concluded
at Geneva, Aug. 22, 1864. It was adopted
by Great Britain, Feb. 18, 1865 ; Prussia,
June 22, 1865 : Turkey, July 5, 1865 ; and
Russia, May 22. 1867. The United States
Senate acceded to It, March 16, 1882, and it
was proclaimed by President Arthur, July
26, 1882. The treaty is now generally ob-
served by civilized governments of the
world.
The American National Association of the
Red Cross was organized at Washington,
D. C, May 21, 1881, and was incorporated
for twenty years. July 1, 1881. Miss Clara
Barton was elected first president. It was
reincorporated April 17, 1893, for the re-
lief of suffering by war, pestilence, famine,
flood, fires, and other calamities of sufficient
magnitude to be deemed national in extent.
The President of the United States is the
l-'resident of the American National Red
Cross.
With the entrance of the United States
into the European War, the Red Cross nat-
urally both, altered an,d broadened its organ-
ization. President Wilson placed in gen-
eral charge of its war activities H. P.
Davison, a New York financier. In June 18-
25, 1917, a "drive" for $100,000,000 was
conducted, which netted 'approximately
.'i!114, 000,000. The Second Red Cross War
Fund Drive was held in May 18-,25, 1918,
and resulted In subscriptions of approxi-
mately ,$170,000,000. Under the financial
plan ailopted, chapters were permitted to
withdraw one-fourth of their collections
against War Funds.
Red Cross
Encyclopedic Index
Red Cross
In addition, membership dues amounted
to about $37,370,000 ; sale of materials to
members to $20,300,000 ; contributions to
$9,580,000, which, with revenue from other
sources, made the total revenues for na-
tional headquarters and chapters during the
War period amount to $400,178,000.
WAK ACTIVITIES
The following figures summarize the ac-
tivities of the American National Red Cross
during the participation of the United
States in the World War. The figures
cover the period from July 1, 1917, to
March 1, 1919, unless otherwise stated :
Number Chapters, March 1, 1919 3,724
Membership January 1, 1919... 18,602,769
Junior Membership 11,718,385
Articles Produced by Chapters,
Number ~ 371,577,464
Value, estimiitPd $ 93,977,996
Nurses enrolled 18,862'
'Not including 4,960 enrolled before Janu-
ary 1, 1918.
It was estimated that there were sent
abroad from the United States 101,094 tons,
of 2,000 pounds each, of supplies. Of this
total, 53,492 tons represented foodstuffs.
These totals do not represent the large
quantity of supplies distributed by the Eed
Cross, but purchased in Europe. The dis-
tribution of these supplies was as follows :
Destination Foodstuffs Total
Tons Tons
France , 21,739 52,000
Italy 10,287 16,992
Serbian prisoners 9,483 10,238
Russia in Europe 5,392 5,842
Balkan Countries 3,851 5,791
Siberia 7 3.511
England 340 2,930
American prisoners 1,093 1,207
Palestine 39 1,118
Miscellaneous 1,261 1,465
During the twenty months mentioned
above, the sum of $169,095,111 had been
appropriated by National Headquarters, di-
vided as follows ; \
War Relief In :
Prance $57,207,004
United States 28,977,985
Italy 11,972,819
Great Britain 11,267,304
Palestine and Near East.... 8,320,211
Siberia 8,225,769
Switzerland 5,972,777
Balkan Countries 4,569,869
Belgium 3,875,161
Russia in Europe 2,240,167
Other overseas activities 7,396,576
Handling and U. S. transporta-
tion of relief supplies 5,530,346
Collections, etc., and publications 4,660,192
Administration 4,359,758
Operation relief bureaus 2,727,056
Disaster relief ii§'l?l
Miscellaneous 853,695
There was eMended by the chapters the
sum of $103,580,000, divided as follows :
Materials for relief articles $60,660,000
Home service . . ., S'l^S'SSS
General operating expense 7,490,000
Equipment of hospitals, am-
bulances 3,070,000
Canteen service 2,320,000
Influenza epidemic relief 1,680,000
Disaster jelief fsS'SSS
Public health nursing. §^S>SRS
Transportation of supplies ?gS'SS2
Miscellaneous 18,380,000
The number of relief articles produced
by the volunteer workers was 371,500,000.
Forty million refreshments were served by
the canteen workers. Knitted articles
given to soldiers and sailors totalled 10,-
900,000. More than 15,000,000 soldiers
were served by Red Cross cantfitens in
Prance.
Five hundred thousand families of ' sol-
diers and sailors were aided by home serv-
ice in the United States. The patient days
for soldiers and sailors in the Red Cross
hospitals in France amounted to 1,155,000.
Almost 300,000 splints were supplied for
American soldiers, 3,780 French hospitals
were aided, more than 4,300,000 gallons of
nitrous oxide and oxygen were furnished
hospitals In France, 1,726,000 civilian ref-
ugees were aided in France and 155,000
children cared for in Italy, with 150,000
soldiers carried by Red Cross ambulances in
Italy.
During the twenty months ending Feb.
ruary 28, 1919, the articles produced by
chapter workers of the Red Cross were as
follows :
Articles Number Value
Surgical dressings. 306,966,759 $14,637,909
Hospital garments 17,462,400 22,969,586
Hospital supplies . 14,211,439 5,966,854
Refugee garments. 6,328,982 7,779,056
Articles for soldiers
and sailors 23,328,831 41,858,275
Unclassified 3,279,053 766,316
Total 371,577,464 $93,977,996
The articles produced by the Junior Ren
Cross during this period were as follows :
Articles Numier Value
Surgical dressings.. 6,057,720 $ .363,463
Hospital supplies . . 2,574,564 772,369
Hospital garments . 444,776 578,209
Refugee garments '.• 1,130,188 1,808,301
Articles for soldiers
and sailors 3,174,999 5,238,748
Sewing 1,582,852 791,426
Furniture 756,979 599,946
Total 15,722,078 $10,152,462
During the month of February, 1919,
alone, services were render-ed to 297,000
families of soldiers and sailors, chiefly in
furnishing information. Just before the
armistice, there were 700 canteens and
55,000 canteen workers. Among the sup-
plies distributed free at the canteens were
the following :
Candy, pounds 499,059
Chocolate, bars 5,604,349
Coffee, gallons 1,497,096
Cookies, doughnuts, pies 10,852,352
Sandwiches 14,824,869
Cigarettes 70,518,141
Post cards 15,956,219
Among the articles distributed free in the
camps and hospitals were 345,000 laundry
and other bags, 78,000 blankets, 60,000
books, 617,000 Christmas packages, 8,750,-
000 cigarettes, 964,000 comfort kits and
bags, 3,500,000 envelopes, 985,000 knitted
helmets, 900,000 knitted mufilers, 3,592,000
pairs of socks, 4,209,000 sweaters, 1,200,-
000 wristlets. 1.400,000 masks against con-
tagion, 1,188,000 suits pajamas, 223,000
tooth brushes, 6,307,000 sheets and 477,000
tablets of writing paper.
By Nov. 1, 1917, the Red Cross was
prosecuting In Europe the following en-
deavors :
Needful gifts and pensions to sick and
wounded French soldiers and to French
families in distress.
Twenty dispensaries for both resident ci-
vilians and for better health conditions in
Red Cross
Encyclopedic Index
Red River
the war zones to be occupied by the Amer-
ican soldiers.
A dental ambulance and a nurses' serv-
ice for American soldiers.
A distributing service supplying 3,423
French military hospitals : a surgical dress-
ings service supplying 2,000 French hospi-
tals ; and an extensive service preparing for
all future American hospital needs.
Ten canteens operated at the French
front, with provision for 20 more. Similar
canteens for soldiers coming and going in
Paris. Twelve rest stations and a number
of recuperation stations for American sol-
diers.
An artificial limb factory near Paris,
and special plants for the manufacture of
splints and nitrous oxide gas.
Recreation in connection with hospitals
and diet kitchens ; a movable hospital in
four units accommodating 1,000 men ; a
casualty service for gathering information
regarding wounded and missing.
A medical research bureau.
A children's refuge and hospital within
the war zone ; a medical centre and travel-
ling hospital in wrecked villages, accom-
modating 1,200 children ; medical work
along extensive lines for re-patrie children
returned (about 500 daily) from points
within the German lines ; a hospital and
convalescent home for such children and
an ambulance service for other repatrles.
Infant welfarestations in connection with
each dispensary along the national lines
planned by the Rockefeller Foundation.
Extensive tuberculosis endeavors, includ-
ing the work previously done along these
lines by volunteer Americans. Completion
of an unfinished tubeceulosls sanitarium
near Paris, and extensions to the bar-
racks erected by the city of Paris. A
comprehensive health centre in a large
French Department. ,
Elaborate arrangements tor helping refu-
gee families during the winter with cloth-
ing, beds and shelter. For this work, the
entire devastated district of France was
divided into six districts, with large ware-
houses in each. In this connection, four
devastated villages are being repaired so
as to permit families to live in them during
the winter. A number of portable houses
are also furnished.
Barracks for training disabled soldiers,
and experimental agricultural stations for
them.
Extensive Belgian relief work, with prep-
arations for helping all those Belgians lib-
orated by each change in the battle-line.
Transportation of many Belgian children
into places in France where they may be
cared for.
In addition to work performed during the
war for the soldiers and sailors, their
' families and injured civilians, the Ameri-
can Red Cross in non-war times performs
services of wide-spread value. Perhaps the
best-known of these is that for disaster. The
Red Cross maintains a permanent staff,
with program and facilities for Immediate .
relief in case of sudden accident such as
flood, fire, earthquake, epidemic, etc. In
peace-times the Red Cross enrolls nurses
for special service in. case of disaster; and
they also render constant service in public
health service, rural and small town visit-
ing, etc., while rendering service to the
particular organization which employs them.
The Red Cross enrolls also volunteer nurses
and workers who render nursing service
only in time of emergency. In 1908, the
Red Cross began the sale of seals at Cnrlst-
mas for the fight against- tuberculosis. These
seals, known as Christmas Seals and sold
at one cent each, In many states provide
the chief funds for the work to prevent
tuberculosis, outside of the sanatoria.
From the beginning of this service in 190S
to 1916, the sale of the Red Cross Christ-
mas seals aggregated more than $4,000,000,-
000, and in recent years the annual sales
have been steadily increasing.
A view of the Red Cross building in
Washington, D. C, will be found opposite
page 7210.
Bed Cross, American National:
Aid furnished Cubans by, discussed,
■ 6284, 6308.
Appeal for support of, 8264, 8417,
8494, 8648.
Assistance in Europe rendered by,
7782.
Doctors in France, view of, opposite
8474.
Belief work of, in Europe referred to,
8901.
School children urged to enroll in,
8358.
Secretaries of, to be sent to Bussia,
8592.
Services of, in World War, discussed,
8501.
Work accomplished by, in Spanish-
American War, discussed, 6320.
Bed Cross Association, international
conference of:
Held at Karlsruhe, Baden, referred to,
5205.
Beport of, referred to, 4856.
Bed Cross, Foreign, report on, 6863.
Bed Cross, International, proposition of
Switzerland' to extend compact of,
in Spanish-American War, dis-
cussed, 6336.
Listing of alien enemies forj 8274.
Bed Cross Week proclaimed, 8264, 8494.
Bed-Line Map.— An early map of part of
North America, discovered by Jared Sparks
In the archives of Paris and sent to Daniel
Webster during treaty negotiations with
Great Britain over che northeastern bound-
ary question. It had been executed in
1746 by D'AnvlUe, amd later (1782) sent
to the French minister, Vergennes, by
Franklin. A strong red line drawn near
the r'dge In which the Kennebec and Pe-
nobscot rivers rise more than favored the
English claims respecting the northeastern
boundary of the United States. The map
was displayed in a secret session of the
Senate and before the Maine commission-
ers, and was, in part at least, the ground
on which the Webster-Ashburton treaty
was signed.
Bed Mud State. — A nickname for Neir
Jersey (q. v.), (See also States) ; Domin-
ion State was formerly used as a nickname
for New Jersey.
Bed Biver:
Exploration of, 386.
Unsuccessful, 396.
Improvement of, progress made in.
1442. '
Red, White, Blue
Encyclopedic Index
Regulators
Bed, mite and Blue Book: 8282.
Eedemptioners.— A name applied to a
class of iudentuijed servants who came to
the Aiherican Colonies under bond for a
certain number of years in payment for
their passage hither. Many were kid-
napped and placed In forced slavery for a
term of years. They usually served from
four to seven years. On their release these
redemptioners were awarded fifty acres of
land and became free citizens. The system
was introduced into Virginia with the first
colony in 1607, and In Massachusetts in-
1631. It obtained also in Maryland, New
York, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, but
was discontinued in 1750.
Eedress of Grievances, right of the peo-
ple to petition for, shall not be
abridged, 28.
Referee Board of Consulting Scientific
Experts, Agriculture Department.— This
Is a Federal board under the jurisdiction
of the Department of. Agriculture which
makes researches on scientific questions in-
volved in the food and drug inspection.
In February, 1908, the Secretary of Agri-
culture appointed a board headed by Presi-
dent Remsen, of The Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, as consulting scientific experts of
the Department of Agriculture. The ap-
pointment was made in response to a re-
quest to President Roosevelt by a number
of manufacturers of articles of food, who
agreed to discontinue the use of sulphur
dioxide, saccharin and benzoate of soda in
food 1£ the board found their use harmful.
The report of the Board led the Secre-
tary of Agriculture to find that benzoate of
soda might be used for food preservation if
the amount used was clearly stated upon
the package. As to saccharin, the Board
found that 0.3 grams per day or less added
to food was not harmful. Conclusions
reached with respect to the use of copper
salts as coloring matter for vegetables
were on the whole, that the quality and
strength of the food were not injuriously
affected.
Eeferee Board of Consulting Scientific
Experts, Agriculture Department,
services of, discussed, 7818.
Keferendum. (See Initiative, Eef'eren-
dum and Eeeall.)
Eeforestration, urged on government
land and navigable streams, 7465,
7538.
Eeform Schools. (See District of Co-
lumbia.)
Eefunding.— The process of substituting a
series of low-interest-bearlng bonds for
those of a higher rate or for a floating debt
not funded. Aug. 31, 1865, the debt of the
United States amounted to $2,845 907,626,
of which sum only $1,109,568,192 waa
funded By December, 1867, the floating
debt compound-interest notes, seven-thir-
ties, and United States notes had been
conVerted into a funded debt of nearly
8700 000,000. The refunding act of 1870
Sithirlzed the Issue ol a certain amount of
5 4i and 4 per cent bonds to take the
oiace'of the existing bonds, most of which
were bearing 6 per cent interest. During
the next tei years this substitution was
carried to an Extent *!>?* ^ecreased the
annual interest charges from $82,000,000
to $62,000,000. In 1881 tUe annual Inter-
est was decreased nearly $20,000,000 more
by the Windom refunding scheme, which
converted $460,000,000 5 and 6 per cent
bonds into bonds bearing 3 and 3} per cent
Interest. ^
Regiment. (See Army and Navy.)
Eegister of Debates.— A record of the
Congressi.onal debates and proceedings from
December, 1824, to October, 1837. It was
a continuation of the Annals of Congress
and contains many valuable state papers
as well as the routine Congressional work.
The Register of Debates was succeeded by
the Congressional Globe. (See also Annals
of Congress ; Congressional 'Globe ; Con-
gressional Record.)
Register of the Treasury. (See Treas-
ury Department.)
Regtetered Halls. (See Division of Reg-
istered Mails.)
Registration. — A precaution taken in cer-
tain states to prevent frauds in elections.
It consists of the preparation of lists of the
electors of every precinct, voters being re-
quired to present themselves before the
registrar on specified days prior to election
to have their names recorded and to an-
swer questions as to their qualifications as
electors. These lists are open to inspection-
and scrutiny by the public.
Registration Area. — That area of tho
United States In which accurate statistics
of births are kept. It comprises Maine.
Vermont, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Mas-
sachusetts, Rhode Island, Michigan, Minne-
sota, District of Columbia, New York and
Pennsylvania. At the last federal census,
its population was 31,150,803, of which 30,-
549,982 were white and 600,821 were col
ored. 60% of its population was urban and
40% rural. It contained 96 cities with a
population above 25,000, and 154 cities with
a population between 10,000 and 25,000.
The registration area for death statistics
Is more comprehensive, comprising the
states of California, Colorado, Connecticut,
Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Mary-
land, New Jersey, New York, North Caro-
lina (cities over 1,000), Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Virginia,
Washington, Wisconsin, District of Columr
bia and many large cities in other states.
Registration Bureau of naturalized citi-
zens, recommended, 4828, 4921, 5090,
5370.
Registration for Draft. (See Draft.)
Registry, American, repeal of law de-
nying, to ships built abroad and
owned by Americans, recommended,
5985.
Foreign built ships admitted to, 8006.
Eepeal of law, denying to ships built
abroad and owned by Americans,
recommended, 5985.
Eegular U. S. Army and Navy tJnion.—
A patriotic, fraternal, and beneficial or-
ganization, chartered under act of Con-
§ress, for soldiers' and sailors' rights and
enefits.
Regulators. — in 1768 the people of Orange
County, N. C, oppressed by the unjust acts
of Edmund Fanning, clerk of the court of
Orange, formed an association, headed bv
Regulators
Encyclopedic Index
Religious Bodies
Herman Husbands and William Hunter,
for regulating public grievances and abuse
of power. Tiiey sent messengers to the
governor with a statement of their griev-
ances. The governor and council decided
that the course of the Regulators tended
to high treason, and on their reassembling
in July to hear the report of the messen-
gers, the governor, at the head of a
body of troops, compelled them to take
the oath of allegiance to the Crown
and disperse. Some of the leaders of the
Regulators were held to answer in the
courts for their actions. The following
year another petition was rejected. The
Regulators offered an organized resistance
to the troops, under\Governor Tryon, and
at Almance, on the Haw Eiver, they were
routed by the governor and their leaders
arrested. Some of these leaders were exe-
cuted. Martin, the next governor, com-
promised with the Regulators.
Eelations, Foreign. (See the several
powers.)
Belief Party. — A political faction in Ken-
tucky politics between 1820 and 1826. The
party was composed of debtors and included
a majority of the voters. It advocated re-
lief of delinquent debtors and disputed the
constitutionality of the replevin act. In
1823 the Supreme Court decided the re-
plevin act to be unconstitutional and in
1824 the legislature of the state repealed
the court of appeals act and organized a
new court. The Relief party then became
known as the New Court party. The Anti-
Relief or Old Court party, securing a ma-
jority in the legislature in 1827, restored
the old court, and the Issue was not re-
newed.
Religion —
And morality the foundation of the
state, 212.
' Establishment of, no law respecting
shall be made, 28.
Free exercise of, shall never be pro-
hibited, 28.
Test of, shall not be applied as quali-
fication for any office or position
of trust, 26.
Religious Bodies. — A recent report of the
Census Bureau gives a detailed survey of
religious bodies, activities and membership
in the United States. The figures concern-
ing members, church edifices, value of
church property and Sunday schools are
given in the adjoining table.
The average salary paid the ministers was
$1,078 annually, as compared with $668 in
1906. The highest average salaries reported
were a.«; follows : — Unitarian, $2,080 ; Jew-
ish, $1,655 ; Unlversallst, $1,641 ; Protestant
Episcopal, $1,632 ; Presbyterian in. the
United States of America, $1,474.
The average salaries paid ministers In
some of the other denominations were as
follows : — Baptist, Northern, $1,166 ; Bap-
tist, Southern, $1,072 ; Congregational, $1,-
343; Disciples of Christ, $1,251 ; Evangel-
ical Association, $853 ; Friends, Orthodox,
$681 ; German Evangelical, $890 ; Lutheran
— General Synod, $1,120 ; General Council,
$1,316 ; Synodical Conference, $755.
Methodist fipiscopal, $1,223 ; Methodist
Episcopal, South, $832 ; Presbyterian in the
United States, $1,351 ; United Presbyterian,
Sl,381 ; Reformed in America, $1,368 ; Re-
formed in the United States, $1,085 ; Ro-
man Catholic, $838; United Brethren In
Christ, $912; United Evangelical, $873.
MINISTERS
The number of ministers reported by the
survey was 191,796. The number of min-
isters in the larger denominations was as
follows :
Adventist 1,463
Baptist 49,010
Brethren (Dunkers) 3,626
Christian Church 1,213
Church of Christ 2,507
Congregational 6,040
Disciples Christ 5,938
Evangelical Association 1,051
Friends Ii282
German Evangelical 1,078
Jewish 721
Latter Day Saints 5,990
Lutheran 9,240
Methodist 45,806
Presbyterian 13,602
Protestant Episcopal 5,544
Reformed 2,213
Roman Catholic 20,287
Unitarian 531
United Brethren 2,319
United Evangelical 610
Cniversalist 561
The total amount contributed for mis-
sionary, educational and philanthropic work
In the United States for the survey year
was as follows :
Home Missions $18,466,499
Education 17,888,425
Philanthropy 9,661,749
Total $46,016,673
The denominations contributing more
than $1,000,000 each to the above total
were as follows :
Baptist, Northern Convention .... $6,650,383
Presbyterian Church in U. S. A. . . 5,761,128
Methodist Episcopal Church 5,646,574
Protestant Episcopal 3,567,248
Baptist, Southern Convention .... 3,498,961
Jlethodist Episcopal, South 2.037,847
Roman Catholic Church 1,993,889
Presbyterian Church In U. S 1,580,441
Congregational Churches 1,206,139
Lutheran, General Council 1,180,746
Lutheran, Synodical Conference. . 1,111,694
Jewish Congregations IjlOO.OOO
Disciples of Christ 1,076,550
Latter Day Saints 1,074,118
With respect to work in foreign lands, the
sum of $16,933,898 was contributed in the
report year by the denominations repre-
sented. There were supported 9,873 Ameri-
can missionaries, with 52,253 native help-
ers ; 13,911 churches, with 1,687,824 mem-
bers ; 13,653 colleges, academies, schools,
etc., with 575,916 students ; 791 philan-
thropic institutions, with 2,218,604 inmates
and patients. The value of the property
in the foreign work was put at $52,777,299.
The largest ' contributions for foreign
work by denominations were as follows :
Methodist Episcopal Church $2,941,422
Presbyterian Church in U. S. A.. . 2,272,950
Baptist, Northern Convention .... 1,280,509
Roman Catholic Church 1,200,000
Congregational Churches 1,089,098
Methodist Episcopal, South 984,306
Protestant Episcopal Church .... 822,402
Seventh-Day Adventists 736,046
Presbyterian Church in U. S 586,544
Disciples of Christ 569,416
Baptist, Southern Convention .... 529,405
The greatest number of American mis-
sionaries in foreign lands by denominations
,was thus reported: Methodist Ep'.scopal
1,428; Presbyterian In U. S. A., 1,353:
Religious Bodies Encyclopedic Index
Church
n . . ,. Church Property,
DenomtnaUon Members Edifices Value
Adventist 109,952 1,649 % 3,756,565
Baptist 7,132,888 61,597 197,915,732
Northern 1,232,135 8,105 94,644,133
Southern... 2,708,870 19,770 58,348,373
National (Colored) 2,938,579 20,146 41,184,920
Brethren, German Baptist
™ .(P™fers). 129,162 1,632 4,887,623
Christian Church 118,737 1,171 3,569,471
Church of Christ 317,937 4,342 6,644,096
Congregational 791,274 5,744 80,842,813
Disciples of Christ 1,226,026 6,815 40,327,201
Eastern Orthodox (Catholic) 245,444 259 3,540,384
Eyangehcal Association 120,756 1,582 8,317,978
jmendB. 109,549 901 5,619,093
German Evangehcal 339,853 1,267 13,118,273
Jewish 357,135* 874 31,012,576
Latter Day Saints (Mormons) . . 462,329 1,287 7,194,797
Lutherans 2,439,054 12,552 108,680,807
Methodists 7,139,017 61,151 316,510,94«
Methodist Episcopal 3,717,785 28,406 215,104,014
Meth. Episcopal, South 2,114,479 17,251 62,428,433
African Meth. Episcopal. . . 648,355 6,302 14,631,792
African M. E. Zion 257,169 2,495 7,591,393
Colored Meth. Episcopal . . . 245,749 2,490 5,619,862
Presbyterian 2,244,565 14,931 191,562,399
Protestant Episcopal 1,092,821 6,726 164,990,160
Reformed 527,971 2,709 40,703,037
Roman Catholic 15,721,815 13,120 374,206,895
Unitarians 82,615 399 15,247,349
United Brethren 367,934 3,624 14,494,975
United Evangelical 89,774 905 4,657,893
Univeraalists 58,566 620 7,876,103
\ ,
Grand Total 41,926,854 203,432 $1,676,600,582
♦The number of Jews, irrespective of synagogue membership,
is estimated at 3,500,000.
Religious Test
Sunday Schools
Number
Pu-pils
2,312
47,5lS
95,870
3,939,503
8,188
1,028,952
18,162
1,665,996
20,099
1,181,270
1,472
136,414
1,116
91,853
3,441
167,809
5,804
654,922
7,706
942,879
160
8,995
1,674
172,129
825
70,879
1,244
145,377
3,528
66,522
1,616
181,152
10,094
991,147
60,623
6,449,211
28,580
3,872,264
16,690
1,688,559
6,277
311,051
2,544
135,102
2,543
167,880
15,244
1,936,051
5,790
489,036
2,751
449,787
71,370
1,860,836
334
19,675
3,676
426,951
944
129,453
467
33,272
194,769
19,935,890
in the United States
Latter Day Saints (Mormons), 1,183;
Seventh Day Adventist, 880 ; Baptist,
Northern, 688 ; Congregational, 661 ; Meth-
odist Episcopal South, 382 ; Presbyterian In
D. S., 377 ; Protestant Episcopal, 346 ;
Baptist, Southern^ 307 ; Didples of
Christ, 278 ; Christian and Missionary Alli-
ance, 273.
Of the total reported church membership
of 41,926,854, the number 13 years of age
and over was 36,561,720. Of the number
reported by sex, 35,644,162, the number of
males was 15,653,958, or 43.9% ; and the
number of females was 19,990,204, or
56.1%. The only principal denominations
showing more men than women members
were the Jewish and the Eastern Orthodox
Congregations.
The total religious membership of the
world has been estimated at 1,692,158,000.
Of this estimate, 576,000,000 are Christians
and 1,116,158,000 non-Christians.
Of the Christians, it is estimated that
288,000,000 are Roman Catholics, 121,000,-
000 Greek Catholics and 167,000,000 Prot-
estants. The number of Jews is put at
, 15,000,000.
Of the non-Christians, it is estimated that
227,040,000 are Mohammedans, 311,000,000
are Confuclanists and Tadlsts, 215,500,000
are Hindus, 160,000,000 are Animists, 140,-
000,000 ar? Buddhists.
Religious Establishments: .
Baptist church in Mississippi Terri-
tory, act for relief of, vetoed,
475.
Protestant church at American em-
bassy at Borne, removal of, re-
ferred to, 3662, 3717.
Protestant Episcopal church in Alei-
B-10
andria, Va., act incorporating, ve-
toed, 474.
Separation of church and state, rec-
ommendation to declare, 4310.
Value of church property, discussed
and taxation of, recommended,
4288, 4310.
Bellglous Freedom. — ^The First Amend-
ment to the Constitution of the United
States (q. v.) requires that "Congress shall
make no law respecting the establishment
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof." Religious freedom doubtless had
its greatest inspiration from James Madison
while he was in the Virginia Legislature.
An attempt was made to levy a tax upon
the people of that state "for the support of
teachers of the Christian religion." Madi-
son wrote what he called a "Memorial and
Remonstrance," in which he appealed to the
people against the evil tendency of such a
precedent, and which convinced people that
Madison was right. A bill was passed
providing "that no man shall be compelled
to frequent or support any religious wor-
ship, place, or ministry whatsoever • • •
nor shall suffer on account of his religious
opinions or belief ; but that all men shall be
free to profess, and, by argument, maintain
their opinion's In matters of religion, and
that the same shall In nowise diminish,
enlarge, or affect their civil capacities."
The religious tests to which many of the
states put their office-holders were grad-
ually abandoned, and the final separation of
church and state in America came in 1833,
when Massachusetts discontinued the cus-
tom of paying preachers.
Eellglous Test. (See Religious Free-
dom.)
Removals
Encyclopedic Index
Republican
Removals from Office.— The Constitution
gives the President power to make appoint-
ments to civil ofiBce by and with the advice
and consent o| the Senate, but is silent
on the subject of removals. Debate on this
point arose in Congress in 1789, and It
was concluded to allow the power of re-
moval to rest with the President alone.
This continued to be the policy of the Gov-
ernment until 1867. In this year charges
were preferred in the House of Repre-
sentatives against President Johnson, al-
leging corrupt use of the appointing, pardon-
Ing, and veto powers, corrupt disposition
of public property, and Interference in
elections. The charges were referred to
the Judiciary Committee and a bill was
prepared and passed over the President's
veto providing that, with certain excep-
tions, every officer appointed by the Presi-
dent with the concurrence of the Senate
should retain his office until a successor
should in like manner be appointed. This
is known as the Tenure-of-Offlce Act (q. v.).
Johnson's suspension of Secretary Stanton
in violation of this act led to his impeach-
ment in 1868. The law was repealed in
188T.
In 1920 President Wilson vetoed an act of
Congress on the ground that it gave Con-
gress the power to remove officers appointed
by the President. (See page 8852.)
Removals from Office (see also Execu-
tive Nominations) :
Act regulating tenure of certain civil
offices, vetoed. (See Teuure-of-Of-
fice Act.)
Discretionary authority of President
regarding, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Cleveland, 4960.
Grant, 3992.
Jackson, 1351.
Johnson, 3690, 3767, 3820.
Tyler, 1905, 1941.
For partisan purposes, discouraged,
1941.
Partisan interference in elections
cause of removal, 1905.
Presidential appointees should be
removable by President, not Con-
gress, 8852.
Eeferred to, 1796, 1911, 1912.
Resolution of Senate regarding, and
reply of President Hayes, 4433.
Remsen Board. (See Referee Board of
Consulting Scientific Experts.)
Reparations Commission of Peace Treaty
■with Germany, German bonds to be
handled by, 8913. (See also Peace
Treaty and League of Nations.)
Representatives. — The constitutional des-
ignation of the members of the House of
Representatives. They are elected by di-
rect vote of the people, in representative
districts fixed by state law, according to
the apportionment made every ten years
by Congress as to the quota of each state.
Representatives mast be at least twenty-
five years of age, residents of the state in
which chosen, and citizens of the United
States for seven years previous to their
elprtion. (See also Congress; Apportion-
ment ; and House of Representatives.)
Representatives :
Appointment of, by President in
whose election they have been offi-
cially concerned, discussed, 1011,
1120.
Appointments office, relation to of, to
(See Executive Nominations.)
Apportionment of —
According to census of 1890 neces-
sary, 5553.
Bill for—
Approved and reasons therefor,
2012.
Vetoed, 116.
Delay i^ making, referred to, 2681.
Election of —
Federal supervision of, recommend-
ed, 5490, 5562, 5766.
Gerrymander, discussed, 5643.
Law appointing day for, recom-
mended, 3103, 3181.
List of, appointed to office, referred
to, 591, 911, 1196, 2360.
Loyal Senators and, denied admission
to seats in Congress, discussed, 3644.
President declines to give names of,
applying for office, 1958.
Representatives-at-Large. — Representa-
tives in Congress elected on general tick-
ets, as distinguished from those elected on
district tickets, in cases where the state
has failed to redistrict after it has become
entitled to additional representation in
Congress. ( See Apportionment ; House of
Representatives.)
Representatives, House of. (See Con-
gress.)
Republic, Grand Army of the. (See
Grand Army of the Eepublie.)
Republican Party.— In the early days of
the Republic Thomas JefCerson became the
leader of a party opposed to the monarchical
Ideas of the Federalists. 'This party was
first known as the Democratic-Republican,
and the adherents were called both Demo-
cr.ita and Republicans, usually the latter,
until the Jackson-Adams contest.
The Republican party of later days was
formed in 1854. with opposition to slavery
as its chief tenet. The compromise of 1850
(q. V.) had disrupted the Whig party.
The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska act
materially Influenced the general Coalition
that followed of Whigs, Free-Soilers, Abo-
litionists, and Know-Nothings. They as-
sumed the name of Republicans and at
once won a plurality in the House of Rep-
resentatives. They held their first national
convention in Philadelphia In 1856, and
nominated Fremont and Dayton for Presi-
dent and Vice-President. At the election
which followed they were defeated, but in
1859 again came into control of the House.
In 1860 they elected Mr. Lincoln to the
Presidency. For the next fourteen years
the party was supreme. It enlarged the
powers of Congress by a broad construc-
tion of the Constitution, carried on the
Civil War, abolished slavery, reconstructed
the governments of the seceding states,
maintained a protective tariff, and refunded
the national debt. The party nominees
during this period were : 1860, Abraham
Lincoln, of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin,
Republican
Encyclopedic Index
Republican
of Maine ; 1864, Abraham Lincoln, ol Illi-
nois, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee
(Johnson becoming President on the death'
of Lincoln) ; 1868, Ulysses S. Grant, of
Illinois, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana ;
1872, Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, and
Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts.
In 1872 those who opposed General
Grant's administration left the party and
formed the Liberal Kepublican party (q.
v.). In 1874 the party lost control of the
House of Representatives and did not re-
gain it until 1880. In 1876 it elected Ruth-
erford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A.
Wheeler, of New York (see Electoral Com-
mission). In 1880 James A. Garfield, of
Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York,
were elected (Arthur becoming President
on the death of Garfield), but the party lost
control of the House in 1882.
In 1884 James G. Blaine, of Maine, and
John A. Logan, of Illinois, were defeated,
but the party retained control of the Sen-
ate. In 1888 Benjamin Harrison, of Indi-
ana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York,
were the candidates and were successful
on a tariff issue. The party also regained
control of the House in that year. Dissat-
isfaction with the McKinley tariff law led
to the loss of the House by the Republicans
in 1890, and in the Presidential campaign
of 1892 President Harrison (Whitelaw
Reld, of New York, being the Vice-Presi-
dential candidate) was defeated for re-
election, and the party lost control of the
Senate. In 1894 the Republicans again re-
gained control of the House.
In 1890 the free coinage of silver ap-
peared as an issue and the platform of the
Republican convention at St. Louis declared
against free coinage "except by interna-
tional agreement with the leading commer-
cial nations of the world" and favored the
gold standard "until such agreement could
be obtained." As a result of this opposi-
tion to the gold standard many western
Republicans left the party and supported
William J. Bryan, the Deinocratic candi-
date. The Republicans were successful,
however, William McKinley, of Ohio, and
Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, being
elected, their popular vote being 7,111,607
and the electoral vote 271.
In 1900 the issues were "imperialism"
(defined by the Democrats as the tendency
of the Republic, under Republican rule, to
move away from the old democratic prac-
tices and beliefs), silver, the tariff and
trusts. The Republicans were again suc-
cessful, William McKinley, of Ohio, and
Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, being
elected, receiving 7,208.244 popular votes
and 292 electoral votes. Pr'esident Mc-
Kinley was assassinated Sept. 6, 1901, and
died on the 14th of that month. Theodore
Roosevelt then succeeded to the Presidency.
During the administration of McKinley
and Roosevelt the party passed the Dingley
tariff law on protective lines ( see Tariff) ;
the Spanish War was carried to a success-
ful conclusion ; the rebellion in the Philip-
pines extinguished and the islands giVen a
sfiable civil government ; Hawaii Was an-
nexed; and a currency bill establishing the
gold standard was passed. During this ad-
ministration also our new possessions In
the far East brought the United States
Into the group of world poweTs.
In 1904 there were no well defined Is-
sues, the silver and tariff questions being
in abeyanefe. The Republican candidates,
Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, and
Charles W. Fairbanks, of Indiana, were
successful, the popular vote being 7,624,-
082 and the electoral vote 336.
Besides the suppression of slavery the
Republican party has favored full citizen-
ship to emancipated slaves, prompt pay-
ment of the national debt, tariff for protec-
tion as well as revenue, free ballot, gen-
erous pension legislation. Increase of the
Navy and the strengthening of the coast
defenses, a system of national bank cur-
rency based on United States bonds de-
posited with the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, a national circulating medium based
on a gold standard, a vigorous foreign
policy, a liberal interpretation of the Mon-
roe Doctrine, national protection of timber,
encouragement of irrigation, and the build-
ing of the Panama Canal by the United
States.
In 1908 the National convention was
held at Chicago, June 16 to 19. William
H. Taft, of Ohi&, was nominated for Presi-
dent, and James S. Sherman, of New York,
for Vice-President. The platform adopted
declared in favor of equality of opportu-
nity ; revision of the tariff ; a more elastic
currency ; the establishment of postal sav-
ings banks ; an employers' liability law ;
amending the rules of procedure in Federal
courts ; conserving the natural resources
of the country ; the extension of foreign
commerce, etc. Taft and Sherman received
a plurality of 1,233,494 of the popular vote
and a majority in the electoral college of
269.
, The national convention of the party met
in Chicago in June, 1912, and nominated
President Taft for President and James S.
Sherman for Vice-President. The platform
adopted declared in favor of upholding the
courts, for sound banking laws and the
usual declaration In favor of the tariff. By
the defection of ex-President Roosevelt and
his followers, who formed the Progressive
party, the Republican ticket was defeated
m 1912, and a Democratic President and
Congress were elected. The popular vote
for President was : Taft, 3,484,956 ; Roose-
velt, 4,119,507 ; Wilson, Dem., 6,293,019.
The electoral vote stood: Wilson, 435;
Roosevelt, 88 ; Taft, 8. '
The 1916 convention met In Chicago In
June, and after conferences with the Pro-
gressive party, which met at the same time
In the same city, Mr. Roosevelt's name was
rejected and Supreme Court Justice Charles
E. Hughes was nominated to head the na-
tional ticket, and Charles W. Fairbanks was
named for vice president. The platform
advocated woman suffrage, but by state
action ; and reaffirmed the Republican prin-
ciples of a protective tariff. The campaign
was fought chiefly in opposition to Presi'
dent Wilson's foreign policy, Mr. Hughes
demanding firmer action with respect to vio-
lation of Ameripan rights by Germany and
in Mexico. The passage of the law fixing
eight hours as the "normal day's labor on
the railroads was also condemned in the
campaign as a surrender to the labor
unions. The Republican Party lost the
election by an extremely narrow margin.
In the national elections of 1918, despite
President Wilson's request to the electorate
for the election of Democratic candidates In
order to unify his administration's prosecu-
tion of the war against the Central Power?
and his peace program (see page 8628), the
Republicans gained control of both houses
of Congress. In 1920, Senator Warren G
Harding, of Ohio, was nominated for the
Presidency after ten ballots by the na-
tional convention in Chicago as a compro-
mise candidate, after it was seen that none
of the three candidates most prominent In
the pre-cpnyentlon campaign, Governor
Lowden, of lUinois ; Major-General Leonard
Republican
Encyclopedic Index
Reserve System
Wood ; and Senator Hiram Johnson, of Cali-
fornia, could be nominated. Governor Cal-
vin Coolidge, of Massachusetts, was nomi-
nated for Vice-President. The platform de-
nounced the Covenant of the League of Na-
tions as submitted to the Senate by Presi-
dent Wilson, and the campaign was fought
largely on that issue. However, pronounced
dissatisfaction with the Democratic admin-
istration on many grounds was the prime
cause of the overwhelming Kepublican vic-
tory in the elections of November, 1920.
For the record of the Republican Party
in Presidential elections, see Presidential
Elections.
Republican Party:
Defeat of, in 1918 elections asked,
8628.
Failure, practical and moral, of,
charged, 8150.
Old ideas dominate, 8025, 8029.
Record of, denounced, 8025.
Solidarity of, necessary, 7405.
Bepublicau River, bridge over, recon-
struction of, recommended, 4777.
Itepublicau Valley Railroad, right of
way across Otoe and Missouria Res-
ervation, Nebr., for, bill for, 4681.
Repudiation.— The refusal of a state ot
government to pay or to be bound by debts
contracted by a previous administration. In
1790 the debts of all the states of the Union
were assumed by the National Government,
partly on the ground of Justice, because
they had been contracted In the prosecu-
tion of the Revolutionary War, and partly
on the ground of expediency, as this action
tended to strengthen the credit of the
states. For forty years thereafter the
states remained almost free from debt.
Bonds of the several states were easily
disposed of abroad, and by 1840 an aggre-
gate of $200,000,000 had been sold. In
that year Indiana found it impossible to
pay the interest on her outstanding bonds,
and it was only by strong efforts that Ohio
managed to meet her obligations. In 1842
the Bank of Pennsylvania failed, and soon
afterwards Pennsylvania, Maryland, Missis-
sippi, Michigan, Louisiana, Indiana, and
Illinois found themselves almost bankrupt.
They all suspended payment of Interest on
their debts, but Mississippi, Michigan,
Louisiana, and North Carolina felt con-
strained to repudiate the capital as well
as interest.
It was in Mississippi that the word "re-
pudiation" originated in this connection.
Governor McNutt, in a message to the legis-
lature, suggested a plan for "repudiating
the sale of certain of the state bonds on
account of fraud and illegality." The
bonds fell into default and an appropria-
tion for their payment was overwhelmingly
defeated at the polls in 1852. Michigan
repudiated certain canal bonds. The south-
ern states came out of the Civil War with
heavy indebtedness and diminished re-
sources, and were in some instances almost
bankrupt. In the years immediately fol-
lowing the close of the Civil War most ot
the southern states compromised or read-
justed their bonded indebtedness, and in
some states the legislature declared cer-
tain bonds fraudulent, illegal, and void.
During the depression following the panic
of 1873 some cities, towns, and countries
endealvored to repudiate their bonds, but
the Supreme Court of the United States
gave judgments against tliem.
The eleventli ameadmeut torbids suits
against the states. In 1903 certain of the
repudiated bonds of North Carolina came
Into the possession of the State of North
Dakota, and North Carolina was sued in
the Supreme Court by the latter State for
payment. The Supreme Court, by a de-
cision of Feb. 1, 1904, held that North
Carolina was liable for and must pay both
principal and interest on the bonds in
question. Some European countries have
also at times repudiated their obligations.
Requisitioning of foods and feeds, pro-
vision for, 8376. (See also Food Ad-
ministration and Food Control Law.)
ReOLUisltions. — Under the Articles of Con-
federation the Continental Congress had
only one means of raising money — by requi-
sitions upon the states. Between 1782 and
1786 requisitions amounting to more than
$6,000,000 had been made. Only one-sixth
of this had been paid by March, 1787,
Under the Constitution the President may
make requisitions upon the state for men
to assist the National Government in time
of war, but there is no provision for requi-
sitions of money. Instead that instrument
provides for the expenditures of the Gov-
ernment by duties on imports and taxei
collected from the citizens.
Resaca de la Falma (Tez.), Rattle of.—
On May 9, 1846, the day following the bat-
tle of Palo Alto, Gen. Taylor's army of
2,200 proceeded on the way toward Fort
Brown. When about three miles from the
Rio Grande River, Arista's army of 5,000,
which had been sipwly retreating before the
advancing Americans, halted in the valley of
Resaca de la Palma (dry river bed of the
palm) and prepared to give battle. At 3
o'clock in the afternoon the action began.
Before dark the Mexicans were completely
routed. They fled in disorder across the
river to Matamoras. Eight pieces of artil-
lery, large quantities of ammunition, 3
standards, and about 100 prisoner^, includ-
ing Gen. La Vega and other officers, tell
into the hands of the Americans. The total
casualties in the Mexican army were 755.
The American loss was 107.
Resaca de la Falma, Tex., battle of, re-
ferred to, 2295, 2300, 2342.
Research Council, National. (See
Xational Research Council.)
Reservation, Public:
Discussed 6346.
Lands set apart as, by proclamation
of President —
Cleveland, 5859, 5864, 6122, 6205,
6207, 6209, 6211, C213, 6215, 6216,
6218, 6219, 6221, 6222, 6225, 6227.
Harrison, Benj., 5577, 5590, 5595,
5686, 5695, 5705, 5719, 57?2, 5786,
5792, 5795, 5797, 5804, 5810, 5811,
5814, 5815.
Reservations. (See Indian Reserva-
tions; Lands, Indian; Military Reser-
vations; Reservations, Public; Wash-
ington City.)
Reserve Banking System. — The banking
and currency law, known as Federal Reserve
Act, was approved on December 23, 1913.
The Federal Reserve Board established by
the Act took the oath of office on August
10. 1914, and the Federal Reserve System
began officially to function in November.
1914.
Reserve System
Encyclopedic Index
Reserve System
Under the provision of the Act, there are
established twelve federal reserve districts,
as follows :
Federal Reserve Districts. — No. 1. —
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
Federal Eeserve City, Boston, Mass\
No. 2. — The State of New York, {"ederal
Eeserve City, New York.
No. 3. — New Jersey and Delaware ; all
that part of Pennsylvania east of the west-
ern boundary of McKean, Elk, Clearfield,
Cambria, and Bedford Counties. Federal
Eeserve City, Philadelphl£t,_Pa.
No. 4. — Ohio; all that part of Pennsyl-
vania west of district No. 3 ; Marshall, Ohio,
Brooke, and Hancock Counties, W. Va. ; all
that part of Kentucky east of the western
boundary of Boone, Grant, Scott, Woodford,
, Jessamine, Garrard, Lincoln, Pulaski, and
McCi-eary Counties. Federal Eeserve City,
Cleveland, Ohio.
No. 5. — District of Columbia, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, and South Caro-
lina ; all of West Virginia except Marshall,
Ohio, Brooke, and Hancock Counties. Fed-
eral Eeserve City, Eichmond, Va.
NV>. 6. — Alabama, Georgia, and Florida;
all that part of Tennessee east of the west-
ern boundary of Stewart, Houston, Wayne,
Humphreys, and Perry Counties ; all that
part of Mississippi south of the northern
boundary of Issaquena, Sharkey, Yazoo,
Kemper, Madison, Leake, and Neshoba Coun-
ties ; all of the southeastern part of Louis-
iana east of the western boundary of Pointe
Coupee, Iberville, Assumption, and Terre-
bonne Parishes. Federal Eeserve City, At-
lanta, Ga.-
No. 7. — Iowa ; all that part of Wisconsin
south of the northern boundary of Vernon,
Sauk, Columbia, Dodge, Washington, and
Ozaukee Counties ; all of the southern pen-
insula of Michigan, viz., that part east of
Lake Michigan ; all that part of Illinois
north of the southern boundary of Han-
cock, Schuyler, Cass, Sangamon, Christian,
Shelby, Cumberland, and Clark Counties ;
all that part of Indiana north of the south-
ern boundary of Vigo, Clay, Owen, Monroe,
Brown, Bartholomew, Jennings. Elpley, and
Ohio Counties. Federal Eeserve City, Chi-
cago, 111.
No. 8. — ^Arkansas ; all that part of Mis-
souri east of the western boundary of Har-
rison, Daviess, Caldwell, Eay, Lafayette,
Johnson, Henry, St. Clair, Cedar, Dade,
Lawrence, and Barry Counties ; all that pari
of Illinois and Indiana not included in dis-
trict No. 7 ; all that part of Kentucky not
included in district No, 4 ; all that part of
Tennessee and Mississippi not included in
district No. 6. Federal Eeserve City, St.
Louis, Mo.
No. 9. — Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, and Minnesota ; all that part of
Wisconsin and Michigan not included in
district No. 7. Federal Eeserve City, Min-
neapolis, Minn.
No. 10, — Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and
Wyoming ; all that part of Missouri not in-
cluded in district No, 8 ; all that part of
Oklahoma north of the southern boundary
of Ellis, Dewey, Blaine, Canadian, Cleve-
land, Pottawatomie, Seminole, Okfuskee, Mc-
intosh, Muskogee, and Sequoyah Counties ;
all that part of New Mexico north of the
southern boundary of McKinley, Sandoval,
Santa Fe, San Miguel, and Union Counties.
Federal Eeserve City, Kansas City, Mo.
No. 11. — ^Texas ; all that part of New
Mexico and Oklahoma not Included in dis-
trict No. 10 ; all that part of Louisiana not
included in district No. 6 ; and Pima Gra-
ham, Greenlee, Cochise, and Santa Cruz
Counties, Ariz. Federal Eeserve City, Dal-
las, Tex.
No. 12. — California, Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, Nevada, and Utah ; all that part of
Arizona not included in district No. 11,
Federal Eeserve City, San Francisco, Cal.
Branch of District No. 2 at Buffalo.
Branches of District No. 4 at Cincinnati
and Pittsburgh.
Branch of District No. 5 at Baltimore.
Branches of District No. 6 at Jackson-
ville, Birmingham and Nashville.
Branch of District No. 7 at Detroit.
Branches of District No. 8 at Louisville,
Memphis and Little Eock.
Branches of District No. 10 at Omaha,
Denver and Oklahoma City.
Branches of District No. 11 at El Paso
and Houston.
Branches of District No. 12 at Spokane,
Portland, Seattle, Salt Lake City and Los
Angeles. '
Every National bank is required to be-
come a stockholder in the Federal Eeserve
bank of the district In which it Is Situated,
and any state bank or trust company which
complies with certain specified requirements
is permitted to become a member bank.
The following table shows the status of
Federal Eeserve notes at a recent date :
On hand $ 798,457,000
Outstanding 3,348,473,000
Gold cover for notes issued.. 1,234,181,000
Paper collateral for above, . . 2,512,232,000
Actually in circulation 3,051,706,000
The following table shows the resources
and liabilities of the Federal Eeserve Banks
as. given by a recent statement :
Eksources :
Gold held $ 747,439,000
Gold with Fed. Ees. agents. . 1,234,181,000
Gold redemption fund 158,693,000
Legal tender notes, silver, etc. 216,686,000
Total reserves $2,356,999,000
Bills Discounted :
Secured by Government ob-
ligations 1,003,975,000
All Other 1,392,279,000
Bills bought In open market. 170,503,000
U. S. Government Bonds 25,849,000
U. S. Victory Notes 19,000
U. S. certificates indebtedness 261,510,000
Total earning assets $2,854,135,000
Bank premises 19,469,000
Uncollected items and other
deductions from deposits.. 607,422,000
5% redemption fund against
Fed. Ees. Bank Notes 12,159,000
All other resources 10,917,000
Total resources $5,861,101,000
Liabilities :
Capital paid In $ 100,790,000
Surplus fund 202,036,000
Government deposits 62,984,000
Due members, reserve account 1,722,919,000
Deferred availability items . , 469,811,000
Other deposits, inc., foreign
government credits 23,305,000
Total gross deposits $2,279,019,000
Fed. Res. notes in circulation 3,051,706,000
Fed. Ees. Bank notes in circu-
lation, net liability 189,325,000
All other liabilities.. 38,225,000
Total liabilities $5,861,101,000
Reserve System
Encyclopedic Index
Restraint of Trade
According to the Act of December 23,
1913, as later amended, the Federal Reserve
Board has the power, among other things :
To examine Federal Reserve Banks and
Member Banks. To permit or require Fed-
eral Reserve Banks to rediscount paper of
other Federal Reserve Banks at rates to be
flxecl by this Board. To suspend for stated
periods reserve requirements and to estab-
lish a tax on decreasing reserves. To regu-
late the Issue of notes. To suspend or re-
move offlcials of Federal Reserve Banks. To
require writing off doubtful assets of Fed-
eral Reserve Banks. To exercise functions
of Clearing House for Federal Reserve
Banks, or may designate Federal Reserve
Banks to do the same, or may require each
Federal Reserve Bank so to act for Its
Member Banks. To exercise general super-
vision over Federal Reserve Banks. To de-
fine character of bills eligible for discount,
rediscount, purchase and sale by Federal
Reserve Banks, and to limit and regulate
rediscounts and acceptances. To establish
rate of Interest to be charged Federal Re-
serve Banks on amount of Federal Reserve
notes outstanding, less amount of gold or
gold certificates held by Federal Reserve
Agent as collateral security. To fix the
charges to be collected by Member Banks
for checks cleared through Federal Reserve
Banks.
The following table shows the bills dis-
counted by the Federal Reserve Banks dur-
ing a recent year : ,
Reserve Bank Amount
Boston $ 4,675,.398,246
New York 42,449,491,184
Philadelphia 10,736,435,271
Cleveland 3,125,856,369
Richmond 4,130,942,909
Atlanta 2,005,777,582
Chicago 4,556,312,145
St. Louis 2,100,630,596
Minneapolis 661,520,379
Kansas City 1,555,596,623
Dallas 1,224,946,145
San Francisco 1,!).11,062,331
Total bills discounted ?79, 173,969, 730
For National Banks.... 63,618,672,593
For State Banks and Tr\ist
. Companies 15,555,297,137
Average maturity in days of all paper
p^irchased 50.45
Number of banks acoommorlated by
discount of paper 5,993
The following table shows the member-
ship of state banks and trust companies in
the Federal Reserve Banking System at a
recent date:
Number 1,181
Capital ? 421,653,766
Surplus 447,553,603
Total Resources 9,608,710,574
The following table shows the number of
the national banks which were members of
the Federal Reserve System at a recent
date :
Number 7,780
Caplt.-il and surplus ? 1,989,.'597,000
Aggregate resources 20,791,147,000
At a recent date, there were 16,982 banks
In the United States eligible for membership
in the system. Of these, 8,822 were mem-
bers and 8,160 were non-members. But the
member banks had 72% of the capital and
surplus of all the banks eligible for mem-
bership, and 77%% of the aggregate re-
sources.
All the banks in the TTnited States, ex-
clusive of savings and private banks, had
a total capital and .surplus of $4,158,531,-
000. Of this sum $2,782,508,000, or 67%.
was represented by banks in the Federal
Reserve System. AH the banks had aggre-
gate resources of $40,452,749,000. Of this
sum, $29,243,729,000, or T2Vi%, was repre-
sented by banks In the System.
The most recent available statistics give
the condition of the several federal reserve
banks as follows :
Dis- Number Xesoums
trict Member Paid-in and
No, Banks Capital Liabilities
1 398 J102,806,000 J1,4S6,574,000
2 650 241,011,000 5,687,304,000
3 652 87,321,000 1,747,764,000
4 762 130,097,000 2,163 459,000
6 553 87,248,000 1,232,129,000
6 376 54,298,000 743,621,000
7 1061 174,162,000 2,646,506,000
8 480 65, 1 66,000 846, 1 70, 000
9 883 65,427,000 976,039,000
10 1023 87,407,000 1,366,349,000
11 655 71,757,000 881,391,000
12 632 104,841,000 1,610,098,000
Reserve Banking System:
Act establishing —
Effect of, 8026.
Elasticity of currency establislied
by, 8151.
Bills guaranteed by war obligations
held by, decrease in, 8884.
State banks requested to join, 837-1.
Reserve Officers' Training Camps. (See
Army.)
Resolute, The, restoration of, to British
Government, discussed, 2953.
Resources, Natural.. (See ConseTvation
and Natural Resources.)
Restoration of Southern States (see also
Reconstruction) :
Acts regarding, vetoed. (See Recon-
struction.)
Discussed by President Johnson,
3551, 3570, 3593, 3643, 3696, 3729,
3734, 3756, 3781, 3846, 3848, 3870.
Provisional governor appointed for —
Alabama, 3521.
Florida, 3527.
Georgia, 3516.
Mississippi, 3512.
North Carolina, 3510.
South Carolina, 3524.
Texas, 3519.
Restraint of Trade.— Conduct in the in-
dustrial or commercial world which is cal-
culated to diminish the sum-total of trade,
or to prevent freedom of trade by all per-
sons desiring to engage in it. The restraint
is effected by monopoly or by action tending
to monopoly. (See Anti-trust Law ; Clay-
ton Act ; Trade Commission ; Interstate
Commerce.)
Restraint of Trade:
Combinations in, 7078.
Legality of, dependent upon extent of
monopoly ahd methods, 7450.
(See also Anti-trust Law; Clayton
Law; Trade Commission; Interstate
Commerce.)
Resumption
Encyclopedic Index
Revenue
Eesumptlon. (See Specie Payments.)
Retroactive. — Imposing a punishment for
an act performed prior to the passage of the
law. A retroactive law, while permissible
as to civil conduct, is inhibited by the Con-
stitution as to criminal conduct. (See Ex
Post Facto.)
Eeturping Boards. — Boards established In
certain states for the purpose of canvassing
the returns of an election. The reconstruct-
ed state governments of South Carolina,
Florida, and Louisiana, created by statute
•returning boards to canvass and certify to
the returns of elections held in those
states. In violation of the generally ac-
cepted principle of state government, these
returning boards were clothed with judi-
cial as well as ministerial powers. This
subject Is of interest chiefly in relation to
the Presidential election of 1876, in which
the result depended upon the action of
these boards.
Beuniou — An island In the Indian Ocean
about 420 miles east of Madagascar, some-
times called Bourbon. It Is a French pos-
session. Its area is 970 square miles and its
population, mostly European, is 160,000.
The chief towns are St. Denis, St. Pierre,
St. Paul and St. Louis. The principal port
Is Pointe des Galets. The chief products
are sugar, rum, coffee, tapioca, vanilla and
spices. Latest figures show annual im-
ports of $6,000,000 and exports of ?5,600,-
000.
Revenue Cutter. — a small armed vessel
owned and used by the Government to en-
force customs regulations.
Revenue-Cutter Service.— The Revenue-
Cutter Service Is a military arm of the
Government attached to and under the di-
rection of the Treasury Department. The
Service was organized in 1790 and con-
stituted the original naval force of the
country. There being at that time no
Navy Department, the Service was placed
under the Treasury Department, where it
has remained ever since. It is charged with
the enforcement of the navigation and cus-
toms laws of the United States, the assist-
ance of vessels In distress, the protection
of the sealing industry in Alaska, the en-
forcement of the quarantine laws, the de-
struction of derelicts and other floating
dangers to navigation, and numerous other
duties appropriate to Its class of vessels.
Each winter, by direction of the president,
a number of the cutters patrol the coast
for the special purpose of assisting vessels
in distress. The Service cooperates with
the Navy when directed by the president
and has so cooperated In every war in which
the United States has been engaged.
In January. 1915, the Revenue Cutter
Service was combined with the Life-Saving
Service to form the Coast Guard. (See
Coast Guard.)
Revenue-Cutter Service:
Abolition of, urged, 7740.
Act relating to revenue cutters and
steamers vetoed, 2219.
Land reserved for use of, 6701.
Organization of, 1088.
Retirement of officers in, 6708.
Steam vessels in, employment of, rec-
ommended, 1121.
■ 'fiee also Treasury, Department of.)
Revenue Flag.— The last act of the Fourth
Congress, March 2, 1799, was to pass a law
to regulate the collection of duties and ton-
nage and to establish ports of entry. In
order that the vessels of the collection
officers might be easily recognized. Congress
ordered that vessels in the revenue service
carry a flag of sixteen perpendicular stripes,
alternate red and while, the union of the
ensign bearing the arms of the United
States In dark blue on a white field beneath
a semicircle of thirteen blue stars.
Revenue Inspectors, salary of, 127.
Revenue Officers, official conduct of, re-
ferred to, 912.
Revenue, Public. — In a political sense the
revenue of a state is the annual income
derived from taxation, customs, and other
sources, to be appropriated to governmental
expenditures. The principal sources of
revenue of the United States are customs,
internal revenue, sale of public lands, and
miscellaneous receipts. Customs receipts
have always formed the bulk of the revenue.
In 17S9 the total revenues of the Govern-
ment amounted to $4,410,000. This total
gradually swelled to $56,000,000 in 1860,
Then the increased duties of all kinds, im-
posed as war measures, augmented the rev-
enues to hundreds of millions, reaching the
maximum of $520,000,000 in 1866. Then
It declined to an average of about $350,-
000.000 between 1878 and 1898. In 1901
the revenue. Increased by a Spanish-Ameri-
can War tax, was $587,685,338.
The table below gives the total ordinary
receipts of the United States for some .sig-
nificant years. In recent years, the most
prolific source of receipts has been in in-
ternal revenue, especially income taxes, cor-
poration taxes and excess and war profits
taxes. In comparison with the figures be-
low, the reader should consult the tables
under Expenditures, Finance, Internal Reve-
nue, Income Tax, Corporation Tax, Excise
Tax, Taxation, Currency, Tariff :
Internal
Year Tarif Revenue Total
1792,, 3 3,443,071 S 208,943. S 3,669,960
1800,, 9,080,933 809,397 10,848,749
1830.. 15,005,612 106,261 17,840,670
1840,, 13,499,502 1,682 19,480,115
I860,. 63,187,512 56,054,600
1865 . 84.928,261 209,464,215 327,283,519
1870.. 194,538,374
1880,. 186,522,065
1890.. 229,668,585
1900,. 233,164,871
1905.. 261,798,857
1910,. 333,683,445
1913.. 308,891,396
1915.. 209,786,672
1916.. 213,185,846
1917,. 225,962,393
1918,. 182,758,989
1919.. 183,428,625
1920* 322,902,649
184,899,756 411,253,971
124,009,374 333,626,503
142,606,706 403,080,982
295,327,927 667,240,859
234,095,741 544,606,755
289,933,519 675,511,710
344,416,966
415,609,646
612,702,029
809,366,208
3,696,043,485
3,840,230,995
5,408,075,468
724,111,238
697,910,821
779,664,556
1,118,174,122
4,174,010,582
4,647,603,856
'Subject to revision.
For details of the various sources of
revenue comprised under Internal Revenue
above for 'the fiscal year ending June 30,
1910, see Internal Revenue.
Revenue, Public (see also Tariff; Fi-
nances; Import Duties; Taxation) :
Act-
Designating and limiting funds re-
ceivable for, reasons for apply-
ing pocket veto to, 1501.
To provide for collection, safe-
Revenue
Encyclopedic Index
Revivals
keeping, and distribution of,
by fiscal corporation vetoed,
1921.
Additional $100,000,000 needed, 7981.
By direct taxation, 265, 268.
Collection and disbursement of, free
from defalcation, discussed, 5542,
5746.
Custody and distribution of, dis-
cussed by President —
Polk, 2352, 2406, 2498.
Tyler, 1896, 1937.
Van Buren, 1541, 1596, 1707, 1757,
1827.
Decrease in, announced, 7980.
Deposits of, in banks referred to,
1916.
Derived from public lands. (See
Lands, Public.)
Diminution of, 461, 480, 675, 923.
Disbursements of, referred to, 1810.
Discussed. (See Finances Discussed.)
Duties for raising. (See Import Du-
ties.)
Embezzlement of, referred to, 2212.
(See also Defalcation.)
Expenses incurred in collection of,
referred to, 2563.
Frauds in, discussed, 989, 4797.
InsufScient for authorized expendi-
tures, 7370, 7379.
Laws for raising. (See also Import
Duties.)
Abuses of, referred to, 1016.
Alterations in, 142, 8111.
Codification of, recommended, 4201.
Comjplaints of Spain and Portugal
against, referred to, 1956.
Improvement in, recommended, 925,
1016, 8111.
Judicial construction of, injurious,
1788.
Opposition to, from —
Pennsylvania. (See Pennsyl-
vania.)
South Carolina. (See South Car-
olina. )
Southern States. (See Civil
War.)
Revision of, recommended, 3773.
System of, satisfactory, 75, 79.
Measures to provide additional, urged,
7980, 8111.
Xeeds of nation should determine,
6654.
Only enough should be collected to
meet wants of Government, 1464.^
Per centum allowed public ofScers
for disbursement of, referred to,
1727.
Policy of Mexico in exempting from
duty imports into territory on bor-
'ders of United States. (See Zona
Libre.)
Eeferred to, 3903.
Sources of, discussed, 8112.
Statistics in six years of President
Eoosevelt's administration, 7082.
Suits growing out of, discussed and
recommendations regarding, 5098.
Surplus of —
Application of, to —
Educational purposes and inter-
nal improvements recommend-
ed, 397, 444.
Navy and national works recom-
mended, 1380.
Purchase of Government bonds
recommended, 3985.
Apportionment of, among States.
(See States of the Union.)
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4635, ^721.
Cleveland, 5093, 5165, 5361, 5372.
Fillmore, 2660, 2714.
Grant, 3985.
Harrison, Benj., 5473, 5549, 5630.
Jackson, 1014, 1077, 1380, 1458.
Jefferson, 397, 444.
Pierce, 2747, 2818.
Van Buren, 1707.
Joint resolution directing payment
of Treasury surplus on public
Debt, reasons for applying pocket
veto to, 5073.
Proposition to deposit in banks
throughout country discussed,
, 5168.
System of —
Changes made in, productive of
good results, 1247.
Evil effects of, discussed, 1459.
Tariff for raising. (See Import Du-
ties.)
Severe 's Bide, Paiil. (See "Midnight
Eide of Paul Eevere.")
Revised Statutes:
Appointment of commission to pre-
pare, recommended, 2671, 2714.
Preparation of, and recommendations
regarding, 3250.
Eeferred to, 4687, 8860.
Revivals. — The term "religious revival"
may be usod to describe a far-reaching
religious movement like the Protestant Ref-
ormation ; but its usage to describe an oc-
casional religious activity dates from the
early eighteenth .century in England. In
1734, Jonathan Edwards Is said tor" have
converted 300 persons at Northampton : and
In the American colonies a period of re-
ligious re-stimulation called the "Great
Awakening" occurred in 1740-2. (From this
movement grew Princeton College.) The
Wesleyan movement in England slightly be-
fore, however, had more permanent results,
represented today by the various Jlethodist
sects.
During the first half of the jilneteenth
century occurred another period of religious
enthusiasm in the United States, marked
definitely by series of meetings to arouse
and to organize It. Many churches even
came to rely for their strength upon such
meetings, or "revivals." Eloquent exhorters
Revivals
Encyclopedic Index
Revolutionary War
went from one place to another, preaching
the Gospel and calling upon sinners to re-
pent, often conducting a revivalist campaign
of some length.
In the southwest, and especially In Ken-
tucky and Tennessee, the revivals at the
beginning of the nineteenth century were
often conducted In the open air, because of
the primitive facilities available in these
sections at that time. Accordingly the
practise of holding revivals in tents or even
in especially constructed tabernacles be-
came a fixed feature of American life.
The most famous American evangelists
have been Moody and his hymn director,
Sanliey ; J. Wilbur Chapman ; "Gypsy"
Smith ; "Sam" Jones ; and ■■Billy" Sunday.
Revolution. — The overthrow of an estab-
lished political system or a radical change
of government effected by extra legal means
is known as a political revolution. Among
the most important revolutions of modern
history are the English Revolution of 1642-
1649, which culminated in the execution of
Charles I and the establishment of the
I'rotectorate under Cromwell ; the second
English Kevolutlon, resulting from the
Stuart tyranny after the Restoration known
as the "Glorious Revolution of 1688,"
which, under William III, firmly estab-
lished the principles of free constitutional
government in Great Britain ; the American
Revolution which resulted in the establish-
ment of the Republic of the United States
in 1776 ; the French Revolution, which
broke out In JParis in 1789 and was fol-
lowed by a reign of blood and terror, ter-
minating with the execution of Robespierre
in 1794; the French Revolution of 1830,
which exiled Charles X and - elevated Louia
Philippe to the throne ; the up'rising of
the French people in 1848, which deposed
Louis ; the Italian Revolution of 1859-60,
whereby the various minor sovereigns or
the peninsula were -driven into exile and
the whole territory came under the dominion
of King Victor Emmanuel ; the insurrections
which established the third French Republic
in 1870 and the Republic of Brazil in 1889.
In the twentieth century the most signifi-
cant revolution before the outbreak of the
World War was that which established a
republic in Portugal in 1910. During the
war occurred the revolutions in Russia
which overthrew the Tsarist autocracy in
March, 1917, and established the Bolshevist
Government In November of the same year.
By the end of the War, It was generally
considered that in far-reaching effect the
Russian Revolutions threatened to surpass
even the French Revolution. As a result
of the defeat of the Central Powers in the
World War, revolutions occurred In Novem-
ber, 1918, in the German Empire and in
Austria-Hungary. The former disestab-
lished the monarchy in favor of a Repub-
lic, and the latter saw the dissolution of
the former Austro-Hungarian Empire into a
number of new countries — ^Jugo-Slavla,
Czecho-Slovakla, Poland. As a result of
the overthrow of Tsarist rule in Russia in
1917, sections of the former Russian terri-
tory revolted and proclaimed themselves
independent states. Among these were Fin-
land, Bsthonia, Latvia, Ukrainia, Lithuania,
Georgia, Azerbaijan.
Revolutionary Convention. (See Con-
vention, Revolutionary.)
Revolutionary Pensions. (See Pen-
sions.)
Revolutionary War.— The war for redress
of grievances, and later for Independence,
waged by the thirteen American Colonies
against the mother country. Great Britain.
The Revolution had several causes. In-
crease in population in America naturally
caused a desire for independence, especially
after the expulsion of the French. In 1763
the Government of George III resolved to
enforce more strictly the navigation, act and
other laws restricting American trade in the
Interest of England, to station garrisons in
America, and to pay a part of the expense
by a stamp tax. The Stamp Act aroused
violent opposition, expressed through the
Stamp Act Congress of 1765. Taxation
without representation in Parliament was
declared illegal and tyrannous. The British
Government persisted in the principle, tax-
ing various imports from 1767 to 1770 and
tea thereafter. The Boston Tea Party led
Parliament to pass acts retaliating on that
city and altering the charter of Massachu-
setts. The Colonies were by this time united,
through their committees of correspondence,
in opposition to the Crown. Sept. 5, 1774,
the First Continental Congress was convened
in Philadelphia. It published a declaration
of rights, protested to the King and Parlia-
ment, and entered Into a non-importation
agreement. April 19, 1775, Gen. Gage, the
British commander in Boston, met wltli the
first armed resistance at Lexington and Con-
cord, and war was begun. The Colonists
were assisted by France, Spain, and in the
later years of the struggle, by the Nether-
lands.
Following are the principal events of the
Revolution : Boston Massacre, March 5,
1770 ; Boston Tea Party, Dec. 16, 1773 ;
First Continental Congress, Sept. 5, 1774 ;
battles of Lexington and Concord, April
19, 1775 ; meeting of the Second Continen-
tal Congress and capture of Ticonderoga,
May 10 ; Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde-
pendence, May 20 ; battle of Bunker Hill,
June 16 and 17 ; evacuation of Boston,
March 17, 1776 ; British repulse off Charles-
ton, June 28 ; Declaration of Independence,
July 4 ; battle of Long Island, Aug. 27 ;
battle of White Plains, Oct. 28 ; loss of
Forts Washington and Lee, retreat through
New Jersey and battle of Trenton, end of
1776 ; battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777 ; bat-
tle of Bennington, Aug. 16 ; battle of
Brandywine, Sept. 11 ; battle of Still-
water, Sept. 19 ; battle of Germantown, Oct.
4 ; battle of Saratoga, Oct. 7 ; Burgoyne'a
surrender, Oct. 17 ; adoption of the Arti-
cles of Confederation, Nov. 15 ; treaty with
France, Feb. 6, 1778 ; battle of Monmouth,
June 28 ; storming of Stony Point, July
16, 1779 ; victory of Paul Jones, Sept. 23 ; ~
British capture Charleston, May 12, 1780 ;
battle of Camden, Aug. 16 ; Arnold's treach-
ery exposed, Sept. 23 ; battle of King's
Mountain, Oct. 7 ; battle of the Cowpens.
Jan. 17, 1781; Articles of Confederation
ratified by the last of the States, March
1 ; battle of Guilford Court-House, March
15 ; battle of Eutaw, Sept. 8 ; surrender of
Cornwalils at Yorktown, Oct. 19 ; peace of
Paris, Sept. ' 3, 1783 ; evacuation of New
York, Nov. 25, 1783. The United States
then comprised the territory from Canada
to Florida and from the Atlantic Ocean to
the Mississippi River. The total number
of enlistments in the American army during
the war was 368,410 ; the total cost was
$135,193,703.
Revolutionary 'War:
Allovirances to officers in, referred to,
906.
Pensioners of. (See Pensions.)
Referred to, 2755.
Soldiers of, land warrants issued to,
889.
Revolutions
Encyclopedic Index
Ricara Indians
Ke volutions:
Bolsheviki foster, 8865.
Denounced by President Harding,
.8928.
Discussed by President Wilson, 8619,
8790, 8816, 8820.
Eight of, supported by —
Declaration of Independence, 1.
President —
Jefferson, 311.
Lincoln, 3211.
Revolving Fund system of appropria-
tions deplored, 8885. (See also Ap-
propriations and Budget.)
Reward offered for arrest of —
Alleged instigators of assassination
of President Lincoln, 3505.
Distribution of, referred to, 3577.
Persons claiming, directed to file
claims, 3551.
Revoked as to certain persons,
355L
Persons from foreign countries com-
mitting depredations in United
States, 3484.
Willis Anderson, 943.
Reynolds, R. J., Tobacco Company, case
against, discussed, 7647.
Rhine, The, French steamer, referred
to, 3460.
Rhode Island. — One ot the thirteen origi-
nal states of the Union and the smallest of
the United States ; nicknamed, "Little
Khody ;" motto, "Hope." It lies between
iat. 41° 18' and 42° 1' norfh (not includ-
ing Block Island) and long. 71° 8' and
71° 53' west. It is bounded on the north
and east by Massachusetts, on the south
by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by
Connecticut, and has an area of 1.248
square miles. It is an important manufac-
turing state, being first in proportion to its
population in the manufacture of cotton,
woolen, worsteds, etc., and second only to
Massachusetts in the production of cotton
goods.
Rhode Islandi was visited by Verrazano
in 1524 and probably by Norse navigators in
the twelfth century. Roger Williams made
the first permanent settlement at Provi-
dence in 1636. The first charter was grant-
ed in 1643 and a more liberal one in 1663.
Rhode Island ratified the Federal Constitu-
tion in 1790. The offlciai name of the state
is "The State ot Rhode Island, and Provi-
dence Plantations."
In 1920, the population was 604,379. In
1915, the urban population was 97% of the
whole. In the same year, the white foreign-
horn population was 135,894, of whom 33,-
802 were Italian, 28,963 were English,
27,044 were Irish, 28,376 were French
Canadian.
Latest educational statistics show 2,093
public elementary schools, with 2,585
teachers and 82,300 pupils; and 163 public
high schools, with 381 teachers and 8,756
pupils.
The latest figures for the annual agri-
cultural products showed hay, 47,000 acres,
52,000 tons, $1,718,000 ; corn, 8,000 acres,
320,000 bushels, .^576, 000 ; potatoes, 3,000
acres, 345,000 bushels, $552,000. Latest
reports gave the number of farms as 5,292,
with an acreage of 443,308, and a total
value of all farm property of $33,000,000.
Later figures for farms only put them at
4,084.
The last annual fruit crop included 340,-
000 bushels ot apples, -3,000 bushels of
peaches, 12,000 busnels of pears.
The last federal censiis of manufactures
estimated that the total capital of the 2,190
manufacturing establishments was $308,-
444,563 ; with 1,883 officers, 8,801 piinor of-
ficials and 113,425 wage-earners. The raw
materials used In the year were valued at
$162,425,219 and the value of product at
$279,545,873.
Besides cotton, woolen and worsted manu- '
facture, the silk, hosiery and knit goods
and rubber and elastic goods are important
fields of manufacture.
(See also Providence Plantations.)
Rhode Island:
Accession of, to Union, 67.
Constitution in, attempts of people
to establish free. (See Dorr's Re-
bellion.)
Constitution of United States —
Convention for consideration of,
64.
Evidence of ratification of amend-
ments to, 68, 182.
Dorr's Rebellion in —
Correspondence regarding, 2139.
Discussed, 2136.
Free constitution in, attempts of peo-
ple to establish. (See Dorr's Re-
bellion.)
Lands in. United States empowered
to hold, 146.
Union, accession of and Providence
Plantations to, 67.
Rhodesia. — A large British possession in
southern Africa. It extends north from the
Transvaal Province to the Belgian Congo and
East Africa. On the east it Is bounded by
Portuguese Bast Africa and on the west t)y
Angola. The entire territory Is admin-
istered by the British South Africa Coiii-
pany. It is divided by the Zambesi River
into the two sections — Northern and South-
ern Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia has an area of some
150,000 square miles and a population of
about 800,000. The country is rich in gold
reefs and other minerals, but deficient in
timber. There is much live stock, chiefly
goats, sheep and cattle ; and the chief crops
are maize and tobacco. Other important
minerals worked are copper, chrome ore,
coal and asbestos. The value of the total
annual mineral output is estimated at $30,-
000,000. In a recent year the imports
amounted to about $15,000,000, and the ex-
ports to about half that sum, exclusive of
gold.
Northern Rhodesia has an area of about
290,000 square miles, and a population of
about 900,000. The country consists chiefly
of high plateau land, covered with thin for-
ests. The chief products are maize, cotton,
tobacco, wheat, fruits and rubber. Among
the minerals which have been found are
gold, copper, zinc, lead, coal. In a recent
year, the exports amounted to $1,700,000 ;
and the imports, exclusive of specie, to
about $1,750,000.
Ricara Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Rice
Encyclopedic Index
Rights
Eice. (See Agricultural Products.)
Bice:
Duties on, discussed and mentioned,
1243, 1931, 2112, 2181, 2274, 2419.
Production of, in united 'States, 6727,
6906.
aioh Mountain (W. Va.), Battle of.—
Soon after the ordinance o£ secession had
been ratilled by the State of Virginia, Maj.-
Geu. George B. McCiellan. who 'had been
assigned to the command of the Federal
forces in the Department of the Ohio, is-
sued an address to the loyal citizens of
western Virginia. Many enlistments from
that State followed, and he determined to
occupy at least part of it with Federal
troops. Accordingly, May 23, 1801, the
First Virginia Regiment, 1,100 strong, which
had been organized in Cincinnati by Virgin-
ians, crossed the Ohio with the Fourteenth
and Sixteenth O'hio regiments and took pos-
session of Parkersburg. The Confederates,
commanded by Governor Wise under the
immediate direction of Col. Porterfield, re-
tired after several skirmishes to the base
of Eieh Mountain, near Beverly, in Randolph
Coimty. McClellan's forces in the neighbor-
hood amounted to more than 30,000 men on
July 4, while the Confederates could scarce-
ly muster 10,000. July 11, Gen. Rosecrans
made a detour of the mountain and forced
the surrender of 600 men under Col. Pe-
gram, and Gen, McClellau defeated the main
body of the Confederates under Gen. Gar-
nett. The Union losses in the actions at
Rich Mountain were 11 killed and 35 wound-
ed. The loss to the Confederates was 200
killed and 1,000 prisorifers. Seven pieces of
artillery also fell into the hands of the
Union forces.
Richmond (Ky.), Battle of.— After the
Confederates had evacuated Corinth, Miss.,
in the summer of 1862, they began to con-
centrate in the vicinity of Chattanooga,
Tenn. By the middle of August they had
collected an army estimated at from 55,-
000 to 65,000 under Gen. Braxton Bragg.
Gen. E. Kirby Smith, with about 20,000
men, passed up the Cumberland Mountains
on the east, and, going through the gaps,
Invaded Kentucky. At Richmond he encoun-
tered Gen. Manson (Aug. 30), who was de-
fending the place with a garrison 'of Bu-
ell's army. Mason was defeated and Smith
proceedfed to Frankfort. Loss about 5,000
on each side.
Eichmond, Va., Government of Confed-
erate States transferred to, 8225.
Eiders. — Objectionable legislative measures
likely to be vetoed If passed as separate
bills, but which are made part of important
bills, such as appropriations for current ex-
penses, etc., in order to insure Executive
sanction. The rider is an encroachment on
the Independence of the Executive. In
many of the states a rtder has been made
an impossibility by confining each bill to a
single subject or by permitting the veto of
single clauses of appropriation bills. It
has never been prohibited in Congress.
Riders were numerous during the anti-slav-
ery contest, the Civil War, and the conflict
with President Johnson. A number of im-
portant bills have been pdssed as riders,
among them the bill increasing salaries in
1873. The first use of the rider of na-
tional importance was the joining in 1820
of the bill for the admission of Maine to
that permitting slavery in Missouri, so as
to compel the acceptance of both or neither.
riese were afterwards separated. The Army
appropriation bill of 1850 as sent from
the House to the Senate had a rider pro-
hibiting the employment of Federal troops
for the enforcement of Territorial law In
Kansas. Riders were added to all appro-
priation bills by the Democratic majority
in the House during the first session of the
Forty-seventh Congress in 1879 ; but all
these bills were vetoed by the president and
were finally passed without riders. The
Piatt Amendment (see Cuba) was a rider
to the Army Appropriation Sill of 1901.
Eifle ClulDS in South Carolina, procla-
mation against, 4350. (See also Ku-
Klux Klans.)
Eifle, Magazine, for use of infantry
service, selected, 5878.
Eifle Practice, commended to attention
of soldiers and civilians, 7070, 7236.
"Eiglit Makes Might" quoted by Presi-
dent Wilson, 8882.
"Eight More Precious Than Peace,"
8233.
Eight of Asylum. (See Asylum.)
Eight of Search. — Great Britain has al-
ways claimed the right to search vessels
of other powers upon the high seas for de-
serting English sailors and for contraband
goods in time of war. This has not been
exercised with regard to the vessels of the
United States since the War of 1812,
though nothing was said in the treaty of
(Jhent about search and impressment of
sailors. Before that war this right was
exercised and search was made for Eng-
lish sailors, and many American seamen
were impressed as deserters from the Eng-
lish navy, and search was made for such
goods as were declared subject to confisca-
tion in accordance with the paper blockade
of the continent and the orders in counciL
This was one of the grievances that brought
on the War of 1812. The right of search
for the purpose of suppressing the slave
trade was carefully regulated by several ■
treaties between Great Britain and the
United States.
Eight of Search:
Discussed by President — ■
Buchanan, 3038, 3170.
Madison, 484, 505.
Tyler, 1930, 2048, 2082.
Proposition regarding, mutual, re-
ferred to, 2626.
Questions regarding, vrith —
Cuba, 3986.
Great Britain, 484, 505, 1930, 2048,
2082.
Claim of Great Britain aban-
doned, 3038, 3171.
Mutual right of search, referred
to, 1943.
Eeferred to, 2286, 2297.
Eight of Suffrage. (See Elective Fran-
chise.)
Eight of Way. (See Indian Reserva-
tions.)
Eights. (See Bill of Rights and Nat-
ural Rights.)
Rights
Encyclopedic Index
Roads
Bights of Federal and State Oovern-
meuts. (See Powers of Federal and
State Governments.)
Rights of Man. — A pamphlet by Thomas
Paine, published in England In 1791. Its
♦ radical appeal was so strong that Paine was
outlawed.
IMo Grande River:
Construction of dams in, opposite El
Paso, Tex., referred to, 5400.
Disorders on, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Arthur, 4627, 4716.
Buchanan, 3113, 3115.
Fillmore, 2688.
Grant, 4143, 4161, 4220, 4244, 4295,
4358.
Harrison, Benj., 5751.
Hayes, 4407, 4424, 4449, 4521.
Neutrality violated by army on, re-
ferred to, 3574.
Report upon state of, 2777.
Storage and use of waters of, for
irrigation, discussed, 5959, 6281.
Distribution of waters of, 6737.
Rio Muni. (See Spain.)
Rio de Oro. (See Spain.)
Riparian Rights. — Rights to the usage of
water-front for various purposes.
River and Harbor Bills.— There has al-
ways been some objection to appropriations
for the improvement of rivers and harbors
on the ground that the benefits, while most-
ly local, are paid for out of the general
Treasury. The first bill for harbor improve-
ments in the United States was passed
Maich 3, 1823. Since 1854, appropriations
for the improvement of rivers and harbors
were frequently inserted in the regular ap-
propriation bill. Separate bills for this
purpose were vetoed by Presidents Tyler
(2183), Polls (2310), Pierce (2789), and
Grant (4336). In 1870 a $2,000,000 appro-
priation was made. This was the largest
up to that time. After this they gradually
increased until they reached nearly $19,-
000,000 in 1882-83. President Arthur ve-
toed the bill carrying this appropriation
, (4707), but it was passed over his veto.
Biennial appropriations have since been the
rule. The appropriation for 1891 was $25,-
000,000. The expenditures of 1896, includ-
ing the direct appropriations of about $30,-
000,000 and the contracts for future ex-
penditures, amounted to a total of about
$80,000,000. The bill carrying this amount
was vetoed by President Cleveland (0109),
but was passed over his veto. River and
harbor bills have since been passed in 1899,
lyOO, 1902, 1905 and later years. The bill
passed by the Sixty-sixth Congress and ap-
proved by President Wilson on June 0,
1920, carried an appropriation of $12,000,-
000, to be expended under the direction of
the Secretary of War and the supervision
of the Chief of Engineers.
River Crow Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
River Raisin (Mich.), Battle of.— After
Col. Lewis had occupied Frenchtown, Mich.,
Jan. 18, 1813, with 650 men, he was re-
enforced by Gen. Winchester with about
300 from the latter's camp on the Maumee
River. These were stationed along the river
outside the town. Before daylight on the
morning of Jan. 22 they were attacked by
500 British under Col. Proctor, and 600
Indians under Round Head and Walk-ln-the-
Water. Some 200 Americans were killed or
wounded In battle or massacred after their
surrender and Winchester and 700 men were
made prisoners. Only 33 of Winchester's
detachment which arrived at Frenchtown
are known to have escaped. The British lost
24 killed and 158 wounded.
Rivers and Harbors (see also Internal
Improvements) :
Act for improvement of —
Criticized and reforms suggested in,
by President Taft, 7489, 7517.
Reasons for applying pocket veto
to, 1201.
Vetoed by President —
Arthur, 4707.
Discussed by, 4724.
Cleveland, 6109.
Polk, 2310.
Tyler, 2183.
Appropriations for, 416.
Bill making, approval and reasons
therefor, 4331.
Discussed, 4362, 4833.
Expenditures of, referred to, 4371.
Eecommended, 2558, 2666, 2711,
3993, 5477.
Should only be made after surveys,
2204.
Breakwater near mouth of Missis-
sippi River, referred to, 988.
Breakwaters for, referred to, 1126.
Deepening of channels of, at Federal
expense, recommended, 7489.
Expenditures for, referred to, 4788.
Discussed, 4197.
Foreign powers, if friendly, should
be allowed use of, 523.
Fortifications for, recommended, 230,
297, 318, 442, 447, 455, 477, 2055.
Fortifications in, completed, 461.
Improvement of, referred to, 1785.
Recommended, 7690.
Opened to British vessels, 753.
Closed, 941.
Survey of, referred to, 1490.
Waterway from the Lakes to the
Gulf recommended, 7690.
Rivers and Harbors Congress, National.
(See National Rivers and Harbors
Congress.)
River Navigation, illustration, opposite
1147.
Roads, Post. (See Mail Routes and
Transcontinental Highways.)
Roads, Public. — The Sixty-second Congress
made an initial appropriation of $500,000
to aid the state in improving public high-
ways and an additional sum of $25,000 was
voted for a committee to Investigate the
subject of federal aid In state road-building.
Roads
Encyclopedic Index
Roads
rr.^JFH ?°^* '"u^"* ^^^ °^}\^ ""^^^^ °^ ***« country compiled by the Public Roads Bureau <
ment of Agriculture are as JoUows:
State
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas . .
California \ \\
CoIorad(j , . ".
Connecticut \\
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois ' ,
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas i .
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota !
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire.
New Jersey
New Mexico ....
New York
North Carohna . .
North Dakota . . .
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania . .
Rhode Island.. .
South Carolina.
South Dakota. .
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington. . .
West Virginia.
Wisconsin ....
Wyoming
iry compi
led by the Public E
:oad8 Bureau
of the Depart-
Mileage
Ptr Cent
Annual
Surfaced
Total
Surfaced
Expenditure
6,125
55,446
11.0
$ 2,371,213
476
12,075
3.9
2,017,749
2,000
60,743
4.0
1,963,610
13,000
61,039
21.2
21,646,638
?'SS2
39,780
6.4
3,300,000
3,200
14,061
22.6
5,018,820
310
3,674
8.5
943,377
3,900
17,995
21.6
6,764,205
13,200
80,669
16.4
5,792,056
850
24,396
3.5
3,519,920
12,800
95,647
13.4
10,183,353
31,000
73,347
42.5
13,000,000
1,500
104,074
1.4
14,549,622
1,550
111,052
1.4
.5,017.117
13,900
57,916
24.0
3,380,000
2,700
24,663
11.0
3,540,976
3,525
23,537
14.9
3,859,415
3,100
16,459
18.8
5,750,135
9,100
18,681
48.8
9,124,303
10,600
74,190
14.3
10,673,153
7,000
93,517
7.5
10,567,711
2,700
45,779
5.9
760,000
7,550
96,041
' 7.8
7,154,400
900
39,204
2.3
3,924,950
1,450
80,272
1.8
3,855,828
340
12,182
2.8
474,770
2,000
14,020
14.5
, 2,004,685
6,050
14,817
41.0
6,708,922
620
43,091
1.4
1,314,192
21,200
80,000
25.0
21,152,057
6,850
50,758
13.5
4,020,000
1,160
68,796
1.8
3,208,000
31,800
86,354
36.8
14,499,834
700
107,916
.7
3,131,532
5,000
36,819
14.1
6,830,276
10,600
91,556
11.6
14,753,876
750
2,170
34.5
1,135,671
3,800
42,226
9.0
1,676,239
800
96,306
.8
3,031,710
8,880
46,050
19.2
2,978,000
12,300
128,960
9.6
11,325,727
1,650
8,810
'18.6
2,770,491
2,300
14,249
16.3
1,606,075
6,150
53,388
11.7
3,708,352
6,300
42,428
14.9
7,256,306
1,600
32,024
6.0
5,056,454
15,500
77,280
20.1
9,284,175
600
14,797
4.1
929,215
Total Road Mileage, U. S 2,478,652
Mileage Improved Roads, U. S. , 299,135
Percentage Improved Road Mileage ' 12.0
Total Annual Expenditure $286,098,113
History,— The majority of the main Roman
highways were built at public expense.
They were maintained in part by the
labor of soldiers and convicts or slaves,
or by enforced service, which, in some in-
stances, tool: the form of taxation. But in
whatever form the maintenance, it was at
the expense of the district through which
the road passed. Tolls as a means of re-
pairing highways were unlsnown to the Ro-
mans. The supervision of the roads was
intrusted to men of the highest ranli. Au-
gustus himself seems to have made those
about Rome his spej!ial care. Cross roads
were placed in charge of the local magis-
trates, although occasionally a portion of a
road was assigned to some landowner to
maintain at his own cost.
The first record of road legislation in Eng-
land goes back as far as 1285, and It pro-
vides that the trees and bushes on both sides
of all roads for a distance of 200 feet shall
be cut away to prevent robbers from lurk-
ing tnerein and rushing upon victims un-
awares.
In 1346 Edward III. authorized the first
loll to be levied for the repair of roads.
This commission was granted to the master
of the Hospital of St. Giles and to John
Holborn, authorizing them to levy toll on
vehicles passing on the roads leading from
the hospital to the old Temple of Loudon
and also on an adjoining road called tne
Portal. In 1523 Parliament passed its first
act relative to the repair of roads.
The present road system of France was
founded by Napoleon. He built many roads
through the empire, among them the road
over the Simplon Pass, which was com-
menced in 1800 and required six years for
completion. It was under him that the
work was systematized and placed In the
hands of a permanent body of engineers.
Roads
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
In 1775 Tresaguet, a French engineer,
published a treatise on brolcen stone roads.
His work preceded that of Macadam and
Telford by about forty years.
In the United States, there were few
roads which could be called "Improved" un-
til the nineteenth century. In the earlier
days of the Republic, there were many at-
tempts to get the national government to
build roads, but the only not£jble success
of such attempts was the Cumberland Road,
between Cumberland, Md., and Vandalia,
111., a distance of about SOO miles. When
the enthusiasm for internal improvements
began around 1 83.5 or 1840, the era of state
road construction on a large scale got under
way. However, except for roads built by
private turnpike companies, the construction
was still for the greater part local until in
recent years the use of the automdbile be-
came well-nigh universal. It is estimated
that about $300,000,000 is spent annually
on the roads of the United States.
Federal Aid. — President Wilson, July 11,
1916, signed a bill, authorizing an expendi-
ture of $85,000,000 in five years by the
Federal government on condition that the
states Should expehd amounts similar to
those apportioned to them ; $75,000,000 was
tor rural post roads, and $10,000,000 for
roads and trails in national forests.
(See also Transcontinental Highways.)
Boads, Public, building of, discussed by
President Harding, 8941.
Boads, Public and Bural Engineeiing,
Office of, Agriculture Department. — ^Thls
is a bureau of the Department of Asricul-
ture devoted to the collection and dissem-
ination of information regarding road man-
agement : experiments in road making and
road improvement; and scientific tests of
road materials. The office lends its aid to
local organizations having for their object
the improvement of public roads by supply-
ing, upon request, drafts of tentative consti-
tutions and by-laws and outlines of a work-
ing policy. The advice given depends
largely upon the objects for which the as-
sociation is formed and the prevailing local
conditions. The advice given through cnr-
respondence. is supplemented by the distri-
bution of various publications on road-mak-
ing and maintenance ; and where the move-
ment is of sufficient magnitude to warrant
it, representatives of the Office o£ Public
Roads and Rural Engineering are sent to
address the local organizations and point
out ways and means by which they can
accomplish the best resiilts.
Boanoke Island (N. C), Expedition to.
— Butler's Hatteras expedition of Aug. 26,
1861, had opened Pamlico Sound and the
Confederates had retired to Roanoke Island.
This island is about ten miles long and was
the key to all the rear defenses of Norfolk.
Four-fifths of the supplies for Norfolk passed
its guns. It was defended by Ben. Wise
with 3,000 men. Jan. 7, 1862, Gen. Burn-
side was ordered to unite with Flag Officer
Goldsborough, in command of the fleet at
Portress Monroe, capture Newbern, reduce
Fort Macon, and seize the Wilmington and
Weldon railroad. On the night of Jan. 11
the expedition arrived off Hatteras and en-
countered a terrific storm. Several trans-
ports were lost and the City of New York,
with her cargo, worth a quarter of a million
dollars, went to pieces. By Feb. 7 the re-
mainder of the expedition had crossed the
bar and proceeded up Croatan Channel.
The Confederate fleet was driven up the
channel. Their flagship — the Curlew — was
set on fire by a shell and Burnslde landed
10,000 men on Roanoke Island. The gar-
rison of 2,675 officers and men was cap-
tured and the Confederate flefet pursued to
Elizabeth City and destroyed. Burnslde lost
250 men.
Boanoke Island, N. C, thanks of Presi-
dent to forces capturing, 3305.
Bobert, College, establishment of, at
, Constantinople referred to, 3900.
Eochdale Pioneers. (See Co-operative
Movement.)
Bock Creek, D. C, construction of
bridge over, referred to, 1844.
Bock Island, HI., bridge over Missis-
sippi Eiver at, 4148'
Bock Island Arsenal, m., appropriation
for, recommended, 4680, 4738.
Becky Mount (S. C), Assault on.— July
13, 1780, Thomas Sumter, with about 75
men, made an attack upon the British post
at Rocky Mount, thirty miles northwest of
Camden, under commitnd of Lieut.-Col Turn-
bull. The post consisted of two log houses
perforated for small arms. Three unsuccess-
ful assaults were made. The Americans
finally withdrew after a loss of 13 killed and
wounded, including Col. Reed. The British
loss was about the same.
Bodgers, The, dispatched for relief of
Jeannette Polar Expedition, 4726.
Bogatory Letters, report regarding exe-
cution of, transmitted, 5570.
Eogue Biver Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Borne, Italy:
American college at, threatened con-
fiscation of, 4801.
Occupation of, by King of Italy,
4085.
Protestants removed from, referred
to, 3662, 3717.
Sanitary conference at, 4918.
Proclamation regarding, 48^8.
Boorback, — A general term for political
forgery, or a fictitious report for political
purposes, generally promulgated before an
election. The name comes from a certain
political story circulated in 1844 as an
extract from Baron Roorback's Tour
Through the Western and Southern States.
Boosevelt Dam, view of, opposite 6732.
Boosevelt, Theodore. — Sept. 14, 1901, to
March 4, 1909.
(riKST TEEM, SEPT. 14, 1901-MAnCH 4,
1905.)
Twenty-ninth Administration (continued)
Republican.
Secretary of State —
John Hay (continued).
Secretary of the Treasury —
Lj'man J. Gage (continued).
Leslie M. Shaw.
Secretary of War —
Elihu Root (continued).
William H. Taft.
Attorney-General —
Philander C. Knox (contlnnedK
William H. Moody.
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
Postmaster-Qeneral —
Charles Emory Smith (continued).
Henry C. Payne.
Robert J. Wynne.
Secretary of the N_avii —
John D. Long (continued).
William H. Moody.
Paul Morton.
Secretary of Interior —
Ethan A. Hitchcock (continued).
Secretary of Agriculture —
James Wilson (continued).
Secretary of Commerce and LaTior —
George B. Cortelyou.
Victor H. MetcaU.
Roosevelt became President on the doath
of President McKinley, and took the oath of
office Sept. 14, 1901. McKlnley's appointees
were continued at the head of the executive
departments for a time, the first change
being the appointment of Leslie M. Shaw
to succeed Lyman J. Gage as Secretai'y of
the Treasury and Henry C. Payne to succeed
Charles B. Smith as Postmaster-General,
Jan. 8, 1902.
Vice-President. — At the Republican Na-
tional Convention, at Philadelphia, in 1900,
President McKinley received the whole 730
votes in nomination for President, and
Roosevelt received 729 for Vice-President
(he not voting). Roosevelt was the fifth
Vice-President to succeed to the Presidency
by the death of the President in otHce,
and the third to succeed by the death of
the President by assassination.
(SECOND TEEM, MARCH 4, 1905 - MAHCH 4,
1909.)
Thirtieth Administration — Republican.
Vice-President — Charles W. Fairbanks.
Secretary of State —
John Hay (continued).
Elihu Root.
Robert Bacon.
Secretary of the Treasury —
Leslie M. Shaw (continued).
George B. Cortelyou.
Secretary of War —
William H. Taft (continued).
Luke E. Wright.
Attorney-General —
WUliam H. Moody (continued).
Charles J. Bonaparte.
Postmaster-General —
George B. Cortelyou.
Gieorge von L. Meyer.
Secretary of the Navy —
Charles J. Bonaparte.
Victor H. Jletcalf.
Truman H. Newberry.
Secretary of the Interior —
Ethan A. Hitchcock (continued).
James R. Garfield.
Secretary of Agriculture —
James Wilson (continued).
Secretary of Commerce and Laior —
Victor H. Metcalf (continued).
Oscar S. Straus.
SECOND TERM — Nomination. — The Re-
publican party in National Convention at
Chicago, June 22, 1904, nominated Presi-
dent Roosevelt by acclamation. The plat-
form of 1904 rehearsed the recent perform-
ances of the Republican administrations,
the gold standard established, the results in
the Philippines, the beginning of the Pan-
ama Canal, irrigation of arid lands, increase
of the navy ; pledged the enforcement of
anti-trust laws ; reafiirmed protection ; fa-
vored extension of reciprocity; upheld the
gold standard ; urged the increase of the
merchant marine ; declared for a larger
navy ; endorsed the exclusion of Chinese
labor ; declared for civil Service reform ;
favored international arbitration ; urged in-
quiry Into the constitutionality of negro
enfranchisement ; advocated equal laws for
labor and capital ; paid a tribute to the
memory of President McKinley ; and eulo-
gized President Roosevelt.
Opposition. — The Democratic National
Convention at St. Louis, July 9, nominated
Alton B. Parker on the first ballot over
William R. Hearst. The Prohibition party,
at Indianapolis, June 30, nominated Silas
C; Swallow by acclamation. The People's
party, at Springfield, 111., nominated Thom-
as E. Watson by acclamation. The Social-
ist party, at Chicago, May 5, nominated
Eugene Debs by acclamation. The Social-
ist Labor party, at New York, July 4, nom-
inated Charles H. Corrlgan by acclamation.
The United Christian party, at St. Louis,
May 2 ; the Continental party, at Chicago,
Sept. 1; and the National Liberty (Negro)
party, at St. Louis, July 7, placed candi-
dates in the field.
Party Affiliation. — President Roosevelt
from his earliest connection with politics
was attached to the Republican party. In
his earliest days, as a representative to
•the State legislature of New York, he main-
tained a large degree of independence ; yet
he was chosen a delegate to the National
Republican Convention in 1884, and was
chairman of the delegation. . He was an
independent Republican in 1886, as a can-
didate for the mayoralty of the City of
New York. His identity with the Republi-
can party became very close during the Har-
rison administration and as Assistant Sec-
retary of the Navy under McKinley in 1897.
In 1898 he was the Republican Governor
of the State of New York.
Vote. — The popular vote ran : Roosevelt,
7,623,486 ; Parker, 5,077,971 ; Debs, 402,-
283 ; Swallow, 258,536 : Watson, 117,183 ;
and Corrlgan, 31.249. The electoral vote
gave Roosevelt 336 and Parker 140.
Political Complexion of Congress. — In the
Fifty-seventh Congress (1901-1903) the Sen-
ate, of 91 members, was composed of 29
Democrats, 56 Republicans, 1 Populist, 1
Silver party, 1 Fusionist, and 2 vacancies ;
and the House, of 357 members, was made
up of 153 Democrats, 198 Republicans, 3 ,
Populists, 1 Silver party, 1 Fusionist, with
2 vacancies... In the Fifty-eighth Congress
(1903-1905) the Senate, of 90 members, was
composed of 32 Democrats and 58 Republi-
cans, and the House, of 382 members, was
composed of 174 Democrats, 206 Republi-
cans, 2 Union Labor, with 2 vacancies. In
the Fifty-ninth Congress (1905-1907) the
Senate, of 90 members, was composed of
32 Democrats and 58 Republicans ; and the
House, of 386 members, was made up of
136 Democrats and 250 Republicans. In the
Sixtieth Congress (1907-1909) the -Senate,
of 92 members, was composed of 31 Demo-
crats and 61 Republicans ; and the House,
of 386 members, was made up of 164 Dem-
ocrats and 222 Republicans.
Tariff. — President Roosevelt in his First
Annual Message (page 6650) said; "There
is general acquiescence in our present tariff
system as a national policy. The first requi-
site to our prosperity is the continuity and
stability of this economic policy; . . . Our
experience in the past has shown that
stepping revisions of the tariff are apt to
produce conditions closely approaching
panic in the business world. . . . Reciprocity
must be treated as the hand-maiden of pro-
tection. Our first duty Is to see that the
protection granted by the tariff in every
case where it is needed is maintained, and
that reciprocity be sought for so far as it
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
can safely be done without injury to our
liome industries." In liis Second Annual
Message (page 6712) the President seeks
to refute the 'argument that a reduction of
the tariff would curb trusts. He says :
"Many of the largest corporations, many
of these which should certainly be Included
in any proper scheme of regulation, would
not be affected in the slightest degree by
a change in the tariff save as such change
interfered with the general prosperity of the
country. The only relation of the tariff
to big corporations as a whole is that the
tariff makes manufactures profitable, and
the tariff remedy proposed would be in
effect simply to make manufactures unprofit-
able. To remove the tariff as a pdnltive
measure directed against trusts would in-
evitably result in ruin to the weaker com-
petitors who are struggling against them."
As a corrective to conditions, the President
advises the extension of reciprocity treaties.
"Wherever the tariff conditions," he says,
"are such that a needed change can not
with advantage be made by the application
of the reciprocity idea, then it can be made
outrig'ht by a lowering of the duties on a
certain product." In his Special Session
Message of Nov. 10, 1903, the President
discusses the proposed reciprocity treaty
with Cuba. In his Sixth Annual Message
(page 705j0) the President says : "I most
earnestly hope that the bill to provide a
lower tariff for or else absolute free trade
In Philippine products will become a law.
No harm will come to any American indus-
try ; and while there will be some small
but real material benefit to the Philippines,
the main benefit will come by the showing
made as to our purpose to do all in our
power for their welfare." In his Seventh
Annual Message (page 7083) on tariff revi-
sion, the president says : "This country is
definitely committed to the protective sys-
tem and any effort to uproot it could not
but cause widespread industrial disaster.
. . . But in a country of such phenomenal
growth as ours it is probably well that
every dozen years or so the tariff laws
should be carefully scrutinized so as to see
that no excessive or Improper benefits are
conferred thereby, that proper revenue is
provided, and that our foreign trade is en-
couraged. . . . This means that the subject
can not with wisdom be dealt with in ttie
year preceding a Presidential election, be-
cause, as a matter of fact, experience has
conclusively shown that at such a time it
is impossible to get men to treat it from the
standpoint of public good. In my Judgment
the wise time to deal with the matter Is
Immediately after such election." In the
same message the President favored the in-
corporation of both income tax and Inher-
itance tax as a part of the system of Fed-
eral taxation. On page 7099, the President
says : "There should be no tariff on any
forest product grown in this country, and
in especial there should be no tariff on
wood pulp."
Civil Service. — In his First Annual Mes-
sage President Roosevelt (page 6673) urged
appointment in all possible cases upon the
merit system, which he maintained was the
only fair test of fitness ; "all applicants
should have a fair field and no favor, each
standing on his merits as he Is able to
show them by practical test. In my Judg-
ment," he says, "all laws providing for Vbe
temporary employment of clerks should
hereafter contain a provision that tBey be
selected under the Civil Service law." In his
Third Annual Message (page 6803) the mer-
it system is reported as working most satis-
factorily: "The completion of the reforjn of
the civil service is recognized by good clti-
^ zens everywhere as a matter of the highest
importance, and the sjiccess of the merit
system largely depends upon the effective-
ness of the rules and the machinery pro-
vided for their enforcement." In his Fifth
Annual Message (page 7011) the President
says : "The question of politics in the ap-
pointment and retention of the men engaged
in merely ministerial work has been prac-
tically eliminated in almost the entire field
of Government employment covered by the
civil service law.' In a veto message
of Feb. o, 1909 (page 7176), the President
urges that the employees engaged in the
work of taking the thirtieenth census be
brought into the classified service and
quotes Hon. Carroll D. Wright, who had
charge of the census after 1890, as, esti-
mating that more than $2,000,000 and over
a years time would have been saved had the
force been so regulated.
Ptihlie Debt. — The public debt of the
United States during the years of President
Roosevelt's administration proper stood as
follows: July 1, 1905, $989,866,772.00;
1906, $964,435,686.79; 1907, $858,685^510;
Nov. 1, 1908, $897,253,990.00.
Commerce. — In his Gubernatorial Message
to the legislature of New York, in 1899,
Governor Roosevelt ^took his stand upon the
principle of taxing and regulating corpora-
tions and others who enjoyed franchises.
To properly adjust taxation and to apply
effective restriction were to be attained by
investigation of conditions. "The first es-
sential," he said, "is knowledge of the facts
— publicity." This sentiment led to the de-
sire expressed in his First Annual Message
(page 6649) for the appointment of a Sec-
retary of Commerce and Labor. "It should
be his province to deal," he said, "with
commerce in its broadest sense ; including
among many other things, whatever con-
cerns labor and all matters affecting the
great business corporations and our mer-
chant marine." In his Second Annual Mes-
sage (page 6712) he said : "I believe that -
monopolies, unjust discriminations, which
prevent or cripple competition, fraudulent
over-capitalization, and other evils in trust
organizations and practices which injuri-
ously affect interstate trade, can be prevent-
ed under the power of Congress to 'regu-
late commerce with foreign nations and
among the several States' through regula-
tions and requirements operating directly
upon such commerce, the instrumentalities
thereof, and those engaged therein." In
speaking of the working of the Department
of Commerce and Labor, the President said
In his Third Annual Message (page 6785 j :
"Publicity in corporate affairs will tend to
do away with ignorance and will afford
facts upon which intelligent action may be
taken. Systematic, intelligent investigation
is already developing facts the knowledge
of which is essential to a right understand-
ing of the needs and duties of the business
world. The Department of Commerce will
be not only the clearing house for informa-
tion regarding the business transactions o£
the Nation, but the executive arm of the
Government to aid in strengthening our
domestic and foreign markets, in perfecting
our transportation facilities, in building up
our merchant marine, in preventing the en-
trance of undesirable immigrants, In im-
proving commercial and other industrial
conditions and in bringing together on com-
mon ground those necessary partners in
his Fourth Annual Message (page 6901) he
industrial progress — capital and labor." In
said : "Above all else we must strive to
keep the highways of commerce open to all
on equal terms ; and to do this it is neces-
sary to put a complete stop to all rebates."
In his Fifth Annual Message (page 6974)
the President said : "I am in no sense hos-
tile to corporations. This is an age of
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
combination, and any effort to prevent all
combination will be not only useless, but
in the end vicious, because of the contempt
for law which the failure to enforce law
inevitably produces. . . . The corporation
has come to stay, jjist as the trade union
has come to stay. Elach can do and has
done great good. Bach should be favored
BO long as It does good. But each should
be sharply checked where it acts against
law and Justice." The President's Special
Message of May 4, 1906, explicitly sets
forth the conditions of the Standard Oil
Company and the railroads as they appear
to the Bureau of Corporations. Stock
Yard and Packing House abuses are dealt
with in his message of June 4, 1906.
In his Sixth Annual Message (page 707S)
the President said : "Among the points to
be aimed at should be the prohibition of
unhealthy competition, such as by render-
ing service at an actual loss for the pur-
pose of crushing out competition, the pre-
tention of inflation of capital, and the pro-
hibition of a corporation's making exclu-
sive trade with itself a condition of having
ttny trade with itself."
Roosevelt, Theodore: '
Addresses before —
Interparliameutar'y Union, 6891.
Luther Place Memorial Church,
Washington, D. C, 6972.
Spanish War Veterans, 6699.
Agricultural, needs of, 6655, 6727,
6905, 7047, 7091, 7257.
Alaska, policy on development and
administration of, 6725, 6793,
6799, 6918, 6920, 6941, 7019, 7052,'
7103, 7230.
Amendments to Constitution sug^
gested, regarding —
Corporations, control of, 6649.
Income tax, 7044.
Marriage and divorce laws, 7048.
Americanism discussed, 6709, 6915,
/ 7059.
Anarchists, exclusion of, urged, 6643,
6651, 7008.
Annual Messages of — ^First, 6641;
Second, 6709; Third, 6784; Fourth,
6894; Fifth, 6973; Sixth, 7023;
Seventh, 7070; Eighth, 7198.
Anti-trust law discussed, 6712, 6790,
6975, 7073, 7078, 7126, 7191, 7194,
7343.
Arbitration, international, discussed,
6717, 6923, 6993, 7113, 7118. (See
also Hague, Peace, War.)
Army policy discussed, 6669, 6693,
6721, 6804, 6927, 6935, 6999, 7068,
7112, 7234.
Battleship fleet cruise around the
world, 7115, 7237.
Biography of, 6637.
Business, attitude toward, 6645, 6712,
6898, 7036, 7079, 7140, 7193, 7199,
7202. (See also Corporations.)
Capital and Labor. (See Labor, Busi-
ness.)
Child labor, legislation against, 6898,
6983, 7036, 7090, 7189, 7343.
China, policy toward, 6678, 6915,
7010, 7123, 7149.
Chinese immigration discussed, 6650,
7009.
Civil Service policy, 6672, 6803, 6970,
7010.
Coast defences, condition of, 6927,
7000, 7284.
Colombia, relations with, 6741, 6747,
6806, 6810, 6815, 6825. (See also
Panama and Panama Canal.)
Conservation of Naiural Eesources
discussed, 7094, 7258, 7264. (See
also Water power sites.)
Corporations, government control
over, 6646, 6711, 6784, 6974, 7023,
7038, 7072, 7079, 7130, 7139, 7190,
7193, 7199, 7216.
Country life, improvement of, 7253.
Cuba, policy toward, 6660, 6682, 7056,
7121, 7234.
Currency system, elasticity and sta-
bility of, 6654, 6715, 6787, 6914,
6989, 7049, 7080, 7198.
Death of, announced, 8685.
Disarmament discussed, 6922, 6993,
7113.
District of Columbia, needs and con-
dition of, 6650, 6728, 6804, 6896,
6902, 6943, 6982, 7012, 7036, 7045,
7189, 7356, 7361.
Divorce. (See Marriage and Divorce.)
Executive orders concerning —
China, negotiations with, on import
duties, 6700.
Civil Service —
Positions under, 6707, 6892, 6893.
Suspension of rules of 6970, 6971.
Civil War Veterans —
Excused from services to attend
funeral, 6706.
Preferance in appointments and
retention to be given, 6703.
Consular officers' acceptance of cer-
tain appointments from foreign
governments, without permission,
6704.
Flags at half-mast for J. S. Morton
and Lord Pauncefote, 6705.
Government employees' solicitation
for increased pay and coaching
civil ser^dee examinations, 6703,
6970.
Henry of Prussia, Prince, committee
to entertain, 6703.
Indian Service physicians' private
practise, 6893.
Lands in Kansas, boundaries of,
changed, 6706.
Lands opened to settlement in Black
Mesa Forest Preserve, 6700.
Lands reserved in Alaska, 6701;
Arizona, 6704, 6705; California,
6701, 6702, 6706; Culebra Is.,
6703; Fort, Yuma Abandoned
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
Military Reservation, 6704, 6705;
Nebraska, 6709; Philippines,
6701; Porto Eico, 6708; Waah-
ington, 6706.
Navy, pay in, and discharges from,
6700, 6702, 6703, 6707, 6708.
Neutrality of Government officials
in Eusso-Japanese War, 6892.
Panama Canal engineers, pay for,
6970.
Passport regulations, 6708.
Philippine Islands, military govern-
ment in, placed under civil,
6692.
Eevenue Cutter ofa.cers, retirement
of, 6708.
Spanish-American War Veterans
excused from services to attend
ceremony, 6706.
Surveyor general of Arizona, loca-
tion of oface of, 6704.
Finances, state of, 7082, 7198.
Foreign policy, 6921, 7230. (See also
China; Japan; Cuba; Arbitration,
international; Monroe Doctrine.)
Forests, preservation of, 6656, 7005,
7097, 7219, 7265, 7303.
Governmeilt service discussed, 6650,
6728, 6897, 6988, 6990, 7035, 7126,
7189, 7208, 7342.
Grave of, illustration of, opposite
8728.
Hague Peace Conferences and Court
of Arbitration discussed, 6664,
6718, 6794, 6923, 6991, 6993, 7065,
7117, 7120.
Hawaii, policy toward, 6660, 6663,
6921, 7018, 7051, 7232.
Illustrations of, 6636, 6764, 6860,
6892.
Immigration problem discussed, 6651,
6715, 6788, 6916, 7007.
Inaugural Addresses, 6638, 6930.
Income tax discussed, 7042, 7044,
7083.
Indians, policy toward, 6674, 6726,
6802, 6911, 7014.
Inheritance taxes discussed, 7042,
7083.
Iniunctions in labor disputes dis-
cussed, 6983, 7027, 7086, 7128, 7190,
7213, 7342.
Insurance companies, regulation of,
6710, 6901, 6986, 7290.
Interstate commerce, control of, 6712,
6898, 7193, 7199, 7202.
Interstate Commerce Commission,
powers of, 6977, 7129, 7200, 7342.
Interstate Commerce Law discussed,
6655,-7038, 7217, 7342.
Irrigation policy of, 6658, 6724, 6801,
6908, 7004, 7095.
Japanese in United States, problem
of, discussed, 7055, 7364.
Judges, decisions of, denounced, 7024,
7028, 7141, 7211.
Labor legislation discussed, 6728,
6896, 6982, 7086, 7087, 7126, 7189,
7206, 7208, 7342.
Labor problem discussed, 6715, 6895,
6899, 6973, 7071, 7090, 7194, 7209.
(See also Strikes, Trade IJnions,
Injunctions.)
Land, public, policy toward disposi-
tion and preservation of, 6725,
6790, 6800, 7004, 7038, 7096, 7100,
7266, 7302.
Marriage and divorce laws discussed,
6942, 7048.
Meat-packing industry, control of,
7038> 7080, 7291, 7298.
Merchant marine discussed, 6653,
6788, 6914, 7005, 7049, 7362.
Messages — Annual, Special, Transmit-
ting, Veto. (See Annual Messages;
Special Messages; Transmitting
Messages; Veto Messages.)
Monroe Doctrine discussed, 6664,
6923, 6996, 7058. ,
Navy, policy toward, 6667, 6722,
6806, 7000, 7067, 7114, 7117, 7147,
7236.
Negro problem discussed, 7029, 7032.
Negro troops, discharge of, discussed,
7329, 7337, 7347.
Orders, executive. (See Executive
Orders.)
Panama, independence of, discussed,
6747, 6809, 6815, 6825.
Panama Canal —
Acquisition of right to build, 6808,
6815, 6827, 6857, 7020, 7348.
Description of, 7020, 7305.
Work on, progress of, 7100, 7231,
7269, 7280.
Peace, preservation of, 6666, 6921,
6992, 7062, 7066, 7117, 7150. (See
' also Arbitration.)
Philippine Islands, policy toward and
conditions in, 6661, 6720, 6738,
6799, 6928, 7016, 7051, 7232.
Pictures of, 6636, 6764, 6860, 6892.
Porto Eico, policy toward and condi-
tions in, 6660, 6681, 6720, 7018,
7051, 7104, 7233, 7300.
Portrait of, 6636.
Proclamations conoeming —
Arms and munitions, export of, to
Santo Domingo, 6968.
Cleveland, Grover, death of, 6961.
Creek Indians, agreement with,
6696.
Copyright with Cuba, 6781; Nor-
way, 6954.
Extraordinary session of Congress,
■ 6780; Senate, 6779, 6951, 6967.
Filipinos, amnesty for insurgent,
6690.
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roosevelt
Hay, John, death of, 6955.
Jamestown Exposition, 6952.
Lands opened to settlement in
Idaho, 6687, 6874; New Mexico,
6872; North Dakota, 6882; Okla-
homa, 6889; South Dakota, 6873,
6875; Utah, 6956.
Lands reserved in Alaska, 6697;
Hawaii, 6867; Idaho, 6953; Okla-
homa, 6695; Porto Eico, 6778.
Lincoln, Abraham, centennial cele-
bration of birth of, 6966.
Facsimile of, 6956.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition,
holding of, 6686.
MeKinley, William, assassination
of, 6639.
Neutrality in Russo-Japanese war,
6868.
Eeeiprocity tariff agreement with
Netherlands, 6962; Spain, 6966.
Tariff duties, suspension of, with
Cuba, 6690; Germany, 7283;
Panama, 6954.
Thanksgiving, 6640, 6698, 6782,
6889, 6964, 6969.
Race suicide discussed, 7048.
Railroads, government control over,
discussed, 6655, 6902, 6977, 6981,
7038, 7079, 7086, 7190, 7200, 7342.
Socialism denounced, 6985, 7191,
7210.
Special messages concerning —
Animal contagious diseases, 6948.
Army, services of, in Philippines,
6693.
Barry, Commodore, monument to,
6946.
Battleships, construction of, 7147.
Beef-packers, judicial decision con-
cerning, 7291.
Coast defences, 7284.
Conservation of natural resources,
7258.
Country life, improvement of, 7253.
Cuba, reciprocity with, 6682, 6741,
6743.
Dependent children, care of, 7358.
District of Columbia, needs of,
7356.
District of Columbia's corpora-
tions, 6944.
Japanese in San Francisco, 7364.
Jones, John Paul, removal of re-
mains of, 6946.
Land laws, 7302.
Legislation, miscellaneous, neces-
sary, 7126, 7189, 7341.
Marriage and divorce statistics,
6942.
Martinique, disaster in, 6680.
Medical corps of Army, 6936.
Naval Academy, hazing at, 6937.
Negro regiments, discharge .of,
7329, 7337, 7347.
Oil industry, 7293.
Ordnance Bureau of Army, 6936.
Panama Canal —
French interests on, purchase of,
7348.
Eight to dig, actions regarding,
6827, 6859. (See also Panama
and Colombia.)
Visit to, 7305.
"Work on, 7269, 7280.
Philippine Islands, scientific sur-
veys of, 6944.
Philippine tariff measure, 6737.
Porto Rico, visit to, 7299.
Railroad discriminatory rates, in-
vestigation of, 7287.
Secret Service investigation of Con-
gress, 7240.
Shipping subsidies, 7362.
Stockyards, investigation of, 7296.
War Department bureaus, 6936.
Speeches of. (See Addresses.)
Strikes and lockouts discussed, 7036,
7089, 7345. (See also Labor, Trade
Unions, and Injunctions.)
Tarife discussed, 6649, 6713, 7083,
7346.
Trade unions discussed, 6650, 6783,
6897, 6974, 7072, 7213, 7345.
(See also Labor, Injunctions and
Strikes.)
Transmitting messages with reports
of and concerning, information
about, and accompanying —
Alaska Boundary Tribunal, U. S.
agent on, 6826.
Alaska, natives of, 6941.
Alaskan Salmon Commission, 6860.
American citizens detained as
British prisoners of war, 6681,
6858.
American Republics, Bureau of,
building for, 6824.
Animal Industry Bureau, \ 6734,
6857, 6935.
Anthracite Coal Commission, 6737.
Army construction costs, 6740,
6866, 6947.
Beef-packing industry, 6949.
Beet-sugar industry, 6865, 6947.
Bills returned to Congress, 6733,
6736, 6863, 6864, 6865, 6942, 6944.
Boll weevil, 6949.
Boundary line between Colorado,
New Mexico and Oklahoma, 6937.
Calaveras Big Tree Grove, preserva-
tion of, 6859.
China and Korea, changes in judi-
cial system of U. S. in, 6939.
Claims against United States, 6730,
6734, 6824, 6826, 6858, 6859, 6866,
6935, 7365.
Claims of U. S. citizens against
Colombia, 6681, 6735, 6864.
Coffee Study congress, 6731.
Roosevelt
Encyclopedic Index
Roumania
Colombia and United States, treaty
between, 6826.
Colorado labor disturbances, 6942.
Commerce reports of consular and
diplomatic ofaeers, ' 6734, 6866,
6940.
Commerce and Labor, Secretary
of, 6823.
Corporations, Commissioner of,
6935.
Customs Congress of the American
Republics, 6737.
Experiment stations of Agricul-
ture Department, 6733, 6861.
Five Civilized Tribes, commission
to, 6864.
Foreign Exchange stability, 6735,
6825, 6941.
Fort Sherman Military Reservation,
lands in, 6937.
Hague Arbitration cases, U. S. v.
Mexico, 6731, 6941.
Indian Territory, abuses in, 6863.
Insurance Convention, 7290.
Isle of Pines, 6739.
Isthmian Canal Commission, 6730,
6938.
Italian citizens killed by mob in
Mississippi, 6731.
Kosciusko statue, 6860.
Land owned and occupied by Gov-
ernment, 6739, 6824.
Louisiana Purchase Commission's
financial statement, 6681, 6729,
6^32, 6740, 6771, 6825, 6857, 6862,
6865, 6866, 6932.
Mabini, regulations concerning,
6735.
Naturalization of aliens, 6935.
Niagara Falls, preservation of,
7289.
Pan-American Railway commis-
sioner of IT. S., 6865.
Panama, insurrection establishing
Republic of, U. S. action in, 6741,
6747, 6771.
Panama, state of, 6862, 6865.
Philippine Commission, 6732, 6861,
6939.
Philippine Islands, sale of land in,
6815.
Porto Rico —
Collector of customs at, conduct
of, 6860.
Government in, 6681.
Governor of, 6730, 6771, 6932.
Ordnances granting concessions
in, 6730, 6732, 6733, 6825, 6933,
6934.
Public Lands Commission, 6863,
6947, 6949.
Pulaski statue, 6860.,
Red Cross in foreign lands, 6863.
Santo Domingo, treaty with, 6950.
Sanitary Convention of the Ameri-
can Republics, 6737, 6824.
State Department vehicles, 6862.
Sugar cane experiments, 6949.
Treaties with Colombia, 6740;
Cuba, 6740, Panama, 6816.
Washington, bust of, 6858.
White House repairs, 6739.
Trusts, attitude toward, 6648. (See
also Corporations.)
Union labor in Government service,
, 6783. (See also Trade Unions and
Labor.)
Veto Messages concerning —
Army officers, undesirable, 6773,
6774, 6775.
Civil Service appointments in Cen-
sus Bureau, 7176.
Claims for damages done by Army,
6774.
Desertion from Army and Navy,
6684.
Legislation, duplicate, 6772.
South Carolina judicial districts,
6772.
Water power sites, 6777, 7151.
War, problem of, 6717, 6993, 7065,
7120. (See also Arbitration and
Peace.)
Water power sites, control of, dis-
cussed, 6659, 6777, 7151, 7154,
7346.
World War command refused to,
8260.
Rosebud Indian Reservation, South
Dakota, opened for settlement, 6875.
Bosin Industry. (See Turpentine and
Rosin Products.)
Bough Bidets, referred to, 6637.
Boumanla. — Roumania Is situated in soutli-
eastern Europe, at the nortlieast of the
Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the
nortli by Kussla (Ukraine) and Poland ; on
the west by Hungary and' Jugo-Slavia ; on
the south by Bulgaria ; and on the east by
the Black Sea. Before the World War,
Roumania consisted chiefly of the two dis-
tricts of Moldavia and Wallachia ; as a re-
sult of the victory of the Entente Allies,
Roumania annexed Bessarabia, to the north-
east, and Bukowina and Transylvania to the
west. The Dobruja is the section north of
Bulgaria between the Danube and the
Black Sea ; part of it was annexed from
Bulgaria as a result of the latter's, defeat
in the Second Balkan War.
Phyeieal Features. — Roumania proper, or
Moldavia and Wallachia, is enclosed main-
ly in the basin of the Danube, the plain
consisting of rich pasture and agricultural
land, the Intermediate region of the vine-
yard and fruit districts and the higher slopes
and valleys of birch, larch and pine forests.
Bessarabia is flat, except for thickly-wooded
spurs of the Carpathian Mountains ; it is
extremely fertile. The Dobruja is also flat
and fertile, but higher. Transylvania is
mountainous, with many valleys which make i
its agriculture and stock-raising abundant ;
it contains valuable mineral deposits, espe-
Roumania
Encyclopedic Index
Roumania
cially salt, gold, silver and coal. Bukowina
Is less mountainous and has few minerals,
but also Is extremely fertile.
In practically all sections of Roumania,
the rivers play an important part in the
development of the country, and the Danube
especially is a valuable means of transpor.
tation, although it is frozen over for some
of the winter months. The climate of Rou-
mania is extreme in both winter and
summer.
Mistory. — The Kingdom of Roumania had
its origin in the union of the Danubian
Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
and the addition thereto of a strip of south-
ern Bessarabia, under the Treaty of Paris,
in 1856. The principalities were an Integral
part of the Turlcish Dominions, but for
many years a spirit of independence hart
been e^ibited, although tribute was paid
to the Sultan. In 1859 the Conventions
of the two principalities met at Bucharest
and Jassy and elected Prince Alexander
John Cuza as ruler, under the suzerainty of
the Porte. Prince Cuza reigned from 1859-
1866, in which year he abdicated, and
Prince Charles Antony of Hohenzoliern-
Slgmaringen was elected in his stead. By
the Treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878, the
new Principality was recognized as an in-
dependent State, and the territory of the
Dobruja was recognized as part of the
Principality. Roumania l?ept aloof from the '
First Balkan War, but entered the Second
Balkan War against Bulgaria. (See Balkan
Wars.) Her rivalry with Bulgaria was a
prime factor in inducing Roumania' to cast
in her lot with the Allies in the Wbilcl
War on August 27, 1916. The Central
Powers were prepared for that move, and
in the following winter overran the country
with their forces, which captured Bucharest
in December, 1916. By February, 1917, al-
most all of Roumania was in the hands of
the enemy, and in March, 1918, Roumania
Joined Soviet Russia in signing a humiliat-
ing peace with th^ Central Powers. For
the gains in territory achieved as a result of
the final defeat of her enemies, see above
and World War.
Government.— On March 14 (27), 1881,
Roumania obtained the status of a kingdom,
recognized as such by ail the Great Powers,
the Prince being crowned at Bucharest on
May 9 (22), 1881. The crown is hereditary
In the male line of the house of Hohen-
zollern-Sigmarlngen, and by a law of March
14 (27), 1889, Prince Ferdinand of Hohen-
zoliern, nephew of the King, was declared
heir-presumptive to the throne.
Under the old Constitution, there was a
parliament of two houses ; but the change
in territory has necessitated changes in
government which are not yet stable. In
1920, the Senate consisted of 170 members,
including the heir to the throne, 19 bishops
and 4 university representatives. The geo-
fraphlcal distribution was — Old Kingdom,
2 ; Transylvania, 45 ; Bessarabia, 24 ;
Bukowina, 19. The Chamber of Deputies
had 347 members, with 168 from the old
kingdom, 112 from Transylvania, 51 from
Bessarabia and 16 from Bukowina. All tax-
paying citizens of the age of 21 and over
are electors. The king has a suspensive
veto over legislation, and exercises the exe-
cutive power through a prime minister and
a cabinet of ministers in charge of the sev-
eral executive departments.
For local government, the new terri-
tory is divided into 77 districts each with
a prefect, a tax receiver and a civic council.
In 1919, Roumania had a total of 735 dis-
tricts and 5,864 communes.
The law is based principally upon the
Code Napoleon, and the courts consist of
communal and circuit courts with appeals
to the sessional courts.
Area and Population. — The ai'ea and popu-
lation of the now Roumania arc given a.s
follows :
Country Sq. Miles Population
Old Roumania 33,489 7,904,104
Transylvania 22,312 2,678,367
Bukowina 4,030 800,098
Bessarabia 17,146 2,344,800
Banat 11,009 1,582,133
Crisana 8,038 1,316,981
Maramuresh 6,258 766,666
Total 122,282 17,393,149
The distribution of new territory to Rou-
mania after the World War did not follow
strictly the lines of nationality, so that the
kingdom comprises within itseli many minor
nationalities. In the east, there are many
Magyars, and in the southeast, many Saxons
and Swabes. Bukowina contains a consid-
erable proportion of Germans and Ukrain-
ians. The Dobruja /and Bessarabia are ex-
tremely mixed racially, with a majority of
Turks and Tartars in the former ; and the
districts alonp the Danube contain many
Serbs and Bulgars.
The capital and largest town is Buchar-
est, with an estimated population of 8i^.j,-
000, in 1918 ; since that year, it has almost
tripled. There are twelve other towns with
a population, above 50,000.
Of the total population in 1918, there
were 9,700,000 members of the Orthodox
Church, 1,455,000 Greek Catholics, 1,485,000
Roman Catholics, 1,345,000 Protestants,
835,000 Jews, 45,00() Mohammedans and
17,500 Armenians. The clergy of the >!a-
tional Orthodox Church are paid by the
state, and those of other denominations re-
ceive subventions ; but free liberty of re-
ligious worship and afiillatlon is guaranteed
to all.
Before the World War, a census showed
60% of illiteracy, with 40% among the
army recruits. Pre-war figures show 5,'i70
public elementary schools, with 9,030 teach-
ers and 620,000 pupUs.
Finance. — Before being conquered by the
Central Powers during the World War, the
annual budget was in the neighborhood of
$125,000,000. Latest figures for the public
debt placed it at slightly above $1,000,000,-
000. The unit of currency is the gold leu,
equal to $0.20 In United States currency.
Production and, Industry. — The soil of the
Wallachlan Plain, and of the lower districts
of Moldavia, is among the most fertile in
the world, and the productive vineyards
and orchards have an acreage of 470,000.
Since 1886 State control has prevented
the further depletion of the forest area,
which lies principally in the mountain val-
leys of northwest Moldavia. Petroleum,
salt, lignite and brown coal are found and
largely worked, salt being a Government
monppoly, while iron, copper, lead, mercury,
cinnabar, cobalt, nickel, sulphur, arsenic,
and china clay also occur. The petroleum
(and ozokerite) Industry is reviving, and
now assumes first-class importance. Stone,
granite, and marble are now largely worked,
and amber is found in valuable quantities.
There are many mineral springs, and some
of the State-supported spas are much fre-
quented, Baltzateshte in particular being a
favorite resort for Invalids from eastern Eu-
rope.
About 80% of the people are engaged ii
agriculture. Before the War, the official
estimate of the distribution of the 35,000,-
000 acres of Roumania 'noluded : Ploughed
Roumania
Encyclopedic Index
Rubber
lands, 13,000,000 acres ; forests, 5,700,000 ;
fallow lands, 1,300,000 ; pasture, 3,000,000 ;
meadows, 1,500,000. Estimates for the
leading crops In 1919 were as follows :
Tons
Crop Acreage Produced
Wheat 2,950,000 50,000
Barley 585,000 245,000
Rye 218,000 87,000
Oats 595,000 210,000
Maize 4,838,000
Sugar beets also are grown, the pre-war
production of sugar being about 33,000,000
kg. annually. Before the War, the annual
production of tobacco was 7,700,000 kg.
The latest figures for farm animals
showed 300,000 horses, 1,050,000 cattle, 1,-
655,000 sheep, 85,000 goats and 370,000
swine.
There are extremely valuable petroleum
deposits, and the annual average pre-war
production of petroleum was close to 2,-
000,000 metric tons. Other minerals
worked are copper, iron manganese and
salt.
In 1913, the Imports into Roumania were
valued at $115,000,000 and the exports at
$130,000,000. In 1915, the imports were
$65,000,000 and the exports, $110,000,000.
In 1915, the chief imports were vegetable
textiles and manufactures, and metals and
manufactures, followed by clothing, silks,
wool. The chief export was grain, followed
by petroleum and beans and oil seed. The
trade was chiefly with Austria-Hungary and
Germany.
In a! recent year the United States
imported from Roumania goods valued at
$22,311 and exported thither goods valued
at $11,093,087.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most important products ex-
ported by the United States to Roumania,
in order of value, were as follows : Boots
and shoes, clothing, iron and steel pipes and
fittings, mining machinery and engines and
parts, automobiles, cotton cloths, copper
manufactures.
Communications. — Before the War, the
merchant navy of Roumania consisted of
760 vessels, of 240,000 tons, including 133
steamers, of 41,000 tons. The Danube has
long been under international control, but
after the World War the power of Rou-
mania over Its control was increased. The
railways are under state operation ; in
1915 their mileage was 2,315. Before the
war there were 3,100 post-offices, 5,600
miles of telegraph lines, 16,000 miles of tele-
graph wire, 3,145 telegraph offices, 7 urban
telephone systems, with 1,000 miles of line
and 24,600 miles of wire, and 8,000 inter-
urban systems, with 24,000 miles of line
and 45,000 miles of wire.
Boiunania:
Consular eonvention with, 4622, 462T.
Eeferred to, 4757.
Diplomatic relations with, 3989, 3994.
Evacuation and restoration of, by-
Germany, essential, 8424.
Independence of, announced, 4562.
New boundaries assigned to, 8731.
Persecution of Israelites in, 4017,
4121, 4122.
Trade-marks, treaty regarding, 4667.
Treaty with, 4658.
Roumania, Treaties •with. (For details
of the consular convention of 1881 see
Consular Conventions.)
Bound Island, assemblage on, dis-
persed, 2585.
Bound Valley Beservation, Cal.:
Allotments of land to Indians on,
4955.
Payment for improvements, 4692,
4781.
Eeduction of, discussed, 5178, 5494.
Eover, The, crew of, murdered, 3830.
Buatan Island, convention between
Great Britain and Honduras regard-
ing, 2955.
Rubber IndtlStry. — Crude rubber Is pre-
pared from a milky sap (latex) of certain
plants found between the latitude of 3«*
north latitude and 30° south. In otb«c
words, the plants which give rubber a»e
found only In tropical or semi-tropical cli-
mates. Crude rubber is produced In South
America, Central America. Asia and Africa,
and on many tropical islands, but the best
rubber comes from the valley of the Ama-
zon, of which the seaport Is Para.
The first importation of rubber into the
United States was regarded as a curiosity,
and no commercial value was placed upon
It. It could be bought for about five cents
a pound. Around 1825 some hundred pairs
of rubber shoes were brought in and sold,
however. In 1833 the Eoxbnry India Rub-
ber Company was formed to make rubber
varnish, but failed several years later when
its rubber varnish was found impracticable.
The history of the rubber industry In its
modern aspects begins with the inverition
of the vulcanizing process around 1840 by
Goodyear and Hancock, although methods
of utilizing soft rubber had been perfected
several years previously. However, many
difilculties were encountered in transmitting
the vulcanizing process to the various meth-
ods of manufacturing various articles, so
that many branches of the rubber Industry
did not become stable until many years
after 1840. For Instance, it was not until
1860 that the manufacture of various drug-
gists' sundries made of rubber became estab-
lished on a firm basis.
In 1877, the first solid rubber tires were
manufactured, followed shortly by the pneu-
matic tires. Soon the demand for tires be-
came greater than the demand for other
rubber goods, and the adjoining figures will
show the predominating position played in
the rubber industry by the production of
tires. Indeed, it was the great demand for
tires which stimulated so tremendously the
cost of rubber which has characterized the
industry of late years, although to some
extent the prices have advanced because
of wasteful methods of collecting rubber
and because Insufficient rubber acreage has
been planted to atone for the acreage de-
stroyed.
There have been many attempts to manu-
facture artificial or synthetic rubber, but
up to the present time none of them has
succeeded, although many other substances
today are used as admixtures In the rubber
industry.
A special report of the Census Bureau
gives complete statistics of the rubber in-
dustry in the United States. The report
covers twelve months just before the rela-
tions of the United States with the war in
Rubber
Encyclopedic Index
Rump Convention
EstabUshments Producing CMefly — ■
Total
No. Establishments 342
Persons Engaged 88,821
Capital $267,671,422
Salaries and Wages 60,445,980
Rent and Taxes 2,226,322
Cost of Materials 163,034,713
Value of Products 300,993,796
The following figures reveal the growth
in recent years : —
Report Year
No. Establishments 342
Persons Engaged 88,821
Capital $267,671,422
Salaries and Wages 60,445,980
Cost of Materials 163,034,713 '
Value of Products 300,993,796
(1) Figures not available.
Belting
Boots
and Base
and Shoes
Others
18
2S
301
6,205
20,359
62,257
$22,436,922
$46,051,464
$199,183,036
4,595,615
11,944,733
43,905.632
164,958
345,678
1.715,686
12,967,004
23,956,036
126.111.673
' 23,560,089
53,822,123
223,610,784
of the rubber industry in the United States
1909
1899
1889
267
301
167
56,059
(1)
(1)
$162,144,564
$78,463,771
$36,764,825
32,977,676
18,575,7-28
9.526.909
122,745,102
60,240,559
26,243.853
197,394,638
99.880,693
42,853.817
Europe upset the equilibrium of all Indus-
tries, and hence gives a true picture of the
industry in a normal year.
In studying the adjoining figures, it must
be remembered that in recent years the
value of all commodities increased and con-
sequently the value of the dollar decreased
comparatively.
The Census report covers establishments
manufacturing chiefly rubber belting and
hose, those producing chiefly rubber boots
and shoes, and establishments producing
other rubber goods, especially rubber tires,
rubber clothing, druggists' and stationers'
sundries, etc. It does not Include estab-
lishments manufacturing chiefly elastic
woven goods. The findings of the report
for that year will be found in an adjoining
table.
Of the wage-earners engaged in the in-
dustry in the census year. 80% were male
and 20% female, as compared with 76%
male in 1909 and 24% female.
In the report year, there were 87 pro-
prietors and firm members, as compared
witt| 103 in 1909 ; 514 salaried officers, as
compared with 348 in 1909 : 998 superin-
tendents and managers, as compared with
667 in 1909 : and 13.200 clerks and other
subordinate officials (in 1909. 5,677).
The greatest number of wage-earners are
employed In the spring and early summer.
In the belting and hose section, the lead-
ing state was New Jersey, where 2.239 of
the 5,515 wage-earners in this section were
employed.
- In the boot and shoe section, the leading
state was Massachusetts, where 8.087 of
the 18.687 wage-earners in this section were
employed.
The leading state in the general section
was Ohio, where more than half of the
50,220 wage-earners in this section were
employed, followed by New Jersey (6.316),
Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania,
and Connecticut.
The greatest number of wage-earners in
the rubber industry were employed where
the hours of work were 54-60 in number
(31,739) ; 23,969 were employed where the
weekly hours were 54 ; 9,959 where the
hours were 48-54 : 4,750, where the hours
were 60 ; 3.216 where the hours were 48 or
less ; and 389 where the hours were more
than 60.
In the report year, 12% of the, establish-
ments were owned by individuals (in 1909,
16%) ; 83% by corporations (73% In
1909) ; 5% by others (11% In 1909).
Ninety-nine % of the wage-earners were
employed by thi,' corporations, who produced
goods to the value of 99% of the whole.
Eighty-three % of the value of the prod-
ucts were manufactured in establishments
where the production was valued at more
than $1,000,000 annually.
The value of the specific rubber goods
produced in the year for which the census
report collected figures was as follows :
Tires, automobile :
Pneumatic —
Casings (8,000,000 in num-
ber) $105,678,951
Inner tubes (8,000,000) . . . 20,101,084
Solid 13,735,681
Tires, motorcycle, bicycle and
aeroplane (3,730,000) 6,905,853
Rubber shoes (57,000,000 prs.) 37,858,222
Rubber boots (4,000,000 prs.) . 12,647,934
Hose 16,853,693
Belting 7,089,405
Clothing 6.799,51 5
Packing 3,507,651
Druggists' and stationers' sun-
dries 7,511,755
Miscellaneous 40,133,255
Imports and exports of manufactured
rubber goods in recent years have been as
follows :
1920 1015
Imports $ 1,447,993 $ 802,122
Exports 85,436,897 14,767,513
In 1920, the imports of unmanufactured
rubber. Including 566,546,130 pounds of
India rubber, into the United States were
valued at $248,900,217.
Bum, Bomanism and Eebellion.— At a
meeting of clergymen of all denominations
held in the Fifth Avenue Hotel. New York,
during the Presidential campaign of 1884.
Rev. Samuel D. Burchard, in an address
favoring the election of the Republican
candidate, described the Democrats as the
party of Rum, Romanism and Rebellion.
The phrase was immediately taken up aud
used to alienate many persons otherwise
friendly to the Republican party, and as
the party in that year suffered defeat by
a very small margin many attributed it to
the utterance of this alliterative phrase.
Rumania. (See Eoumania.)
Bump Convention. — A name designating
a meeting of the minority members of a
party convention who secede from the con-
vention, and declare tor a different policy or
different candidates. One of the most not-
able instances of rumn conventions occurred
when Senator Teller of Colorado, aided by
Senator Cannon of Utah, led a party of Free
Silver advocates out of the Republican Con-
vention in 1896, and virtually delivered
Rump Convention
Encyclopedic Index
Russia
them to the Democratic party, because the
Repuhllcan platform declared for the Gold
Standard.
Rural Credits. (See Agriculture and
Farm Loan Act.)
Rural Delivery. (See Division of Bural
Delivery.)
Rural Free Delivery. (See Postoffice.)
Discussed by President Boosevelt,
6724, 6798.
Rural Life, improvement of, and con-
ference on, suggested, 8814, 8886.
(See also Country Life Commission
and Farmers.)
Russia. — Events following the Revolution
In Russia which unseated the Tsar in
March, 1917, and placed the Bolshevist
Government in power in the following No-
vember, have kept the country In a state of
flux. Even its political boundaries were
uncertain for many months following the
close of the World War, and there could
be no prediction as to the extent to which
the new Russia would correspond in terri-
tory to the old. By 1921, it appeared cer-
tain that Finland, Esthonia and Latvia (the
former Baltic Provinces) and Lithuania
would continue the independence from
Russia which they obtained after the col-
lapse of the Tsar's Government. What was
1
land of Europe, between the tlral Moun-
tains and the Caucasus of the east and
south and the Carpathians of the south-
west. The Ural Mountains, which divide
the Continents of Europe and Asia and
extend from the Kara Sea to the Caspian
culminate in Tollposs-is (5,400 feet), but
the Caucasus, which run from the Black
Sea to the Caspian, reach to 18,526 feet in
Mount Blburz and 16,546 feet In Mount
Kazbek,
Asiatic Russia is enclosed by mountain
ranares within which lie the Plains of Tur-
kestan and Siberia. The principal rivers
of European Russia are the Volga, Don
Dnieper, Bug and Dniester, the Vistula!
Niemen and Duna, th? Neva, Onega, Dvlna
and Mezen, and the Pechora. Asiatic Rus-
sia contams the four great rivers, Ob Ye-
nisei, Lena, and Amur. Finland and the
Baltic provmces contain Innumerable lakes
Ladoga being the largest lake of Europe!
The climate of European Russia is typi-
cal of the most extreme Continental con-
ditions Moscow having a winter tempera-
ture of 12° F., while the summer tempera-
ture of the eastern portion is above 68°
S:.,^/^ ye'^'^hoyansk the soil has been
found to be permanently frozen to a depth
of nearly 400 feet, although the summer
mean temperature Is higher than that of
History.— <The vastRussian Empire was the
out.come of the Tsardom of Muscovy, found-
the greater part of Poland, the existence of
which as a separate and independent na-
tion was assured. To the southeast of
Russia in Europe, Ukraine had set up
claims to be considered independent, and
Bessarabia on the Black Sea had been defi-
nitely annexed to Roumania. In the Cau-
casus region between the Black and Caspian
Seas, a portion had gone to make up the
state of Armenia, and the new nations of
Georgia and Azerbaijan also had asserted
their claims to independence. And the
f ormerly Russian Poland had gone to form ?" '? t''^ Ju "?J P'^''' <>' ^^^ fifteenth century
x^ . . _* T,.,__,, .V *...=_. . by Ivan the Great, of the 'house of Rurik
who reigned from 1462 to 1505, and enlarged
the Principality of Moscow into an auto-
?fl^i o" *^'°S?2™ "''«'■ a wide territory. In
Ibid the throne passed to a collateral
Mfi?iHft2L*^^- "O",^"' Michael Romanov
(1613-1645) being elected Tsar by the Na-
tional AssemBly From tfie accession of
the Romanovs the boundaries of the Em-
pire .became constantly extended. Little
?e"«l'^' °I *''5 Ukraine, was annexed in
lo67, and under Peter the Great (1689- •
future status of Russia in the family of i'^'V ^° outlet was acquired on the Black
nations had to be determined befbre it ^^% °J. fe capture of Azov from the Turks
would be known if any of Siberia was to f ""^ '"^ Baltic Provinces and part of Fin-
be annexed permanently by Japan. land were captured from the Swedes. The
The former RnssianEmpire, which covered lt?''peteSburg™("n?w" Petr'ogSdf ^771*1°
and Peter the Great was proclaimed Bm^
P?',?5 "tv.-*" Russfa. At the close of the
eighteenth century the Empire extended-
^r"."?- S?"'l^°1,*°,t'J,« T^^-^I^' ^°a from the
Arctic to the. Black Sea. In the nineteenth
century Russian rule was extended over ths
basin of the Amur and from the Caspian Sea
i? S>"V*il «"»?,^®*^1' ai"l at the beginning
of the twentieth century the present limits
from the Baltic to the Pacific, and from the
Arctic to the Asiatic Plateau, were pre-
vented from spreading to the Yellow Sea
by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.
Imperial Russia and France had long
been allied, defensively and offensively
against Germany and hence against Ger-
man's ally, Austria-Hungary. Russia was
bent on expanding southward to the Medi-
terranean and Constantinople, her campaign
for the acquisition of which drove Turkey
into the international camp dominated by
Germany. The Russians are Slavs, anil
hence supported the Slavs in the Austro-
Hungarian Empire against oppression in
Austria by the dominant Austro-Germans
and in Hungary by the dominant Magyars
Similarly, Russia supported Servla in her
attempt to thwart the designs of Austria-
Hungary to extend eastward, and to in-
clude in Serbian territory those portions
"J. Austro-Hunganan territory inhabited
chiefly by the Serbs and by the other South
(Jugo) Slavs. Thus when Austrla-Hun-
nearly eight and one-half million square
miles of the land surface of the globe, ex-
tended from the west limits of Poland, In
17° E. longitude, to East Cape, the ex-
tremity of the Continent of Asia, in 191°
E. (169° ^W.) longitude, and from Cape
Chelyuskin, in the Taimyr Peninsula (77°
40' N. latitude), to the frontier of Afghanis-
tan, 35° N. latitude. Of this vast area Rus-
sia in Europe was bounded on the north by
the Arctic Ocean ; on the west by Scandina-
via, the Gulf of Bothnia' and the Baltic
Sea, and by the German and Austro-
Hungarian Empires and Roumania ; on the
south by the Black Sea and the Caucasus ;
and on the east by the Caspian Sea and
the Ural Mountains.
European Russia had an area exceeding
2,000,000 square miles. It was 1,700 miles
from north to south, and 1,400 miles from
east to west. Asiatic Russia had an area
of close to 6,500,000 square miles, and was
4,000 miles from east to west, and 2.400
miles from north to south (from the Kara
Sea to the Pamir boundary).
The extent of the losses to Russia by the
separation of the various countries men-
tioned above may be learned by reference
to those countries in their alphabetical
place in the Index.
Physical Featwres. — European Russia con-
sists of a vast plain, tue eastern Low-
Russia
Encyclopedic Index
Russia
gary threatened the practical extinction of
Serbian Independence in July, 1014, Russia
supported Servia, Germany euppprted Aus-
tria-Hungary, France supported Russia, and
tlie result of the murder of the heir to the
Austro-Hungarian throne by Serbian as-
sassins brought on a general European
conflict.
For the part played by Russian troops
in the World War, see World War.
Soon after the Napoleonic Wars, Russia
fell far behind the other great Powers of
Europe In democracy. The power of the
ruling class was unmitigated by any con-
trol of the people, and even the four
Dumas, or parliaments, finally achieved m
the twentieth century were without power.
The peasants were serfs in all but name ;
the people were kept illiterate ; the church
was firmly controlled by the Government;
espionage, suppression, exile, imprisonment
were used to prevent movements for a
change of government from gaining power.
Inefficiency and corruption gnawed persist-
ently at the heart of the nation, and even
of modern business eflaciency and methods
there were none.
Accordingly, it was inevitable that Rus-
sia should be unable to withstand the strain
of several years of a great war, especially
after her devastating defeat by German
and Austro-Hungarlan forces in the spring
and summer of 1915. In the winter of
1916-7, the Government began to fall to
pieces from sheer inner decay ; and star-
vation and a desire for peace were instru-
mental factors in malcing successful the
revolution which broke out in March, 1917.
The Tsar was deposed, and Russia adopted
the trappings of representative government.
The first government was composed of
non-Socialist liberals, but it did not have the
trust of most of that section of the Russian
people which was articulate and able to
function in political government. Almost
- inevitably, therefore, there grew up coun-
cils, or Soviets, of the workmen, soldiers
and peasants, which, as they controlled the
economic activities of the country, became
increasingly powerful. Soon, the Govern-
ment became responsible and subservient to
the Central Soviet in Petrograd in much the
same manner as cabinets in the European
democracies were responsible to their parlia-
ments. After several months, recognition of
the Socialist elements by giving them a
place In the cabinet proved of little avail ;
and In July, 1917, the premier became
Alexander Kerenskl, a conservative Socialist.
But Kerenski had not the administrative
ability nor the following to remain in
power. Moreover, he persisted in prosecut-
ing the war, and Russia wanted peace. He
was unable to get effective support from the
Allies ; and more and more he was being
undermined by the Marxian or radical So-
cialists, headed by Nikolai Lenin. Lenin's
followers were known as Bolshevlki, from
the Russia word meaning "more," as they
were the majority of the Marxian branch of
Russian Socialism, known as the Social
Democratic Party. The Bolshevlki had a
definite program, promised peace and the
grant of the land to the peasants, and bit
by bit got control of the Central Soviet ; so
that they had little trouble in overthrowing
Kerenski In November, 1917.
For the theories and practises of the
Bolshevist Government, see Bolshevism.
Soviet Russia Immediately signed an
armistice wltl^ the Central Powers, and in
March, 1918, made peace. The Allies re-
torted, in the summer of 1918, by military
Intervention in Russia, in the hope of re-
establishing the eastern front ; and this
intervention persisted long after the end
of hostilities with Germany. Not only did
Great Britain, France, Japan and the
United States dispatch their own forces
into Russian territory, but also they aided
Russian leaders who were conducting armed
campaign;? against the Bolshevist Govern-
ment. In addition, Russia was completely
blockaded, even so late as 1920. By 1921,
Great Britain and Italy, among the great
Powers, were anxious to reach an under-
standing with Soviet Russia, to which
France and the United States were opposed
— France chiefly because of the refusal of
the , Bolshevlki to recognize the loans furn-
ished the Tsar's Government by France, and
the United States chiefly because of the
undemocratic nature of the Bolshevist Gov^
ernment and Its avowed Intention of re-
fusing to recognize its pledges and of evok-
ing revolutions in all non-Socialist nations.
Despite the difficulty of obtaining un-
biased information about Soviet Russia, it
appeared by 1921 that the Soviet Govern-
ment was more firmly established than ever,
that it was enforcing order and that It was
mitigating the earlier severity and ruthless-
ness of its rule.
Area and Population. — ^Figures for area
and population of Russia must remain in-
accurate until the boundaries of Russia are
finally determined. Pre-war Imperial Rus-
sia had an area of 8,770,703 square miles,
of which 1,862,524 was represented by Im-
perial Russia proper, 49,000 by Poland, 144^
000 by Finland, 4,785,000 by Siberia, and
the remainder by other Asiatic territory.
Of the population of 175,000,000, European
Russia proper accounted for 122,500,000.
Excluding Finland, Poland, Esthonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia, Armenia,
Georgia and Azerbaijan, but Including
Ukraine, according to pre-war figures the
area of Russia In Europe Is approximately
1,845,000 square miles, with a population of
approximately 125,000,000, of whom about
90,000,000 are farmers. The territory of
that portion of Ukraine which lay within
g re-war Russia may be placed at from 210,-
00 to 300,000 square miles,' with a popula-
tion of from 28,000,000 to 33,000,000.
In 1921, the statistical bureau of the
Moscow Soviet reported the population of
Soviet Russia as 133,000,000.
Practically all of Soviet Russia in Europe
Is inhabited by Slavs. The predominant
race is the Great Russians. The last prev-
ious census showed some 4,500,000 Turko-
Tartars. Of Jews, there were 5,070,000, of
whom 3,715,000 were in European Russia
proper and 1,267,000 were In Poland.
The population of the towns has greatly
decreased since the War. Thus, the capital,
Moscow, with a pre-war population of Ij-
817,100, had In 1919 a population estimated
at 1,120,000. The former capital, Petrograd
(before the War known as St. Petersburg),
had a population of 2,318,000 in 1915.
The majority of the people^belong to the
Orthodox faith (Graeco-Russian). The So-
viet government disestablished church and
state, but guaranteed freedom of religious
worship and affiliation to all denomina-
tions. Before the War; the Illiteracy rate
was 73%, but the Soviet gbvernment has
succeeded In reducing the proportion of
illiterates.
ffovemment. — From the establishment of
the Principality of Moscow, which became
the dominant force in Russian affairs at
the downfall of the Tartar rule (1238-
1462), until the beginning of the present
century the government of Russia was an
unlimited autocracy. Certain reforms were
Russia
Encyclopedic Index
Russia
Introduced from time to time. Serfdom
was abolished in 1861, and elective pro-
vincial and' municipal assemblies were cre-
ated in 1864-1870. wlille tlie legal system
was purged of many of its gravest abuses.
Fi/nanca. — Before tlie outbreak of the
World War, the annual revenue was $1,-
080,829,500, and the annual expenditure,
$1,065,717,700. The Soviet Government's
estimate for 1919 called for a revenue of
48,000,000,000 roubles and an expenditure
of 230,000,000,000. The rouble, which be-
fore the War was worth about $0.31% in
United States currency, has depreciated in
value to almost nothing. In 1913, the Rus-
sian national debt was $2,701,706,000 ; in
1917 It was 82,300,000,000 roubles. It was
estimated that the cost of the war to Russia
was about $25,000,000,000, up to the time
of the signing of peace with" Germany.
Production and Industry. — In 1914, the
cultivated area of the present Soviet Russia
was 237,275,000 acres for cereals and 8,-
000,000 acres for potatoes. In 1918, the
total cultivated area amounted to 63,000,-
000 acres. The cereals harvested were as
follows : Rye, 580,000,000 lbs. ; wheat, 64,-
000,000 lbs. : potatoes, 464,000,000 lbs. ;
oats, 302,000,000 lbs. ; pulse, 58,000,000
lbs. ; buckwheat, 21,000,000 lbs. ; barley, 41,-
000,000 lbs., the unit of measurement being
the English and not the Russian pound. In
1915, the tobacco production was 122,000
tohs.
The pre-war cotton production of Russia,
chiefly from Central Asia, was 12,800,000
English pounds annually.
In 1914, in European Russia outside of
Poland and the Caucasus region the number
of cattle was as follows : Horses, 22,530,-
000 ; cattle, 32,700,000 ; sheep and goats,
37,250,000 ; pigs, 11,580,000. These figures
have since greatly decreased.
For mining, the latest reliable and com-
prehensive figures are of 1912. In that
year, the mineral products were as fol-
lows: Gold (unrefined), 58,470 kilograms;
platinum (crude), 5,520 kilograms; silver
(unrefined), 18,018 kilograms; lead, 1,700
metric tons ; zinc, 11,700 metric tons ; cop-
per, 33,530 metric tons ; pig iron, 4,200,-
000 metric tons ; iron and steel (of all
kinds, rolled), 3,725,000 metric tons; coal,
30,900,000 metric tons ; naphtha, 9,260,000
metric tons ; salt, 1,900,000 metric tons.
In 1915, the petroleum production
amounted to more than 9,000,000 tons. The
production of the Baku district alone was
48,275,000 barrels of 42 gallons each In
1917.
In 1914-5, the sugar production, exclud-
ing Poland, was 1,700,(JOO tons.
The area of v70ods and forests is esti-
mated at close on 1,000,000,000 acres. Of
the total area about 60,000,000 acres were
under exploitation, yielding a net profit to
the State in 1909 of 46,000,000 roubles.
The Obdorsk and Ural Mountains con-
tain great mineral riches, and are the prin-
cipal seat of the mining and metallic in-
dustries, producing gold, platinum, copper
and iron of very superior quality. Silver,
gold and lead are also obtained in large
quantities from the mines in the Altai
Mountains. Among the non-metallic min-
erals are petroleum, coal, rock-salt, mar-
ble and kaolin clay. Russia was one of
the largest producers of petroleum in the
world, the output amounting to 530,000,000
poods (of thirty-six pounds) in 1910 and
to 515,t):i0,0OO poods in 1911. An immense
bed of coal, both steam and anthracite, and
apparently inexhaustible, has been discov-
ered in the basin of the Donetz (between
the rivers Doneta and Dnieper).
Trade. — In 1913, the imports were valued
at 1,375,000,000 roubles, and the exports at
1,520,000,000 roubles. In these figures
bullion is not included. In 1913, the grain
exports from Russia were as follows :
Wheat, 3,250,000 tons; barley, 2,975,000
tons ; rye, 528,000 tons ; oats, 509,000 tons ;
maize, 570,000 tons; other grain 1,430,000
tons.
The value of the chief exports from Rus-
sia in 1913 was as follows :
Bouhles
Corn, flour, buckwheat, etc. .. .590,000,000
Timber and wooden goods 164,000,000
Eggs , 91,000,000
Flak 87,000,000
Dairy produce 71,000,000
Furs and leather 52,000,000
Naphtha and naphtha oils 49,000,000
Oil cakes 39,000,000
In 191§ the principal imports into Russia
were as follows ;
iJoM&Zes
Machinery 164,000,000
Other ores, metals, metal goods. 175,000,000
Raw cotton 100,000,000
Coal and coke 87,000,000
Leather, hides, skins 57,000,000
Raw wool '. 53,000,000
Cotton and other textile goods. 50,000,000
Timber and wooden goods 50,000,000
In 1913, the countries of chief trade were
as follows :
Imports from Exports to
Country 1,000 Bouiles 1,000 Boublea
Germany 642,755 452,637
United Kingdom ... 170,350 266,864
United States 74,170 14,160
France 56,020 100,860
Austria-Hungary : . . 34,635 65,260
Finland 50,965 55,290
East Indies 30,000 45
Netherlands 21,540 177,460
Turkey 16,940 34,460
Italy 16,710 73,690
Sweden 16,130 11,410
China 15,260
Belgium 8,610 64,640
Denmark '. 2,850 35,755
Roumania 21,695
The chief imports from Germany were
machinery and woolens ; from the United
Kingdom, machinery and coal ; from the
United States and Egypt, raw cotton. The
chief exports to Germany were cereals,
eggs, timber and flax ; to the United King-
dom, cereals, timber, eggs and flax ; to the
Netherlands, cereals and timber ; to France
and Belgium, cereals and flax.
Before the War, there were in Russia
134,000 miles of telegraph line and 476,000
miles of telegraph wire.
In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914,
the United States imported from Russia in
Europe goods valued at $20,831,184 and
exported to Russia in Europe goods valued
at $30,088,643. The chief exports, in order
of value, were as follows : Machinery and
other iron and steel goods, cotton, agricul-
tural implements ; binder twine ; leather
and leather goods, copper products. In the
same year, the United States Imported from
Russia In Asia goods valued at $2,488,973
and exported thither goods valued at $1,-
214,506. In order of value, the chief ex-
ports were agricultural implements, iron
and steel goods, binder twine, condensed
milk.
In 1910 the number of factories and
works of all kinds open was 32,503, em-
ploying 2,080,896 hands. The principal
manufactures were cottons, flax and silk.
Russia
Encyclopedic Index
Russia
sugar, tanning, boots, shoes and gloves, fur-
niture, paper, flour, tobacco and bemp.
Railways. — The total length of lines open
for regular traffic on Jan. 1, 1913, was 46,-
839 miles (Bussian Government 2^,316
miles, private companies 14,096 miles, Fin-
land 2,347 miles, Eastern China Railway
1,079 miles). Exclusive of Finland («. «.)
there are in European Russia about 150,000
miles of navigable rivers and canals and
lakes. In Asiatic Russia there are 85,000
miles of waterway, of which 20,000 miles
are navigable. Some 175,000 persons were
engaged in the traffic.
Shipping. — The sea-going Mercantile Ma-
rine on Jan. 1, 1913, consisted of 716
steamers (790,075 tons) and 500 sailing
vessels (184,105 tons), the steam fleet be-
ing valued at £15,300,000 and the sailing
fleet at £1,700,000. Steam fleet was manned
by 17,157 persons, the sailing ships by 12,-
333 persons.
Kussia, Impeiial:
Aid furnished Greeks by. (See
Greece.)
American insurance companies, treat-
ment of, in, discussed, 5961.
Bering Sea fisheries discussed. (See
Bering Sea Fisheries.)
Claims of, against United States, pay-
ment of, recommended, 6336.
Claims of United States against,
3826, 6336.
Colony from, to emigrate to United
States, 4207.
Confederate envoys- sent to Great
Britain and France referred to.
(See Mason and Slidell.)
Conference with, in relation to treaty
of 1832, 7669.
Consul of United States in, appointed,
165.
Consuls of, in United States, authen-
tication of passports to Jews
denied by, discussed, 6067.
Emperor of —
Accepts umpirage of first article
of treaty of Ghent, 645, 672.
Decision of, 756.
Eatification of, 767.
Accession of, to throne, 950.
Assassination of, attempted, re- ,
ferred to, 3653, 3658, 3669.
Assassination of, resolutions of
condolence on, 4626.
Coronation of, at Moscow discussed,
4758, 6067.
Death of, discussed, 916.
Intervention of, regarding inde-
pendence of South American
provinces, 892.
Mediation of, for peace between
United States and Great Brit-
ain offered, 511.
Accepted by United States, 51L
Declined by Great Britain, 519,
532._
Proposition of, for reduction of
military establishment discussed,
and action of United States re-
garding, 6335.
Son of, visits United States, 4099.
South American Independence, 892.
Famine in, recommendations regard-
ing supplies to be sent, 5648.
Friendly disposition of, toward United
States, 449, 478, 503, 613, 638, 1068,
1113, 4714.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 5398, 5871.
Grand Duke of, visits America, 4099.
Imprisonment of American citizens
by, 4162, 4789, 4793.
Jeannette Polar Expedition, surviv-
ors of, aided by subjects of. (See
Jeannette Polar Expedition.)
Jews in —
Condition of, referred to, 4690, 4714.
Measures enforced against, and
subsequent banishment of, dis-
cussed, 5623.
Prescriptive edicts against, 5518.
Minister of, to United States —
Appointed, 950.
Elevation of mission announced,
5874.
Eecall of, requested by President
Grant, 4099. •
Eeferred to, 4110.
Eeceived, 4718.
Title of ambassador conferred
upon, 6335.
Eeferred to, 5874.
Minister of United States to, 272,
456, 557, 1068, 1114, 1592.
Death of, referred to, 4825.
Title of ambassador conferred
upon, 6335.
Naturalization questions with, 5961.
Neutrality of United States in war
with —
Germany, 7969.
Austria-Hungary, 7974.
Neutrality preserved by the United
States in war with Turkey, 4418.
Neutral rights, treaty with, regard-
ing, 2777.
Eeferred to, 2809.
Pacific telegraph referred to, 3329,
3382, 3445, 3564.
Eelations with, 788.
Trade-marks treaty with, 3887, 4220,
4247.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Adams, John, 272.
Cleveland, 5398, 5871.
Jackson, 1199, 1241, 1269.
Johnson, 3719, 3722, 3798.
Monroe, 820, 834, 849.
Pierce, 2777.
Changes needed in, 7669.
Expiration of, referred to and re-
newal of, recommended, 1369.
Russia
Encyclopedic Index
Russia
Eenewal of, declined by Bussia,
1704. ,
Turkey's, with, referred to, 1008.
Vessels of, detained by United States,
appropriation for, recommended,
6336.
Vessels of United States seized or
interfered with by, 3794, 6336.
War with —
Austria-Hungary, neutrality of
United States in, 7974.
Germany, neutrality of United
States in, 7969.
Great Britain —
Attempts of Great Britain to
draw recruits from United
States discussed, 2864.
Neutrality maintained by United
States in, 2864.
Japan, discussed by President
Eoosevelt, 6926, 7001.
Neutrality of United States pro-
claimed, 6868, 6892.
Turkey —
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 973.
Hayes, 4418.
Neutrality preserved by United
States in, 4418.
Threatening aspect of, discussed,
762.
Treaty of peace referred to, 1008.
Whaling vessels of United States in-
terfered with by, 3794.
Russia, Revolutionary (see nlso Bol-
shevism)':
Armenia and, relations between, 8910.
Blockade on, to be lifted with re-
strictions, 8858.
Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference and
Treaty discussed, 8421, 8595, 8863.
Constituent Assembly of, dispersed,
8864.
Development of, must not be hin-
dered, 8424.
Dismemberment of, opposed, 8862-7.
German treatment of, denounced,
8483, 8595.
Government of —
Bolshevist, recognition not to be
accorded to, 8859, 8862, 8864,
8865, 8910.
Provisional, recognized, 8863.
Intervention in, by Allies and United
States —
. Discussed, -8590, 8592, 8824.
End of, announced, 8825.
Messages of President Wilson to,
8270, 8479. ■
Minority rule in, 8819.
People of, misled, 8403.
Poland and, war between, attitude of
United States in, 8861.
Policy toward, discussed, 8910, 893a.
Postal communication with, barred,
8859.
Praised, 8263, 8299, 8422, 8423.
Bailroad Commission to —
Dispatched, 8863.
Withdrawn, 8825.
Eepresentation provided for, in gov-
ernment of Constantinople, 8840.
' Bevolutions fostered by, 8865.
Territory of, must be evacuated,
8424.
Third Internationale and, discussed,
8866.
Trade relations not to be opened with,
8932.
Treaties, secret, published by, 8702,
8830.
United States, sympathy with, 8423,
8469, 8501, 8862, 8863.
Bussia, Treaties with. — The convention
as to the Pacific Ocean and the northwest
coast of America was concluded in 1824.
Free and unmolested fishing and trading
rights in those parts of the Pacific Ocean
as yet unoccupied are to be mutually en-
Joyed by both nations. Where stations are
located, citizens of the one country mayv
not resort for trade or fishing to the estab-
lishments of the other without express per-
mission. Citizens of the United States
may not erect any establishment on the
northwest coast of America to the north
of, nor shall Russia to the south of fifty-
four degrees and forty minutes of north
latitude. Spirituous liquors and firearms
and other munitions of war are declared
to be prohibited articles of sale to the na-
tives or to others within the territory cov-
ered by this convention. Punishment for
infraction of this article to be at the dis-
cretion of the contracting powers or theii
officers.
The treaty of commerce andf navigation
of 1832 conferred freedom of commerce,
reciprocal treatment of vessels without dis-
criminating duties by reason of tlie nation-
ality of the carrying vessel, freedom of
export and import (excepting the coastwise
trade), the appointment of consular offi-
cers in terms of the usual consular con-
ventions, with powers over deserters from
ships and in the administration of affairs
of deceased citizens, and, in general, the
extension of large commercial privileges
upon the most favored-nation terms. The
conditions of the treaty were applicable
to Poland in so far as possible.
As certain especial privileges had been
extended to Sweden and Norway in regard
to Poland and Finland, it is specified that
such preferential conditions shall not ex-
tend to the United States.
The treaty of 1854 established the rights
of neutrals at sea on the principle that
free ships make free goods and that the
property of neutrals on board an enemy's
vessel shall not be subject to confiscation.
The provisions of this treaty are to be
extended to all powers formally recognizing
the principles and expressing a desire to
accede to the treaty.
Alaska Cession. — The treaty of 1887 ceded ^
Alaska to the United States. The details
of the boundaries contained in the first
article gave rise to the long disputes be-
tween the United States and Canada over
the location of the boundaries which were
Encyclopedic Index
Russo-Japanese
the subject of later treaties with Great
Britain. With the territory, Russia ceded
all public property in Alaska with the rec-
ords and archives of the government per-
lalning to atCairs in Alaska, but reserved
I ho right to make exact copies of them at
,iny time. Citizens of Alaska who de-
sired to retain their allegiance to Russia
might return to that country within three
years from the date of cession. The na-
tive tribes were to be subjected to such
laws as the tinited States might in their
interests and its own discretion make for
their government. In consideration of the
cession of territory and rights over it, the
United States aireed to pay within ten
months after ratmeation the sum of seven
million two hundred thousand dollars m
sold to Russia, at Washington. (For ex-
tradition agreements, see Extradition Trea-
ties.)
In 1894 a modus vlvmdi was arranged in
relation to the fur-seal fisheries in Beiing
Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, by which
it was agreed that citizens of the United
States might not flsh within a zone of ten
nautical miles from the shores of Russian
possessions in Bering Sea and the Pacific
Ocean, nor within thirty nautical miles of
the Commander Islands and Robben Islnnd.
Vessels of the United States so infringing
are to be seized by duly qualified Russian
officers and handed over as soon as prac-
ticable to the United States authorities,
who shall cause the cases to be tried by the
ordinary courts. The Russian government
agreed to limit the seal catch for the year
1804 In the vicinity of the islands named
to thirty thousand head. The provisions of
this treaty are in nowise retroactive.
Oct. 22, 1911, Russia became a party to
the convention for the preservation of fur
seals by signing the agreement with Great
Britain, Japan and the United States.
In June, 1904, it was agreed that cor-
porations having a legal existence in
either country should be recognized In the
other, and In 1906 an agreement for the
protection of trade-marks was effected.
Russian Adierica. (See Alaska.)
Russian Revolution, 1917. (See Eussia.)
Russo-Japh/nese War. — Russia's occupation
of Manchuria after the uprising of the Box-
ers (q. tO was a matter of vital importance
to Japan, as it endangered the independence
of Korea, and brought Russia Into danger-
ous proximity to Japan on the shores of the
China and Japan seas. In April, 1902, Rus-
sia had promised to withdraw from Man-
churia in eighteen months, but In Septem-
ber, 1903, she Informed the Powers that It
would be Impossible for her to withdraw
at the time specifled.
In June, 1904, the Japanese Government
opened negotiat'ons with Russia, looking to
the latter's withdrawal from Manchuria ;
but, losing patience at what she regarded
as the dilatory tactics of the Russian offi-
cials, on Feb. 6, 1904, Japan broke off dip-
lomatic relations with Russia, and four
days later attacked the Russian fleet at
Port Arthur, damaging several ships and
driving the Russians Into the harbor.
From that time until the fall of the port,
Jan, 2, 1905, the Japanese fleet under Ad-
miral Togo blockaded and bombarded Port
Arthur, losing two battleships and several
emaller vessels, but Inflicting still more dam-
age on the Russians.
Japan formally declared war on Feb. 11,
1904, and China and the United States is-
sued proclamations of neutrality. Japanese
troops at once occupied Korea, and on May
1 forced the passage of the Yalu Elver.
Three days later the Japanese began to land
troBPS on the Llao Tung Peninsula, north
of Port Arthur, and moving down the penin-
sula defeated the Russians at Nanshan Hill
and Kinchau, seizing Dalny at the end of
the month. A Russian force from the north
under Stackelberg, attempting a diversion
in favor of Port Arthur, was decisively
defeated at Vafangow, June 15, and while
Generals Kurokl and Oku followed up the
retreating Russians. General Nogi after
driving General Stoessel, the Russian com-
mander, from his outlying positions, laid
siege to Port Arthur at the end of July.,
On Aug. 10, the Russian fleet In the harbor
of Port Arthur, finding its position desper-
ate, attempted to break out, a part of the
vessels succeeding In reaching neitral ports,
but the greater number being mlven back
into the port. Four days later the Russian
squadron from Vladivostok, which had been
making desultory raids on Japanese com-
merce, was defeated by a Japanese fleet,
under Admiral Kamlmura, one Russian ves-
sel being sunk and the rest badly damaged.
On Aug. 16, General Nogi demanded the
surrender of Port Arthur, and, on General
Stoessel's refusal, began an unsu,ccessful
general assault w'hien cost the Japanese
14,000 men. While Nogi's forces pressed
the siege of the fortress the Japanese armies
in the north, under the command of Marshal
Oyama, the Japanese commander-in-chief,
drove the Russians under Kuropatbin from
Liao-Yang (Sept. 4), and checked a last
attempt to relieve the city by repulsing a
Russian advance over the Sha River (Oct.
14). By assaults and siege operations the
Japanese steadily advanced upon Port Ar-
thur, the capture of 203-meter Hill (Nov.
30) enabling them to bombard the fleet In
the harbor, and on Dec. 31 they broke
through the inner line of defenses. On Jan.
2, 1905, General Stoessel surrendered the
city with 47.000 men. The Japanese loss
during the siege was 50,000 ; the Russian
not less than 20,000. The fall of Port Ar-
thur left Nogi's forces free to join the army
of the north under Oyama, After repulsing
a Russian forward movement at the Hun
Elver (Jan, 28), the Japanese assumed the
offensive and again defeated Kuropatkin in
a fifteen days' battle (Feb, 23-March 10)
near Mukden, the ancient capital of Man-
churia, and entered the city. About 750,-
000 men were engaged In this battle, operat-
ing on a front eighty miles long. The Rus-
sian loss was 90,000 killed and wounded,
and 40,000 prisoners, the Japanese loss being
less than half that of the Russian.
Meanwhile the Russian Baltic fleet, un-
der Admiral Eogestvensky — their last naval
resource, for the Black Sea fleet was con-
fined within the Dardanelles by treaty
stipulations, and demoralized by a mutiny
of Its sailors — had sailed from Libau (Oc-
tober, 1904), and was making its way to
the East in several divisions by way of
the Suez Canal and Cape of Good Hope.
An attack on an English fishing fleet In
the North Sea (Oct. 21) — the Eussians mis-
taking the fishing boats for Japanese tor-
pedo boats — nearly involved Eussia in war
with England, the affair being finally set-
tled by arbitration ; and the prolonged stay
of the Russians off Madagascar and 'in
Kamranh Bay, Saigon, led to a protest
from Japan to the French Gpvernment.
On May 27 the Russian fleet encoun-
tered the Japanese under Admiral Togo, at
the entrance to the Sea of Japan, and was
practically annihilated, only 1 cruiser es-
caping to Vladivostok, and 3 to Manila,
where they were Interned. Six battleships,
a coast defense battleship, and 4 cruisers
were sunk ; 2 battleships and 2 coast de-
Russo-Japanese
Encyclopedic Index
Ruthenians
fense battleships surrendered ; many tor-
pedo boats and smaller vessels were sunk
or captured ; Admirals Eogestvensky and
Nebotatofl" were taken, with 3,000 of their
men ; and 14,000 Kusslans perished. The
Japanese losses were Inconsiderable. Short-
ly after the battle a Japanese force occu-
pied the Island of Sakhalin.
On June 11, President Roosevelt, after
conference with the Japanese minister and
the EuBSlan ambassador, sent to Tokyo and
St. Petersburg Identical notes, urging the
two governments to open direct peace nego-
tiations with each other. This action re-
sulted in the ending of the war by the
Treaty of Portsmouth (q. v.). Dissatisfac-
tion with the result of the negotiations led
to some rioting in Japanese cities. (See
Illustrations opposite pages 6549, 6796
and 6924.)
Ruthenians, contribution day for
stricken, proclaimed, 8273. (See also
Ukraine.)
Saare Valley
Encyclopedic Index
Saginaw
Saare Valley. (See Sarre Valley.)
Sabbath Observance enjoined upon
Army and Navy, 3326, 8433.
Sabina, The, American seamen rescued
by, compensation for, requested by
owners of, 2005.
Sabine Cross-Koads (La.), Battle of.—
Gen. N. P. Banks's army, which had been
concentrated at Alexandria, La., advanced
op the Red River March 25, 1864, by way
of Natchitoches, Pleasant Hill, and Mans-
field, toward Shreveport. April 8, arriving
at Sabine Cross-Roads, on the Sabine River,
the Federals encountered a part of the Con-
federate army under Gen. Kirby Smith,
commanded by Gen. Richard Taylor. The
Confederates attacked and Banks was bad-
ly defeated, losing 3,000 in killed, wounded,
and missing. The Confederates captured
19 guns and an immense amount of ammu-
nition and stores. The Confederate loss
was reported by Gen. E. Kirby Smith as
over 2,000 killed and wounded.
Sabotage. (See Industrial Workers of
the World, Socialism, Syndicalism.)
Sabotage Bill. — An act of Congress ap-
proved April 20, 1918, providing a flue of
not more than $10,000 or imprisonment for
not more than 30 years, or both, for the
wilful injury of war materials, war Indus-
tries or war utilities. Under "war ma-
terials" were Included not only all muni-
tions and supplies intended for the military
or naval use of the United States or its
Allies, but also articles of every description
which were suitable for such use. Injury
might be direct or might consist in causing
defectiveness ; and all premises in or on
which such supplies were manufactured or
transported, such as mines, farms, forests,
railroads, vessels, water supplies, telephones
and telegraph, were protected under the
terms at the Bill.
Sac and Fox Reservation, Okla.:
Cession of portion of, to United
States proclaimed, 5591.
Sale of—
Bill providing for, 4959.
Eeferred to, 4972.
Sac Indians (see Indian Tribes) :
Treaty with, 4001.
War with. (See Indian Wars.)
Sacketts Harbor (N. Y.), Attack on.—
May 29, 1813, a British force of 1,000
or 1,200 regulars and a large body of Indi-
ans was convoyed from Kingston, Canada,
to Sacketts Harbor, N. Y., by a squadron
under Sir James Yeo, the whole expedition
being under the command of Sir George
Prevost, Governor-General of Canada. The
Americans, mostly raw mlUtia, were at first
forced back, but later rallied and the Brit-
ish were driven to their boats, leaving their
dead upon the field.
Sacketts Harbor, N. Y.:
Barracks built at, 653.
British attack on, repulsed, 524.
Sackvllle-West Affair. — Lord Sackville,
the British Minister to the United States
from 1881 to 1888, wrote a letter during
the Presidential campaign of 1888 in which
he advised an alleged naturalized citizen,
of English birth, by the name of West, to
vote the Democratic ticket, on the ground
that the success of the Democratic party,
with its free trade policies, would be bene-
ficial to Great Britain. President Cleve-
land promptly rebuked Lord Sackville for
his conduct, and In December handed him
his passports. See 5365, 5396.
Sacramento Pass (N. Mex.), Battle of.
—When Gen. Kearny had established the
supremacy of the United States authority
at Santa P6 he dispatched Col. Donipran
with 800 men to join Wool in an expedi-
tion against Chihuahua. Dec. 27, 1846
Doniphan reached El Paso del Norte, a
town of about 5,000 inhabitants on the
road to Chihuahua, at one of the principal
crossings of the Rio Grande. Here he was
joined by Wightman's artillery, consisting
of 100 men. He then proceeded toward
the Sacramento River. Where the road
to Chihuahua crosses the river the Mexi-
can General Heredia was posted with 1,575
men. Feb. 28, 1847, he was attacked by
the Americans and driven from his posi-
tion with a loss of 110 pieces of artillery.
Col. Doniphan and his little army entered
the city of Chihuahua March 1 and 2.
Safety- Appliance Law:
Discussed by President —
Eoosevelt, 6803, 6897, 698^
Taft, 7378, 7449, 7553.
Judgment of Supreme Court on, 6982.
Safety at Sea:
Confirmation of convention for, 6982.
Convention for, 8019.
International discussion of, 7912.
Safety First. — ^The movement to decrease
the number of accidents in industry. The
movement really has its definite beginning
with the advent of workmen's compensa-
tion laws (see Workmen's Compensation :
also Employers' Liability) ; although even
previously there had been isolated attempts
within different business enterprises to make
theni safer for the workers. Along with
the interest toward safety stimulated by the
workrnen's compensation laws has come also
an interest stimulated by a new humanitar-
ian Impulse and by a new realization of the
loss to the employers themselves by injuries
to they employees. The Safety First move-
ment falls loosely within three channels
one to safeguard machinery ; one to im-
prove sanitation ; and one to lessen fire
dangers. There are national and interna-
tional congresses and museums of safety
engmeerlng.
Safety Fund.— Owing to the unstable char-
acter of the currency issued and the inse-
curity of deposits of State oanks, the New
York legislature in 1829, upon the sugges-
tion of Martin Van Buren, passed a law
known as the safety-fund act. Under the
provisions of this law banks chartered by
the state were required to pay into the
state treasury a certain percentage of their
capital stock to serve as a fund out of
which the liabilities of any of them that
might fail should be made good. This was
the beginning of reform in the banking sys-
tem. Under this law there were ten bank
failures, resulting in a loss of all their capi-
tal, amounting to $2,500,000, which proved
conclusively the inadequacy of the safety
fund. In 1838 the free-banking system was
adopted.
Sag Harbor, N. Y., survey of, referred
to, 1043.
Saganaw Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Saginaw, Mich., bill to provide for
Saginaw
Encyclopedic Index
Salaries
purchase of site and erection of pub-
lic buildings at, returned, 5571.
Sa-heh-'nrainisli Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Sah-ku-mehu Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
SitiloTS, American. (See Seamen, Ameri-
can.)
Sailors Creek (Va.), Battle of.— After
the Confederate defeat at Five Forks and
the retreat of Lee's army from Richmond
and Petersburg, Lee made his way due
west and reached the Danville Railroad at
Amelia Court-House on April 4, 1865. Sher-
idan passed him and reached the railroad
at Jetersville, 7 miles southwest. Lee,
finding retreat out off in this direction,
moved westward totvard Farmville. At
Sailors Creels, April 6, Custer, joined by
Creole and Devin, succeeded in piercing
the Confederate column, took 16 guns, 400
wagons, and many prisoners. Swell's corps
and part of Pickett s division were thus cut
oft. The cavalry detained this force of
between 6,000 and 8,000 until, having
been surrounded by Wright with the Sixth
Corps, Ewell surrendered. Five generals,
more than 7,000 prisoners, several hundred
wagons, and many guns were taken.
St. Albans, Vt., privileges of other
ports granted, by proclamation, 2473.
St. Augustine, Fla., harbor of, referred
to, 1040.
St. Bartholomews, unlawful expedition
planned in, 769.
St. Clair Plats, acts making appropri-
ations for deepening channel over,
vetoed, 2919, 3130.
St. Domingo. (See Santo Domiugo.)
St. Elizabeth's Hospil^. (See Govern-
ment Hospital for Insane.)
St. Germain, Treaty of. — The treaty of
peace between the Allies and Austria at
the close of the World War (q. v.). It was
signed on September 10, 1920.
St. Helena. — A British island possession
in the South Atlantic, about 1,200 miles
west of Africa. It has an area of 47 square
miles, and a population of 3,500. The
chief product is flax. The island is famous
as the scene of the final exile and the death
of Napoleon Bonaparte.
St. John Island, treaty concluded with
Denmark for cession of, to United
States transmitted and discussed,
3777, 3779, 3796, 3886.
St. John Eiver, navigation of, referred
to, 2273, 2675.
St. Lawrence River, navigation ots
Correspondence with Great Britain
regarding, 960.
Referred to, 2675.
Eight to exclude American citizens
from, claim of, by Canada dis-
cussed, 4058.
St. Louis, The:
Mentioned, 6313.
B-H
Befuge given Gen. Miller and Vice-
President of Peru by, 1133.
St. Louis an^ San Francisco Railway
Co., application of, for right of
way across Indian Territory, 4653.
Bill granting, referred to, 4655.
St. Louis Harbor, survey of, referred
to, 2135.
St. Marys Falls Canal, toll imposed
upon vessels passing through, by
United States as retaliatory m^^jas-
ure, proclaimed, 5725.
Referred to, 5749.
Revoked by proclamation, 5Si2.
St. Marys Biver:
Act making appropriation for duep-
ening channel over flats of, in the
State of Michigan vetoed, 2920.
St. Mihiel, American victory at, 8638.
St. Paul, The, mentioned, 6391.
St. Petersburg, Russia:
Fourth International Pr,ison Congress
at, discussed and recommendatioas
regarding, 5117.
International Statistical Congress ia,
4221.
St. Pierre, destruction of city of, 6680.
St. Regis, Capture of.— 4t the outbreak
of the War of 1812 it was agreed be-
tween the British and Americans that the
village of St. Regis, on the boundary line
between Canada and New York, occupied
by Christian Indians, should remain neu-
tral. In violation of this agreement the
Canadian commander-in-chief put a garri-
son in the place and many of the Indians
were induced to- Join the British army. On
the morning of Oct. 22, 1812, MaJ. Young,
with about 200 men, surprised this garri-
son and took 40 prisoners, some muskets,
and a guautity of blankets, after killing 7
men. None of the American force was in-
jured.
St. Regis Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
St. Thomas Island, treaty with Den-
mark for cession of, to United States
transmitted and discussed, 3777, 3779,
3796, 3886.
Sakhalin. — An island off the east coast of
Siberia. .The southern portion belongs to
Japan, and is known as Karafuto. (See
Japan.) It has an area of 13,2o0 square
miles and a population of aboat 80,000
The most important Industry is the her-
ring, but Karafuto is suitable also for
farming and stock-raising. There is also
a valuable stand of timber. More than 100,-
000 tons of coal are mined annually, and
there are also deposits of alluvial gold.
The northern part of the island belonged
to Imperial Russia, but since the Russian
Revolution of 1917 has been the object of
Japanese expansion. It has an area of
14,670 square miles and a population of
about 35,000.
Salaries, Congressional.— TJnder the Arti-
cles of Confederation each state paid its
own members of Congress, but the Con-
vention of 1787 made the members Inde-
Salaries
Encyclopedic Index
Salvador
pendent of the states In this respect. The
first clause of Article I., section 6, of the
Constitution provides that "the Senators
and Representatives shall receive a com-
pensation for their services, to be ascer-
tained by law and paid out of the Treas-
ury of the United States." Members of
the First Congress were paid $6 per day
and $6 for each twenty miles of travel go-
ing and coming. The salaries have fre-
?uently been changed. From 1789 to 1815
hey were $6 per day ; from 1815 to 1817,
$1,500 per ywr ; from 1817 to 1855, $8 per
day ; from 1855 to 1865, $3,000 per year ;
from 1865 to 1871, $5,000 per year ; from
1871 to 1874, $7,500 per year ; from 1874
to 1908, $5,000 per year. A mileage of
twenty cents is allowed both ways. Sena-
tors aad representatives have received the
same salaries except during 1795, when
senators received $7 per day while members
received but $6. At present members of
both houses receive $7,500 per annum. The
speaker of the House receives $12,000 per
year.
Salaries, Division of Postmasters', in
Post-OfS.ce Department, — This division
falls under the supervision of the First As-
sistant Postmaster-General (q. v.). (See
Post-Offlce Department ; Division of Cltv
Delivery; Civil Service; Division of Rural
Delivery.)
Salaries, Executive.— Sept. 24, 1789, Con-
gress fixed the salary of the President of
the United States at $25,000 per annum, at
which figure it remained until 1873, when
It was Increased to $50,000. The Constitu-
tion provides that the salary of the Presi-
dent shall not be diminished during his
term of ofBce, and for this reason that
part of the "salary-grab" act of 1873,
w'hich increased his salary was not repealed
In 1874 with the other provisions of that
act. The salary of the Vice-President,
placed at $5,000 In 1789, was raised to
$8,000 In 1853, to $10,000 in 1873, reduced
to $8,000 in 1874, and in 1908 increased
to $12,000, and the President's salary was
fixed at $75,000. The President receives
also $25,000 as allowance for travelling ex-
penses". The secretary to the President re-
ceives a, salary of $7,500 annually.
Of the Cabinet officers the Secretaries of
State and the Treasury received in 1789
salaries of $3,500 each, the Secretary of
War $3,000, the Attorney-General $1,500,
and the Postmaster-General $2,000. In
1819 the pay of the four Secretaries (State,
Treasury, War, and Navy) was made $6,-
000, that of the Postmaster-General $4,00(),
and that of the Attorney-General $3,500.
The Cabinet ofiBcers and Vice-President now
receive $12,0()0 per year. Washington at
first declined to receive any pecuniary com-
pensation as President. He aslted that the
estimates for his station be limited to such
actual expenditures as the public good might
be thought to require (page 45).
Salaries, Judicial.— In 1789, when the
United States courts were organized, the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was
paid $4,000 and the associate justices $3,-
500 each. The district judges received
from $1,000 to $1,800. These salaries hive
been increased from time to time. At the
present time (1914) the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court receives $15,000, the
associate justices $14,500, the circuit court
judges $7,000, and the district court judges
§6,000. The Chief Justice of the United
tates Court of Claims receives $6,500 and
the four associate judges $6,000 each.
The Constitution provides that the salaries
of Federal judges may hot be diminished
during their continuance in office.
Salaries, Judicial, increase urged in,
7525. (See also Judges.)
Salaries of Public Officers (see also the
several officers):
Commissions claimed by, referred to,
1730.
Fee system, abolition of, as applicable
to certain officials discussed,
6161.
Eecommended, 4939, 5879, 5968.
Fixed salaries recommended, 1387,
4718, 4838, 4922, 4939, 5879, 5968.
Increase for head of Secret Service
recommended, 7253.
Increase in, recommended, 4107.
Mode of paying, referred to, 1954.
Recommendations regarding, 195, IBS,
4107.
Referred to, 1807.
Tariff of fees for clerks, marshals,
etc., recommended, 2666, 2714, 4770,
4836, 4939, 5103.
Salary as President, Washington de-
clines to accept, 45.
Salary Grab. — A popular name for the act
of March 3, 1873, whereby the salaries of
the President and Vice-President, members
of Congress, justices of the Supreme Court
and other Federal officials were materially
increased. The provisions for the Increase
were introduced by Benjamin F. Butler, of
Massachusetts, and made a rider to the
appropriation bill. By this law the Presi-
dent's salary was increased from $25,000 to
$50,000 per year ; that of the CSiief Justice
from $8,500 to $10,500 ; those of the Vice-
President, Cabinet officers, associate jus-
tices, and Spealser of the House from $8,000
to $10,000, and of Senators and Representa-
tives from $5,000 to $7,500. Another act.
passed the next day, made that part of the
law relating to salaries of members of Con-
ress retroactive, thus giving themselves
, 7,500 Instead of $5,000 a year from March
4, 1871, to Mirch 4, 1873, and following
years. This excited the indignation of the
people to such an extent that the laws were
repealed the following year, except such
provisions as related to the President and
Justices of the Supreme Court.
Salmon Fisheiries, defcrease in, 723 (}.
(See also Alaska.)
Salt, duties on, discussed, 397, 1470.
Salt Springs:
Cession of, to United States, 342.
Referred to, 803, 892.
Salt Works in Kentucky, act for relief
of owners of, vetoed, 4170.
Salvador. — Salvador occupies part of the
south coast of Central America, between
Guatemala and Nicaragua (Gulf of Fonsec;i),
the northern boundary Ueing contermino\is
with the Republic of Honduras, and the
southern boundary being the Pacific Ocean.
It is situated approximately between 13°-14'"
20' N. latitude and 87° 45'-90° W. longi-
tude, and is about 140 miles from east to
west, and iibout 80 miles from north to
I"
Salvador
Encyclopedic Index
Salvador
south. Estimates of the area range from
7,225 tb 13,175 square miles.
Physical Features. — There are distinct
areas in the low alluvial plains of the coast
and the Interior plateau, with a mean ele-
vation of about 2,000 feet, broken in many
places by volcanic cones, of which the high-
est are Santa Ana (8,300 feet) and San
Miguel (7,120 feet). -The lowlands are gen-
erally hot and unhealthy, but the climate
of the plateau and mountain slopes Is tem-
perate and healthy. There Is a wet season
from May to October, and a dry season
from November to April.
Bydrography. — The principal river is the
Lempa, which rises in Guatemala and flows
Into the Pacific, being navigable for most
of its course by small steaBiers. In the
eastern districts the Elo San Miguel rises
near the Honduras boundary and flows
into the Bay of Fonseca, and In the cen-
ter of the Bepublic is the large volcanic
lake Ilopango.
History. — Salvador was conquered in 1526
by Pedro de Alvarado, and formed part of
the Spanish vlceroyalty of Guatemala until
1821. In 1840 the Eepubllc broke away
from the federation of Central American
States.
Oovemment. — The constitution rests upon
the fundamental law of 1864 (revised in
1886), the President and Vice-President be-
ing elected for four years by direct vote of
tne peojfle, the President being ineligible
for a successive term in either office.
The National Assembly, consisting of a
single chamber of forty-two Deputies (three
for each Department) elected for one year
by the direct vote of all adult male Sal-
vadorians, meets annually from February
to May, and elects a President and Vice-
President for each session.
There are local courts of first instance,
district courts, and a supreme court at the
capital. Each of the fourteen Departments
bus a governor appointed by the central
executive, but the municipalities have elec-
tive magistrates and officials.
Population. — There are fourteen depart-
ments with an estimated population of
1,300,000. Of the total population about
10 per cent are Creoles and foreigners,
50 per cent half-castes, and 40 per cent
Indians, the negro element being negll-
sible. The language of the country Is
Spanish.
Eoman Catholicism Is the prevailing re-
ligion. Latest figures of education show 989
primary schools, with 1,475 teachers and
.17,500 pupils ; and 27 higher schools, with
2,350 pupils.
. The capital Is San Salvador, with a popu-
lation of 66,000. The other large towns are
Santa Ana, 60,000; San Miguel, 30,000;
Nueva San Salvador, 23,000 ; San Vicente,
26,500.
Production and Industry. — ^The principal
products are coffee, sugar. Indigo, "Peru-
vian" balsam (grown In Salvador, but for-
merly shipped from Callao in Peru)^ to-
bacco, cocoa, rice, cereals, and fruits. Cot-
ton is being grown under a Government sub-
sldyi
Gold, silver, copper, mercury, and lead
are found, and there are Indications of coal
and Iron, but only gold and silver are sys-
tematically worked, mainly in the depart-
ment ot Moiazan.
Latest figures for trade show annual Im-
ports of $6,000,000 and exports of $12,000,-
1)00. The commerce is mainly with the
United States, Great Britain and France.
The chief exports included in above figures
were coffee (36,000,000 kilograms). Indigo
(245,000 kilograms), sugar (4,550,000 kilo-
grams). More than half of the coffee ex-
ported went to the United States. The
chief imports are cottqns, hardware, flour,
drugs and chemicals.
In a recent year the United States Im-
ported from Salvador goods valued at $11,-
915,320 and exported to Salvador goods
valued at $8,148,018, the leading exports
being cotton goods and flour. The chief ex-
port was coffee.
Finance. — ^The last annual budget was
estimated at $9,500,000. The total out-
standing debt is about $5,000,000.
Communications. — There are about 215
miles of railroad open to traffic, and about
1,500 miles of good roads. There are 175
postofflces and 230 telegraph offices, with
2,000 miles of wire. The telephone stations
number 220, with 1,450 miles of telephone
wire.
Salvador:
Commercial relations with, 5663.
Consular convention with, 4070, 4212,
4880.
Difficulties of, with Great Britain,
2643.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 4033, 4212, 4247.
Questions arising under, discussed,
5961.
Guatemala, war with, 5543.
Insurrection in, and refuge on board
iimeriean vessels sought by insur-
gents discussed, 5961.
President of, confirmed, 5544.
Report of Thomas 0. Eeynolda on,
transmitted, 5116.
Tariff laws of, evidence of modifica-
tions of, proclaimed, 5684, 5800.
Discussed, 5747.
Treatv with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 2572, 2694, 3280, 4033, 4070,
4212, 4247.
Vessel condemned by, subsequently
presented to United States, recom-
mendations regarding, 4988.
War with Guatemala, 5543.
Salvador, Treaties with. — Our earliest
treaty with Salvador, then known as the Ee-
publlc of San Salvador, was a convention of
amity, navigation and commerce, which was
proclaimed April 18, 1853. This was super-
seded by the treaty of Dec. 6, 1870, which
provided for reciprocal privileges In busi-
ness, religious freedom, protection of per-
sons and property In each country by the
government of the other, consular preroga-
tives, and the usual restrictions of neu-
trality In case of war. It also contained
the most favored nation clause. On notice
given by Salvador this treaty was abro-
gated May 30„ 1893. Dec. 19, 1901, a pro-
tocol for the arbitration of certain claims
against Salvador by citizens of the United
States was signed. Naturalization and ar-
bitration conventions were concluded In
1908. The arbitration convention, which
was for five years, was extended in 1914
for another five years. Salvador also be-
came a party to the convention between the
United States and the several republics of
South and Central America for the arbitra-
tion of pecuniary claims and the protection
Salvador
Encyclopedic Index
Samoan Islands
of Inventions, etc., which was signed In
Buenos Aires In 1910 and pioclaimed In
Washington, July 29, 1914. (See South and
Central America, Treaties with./
Salvation Anny. — This body was founded
in the slums of Bast London, England, by
William Booth in 1865. It was and Is In-
dependent of church organizations — repre-
senting a new religious organization itself ;
but the basis of its creed is orthodox
Christianity. It differs from other mlssion-
izing efforts In its military organization and
in its prosecution of any methods, no mat-
ter how unconventional, to further the ends
of salvation and conversion and relief. At
first, the Army had no separate organiza-
tion, but in 1869 It tools the name of Chris-
tian Mission, adopting Its present name in
1878. Similarly, the original ecclesiastical
nomenclature was later changed to a mili-
tary one, the government of the Army being
along military lines, although the uniforms
and the methods vary in the different coun-
tries. The United States branch was or-
ganized by G. S. Kallton In 1889.
-In a recent year there were In the United
States 957 corps and outposts ; 177,159 in-
door meetings with an attendance of 6,-
300,000 ; 132,229 outdoor meetings with an
attendance of almost 18,000,000. There
were 32,202 converts, beds were supplied on
2,861,000 occasions to men, women and chil-
dren, with 3,912,000 mfeals, and more than
200,000 Christmas dinners were provided.
With the entrance of the United States Into
the World War, the Salvation Army
prosecuted Its work In the Army and Navy,
both at home and abroad.
The Army In the United States la' divided
Into a western and an eastern division,
with Evangeline Booth In general control.
In 1896 the Volunteers of America were
Incorporated In New York by Commander
and Mrs. BalUngton Booth, as a protest
against what was felt to be over-emphasis
upon militarism within the Salvation Army)
although the work done by both bodies is
almost identlcaL
The International organization of the
Salvation Army comprises 9,859 outposts
and corps In 63 countries and colonies,
preaching salvation in 40 different languages.
The Army carries on its endeavors in more
than 60 different countries and provinces.
Sam-ahmish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Samana Bay:
Oonvention with Dominican Bepublic
for —
Lease of, 3999.
Transfer of, 3799.
Possession of, desired by European
powers, 4015.
Proposition of foreign power to pur-
chase right to, referred to, 4017.
Samoan Islands. — A group of fourteen Is-
lands In the South Pacific Ocean. The
principal Islands are Savall, Upolu, and
TutuUa. The United States has a coaling
station In the harbor of Pago-Pago, granted
in 1872. The neutrality of the Islands was
guaranteed by the United States, Great
Britain, and Germany In 1889 by treaty.
This convention of treaty between the three
countries provided for a foreign court of
justice, a municipal council for the district
of Apia, the chief town, with a foreign presi-
dent thereof, authorized to advise the King ;
a tribunal for the settlement of native and
foreign land titles, and a revenue system for
the Kingdom.
In 1899 the kingship was abolished, and
by the Anglo-German agreement of Nov. 14,
accepted Jan. 14, 1900, by the United
States, Great Britain and Germany re-
nounced in favor of the United States all
rights In the Island of Tutuila and others of
the Samoan group cast of 171° east, the Is-
lands to the west of that meridian being
assigned to Germany. After the World War
the former German part of the Islands was
assigned to New Zealand, under a mandate
of the League of Nations.
Tutuila has an area of about 77 square
miles, with a population of about 6,000.
The other islaiids of American Samoa have
a total area of about 25 miles, with k popu-
lation of about 2,000. The total popula-
tion of American Samoa In 1920 was 8,050.
Tutuila Is mountainous and well-wooded,
and Its soil Is extremely fertile. Its excel-
lent harbor at Pagopago Is a United States
naval station, the commandant of which is
the Governor of the islands.
The islands are governed by means of
three political subdivisions — Eastern Tu-
tuila, including Aunuu ; Western Tutuila,
and the District of Manua, composed of
Tau and the neighboring Islands. Each dis-
trict is administered by a native governor,
who controls the native chieftains under
him. The natives also control their own
courts.
The only export and chief product is
copra, although fruits also are grown. There
are about 50 miles of good roads. There
are four religious missions active in the
islands, and the 69 schools have an enroll-
ment of more than 2,000.
Samoan Islands:
Affairs of, and policy of United
States regarding —
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 5088, 5389, 5391, 5397,
5871, 5963, 6067.
Harrison, Benj., 5469, 5545.
McKinley, 6414.
Eeports on, transmitted, 5197, 5367,
5385, 5392, 5395, 5397, 5909, 5911,
6001.
Application of inhabitants of, for
protection of United States, 4116,
4421, 5089.
Application of Tutuila Island for pro-
tection of United States, and offer
of naval station by, 4122.
Autonomy and independence of,
should be preserved, 5390.
Conference regarding, at —
Berlin discussed, 5391, 5397, 5469,
5871, 5963.
Washington referred to, 5469.
Government of, discussed, 4563, 6336.
insurrection in, discussed, 5871, 5963,
6875, 6428.
King of, death of, 6336.
Privileges ceded to United States in
harbor of Pago-Pago by —
Discussed, 4449, 4522.
Eeferred to, 5367.
Eeport on, referred, 4217, 4473.
Settlement of questions regarding,
referred to, 5747.
Samoan Islands
Encyclopedic Index
San Juan
Special agent to, power of, referred
to, 4315, 5382.
Treaty between United States, Great
Britain, and Germany regarding,
5469, 5545.
Discussed, 5871, 5963, 6067.
Referred to, 6336.
Treaty with, 4433, 4449.
Tutuila, naval station on, agreement
regarding, 4122.
Vessels of United States —
Disabled and destroyed at, 5479.
Sent to, 5390, 5871.
Weakness of, discussed, 5088.
Samoan Islands, Treaties with. — In 1899
a convention was made between the Unit-
ed States, Germany, and Great Britain, re-
lating to settlement of claims of American
citizens, German, and British subjects, for
damage sustained by unwarranted military
action In Samoa. It was agreed that the
King of Sweden and Norway should be in-
vited to act as arbitrator therein, and
that his decision in the premises be final,
and that the three governments be bound
to make good the losses in accordance
therewith. Oct. 14, 1902, Oscaj II., King
of Sweden and Norway, as arbitra^tor, ren-
dered his decision, In which he found the
action of the United States culpable In
bringing back the Malietoans after deporta-
tion, and supplying them with arms and
ammunition without the knowledge of the
German consul. For this and for other rea-
sons. King Oscar held the British and Unit-
ed States responsible for damages.
The convention of 1899 contained the
renunciation by Germany in favor of the
United States of all claims and rights in
respect to the Island of TutuHa and ail
other Islands of the Samoan group east
of longitude 171 degrees west. The United
States renounced all claims and rights in
favor of Germany of the Islands of CIpolu,
Savali, and all other IsIaAds of the Samoan
group west of longitude 171 degress west.
I'he three signatory nations continue to en-
joy equal rights In respect of commerce
and commercial vessels in the islands. (See
also Germany.)
San Carlos Reservation, Ariz., coal
lands on, referred to, 4683.
San Domingo. (See Santo Domingo.)
San Fernando, The, ' seizure of, and
claims arising out of, 4114, 5198,
5547, 5673, 5873, 5962.
Award in case of, 6070.
San Francisco, Cal.:
Cable communication between Pacific
coast and Hawaiian Islands recom-
mended. (See Ocean Cables.)
Presidio of, appropriations for build-
ings at, recommended, 4161.
San Francisco Bay, Cal., floating dock
to be constructed at, 2669.
San Gabriel (Cal.), Battle of. — Dec. 29,
1846, Gen. Kearny with 500 men left San
Diego for Los Angeles, 145 miles away.
Jan. 8, 1847, Flores, acting governor and
captain-general, with 600 men and 4 pieces
of artillery, was encountered on the com-
manding heights of San Gabriel, prepared
to dispute the passage of the Bio oe los
Angeles by the Americans. The baggage
tram and artillery crossed under a harass-
ing fire and then the enemy was charged,
and in 10 minutes Keai;ny was master of
the field. One seaman, acting as an artil-
leryman, was killed and 1 volunteer and
8 seamen wounded, 2 mortally.,
San Jacinto, The:
Collision of, with the Jules et Marie,
appropriation for owners of latter,
recommended, 3343.
Removal by, of Confederate envoys
from British vessel Trent. (See Ma-
son and Slidell.)
San Juan (Cuba), Battle of. (See San-
tiago (Cuba), Battle of.)
San Juan, Cuba, captured by American
troops, 6317.
San Juan de Fuca Explorations.— Certain
explorations on which are based the Ameri-
can claims to possession of territory border-
ing on the Pacific. The portion of the
Pacific Coast between the parallels of lat.
40° and 50° north was visited on behalf of
Spain in 1592 by a Greek pilot named De
Fuca, in 1640 by Admiral Fonte, and sub-
sequently by other explorers, and maps of
the coast line had been made. The treaty
of 1790 between Spain and Great Britain
only gave the latter fishing and trading
rights in the vicinity of Puget Sound. The
discovery and exploration of Columbia
Elver by Capt. Gray, an American ; the pur-
chase from France in 1803 of the Louisiana
territory ; the exploration of Columbia River
by Lewis and Clark, by order of the United
States, In 1804-5, and the treaty of limits
concluded with Spain In 1819, by which all
the territory north of lat. 42° north was ex-
Eressly declared to belong to the United
tates, were held to be sufficient proofs of
the latter's title to the territory. Great
Britain nevertheless claimed a large por-
tion of the region, while the United States
claimed the country to lat. 54° 40' north.
In 1846 the boundary was settled at the
forty-ninth parallel as far as the channel
between Vancouver Island and the main-
land, and from that point on a line' through
the middle of that channel and the Strait
of Juan de Fuca to the Pacific. (See North-
western Boundary.) Navigation of the
channel was to be free to both countries.
Under this treaty the United States claimed
the Canal de Plaro as the channel through
which the boundary was to run, and Great
Britain claimed Eosario Straits. San Jnan
and other Islands were thus in dispute. To
avoid conflict, the occupation by both na-
tions of the Island of San Juan at op-
posite ends was agreed upon. The Emperor
of Germany, who was selected as arbitrator .
of the dispute, decided In favor of the Unit-
ed States in 1872 (4140). (See also "Fifty-
four Forty or Fight.")
San Juan Hill, Battle of, referred to,
6637.
San Juan Hill, Cuba. (Capture of, il-
lustration, opposite page 5950.)
San Juan Island:
Conflicting claims of Great Britain
and United States to, discussed,
. 3092, 3171, 3197.
Settlement of, by arbitration, 4139.
Becommended, 3198, 3213.
Gen. Scott sent to, 3094.
San Juan
Encyclopedic Index
Santa Fe
Correspondence of, referred to,
3110.
Joint occupancy of, 3659.
Military force placed on, 8093.
Possession of, awarded United States,
4140.
Referred to, 3110, 3171, 3819.
San Juan, Nicaragua:
Bombardment of, 2778.
Military expedition under authority
of Great Britain landed at, dis-
cussed, 2903.
Transactions between Capt. Hollins
and authorities of, 2760.
San Juan, Porto Eico, shelled by Ameri-
can fleet, 6316.
San Juan Question. (See San Juan de
Fuca Explorations.)
San Juan Kiver:
Survey of, to be made, 3444.
Territorial controversies between
States bordering on, 2736.
San Nicolas Island, referred to, 6702.
Ean Eemo, Italy, conference of Allied
statesmen at, 8854.
Petroleum agreement of, referred to,
8879.
San Salvador. (See Salvador.)
Sanders Creek (S. C), Battle of.— Gen-
er;illy known as the battle of Camden. In
the summer of 1780 Gen.. Gates had been
arpolnted to the command of the Southern
army, and, reenforced by Baron De Kalb,
Armand's Legion, Porterfleld's Virginia reg-
iment, and Rutherford's North Caroiina mi-
litia, his force numbered over 4,000, of
whom less than 1,000 were regulars. Corn-
wallis, with about 2,000 British and Tories,
of whom 1,500 were regulars, proposed to
surprise Gates's army. Gatsp had deler-
niiucd to surprise Cornwallis. Both ad-
vancing, the two armies unexpectedly met
at Sanders Creek, near Camden, S. C., on
the night of Aug. 16, 1780. After some
skirmishing hostilities were suspended until
the morning, when, with the first British
attack, the Virginia and South Carolina mi-
litia fled, after a feeble resistance, due in
part to an imprudent order by Gen. Gates.
Baron De Kalb bore the brunt of the battle
and fell, being wounded 12 times. The
American defeat eventually became a rout.
Their loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners
was vpward of 2,000. The British lost
325 men, 68 of whom were killed. Previ-
ous to this action Sumter, with about
4O0 men, captured a British convoy with
stores and 200 prisoners, but was himself
surprised the next day by Tarleton, who
recaplured the stores, killed 100 men, and
took .SOD prisoners. The British, in the
Camden battle, came into possession of 7
pieces of artillery, 2.000' mu.skets, the en-
tire baggage train, and nearly 1,000 prison-,
ers. inoinding Generals De Kalb, Gregory,
and Rutherford.
Sandusky, Ohio, British attack on, re-
pulsed, 524.
Sandwich Islands. (See Hawaiian Is-
lands.)
Sandy Bay, Mass., harbor of, referred
to, 1040.
fc
Sandy Creek (N. Y.), Battle of.— May
19, 1814, while the British squadron on
Lake Ontario was blockading Sacketts Har-
bor, where Commodore Chauncey was fit-
tain heavy guns and cables destined for
ting out a squadron for active service, cer-
some of the American ships were yet at
Oswego Falls. The blockade preventing
tlieir being convoyed by water to the har-
bor, Capt. Woolsey, commander of the
Oneida, volunteered to transport them by
way of the Big Sandy Creek, partly over-
land, to their destination. Sir James lieo,
of the blockading squadron, sent 2 gun-
boats, 3 cutters, and a gig to intetcept
Woolsey. The latter had detailed 130 rifle-
men and the same number of Oneida Indi-
ans to proceed along the banks of the
creek to assist in repelling any possible
attack. May 30 the British gunboats
sighted Woolsey's flotilla and began firing.
Within 10 minutes the British squadrons,
with oflacers and men to the number of
170, were prisoners and prizes. Not a sin-
;Ie American life was lost. The British
.OSS was 18 killed and 50 wounded. The
cannon and cables were safely landed at
Sacketts Harbor.
Sanitary Bureau, International, appro-
priation to, 6823.
Sanitary Conference, International, at —
Eome, 4898; 4918.
"Washington, 4564^ 4622, 4631, 6737.
San Marino, the smallest republic in the
world, and outside of Monaco, the smallest
country ; lies along the Adriatic, 14 miles
southwest of Rimini, in northern Italy. It
has an area of 38 English square miles.
The population is 12,000. Marino is named
in consequence of its traditional founda-
tion by Saint Marinus, in the reign of
the Emperor Diocletian (284-305 A. D.)
and possesses a monastery founded in the
ninth century. The independence of the
republic has survived all attempts at sup-
pression and is secured by a treaty with the
King of Italy. The supreme power resides
in the Arringo, or general assembly, which
meets twice a year at the capital, the
executive being entrusted to two Capitani
Keggenti, selected every six months from
the sixty members of the Great Council,
who are elected by universal suffrage in
three classes (twenty from the nobility,
twenty from the landowners and twenty
from the people) for nine years, and are
renewable as to one-third every three years.
There 'is a defence force of about 1,200
men, and all citizens between the ages of
sixteen and sixty are liable for service.
The last budget was in the neighborhood of
2,000,000 lire. Exports are wine, cattle,
and stone. The Capital (San Marino, popu-
lation 1,500) stands on Mount Titain, and
has an impregnable castle.
Santa Fe, N. Mex., capitol at, appro-
priation for completion of, recom-
mendation regarding, 5872.
Grant of land to, 6872.
Santa Fe Trail. — There is said to be in the
ancient palace at Santa F6 a Spanish docu-
ment proving the existence of a trail in the
last quarter of the ISth century from the
old French settleraonts in what is now Illi-
nois, to gome of the Spanish towns in New
Mexico, and from one of those to California.
In 1814 a merchant of Kaskaskia. 111., dis-
?atched a courier with goods to Santa P*'.
n 1822 the Santa F6 trail proper was
opened — a wonderful road some 800 miles
Santa Fe
Encyclopedic Index
Santiago
In length, rising so imperceptibly for three-
quarters of Its distance as to seem perfectly
level, and without a bridge from end to end.
The eastern terminus was first at Franklin,
Mo., then at Independence, and later at
Westport, on the Missouri River. The early
traders carried their merchandise on pack
horses or mules, and in 1824 the prairie
schooner appeared. Along this road General
Kearny and Colonel Dpnlphan led the expe-
dition which annexed the western states to
t'-e Union during the Mexican war. The
Santa F6 railroad now closely follows the
trail, which was the scene of many stage-
roach robberies and Indian attacks. Wagon
trains bound for the Pacific coast rendez-
voused at Emporia, Kan., whence they were
escorted by scouts or military guards.
Santa Maria, The, presented to United
States by Spain discussed and recom-
mendation regarding, 5872.
Santa Rosa Island (Ha.), Battle of.—
Oct. 9, 1861, a force of 1,500 or 2.000 Con-
luiiorutes landed on Santa Rosa Island,
I'eusacola Harbor, Fla., and surprised the
camp of Wilson's Zouaves about a mile
from the fort. Maj. Vogdes was sent to the
relief of the camp with two companies. He
Wiis captured, but the assailants retired
to their boats under the heavy fire of the
regulars after setting fire to the camp.
The Federal loss was 60 killed and wound-
ed. T'\e Confederate loss was not reported.
Santiago, Cuba:
American arniy under Maj.-Gen. W.
E. Shafter lands near, 6317.
American interests in, confided to
British consul, 6331.
Movement against and subsequent
capitulation of, discussed, 6317.
Thanlis of President tendered com-
mander and men, 6574, 6577.
•Postal communication with, order re-
garding, 6577.
"Slaughter House" at, illustration,
opposite 5355.
Santiago (Cuba), Battle of.— On Mon-
day, June 20. 1898, the American fleet of
iibbiif "io ships, including the naval convoy
which had left Tampa, Fla., on June 7,
came wilhiii sight of the town of Daiquiri,
about fifteen miles east of Santiago, which
was the point selected for the landing.
Upon landing at Daiquiri, Gen. Wheeler^s
command of cavalry was ordered to take
position on the road to Siboney. Gen.
Young's brigade (about 965 men), during
the night of June 23-24, passed Gen. Law-
ton's division, which was on the road from
Siboney to Santiago.
About three miles from the former place,
near Las Guasimas, June 24, they encoun-
tered the enemy posted in a strong natu-
ral position. The Spanish forces occupied
a range of hills in the form of obtuse an-
gles, with the salient toward Siboney. The
attack, says Gen. Young, of both wings
was simultaneous, and the junction of the
two lines occurred near the apex of the
angle, on the ridge, which had been forti-
fied with stone breastworks flanked by
htockhouses. The Spanish were driven
from their position and fled precipitately
toward Santiago. The American forces
numbered about 965, the Spanish 2,000 to
2.500. American losses. 1 oflBcer and 15
men killed ; 6 oflicers and 46 men wounded.
Fortv-two dead Spanish soldiers were found
on the field, while the Santiago (Spanish)
papers the day after the battle gave their
loss as 77 killed.
After this battle the Spaniards retired
to the outer defenses of Santiago. These
were the village of El Caney to the north-
east, and the San Juan Hill extending
south from that village and forming a
natural barrier to the eastward of the
city. July 1 these defenses were attacked
by forces under, Gen. Lawton, who was ex-
pected to take El Caney and then move
toward Santiago and support the attack of
Wheeler's and Kent's divisions upon the
main Spanish army. The battle began at
6 A; M. and soon became general. The
enemy fought with much obstinacy, but
were slowly driven back. After Lawton
had become well engaged, Grimes's battery,
from the heights of El Poso, opened fire
on the San Juan blockhouses, and Wheel-
er's and Kent's divisions moved forward,
crossed the river, and formed for an at-
tack on San Juan Hill. During this for-
mation Col. WlkotE was killed. The com-
mand of the Second Brigade then devolved
upon Lleut.-Col. Worth, who was soon se-
verely wounded, and then upon Lieut. -Col.
LIscum, who fell a few minutes later, and
Lleut.-Col. Ewers took command. The
Spaniards strongly intrenched upon the
hills in front of the American forces, San
Juan Hill and Fort San Juan, the latter
position being a few hundred yards nearer
Santiago.
The American forces charged tip San
Juan Hill in the face of a heavy fire, cap-
tured this point, crossed the plain below,
and charged Fort San Juan, driving the
enemy before them. • At midnight of July 1
Gen. Bates arrived with reenforcements,
and at daylight on the 2d his brigade was
filaced on the ridge to the left of the Amer-
can lines. Gen. Lawton's forces were
placed on the right. All day a brisls fire
was kept up hy the two armies, part of the
time In a drenching rain. At nightfall the
firing ceased, but at 9 P. M. a vigorous as-
sault was made all along the lines, which
was repulsed, the Spaniards retiring to
their trenches: The following morning fir-
ing was resumed and continued until near
noon, when a white flag was displayed by
the enemy.
The total losses of the American forces
during the three days' fighting (July 1, 2,
and 3) were: Officers killed, 13; privates,
87 ; officers wounded, 36 ; privates, 561 ;
missing, 62. The entire strength of the
command which fought the battle of San
Juan was 362 officers and 7,391 privates.
The defenses of Santiago were constructed
with much engineering skill, as were also
the batteries In the harbor. The city was
at once surrounded by the American army,
so that the Spaniards could not escape.
The ridge upon which the Americans were
stationed was favorably located and over-
looked the city. The fortifications and
barbed wire fences could easily be seen.
"The Spaniards seemed to realize that their
condition was hopeless, and on Sunday
morning. July 3. their fleet steamed out of
the harbor. The destruction of this fleet
was complete.
On the leth Gen. Toral Informed the
American commander that the Spanish
Government at Madrid had authorized the
surrender, and thereupon final terms of ab-
solute capitulation were duly signed. The
conditions of the surrender Included all
forces and war material in the division of
Santiago. The United States agreed to
transport, without unnecessary delay, all
the Spanish troops in the district to Spkln.
Officers were to retain their side arms and
officers and men their personal property.
Santiago
^Encyclopedic Index
Santo Domingo
The Spanish commander was authorized to
take the military archives of the district.
The Spanish forces were to march out of
Santiago with honors of war and deposit
their arms at a point to be mutually agreed
upon, to await the disposition of the tmited
States Government, etc. The troops sur-
rendered and returned to Spain were about
24,000.
Illustrations of the battle will be founfl
opposite pages 5699 and 5950.
A view of the surrender of Santiago will
be found opposite page 6357.
Santiago Haibor, Cuba:
Forts at mouth of, shelled by Ameri-
can squadron, 6316.
Spanish fleet in, 6316.
Attempting to escape, destroyed by
American squadron, 6317. (See
also encyclopedic article, San-
tiago Harbor, Battle of.)
Thanks of President tendered of-
ficers and men of American
squadron, 6573.
The Merrimao sunk in, by Lieut. Hob-
son, 6305, 6316.
Naval Cadet Powell to be made
ensign for attempting to rescue
force of, 6306.
Thanks of President to Lieut. Hob-
son and promotion of, recom-
mended, 6306.
Santiago Harbor (Cuba), Battle of.—
This engagement, which is also linown as
the battle of July 3, was the decisive naval
combat of the Spanish-American War. For
six weelss the Spanish fleet under Rear-
Admiral Pascual Cervera had been impris-
oned in the harbor of Santiago by the
American blockading squadron In com-
mand of Acting Eear-Admiral Sampson.
On the morning of July 3, 1898, at about
9.30 o'clock, while thd men of the American
vessels were at Sunday quarters for in-
spection, the Spanish fleet, consisting of
the Infanta Maria Teresa, Tizcaya, Cristo-
bal Colon, Almirante Oquendo, Pluton, and
Furor, attempted to escape. The ships,
coming out of the harbor at the rate of
eight or ten knots an hour, passed without
difllculty the collier Merrimao. which had
been sunk in the channel by Lieut. Hobson.
Signals were at once made from the United
States vessels, "Enemy's ships escaping,"
and general quarters were sounded. Rear-
Admiral Sampson being about seven miles
from the scene of battle, the command of
the American vessels during the engage-
ment devolved upon Commodore Schley.
Under his direction, the squadron closed in
on the fleeing vessels, and in about two
hours the entire Spanish fleet was de-
stroyed. The Spanish losses were 600
killed and about 1,400 prisoners, including
the admiral. The loss on the American
side was 1 killed and 1 wounded, while
not a vessel was materially damaged.
From this crnshing defeat Spain was un-
able to recover, and her effort upon the
ocean ceased. (See Illustration opposite
page 5731.)
Santo Domingo.— The Republic occupies
the eastern part of the Island of Haiti, cov-
ering 19,332 square miles of its total area
of 29,537 square miles, or slightly less than
two-thirds of the whole Island, the remain-
der forming the Republic of Haiti (g. o.),
and lies between 17° 37'-20° N. latitude
and 72°-68° 20' W. longitude.
Physical Features and Olimate. — Santo Do-
mingo is distinctly mountainous. The high-
est point In the republic is Loma Tina (10,-
300 feet), an Isolated mountain In the
south of the Island. Between the Sierra
de Monti Crist! In the north and that of
Clbao In the center Is a vast well-watered
plain, known as the Vega Real, from Sa-
mana Bay In the east to Manzanillo Bay
in the west, a distance of close on 150
miles. In the southeast is another great
plain, stretching from Ozanam Elver to the
east coast, about 100 miles distant.
The principal rivers are the Taqni del
Norte and the Yaqul del Sur, which rise
on either side of the central range and
flow, into the Bays of Manzanillo (north-
west) and Neyba (south), and the Yuna,
which drains the Vega Real and flows Into
Saman& Bay ; the Ozama, upon which the
capital stands. Is the most important of
the lesser streams. The republic lies en-
tirely with the tropics, but the climate has
a wide range on account of the diversity of
levels, and the capital, in particular, is
healthy and comparatively cool. Rainfall is
abundant and the wet and dry seasons are
clearly marked. The prevailing wind is
from the east, and the island Is generally
, free from hurricanes.
History. — The Dominican Republic Is the
Spanish portion of the island of Haiti (or
Santo Domingo), which was discovered by
Columbus in 1492 and peopled by the
Spaniards with imported African slaves,
who soon exterminated the Indian tribes.
In 1821 an independent republic was pro-
claimed and the Spaniards abandoned the
country, but from 1822-1844 the territory
was made part of the neighboring republic
of Haiti. The Dominican Republic was
founded in 1844, with a constitution which
has since been re-proclaimed a number of
times. In 1916, disorders on the island
Induced the United States Government to
intervene, and the native government of the
island was largely superseded by a military
government of the United States Navy. In
1920, It was announced that steps were be-
ing taken looking to the withdrawal of the
armed occupation.
The population Is estimated at 955,160.
The city of Santo Domingo, with a present
population of about 27,000, was founded in
1496, and thus is the oldest city in the
New World. Recent figures show about 900
public schools, with some 100,000 pupils.
The President Is chosen by an electoral
college for a period of six years. There is
no vice-president, and in case of the Presi-
dent's death or Inabilitv, Congress desig-
nates a person to take the executive office.
The President has a cabinet of seven mem-
bers, who head the executive departments.
Congress consists of a Senate and a Cham-
ber of Deputies. The Senate contains one
member from each province, and the
Chamber twice that number, the houses
thus numbering twelve and twenty-four
elected in each case by indirect vote, Sen-
ators for six years, one-third renewabir'
every two years. Deputies for four years
one-half so renewable.
Bach of the twelve Provinces Is admin-
istered by a Governor appointed by the
President. The governing classes are main
ly white.
There are three main elements In the
population, the most numerous being rau-
lattoes of Spanish-Negro descent, with manv
full-blooded negro descendants of slaves
Imported by Spain from the sixteenth to
Santo Domingo
Encyclopedic Index
Santo Domingo
the nineteenth centuries, and native-born
and settled whites, principally Spanish, but
partly French and English, with a few
Turkish Christians from Turkey. The re-
ligion of the country is Roman Catholic, but
all creeds are tolerated. Spanish Is the lan-
I Kuage of the Republic, with a sprinkling of
French and English in the towns.
Finance. — In 1907 the Republic ratified a
treaty with the United States, under which
the latter country collects the customs and
acts as an intermediary between the Do-
minican Republic and its foreign creditors.
The most recent figure for the public debt
is $28,000,000.
Until 1919, the revenue came chiefly from
the customs, the total revenue In that year
being slightly above $7,500,000. In 1919,
a property tax was instituted ; the most
recent estimate for the annual receipts was
$4,420,'D00. The unit of value Is the United
States gold dollar. There is a silver peso
which nominally Is worth $0.23 In United
States currency.
Pro^Mction and Industry. — The plains of
the Republic and, in particular, the Vega
Real and Santiago valley in the north,
and Los Llanos or the plain of Seybo in
the southeast, are well watered and ex-
traordinarily fertile, and contain the finest
sugar lands in the West India Islands,
while the mountainous districts are espe-
cially suited to the culture of coffee, and
tropical fruits may be grown throughout the
Republic with a minimum of attention. The
sugar Industry is in a flourishing condition,
and the exports are increasing and cacao is
now the second most important industry ;
coffee, cotton, tobacco, and rice are grown
with variable success. The country abounds
in timber. Including mahogany and other
cabinet woods and dye-woods, but the in-
dustry is undeveloped and transport facili-
ties are lacking. Live Stock. — The treeless
prairies, or savannahs, are capably of sup-
porting large herds of cattle, but they are
mainly in a state of nature.
Gold and silver 'were formerly exported
in large quantities, and platinum is known
to exist, while iron, copper, tin, antimony,
and manganese are also found ; but copper
is the only metal now produced, and one
gold-washing plant is in course of construc-
tion. Of the non-metallic minerals the
principal production is salt, of which great
quantities exist in the Neyba district of the
south.
Of the total area, about 13,500 square
miles are cultivable, with about 3,000,000
acres suitable for grazing. The last annual
sugar production was 1,715,000 bags of 320
pounds each, valued at more than $19,-
000,000. The last annual tobacco produc-
tion was 33,440,000 pounds. About 1,500,-
000 coeoannts are gathered annually for
commerce, and the last annual cocoa exports
were 18,839,000 kilos., valued at almost $4,-
000,000.
The latest statistics show annual Imports
of about $19,000,000 ; and exports of about
$22,000,000. More than 80% of the trade
is with the United States, and a consider-
able portion of the remainder is with Porto
Rico. The chief imports are cotton goods ;
rice ; flour ; iron and steel manufactures ;
bags, sacks, etc. ; leather and leather manu-
factures ; chemicals and drugs ; agricultural
implements. During the last calendar year
the United States exported to Santo Domingo
goods valued at $45,528,750. and Imported
thence goods valued at $33,878,099.
Communications. — ^The two public rail-
road lines have a total length of 153 miles.
There are about 355 miles of private rail-
roads on the estates. There are few good
roads in the Interior.
In a recent year, 863 vessels. Including
624 steamers, entered and cleared in the
foreign trade. The total tonnage repre-
sented was 619,000. ,
There are 93 post-ofBces, 72 telephone
offices, 311 miles of telegraph. The national
interurban telephone system has a length of
almost 900 miles.
For views of Santo Domingo, see Illus-
tration opposite page 6014.
Santo Domingo:
Annexation of, to United States —
Discussed by President —
Grant, 4006, 4015, 4053, 4082,
4176, 4365.
Johnson, 3886.
Eoosevelt, 6997.
Report of Secretary of State on,
transmitted, 4072.
Treaty for, submitted, 4000, 4015.
Failure of ratification of, dis-
cussed, 4053, 4176, 4365.
President declines to communi-
cate privileges relatinsr to,
4012.
Eeferred to, 4006, 4082.
Views of Cabral on, communicated
to Senate, 4071.
Application of, to United States to
exercise protectorate over, referred
to, 4193.
Claim of United States against, 6329.
Claims of citizens of United States
to guano on Alta Vela Island,' 3827.
Colony of negroes on coast of, order
regarding return of, 3433.
Commerce with restraints on, re-
moved, 278, 280, 285, 292, 294.
Complaints of France against, 379.
Commercial relations with, 287. 773
5663. '
Condition and resources of, report on.
4009, 4070, 4071. '
Creditors of, to be paid under the
direction of United States, 6950.
Customs of —
Eeeeivership in, commended, 7416.
Taken over by United States, 6997.
6999. '
Benefits of, 6998.
Diplomatic intercourse with, provi-
sion for, recommended, 4083.
Economic condition of, 6997.
Export of coal and arms to, forbid-
den, 6968.
Fugitive criminals, convention with
for surrender of, 3669. '
Imprisonment of American citizens
by authorities of, 4004, 4013.
Incorporation of, with Spanish Mon-
archy referred to, 3233.
Instructions to naval ofScers in com-
mand on coast of, referred to, 4023.
4075.
Santo Domingo
Encyclopedic Index
Savages Station
Minister of United States to, nomi-
nated, 2909.
Monroe Doctrine, relation of, to ease
of, 6997.
Occupation of, by United States
forces, discussed and end of,
promised, 8902.
Payment of moneys claimed to be
due, from United States referred
to, 4382.
Peace concluded between contending
parties in, 2658.
Political condition of, referred to, 773.
Proposition of foreign power to pur-
chase, referred to, 4017.
Report of George B. McClellan on,
transmitted, 4071.
Eevolution in, referred to, 3826,
6427.
SamanS, Bay, convention for transfer
of. (See Saman4 Bay.)
Social condition of, discussed, 3885.
Tariff laws of, evidence of modifica-
tions of proclaimed, 5587.
Referred to, 5615, 5747.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 3669, 4826, 4842, 4921,
6950, 8903.
Withdrawn, 4888, 4922.
Vessel of United States fired upon at
Azua, 6095.
War in, discussed, 2619, 3445, 6365.
Peace concluded, 2658.
Santo Domingo, Treaties with. — A con-
vention of amity, commerce and naviga-
tion and for tlie surrender of fugitive
criminals was concluded with the Domini-
can Kepubllc in 1867. This provided for
reciprocal privileges of citizens and the
exchange of diplomatic and consular offl-
eers, and the extradition of criminals.
This convention terminated Jan. 13, 1898,
on notice from the Dominican Republic.
In 1903, by an arbitration protocol the
claim of the San Domingo Improvement
Company of New York was submitted to
a board of arbitrators consisting of John
G. Carlisle, Manuel de J. Galvan and Judge
George Gray. These rendered an award
July 14, 1904, providing for the redelivery
of the various properties to the Domini-
can Republic and the payment by the re-
public of $4,481,250 in monthly instal-
ments to the financial agent of the United
States and for the security for such pay-
ments the customs revenueJ and customs
houses of Puerto Plata, Sanchez, SamanS
and Montecristy, and all other ports of
entry or custom houses now existing or
as might thereafter be established on the
coast or In the interior north of eighteM
degrees and forty-flve minutes and east of
the Haitian boundary, were to be assigned
and designated, which custom houses were
to be turned over to a financial agent, to
be appointed by the United States, who
was to have entire charge of such custom
houses and of the collection of the reve-
nues therefrom.
Receiver of Customs. — In 1907 a conven-
tion was concluded providing for the as-
sistance of the United States in the col-
lection and application of the customs rpvo-
nues of the republic. In the preamble to
this treaty It Is stated that owing to the
disturbed political conditions of the coun-
try, debts and claims had been created to
the amount of more than $30,000,000, and
that these same conditions had prevented
the peaceable and continuous collection
of revenue, and that the debts were con-
tinually increasing. Fiscal agents of the
republic effected a compromise whereby
all Its foreign creditors agreed to accept
$12,407,000 for debts and claims amount-
ing to about $21,184,000 of nominal or
face value, and the holders of internal
debts or claims of about $2,028,258 nomi-
nal or face value agreed to accept about
$645,817 therefor, and the remaining hold-
ers of Internal debts or claims on the same
basis as the assents already given will re-
ceive about $2,400,000 therefor, which sum
the Dominican Government fixed upon as
the amount which it will pay to such re-
maining internal debt-holders ; mal^ng the
total payments under such adjustment and
settlement, including interest as adjusted
and claims not yet liquidated, amount to
not more than about $17,000,u00.
Part of the plan of settlement was the
issue and sale of bonds of the Dominican
Republic to the amount of $20,000,000,
bearing five per cent interest payable In
fifty years and redeemable after ten years
at 102J. It was agreed thai tne President
of the United States should appoint a re-
ceiver to collect all tne customs duties
accruing in the several custom houses of
the Dominican Republic until the payment
and retirement of. any and all bonds thus
Issued. It is also provided that until the
whole of the public debt is paid no fur-
ther obligations shall be incurred and no
modification of internal or customs duties
shall be made, except with the consent of
the President of the United States.
Santo Domlnigo also became a party to
the convention between the United States
and the several republics of South and Cen-
tral America for the arbitration of pecun-
iary claims and the protection of inventions,
etc., which was signed'^in Buenos Aires in
1910 and proclaimed In Washington July
29, 1914. (See South and Central Amer-
ica, Treaties with.)
Santo Domingo City, building of Ozama
River bridge at, by American citi-
zens, 5784.
Sao Thome. (See Portugal.)
Saratoga, Battle. (See Bemis Heights.)
Sarawak. — A dlvLsion of British Borneo.
(See Borneo.)
Sardinia. — a large Italian island posses-
sion in the Mediterranean Sea west of the
Italian peninsula. It has an area of 9,300
square miles and a population of almost
900,000.
Sardinia:
Commercial relations with, 820.
Treaty with, 1729, 1749, 1916.
Sarre Valley, disposition of, discussed,
8732.
Sassacus, The, engagement with the
Albemarle^ letsTied to, 3411.
Sault Ste. Marie Canal, passage of Eng-
lish or Canadian steamer through, re-
ferred to, 4014. (See also Canals.)
Savages Station (Va.), Battle of.— One
of the Seven Days' Battles before Rich-
mond. June 29, 1862, Sumner and Heint-
Savages Station
Encyclopedic Index
Seal
zelman retired from Pair Oaks and took
urj a position near Savages Station, on the
Riclimona and York River Railroad. After
destroying the supplies there, Heintzelman
moved south aerosa the swamp. Magruder,
in pursuit, finding Fair Oaks abandoned,
advanced to Savages Station and made an
attack on Sumner's corps in the afternoon.
The latter maintained his ground till dark.
During the night he retrented into the
White Oak Swamp, leaving 2,500 sick and
wounded in the hospital at the station.
Savannah (Ga.), British Occupation of.
— Nov. 27, 1778, Commodore Hyde Parker
convoyed a fleet of transports to Savannah,
which carried about 3,500 British soldiers.
The troops landed at Tybee Island, fifteen
miles from Savannah, and captured the city
Dec. 29. The American force under Gen.
Robert Howe consisted of about 800 Con-
tinentals and 400 militia. The British loss
was offlcially reported as 3 killed and 10
wounded. Eighty-three American dead and
11 wounded were found on the field. Some
450 were taken prisoners, while the others
retreated up the Savannah River and
reached South Carolina. Forty-eight can-
non, 23 mortars, 94 barrels of powder, and
a large quantity of provisions fell into the
hands of the British.
Savannah (Ga.), Fall of. (See Fort
McAllister, Ga.)
Savannah (Ga.), Siege of.— In 1779
Washington sent Gen. Lincoln to take com-
mand of the army in the South, and re-
quested Count d'Estaing, in command of
the French fleet in American waters, to co-
operate in an effort to retake Savannah, Ga.,
Sept. 16, 1779 ; the latter appeared off Sa-
vannah with 33 vessels and 6,000 men.
After the capture of 2 frigates and 2 store-
ships a regular siege was commenced by
the allies. The city was defended by a
force of about 3,000 British troops under
Gen. Prevost. On the morning of Oct. 9,
1779, about 3,500 French and 850 Ameri-
cans advanced to the attack. The fighting
was fierce for nearly an hour, when the as-
sailants gave way after a loss of nearly
1,000 men. Count Pulaski was killed and
Count d'Estaing was wounded. The loss
to the garrison was only 56 in killed and
wounded. Next to Bunker Hill this fight
was the bloodiest of the war.
Savannah Biver, survey of, referred to,
1128.
Savings Banks. (See Banks, Savings.)
Saxony. — A republic of Germany, bounded
on the north and east by Prussia, on the
south by Czecho-Slovakia, and on the west
by Bavaria and several small German states.
It is noted for Its rich mines of coal, iron,
silver, tin, lead, etc., and is primarily an
industrial region.
' Its area is 5,787 square miles, and its
pre-war population, about 4,980,000. The
great majority of the people are Lutherans.
The leading cities, with their 1910 popula-
tions, are as follows : Leipzig, 613,940 ;
Dresden, 551,697; Chemnitz, 301,099.
Saxony entered the North German Feder-
ation in 1866 and the German Empire in
1871, proclaiming itself a republic on Nov-
ember 9, 1918.
The chief crops raised before the War
were potatoes, rye, oats, wheat. The av-
erage annual coal production ran to 5,000,-
000 tons, with 6,500,000 tons of lignite.
The name Saxony also Is applied to the
republic (former Grand Duchy) of Saxe-
Weimar, one of the states of Germany, with
an area of 1,394 square miles and a popu-
lation of about 425,000 ; and to one of the
provinces of Prussia, which has an area of
5,787 square miles and a population of
3,150,000.
Saxony, convention with, 2267.
Saxony, Treaties with. — The convention
ot 1845 abolished the droit d'auiaine and
all other taxes on emigration ; provided
for a period of two years in which an alien
may close up the affairs of a legator from
whom by alienage he is unable to inherit
or hold property ; settled questions of the
disposal and holding of property by aliens,
and the settlement of disputes concerning
the same. (See Germany, Treaties with.)
Schedule K. (See Tariff, Wool.)
Scheldt Dues, discussed and treaty re-
garding, 3381, 3395, 3459.
Schleswig-Holstein. (See Slesvig-Hol-
stein.)
School Children urged to join Bed
Cross, 8358.
School Hygiene, International Congress
of, appropriation urged for, 7841.
Schools. (See Education; Indian
Schools.)
Schuylkill Arsenal, at Philadelphia, ap-
propriation for, recommended, 4785.
Science and Art:
Promotion of advocated, 58, 60, 61,
194, 878.
Tariff discriminations against foreign
works of art, 4794, 4824, 4826, 5091.
Sciences, National Academy of. (See
National Academy of Sciences.)
Scientific Work of Government, coor-
dination of, 7105.
Scotan Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Scotland. (See Great Britain.)
Scutari, disposition of territory arour.tl,
8838.
Sea Areas, Defensive, established, 8234, '
8240, 8338.
Sea Witch, The, wreck of, near Cuba,
2907.
Seacoast Defenses. (See Defenses, Pub-
lic.)
Seal Fisheries. (See Alaska, Bering
Sea Fisheries, Great Britain, claims
against, and Eussia, claims against.)
Seal of United States. — immediately after
the declaration of Independence a commit-
tee was appointed to prepare a device for
the great seal of the United States. Tlie
committee consisted of Benjamin Franklin,
John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. They
reported various devices during several
years. William Barton, of Philadelphia, was
appointed to submit designs. Sir John
Prestwich, an English antiquarian, sug-
gested a design to John Adams in 1779. It
was not until June 20, 1782, however, that
a seal was adopted. This was by the Con-
gress of the Confederation. It was a com-
bination of the various designs of Barton
and Prestwich, and consisted of : Arms —
Seal
Encyclopedic Index
Seamen's Act
Faleways of thirteen pieces argent apd
gules ; a chief azure ; the escutcheon on nie
breast of the American eagle displayed
proper, holding in his dexter talon an olive
branch and in his sinister a bundle of thir-
teen arrows, and in his beak a scroll with
the motto E Plurihus Vnum (out of man.f,
one). Crest — A glory or (gold) brealtint.'
through a cloud proper and surrounding
thirteen stars, forming a constellation
argent (silver) on an azure field. Reverse
— A pyramid unfinished, symbolizing the
strengtn and growtti of the states ; in the
zenith an eye in a triangle surrounded
with a glory proper ; over the eye, around
the rim, the words Annuis coeptis (God has
favored the undertaking) ; beneath the
pyramid MDCCLXXVI and the words
Novus ordo smclorum (a new order of
ihlngs). This -seal has never been changed^
and is In charge of the Secretary of State.
The seal is stamped upon all signatures of
the President, attested by the Secretary of
State.
Accompanying the report and adopted by
Congress, were the following remarks and
explanation : "The escutcheon Is coniposed
of the chief and pale, the two most hon-
orable ordinaries. The pieces pales repre-
sent the several states all joined in one
solid compact entire, supporting a chief
which unites the whole and represents
Congress. The motto alludes to this union.
The pales in the arms are kept closely unit-
ed by the chief, and the chief depends on
that union and the strength resulting from
it for Its support, to denote the confederacy
of the United States of America and the
preservation of their union through Con-
gress. The colors of the pales are those
used in the fiag of the United States of
America ; white signifies purity and inno-
cence ; red, hardiness and valor ; and blue,
the color of the chief, signifies vigilant per-
severance and justice. The olive branch
and arrows denote the power of peace and
war, whicli is exclusively vested In Con-
gress. The constellation denotes a new
state taking Its place and rank among other
sovereign powers. The escutcheon is borne
on the breast of an American eagle without
any other supporters, to denote that the
United States of America ought to rely on
their own virtue. The pyramid on the re-
verse signifies strength and duration. The
eye over it and the motto allude to the
many signal interpositions of Providence in
favor of the American cause. The date
underneath is that of the Declaration of
Independence, and the words under it
signify the beginning of the new American
era which commences from that date."
Seals, Fur:
Extermination of, discussed, 7063.
Government ovmership of killing
rights for preservation of, urged,
7477, 7540.
Preservation of, discussed, 7410, 7540,
7670, 7779, 7823.
ieameu, American:
Appropriation for relief of, 472.
Captured by Tripolitans, 356.
Impressment of, by —
Chile 2772
GreatBrita'in, 383,430, 495,934,2016.
Account of J. B. Cutting for ex-
penditures incurred in liber-
ating, 108.
Japan, convention with regarding
shipwrecked seamen, 4561.
Tripolitans captured by captain
and crew of the frigate Phila-
delphia, 356.
Maltreatment of, on ships plying be-
tween New York and Aspinwall.
3413.
Number of, on vessels, 374.
Outrages committed upon, by pirates
in West Indies and Gulf of Mex
ieo, 765.
Pirates, outrages on, 765.
Protection for, measure providing
proposed, 6348.
Belief of—
Agent appointed for, 192.
Appropriation for, 472. '
Convention with Japan regarding
shipwrecked seamen, 4561.
Provision for, 343.
Eecommended, 6333,
When discharged abroad recom-
mended, 831.
Eights of, in foreign part', 8091.
Shipment and discharge of, 4740.
Wages of, payment of, regulated,
8860.
Welfare act suepended, 8101.
Seamen's Act. — The La FoUette bill to
promote the welfare of American seameu
in the merchant marine of the United
States was one of the much discussed ad
ministration measures of the Sixty-third
Congress. It was signed by President Wil-
son, March 4, 1915.
General provisions fix the percentage of
a crew that must be able seamen, the per-
centage of each department that must un-
derstand the language of the officers, and
define seamen as men over nineteen years
old having had three years' experience of a
specified kind.
Perhaps the most important provision in
the act imposes upon foreign vessels leaving
American ports the same requirements as to
life-saving appliances as are demanded of
American ships. All ships built after July
1, 1915, must carry life-saving equipment
for all persons on board, of which 75 per
cent must be regular lifeboats and not more
than 25 per cent life rafts or collapsible
lifeboats. For the lake and river steamers
a distinction is recognized between the ex-
cursion season, from May 15 to Sept. 16,
when the restrictions are somewhat relaxed.
Another provision affecting foreign as
well as American seamen is that pro-flding
that seamen reaching American ports may
demand and receive half of their pay already
earned. If this demand Is refused the sea-
man Is freed from his contract and is then
entitled to all he has earned up to that
time.
Other provisions abolish arrest and Im-
prisonment as a penalty for , desertion, and
soek to abrogate treaty provisions In rela-
tion thereto.
AH the selected countries except Japan
have laws requiring adequate quarters for
the crew. Germany has since 1905 required
123 cubic feet of air space in the sleeping
quarters for each sailor, and France has re-
quired the same space since 1908. Eng-
land fixed its requirement at 120 feet in
1907, and Norway adopted this minimum in
Seamen's Act
Encyclopedic Index
Secret Service
1909. Beguirements for American vessels
were not raised to 120 feet until 1915.
Seamen's Lav, operation of, suspended,
8101.
Seamew, The, satisfaction due for de-
tention of, admitted by Great Britain,
2111.
Seaport Townp, protection for. (See
Defenses, Public, provision for.)
Search, Right of. (See Eight of
Search.)
Seas, Freedom of the. (See Freedom of
the Seas.)
Seat of Government:
Boundaries of, referred to and pro-
claimed, 86, 192, 194.
Eemoval of, from Philadelphia to
Washington, 281, 295, 298, 299, 300.
Seattle Fost-Intelligencer, statement in,
regarding land elimination in Alaska,
7612.
Sebois River, referred to, 1128.
Secession.— The act of going aside or
withdrawing, as from a religious or politi-
cal organization. The word has received
world-wide notoriety from its use In con-
nection with the secession of certain of the
United States from the Union In 1860 and
1S61. After the adoption of the Constitu-
tion in 1787 the idea of the sovereignty of
the individual states remained familiar to
the minds of many Americans. The Fed-
eralists of New England made threats of
secession In 1811 and 1814, and secession
was generally looked upon as an available
remedy for Federal aggression. This claim
has been advanced, directly or indirectly by
many of the states in turn and has on such
occasions usually been condemned by the
others as treasonable. It was Involved in
or explicitly put forward by the Kentucky
Eesolutlons, the Hartford Convention, and
the South Carolina Nullification Ordinance
(g. v.). While Jefferson condemned "scis-
sion," some of his writings admitted It to
be a Jremedy of the last resort. As agitation
against slavery became more intense seces-
sion was looked upon as the right and
destiny of the southern states. South
Carolina was ready to secede in 1850. The
Nullification Ordinance of 1832 and other
measures passed by that state were early
steps in that direction.
Gen. Jackson, then President, felt that
such a power lodged in a state would be
fatal to the Union and altogether uncon-
stitutional. His emphatic opposition, as
expressed in his military preparations, as
well as his strong message and nroclama-
tlon on nullification, in 1833 (11^, 1203),
checked this feeling for a time, but the
postponement to a final test was perliaps
chiefly due to the unpopularity of the nulli-
fication doctrine among the states-rights
people themselves. Another reason why the
South Carolina nullification movement was
stopped was the adoption by Congress of the
Clay-Calhoun compromise tariff bill, which
gave satisfaction to the nullifiers and their
states-rights friends in the south who did
not accept nullification as a rightful or ex-
pedient remedy.
The secession doctrine was revived on the
election of Lincoln in 1860. Many of the
southern people felt that the triumph of
the Republican party meant the adoption
of a policy of such Interference with the
institution of slavery as to make It Im-
possible for the southern states any longer
to secure and enjoy their constitutional
rights, within the Union.
Accordingly, Dec. 20, 1860, after the elec-
tion of Lincoln, South Carolina, by conven-
tion, passed an ordinance repealing her
adoption of the Gonstltution in 1788, and
reviving her Independence. Mississippi
seceded Jan. 9, 1861 ; Florida, Jan. 10 ; Ala-
bama, Jan. 11 ; Georgia, Jan. 19 ; Louisiana,
Jan. 26 ; Texas, Feb. 1 ; Virginia, April 17 ;
Arkansas, May 6 ; North Carolina, May 20 ;
Tennessee, June 8, all by cbnventions. Op-
position to secession in many states was
based rather upon the ground of inexpedi-
ency than unconstitutionality. The Nation-
al Government never recognized the validity
of the ordinances of secession adopted by
the southern states.
Secession Ordinance of South Carolina,
facsimile of, 3103.
Secession, right of States regarding,
discussed by President —
Buchanan, 3159, 3186.
Lincoln, 3206, 3221.
Second, Assistant Fostmaster-Oeiteral.
(See Assistant Postmasters-General.)
Second Assistant Secretary, State De-
partment,— The office of second assistant
secretary of state was created In 1866.
This officer has charge of certain diplomatic
affairs of great importance to the work of
the Department of State. He is appointed
by the President, by and with the consent
of the Senate, and his yearly salary is
$4,500. Under his jurisdiction fall the Latin
American and Mexican Division (g. v.). the
supervision of mail (g. v.), the Diplomatic
Bureau (g. v.), and the Citizenship Bu-
reau (q. v.). (See State Department.)
Second-class Mail Matter. (See Postal
Service, Second Class Mail.)
Secret Diplomacy denounced, 8230.
Secret Lodges, proclamation against
lawless incursions of, on northern
frontier, 1925.
Secret Service. — The Secret Service of the
United States is under the Department of
the Treasury and is directly under charge of
the assistant secretary of the treasury. The'
first formal appropriation for this service
was made in 1865, to the amount of $100,-
000 included in the Sundry Civil Appropria-
tion Bill.
The original purpose of the Secret Service
organization was that of detecting counter-
feiting, but its functions have been enlarged
and widened. ,
The Secret Service force has been called
upon to protect the Presidents, especially
after the assassination of McEinley ; to
gather evidence against violators of the
Customs Laws and the Excise Laws ; to
gather evidence against land frauds, result-
ing in many arrests and convictions, as
well as in the recovery to the United States
of vast tracts of land illegally acquired by
private Individuals and public officials ; and
to gather evidence against violators of the
anti-trust laws and generally against violat-
ors of any Federal Statutes.
An auxiliary arm of the Secret Service
in the Department of Justice, directly under
the administrative branch, is the Bureau
of Investigation. Another auxiliary force
consists of the Post-Office Inspectors, work-
Secret Service
Encyclopedic Index
Seminole
ing under t'.ie Fost-Offlco Department. Each
of the departments can arail itself of fhe
services of the Secret Service Department
for detecting criminals.
During the Spanish-American War the
confidential agents of Spain were detected
hy the Secret Service and evidence pro-
cured which caused the expulsion from
Canada of the Spanish Legation, members
of which were acting as spies. '
During a recent year there were 510
arrests made by or under the direction of
the Secret Service agents. Note raisers and
check forgers accounted for many of these
cases. Counterfeit notes to the value of
$22,839 and counterfeit coin to the amount
of $16,187 were seized, together with 157
plates, 15 dies, 110 molds and miscellaneous
counterfeiting apparatus. In addition, the
Service investigated many cases of thefts of
Government property, violation of the laws
relating to customs, gold exports, etc.
Secret Service:
Amendment to law a benefit to crim-
inals, 7225. ,
Assertion that Congress did not wish
to be investigated by, 7226.
Complaint of amendments to law,~
7225.
Defense of use of Secret Service
men in discovering land frauds,
7245.
Evidence of land and timber frauds
secured by, 7225.
Increase in salary of chief of, recom-
mended, 7253.
Land frauds investigated by, 7249.
Report of special committee on
President's message relating to,
7238.
Senator and member of Congress in-
dicted on evidence secured by,
7226.
Secret Treaties between Entente Allies
in World War discussed, 8703, 8830,
883G, 8889.
Secretaries.— By a series of acts passed
in the early part of 1781 Congress or-
ganized the Government under several De-
partments, at the head of which were placed
secretaries with duties similar to those of
the secretaries of the British Government.
The Secretary of the Navy was originally
the Secretary of Marine. The Secretary of
the Treasury was originally the Superin-
tendent of Finance. Now all the heads of
Departments, ten in number, are denomin-
ated secretaries, except the Attorney-Gen-
eral and the Postmaster-General. (See also
Cabinet ; Presidential Succession, and Ad-
ministration.) The duties and powers of
the several secretaries are described under
the departments which they administer.
Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce, In-
terior, Labor, State, Treasury, War.
(See Agriculture, Commerce, Interior,
Labor, Navy, State, Treasury, War
Departments.)
Secrets, Official, no punishment for
divulging, 7003.
Sectionalism, evil effects of, 208, 209,
Securities, Issue of, government super-
vision of, urged by President —
Eoosevolt, 7194.
Wilson, 8771.
(See also War Finance Corporation.)
Sedition Law. — in 1798, when war be-
tween the United States and France was
imminent, there were in the United States
by estimate 30,000 Frenchmen organized
into clubs, and 50,000 sympathizers with
France, who had been English subjects.
Many of the newspapers of the country at
the time were controlled by aliens, mostly
French, English, Irish, and Scotch refugees.
Those alien residents who sympathized with
France — the larger number — attacked the
Government fiercely through the press for
its attitude toward that country. In order
to restrain this feeling, which excited bitter
animosity among those Americans who re-
sented the French attitude toward the
United States, the Federalists in control
of Congress passed the famous alien and
sedition acts. The sedition act of .July 14.
1798, was modeled on two "English acts of
1795. It provided heavy fines and imprison-
ment for any who Should combine or con-
spire against the operations of the Govern-
ment, or should write, print, or publish
any "false, scandalous, and malicious writ-
ings" against it or either House of Con-
gress or the President, with intent to bring
contempt upon them or to stir up sedition.
The penalties imposed were fines of $5,000
and five years' imprisonment, and .$2,000
and two years' imprisonment, respectively.
This, as well as the alien act, was regarded
by the Republitan party as unconstitutional
and subversive of the liberty of press and
speech.- "They called forth the Virginia and
Kentucky resolutions (g. v.). The sedition
act expired in 1801. (See also Alien and
Sedition Laws.)
For the regulations concerning and th(
definition of sedition during the war against
the Central Powers, see Espionage Law.
Seed Distribution:
Act making special, in draught-strick-
en counties in Texas, vetoed, 5142.
Eeeommendations regarding, 5888,
5982, 6171.
Seigniorage:
Act for coinage of, vetoed, 5915.
Discussed, 5875.
Seizures. (See Vessels, United States.)
Selden, Withers & Co., reimbursement
of Indians on account of failure of,
recommended, 2836.
Selective Service Law. (See Draft.)
Self-determination of Nationalities.
(See Nationality.)
Seminaries of Learning (see also Edu-
cation; National University):
Establishment of, discussed and rec-
ommended, 470, 878.
Power to establish should be con-
ferred upon Congress, 587.
Seminole Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Seminole Wars.— After the War of 1812
the combined British and Indian strong
hold known as the Negro Fort, on the Ap-
palachicola River, was a copstant menace
to the Georgia settlers. During' 1817 there
were several massacres of whites. Gen. E.
P. Gaines was intrusted with the task of
Seminole
Encyclopedic Index
Senatorial
subjugating the Indians. He destroyed an
Indian village on the refusal of the inhab-
itants to surrender certain murderers, and
the Indians retaliated by waylaying a boat
ascending the Appalachicola with supplies
for Fort Scott and killing 34 men and a
number of women. Gen. Jaclsson took the
tield against the Indiana in January, 1818,
and in a sharp campaign of six months de-
feated them completely, destroying their
villages and driving them from every
stronghold. Among the prisoners taken
were two English subjects, Arbuthnot and
Ambrister, who were charged with inciting
the Indians to hostilities. These were tried
by court-martial and hanged.
Jackson pursued the Indians into Flor-
ida, which was then Spanish territory,
captured Pensacola and St. Marks, de-
posed the Spanish government, and set
up an American administration. This ter-
ritory was later returned to Spain, but
the outgrowth of the incident was the
cession of Florida to the United States
iu satisfaction of the latter's claims, and
the payment to Spain besides of $5,000,-
000 i'hu second Seminole war was the
most stubborn and bloody in all the In-
dian wars. It originated in the refusal
of part of the tribe to cede their lands to
the whites and remove to the Indian Ter-
ritory. Osceola, one of the chiefs opposed
to immigration, was placed in irons by Gen.
Thompson, an agent of the United States.
Osceola regained his liberty, 'killed Thomp-
son and others at Fort King, and cut to
pieces a body of troops. Operations
against Osceola and his warriors were
conducted with great severity, but with
varying success, under Scott, Call, Jesup,
Taylor, and others. The Indians were
supposed to be subjugated in 1837, but
Osceola fled and renewed the struggle. He
was taken bv strategy in 1842 and the
war ended. (See Illustration opposite 1681
and description on back.)
Semiuole Wars:
American foices in, and officers com-
manding, discussed, 611, 1472, 1833.
Appropriation for suppression of,
recommended, 1473.
Brevet nominations for army officers
participating in, 2008.
Discussed, 600, 611, 617, 1447, 1448,
1453, 1472, 1508, 1511, 1833, 1933,
2007, 2051, 2583.
Massacre of Maj. Dade's command,
1834.
Origin of, referred to, 1944.
Spain furnishes aid to Indians in,
611.
Termination of, 1417.
Troops in, rations furnished, referred
to, 611.
Senate. — The upper branch of the legisla-
ture of the United States. The Senate is
composed of two representatives from each
state, until 1913 chosen by the state legis-
lature for a period of six years ; accord-
ingly the membership has varied in num-
ber, from time to time, from twenty-two
members representing eleven states in the
First Congress to ninety-six members repre-
senting forty-eight states in the sixty-third
Congress. Senators must be thirty years of
age, residents of the state they represent,
and must have been citizens of the United
States for at least nine years ; they re-
ceive a salary of $7,500 per annum and a
small allowance for stationery and mileage.
Should a vacancy occur in the Senate dur-
ing a recess of the state legislature, the
governor of the state makes a temporary
appointment which is valid until the next
meeting of the legislature. The Constitu-
tion provides that the terms of Senators
shall so overlap that one-third of the mem-
bers retire every two years. The presiding
officer of the Senate is the Vice-President
of the United States who votes only in
case of the votes being equally divided. Be-
sides the legislative functions, the Senate
ratifies or rejects all treaties negotiated by
the President ; confirms or rejects all ap-
pointments to the higher Federal offices ;
exercises the functions of high-court of im-
peachment ; and in case the electors fall
to make a choice, elects the Vice-President
of the United States from the two candi-
dates receiving the largest number of elec-
toral votes. The exercise of these wide
powers given to it by the Constitution, has
rendered the Senate more powerful than
the House ; the reverse being usually the
case with upper bouses.
In the Constitution adopted by Virginia
in 1776 the name Senate was given to the
Virginian upper chamber, but the term was
not applied to the upper house of the
Federal Congress until Aug. 6, 1787 ; which
up to that time had been known as the
"second "branch." Since the name has been
adopted in the Congress of the United
States it has spread to all states whose -
legislatures are divided into two chambers.
Tlie composition of the Senate is due to
one of the most important proposals in the
constitutional convention at Philadelphia,
known as the "Connecticut Compromise"
wlilch was brought forward by Oliver Ells-
worth and Roger Sherman. This com-
promise settled the conflicting claims of the
large and small states by providing for
equal representation of states In the Senate,
the House being chosen on a population
basis. The seventeenth amendment to the
Constitution, adopted May 31, 1913, pro-
vides for the election of senators by direct
vote of the people, instead of by the legis-
latures of the states as formerly. Some of
the states had already, before the adoption
of this amendment, provided for the elec-
tion of their senators by direct vote of
the people.
A view of the Senate chamber will be
found as frontispiece of Volume XI, and a
view of the Senate Office Building Is the
frontispiece of Volume XIII.
Senate. (See Congress.)
Senatorial Courtesy.— in order that tue
dignity of the body may be preserved, the
Senate gives considerable attention to the
personal wishes of its members. In addi-
tion to the observance of courteous address,
polite language, and the exercise of ^Bose
acts of kindness which tend to lightep
official duties and render social life a pleas-
ure, there Is a tacit understanding as to the
conventional privileges to be accorded to
each in the official deliberations. Should
the name of any former member of the
Senate be presented to that body by the
President for their advice as t6 his appoint-
ment to a Federal office. Senatorial courtesy
requires immediate confirmation without
reference to a committee. The privileges
of speaking as long as he may choose on any
question before the Senate is a courtesy
granted each Senator, and though it is
charged that undue advantage has some-
times been taken of this privilege it was
not abridged until on the closing session
of the Sixty-fourth Congress on March
Senatorial
Encyclopedic Index
Servia
5, 1917, a small group of Senators
was enabled by employing a filibuster (q.
V.) to prevent action upon President Wil-
son's request for power to use armed neu-
trally?- (g. v.). A-t the President's request,
the Senate continued its meetings, and on
March 8, by a rote of 76 to 3, adopted a
rule whereby closure (q. v.) may be enforced.
The rule provides that two days after
notice In writing from sixteen Senators the
question of closing debate on a particular
bin shall be settled without debate, and If
settled In the afflrifaatlve, by two-thirds,
that bill shall be held before the Senate till
Its final disposition, and each Senator shall
be limited to one hour's debate In all on the
bill Itself, amendments to It and motions
arising from It. To prevent endless roll
calls the rule further provides that after
the two-thirds vote no amendment may be
offered without unanimous consent.
Senators of United States:
Apppintments to office, relation of,
to. (See Executive Nominations.)
Constitutional amendment regarding
election of, recommended, 3840,
3889.
Loyal -Eepresentatives and, denial of
seats in Congress to, discussed,
3644.
Seneca Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Senegal. — One of the divisions of French
West Africa (q. v.). Its area is 74,000
square miles and its population, about 1,-
250,000. The capital Is St. Louis (23,000).
The natives pay chief attention to the rais-
ing of nuts, millet, maize and rice. The
chief exports are nuts, hides and rubber.
Latest figures show Imports of $1,000,000
and exports of $1,050,000.
Sequoia National Park. (See Parks,
National.)
"Serapis," capture of. (See illustration
opposite page 346.) '
Serbia. (See Servia.)
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Kingdom
of the. (See Jugo-Slavia.)
Servia. — ■ Servia Is situated in the north
of the Balkan Peninsula and Is bounded
on the north by Hungary, on the south by
Greece, on the east by Rumania and Bul-
garia, and on the west by Bosnia, Monte-
negro and Albania. Shortly after the col-
lapse of Austria-Hungary In the Wprld War
in the first days of November, 1918, Servia
joined Montenegro and the Croats, Slovenes
and Serbs of the former Austro-Hungarlan
Empire to make the new state of Jugo-
slavia (q. v.). Servia forms the kernel of
the ' new state, which Is sometimes called
also the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and
Slovenes.
, PJtysical Features. — The country is gener-
ally mountainous, and consists of exten-
sive forest-clad slopes, uncultivated heaths,
and fertile meadows and valleys. The
Transylvania" Alps, the Balkans and the
Rhodope ranges extend from Rumania and
Bulgaria Into eastern Servia, while out-
liers of the Bosnian and Albanian highlands
cross the western border. In the north
the Drina and Save effect a confluence at
Belgrade with the Danube, which forms
the remainder of the northern (and part
of the northeastern) frontier, and is Joined
in the northeast by, the Tlmok, which is
also a frontier river for part of its course.
The chief inland river is the Morava, which
rises in Bulgaria and flows through Servia,
from south to north, into the Danube.
The valleys of these rivers contain the most
fertile districts of the kingdom. The prin-
cipal river of Macedonian Servia Is the
Vardar, which rises in the Shar Mountains
on the Albanian frontier and flows south-
ward to the Greek frontier and thence to
the Gulf of Salonlca. The climate Is gen-
erally mild, but is subject to the continen-
tal extremes.
mstory.—Tbe earlier Serb kingdom was
extinguished by the Turks at the battle
of Kossovo in 1389, and from that date
until the early years of the nineteenth cen-
tury the country formed a Turkish pa-
shalik. After heroic struggles the pashalik
was recognized as an autonomous princi-
pality by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829)
and by the Treaties of San Stefano and
Berlin (1879) the complete independence
of the country was recognized, a kingdom
being proclaimed on March 6, 1882. On
"i"?,. 2?.,. (•'°°^ II)' 1903, the descendant
of the Obrenovieh dynasty, which had ruled
Servia as Princes and Kings since 1830,
was assassinated, and a grandson of Kara-
george, a national hero of the risings of
the early nineteenth century, was elected
King by the Skupshtina and Senate and
was crowned in September, 1904.
For Servia's part in the Balkan Wars, see
Balkan Wars. For her part in the World
War, see World War.
Ethnography. — In 1910, thfe area of Ser- (
via was 18,650 square miles, and the popu-
lation, 2,911.701. The new acquisitions as a
result of the Balkan Wars amounted to
about 15,240 square miles, with a popula-
tion of about 1,500,000. The total area of
Servia at the outbreak of the World War
thus was 33,890 square miles, with an esti-
mated total population of 4,400,000 The
capital and chief town is Belgrade, with a
Papulation estimated in 1914 as close to
In old Servia, the overwhelming majority
of the people belong to the Serbian Ortho-
dox faith. In the new territories are a
large number of Roman Catholics and many
Mohammedans.
^iJ^^y *^ budget of Servia was in the
neighborhood of $42,500,000. The unit of
In on t \^^?'?^^i DO^ally equal to about
3)0.20 in United States currency.
Of the total area of Servia, about 21%
IS arable land; 4% is devoted to vine
fj"fii?''''™.i tl"- ^^'^'i ^« meadow, 6%%'
is forest, and the remainder is state proD-
erty consisting mainly of forests. The
fruit-growing was particularly important
?™n°,irt»'Ji^ ^^''' especially plums. ^ Other
important crops were wheat, barley, maize
oats, rye, beets. About 15,000 tons of to-
bacco were grown in Servia in 1919, and
the silk culture also occupies a large num-
ber of persons. ^
The mineral wealth of Servia awaits
development. Gold, silver, antimony Sel
mercury manganese, graphite, copper Iron
lead and zinc are found, and coalT marble
M^if ''"^f ""^ ?" ''ye mined in small quantt
ties. Mineral springs abound. The indus-
trial population is small, the sifty p?lncl-
hands '" '^^'^° employing s'ooo
In 1912, the Imports into Servia amouut-
erl to about $20,000,000 and the exno rts tr,
about $16,006,000. The chief imports were
cotton tissues, cotton yarn, hides and ma
chinery. The chief experts were wh"at fnd
meat, followed by maize, hides and poultey
Servia
Encyclopedic Index
Seward's Folly
The imports (.'ame chiefly from Germany ;
the exports went chiefly to Austria-Hungary.
In a recent year the United States ex-
ported to Jugo-Slavia, Albania and Flume
goods valued at $972,041. The imports
from those countries amounted to $73,597.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most Important products ex-
ported by the United States to Servia,
Montenegro and Albania were as follows
in order of value : Mineral oils, flour, cot-
ton manufactures, rye, boots and shoes,
blankets.
Communications. — Before the World War,
there were 975 miles of railroad open to
traffic. There are few good roads, and
much of the transportation Is by means of
the Danube, Drina and Save Elvers. Be-
fore the War, there were 2,730 miles of tele-
graph line, with 6,420 miles of wire, and
211 telegraph offices. There were 2,129
urban telephone stations, with 500 miles of
line and 4,900 miles of wire ; and 52 inter-
urban systems, with 1,825 miles of line and
almost 7,000 miles of wire. The number of
post-offices was 1,555.
Servia:
Access to the sea must be granted,
8425.
Bulgarian territory assigned to, after
World War, 8840.
Consular convention with, 4627, 4658.
Eef erred to, 4757.
Diplomatic relations with, referred
to, 4522, 4718.
Evacuation and restoration of, by
Germany, essential, 8484.
Freedom to be granted to, 8403.
Neutrality of United States in war
with —
Austria-Hungary, 7969.
Treaty with, 4658.
Servia, Treaties with. — The convention of
commerce and navigation of 1881 provided
for freedom of i commerce, navigation, and
trade upon full, equitable, and reciprocal
bases ; established the rights of real and
personal property holders ; conferred trade
privileges ; restricted the prohibition of im-
ports ; exempted citizens of the one coun-
try from enforced military service or con-
tributions in the country of the other ;
granted terms of the most favored nation
in matters of import and export duties ;
exempted goods from any form of transit
duty ; goods for the one country to be con-
veyed over the railroads of the other on
terms equal to those of the citizens of the
country. (For terms of the consular con-
vention of 1881, see Consular Conventions.
For terms of the extradition treaty of
1901, see Extradition Treaties.)
Service Bureau of Public Information
eonunittee created, 8472.
Service Corps established, 7800.
Settlements, (See Social Settlements.)
Seven Days* Battles. — A series of battles
fought in the Peninsular campaign, In the
vicinity of Richmond, Va., between the
Army of the Potomac, under McClellan,
and the Confederate army under Lee. The
first conflict occurred on June 25, 1862,
and a battle was fought each sucBeeding
day but one to July 1. June 25 MoClel-
lan's army before Richmond, numbering
115,102, received orders to advance. Lee's
army on both sides of the Chlckahomlny
aggregated 80,835. Hooker advanced be-
yond Fair Oaks and secured his ground.
Meantime the Confederates had placed
Richmond in a state of security and de-
termined 'upon aggressive movements.
Lee had succeeded Johnston in command,
and It was determined to bring the mass
of the army down the Chlckahomlny and
threaten McClellan's communications with
the York River. Jackson had moved out
of the Shenandoah Valley and was at'
Hanover Court House, ready to render
what assistance might be required. Some
Federal historians say that McClellan de-
termined to change his base of operations
to the James River, seventeen miles south
of Fair Oaks. The writers on the South-
ern side deny this. The retreat was ac-
■com,plished with a loss to the Federal
army of 15,249 men. The operations of
the two armies are described under the
headings Meehanlcsville, Gaines Mill, Sav-
ages Station, Frayser's Farm, and Malvern
Hill. A few weeks later the Federal army
was withdrawn from the James and the
Peninsular campaign was ended.
Seven Nations. (See Indian Tribes.)
Seven Fines and Fair Oaks (Va.), Bat-
tle of. — From Williamsburg to i Richmond,
Va., the distance is about fifty miles. By
May 30, 1862, Casey's and Couch's divi-
sions of Keyes's corps of McClellan's army
bad crossed the Chlckahomlny and ad-
vanced respectively to Fair Oaks and Seven
Pines, six and seven miles, respectively,
from Richmond. Heintzelman's corps had
also crossed and was encamped several
miles to the rear of Couch on the Williams-
burg road, and Sumner was ready to make
the passage of the stream when a heavy
rain, which occurred on the night of May
30, rendered this impracticable. Joseph
E. Johnston, who* was in command of the
Confederate forces, sent Generals Long-
street, Huger, D. H. Hill and Gustavus W.
Smith to attack this advance guard of the
invading army. The fighting began at
1 P. M., May 31. The Federals gradually
fell back. At 4:30 the arrival of Sedg-
wick's division of Sumner's corns turned
the tide of battle. At sunset Gen. Johns-
ton was severely wounded by a piece of
shell, and the command devolved upon Gen.
Smith. In the morning the Confederates
renewed the attack. They were finally re-
pulsed about noon. The Confederates lost
4.233. The Federals lost 5,739, of whom
890 were killed. Gen. Lee assumed com-
mand of the Confederate army the day
following the battle. (See Illustration op-
posite 3225.) ,
Seven Sisters. — The nickname applied to
seven laws against trusts passed by the New
Jersey legislature, at the instigation of
Governor Woodrow Wilson, in February,
1913, becoming Chapters 13 to 19 of the
Laws of New Jersey, 1913.
Sevres, Treaty of. — The treaty of peace
between the Allies and Turkey at the close
of the World War (q. v.).
Seventy-First Regiment in the trenches
in the Spanish-American War. (See
illustration opposite 6293.)
Sevres, Treaty of, discussed, 8910, 8916.
(See also Turkey, League of Nations,
Mandatory.)
Seward's FoJly. — The action of William
H. Seward, Secretary of State, In nego-
tiating the purchase of Alaska in 1867
was criticised severely by many people'
and referred to as Seward's Folly The
Seward's Folly
Encyclopedic Index-
Shermaa Act
value of Alaska to the United States has
long since robbed the phrase of any but his-
torical value. (See Alaska.)
Se-wells Point, Va., •evacuation of bat-
teries on, referred to, 3313.
Sexton Valley, disposition of, 8837.
Shadrach Case.— One of many exciting
fugitive slave cases of ante-bellum days.
In May, 1850, Frederic WilUins, a Vir-
ginian slave, made his escape and found
his way to Boston, where he obtained em-
ployment under the name of Shadracn.
Subsequently he was arrested and impris-
oned in the United States court-house,
pending trial. He was liberated by a body
of colored people and assisted to Canada.
Intense excitement prevailed in Boston,
which spread over the entire country when
Congress turned its attention to the in-
fringement of the law. Clay introduced a
resolution requesting the President to in-
form Congress of the facts in the case.
President Fillmore issued a proclamation
(2645) announcing the facts and calling
upon the people to prevent ftfture disturb-
ances.
Shantung. — A maritime province of China,
with an area of 55,970 square miles and an
estimated population of more than 25,000,-
000. Part of the province consists of a
mountainous peninsula about 200 miles long
and 100 miles wide, extending eastward into
the Yellow Sea toward Korea. Shantung
has valuable mineral deposits, especially
coal and iron ; and the soil is fertile and
well-watered. There is much agriculture,
silk-culture and -weaving, and fruit-grow-
ing. The province is held especially sacred
by the Chinese because it was the birthplace
of both Confucius and Menclu?.
At the very end of the nineteenth cen-
tury, Germany obtained a 99-years lease and
other valuable concessions in the district
around Kiaochau, on the eastern coast of
Shantung. German enterprise was respon-
sible for the construction of the railroads
leading westward from this district. With
the outbreak of the World War, Kiaochau
was occupied by Japanese troops, and its
final disposition was one of the main
sources of international friction at the
close of the World War. The terms of the
Treaty of Versailles provided that Japan
was to retain temporary control of the dis-
trict, agreeing ultimately to restore it to
China. "President Wilson defended this set-
tlement on the grounds that it was neces-
sary in order to procure Japan's adherence
to the League of Nations. Great Britain
has a lease over Weihaiwai, a district of ^
some 285 square miles at the easternmost
end of the Shantung promontory into the
I'ellow Sea.
Shantung Peninsula of China, award of,
to .Japan, discussed, 8774. (See also
China.)
Sharpshurg (Md.), Battle of. (See An-
tietam (Md.), Battle of.)
Shawanese Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Shawnee Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Shays'S Bebellion. — An insurrection of
some people of western Massachusetts
against the state government in 1786-8T,
under the leadership of Daniel Shays.
After the close of the Revolution much dis-
content and actual want prevailed through-
out New England, especially In Massachu-
setts. The annual state tax amounted to
$1,000,000. Riots and armed mobs were
frequent. The chief grievances complained,
of were that the governor's salary was too
high ; that the senate was aristocratic ; that
lawyers' fees wece extortionate and the
taxes burdensome. The relief demanded
was the issue by the state of paper money.
This was refused. Shays, at the head of
1,000 armed men, took possession of
Worcester, Dec. 5, 1786, and prevented the
session of the Supreme Court. The court
having adjourned to Springfield, the same
men attempted to prevent the session
there, but were forestalled bj; the militia.
In January, 1787, three bodies of insur-
fents, under Shays, Luke Day, and Eli
'arsons, marched upon Springfield with
the purpose of capturing the Continental
arsenal. Shays's army, numbering about
1,000, was attacked by about 4,000 militia
under Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, and was put
to flight witl} a loss of 3 killed and 1
wounded. Shays and some of his follow-
ers joined Parson's force, but were dis-
persed by the militia at Petersham in Feb-
ruary, 1787. Shays escaped, but 150 others
were captured and their leaders sentenced
to death. All, however, were ultimately
pardoned on laying down their arms.
Sheep Husbandry, report of Commis-
sioner of Agriculture on, 4462.
Experiment station established, 8101.
Sheep Islands. (See Faeroes Islands,
under Denmark.)
Sheepeater Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.
Shell Castle Island, N. C, beacon to be
erected on, 182.
Shenandoah, The. — Notwithstanding the
provisions of the British foreign enlist-
ment act of 1819, which forbids the equip
ment of any land or naval forces within
British dominions to operate against any
friendly nation, the Florida, Alabama,
Georgia, Shmandoah, and other Confederate
vessels were allowed to escape in spite of
the protest of the United States minister
The Shenandoah sailed from London as the
Bea King Oct. 8, 1864, commanded by C'npt.
James Iredell Waddell, of the Confederate
navy. Making for Madeira her nam'e Wiis
changed to Shenandoah. From Madeira she
sailed for Melbourne, destroying a number
of United States merchant ships on the
way. Thence she went to Bering Sea and
did great damage to whaling vessels. At
the close of the war the Shenandoah wns
surrendered to the British Sovernnient, ami
later turned over to tlic United States. The
depredations of tlie Shenandoah were made
a part of the Alabama claims against Great
Britain. (See also Alabama Claims.)
Shenandoah, The (see also Alabama
Claims) :
Judgments rendered by claims com-
mission on claims arising from cap-
tures by, referred to, 4322.
Reported surrender of, referred to,
3575.
Sherman Act.— A compromise financial
measure introduced into Congress by Sena-
tor John S'herman, of Ohio, and passed
July 14, 1890. It reiiealpd the Bland-Alli-
son Act of 1878 and directed the Secretary
of the Treasury to purchase silver bullion
to the amount of 4,500,000 ounces per
Sherman Act
Encyclopedic Index
Shipbuilding
month, at the market rate, issuing Treasury
notes iu payment therefor. These notes
were to be redeemed in coin at the Treasury
on demand. Tlie act also directed the coin-
age each month of 2,000,000 ounces of the
bullion into standard silver dollars. The
repeal of the Sherman Act was frequently
urged. In the summer of 1893 the law
was claimed to be a leading cause of the
business depression, and President Cleve-
land summoned Congress to meet in special
session Aug. 7. Congress, after a long de-
bate, passed Nov.' 1 the Voorhees bill, re-
pealing the silver-purchasing clause of the'
Sherman Act, but affirming bimetallism as
a national policy.
Shermto Act:
Discussed, 5548, 5628.
Eepeal of purchasing clause of, dis-
cussed, 5875, 6073, 6074.
Eecommended, 5833,
Sherman Act.- (See Anti-trust Law.)
Sherman's March. (See illustration op-
posite page 3885.)
Shilling. — The name of a coin In use in
several European states, varying in its
value. The English shilling is one-twen-
tieth of a pound sterling, the Danish copper
shilling is one-ninety-sixth of a rixdaler,
and equal to one-fourth of a penny of Eng-
lish money. The Swedish shilling is twice
the value of the Danish. In some parts
of Germany the shilling is used as a frac-
tional coin of the value of one penny ster-
ling In America this coin was first issued
from the mint at Boston. The first struck
were known as the New England shilling,
Willow Tree, Oak Tree, and Pine Tree
coins. One of the earliest coins used in
America was the Bermuda shilling. Lord
Baltimore had shillings coined in London
for use in Maryland. As money of account
the shilling varied greatly in the Colonies,
Shiloh, or Pittshurg Landing (Tenn.),
Battle of.— One of the most hotly con-
tested battles of the Civil War. After the
first line of Confederate defenses in the
West had been broken by Grant, Gen. Beau-
regard was sent to establish another. He
selected the line of the Memphis and
Charleston Railroad. The Confederate
army to the number of 45,000 was concen-
trated at Corinth, Miss., under command of
Albert Sidney Johnston. Polk, Bragg,
Hardee, and Breckinridge were there with
their corps, and Van Dorn and Price were
on the way from Arkansas with 30,000
more. After taking Fort Donelson, the
Federal army under Grant proceeded up
the Tennessee Elver to Pittsburg Landing,
a point 219 miles from its mouth, on the
west bank, near the intersection of the
state lines of Alabama, Mississippi, and
Tennessee, and about twenty miles from
the Confederate camp at Corinth. Five
divisions of Grant's army, under Generals
W. T. Sherman, Hurlbut, W. H. L. Wal-
lace, McClernand, and Prentiss, were here
encamped, and, Including Gen. Lew. Wal-
lace's division, about seven miles down the
river, numbered 40,000 men. Bnell's army
of 40,000 was expected to reenforce them
here, and it was the intention upon his
arrival to proceed against Johnston at Cor-
inth The latter, however, without wait-
ing for his own reenforcements, resolved
to attack Grant before the arrival of
Bnell's forces. April 3, 1862, Jbhnston
marched his army from Corinth and on the
6th attacked the Federal army. After a
day's hard fighting Grant's army was
driven back from the vicinity of Shiloh
Church nearly to the river, a distance of
three miles. A part of the expected re-
enforcements arrived just in time to help
to check the last charge of the victorious
Confederates. The battle was reopened
on the morning of the 7th by Buell, who
had arrived during the night with 20,000
men. The second day's fighting was as
stubborn as the first had been, but the Con-
federates were outnumbered. At 2 P. M.
Beauregard ordered preparations made for
the retreat, which by 4 o'clock was under
way. He was not pursued. The casualties
were: Confederates — killed, 1,728; wound-
ed, 8,012 ; prisoners, 959 ; total, 10,699.
Federals — killed, 1,735 ; wounded, 7,882 ;
prisoners, 3,956 ; total, 13,573. Gen. Al-
bert Sidney Johnston was killed on the
first day of the battle and was succeeded
by Gen. Beauregard in the command of the
Confederate army.
Shimonoseki Indemnity. — Shimonoseki la
a seaport of Japan whose forts command
a strait of the same name. In 1864 these
forts were attacked and destroyed by a.
squadron of war vessels, representing the
United States, England, France and Hol-
land, in retaliation for the firing on mer-
chant vessels of those nations by the forts.
The Japanese Government was compelled to
pay damages for the injuries inflicted by the
forts, besides an indemnity, amounting to-
gether to $3,000,000. Our share In this sum
was $785,000. Only a small portion of it
was needed for damages inflicted, and the
remainder lay in our public treasury for
some years. It was not applied to any pub-
lic use, and finally, after repeated attempts
to refund the extortionate excess, it was re-
paid to Japan in 1884.
Shinplasters. — During the war small
change disappeared from circulation and the
people resorted to postage stamps and pri-
vate notes. The latter, representing ten,
twenty-five and fifty cents, issued by retail
dealers to facilitate trade, were of little
value beyond the particular locjility where
they were issued, except as plasters for
broken shins, and hence were called "shin-
plasters." The fractional notes printed by
the government under the law of 1863 were
also called "shinplasters," but merely be-
cause their forerunners had borne that
name.
Ship Island, utility of forts on, for
protection of Mississippi coast,
2266, 2293.
Shiphullding. — A summary of the general
results of the 1914 census of manufactures
for the shipbuilding and boat-building indus-
try, issued by the Bureau of the Census, De-
partment of Commerce, consists of a detailed
statement, relating to the United States as a '
whole and showing, for the years 1909 and
1914, the value of the work done on new
vessels, whether launched or not during tha
census year ; the value of repair work done ;
the kind, number, and tonnage of vessels of
5 gross tons and over which were launched
during the year ; and the number of powei!
boats of less than 5 tons which were com-
pleted during the same period. The statis-
tics relate only to work done In private ship-
yards and manufacturing establishments.
Reports were received from 1,145 estah-
lishments. whose products — that is, construc-
tion and repair work done — during the year
were va/ued at $88,682,071.
The total number of vessels ot 5 gross
tons and over launched during the census
Shipbuilding
Encyclopedic Index
Shipping Board
year decreased from 1,584 in 19Q9 to 1,113
in 1914, or by 29.7 per cent, and the gross
tonnage decreased from 467,219 In 1909 to
424,660 in 1914, or by 9.1 per cent. Iron and
vsteel vessels launched decreased from 158 In
1909 to 126 in 1914, or by 20.3 per cent, and
to tonnage from 254,986 to 242,559, or by 4.9
per cent. The number of wooden vessels
launched decreased from 1,426 in 1909 to
987 in 1914, or by 30.8 per cent, and the
tonnage from 212,233 to 182(1.01, or by 14.2
per cent.
Steel merchant vessels building or under
contract to be built in private American
shipyards on December 1, 1916, according to
bjllders' returns to the Bureau of Naviga-
tion, Department of Commerce, numbered
400 of 1,428,003 gross tons. On December
1, 1915, builders' returns of construction or
contracts for the construction of steel mer-
chant vessels aggregated 202 vessels of 761,-
511 gross tons. The tonnage building or
ordered on December 1, 1916, however, is
less (17 vessels of 51,943 gross tons), than
on November 1, 1916. During November
American yards finished 22 vessels of 68,922
gross tons, and made new contracts for 7
steel merchant vessels of 18,285 gross tons.
Ewropean War Legislation. — In 1917, the
Sixty-fourth Congress gave the President
authority, in time of war or national emer-
gency occurring before March 1, 1918 :
To place an order, to refuse which was
made illegal, with any person for any ships
or war materials needed by the Government
and of the kind and quantity usually pro-
duced by such person.
To modify or cancel any existing contract
for the production of war materials, as
found necessary by the Government. If
the person holding such contract refuse to
consent to such modification, the President
may take over all or a part of his plant
and use It as necessary.
To require the owner or occupier of any
plants in which war materials or ships
are produced to place at the disposal of
the Government all or any of his output.
To requisition and take over for Govern-
mental purposes and use any plant of any
kind, even without agreement with the
owner or occupier.
Just compensation for such action is to
be determined by the President. If the
person to be compensated is not satisfied
with the amount, he shall receive one-half
of it and, may bring suit for such addi-
tional amount as be feels himself entitled to.
In the same year the Sixty-fifth Congress
gave the President power to requisition
and take over any ship already constructed
or in process of construction or thereafter
to be constructed, or any part of such
ship, including its charter. It authorized
the President also to take over any ship
within the Jurisdiction of the United States
which at the time of coming therein was
owned In whole or in part by any corpora-
tion or subject of any nation with which
the United States is at war, or was under
the register of such nation, and further
provided for a board of survey to deter-
mine the value of such vessel, the findings
of the board to be competent evidence as
to any claim for compensation. (See also
United States Shipping Board.)
On April 9, 1918, it was announced by
ofllcial Washington authority that at that
time the United States had 390 vessels,
with a total tonnage of 2,762,605 tons, en-
gaged In the transportation of troops and'
material across the Atlantic. Of the ves-
sels, 322 flew the American flag, with a
carrying capacity of 2,365,344 tons, the
other 68 vessels being chartered ships of
neutral nations. In addition, 471,000 tons
of seized Dutch shipning were available for
service.
A detailed table in the article on World
War gives an account of the number, kind
and tonnage, month by month, of the ships
built in the United States during its hos-
tilities against Germany and Au«tria-Hun-
gary.
During the fiscal year ending In 1919,
there were built and documented in the
United States 891 steam Vessels, of a total ,
of 3,107,064 gross tons ; 84 sailing vessels,
of a total of 79,234 gross tons ; 633 gas
vessels, of a total of 50,027 gross tons; 5
canal boats, of 2,731 gross tons ; and 330
barges, totalling 87,565 gross tons.
For the present status of American ship-
ping, see Merchant Marine.
See also Ship Purchase Law ; Seamen'*
Act; Shipping.
Shipbuilding:
Consular returns on, in foreign coun-
tries, referred to, 2955.
Decline in American, discussed, 4200.
Encouragement to American, recom-
mended, 4060, 4255, 4727, 5984.
Ship-owners impede government by
charging high freight rates, 8313.
Shippers, rig*ht to choose transfer
routes for goods should be vested in,
7446.
Shipping (see also Commerce and Mer-
chant Marine):
Foreign interests eliminated from,
8564.
Importance of, in World "War, 8250.
Supervision of, discussed, 8642.
Shipping, American. (See Commerce
discussed.)
Shipping Board, United States. — ^A body
created by Act of Congress approved on
September 7, 1916, providing for a board
of five members, appointed by the President,
by and with the consent of the Senate, with
annual salaries of $7,500 each. The mem-
bers were to be appointed for terms of six
years, with not more than tliree of the
same political party, and with none of them
in any relations with or holding securities
of any common carrier, nor engaging in any
other business. The Board was organized
to construct merchant vessels suitable for
auxiliary use In any way for military or
naval purposes, but in time of peace to be
operated as United States merchant vessels.
The Board was authorized to form a cor-
poration to carry out the purposes of the
Act, but always to remain the majority
stockholder in such corporation. The Board
was also to Investigate the condition of the
United States' merchant marine, and to re-
port suggestions for its improvement.
During actual hostilities against the Cen-
tral Powers, the Board left the construction
of new shipping largely in the hands of the
Emergency Fleet Corporation (q. v.), the
corporation organized by the Board for that
purpose. The Shipping Board acquired ves-
sels constructed or partly constructed ; and
operated, managed and disposed of vessels
nsed by the United States for direct or in-
direct war purposes. This power adhered to
the Board largely from power entrusted to
the President, and delegated by him to the
Board. The Board also entered into inter-
national cooperation with the Allies of thn
Shipping Encyclopedic Index Shipping
The vessels in the foreign trade were as follows, in 1919 :
INTEBINO
American Foreign
Ports No. Tons No. Tons
Atlantic Coast i 5,480 9,570,464 6,015 14,265,930
Gulf Coast 3,403 4,556,038 1,786 2,954,762
Mexican Border 74 40,702 3 10,533
Pacific Coast 4,660 2,057,061 3,096 2,925,773
Northern Border -8,859 5,708,397 5,776 4,612,014
Total 22,376 21,932,662 16,676 24,769,012
SaUing 3,069 1,318,289 2,186 892,266
Steam 19,307 20,614,373 14,490 23,876,756
CLZAEINQ
Atlantic Coast 6,172 11,623,059 6,363 15,258,282
Gulf Coast 3,669 5,160,410 1,983 3,439,140
Mexican Border 79 45,764 2 6,466
Pacific Coast 4.303 1,304,090 3,078 3,913,233
Northern Border 9,897 5,858,753 5,428 4,647,454>
Total 23,120 24,992,076 ^ 16,854 26,284,575
Sailing 3,160 1,378,824 2,260 1,032,961
Steam 19,960 23,613,252 14,594 25,231,614
By chief countries, the vessels In the foreign trade in 1919 were as follows : from signi-
fying entered from and Jor signifying cleared for :
American Foreign
Country No. Tons No. Tons
BUEOPH
Belgium— From 71 249,934 197 653,913
For 116 392,033 292 804,218
Denmarli— From 32 97,371 86 268,457
For 85 233,771 177 292,991
France— From 292 837,648 378 1,295,551
For ; 432 1,248,325 661 1,944,477
Gennanjr— From 68 203,362 10 26,159
For. 68 227,781 18 - 47,061
Italy— From 149 488,708 495 1,521,384
For 214 640,762 545 1,631,004
Netherlands— From 142 469,147 346 1,055,858
For 239 736,903 327 975,741
Norway— From 8 12,044 162 400,808
For 13 23,672 221 566,210
Spain— From 49 119,312 240 517,479
For 41 69,168 170 348,017
Sweden— From 38 110,342 61 166,620
For •• 88 226,047 147 286,972
United Kingdom^
England From 272 829,527 1,567 6,339,268
For SSI 1,681,448, 1,154 6,190,023
Scotland— From 26 86,698 206 655,820
For ^ i. ■ 40 ■ 112,683 124 393,330
Ireland- From 5 14,277 • 36 113,932
For ' 12 19,474 97 293,193
NORTH AMERICA
Canada— From '. 1 . . . 14,046 7,658,901 9,326 6,467,248
For •■• 13,551 7,573,667 8,767, 6,525,886
Central America— From : . . . 552 1,037,567 346 327,280
For.- 484 904,413 286 293,011
Cuba— From 2,552 3,118,491 476 442,551
For 2,609 3,215,048 563 520,140
Mexico- From 2,109 4,063,845 486 532,980
For 2,120 4,024,253 495 506,181
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina— From 172 386,821 121 264,211
For 181 437,467 189 410,303
Brazil— From 99 175,810 149 290,963
For 206 454,578 210 498,408
Chile— From 103 205,898 58 150,063
For..; 117 281,582 65 146,230
Colombia— From 47 103,079 113 88,871
«For 84 193,624 97 73,788
ASIA
China— From 31 100,549 21 77,488
For 60 210,741 52 185,430
India, British— From 12 39,171 80 286,527
For 8 26,809 58 214,609
Hongkong— From 41 152,676 36 172,489
W 20 79,063 26 114,932
Japan— From 19 78,228 151 608,028
'^ For 63 243,494 256 943,956
OCEANIA
Australia and New Zealand— From 87 130,551 75 206,182
For 106 117,222 130 453,398
Philippine islands— From 34 116,962 8 21,955
for 26 81,622 28 112,520
For the kinds of goods Imported and exported in the total foreign trade pf the United
States, see Imports, Exports and Commerr-e.
Shipping Board
Encyclopedic Index
Shire
United States In prosecuting the war, and
laid down regulations for the conduct of the
merchant marine, thus practically becoming
the medium by which' the merchant marine
was operated as a national enterprise. After
the close of the War, the Board operated
the vessels left in the hands of the United
States Government as a result of the war.
A view of one of the war transports fee-
ing launched from a ship-building yard of
Ihe United States Shipping Board will be
found opposite page 8410.
Slupping Board, powers of, 8316, 8558.
Shipping to and from United States. —
During the fiscal year 1918-1919, there en-
tered United States ports shipping to the
extent of 44,953,617 tons, of which 19,-
649,012 tons were United States ; and there
cleared from United States ports shipping
to the extent of 47,922,730 tons, of which
21,326,734 were United States.
During the calendar year ending on Jan-
uary 1, 1920, there entered United States
ports, in the foreign trade, 46,701,674 net
tons of shipping and there cleared 51,256,-
651 net tons. (See adjoining table.).
Ship Purchase Law. — The administration's
perfected shipping bill was introduced in
the House, May 7, 1916, by Chairman Alex-
ander of the Committee on Merchant Ma-
rine and Fisheries. It directed the Secre-
tary of the Treasury to sell Panama Canal
bonds to obtain the funds necessary to
carry out the provisions of those sections
of the bill authorizing the construction,
equipment, lease or purchase of vessels, or
the creating a $50,000,000 shipping corpora-
tion, and directed the shipping board to
investigate the navigation laws, with a view
to their amendment, and the cost of build-
ing merchant vessels in the United States
and abroad, the encouragement of invest-
ments in American shipping and other mari-
time questions, and report to Congress.
Drastic provisions are included to prevent
illegal combinations in the shipping trade.
The bin also gives the shipping board sweep-
ing powers over rates and practices and
clothes It with authority to require regular
and special reports from water carriers en-
caged in carrying the commerce of the
United States. The board is authorized to
receive and hear complaints and to enforce
reparation to the complainant for Injury
done. Records of Investigations made by
the board shall be competent evidence in all
courts of the United States. The board is
to have authority to compel the production
of papers and to hear testimony under oath.
The Attorney-General is authorized to in-
tervene on behalf of the board whenever
any of its orders shall have been violated
and to apply to the courts for the proper
process to put such order into elEect.
Democratic Senators In caucus July 8,
reached an agreement on the bill, thus end-
ing one of the most serious party divisions
that occurred in the Wilson Administration.
The principle for which Chairman Alex-
ander of the House committee fought In
conference to have the government-owned
ships operated In the coastwise as well as
in the foreign trade of the United States
met with approval at the hands of the
Senate Democrats. The other amendments
which the caucus agreed upon were as fol-
lows :
The Government shall not purchase ships
from any of the belligerent nations, nor any
ship already engaged in the American trade
unless It is about to be withdrawn from
that trade.
No ship shall he acquired by the govern-
ment which is below 75 per cent of its
original efficiency.
The government shall not undertake to
operate Its ships unless all efforts fall to
negotiate satisfactory leases or sales to
private corporations for that purpose, the
government reserving the right, however, to
prescribe conditions under which ships shall
be operated and in what service they shall
engage.
By a strictly party vote the Senate Com-
merce Committee, July 18, directed Sen-
ator Simmons to report the bill favorably
to the Senate with the following amend-
ments :
The Shipping Board shall be limited in
jurisdiction ' to vessels on the high seas and
on the Great liakes.
Ferrying, towing, transfer and lighterage
are operations which are not subjected to
this regulation.
The Secretary of Commerce and Secre-
tary of the Navy are removed from the
Shipping Board.
The government will not purchase any
vessel — (a) engaged in American trade ; (b)
which flies a belligerent flag; (c) which is
not adapted to the requirements outlined
in the bill, and (d) which is not at least
75 per cent as efficient as when new.
The vessels may engage in the coastwise
trade. In other words, the coastwise trade
is opened up to foreign built vessels ac-
quired by American citizens under this act.
No American vessel can be sold to a for-
eigner unless the Shipping Board first has
its refusal and gives Its permission.
The Shipping Board, though a govern-
ment corporation, may not operate the gov-
ernment vessels in foreign trade unless it
is impossible to lease such ships to private
interests.
When in times of war the government
commandeers American vessels compensa-
tion therefor shall be based upon norma'
conditions.
The bill passed the Senate Aug. 18, 3S
to 21, all in the affirmative being Democrats
and all in the negative Republicans. All of
the committee amendments were agreed to
without a record vote, and other amend-
ments were inserted. One amendment, the
so-called anti-blacklist provision authorizing
customs officials to witnold clearance to any
ship refusing American cargo except for the
reason of being fully laden, subsequently at-
tracted the attention of the Allied Embassies.
Ship Purchase Bill:
Compared to railroad subsidy, 8018.
Urged by Wilson, 8018, 8072.
Ships, Foreign-Built, admitted to Amer-
ican registry, 8006.
Law regarding, suspended, 8354.
Shire. — A division of the Kingdom of Great
Britain, dating back to the time of the
Saxon invasion. It is now taken to mean
almost the same as county, as most of the
English county names terminate in tht
word shire. The shire has been extended to
Scotland and Wales. In 1643 the general
court of Massachusetts Bay Colony ordered
that the whole Colony, which then included
the present State of New Hampshire, be
divided into four shires — Essex, Middlesex,
Suffolk, and Norfolk. The name was used
for county in all the Colonies.
Shirt
Encyclopedic Index
Siam
Shirt and Collar Industry.— A study of
the shirt and collar Industry reveals the
fact that American manufacturers have the
home market pretty much to themselves, as
foreign competition In these lines is of
very little Importance. The largest import
, of collars and cuffs for any one year was
$70,000 In 1913, while the total productioQ
of these articles as far back as 1909 was
$17,200,000. The present output is much
greater, butjuo statistics are available. The
total value of the shirts produced in this
country In 1909 was $82,400,000, compared
with which the Imports are Insignificant.
The manufacture of shirts was founded
as a systematic industry in 1832 in New
York, and in 1909 that city manufactured
27.74 per cent of the total output of the
country. Troy and Albany produced 8.85
per cent, Philadelphia 8.68 per cent, Bal-
timore 8.53 per cent, and St. Louis 4.07
per cent. New York State and Pennsyl-
vania produced more thjin half the shirts
made in the country.
Separate collars for men's shirts are said
to have been' first made about 1825 by the
wife of a blacksmith in Troy, N. Y. This
woman did the family washing and ironing,
and realized that shirts with separate col-
lars would not have to be washed as often
as did shirts with collars attached. She
applied the idea not only by making sepa-
rate collars for her husband's shirts, but
by making them also for sale. This Innova-
tion attracted the attention of the Eev.
Ebenezer Brown, a reared Methodist min-
ister, who kept a small dry-goods store in
Troy. With the aid of the female mem-
bers of his own family, the Rev. Brown,
about 1829, began offering "string collars"
for sale and soon developed a proatable new
branch of his business. The demand for
"store" collars Increased and dtiring the
thirties and forties^ several companies were
formed to carry on the manufacture of
separate collars, cuffs, and shirt bosoms,
either in connection with the manufacture
of shirts or as a separate Industry. The
sewing machine was" Introduced Into the
collar industry in 1852^ and steam power
in 1855. Electric cutting-machines were
introduced about 1870, button-holing ma-
chines about 1880, and button-sewing ma-
chines about ten years later. The collar
and cuff Industry has been centered in
Troy from the first In 1909, 80.46 per
cent of the collars and cuffs manufactured
in the whole country was manufactured In
that city.
The percentage of cost of direct labor on
the low-grade shirts is higher than on the
high grades, the cost of materials is high-
est in silk negligee shirts and lowest in
laundered shirts, and the cost of labor is
relatively highest In the laundered .shirts
and lowest in the silk shirts. The higher
percentages of profit are generally made on
the high-grade shirts and not on the low.
Of the total sales of all of the 42 estab-
lishments reporting, 58.87 per cent was
made to retailers, 38.76 per cent to, Jobbers,
0.68 per cent by mail order, and 1.69 per
cent was exported. Practically all of the
high-grade shirts were sold direct to re-
tailers and that portion of the product
which was sold to jobbers consisted of work
shirts and other low-priced lines. The total
expense of 26 esta,blishments which sold all
or the greater part of their product to re-
tailers was 8.88 per cent, which is more
than twice as large as the total selling
expenses of the 12 establishments selling
all or a greater part of their product to
Jobbers. However, the establishments which
sold all or a greater part of their product
to retailers had a manufacturing and final
profit somewhat larger than the profits
shown by the establishments which sold all
or a greater part of their product to
jobbers.
No figures are available showing the im-
ports oj shirts, except In the Imports of
cotton wearing apparel, which do not clas-
sify shirts separately. The American prod- •,
uct so far excels that of foreign manufac-
ture that there is no demand in this coun-
try for Imported shirts. Of the four estab-
lishments that reported on collars and cuffs,
two reported that they did some foreign
business. One of these establishments re-
ported that it exported 1 per cent and the
other 1% per cent of its net sales, the
total export business of the two companies
amounting to $198,688. The exported col-
lars went to Great Britain and the Eng-
lish-speaking nations all over the world, and
to the West Indies, Mexico, Central and
South America. While the exports of shirts
from the United States are not very large,
they are probably larger in proportion to
the production than In any other branch of
the clothing business. Fourteen of the 38
shirt-making establishments did some for-
eign business, the total for these concerns
being $576,222, or 5.87 per cent of their
total business. These shirts went to Can-
ada and our Latin-American neighbors.
Shoe-String District.— The Sixth Congres-
sional District of Mississippi, as laid out in
1874, Is so called because it consists of a
narrow strip extending along the Mississippi
Elver almost the entire length of the state.
(See Gerrymander.)
S'Homamish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Shoshone Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Treaty with, 3397, 3898.
Shoshone Eeservation, Wye, agreement
for cession of portion of, 5649.
Siam. Slam occupies the central portion
of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and lies be-
tween 4° 20'-20° 15' N. latitude and 96°
3O'-106° E. longitude. The area is stated
at 195,000 square miles. It is bounded on
the north by British India and French
Laos, east bv French Laos and Cambodia,
south by the Gulf of Slam and the British
Malay States, and west by British India.
East and west are Spheres of Infiuence, in
which the French and British governments,
while d'lsclaiming any intention of annex-
ing territory (Agreement of April, 1904),
are entitled to obtain concession from Siam.
Between these spheres is a Neutral Zone,
which Is declared to be inviolable by
France and Britain.
Physical Features. — Northern Siam, which
Is occupied by Laos States under the su-
zerainty of the King of Siam, contains a
series of parallel ranges of no great mean
elevation, but with precipitous heights in
the extreme north. These hills are cov-
ered with forests, from which most, of the
teak is obtained. Eastern Siam, which also
contains Laos States, conquered by Siam
about a hundred years ago, consists of a
vast river basin encircled by hills, the cen-
tral portions being sandy desert. Central
Siam is also a great plain flanked on the
west by high mountains (Mulai 6,886 feet),
and contains the richest and most fertile
tracts of tlie kingdom. Southern Siam ex-
tends down the Malay Peninsula, which
has a broken range , of mountains parallel ,
with the coasts, and consists principally
of dense and valuable forests.
Siam
Encyclopedic Index
Siam
The principal Siamese river Is the Me-
nam (Menam Chao Phaya), which rises in
the northern hills and flows into the Gulf
of Siam at the port of Bangkok. For six
months in every year the river overflows Its
banks, leaving rich deposits of silt, which
provide the most fertile tracts of the king-
dom. The wet season lasts from May to
October, when the heat is not excessive,
and in the dry season the nights are cool.
History. — The Kingdom of Siam is be-
lieved to have been founded some time In
the sixth century A. D., by a race that
had migrated many years earlier from south-
west China. The kingdom was extended
over the Malay Peninsula toward the close
of the twelfth century. Intercourse with
Europe was first established at the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century when the
Portuguese conquered part of the Malay
Peninsula and the French and English have
gradually worked their way to the borders
of the kingdom, relations with the latter
having been always friendly, while the rival
claims of France and Siam over the fron-
tiers of Annam led to a Franco-Siamese war
iu 1893.
Ethnology. — The number of inhabitants
in 1919, was given as 8,925,000. Most of
the population is Siamese and Lao. There
are, however, a large number of Chinese
and, In the south, Malays. There are no re-
liable figures showing the proportion of each
race. The foreign residents number about
2,000, of whom nearly one-half are British,
with 244 Germans, 218 French, 163 Danes,
135 Americans, 123 Italians. The Siamese,
Laos and Cambodians, are Buddhists, but
the Malays of the peninsula are almost all
Mohammedans. The language of the cen-
tral districts is Siamese ; In the eastern and
northern districts the Laos have their own
tongue, and the peninsular montons and
states are partly Malay speaking.
Government. — The kingdom Is now secured
from further aggression by the Anglo-
French Convention of 1896, under which
Central Siam is declared to be inviolable,
and each Power renounces the right to an-
nex territory adjoining its borders, although
preserving the right of commercial pene-
tration. The Government is an absolute
monarchy, and the sovereign appoints his
successor from among the male members
of the Eoyal Family.
The Kingdom Is divided into 18 Prov-
inces or Montons, each under a High Com-
missioner controlled by the Minister of
the Interior. These comprise several sub-
provinces, which are subdivided into dis-
tricts. Sub-divisions of the district are un-
der village headmen. Bangkok is directly
governed by the Minister of Local Govern-
ment.
Recent reforms, including the final aboli-
tion of slavery in 1905, have brought into
existence an organized system of local and
divisional courts, with magistrates trained
at a school of law and assisted by European
advisers.
Service in the Army is universal and
compulsory, and although the law is only
partially applied there is a standing army
of about 25,000 men.
Education. — Education Is generally in the
hands of the priests from the Buddhist
monasteries scattered all over the country,
and scarcely any adult Siamese are illiter-
ate. Government effort is not only co-
ordinate but Is directed toward a general
advance In the system practised by the
monasteries. An estimate of the pupils of
the various schools states their number at
close on 160,000 throughout the Kingdom,
exclusive of the capital, while government
effort has provided accommodation for some
15,000 others, Including Secondary, special
and technical schools. The English lan-
guage is very generally taught in the capi-
tal and there are three English schools with
English masters, while many Siamese are
educated iu Europe, particularly in Eng
land.
Production and Industry. — The principal
Industry is the cultivation of rice, which Is
the national food and principal commodity
exported. Irrigation is bringing large areas
of northern Siam Into cultivation, and the
standard of cultivation is being systemat-
ically raised. Siamese rice Is in great de-
mand abroad. Other crops are tobacco,
pepper, coco-nuts, cotton and maize, while
fruit Is abundantly grown. The forests
are protected, and the teak industry flour-
ishes. The last teak exports amounted to
36,930 tons, valued at $2,000,000.
The most recent figures showed about 5,-
500,000 acres given over to rice, with an
annual rice export of 845,000 tons, valued
at some $50,000,000. There are about 70
rice mills.
Most recent figures for the live stock In-
clude 2,108,072 buffaloes, 5,333 elephants,
105,078 horses, 2,336,935 cows, oxen and
calves.
The mineral resources are extensive and
varied. Tin mining in particular is prose-
cuted on a large scale, and about 9,000
tons of tin are produced annually.
Practically all of the trade is In the
hands of the foreigners. With the excep-
tion of the mining In the South the center
of foreign trade is the capital, Bangkok,
which has a population of about 540,000, of
whom between 35% and 40% are Chinese.
In a recent post-war year, the imports were
valued at $38,500,000 and the exports at
$61,000,000. The chief countries of im-
ports, in order, were United Kingdom, Hong
Kong, Singapore, Japan, British India,
China, United States, Dutch India. The
exports went chiefly to Singapore and Hong-
kong, followed by Dutch India and Japan.
In rank of value, the chief imports into
Slam are cotton goods, foodstuffs, metals,
metal manufactures and machinery, bags
oils, silk goods and tobacco. '
In a recent year, Siam imported from the
United States goods valued at $1,593,104,
largely iron and steel goods, and exported to
the United States goods valued at $453,301.
Finance. — The average annual ordinary
budget is In the neighborhood of $30,000,-
000, with an extraordinary expenditure
SSo'S^J ^^S. capital account of about $6,-
nRS'SSS- 3^?® national debt is about $33,-
000,000. The unit of value Is the tlcal, or
baht, valued normally at $0.37 In United
States money.
Communications. — In 1918-9, 826 vessels
representing a tonnage of 683,000, entered
Bangkok. There are 1,135 mil^s of rail-
roads. There are 110 post-ofllces, 73 tele-
graph offices and 4,532 miles of telegraph
line.
Siam:
American representative at corona-
tion of King of, 7667.
Claim of United States against, 6184,
Adjustment of, 6336.
Diplomatic relations with, 6336.
Appropriation f or, > recommended,
4799. '
Gifts received from, referred to,
3267.
Siam
Encyclopedic Index
Sierra Leone
Legation of United States in, prem-
ises for, presented by Govern-
ment of, 4823, 4825, 4923.
Appropriation for erection of build-
ing on, recommended, 5494.
Liquor traffic in, agreement with, for
regulation of, 4803.
Minister of United States to, mission
created, 4718, 4761, 4825
Treaty with, 1272, 1457, 1593, 2951,
3061, 3834.
Treaty with, revision of, 7420.
Siam, Treaties with. — Treaties of amfty
and commerce with Sianj were concluded in
1833 and 1856, and a treaty regulating the
liquor traffic in Siam in 1884, but were su-
perseded by a treaty and protocol concluded
on December 16, 1920, ratified by the
United States Senate on April 27, 1921. '
The citizens of each of the two countries
shall have rights similar to the citizens of
the other, with respect to commercial, re-
ligious, educational, trade activities, travel,
subject to the laws of the respective coun-
tries. They shall not be subjected to taxes
higher than those paid by native citizens,
and shall receive the same protection of life
and property as enjoyed by the native citi-
zens. However, they shall be exempt from
compulsory military service and from all
forced loans, receiving full rigjits of liberty
of conscience and freedom of worship, sub-
ject to the laws of the country involved.
The property and premises of each of the
contracting parties shall be respected and
free from domiciliary visit or search, and
their papers and documents shall be free
from inspection, except under the laws and
regulations of the countries Involved.
There shall be complete freedoin of com-
merce and navigation in all the ports of the
contracting parties open to foreign com-
merce, with the exception of that in liquors,
opium and other drugs, arms and ammu-
nition, which may, subject to the principle
of the most favored national treatment, be
regulated at will within Its borders by each
of the parties to the treaty. Sale of goods
shall be free from restrictions designed to
create or maintain a private or public
monopoly. Courts of justice shall be open
to the citizens of each of the parties on the
same terms as to those of the other, and
shall enjoy the same rights of loading and
the citizens of each unloading vessel, of
transit duties, warehousing, merchandise
appraisement, etc., as the native citizens
and as citizens of the most favored nation.
Bo long as there Is no discrimination, the
coasting trade is excepted from this treaty.
The United States recognizes Slam's na-
tional autonomy in Import and export
duties, and, without discrimination, to In-
crease the duties beyond the points fixed
In previous treaties, provided that other na-
tions involved grant similar assent without
compensation.
There are provisions for granting shelter
and facilities to men-of-war and to mer-
chant ships aground or wrecked.
, The right of protection for patents, copy-
rights, trade marks, etc., is guaranteed.
Consular and other agents may be appointed,
subject to the approval of the party to
whom dispatched, and shall be informed, so
that they may take the requisite steps,
when a citizen of one of the parties dies In
the country of the other without having
therein heirs or executors. In case no will
has been left by such deceased person, the
consular agents may take temporary charge
of the property left by the deceased.
It is expressly stipulated that this treaty
shall not affect any regulations of the . re-
spective countries regarding immigration,
naturalization, trade, police and public se-
curity. The treaty shall last for ten years
and beyond that time up to one year after
It shall have been denounced by one of the
contracting parties.
Protocol. — The former system of jurisdic-
tion for United States citizens In Slam, and
privileges and exemptions formerly en-
joyed by them, shall cease when the treaty
goes into effect. Until the stipulated Siam-
ese Codes of law go into effect and for five
years thereafter, the United States may
evoke any case pending in any Siamese
court, except the Siamese Supreme Court, in
which American Interests are Involved. Any
case thus evoked is taken from the juris-
diction of the Siamese court, and is left
to the consular agent designated by the
United States for adjudication in accord-
ance with United States law, except that it
shall be adjudicated by Siamese law if it
comes under a code of Siamese law which
has already been promulgated. There are
provisions for the right of appeal and
change of venue for United States citizens
or firms in Siamese courts, and for prevent-
ing other difficulties due to the transfer of
jurisdiction Involved in the protocol, as
above set forth.
Siberia, Intervention in. (See Eussia,
Intervention in.)
Siberia, survivors of Jeannette expedi-
tion aided by people of. (See Jean-
nette Polar Expedition.)
Siboney, burning of, illustration, oppo-
site 5822.
Sibyl, The, English schooner, appro-
priation for, recommended, 3890.
Sicily (see 'also Italy):
Claims of United States against,
1113.
Act to authorize Secretary of
Treasury to compromise, vetoed,
1365.
Commissioner appointed to consider,
1244.
Convention regarding, 1269.
Payment of, 1317, 1368.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2870.
Neutral rights, treaty with, regard-
ing, 2836.
Eolations opened with United States,
1706.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 1170, 1196, 1244, 2271, 2479,
2836, 2870, 2884.
Sickness Insurance. (See Health Insur-
ance.)
Sierra Leone. — A British colony and pro-
tectorate on the west coast of Africa, lying
between Liberia' and French Guinea. The
colony proper has an area of about 4,000
square miles, with a population of 80,000 ;
the entire protectorate has an area or 27,-
000 square miles, with a population of 1,-
340,000. The chief exports are palm ker-
nels, kola nuts and palm oil : In a recent
year, exports amounted to $8,500,000 and
Imports to $7,500,000.
Signal Corps
Encyclopedic Index
Silk
Signal Corps (see also Army and War
Department) :
Aviation section of, placed under
Director of Military Aeronautics,
8514.
Signal Ofiicer, ehief, powers of, re-
distributed, 8513, 8516.
Signal Service:
Buildiiig for, recommended, 4657.
Chief Signal Officer. (See Chief Sig-
nal Officer.)
Discussed, 4148.
Establishment and organization of,
discussed, 4304, 4934.
Eeorganization of, recommended,
5487.
Separate organization of, recommend-
ed, 4637, 4934.
Services of, in Spanish-Americali
War, discussed, 6314.
Silesia. — (1) Before the World War, a di-
vision of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. (2)
A province of Prussia.
(1) Silesia in Austria was made a part
of Czecho-Slovakia by the Treaty of Ver-
sailles after the World War. It has an
area of 1,988 square miles and a popula-
tion of 756.949 in 1910, estimated at 800,-
000 in 1920. The eastern portion, around
Teschen, rich in coal and the centre of a
flourishing iron industry, was to have its
final cession to Czecho-Slovakia dependent
upon a plebiscite to be held upon the de-
sire of the inhabitants to be annexed to
Czecho-Slovakia or Poland. The Teschen
plebiscite area had an area of about 880
square miles and a population of some
433,000.
(2) Prussian Silesia before the World
Wai- had an area of 15,569 square miles
and a population (1910) of 5,225,962. By
the Treaty of Versailles, a plebiscite was
held in the eastern portion of Silesia,
known as Upper Silesia, to decide the rival
claims of Germany and Poland to this ter-
ritory. The area of the Upper Silesia pleb-
iscite area is about 5,108 square miles, with
a population of 1,931,240 in 1910. Upper
Silesia is rich in coal and iron ore.
Silesia, problem of nationality in,
8791.
United States will not interfere in,
8967.
Silk and Silk Goods.— China discovered
the value of the substance secreted by the
silkworm, probably as early as 2500 B. C.
That knowledge was transmitted, so the
story runs, to the Western world first m
530 A D., by two Christian missionaries
returning to Constantinople from China and
bringing some silkworms with them.
Silk is an especially delicate substance
secreted by the silkworm during the three
or four weeks of its development. The
worm wraps itself in a cocoon of silk flla-
ments, which it leaves when it enters the
chrysalis stage. The filament is of double
and continuous threads, veuy sticky, and so
fine and fragile that several of them must
be wrapped together to form one silk thread
strong enough to be used for any purpose.
The usual processes in manufacturing the
silk arc as follows : 1 — Unwinding the
filaments ; 2 — Bathing them in hot water,
to loosen the gum, so that the threads may
be sefiarated ; 3 — Making thicker threads by
combining the thinner, the gum being sticky
enough to hold them together, and winding
them on skeins ; 4 — Throwsting the threads,
that is, twisting and doubling them ; 5 —
Getting rid of the gum by hot water and
soap ; 6 — dyeing the silk ; 7 — Placing It in
skeins.
For a large number of years after the Am-
erican Revolution, premiums and bounties
for planting mulberry trees and for produc-
ing raw silk were authorized by a number
of states, especially in New Jersey, New
York, Pennsylvania and the New England
States. Dr. Ezra Stiles, president of Yale
College, and Benjamin Franklin were among
the notable early promoters of the move-
ment. The establishment of the industry
in England and France was due to royal
patronage and it was considered not Incon-
sistent with public policy here to extend
state encouragement to an Industry which,
when established, would undoubtedly prove
profitable. In December, 1825, the subject
was introduced into Congress by Mr. Miner,
of Pennsylvania, and the Secretary of the
Treasury was instructed to prepare a well
digested manual on the growth and manu-
facture of silk. This resulted in the pub-
lication by Congress of the document known
as the "Rush Letter" of 220 pages, besides
illustrations of machinery, and is a care-
fully executed work.
Sericulture gained the public ear, and for
ten years all went well. Silk conventions
and meetings were held in many states,
and the agnciiltural literature of the coun-
try became suffused with descriptions of the
Chinese mulberry tree and the possible
profits in raising silk worms. Speculation
began and the price of trees advanced far
beyond the value of all the silk they could
ever raise. Silk culture companies were or-
ganized and manufacturers and farmers
were induced to invest in them. The bubble
burst in 1839. One speculator who had
put $80,000 in trees and cuttings vainly ■
offered them to his neighbors for pea brush
at $1 a hundred. Notwithstanding the
favorable climatic conditions both in France
and the United States for the growth of
mulberry trees and the rearing of silk
worms and cocoons silk culture has dwin-
dled in both countries, because more re-
munerative occupations are afforded by
other lines of industry. In other words, it
don't pay. Although in France the raisers
of cocoons and reelers of silk are protected
by a considerable bounty, payable by the
French government to her citizens as against
the Italians, that country produces less than
4 per cent, of the world's supply of raw
silk. Her silk manufacturers are well con-
tent to purchase, as America does, the raw
silk from Italy, Japan and China, in all
of which countries the raling rates of wages
are much less than in the United States.
Both France and the United States pursue
the same fiscal policy of admitting raw silk
free of duty, and therefore both are on a
par In this respect.
Meanwhile, step by step, but slowly. Im-
provements have been effected here in the
manufacture of silk goods. The making of
sewing silk became a household industry in
New England, at first by hand, and later
by machinery. The manufacture of silk
trimmings of various kinds was commenced
in Philadelphia in 1815, and ribbons in
Baltimore in 1829. These goods, together
with fringes, gimps and tassels, and silk
thread, especially suited for use on sewing
machines, continued to be the principal
products of the silk industry in the United
States until the outbreak of the Civil war.
In England the silk industry has suffered
a great decline since 1860. In recent years
Silk
Encyclopedic Index
Silk
leading manufacturers there have empha-
sized the importance of specially organized
technical schools for the education of ar-
tisans and for teaching drawing and design-
ing to selected pupils. In the United States
every large silk plant is a school of design,
a teacher of scientific and technical educa-
tion. All such plants have a corps of
special designers and many are in touch
with artists and establishments abroad,
whence Is derived the latest information
concerning novelties in all lines of manu-
facture. Skillful chemists are likewise at-
tached to these plants.
The silk manufacturing industry Includes
two classes of establishments: (1) Those
for making finished silk products, such as
woven fabrics, braids and trimmings, sew-
ing, embroidery, and wash silks ; and (2)
Those making silk yarn, known technically
as oi'ganzine, tram, and spun silk. Organ-
zlne and tram constitute respectively the
warp and woof of silk fabrics, and are made
fiom the best grades of raw material by
Ihe process of throwing (doubling, twisting
and winding the filaments into yarn.) Spun
silk is produced by spinning, in much the
same manner as wool fabrics are spun, the
short flbered silk from pierced cocoons or
from waste silk of any sort which cannot
be thrown in the usual manner. The con-
cerns engaged only in the manufacture of
organzine and tram are known as throw-
sters and winders. Few establishments in-
The following table shows the silk im-
ports into the United States in recent years,
as compiled by the Silk Association of
America :
SILK IMPORTS
Year
Ending
June 30
Raic
Pounds
Silk
Value
Stun
Silk
Pounds
1873
1880
1887
1895
1900
... 1,159,420 $ 6,460,621
. . . 2,562,246 12,024,699
. . . 4,599.574 18,687,245
. .. 7,974,810 22,029,068
...11,259,310 44,549,672
3,579
37,239
172,617
843,647
2,336,946
1905
1910
1914
1915
1916
...17,812,133
...20,363,327
...28,594,672
...26,030,925
...33,070,902
59,542,892
65,424,784
97,828,243
80,531,785
119.484,223
2,305,847
3,159,595
3,054,071
2,026,479
3,411,710
1917 33,868,885 156,085,649 3,580,188
1918 34,846,197 183,076,241 2,502,157
1919 34,321,030 202,643,259 1,555,069
1920* 47,133,713 437,951,434 3,392,705
♦Exclusive of 574,250,331 in manufactures of
silk other than spun; $8,690,952 in artificial silk;
$16,123,278 in waste; and $498,926 in cocoons.
The following table gives the world's pro-
duction of raw silk and tussah in 1919-20 :
Pounds
Italy .' 4,045,000
France 397,000
Austria! 331,000
Spain 154,000
Levant and Central Asia» 2,293,000
China (estimated from exports) . .43,000,000
Exports, Shanghai's 9,230,000
Exports, Canton' 3,750,000
•Japan (estimated from exports) .49,000,000
Exports, Yokohama' 32,485,000
India (estimated exports) 320,000
■ Total world production 99,000,000
Tussah' 1,540,000
Grand Total, Silk f.- Tussah 100,540,000
11915. ^Including Tussah. '1918-19.
dude the entire process of silk making. In-
cluding both branches of the industry there
were 852 establishments in operation in
1909. These were capitalized at $152,158,-
002, and employed 105,238 persons, to whom
$46,097,364 was paid In salaries and wages.
The total value of the finished product was
placed at $196,911,667.
A report of the Census Bureau covers silk
manufactures in the United States for a
recent year before the war conditions had
made It and all other industries abnormal.
The survey covered the manufacture of
finished silk products, such as woven fa-
brics, braids, trimmings, sewing, embroidery
and floss silks ; machine twist, etc., thrown
silk (organzine and tram) ; and spun silk.
Establishments engaged in the manufacture
of hosiery and knit goods are not Included.
Silk used in other industries is also omitted.
No. of establishments. 902
Persons engaged 115,571
Capital $210,071,679
Salaries and wages 57,615,374
Cost of materials 144,442,321
Value of products , 254,011, 2DV
Pennsylvania and New .Jersey are the
leading states in the industry. The former
employed 41% of the wage-earners and pro-
duced 34% of the value of the product, the
latter employing 26% of the wage-earners
and producing 30% of the value of the
product. Other states rank as follows :
Connecticut, New York, Massachusetts,
Khode Island, Virginia and Maryland ; but '
in the last four the extent of the Industry
is very slight. Passaic County, In New
Jersey, accounted for no less than 306 of
the establishments, and Paterson, In that
county, for 291 of those.
Of the wage-earners, 43% were male and
57% female. There were almost 8,000 em-
ployees under the age of 16. There were
28,425 weavers on broad silk looms; 7,887
on rihbons looms ; 1,804 on velvet and plush
looms ; and 620 on other looms. There were
52,702 spinners, including winders, warp-
ers, etc., and 15,070 in other forms of the
work.
Of the wage-earners, 57,000 worked 54
hours weekly, as compared with 2,000 in
1909 ; and 43,243 worked between 54 and
60 hours, as compared with 13,000 in 1909.
Of the plants, 180 were owned by indi-
viduals, 543 by corporations, and 179 by
others. But 80% of the product comes from
those owned by the corporations. There
were 61 establishments producing goods an-
nually valued at more than $1,000,000 ; and
368 producing goods annually valued at
between $100,000 and $1,000,000.
Of the materials used in the Industry in
the report year, there were 22,000,000
pounds of raw silk ; 3,000,000 pounds, art-
ificial silk ; 2,000,000 pounds of spun silk ;
4,000,000 pounds of organzine and tram :
4,000,000 pounds of waste, etc. ; 17,000,000
pounds of cotton yarn ; 1,500,000 pounds of
mercerized cotton ; 2,000,000 pounds of
woolen or worsted yarns ; 2,500,000 pounds
of mohair.
*he value of the chief products was as
follows :
PiThol"''^ $141,567,525
V,]]l^^l 10,139 592
^^^^.°JS 38,209,557
«,°?i,^ ^nv 30,000,000
Spun silk 5 2411 nnn
Sewing silk .i'lli 'oSb
Combination suits '.' e'nto'iin
Gloves, mittens 4683000
Silkworms
Encyclopedic Index
Silver
Silkworms, memorial from Count de
Bronno Bronski regarding introduc-
tion of, into United States, 2584.
Silver. — One of the precious metals and
the one most in use during historic times,
both in the arts and as a medium of ex-
change. In the earliest ages, even before
there was a record, as in prehistoric
Greece and Italy, silver mines were worited, ,
and the refined metal obtained from the
ores was employed in ornamentai and use-
ful arts. It was not so early used as a
money metai, and when finally Its use as
such was begun it was made into bars or
rings and sold by weight. Shelseis, or
pieces of silver, are alluded to in the boolc
of Genesis. Abraham, in the land of Canaan,
bought a field for sepulture and paid for '
it in silver. But the best authorities state
that the first regular coinage of either gold
or silver was in Asia Minor, in Phrygla or
Lydia. The Egyptians did not have coins
in the earliest times, although otherwise
their civilization was advanced. In ancient
times silver was plentiful In Spain. Han-
nibal, it is stated, obtained 300 pounds per
day from the mines there during the
Carthaginian occupation of that country.
At a much earlier day the Athenians had
valuable silver mines at Laurium, In the
territory of Attica. Silver, as well as gold,
was employed in the erection of Solomon's
Temple at Jerusalem. Silver drinking cups
and silver ornaments on horn or Ivory drinlt-
ing cups were in use among the Vikings. In
fact, all the civilized and semi-civilized na-
tions and tribes of antiquity made free use
of this metal. It was more common even
then than gold, and therefore less precious.
At a later period the Incas in Peru, the
Toltecs and Aztecs in Mexico, and the
Mayas in Yucatan employed it for orna-
mental purposes and for objects of utility,
both in their temples and palaces. Among
modern civilized and enlightened peoples
its use is so common as to require no special
remark.
The metal Itself is found In almost every
part of the globe, usually in combination
with other metals. Take the whole his-
torlcai period and it is found that the
South American mines are the richest.
Mulhall Is authority for the statement that
Mexico has produced more silver since 1523
than any other country within the last 500
years. He values the total output there
for the period at $3,050,000,000. Mexico
has also the largest annual output, produc-
ing 60,808,978 oz. fine, valued at $35,269,-
200; the United States follows next with
57,682,800 oz. fine, worth $33,456,000.
Large masses have been found in nuggets,
as one of 370 pounds at La Paz, Bolivia, in
1749 ; another of 560 pounds at Konigs-
berg, Norway, and still another of 800
pounds at Huantaya, Peru. Sonora, Mexico,
however, claims to have extracted a huge
lump of silver weighing 2,700 pounds.
The subject has entered into American
politics, the Democratic party in 1896 hav-
ing declared for the free coinage of the
metals at the former ratio of 16 to 1. The
French ratio was at 15% to 1. The re-
peal in 1873 of the law providing for the
free and unlimited coinage of silver was
the beginning of an agitation for the restor-
ation of bimetallism. (See also Bland- Alli-
son Act ; Coinage Laws ; Sherman Act ; Bi-
Metanism.)
It Is estimated that the total production
of silver in the United States prior to 1856
was worth less than $1,000,000. The fol-
lowing table shows the annual production
In the United States for some significant
and recent years :
Tear Fine Ounces Value
(Troy) (Commercial)
1856 38,700 $ 52,000
1861 1,546,900 2,062,000
1865 8,701,200 11,662,200
1870 12,375,000 16,434,000
1875 24,589,300 30,485,900
1880 30,318,700 34,717,000
1885 39,909,400 42,503,500
1890 54,516,300 57,242,100
1895 55,727,000 36,445,500
1900 57,647,000 35,741,100
1905 56,101,600 34,221,976
1910 57,137,900 30,854,500
1915 74,961,075 37,397,300
1916 74,414,802 48,953,000
1917 71,740,362 59,078,100
1918 67,810,139 66,485,129
1919> 55,285,196 61,966,412
'Preliminary figures.
The following table shows the value of
the imports and exports of silver to and
from the United States in recent years :
Year Exports** Imports
1890 $ 34,873,929 $ 21,032,984
1900 56,712,275 35,256,302
1910 55,286,861 45,217,194
1915 50,942,187 29,110,323
1917 78,279,931 35,003,563
1918 139,181,399 70,328,153
1919 239,021,051 89,410,018
1920* 113,616,224 88,060,041
•Subject to rertsion. **Including ore.
The following table gives the value of the
silver production by states for 1918 and
1919, the figures for the latter year being
from the preliminary reports of the Di-
rector of the Mint of the Treasury Depart-
ment :
mis 191S
Alaska $ 787,057 $ 1,201,705
Arizona 6,697,978 4,816,033
California 1,404,815 1,349,508
Colorado 6,765,435 6,775,438
Idaho 9,212,411 6,772,194
Michigan 506,206 420,637
Montana 16,058,232 16,746,090
Nevada 9,737,898 8,196,164
New Mexico 758,545 798,932
North Carolina . . 98 55
Oregon 126,626 250,597
South Dakota 158,082 136,928
Texas 567,841 605,527
Utah 13,228,911 13,345,010
Washington 294,138 354,220
Wyoming 1,230 46
Philippine Islands 12,746 16,131
Others 166,880 181,197
The following table gives the silver pro-
duction of the world, by fine ounces, for
1917 and 1919:
ISrt 1919*
United States 71,740,000 56,682,445
Mexico 31,200,000 62,681,987
Australasia 4,050,000 7,430,770
Canada 22,150,000 15,675,134
Europe 8,100,000 4,899,618
Asia 7,600,000 8,362,606
Africa 1,200,000 1,271,689
South an* Central
America 18,000,000 17,513,165
♦Preliminary figures.
Silver. (See Gold and Silver.)
Silver Certificates:
Discussed, 5474.
Eepeal of act for issuance of, recom-
mended, 4633, 4720.
Silver
Encyclopedic Index
Single Tax
Suspension of issuance of, recom-
mended, 4830.
Silver Coinage. (See Coins and Coin-
age.)
Silver Dollar, redemption of, in gold,
6914. (See also Bimetallism.)
Single Standard. (See Monometal-
lism.)
Single Tax. — The doctrines of what Is
today called the slsgle-taz seem to have
been suggested first by the group of the
French economists known as the Fbysio-
crata, around the year 1775 ; but these
doctrines disappeared . n the rise of mod-
ern political economy with the publication
of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations In
1776. Hence It was Henry George who
founded the modern single-tax philos-
ophy In 1879, which Is the year when his
Progress and Poverty was published. George
was horn In Philadelphia In 1839, and spent
his early years as a sailor and printer. As
a youth he emigrated to California, where
he was engaged In newspaper work from
1858 to 1876. In 1869, be was moved' and
perplexed by the scenes of yast poverty
opened before his eyes in a trip to New
York, and during the next ten years he
thought unceasingly of the problem of pov-
erty, coming to the conclusion that It was
due to the system of private ownership of
land. Progress amd Poverty was published
In the midst of extreme poverty, and
achieved little notice for several years. But
eventually the eloquence and the passionate
fervor of the writer would not be denied,
and from 1882 to 1887 the book was the
most popular book on economics ever writ-
ten. From 1880 to 1890, George was a
propagandist, running unsuccessfully for
mayor of New York City In 1886. and dying
Just before the end of his second campaign
for the same office in 1897. His son, Henry
George, Jr., was elected to the House of
Representatives from 1911 to 1915.
The following statement of the single
tax principle was written by Henry George,
Sr. : We are in favor of raising all
public revenues for national, state, county,
and municipal purposes by a single
tax upon land values. Irrespective of
improvements, and all the obligations of
all forms of direct and indirect taxation.
Since in all our states we now levy some
tax on the value of land, the single tax can
be Instituted by the simple and easy way
of abolishing, one after another, all other
taxes now levied and commensurately in-
creasing the tax on. land values until we
draw upon that one source for all expenses
of government, the revenue being divided
between local governments, state govern-
ment, and the general government, as the
revenue from direct tax is now divided be-
tween the local and state governments, or
by a direct assessment being made by the
general government upon the states and
paid by them from revenues collected in this
manner. The single tax we propose is not
a tax on land, and therefore would not
fall on the use of land and become a tax on
labor. It is a tax not on land, but on the
value of land. Then it would not fall on
all land, but only on valuable land, and on
that not in proportion to the use made of it,
but to proportion to its value — the premium
which the user of land must pay to the
owner, either in purchase money or rent, for
permission to use valuable land. It would
thus be a tax not on the use and improve-
ment of land, but on the ownership of land,
taking what would otherwise go to the
owner as owner, and not as user.
In assessments under the single tax all
values created by individual use or iinprove-
ment would be excluded, and the only value
taken into consideration would be the value
attac!hlng to the bare land by reason of
neighborhood, etc., to be determined by
Impartial periodical assessments. Thus the
farmer would have np more taxes to pay
than the speculator who held a similar
piece of land idle, and the man who, on a
city lot, erected a valuable building, would
be taxed no more than the man who held a
similar lot vacant. The single ^ax, in
short, would call upon men to contribute
to the public revenues not in proportion to
wtiat they produce or accumulate, but In
proportion to the value of the natural op-
portunities they hold. It would compel
them to pay just as much for holding land
idle as for putting It to its fullest use. The
single tax, therefore, would : First. Take
the weight of taxation off the agricultural
districts, where land has little or no value
Irrespective of improvements, and put it on
towns and cities, where bare land rises to
a value of millions of dollars per acre.
Second. Dispense with a multiplicity of
taxes and a horde of tax-gatherers, simplify
government, and greatly reduce its cost.
Third. Do away with the fraud, corrup-
tion, and gross inequality inseparable from
our present methods of taxation, which al-
low the rich to escape while they grind
the poor. Land cannot be bid or carried
off, and its value can be ascertained with
greater ease and certainty than any other.
Fourth. Give us with all the world as
perfect freedom of trade, as now exists be-
tween the states of the Union, thus enabling
our people to share through free exchanges
in all the advantages which nature has
given to other countries, or which the pe-
culiar skill of other peoples has enabled '
them to attain. It would destroy the
trusts, monopolies, , and corruptions which
are the outgrowths of the tariff. It would
do away with the fines and penalties now
levied on any one who Improves a farm,
erects a house, builds a machine, or in any
way adds to the general stock of wealth.
It would leave every one free to apply labor
or expend capital in production or exchange
without fine or restriction, and would leave
to each the full product of his exertion.
Fifth. It would, on the other hand, by
taktog for public use that value which at-
tacSies to land by reason of the growth and
improvement of the community, make the
holding of land unprofitable to the mere
owner and profitable only to the user. It
would thus make it Impossible for specula-
tors 'and monopolists to hold natural op-
portunities unused or only ^alf used, and
would throw open to labor the illimitable
field of employment which the earth offers
to man. It would thus solve the labor
problem, do away with involuntary poverty,
raise wages in all occupations to the full
earnings of labor, make overproduction im-
possible until all human wants are satis-
fied, render labor-saving inventions a bless-
ing to all, and cause such an enormous
production and such an equitable distribu-
tion of wealth as would give to all com-
fort, leisure, and participation in the ad-
vantages of an advancing civilization, in
securing to each individual equal right to
the use of the earth. It is also a proper
function of society to maintain and control
all public ways for the transportation of
persons and property, and the transmission
of intelligence ; and also to maintain and
control all public ways In cities for furn-
ishing water, gas, and all other things that
necessarily require the use of such common
ways.
Single Taz
Encyclopedic Index
Siverwright
There Is no single-tax political party
organized In the United States, but many
staunch advocates of the single-tax prin-
ciple have been among our most prominent
administrators of public office, Including
several mayors of large cities and members
of the Cabinet. Several countries, notably
New Zealand, tax unimproved land In ac-
cordance with the single-tax doctrine, and
Germany also has levied partial, though
not complete taxes upon the "unearned
increment" of land value. Provision for
this purpose was also made In JBMgland in
the famous Lloyd-George budget of 1909.
In recent years, the single tax advocates
have made nominations for various offices
in, national, state and municipal elections ;
and there was a Single Tax candidate for
President in 1920.
Sinking Fund.— An account or fund set
aside for the payment of a debt or obliga-
tion. It is formed by successively appro-
priating or setting aside sums for the desig-
nated purpose. Alexander Hamilton made
an unsuccessful attempt under the Con-
federation to establish a sinlilng fund for
the liquidation of the national debt. The
first national sinking fund in this country
was created by act of Congress Aug. 2,
1790. The present sinking fund to retire
the national debt was established by an act
of Feb. 25, 1862, and amended by later acts.
It sets apart annually a special fund for the
payment of interest on and for the purchase
of a given per cent of the national debt.
Bonds so redeemed are to be canceled and
deducted from the outstanding indebtedness
of the Government. In addition there is to
be purchased annually an amount of Gov-
ernment bonds equal to the annual interest
on bonds previously bought for the sinking
fund. The sinking fund is thus, as far
as interest is concerned, in the position of
any other holder of the Government's ob-
ligations receiving interest on the bonds
that have been purchased for its account,
except that the bonds belonging to it have
been canceled and the debt considered re-
duced by that amount. An act of April 17,
1876, provides that fractional currency, re-
deemed by the Treasury, shall constitute
a part of the sinking fund.
Sinking Fund, repeal of law recom-
mended, 5754.
Sinn Fein. — The words are Gaelic, and
mean "We Ourselves."
The Sinn F61n movement became definite
in the first years of the twentieth century
in Ireland, representing a protest against
and division from the movement for Irish
Home Eule. For the Sinn Ffiiners aimed,
not merely at autonomy and self-govern-
ment within the British Empire, but at com-
plete Independence in every way, political,
economic, cultural, social, from English ties.
At first the movement stood for the achieve-
ment of this Independence passively, rather
than actively or by violence ; but with the
World War the Sinn Ffiiners Insisted upon
legal and recognized, as well as real, Inde-
pendence from English connections.
The moving spirit back of the organiza-
tion of the Sinn F61n was Arthur Gfrifflth.
By the end of 1905, all the separatist
movements in Ireland had become unified
within Sinn Fan, and the first convention
of the National Council was held on No-
vember 28, 1905. However, Sinn Ffiin made
little progress of importance until the out-
break of the World War. The delay in the
application of the Home Eule Bill, which
had passed Parliament just before the out-
break of the War, largely because of the
opposition of Ulster, served to discredit the
Home Rule movement.
When Lloyd-George replaced Asqulth as
prime minister of Great Britain, he did so
only with the support of the anti-Home
Rule forces in the British parliament ; Car-
son, the leader of the Ulsterites, became a
member of the Cabinet ; it was evident that
the application of the Home Rule Bill would
be delayed even after the immediate close
of hostilities ; and Ireland was made more
antagonistic to England than evef by the
severity with which an uprising for in-
dependence in Easter, 1916, was punished,
and by the announced, but later abandoned,
. intention of England to apply conscription
in Ireland. Thus, It occasioned little sur-
prise when in the general election for the
British House of Commons in December,
1918, Ireland returned 73 Sinn FSiners to
7 Nationalists, or Home Rulers. Sinn
P41n had become the leader of almost all
those elements in Ireland dissatisfied with
the political relations between Ireland and
England as they existed before the World
War.
In Its campaign for Irish Independence,
Sinn P6in attempted to govern Ireland as .n
de facto government, holding court, drill-
ing its own army and police force, appoint-
ing ambassadors to foreign lands, estab-
lishing ministers of executive departments
under its elected president, holding session.';
of its own Parliament (the Dail Eireann).
and resisting in every way the occupancy
of Ireland by British forces as though re-
sisting an actual foreign Invader.
(See also Irish Independence, Movement
for.)
Sioune Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Sioux City, Iowa, acts for erection of
public building at, vetoed, 5015, 5301.
Sioux Commission:
Discussed, 5480.
Report of, discussed, 5496.
Sioux Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Sioux Beservation, Dakota:
Division of portion of, into separate
reservations proclaimed, 5529.
Compensation to, for losses sus-
tained in, referred to, 5568.
Lands granted to Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railway, Co., declared
forfeited by Proclamation, 5944.
(See also Railroads.)
Opened to settlement, 6875; 6882.
Purchase of portion of, recommended,
4837.
Restoration of to public domain, or-
der regarding, declared void,
4890.
Discussed, 4943.
Right of way for railroad through,
4775, 4780.
Sioux Wars discussed, 3333, 4360, 5636.
Sir Robert Pell, The, outrages commit-
ted on, 1695.
Sisseton Indians. (See Indian Tribes
and Indians.)
Sitka, Alaska, port of entry, order re-
garding, 38(35.
Siverwright, Bacon and Co., claim of,
0734, G8u9.
Six Nations
Encyclopedic Index
Slavery
Six Nations .of Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Sixteen to One. (See Bimetallism and
Silver.)
Skagit Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Skai-wha-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
S'Klallams Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Skope-ahmish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Sk-tS^h-le-jum Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Sk-tahl-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Slaughterhouse Oases.— A series of five
cases bearing upon the creation of monopo-
lies or trusts and defining the scope of the
Fourteenth Amendment. The Crescent
City Live Stocli, Landing and Slaught-
erhouse Co. was incorporated by the Lou-
isiana legislature March 8, 1869. The
Butchers' Development Association pro-
tested against this act of the legislature
on the grouud that it created a monopoly.
Suit was brought against the State by
Paul Esteben and others on the ground
that their business was injured. It was
claimed by the plaintiffs that the creation
of a monopoly of this sort- by the State
legislature was in violation of the Four-
teenth Amendment to the Constitution
which prohibits State legislatures from
enforcing laws "which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of the citizens of
the United States." The Supreme Court
of Louisiana decided that the law did not
conflict with the amendment to the Consti-
tution. The Supreme Court of the United
States, April 14, 1873, and Jan. 24, 1887,
affirmed the decision. In these celebrated
cases the Supreme Court lllsewise decided
that the fundamental character of the Gov-
ernment had not been changed in any way
by the Civil War. The judgment of the
Supreme Court of Louisiana was not en-
tirely affirmed in the last case mentioned,
that of the Crescent Live Stock Co. vs.
Butchers' Union. That part which consti-
tuted a judgment against the Crescent
City Live Stock Landing and Slaughter-
house Co. solely, for damages for the ma-
licious prosecution, was reversed and the
case remanded for further proceedings. In
that case Justice Matthews delivered' the
opinion, and there was no dissenting opin-
ion. In the other cases Justic Miller ren-
dered the court's judgment. Justice Field,
for himself, and Justices Swayne and Brad-
ley, delivered a dissenting opinion.
Slave Representation.— One of the most
difficult problems encountered by the fram-
ers of the Constitution was the representa-
tion to be accorded in Congress to those
portions of the country whose population*
consisted partly of slaves. It was contend-
ed, on the one hand, that, being persons,
they should be represented, and, on the
other 'hand, that, being property, they
should be made the object of taxation. A
compromise was finally reached providing
that for purposes ot reckoning a state's
proportion of representatives, as well as
Its direct taxes, its population should be
"determined by adding to the whole num-
ber of free persons, including those bound
to service for a term of years, and exclud-
ing Indiana not taxed, three-fifths of all
other persons" — i. e., slaves. This method
of computing population was first sug-
gested in 1783 by the Continental Congress
as a basis for the apportionment of con-
tribution from the states, to be agreed
upon as an amendment to the Articles ot
Confederation. It remained in force un-
til the abolition of slavery.
Slave Trade. (See African Slave
Trade.)
Slavery.— A slave Is defined aa a person
who Is the chattel or property of another
and is wholly subject to his will. Slavery
probably originated at an early period of
the world's history in the accident of cap-
ture in war. It existed in all the ancient
Oriental nations of which we have any
record. In the Homeric poems it was
the ordinary destiny of prisoners of war.
The prevalence of Christianity tended to
ameliorate the condition of the slave. Laws
respecting the sale of slaves In England
were made by Alfred the Great. The Eng-
lish peasantry were commonly sold for
slaves in Saxon and Norman times ; chil-
dren were sold in Bristol market like cattle
for exportation, many being sent to Ire-
land and Scotland. In 1574 Queen Eliza-
beth ordered her bondsmen in the western
countries made free at easy rates, and in
1660 serfdom was finally extinguished in
England. By the decision of Lord Mans-
field, of the Court of King's bench, in the
Sommersett case (q. v.), slavery was de-
clared illegal in England. In Scotland
bondage to the soil was not gotten rid of
until the close of the last century.
Parliament abblished trade in negro
slaves in 1807, and in 1833 an act was
passed abolishing, slavery throughout the
British colonies. In pursuance of this act
770,280 negroes became free Aug. 1, 1834.
About the time of the American Eevolntion
societies of prominent men were formed
for the purpose of ameliorating the condi-
tion of the negro slaves. Pennsylvania was
the first state to organize such a society.
In 1787, with Benjamin Franklin as presi-
dent. New York followed with a similar
society, John Jay as its first president and
Alexander Hamilton as its second. Im-
mediately after came Rhode Island, and
Maryland in 1789, with such members as
Samuel Chase and Luther Martin ; Dela-
ware, with James A. Bayard and C. A.
Rodney ; Connecticut, in 1790 ; Virginia,
1791, and New Jersey, in 1792. The mos^t
that was accomplished by these societies
was the suppression of the slave trade in
1808. Pennsylvania provided for the grad-
ual emancipation of her slaves in 1780 ;
Massachusetts, by a bill of rights prefixed
to her constitution, the same year ; New
Hampshire, by her constitution, and Con-
necticut and Rhode Island by enactment,
in 1784 ; Vermont, by her constitution, and
New York and New Jersey by gradual aboli-
tioo, the former In 1799 and the latter
in 1804. In 1817 New York enacted further
legislation, decreeing total abolition on July
4, 1827. By this law 10,000 slaves were
freed.
Following are some of the important
steps leading to the Civil War In America,
by which the Institution of slavery was
finally abolished : Passage of the ordi-
nance for the govei-nment of the territory
northwest of the Ohio containing the un-
alterable article forbidding slavery, 1787 ;
Quakers present a petition to Congress
praying for the abolition of slavery, 1794 ;
Important debate in Congress on the aboli-
tion of the slave trade, 1806 ; slave trade
abolished, 1808 ; American Colonization So-
Slavery
Encyclopedic Index
Smithsonian
elety organized at Washington to aid emi-
gration to Africa, 1816 ; Missouri Com-
promise passed by Congress, 1820 ; anti-
slavery societies organized in New York
and Pennsylvania, 1833 ; passage of fugi-
tive-slave law and compromise measures,
1850 ; negroes seized at Boston under fugi-
tive-slave law, 1851 ; passage of Kansas-
Nebraska bill, 1854 ; repealing of the Mis-
souri Compromise ; Kansas war, 1854 ;
Dred Scott decision, 1857 ; John Brown's
insurrection, 1859 ; election of Lincoln to
the Presidency, 1860 ; secession of South
Carolina, December, 1860, followed by other
states in 1861 ; President Lincoln proclaims
the abolition of slavery in all parts of the
country in rebellion, Jan. 1, 1863 (3358) ;
submission of the southern armies In April,
1865, and oiiicial announcement of the final
abolition of slavery Dec. 18, 1865. (See
illustrations opposite 314, and 2536.)
Slavery (see also African Slave Trade;
Compromise Measures of 1850;
Kansas-Nebraska Act; Missouri
Compromise; Negroes):
Abolition of (see also Emancipation
'poat) —
Compensation to States for, recom-
mended, 3255, 3269, 3292, 3334.
Draft of bill for, 3285, 3337.
Eecommendation again to be
made, 3297.
Constitutional amendment for, rec-
ommended by President —
Buchanan, 3168.
Johnson, 3556.
Eatification of, referred to,
3570, 3644.
Lincoln, 3453.
Agitation in States growing out of,
discussed, 2874, 2930, 2962, 2981,
3028, 3084, 3157, 3186, 3206.
Meditation of Virginia for settle-
ment of, discussed, 3192.
Compensation to States for the abo-
lition of, recommended, 3255, 3269,
3292, 3334.
Discussed by President —
Buchanan, 2962, 2981, 3028, 3084,
3157, 3186.
Lincoln, 3206, 3269, 3335.
Pierce, 2874, 2930.
Polk, 2456, 2490.
Emancipation discussed and notice of,
given. (See- Emancipation; Eman-
cipation Proclamation.)
Exportation of slaves by Great Brit-
ain in contravention of treaty, of
Ghent, 629.
Fugitive slaves. (See Fugitive
Slaves.)
International congress at Brussels for
abolition of, 5471, 5543, 6360.
In Brazil, 4100.
Abolished, 5369.
China, 4539.
Cuba and Porto Rico, 4100, 4143,
4194, 4196.
Belease of persons held in, dis*
cussed, 4194.
Portuguese colonies, abolished in,
4289.
Incendiary literature to slaves dis-
cussed, 1394.
Introduction of, into Territories of
United States discussed, 2490,
2962, 2981, 3002, 3028, 3085, 3160.
Supreme Court decision settling
right oif, 2985, 3029, 3085, 3160.
Laws to prevent ownership of slaves
in foreign lands by citizens of
United States recommended, 4100,
4144.
Negro slaves enslaved. (See Civil
War.)
On coast of Africa referred to, 4160.
Proposition to Great Britain to abol-
ish mixed courts which had been
created for the suppression of, 3989.
Supreme Court decision regarding
slavery in Territories, discussed,
2985, 3029, 3085, 3160.
Slaves, Fugitive. (See Fugitive Slaves.)
Slesvig-Holstein War, neutrality of
United States in, discussed, 2548.
Slums, evils of, 6902.
Sleswick. (See Slesvig-Holstein War.)
Smalh-Kamish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Smith Island Reservation for native
birds, established, 7959.
Smithsonian Institution. — James Smith-
son, F. R. S., a natural son of the first
Duke of Northumberland, and^ an eminent
English chemist and mineralogist, died in
1829. He bequeathed £105,000 to the Gov-
ernment of the United States in trust to
"found at Washington an establishment,
under the name of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among' men." This bequest be-
came operative in 1835. In 1838 the Unit-
ed States Government received from the
court of chancery of Great Britain $515,-
169, which was Increased by investment to
$703,000. After the discussion of numer-
ous plans. Congress In 1846 created the
present establishment. The Institution has
devoted itself to the two lines of work
marked out In the terms of the bequest —
the prosecution of original research and the
publication and distribution of memoirs
on subects relating to science. During its
existence It has originated many important
scientific undertakings, which have later
been taken up by the Government and
prosecuted on broader lines under the con-
trol of special bureaus, some under the di-
rection of the Institution, others Independ-
ently. Out of Its meteorological service
' the Weather Bureau has grown ; In con-
nection with Its work in ichthyology the
Fish Commission was established. '
Under the direction of the Institution
are the National Museum, which Is the legal
custodian of all government collections, the
Bureau of International Exchanges, the Bu-
reau of American Ethnology, the Astro-
Physical Laboratory, the National Gallery
of Art, the United States Regional Bureau
for the International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature, and the National Zoological
Park. (
Smithsonian
Encyclopedic Index
Social Service
The Institution also maintains a tftble
at the biological station at Naples, Italy, to
which it sends students to conduct InTesti-
gatlons. From time to time the Institu-
tion sends scientific expeditions, the most
recent being those to Alaska to discover
remains of mammoths and other large
mammals, and to British Columbia to In-
vestigate and explore the glaciers there sit-
uated. The Institution has a library of
250,000 volumes. The direction of the
affairs of the Institution is vested In a
Board of Regents, consisting of the Chief
Justice, the Vice-President, three senators, ,
three representatives, and six other citi-
zens, two of whom shall reside In Washing-
ton.- The President of the United States
and his Cabinet are members of the Insti-
tution. The secretary is elected by the
Board of Regents. Joseph Henry, the first
secretary, served from the founding of the
Institution in 1846, till his death In 1878 ;
lie was succeeded by Spencer F. Baird,
and upon the latter's death in 1887, Sam-
uel P. Langley was placed In charge of the
work. He was succeeded as secretary by
Charles D. Wolcott. The Institution is
located In Washington City and occupies
an ornate building of Seneca brown stone,
situated in a prominent place in the Mall,
which extends from the Capitol to the
Washington Monument. In 1904, the re-
mains of James Smlthson, who so far as it
Is known, had never visited this country,
were brought from Geneva to Washington
and placed In the Institution.
The entire consignment of pickled skins
of animals killed in Africa by former Presi-
dent Roosevelt and his son, Kermlt, was
received at the Smithsonian Institution.
Among the animals represented In this col-
lection were rhinoceros, wild beeste bush
busk, eland, wart hog, water buck, Impall
zebra, giraffe, hyena, lion, Grant's gazelle,
leopard, cheetah, reed buck, Thompson's
gazelle, steinbuck, dik-ack, baboon, kllpper
springer and jackal.
In a recent year the total funds of the
institution were $1,048,134. The Income
was $107,670 and the expenditures, $105,-
125. In that year, the library contained
more than 500,000 bound volumes and
pamphlets. -
Smithsonian Institution:
Art objects, natural custodian of,
6914.
Bequest to United States by James
Smlthson for founding, 1406.
Fulfillment of objects of, suggested,
1723, 1942, 2124.
Prosecution of claim to, referred
to, 1647, 1723.
Eeferred to, 1490, 6674, 6767, 7044.
Illustration of. (See frontispece,
Volume V).
Improvement of, 6727.
Medium for intercTiange of official
publications, 4718.
Organization of, recommended, 2751.
Request of regents of, for appropria-
tion for National Museum com-
mended, 4431, 4458.
Work of, commended, 6676.
Smoke Abatement Exhibition at Lon-
don referred to, 4695.
Smoke UTuisance in Washington, elim-
ination of. 7012.
B-12
Smuggling, — In ths United States the of-
fense of smuggling is defined as "the act,
with the intent to defraud, of bringing
Into the United States, or, with like in-
tent, attempting to bring into the United
States, dutiable articles without passing
the same, or the package cohtalning the
same, through the custom-house or submit-
ting them to the officers of the revenue
for examination." The penalties which may
be enforced are a fine of not less than $50
nor more than $5,000, or imprisonment for
not more than two years, or both, seizure
and condemnation of the vessel or vehicle
used, and various other special penalties.
The British navigation laws of the latter
part of the seventeenth and first half of
the eighteenth centuries Induced bold and
extensive smuggling Into the Colonies.
Merchants and prominent public men
otherwise respectable felt no hesitation
about cheating the revenue by illicit trade
with pirates and West Indian merchants.
New York was the principal port for
smugglers, though Boston, Philadelphia,
and Charleston were also enriched by »
smuggled goods. This led the British Gov-
ernment to enforce the acts of trade which
did much to precipitate the Revolution.
Smuggling:
Pernicious practice of, should be pre-
vented, 644.
Practice of, criminal in free govern-
ments, 480.
Smyrna, disposition of, discussed, 8841.
Snake Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Sno^ho-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Snoqu&lmoo Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Soap. — The manufacture of soap has grown
to be one of the hundred million dollar in-
dustries in the United States.
Reports' were received by the Department
of Commerce from 513 establishments that
manufactured soap in 1014, the total prod-
ucts of which" for the year were valued at
$135,340,499. Of these 513 establishments,
the principal business of 371 was the man-
ufacture of soap, and 142 were engaged prl- i
marily In other industries, such as slaughter-
ing and meat packing and the manufacture
of food products, cottonseed products, and
patent medicines and compounds, and pro-
duced soap as a subsidiary product.
Soc Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Social-Democratic Party. (See Social-
ist Party.)
Social Insurance. — The term used to de-
scribe various measures for the amelioration
of distress and including health insurance,
workmen's compensation, old age pensions,
unemployment insurance, mothers' pensions,
etc., all of which are treated under .their
own heads.
Social Problems:
Of cities, discussed, 6650.
Besult of industrial development,
6645.
Social Service.— One of the most illumin-
ating evidences of the awakening of the
social conscience in the last one hundred
years has been the development in recent
years of what is called social service. So-
cial service, or social work, covers efforts
being made for the improvement of the
Social Service
Encyclopedic Index
Socialism
conditions of life, especially among those
who are in want, suffering, or need of
assistance. The term has broadened tar
beyond the earlier attempts merely to rem-
edy distress by the application of charity
or of other relief, and now covers for the
greater part efforts being made all over
the globe to prevent the existence of social
misery. Social service has become a science,
if not an exact science ; and has its rules
and theories applicable to social ameliora-
tion hardly ,less definite than the rules
applicable in medicine to the attack on
Illness. Any attempt to enumerate the
number of social service organizations or
workers would be fruitless, as there is no
sharp line to distinguish social endeavors
from other endeavors which are not alto-
gether devoted to the pursuit of private
profit in Industry. For Instance, social
service covers such diverse fields of activ-
ities as the prevention of prostitution ; fam-
ily rehabilitation ; legislation for higher
wages and shorter hours ; attempts to democ-
ratize industry, and to improve the work-
ing conditions in mines, factories, and on
means of transportation ; the acquisition
of better mental hygiene ; the attack on
drunkenness ; child labor and minimum wage
legislation ; the surveys of entire cities to
determine the evils existing therein ; the
advance of a new science of penology ; and
the general education of the community to
the ways in which "the other half lives."
Social Settlements.— Neighborhood centers
established by persons anxious to improve
conditions in neighborhoods where the in-
habitants, either through their own faults or
through the press of circumstances, are In
need of assistance in order to attain the
socialized development possible to them.
Settlements aim, not so much to change or
to revolutionize the life in the poorer urban
sections where they are located as to develop
the Inherent beneficial qualities of that life
to the best advantage. In other words,
settlement workers attempt not so much to
help others, as would the agents of a char-
itable institution, as to help others to help
themselves. In pursuit of this ideal, many
and varied activities are developed In a
neighborhood settlement. Educational, lit-
erary, dramatic, musical and social clubs
are organized and directed ; physical train-
ing is made available ; friendly visits are
paid the families in the neighborhood ; voca-
tional guidance is provided for the children ;
free medical and nursing advice is given ;
and attempts are made to obtain new laws
and working conditions which will accrue
to the happiness of the poor.
Settlements seem to Tie developments pri-
marily of the United States and of E>ng-
land, where Arnold Toynbee inaugurated
the settlement by going down to live in the
slums of Whitechapel, in the parish of
Canon Samuel A. Barnett, in 1875. He
soon associated with himself a group of
other university men, who had also been
Inspired by the gospel of assistance to the'
needy as preached by John RusMn ; and
Toynbee Hall, the first social settlement,
was' established by Canon Barnett in 1885.
Stanton Colt established in 1887 the Uni-
versity Settlement in the East Side of New
York, and his example was followed by Jane
Addams, who established in Chicago In 1889
the most famous of all settlements, Hull
House. Other well-known settlements In
the United States are the Henry Street Set-
tlement In New York, where Lillian Wald
inaugurated visiting nursing in the homes
of the poor, and the Chicago Commons,
where Graham Taylor has wielded a strong
Intellectual and political influence in the
life of all of Chicago. Hardly an American
city of size is now without its settlement or
settlements.
Social Unrest discussed, 8814, S817,
8818. (See also Labor, Socialism,
Eevolutions.)
Socialism. — The best approach to a defini-
tion of Socialism is a definition of what it
is not. Starting, then, from the negativi'
point of view, Socialism must be sharply
differentiated from Anarchism (g. v.), which
would restrict the power of Government,
whereas Socialism would extend It. So-
cialism also must not be confounded with
a Vtopianiam based on hopes rather than
on scientific knowledge concerning htiman
nature and social organization. Socialism
also differs with Syndicalism (q. v.) and the
creed of the /. W. W. in that Socialists
believe that the political state should be
supreme, while syndicalists and the I. W.
W. believe that supreme authority should
adhere to the workers through their control
of industry. Most Socialists follow the
syndicalists and the I. W. W. in insisting
that Labor should be organized in broad
Industrial groups, instead of in specialized
crafts like those In most of the American
Federation of Labor unions ; but on the
other hand most Socialists denounce the
syndicalists' and I. W. W.'s use of sabotage,
or defence of Its use.
Socialism must be distinguished also from
Communism (q. v.) and from its recent
offshoot of Bolshevism (q.v.). For although
a very large proportion of the Socialists of
all lands favor afliliation with and support
of the Bolshevist Government of Soviet Rus-
sia, yet most of them would agree that in
many respects Bolshevism differs markedly
from Socialism as Socialism was generally
understood before the Bolshevist Revolution
in Russia In November, 1917. The Socialist
movement differs from the Am-erioan Feder-
ation of Labor in that the former believes
primarily in political action, and the latter
in the use of economic power. Finally, So-
cialism must be differentiated from even a
radical I/ifteraZisWj' which, however strongly
opposed to the present capitalist system, be-
lieves that it can be overhauled sufficiently
to provide results better than those possible
to a Socialist system.
Haying thus defined what Socialism Is
not, we may pass to a definition of what It
is. The phrase most commonly used to
describe the aims of the ^Socialist move-
ment is, "The public ownership and demo-
cratic management of all industries of so-
cial value." In other words, Socialism
would do away with the present competitive
system of private ownership of necessary
industry, and substitute for it a system of
state production and distribution. Under
Socialism, the goods necessary for the wel-
fare of the community would be produced
and sold for cost, instead of for profit Profit
and interest on private (not public) capital
would be abolished, and the workers in the
state industries would be paid wages vary-
'^^xi",*'^™'"''. ■"'t'' t^'' value and difflcultv
of their services. Thurs as at present fire
and police protection, (ducation, the postal
service and water supply are furnished to
the people free or at cost. Socialism may be
said -to aim at the extension of this system
to apply also to housing, food, clothing, raw
materials, coal, oil, transportation, banking
insurance, iron and steel, telephone and
telegraph, etc.
Aftng with this. program would proceed
much and extensive welfare legislation
most of which, however, would be possible
without resort to a Socialist system This
would include insurance against old age
Socialism
Encyclopedic Index
Socialism
unemployment, Illness, maternity ; extension
of workmen's compensation to all Indus-
tries ; abolition of child labor : limitation
of the number of hours' work per day,
per weete, per year ; the guarantee to each
worlcer and to each family of the minimum
income necessary to maintain a socially-
useful standard of living ; general medical
inspection and educational scholarship^, etc.
In addition. Socialism would probably fix
the maximum income allowable to an indi-
vidual or a family ; and would almost cer-
tainly confiscate most of large inheritances.
On the other hand, most Socialists at the
present time are agreed that individual
ownership and management of farms would
not be interfered with, although doubtless
much of the unearned increment of land
values would be heavily taxed by the state.
Prom this summary, it will be seen that
Socialism would not interfere with the pri-
vate ownership and use of property which
was not essential to the welfare of the com-
munity, but rather was individualistic in
its nature. It will be seen lilsewise that
Socialism is essentially an international
movement, and ■ that it is concerned pri-
marily with an economic program, to be
realized through the ballot box, tailing no
stand upon matters lilte religion, the family
and individual morality.
Guild Socialism Is an attempt to combine
Socialism and syndicalism. The Gulldsmen
believe that the state should be organized
on a dual basis, the political state retaining
control over education, army and navy, po-
lice protection, foreign affairs, etc., as at
present. But in each industry the workers
would be organized into guilds, or unions,
which would be supreme In that Industry,
with a central congress of guilds supreme In
industry as a whole. Guild Socialism is
primarily a British movement.
Among the objections usually offered ty
opponents of Socialism are the following :
By destroying competition. Socialism would
destroy Incentive. By extending state con-
trol, individual freedom would be endan>-
gered. By abolishing the law of supply and
demand. It would be difficult to substitute a
workable basis upon which to determine the
payment of salaries of those In industry.
Public administration Is notoriously corrupt
and InefBcient. To these points. Socialists
in the past have usually replied by asserting
that the evils of the present system more .
than counterbalance the evils Imputed to a
Socialistic system ; and since the develop-
ments of the World War have pointed to the
incursion of Government Into practically
every field of private endeavor as proving
the efficiency and workable value of the
Socialist program.
"Scientific" Socialiam. — According to Marx-
Ian, or scientific Socialism, each stage of the
world's history is determined by the method
of economic production current in it. The
present era is capitalistic because of Its
method of producing by means of machinery
which only the few capitalists can own,
while the workers, no longer owning the
tools with which they labored in preceding
eras, can only sell their, labor. There is
thus a class struggle between those who
own and do not work, and those who work
and do not own. The middle class Is de-
stined to disappear, and society will be
composed of only tlie bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. The lot of the workers will
become Increasingly more miserable, and
that of the property-owners increasingly
more fortunate.
However, so efficient is machine-produc-
tion that capitalist society will constantly
produce more than It can absorb, so that
periods of economic depression will ensue.
and will become Increasingly severe. It will
be through this collapse of capitalistic pro-
duction that tlie worKers, organized into a
cohesive class, will overthrow the bour-
geoisie, and themselves assume the owner-
ship and management of the means of pro-
duction and distribution. Moreover, scien-
tific socialism claims that all the value of
goods derives from the labor put Into them.
At the present time, the workers do not
receive all this value, but only the wages
necessary to purchase their labor ; the re-
mainder is "surplus" value, which goes to
the owners in the form of Interest, rent and
profits. Under Socialism, therefore, the
workers will receive the full product of
their toil.
In comment upon this theory. In all fair-
ness it must be admitted that many of its
premises have been rejected by most im-
partial economists, sociologists and political
scientists of the first rank. It Is undeniable
that the middle class has not been tending
to disappear, and It Is probable that the
lot of the workers has improved, along with
the lot of the other classes. The economic
interpretation of history is accepted to a
great extent In many quarters, but there is
very little acceptance of the statement that
all the value of a commodity derives from
the labor put into its production.
Indeed, there are large sections of the
Socialist movement which are no longer
scientific, but are "revisionist" or "evolution-
ary." These sections base their program on
the desirability of the Socialist program as
outlined above, rather than on the scientific,
or Marxian, reasons for Its IneTltablllty. .
History. — The rise of what we call Social-
ism dates from the early years of the nine-
teenth century, as a result of the social
misery prevalent at that tibie. The philos-
ophy of Saint Simon as published In Flrance
In 1817 and the co-operative experiments of
Robert Owen in England in the same year
definitely began the Socialist propaganda,
and were supported by the Utopian schemes
of Fourier. The term Socialist was first ap-
plied in 1835 to the endeavors of Owen ;
hut as then used the term was largely synon-
omous with the present-day term- of "Utop-
ian," as signifying an attitude which was
visionary, and at first the term was indig-
nantly repudiated by the founders of modern
Socialism. The speculations of Blanc in
1844 in the field of political socialism, and
the agitation of Lassalle later in Germany
for social reform strengthened the founda-
tion for the later Socialist movement, but
the creation of a definite international So-
cialist movement was due to Karl Marx,
assisted by Frederick Engels.
In November, 1847, a group of politleal
refugees, mostly Germans, met in East Lon-
dpn, and adopted the famous Communist
Manifesto, as prepared by Marx and Engels,
as the basis for the Socialist movement. For
gome years, however, the movement grew
slowly. In 1864, the International Work-
ingmen's Association was organized, but
after some years of struggle, it died in 1876.
During the later seventies, however, the
Socialists began to make themselves felt as
a political force In Europe. Scattered
groups of Socialists became "tro-jgly organ-
ized— and the doctrine of Socliiism began
to take root even in countries outside of
Europe. On July 14, 1889, the one hun-
dredth anniversary of the fall of the Bas-
tille, the Second International Socialist Con-
gress was held in Paris, and was attended
by many leaders who were soon to Impress
the force of Socialism upon the actions of
all European Governments. Since that time,
ther^ have been Socialists In some of the
cabinets of the strongest nations of Europe ;
Socialism
Encyclopedic Index
Socialism
and as a result of the World War, several
of the European countries have been ad-
ministered by Socialist governments.
The outbreak of the World War disrupted
the Second Socialist International, which
had been functioning since its organization
in 1889. After the close of the War, the
Second International resumed its activities,
but In a much wealtened condition, because
of the defection of many Socialist parties
and sections to the Third International, or-
ganized and controlled by the Soviet Gov-
ernment at Moscow. By 1921, the more
moderate, non-Marxian and "evolutionary'*
Socialists still held by the Second Interna-
tional, while the Third was composed of the
Marxian, orthodox, radical and revolution-
ary Socialists. The leading forces in the
Second International were the British Labor
Party, the German Majority Socialists, the
moderate (Eight) wing of the French Social-
ists. Prominent in the Third International
were the Communist elements of all coun-
tries, notably Bussia, Prance and Italy.
There were Socialist movements, such as
those of the United States, which had with-
drawn from the Second, but had refused to
affiliate with the Third International ; and
the German Independent Socialists had
affiliated with the Third, without endorsing
all its creed and program. On the whole,
the power of the international Socialist
movement was greatly wealsened by this di-
vision in Its ranks.
Socialist Strength 'before 19U. — Socialism
had made greater strides in Germany before
the World War than in any other nation.
'The Social Democratic Party was the larg-
est single party in the Reichstag, compris-
ing 28 % of the total membership ; and if
representation had been strictly propor-
tional, would have comprised 35%. The
vote was over 4,000,000 and the party mem-
bership alone, more than 1,000,000 ; and in
Saxony and Hamburg, the Socialists were in
majority, and almost in the majority In
Berlin itself. In France^ the elections of
1914 returned to the Chamber of Deputies
101 Socialist deputies, or about one-sixth
of the total membership. In Great Britain,
Socialism as such was uninfluential, but the
British Labor Party, which was becoming
strong around 1914, was moderately So-
cialistic in views, if not In label ; many of
its most respected leaders were olficially
classed as Socialists ; and the Party Itself
was affiliated with the Second International.
In Russia, ruthless Governmental oppres-
sion had left the organized Socialist move-
ment impotent, but the Socialists, with some
support from the non-Socialist liberals,
formed the corner-stone for whatever op-
position against Tsarism existed. In Italy,
about 15% of the Chamber of Deputies
were Socialists. In Italy, as in France, and
to an extent in Spain, the growth of So-
cialism was hindered by the strength of the
Syndicalist elements, with some slight di-
version also to the anarchists. In both Bel-
glum and Sweden, the lower house of Par-
liament had between 20% and 30% So-
cialist members. In Benmarh, the Socialist
vote and popular representation was 30% of
the total. In Austria, the Socialists in
Lower House of the Keichsrat were 16%
of the whole, not Including the Christian
Socialists, who were about 14% of the
whole. In Hungary, the Socialists were less
than 10% of the total in the popularly-
elected section of the Parliament ; in the
Netherlands, 15% ; in Norway, 18%. In
the Balkan nations, and outside of Europe,
the Socialist movement was feeble. How-
eve r, in Australia the Labor Party had man-
aged to gain the ascendancy ; and although
It was not ofilcially classed as Socialist,
yet its program and principles were radical
almost to the point of moderate Socialism.
The Socialists and the War. — The atti-
tude of the Socialists in the chief belliger-
ent nations during the World War was as
follows : In Germany, the great majority
of the Socialists supported the war, but
with the anti-war minority (the Independ-
ent Socialists) becoming stronger as the
war proceeded. In France, practically ^all
of the Socialists supported the war when it
broke out, a minority opposed It as the war
proceeded, and well before the end of the
struggle, the majority of the French So-
cialists were on record in opposition to its
further prosecution. In Great Britain, the
orthodox Socialists supported the War, and
the moderate (the Independent Labor
Party) opposed it ; but the British Labor
Party as a whole supported It, although
with certain important reservations re-
garding the nature of the peace to be im-
posed after victory.
In Russia, after the collapse of Tsarism
in March, 1917, the non-Marxian Socialists
supported the war against Germany, with
the exception of the left wing. Indeed, the
moderate Socialist administration of Ker-
enski made attempts to continue the cam-
paign against Germany and Austria-Hun-
gary. However, the Marxian Socialists (Bol-
shevikl and Mensheviki) opposed war con-
tinuation, especially after the Bolshevist
revolution of November, 1917. In Italy,
most of the Socialists opposed Italian par-
ticipation and prosecution of the War, and
effectively enough to hinder the Italian war
efforts to an appreciable extent. The Bel-
gian Socialists were almost unanimous in
supporting the war to its very end. In
AustriarHunqary, the Socialists, on the
whole, were in opposition to the prosecution
of the War, their opposition becominR
stronger in the last days. In the United
States, the great majority of the Socialist
Party opposed American entrance into and
prosecution of the War, with the exception
•of Bome of the more mpderate and intel-
lectual leaders.
Socialism after the War. — In the several
years following the close of the World War,
the Bolshevist variant of Socialism had
maintained Itself against all attacks in
Russia. A Bolshevist government had held
sway for some months in Hungary also,
but had succumbed before internal and ex-
ternal attacks. In Gcrm,any, with the revo-
lution which overthrew the monarchy in
November, 1918, the Government fell into
the hands of the Socialists, with a Socialist
chancellor and a Socialist President. How-
ever, before 1921, the Socialists were out
of power in the central Government, al-
though the President remained a Socialist,
although many of the most responsible po-
sitions within the German Republic con-
tinued to be filled by Socialists, although
many, if not most, of the more important
industrial towns had Socialist municipal
administrations, and although many of the
separate states which comprise the German
Republic also had Socialist Governments.
Sweden, also, Jiad a Socialist premier and
a Socialist Government, although they re-
signed in the latter part of 1920. In Aus-
tria, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Denmark,
the moderate Socialists were sharing in the
Government almost to the point of having
control. In Italy, by 1921 Socialist revolu-
tions had gained many radical concessions,
and Socialist leaders were powerful in the
Government. In the Italian elections of
November, 1919, the Socialists gained 33%
of the Italian House of Deputies, and many
of the Italian cities were under Socialist
municipal administrations. On the other
hand, after the War the Socialists in
Socialism
Encyclopedic Index
Socialist
Vrance gained but slightly in their popular
vote, and suffered material losses in their
representation. In Oreat Britain, the Brit-
ish Labor Party, although becoming His
Majesty's Opposition with the eclipse of the
Liberal Party, and although making ma-
terial gains in the national elections of De-
cember, 1918, and in the following munici-
pal and bye-elections, was nevertheless far
from gaining control of .the Government by
1921.
In Norway, Poland, Jugo-Slavia, Rou-
mania, Bulgaria, Switzerland, Greece, Neth-
erlands, the Socialist movements by the
third decade of the twentieth century were
far from control. In' Esthonia, Lithuania,
Latvia, Finland, Spain and Portugal, infor-
mation was too meagre by 1921 for state-
ments as to the extent of Socialism. In
that year, Bolshevism seemed to be spread-
ing in those sections of the old Russian Em-
pire which were known as Georgia, Aser-
baijan, Armenia and Ulerainej and in
Turkey.
In the United States, the Socialist vote
of 1920 was comparatively lower than the
vote of 1912 and 1916. On the other hand,
Socialism seems to be growing in South
America, notably in Argentina. There was
by 1921 little Socialism in Japan, China,
India, the other Asiatic countries ; practi-
cally none in Africa and Central America,
although socialistic principles are spread-
ing in Mexico; and comparatively little in
Canada.
Socialism in the United States. — The
seeds of Socialism were sown in the United
States, chiefly by German immigrants, in
the middle of the second half of the nine-
teenth century. Indeed, with the internal
dissensions in the first Socialist Interna-
tional (see above), its headquarters was re-
moved to New York, where it soon ceased
to function. In the eighties, a national so-
cialist organization was perfected (see So-
cialist Labor Party, below), but there were
serious disputes with the anarchists, and
the mistaken identification In the public
mind with the anarchists weakened the
movement after the Haymarket bomb out-
rage in Chicago. The organization of the
present Socialist Party of America dates
from the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury. Two other serious factional disputes
have split the Socialist movement in the
United States — one with the I. W. W., and
one with the Communists. For the growth
of the movement in this country in recent
years, see Socialist Party, below.
On the whole. It is not unfair to assert
that Socialism has taken comparatively
little hold upon the United States. The na-
tional vote in Presidential elections by
1921 had never reached a million, the rela-
tive high-water mark being 1912, when
slightly more than 6% of the total Presi-
dential popular vote was cast for the So-
cialist candidates. Before 1921, there was
not more than one Socialist congressman
at Washington at a time, and the only large
cities which had elected Socialist mayors by
that time were Milwaukee and Minneapolis.
The movement Is hindered by a number of
factors, notably the dominance of the for-
eign-born in It, the large percentage of
farmers in the United States, the material
prosperity of the country, the anti-war po-
sition of the Socialists during the World
War.
Socialist Labor Party.— This party took
its name at a convention held at Newark,
N. J., in 1877. In 1883 a congress of So-
cialists met at Baltimore, Md., and formed
a national party, but the growth of the
organization was retarded by the anarcnls-
tic outbreak In Chicago in 1886. The party
was reorganized In 1889, formally assuming
the name Socialist Labor Party, and its
first national convention was held in New
York City on August 28, 1892. In that
year, the party polled 21,164 votes. In
1896, the vote increased to ,36,274. In
1898, the party polled more than 80,000
votes in eighteen states, but at this time
Internal dissension within the party and
quarrels concerning the policy to be fol-
lowed with respect to the trade union
movement resulted in a split. The greater
number of the members Joined with the
Social Democracy (see below) to form the
Socialist Party of America ; and the So-
cialist Labor Party lost most of its in-
fluence.
The Socialist Labor Party may be said
to represent at present a combination of
the principles of the Socialist Party and
the syndicalists or I. W. W. (q. v.). That
is to say, it believes in both political (in-
direct action) and industrial action (direct
action.) It stands for all the principles of
Socialism, but believes that Socialists should
organize themselves as such, not only into
a political party, but also into strong in-
dustrial unions. Its program calls also
for more autonomy within industry and for
less authority in the centralized state thUn
does the official forecast of a cooperative
commonwealth by the Socialist Party.
The candidates and votes of the Socialist
Labor Party in recent years have been as
follows : 1900, Joseph F. Malloney, 32,751 ;
1904, Charles H. Corrigan, 33,724 ; 1908,
August Glllhaus, 13,825 ; 1912. Arthur E.
Keimer, 29,079 ; 1916, Arthur E. Keimer,
13,403; 1920, William W. Cox, 31,175.
Socialist Party.— This party was organized
as the Social Democracy in 1897 by Eugene
V. Debs, at Chicago. In 1898 the party's
candidate polled, chiefly in Massachusetts,
9,545 votes. In 1900 Eugene V. Debs was
the party's candidate for President and
Job H. Harriman for Vice-President. The
platform advocated state ownership of all
means of production and distribution, with
the public ownership of railways, mines,
etc., also the initiative and referendum,
and public work for unemployed. In that
year the party vote was 84,003, many addi-
tions to the party being received from the
Socialist Labor party (q. v.).
In 1901 at the Indianapolis convention
the party formally united with the seceders
from the Socialist Labor party, and took
the name of Socialist Party, except In some
states, particularly in New York and Wis-
consin, on account of certain provisions in
the election laws of those states. In 1902
the party vote was 229,762. In recent years-
the Presidential candidates and popular
vote of the Party have been as follows :
Per cent
Year Candidate Vote of Total
1904 Eugene V. Debs. . .402,460 3%
1908 Eugene V. Debs. . .420,820 3%
1912 Eugene V. Debs... 897,011 6%
1916 Allan Benson. .'.. .565,113 3%
1920 Eugene V. Debs. . .919,799 31/2%
In 1920 the states furnishing the largest
number of Socialist votes were as follows :
New York . . .203,201 California . . .64,076
Wisconsin .. .85,041 Ohio 57,147
Illinois 74,747 Minnesota ...56,106
Pennsylvania 70,021
Up to 1921 there had been Socialists in
the national House of Representatlvos on
Ave occasions, but never more than one at
a time, and with only two districts — -one in
Socialist
Encyclopedic Index
Societies
New York City and one In Wisconsin — thus
represented. Milwaukee and Minneapolis
have been the largest cities to elect Socialist
mayors. There have been Socialists in a
number of state legislatures, and In the
board of aldermen or many cities, including
New York City and Chicago.
The Socialist Party opposed the partici-
pation of the United States in the World
War, both before and after war had been
declared by Congress ; and as a result of
that opposition many Socialist publications
were banned from the second-class mailing
privileges during the War and many So-
cialist leaders were imprisoned. In Its
career, the Party has had two serious splits,
one in the first years of its existence, when
the I. W. W. and other believers in sabot-
age and disbelievers in political action were
expelled ; and another in 1918-9, when the
Communist or Bolshevist elements with-
drew, or were expelled. Before the World
War, the Socialist Party of America was a
member of the Second Socialist Interna-
tional : by a referendum taken after the
War, the Party pledged itself to join the
Third, or Moscow, International. But the
allegiance was held to be only with reser-
vations ; and when the Third International
imposed a stringent set of conditions for ad-
herence to it, the Socialist Party withheld
its allegiance to it. (See Socialism, above.)
A summary of the 1920 Presidential plat-
form Is as follows :
Social. — All business essential to the
welfare of the people, including all indus-
tries operating on a national scale, bank-
ing and insurance, to be taken over by the
nation ; and to be operated jointly by the
Government and by representatives of the
workers, not for profit, but for service to
the public and for adequate compensation
and good conditions of labor for the work-
ers. Insurance to be extended to cover
protection against accident, unemployment,
sickness and invalidity, and old age. Con-
gress to take action to provide full civil,
political, industrial and educational rights
for the negroes.
Industrial. — Laws to be enacted to abol-
ish child labor, to fix a minimum wage aile-
quate to maintain a decent standard of
living, to protect migratory and unemployed
workers, to abolish private strike-breaking
and detective agencies, and to establish a
shorter workday in keeping with increased
Industrial productivity.
Political. — Constitutional freedom of
speech, press and assembly to be restored,
amnesty to be granted all persons im-
prisoned for oilenses growing out of their
religious, political or Industrial views.
Aliens not to be deported because of their
political views or participation in labor
struggles and movements, and not without
trial on specific charges. The power of the
courts to issue injunctions against workers
and to nullify Congressional legislation to
be abrogated. Federal judges and the Presi-
dent and Vice-President to be elected by the
people and the Cabinet to be elected by
Congress and responsible to it. Migratory
workers not to be deprived of the ballot.
The Constitution to be amended to accord
with this platform, and to be made amend-
able by a majority of the voters on their
own or on Congressional initiative.
Foreign Relations. — All war debts, inclnd-
Ing those of the Allied nations to the
United States, to be cancelled. The League
of Nations to be disbanded, and a demo-
cratically-elected international parliament
to replace it. The Treaty of Peace with
Germany to be revised by this body. The
United States at once to proclaim peace
with the Central Powers, open commercial
and diplomatic Intercourse with Soviet Rus-
sia, recognize the Irish Republic, and not
be responsible for American capitalists who
acquire concessions or make investments in
foreign countries.
Fiscal. — ^The Government debts, Includine
war debts, to be at once paid in full, by
means of a progressive property tax levied
particularly upon the rich and upon the
great fortunes made during the war. The
needs of the Government to be met by
standing progressive income and graduated
inheritance taxes. The unearned increment
of land to be taxed, and all land held out
of use to be taxed at its full rental value.
Socialists:
German, ^s.ym% of German Govern-
ment, 8280.
Teachings of, denounced, 7191, 7210.
Societies of Spanish War Veterans.—
Astor Battery Association. — Organized De-
cember, 1904. Composed of original mem-
bers of the Astor Battery, which served In
the Philippines campaign of 1898. Meets
annually, Aug. 13, anniversay of the cap-
ture of Manila, at Reunion-Army of the
Philippines, and at the annual national en-
campment of the United Spanish War Vet-
erans.
Naval and Military Order of the Spanish-
American War. — Instituted Feb. 2, 1899.
Membership is composed of persons who
served on the active list or performed ac-
tive duty as commissioned oflScers. regular
or volunteer, during the war with Spain,
or who participated in the war as naval
or military cadets. Membership descends to
the eldest male descendant in the order of
primogeniture.
Society of the Army of the Philippines.
— Composed of American soldiers who
fought In any of the campaigns in the Phil-
ippine Islands.
Society of the Army of Santiago de Cuba
—Organized In the Governor's Palace at
Santiago de Cuba, July 31, 1898. Annual
dues, $1 ; life membership, $25. No initia-
tion fee. There are branch societies in
Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Michigan,
Illinois, California, and the District of
Columbia.
United Spanish War Veterans. — National
Encampment United Spanish War Vet-
erans.— Organized April 18, 1904, by the
consolidation of the National Army and
Navy Spanish War Veterans, National As- *
soclation of Spanish-American War Vet-
erans, and the Society of the Service Men
of the Spanish War. Soldiers and sailors
of the regular and volunteer army, navy
and marine corps who served honorably
during the war with Spain or in the in-
surrection in the Philippines are eligible to
membership.
United Volunteer Association. — All white
soldiers and sailors who served honorably
in the military or naval service of the Unit-
ed States during the war with Spain or the
incident insurrection in the Philippines are
eligible to membership. This society was
organized at Chattanooga, Tenn., Aug. 17,
1899 and Is national In scope and character.
Societies of the Union Army of 1861-
65. — Society of the Army of the Tennes-
see.— Organized at Raleigh, N. C, April
14, 1865 ; the headquarters are at Cincin-
nati. Army of the Tennessee Association ;
organized at Washington, D. C. August,
1902 ; all who served in that army eligible
to membership. Society of the Army of
the Cumberland ; organized In February,
Societies
Encyclopedic Index, Soldiers' Compensation
1868, and Its present membership Is 350.
Society of the Army of the Potomac ; the
Society organized In 1868. Association of
the Thirteenth Army Corps ; this Associa-
tion was organized at Milwaukee, August,
1889.
Societies of the War of 1812.— The Vet-
erau Corps of Artillery of the State of
New York, Constituting the Military So-
ciety of the War of 1812. Instituted as a
military society by the officers of the War
of, 1812, on 3an. 3, 1826, in the City of
New York, and incorporated under the laws
of the State of New York, by the surviv-
ing veteran members, Jan. 8, 1892. Con-
Bolidated Jan. 8, 1848, with the Veteran
Corps of Artillery (instituted by officers of
the Revolutionary War, Nov. 25, 1790).
Hiram Cronk, last surviving Veteran mem-
ber War, of 1812, horn April 29, 1800, dle(l
May 13, 1905. The original members com-
prise those who actually served in the
military or naval forces of the United
States during the War of 1812, or on ves-
sels other than merchant ships which sailed
under commissions of letters of marque and
reprisals from the United States in that
war. Eligibility to hereditary membership
Is confined by law to descendants of those
who actually served in the War of 181'2,
end to descendants of former members.
General Society of the War of 1812. —
Is composed of federated state societies.
In Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Connecticut, Ohio, Illinois, District of
Columbia, New York, New Jersey, and
Delaware, the members of each of which
state societies are borne upon the member-
ship roll of the general society. Any male
person above the age of twenty-one years
who participated in, or who 1^ a lineal
descendant of one who served during the
War of 1812-14 in the army, navy, revenue
marine, or privateer service of the United
States, offering satisfactory proof to the
state society to wtich he makes applica-
tion, and is of good moral character and
reputation, may become a member. In
case of failure of lineal descendants of an
actual participant in said war, one collat-
eral representative who is deemed worthy
may be admitted to membership.
Society of American Florists, act in-
corporating, vetoed, 6010.
Society of Army of the Cumherland,
statue of Gen. Garfield to be erect-
ed in Washington by, 4795.
Unveiling ceremonies, order regard-
ing, 5162.
Society of Colonial Wars.— instituted in
1892 to "perpetuate the memory of these
events and of the men who, in military,
naval, and civil positions of high trust
and responsibility, by their acts or counsel
assisted in the establishment, defense, and
preservation of the American Colonies, and
were In truth the founders of the Nation.
With this end In view it seeks to cellect and
preserve manuscripts, rolls, and records ;
to provide suitable commemorations or
memorials relating to the American Colo-
nial period, and to inspire in Its members
the paternal and patriotic spirit of their
forefathers, and in the community respect
and reverence for those whose public ser-
vices made our freedom and unity possible."
Eligibility is confined to an adult male
descendant of an ancestor who fought in
battle under Colonial authority from the
settlement of Jamestown, Va.. In 1607. to
the battle of Lexington, In 1775, or who
served as Governor, Deputy-Governor, Mem-
ber of the Council, or as a. military, naval,
or marine officer in the service of the Colon-
ies, or under the banner of Great Britain,
or was conspicuous in military, official, or
legislative life during that period.
Society of Friends:
Management of Indians committed to,
3992, 4063, 4106, 4154, 4206, 4254,
4307.
Paper to President, from, on Indian
affairs, referred to, 4075.
Service Committee of, European re-
■lief work of, referred to, 8901.
Society of the Army and Navy of the
Confederate States, in the State of Mary-
land.—Organized in 1871, "to collect and
preserve the material for a truthful his-
tory of the late war between the Con-
federate states and the United States of
America ; to honor the memory of our
comrades who have fallen ; to cherish the
ties of friendship among those who sur-
vive, and to fulfil the duties of sacred char-
ity toward those who may stand in need
of them."
. Society of the Cincinnati. (See Cin-
cinnati, Society of the.)
Soils, Bureau of.— A bureau of the De-
partment of Agriculture devoted to the
investigation, classification, survey and map-
ping of soils ; studies in soil chemistry and
physics ; soil fertility ; explorations to dis-
cover the sources of natural fertilizers ;
studies in the physical and chemical proper-
ties of soils and materials and methods of
artificial fertilization, with their influence on
the original soils. One of the special features
of the bureau is the study of tobacco culture,
curing, packing and exporting, as well as the
Introduction of new and improved varieties.
The soil survey is an institution devoted
to the accumulation of a well-deflned group
of facts. These facts have a scientific as
well as a practical value. The practical
knowledge can be applied in many cases at
once, and valuable economic and social re-
sults arise from It. This is the value that
is usually emphasized — to he able to direct
agricultural progress along proper lines, to
point out natural adaptabilities of soil, aud
to suggest Improved methods of cultivation
based on a knowledge of the soil to be culti-
vated. These are some of the possibilitiea
and actualities of the soil survey.
Soil Fertility, importance of conserving,
Soldiers and Sailors Compensation. — Not
many months after the declaration of war
against Germany In 1917, Congress, at the
request of President Wilson, made {)rovl-
slon for automatic insurance and (jenefits
for death or injury during service in that
war, instead of relying upon the old cum-
bersome and unfair pension scheme. Com-
pensation is payable by the United States
without contribution from the person in-
jured or killed in active service. In ad-
diUon to that compensation, a person In
service had the option of purchasing addi-
tional Insurance up to $10,000 at low rates
of premium. P,ut this additional insurance
was in effect only if the person eligible had
kept It in force by the payment of premiums
when due, both during service and after-
wards. This insurance was open to all who
served in the World War, whether In-
jured or not. For its terms, see War Risk
Insurance.
Soldiers' Compensation Encyclopedic Index
Soldiers' Homes
Compensation • to Family in Case of
Death. — The only persons entitled to re-
ceive compensation in case of death are the
widow, thikUen and dependent mother or
lathPi- of the deceased. The monthly sums
payable in each case are as follows, and are
not dependent upon the pay of the de-
ceased :
1 — I''or a widow alone, $25.
•1 — For a widow and one child, $35.
3 — For a widow and two children. $42.,'i0,
with $5.00 additional for each child up to
two.
4 — For one child, it there be no widow,
$20.
5 — For two children, $30.
6 — For three children, $40, with $5 for
each additional child up to two.
,7 — For a dependent parent, $20. Th^
amount payable under this sub-division
shall not be greater than a sum which,
when added to the total amount payable
to the widow and children, does not ex-
ceed $75.
8 — For two dependent parents, $30.
Compensation to a widow or widowed
mother shall continue until death or re-
marriage.
Compensation to a child shall cease at
the age of 18, or at marriage, unless the
child is Incompetent.
Compensation under this head Is payable '
not only for death in service, but for death
after service if the death was due to in-
juries suffered or disease contracted in
service and not due to the deceased's own
wilful misconduct.
Payments are made to the widow or chil-
dren irrespective of dependency, but in the
case of the parents, dependency must exist.
Compensation to a dependent parent is paid
for the death of only one child, but com-
pensation for the death of a child Is not
paid the mother if she be receiving also
compensation for the death of her husband.
Compensation to a parent Is payable If no
actual dependency existed at the time of
death of the child, but arose in the follow-
ing five years and would not have occurred
had not the child died.
Compensation in Case of Total Disatttitp.
— During the continuance of total disabil-
ity, monthly compensation shall be paid to
the injured person.
The amounts payable monthly are as
stated, and are not based upon the pay of
the injured person.
If the disability be classed as permanently
total, $100. Any of the following causes
constitute total permanent disability : Loss
of both hands, loss of both feet, loss of
sight of both eyes, loss of one hand and one
foot, loss of one hand and the sight of one
eye, loss of one foot and the sight of one
eye, becoming helpless and permanently
bedridden.
If the injured person has suffered from
two of the causes listed above, he is classed
as double permanently totally disabled, and
his monthly compensation becomes $200.
If the disability be classed as temporarily
total, the monthly compensation is as fol-
lows :
1 — With neither wife nor child, $80.
2 — With wife but no child, $90.
3 — With wife and one child, $n.-.
4 — With wife and more than one child,
$100.
5 — With no wife, but one child, $!M1. and
with $5 additional for each child.
6 — For dependent parent, $10 each, in
addition to above.
In case the ill or disabled person should
die, his family becomes eligible for the death
compensation described abqve.
Compensation in Case of Partial Disa-
bility.— The amount of compensation in the
case of partial disability Is a percentage
of the compensation provided In case of
total disability.
The percentage Is equal to the reduction
in earning capacity resulting from similar
injuries in civil life.
Attention is called to the very impor-
tant provision that the United States shall
furnish medical, surgical and hospital serv-
ices, and supplies, In addition to pecuniary
, compensation.
To an injQred person who is totally dis-
abled, and In addition so helpless as to be
in constant need of a nurse or attendant,
such additional sum shall be paid as shall
seem reasonable to the director, bat not
to exceed $20 monthly.
In ease a person dies or becomes disabled
from Injuries received In service, which at
first did not seem serious or Ukely to cause
death or disability, his family or he will be
unAble to obtain compensation If the death
or disability occurred one year after dis-
charge, unless a certificate of injury had
been obtained within that year from tlie
War Eisic Insurance Bureau. Therefore all
persons who contracted any Injury, howrever
slight, in the service should apply for such
a certificate.
At the end of the fiscal year 1920, the
Bureau of War Risk Insurance had paid out
for compensation and insurance for death
and disability of ex-service men the sum
of $223,385,000. Included in this sum was
$15,915,000 on account of death, $84,527,-
000 on account of disability ; $122,943,000
on account of Insurance alone.
Soldieis' and Sailors' Insurance. (See
War Bisk Insurance.)
Soldiers' Homes.— Regular Army— The Na-
tional Home for aged and disabled soldiers
of the regular army of the United States
is situated in 'Washington, D. C, occupy-
ing a beautiful site outside the city limits.
It was established In 1851 with money
raised by a levy on the City of Mexico
during the Mexican War, and Is supported
by a regular tar on each soldier of the
army.
All soldiers whd have served twenty
years as enlisted men In the army (in-
cluding volunteer service, if any), or who
have served In any war. and all soldiers
of less than twenty years' service who have
Incurred such disability, by wounds, dis-
ease, or Injuries In the line of duty while
In the regular army, as unfits them for
further service, are entitled to the benefits
of the Home.
A pensioner who enters the Home may
assign his pension, or any part of It. to
his child, wife, or parent, by filing written
notice with the agent who pays him. If
not so assigned. It Is drawn by the treas-
urer of the Home and held In trust for the
pensioner, to wliom it is paid In such sums '
as the governor of the Home deems proper
while he is an inmate of the Home, the bal-
ance being paid In full when he takes his
discharge and leaves the Home.
Inmates are subject to the Rules and
Aitioles of War, the same as soldiers In
the army. They are comfortably lodged,
fed. and clothed and receive medical at-
Soldiers* Homes
Encyclopedic Index
Solicitors
tendance and medicine, all without cost to
them. The most recent report showed 824
resident soldiers, 133 on outdoor relief, 43
in St. Elizabeth's Hospital, 182 on furlough
and 106 at the Army Hospital at Fort
Bayard, N. M.
Volunteers. — There are National Homes for
disabled volunteer soldiers at Dayton, O. ;
Milwaukee, Wis. ; Togus, Me. ; Hampton,
Va. ; Leavenworth, Kan. ; Santa Monica,
Cal. ; Marlon, Ind. ; Danville, 111. ; Johnson
City, Tenn., and Hot Springs, S. Dak. The
aggregate number of members cared for is
about 25,000.
The Board of Managers of the National
Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers In-
forms the disabled soldiers and sailors of
the United States that Homes have been
established, at the places above named, for
all such as are unable to earn a living by
labor. All the ordinary comforts of a
. home are provided — chapels for religious
services ; halls for concerts, etc. ; hospitals,
with experienced surgeons and nurses ;
libraries and reading rooms ; amusement
halls ; post and telegraph offices ; stores,
etc.
The requirements for admission are : (1)
An honorable discharge from the United
States service during a war in which it was
engaged. (2) Disability which prevents
the applicant from earning his living by
labor. (3) Applicants for admission will
be required to stipulate and agree to abide
by all the rules and regulations made by
the Board of Managers, or by its order ; to
perform all duties required of them, and
to obey all the lawful orders of the officers
of the Home. (4) A soldier or sailor must
forward with his application for admission
his Discharge Paper and when he is a
pensioner, his Pension Certificate, which
papers will be retained at .the branch to
which the applicant is admitted, to be
kept there for him, and returned to him
when he is discharged. This rule is adopt-
ed to prevent the loss of such papers and
certificates, and to hinder fraudulent prac-
tices ; and no application will be considered
unless these papers are sent with It. If the
original discharge does not exist, a copy
of discharge, certified by the War or Navy
Department, or by the Adjutant-General of
the state, must accompany the application.
State Homes for disabled volunteer
soldiers are maintained at the following
places :
Califorma— Yoimtville. New Jersey ( S-?"?''^
Colorado-Monte Vista. "=''''™*''\ Vmeland.
Connecticut— NorotonH'ts. New York { Qrford
Idaho-Boise. j^o^h Dakota-Lisbon.
Illinois- Qmncy. /Sandusky.
Indiana— Lafayette. "luo \ Madison.
Iowa — Marshalltown. Oklahoma— Oklahoma City.
Kansas— Fort Dodge. Oregon— Rosebur^.
Massachusetts— Chelsea. Pennsylvania— Ene.
Michigan— Grand Rapids. Rhode Island— Bristol.
Minnesota— Minnehaha. South Dakota— Hot Springs.
Missouri — St. James. Vermont — ^Bennington.
Montana-ColjunbusFalls. Washington [g^.^-
Nebraska | jjilford. Wisconsin— Waupaca.
New Hampshire— Tiltoii. Wyoming— Buffalo.
Confederate Soldiers' Homes are main-
tained at Atlanta, Ga. ; Austin, Tex. ; Beau-
voir. Miss. ; Columbia, S. C. ; Hermitage,
Tenn. ; Higglnsville, Mo. ; Jacksonville,
Fla. ; Little Kock, Ark. ; Mountain Creek,
Ala. ; New Orleans, La. ; Pewee Valley, Ky. ;
Plkesvllle, Md. ; Raleigh, N. C. ; Richmond.
Va ; Washington, D. C.
Soldiers' Homes:
Erection of, recommended, 2559, 2624.
Becommendations of board of com-
missioners regarding, 4777.
Should be under jurisdiction of War
Department, 7229.
Site for, selected, 2668.
Soldiers, Quartering of, without con-
sent, forbidden in times of peace; in
time of war, must follow manner
prescribed by law, 29.
Sollcltor-OeneraL— The office of solicitor-
general was created by the act of June 22,
1870, which created the Department of
Justice. The solicitor-general acts as attor-
ney-general whenever the latter is unable
to attend to the duties of his office. The
position of the Solicitor-General is unique in
that he is the "Court Lawyer" for the
United States. He prepares and argues
cases In which the United States Govern-
ment is Involved, and Is assisted by various
assistant attorneys-general. He represents
the Government in all cases In the Supreme'
Court of the United States ; he determines
whether pending cases shall be prosecuted
or abandoned, and. In a word, has charge of
all Government lltigati<>n. He Is appointed
by the President, and his salary is $10,000
a year. (See Attorney-General, Justice De-
partment.)
Solicitor for the Department of State.
— This officer is appointed by the President,
^by and with the consent of the Senate. His
yearly salary is $5,000 and he is assisted by
three assistants who are appointed by the
Secretary of State at a yearly salary of
$3,000 each. The office was created in 1866
with the title of "Examiner of Claims," but
In 1891 the title became "Solicitor for the
Department of State." The Solicitor js un-
der the jurisdiction of the Justice Depart-
ment, but he also has duties assighed to him
by the Secretary of State. He is the law
officer of the State Department, and renders
opinions on ali matters referred to hira. He
also has supervision over claims, manages
extradition proceedings, and is in charge of
the legal aspects of naturalization. (See
State Department ; Justice Department ;
Court of Claims, Extradition ; Naturaliza-
tion ; Departmental Solicitors.)
Solicitors, Departmental, Justice De-
partment.— All departments of the Govern-
ment have solicitors under the supervision
of the Attorney-General, except the Depart-
ments of War and Navy, whose legal affairs
are conducted by their Judge advocates-gen-
eral (q. v.). The departmental solicitors
have offices In the buildings of the depart-
ment to which they are assigned. In the
Department of the Interior (q. v.), the
assistant attorney-general handles appeals
from the decisions of the General Land
Office, prepares opinions, etc. The solicitor
for the Department of State (q. v.) advises
the Secretary of State on matters of law,
especially of International law ; decides
Solicitors
Encyclopedic Index
South America
claims of United States citizens against for-
eign governments and claims of foreigners
against the United States ; and also is in
charge of extradition proceedings. The
solicitor for the Treasury Department (q. v.)
handles revenue prosecutions, and other legal
matters for his department. The solicitor
in the Internal Revenue Office (q. v.). the
solicitor in the Department of Commerce (q.
v.), the solicitor in the Department of Labor
(q. v.), all have charge of the legal affairs
of their departments. The Post-Offlce De-
partment (q. V.) also has an assistant attor-
ney-general. The salaries of the departmen-
tal solicitors are $5,000 yearly. (See Jus-
tice Department ; Solicitor-General.)
Solicitor of the Treasury, office of, es-
tablished, 1090.
Operations of, referred to, 2539.
Solomon Islands. (See Oceania.)
Somali Territories. (See Italian Soma-
lilgnd, French Somali Coast, Africa
arid British Empire.)
Sommersett Case. — A negro slave named
Sommersett accompanied his master from
Boston to London In October, 17G9. He
became ill and was turned adrift by bis
master. His condition aroused the com-
passion of Granville Sharp, who cared for
him until he was restored to health. He
was then claimed by his master and taken
before Lord Mansfield, of the court of
King's bench. Here he was discharged on
the ground that in England slavery could
exist only b.v positive iaw, and in the ab-
sence of such a lav a person could not be
deprived of liberty on the ground that he
was a slave. This decision determined the
future course of England in the delivery of
fugitives.
Sons of American Bevnlution. — A patri-
otic society composed of lineal descendants
of soldiers, sailors, and conspicuous patri-
ots of Revolutionary times. The society
was organized in California July 4, 1875.
Another society of the same name was
organized in New York in 1889 and quick-
ly outrlvalled the older society ; attempts
to unite the two ,were made unsuccessfully
In 1892 and 1897. The Eastern Society
ha,s thirty-eight branches in the states and
branches in the District of Columbia and
Hawaii. The total membership is about
11,000.
Sons of Confederate Veterans. (See
Confederate Veterans, United Sons
of.)
Sons of Liberty. — A society organized by
the younger and more ardent patriots of
Connecticut in 1755, to advance colonial
liberty. They advocated non-importation,
aided In the hanging in efflgy of the stamp
distributor Oliver in 1765, and in 1774
proposed the organization of a continental
congress, i The appellation is sometimes ap-
plied to the whole body of American patri-
ots. Another organization calling tliem-
selves "Sons of Liberty" existed in 1862-
1864 in Indiana and other states and ac-
tively opposed the efforts of the United
States Government in the prosecution of
the war for the preservation of the Union,
and several leaders were tried and con-
demned by a military commission. (See
also Milligau Case.)
Sons of the Kevolution.— A society of the
same nature as the Sons of the American
Eevolutlon. It was established in New
York in 1875, and has now thirty-one state
branches. The principal point of difference
between the Sons of the Revolution and
the Sons of the American Revolution U
the matter of eligibility, which m both Is
dependent on hereditary descent. In rne
latter society membership is contingent
upon lineal descent from patriots of tne
Revolution, while in the former it Is ex-
tended to collaterals.
Sons of Veterans, U. S. A.— Camp No. 1,
Sons of Veterans, U. S. A., was organized
in the City of Philadelphia, Sept. 29, 1879.
The organization is composed of lineal de-
scendants, over eighteen years of age, of
honorably discharged soldiers, or marines
who served in the late Civil War. There
are now about one thousand camps, with a
■ membership of fifty thousand, distributed
among twenty-five divisions, corresponding
to states, the general society or national
body constituting the Commandery-in-Chief.
Each camp has its own officers, the head
officer being the commander. The princi'
pal officer of the division is the division
commander. The Sons of V.iterans Aux-
iliary is an association of women auxiliary
to the above organization.
Sound, Dues. (See Baltic Sea.)
Sound Money Democrats.— A group de-
fecting from the Democratic Party in 1896.
In convention they nominated John M.
Palmer for President, nnd General Simon
B. Buckner for Vice President ; and their
platform declared for the gold standard.
South. Africa. (See Union of South
Africa.)
South America. — The area is 6,750,000
square miles, a little more than one and
three-quarter times that of Europe. The
extreme longitudes are Cape Branco 35°
W. and Punta Parina 81° W., and the
extreme latitudes, Punta Gallinas. 12J°
N. and Cape Horn 56° S. South Atnerica
is surrounded by the ocean, except where
it is Joined to Central America by the nar-
row isthmus of Panama.
The independent republics of South Amer-
ica are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile,
Colomlii.-i, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uru-
guay ;iud Venezuela. Besides these are
British, French and Netherlands' Guiana.
Islands adjacent to South America axe
the Falkland Islands, Galapagos Islands,
Graham Land, Sandwich Group, South Geor-
gia, South Orkneys and Soath Shetlands.
In the south Tierra del Fuego is sepa-
rated from the mainland by the Straits of
Magellan. The physical features consist of
a Western Mountain belt and two Upland
Plateaus.
The Upper Plateaus consist of the high-
lands of Brazil and Guiana, between which
are the lowlands of the Amazon.
The extensive lowlands of the Orinoco,
Amazon, and Parani-Paraguay system were
once inland seas, and afford great areas of
level land. Ocean vessels can reach Iqul-
tos on the Amazon, which is 2,300 miles
from the ocean in consequence of the small
fall of the river.
On the West Coast the rivers are gener-
ally too rapid to be navigable, in conse-
quence of tlie proximity of the mountains to
the sea, but they are invaluable in the dry
regions for irrigation.
The Amazon has numerous tributaries,
which are themselves great rivers, and oc-
cupies with its basin a large part of South
America. Owing to the melting of the
South America
Encyclopedic Index
South American
snows in February and the rains which
mainly occur at this season on the Andean
slopes. It has a marked flood season, reach-
ing its maximum in June, when it over-
flows its banks.
The Plate Estuary is formed Dy the junc-
tion of the Parana and Uruguay. A larger
amount of water Is brought down than by
any other river system In the New World
excepting the Amazon. The Parana, is nav-
igable for some 1,200 miles by ocean ves-
sels.
Quito, in Ecuador, at ofer 9,000 feet/
and Bogota, in the uplands of Colombia, at
a little below 9,000 feet, have temperatures
between 55° V. and 58° i'. in both summer
and winter, while Para, at the mouth of
the Amazon, and Iquitos, on the Upper Ama-
zon, are between 78° F. an 79° F. through-
out the year. The diminution of tempera-
ture with altitude is shown most notice-
ably on the high Andean plateau, where
La Paz, at over 12,000 feet, has a summer
temperature of only 52° B"., and near the
margin of the Tropics, where Sao Paulo, in
the coft'ee-growing uplands of southeast
Brazil at about 2,500 feet, is about 9°
colder than lUo at sea level. The local in-
fluence of the cold current is shown in the
difference of temperature between points in
the same latitude on the Bast and West
coasts— Bahia, In latitude 12° S. is 10°
warmer than Callao.
Outside the Tropics thft eastern side of
South America has a high summer temper-
ature, above 68° F. to south of 40° S.
latitude, as a consequence of which wheat
can be grown successfully to the south of
Buenos Aires.
South American Provinces (see also
South. American Eepublics):
Independence and political condition
of, referred to, 601.
Independence of —
Achieved by, before recognized by
• United States, 829.
Asserted, 612.
Emperor of Eussia intervenes for
recognition of, 892.
Not recognized until danger of sub-
jugation has passed, 1486.
Recognition of, referred to, 706,
761.
Should be recognized by United
States, 685.
To be recommended, by United
States, 674.
Supplies sent to, 811.
South American Bepublics. (See also
South American Provinces; the sev-
eral Eepublics) :
Arbitration of pecuniary claims
against, 7982.
Bank, central, in, advantages of, dis-
cussed, 7416.
Collection by governments of debts
due their citizens, from other coun-
tries, by force of arms, referred to
The Hague Tribunal by Conference
of, 7060.
Commercial relations with —
Discussed by President —
Hayes, 4460.
Pierce, 2869.
Eeport of Hamilton Fish on, 4024.
Commercial relations with, 4014, 4826,
5509.
Commission to Central America and,
for improving commercial relations,
discussed, 4826, 4863, 4864, 4915,
4955, 5116.
Condition of, discussed, 1009.
Congress of, referred to, 910.
Differences existing among, referred
to, 2252.
Friendly disposition of United States
toward, 950, 3884.
Independence of —
Achieved by, before recognized by
United States, 829.
Asserted, 612.
Emperor of Eussia intervenes for
recognition of, 892.
Not recognized until danger of sub-
jugation has passed, 1486.
Should be recognized by United
States, 685.
To be recommended by United
States, 674.
International American Conference at
Washington. (See International
American Conference.)
Markets of, should be supplied by the
United States, 8016.
Mediation of United States offered in
wars among, 3776, 3884.
Minister for, requested, 620.
Monarchical government in, estab-
lishment of, referred to, 3402.
Negotiations for restoration of peace
in, referred to, 4676.
Peace conference between Spain and,
held in Washington, 4052, 4099.
Pledge of United States to, against
foreign interference with, referred
to, 907.
Policy of United States toward, dis-
cussed, 5750. I
Political condition of, discussed, 2904.
Protection of patents, etc., in, 7984.
Eeeognition of, referred to, 706, 761.
Secretary of State's visit to, 7059,
8887.
Steamship lines to, direct, subsidy
for, 7374, 7435, 7503.
Trade with, ships for, 7362.
Treaty of, with Spain, discussed, 1369.
Treaty with, 868.
Vessels being built in New York for
Spain forbidden to depart, 3987.
War of, with Spain —
Armistice, referred to, 4144.
Good oflSces of United States ten-
dered, 3776, 3884.
Accepted, 3987, 4052.
South American Bepublics, Kecoguition
of. — In 1817 Henry Clay endeavored to se-
cure an appropriation from Congress for
sending an accredited minister to Buenoi
South American
Encyclopedic Index
South Carolina
Ayres, which had become a free and inde-
pendent Republic. Congress, however, re-
fused. March 8, 1822, President Monroe in
a special message to Congress (685) recom-
mended the recognition of Buenos Ayres,
Chile, Colombia, and other republics, and
the establishment of international relations
with them. This Congress agreed to. The
commercial relations between the United
States and these republics have steadily
improved since this action. A conference,
known as the International American Con-
ference (q. v.), representing the United
States and these republics, met in Washing-
ton in 1889 to encourage closer business
relations. This resulted in the establish-
ment of the Bureau of American Republics
(q. v.). The latest example of the recog-
nition of a new republic by this country oc-
curred in the year 1903, when the Republic
of Panama proclaimed its independence of
Colombia on Nov. 4 and received the recog-
nition of the American government two
days later.
South and Central American Countries,
Treaties with. — At the Fourth Internation-
al American Conference, held In Buenos
Aires in August, 1910, representatives of
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa
Eica, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Ecuador, Guate-
mala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, Uru-
guay and Venezuela agreed upon several
important points of international comity,
among which was a convention for the
submission of pecuniary claims to arbitra-
tion whenever such claims are of sufficient
importance to warrant the expense of arbi-
tration. They also agreed that decisions
of such claims should be rendered in ac-
cordance with the principles of Interna-
tional law, and all controversies submitted
to The Hague Court of Arbitration. This
treaty was signed at Buenos Aires August
11, 1910, ratification advised by the Sen-
ate Feb. 1, 1911, ratified by the President
of the United States March 21, 1911, and
proclaimed by Wilson July 29, 1914.
Another convention between the same re-
publics adopted at the same conference pro-
vided for the protection of inventions, pat-
ents, designs and industrial models. For
the text of these treaties see President Wil-
son's proclamations, pages 7982 and 7984.
South Carolina. — One of the thirteen origi-
nal states ; nickname, "The Palmetto
State :" motto, ''Animis opibusque parati"
("Prepared in mind and resources"). It
lies between lat. 32° 4' 30" and 35° 13' 2"
north and long. 78° 28' and 83° 18' west.
It Is bounded on the north and northeast
by North Carolina, on the southeast by the
Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest and
west by Georgia (separated for most part
of the distance by the Savannah River). It
has an area of 30,989 square miles. The
surface is level near the coast, undulating
in the interior, and mountainous in the
northwest. The state produces gold, por-
celain, clay, phosphates, and other minerals,
and is especially noted for the production
of rice and sea-Island cotton.
South Carolina was partially explored by
the Spaniards In 1525, who named it Chi-
cora. An unsuccessful attempt to colonize
was made by the French under Ribault in
15G2. The first permanent settlement was
made by the English in 1670. Charleston
was founded in 1680. Charles II. gave the
territory between lat. 29° and 36° "30'
north, to eiglit of his favorites In 1663,
and two years later he Issued a charter
placing the control of the colony in their
hands. They employed John Locke, the phi-
losopher, to draw up a constitution which
should provlds an ideal government. This
"grand model" proved to be an attempt
to set up the feudal system In America,
and was abandoned by the proprietors In
1693. South Carolina became a royal colony
In 1729. V
The first constitution was adopted In
1776. The Federal Constitution was ratified
May 23, 1788. The state seceded on Dec.
20, 1860, and was readmitted by act of
Congress June 25, 1868.
In 1920 the population was 1,683,724. In
1910, it was 1,515,400, of which 835,843
were negroes, and 6,179 were forel^-born.
Less than 15% of the population in 1910
was urban.
In a recent year there were 14,919 public
schools In the state, with 8,680 teachers
and 407,940 enrolled pupils. There were
149 public high schools, with 427 teachers
and 8,292 pupils. The majority of the
people are Methodists and Baptists.
South Carolina is predomlilantly an agri-
cultural state. Recent figures showed 176,-
434 farms, with a total acreage of 13.-
512,000 and a total value of $392,128,000
for all farm property. More recent figures
for farms only put the number at 192,664.
In a recent year the number and value of
farm animals were given by the Department
of Agriculture as follows : Horses, 82,000,
$14,760,000; milch cows, 203,000, $15,-
834,000 ; other cattle, 244,000, $8,394,000 ;
sheep, 29,000, $188,000 ; swine, 1,056,000,
$22,176,000.
The last annual agricultural production
■was as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Cotton 2,877,000 al,530,000~ $110,925,000
Corn 2,230,000 42,370,000 49,149,000
Tobacco 103,000 b66,950,000 10,042,000
Oats 434,000 10,416,000 10,728,000
Hay 460,000 c462,000 11,466,010
Sw. Potatoes. 88,000 9,240,000 10,811,000
Potatoes 31,000 3,100,000 5,580,000
Wheat 160,000 1,760,000 4,488,000
Peanuts 36,000 1,620,000 3,434,000
a — Bales, b — Pounds, c — Tons.
The last annual fruit crop included 1,-
482,000 bushels of apples, 1,110,000 bushels
of peaches and 98,000 bushels of pears.
South Carolina has important fisheries,
especially oysters, whiting, shad, bass. The
mineral production is usually slightly above
$1,000,0()0 annually. The chief minerals
worked are phosphate rock, granite, clay.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in South Carolina having an annual
output valued at $500 or more at the be-
ginning of 1915 was 1,885. The amount of
capital Invested was $203,211,000, giving
employment to 77,693 persons, using mate-
rial valued at $91,009,000, and turning out
finished goods worth $138,891,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $29,052,000.
South Carolina (see also Confederate
States) :
Amendment to Federal Constitution,
referred to, 598.
Census of —
Eeferred to, 108.
Eeturn of, delay in, 104.
Claims of, for advances made during
War of 1812, 1027.
Commissioners from, to President
Buchanan, 3189.
Correspondence on, referred to,
3195.
South Carolina
Encyclopedic Index
South Dakota
Constitution of, referred to, 3830.
Delay in return of census of, 104.
Forts and fortifications ceded to
United States by, 384.
Fourteenth amendment to Constitu-
tion, ratified by, 3837.
Proclaimed, 3855.
Imprisonment of free negroes in ports
of, referred to, 1954.
Judicial districts of, 6672.
Ku-Klux-Klans, etc., in, discussed,
4104, 4117.
Proclamations against, 4086, 4088,
4089. 4090, 4093, 4350.
Provisional governor for, appointed
and restoration of, into Union, dis-
cussed, 3524.
Railroad in, survey of, 1027.
Eatififiation of amendment to Federal
Constitution by, referred to, 66,
249.
Kevenue laws for —
Act of Congress in regard to, de-
clared void by, 1173.
Referred to, 1195.
Deliberations of convention in re-
gard to, made known to Presi-
dent Jackson, 1174.
Military operations in, growing out
of opposition to, 1197, 1203.
Nullification message, 1173.
Nullification proclamation, 1203.
Opposition to, from citizens of, 1174.
Proclamation regarding, 1203._
Eifle clubs in, proclamation against,
3103.
Secession ordinance of, facsimile of,
3135.
Slaughter of Ametican citizens in
Hamburg, referred to, 4329.
Unlawful combinations in, discussed
and proclamations against, 1173,
1203, 3743, 4086, 4088, 4089,
4090, 4093, 4104, 4117, 4350.
Copies of proclamations for execu-
tive clerks, 3756.
Habeas corpus, writ of, suspended
in certain counties, 4090, 4093.
Revoked as to Marion County,
4092.
South Carolina Inter-State and West In-
dian Exposition.— An industrial and edu-
cational fair, held at Charleston. S. C,
from Dec. 1 to June 2, 1902. The site
covered an area of 250 acres and the
buildings were in the Spanish Renaissance
style of architecture, covered with staff,
tinted an ivory white. The United States
and many of the individual states made
exhibits, as well as Cuba, Porto Rico, and
Guatemala. Notable original groups of his-
torical statuary exhibited were The AZ;
tec " "The Negro," and "The Huguenot.
The total attendance was 674 806 The
cost of the exhibition was .$1,250,000, and
the receipts $31.3.000.
South Dakota.— One of the western group
of states. Nielsname, "Coyote State."
Motto, "Under God the people rule."
It lies a little north of the center of
the continent, between lat. 45° 57' and
42° 28' north (extreme southeast point :
west of the Missouri the southern boundary
Is 43° north) and long. 96° 26' and 104°
3' west. It Is bounded on the north by
North Dakota, on the east by Minnesota
and Iowa, on the south by Nebraska, and
on the west by Montana and Wyoming. It
has an area of 77,615 square miles. The
Missouri River divides the state into two
nearly equal portions. The eastern part
Is generally smooth and rolling. West of
the river the country rises _ more rapidly
and culminates in the Black Hills, an ele-
vated region some 60 by 100 miles in
extent, the central point of which is Har-
ney's Peak, 9,700 feet high. The Bad
Lands, in the southeastern part, is an in-
teresting geological formation, consisting of
a desert region abounding in canyons, de-
pressions, walls, and castles of white earth,
rich in soil-making chemicals and interest-
ing fossils.
The early history of the State is identical
with that of North Dakota (q. v.), from
which it was separated and admitted as a
state in 1889; The total land area is 49,-
184,000 acres, of which, 12,908.977 acres
are reserved for the Indians. With the ex-
ception of the forests of the Black Hills
the State is almost .an arid plain.
In 1920 the population was 636,547. In
1910 it was 583,888, of whom 19,137 were
Indians, and 100,790 were foreign-born.
Among the foreign-born were 21,544 Ger-
mans, 20,918 Norwegians, 13,189 Russians,
9,998 Swedes, 6,294 Danes, 4,024 English,
2.980 Irish, 5,372 Austrians. 6,010 Cana-
dians. The urban population was 13%
of the whole.
The latest educational statistics show
5,296 public elementary schools, with 5.493
teachers and 88,848 enrolled pupils. There
were 326 public secondary schools, with
1,947 teachers and 49,637 pupils.
The last federal census showed 77,644
farms In the state with an acreage of 26,-
016,892 (15,827,208 Improved) and a total
value of all farm property of $1,166,096,980.
Later figures for the number of farms only
put them at 74,564.
The most recent figures for the number
and value of the farm animals are as fol-
lows : Horses, 827,000, $66,160,000 ; milch
cows, 561,000, $46,002,000 ; other cattle,
1,496,000, $80,634,000 ; sheep, 810,000, $9,-
882,000 ; swine, 1,654,000, $45,485.000 :
mules, 15,000. The last annual wool clip
amounted to 4,750,000 pounds. The Inst
annual fruit production Included 323,000
bushels of apples.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop ^ Acreage Bushels Value
Wheat 2,886,000 26,282,000 J30,224,000
Corn 3,520,000 105,600,000 44,352,000
Oats 2,219,000 75,446,000 24,897,000
Barley 1,073,000 26,825,000 13,949,000
Hay, tame 1,000,000 al,750,000 14,875,000
Rye 320,000 4,320,000 4,709,000
Potatoes 84,000 8,904,000 8,637,000
a, — Tons.
The chief mineral product is gold, of
which the annual output In recent years has
been between five and seven millions of
dollars in value. Other minerals mined are
sliver, copper, lead, but in small amounts.
The last federal census of manufactures
showed 898 industrial establishments in the
state, with 1,558 salaried employees and
firm members, and 3,788 Wage-earners. The
capital represented was $15,060,000 ; there
South Dakota
Encyclopedic Index
South Polar Regions
were paid out annually in salaries and
wages, $3,463,000 ; the cost of materials was
$17,079,000 and the value of the product
was $24,139,000. The chief manufacturing
Is concerned with milling and the making
of butter, cheese and condensed milk.
South Dakota:
Admission of, into Union, proclaimed,
5457.
Discussed, 5485.
Lands in —
Opened to settlement by proclama-
tion, 5707, 6016.
Set apart as public reservation by
proclamation, 6216.
South Mountain, or Boonsboro (Md.),
Battle of. — After driving the Union army
back upon the fortifications around Wash-
ington, Lee's army crossed the Potomac
Jnto Maryland. The Confederate com-
mander issued an address to the people of-
fering them the protection of his govern-
ment and calling for volunteer soldiers. He
sent the greater part of his army, about
25,000 men, under, Jackson, to capture the
garrison at Harpers Ferry. As soon as it
became known at Washington that Lee
had crossed into Maryland, McClellan was
ordered to follow him with all the troops
not needed to defend Washington. Sept.
12, 1862, McClellan reached Frederick with
a force estimated at from 80.000 to 90,000
just after it had been evacuated by Lee'a
army, which had passed west over the
Catoctin Mountains toward South Moun-
tain. The road from Frederick to Hagers-
town, Md., passes through Turners Gap of
this mountain. Here on Sept 14, 1862,
Gen. D. H. Hill, with a force of about 6,000
men, successfully resisted repeated assaults
from Hooker's and Burnslde's corps, fully
30,000 strong. At 3 P. M. Hill was re-
enforced by 1,900 men, and later in the
day by Longstreet with six brigade, only
four of which, numbering 3,000 men, were
seriously engaged. The gap was contested
from 8 A. M. until after dark. During the
night the Confederates retired. Franklin
took possession of Crampton's Gap, six
miles below, held by the Confederates un-
der Howell Cobb. The Federal loss at
Turners Gap, South Mountain, was 328
killed and 1,463 wounded and missing, and
at Crampton's Gap 115 killed and 418 miss-
ing. The Confederate loss at both aggre-
gated 934.
South Polar Eeglons.— The Antarctic
Ocean includes much more of the circum-
polar ocean than the part south of the
Antarctic Circle (66J° S.), as drifting pack
ice is carried a long way to the north. Ice-
bergs are often met with north of 45° S.
It is now considered that the land which
has been sighted at various points forms
part of the Antarctic continent, probably
loftier than Greenland and larger than Aus-
tralia. This plateau is covered with a sheet
of nivi and ice which seems to be slowly
creeping toward the sea. The icebergs dif-
fer completely from those of the Arctic,
forming large flat-topped islands with per-
pendicular sides.
In the interior the plateau rises to over
10.000 feet and is remarkably level. On
this some of the peaks exceed 15,000 feet.
In Victoria Land there have been great vol-
canic eruptions in eeologically recent epochs.
To these are due the conical peaks of Ere-
bus (12,760 feet), which is still active.
Terror, Melbourne, and Discovery, an0
numerous isolated craters.
There are no land animals, but micro-
scopic life has been found in ponds which
can endure great extremes of cold and
beat.
Exploration. — A southern continent was
believed to exist in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, but it was not till 1774
that Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle and
reached in his voyages 71" 10' S.-106° 54'
W. in 1774. This was the furthest point
south attained in the eighteenth century.
Bellingshausen, in a Russian expedition sup
plementing Cook's voyages, reached 69° 25'
S. and 1° 11' W. In 1819, and In 1821
sighted the first land ever seen within
the Antarctic Circle, to which he gave the
name of Peter I. i Island. In 1823 James
Weddell reached 74° 15' S. and 34° 17' W. In
1831-1832 Biscoe discovered Graham Land.
In 1835 an attempt was made to reach
the Magnetic Pole by a French expedition
that met with no success, though land was
sighted inside the Antarctic Circle.
In 1839 the Erebus and Terror, the for-
mer commanded by Hoss, entered pack Ice
in 174° E., and succeeded in getting through
the ice into open sea to the south. He
discovered a chain of mountains' south of
Cape Adare in 71° S., and the land was
taken possession of as Victoria Land. The
names of the two ships were given to the
volcanoes. In 1842 an attempt was made
to pass the Great Ice Barrier on the east.
and the land was discovered now known
as King Edward's Land.
There was no more exploration till 1874,
when the first steamer, the Challenger
reached 66° 40' S. and 78° 30' E In
1894 Borohgrevink, a sailor on board a
Norwegian whaler, was one of a party that
landed near Cape Adare, the first to set
foot on the Antarctic continent. In 1895
Interest in Antarctic exploration was
aroused by the efforts of Sir Clement Mark-
ham, President of the Eoyal British Geo
grapnical Society, and the International
Geographic Congress, and the modern era
of South Polar discovery was inaugurated.
In 1899 Borchgrevink, in the Southern
Cross, an expedition equipped by Sir
George Newnes, took dogs and sledges to
attempt to reach the Magnetic Pole, and
landed near Cape Adare. It was found that
the ice barrier had receded about 80 miles
south since it had been mapped by Ross in
In 1901-1904 a national Antarctic expedition
K?= organized under Scott. In 1902 Scott,
bhackleton, and Wilson reached 82° 17' S
with dog sledges. An elevation of 9,000
feet was attained on the plateau, kor-
denskjold, in the Antarctic, and Bruce in
the Scotio, added to the knowledge of the
South Polar regions. In 1904 Charcot in
the Fratigais, and in 1909 in the Pourguoi
fon'Q Ifh^'^Jf^; ^^^, Bellingshausen Sea. In
1909 Shackleton, in the Nimrod, attempted
^^ 1 a shore party to winter on King
Edward s Land but wintered near the basi
SL?J°" ** ^P'^"??.^' ^''°"' 20 miles to the
north of the Discovery's winter quarters
An ascent of Mount Erebus was made
David reached the South Magnetic Pole and
bhackleton with his companions reached the
upper plateau at about 10,000 feet, where
they were obliged to return in 88° 23' S
. ^x?''?l *''°°" the Pole. In 1910 Scott left
in the Terra Nova for an extended period
of saentific exploration. penou
info°i',l"V'^^°t was made on March 7
l^^lfi^*''?;'^^^'"''*" KoaW Amundsen, a Nol:
wegian, had reached the southernmost point
s?ile?%^o?tf ^^■J^^'^- Amundsin Md
sailed for the southern seas in his vessel
the From, hardly less famous iS explora-
South Polar Regions
Encyclopedic Index
Southern States
tlons than Amundsen himself. The Ant-
arctic winter was spent In a hut at Fram-
heim, from which, on October 20, 191J.,
Amundsen made his dash for the Pole ac-
companied by five men, sledges and dogs,
with provisions and supplies for only three
months. The party relied upon depots of
seal meat for supjport on its return Journey.
Steady progress was made until November
11, when lofty land was sighted, and on
November 17, Amundsen had to begin his
ascent of the mountains which barred his
way. The peaks were suprisingly high, one
camp being at an altitude of more than 10,-
000 feet, and mountains on all hands tow-
ering to heights of more than 15,000 feet.
Finally, on December 6, the party bi-oke
through the mountains to the high flat
plateau stretching from them to the Pole
at a uniformly level altitude of about 11,000
feet. The ice of the plateau was 'Smooth,
and the weather conditions favorable, and
the Pole was reached on December 14.
Amundsen and his victorious party stayed
at the Pole four days, nailing the Norwegian
colors to the pole of the hut which they
erected on the spot, and returned to the
Fram with little difficulty. The height of
the plateau on the spot at which Amundsen
located the Pole was about 10,750 feet.
In the meantime, Scott and his party
were making leisurely, but steady progress,
stopping their Journey often to make ex-
tended scientific experiments. By use of
his motor sledges, he got nearer and nearer
his quest, until 'with his goal in sight,
Scott narrowed down his companions to
four^Dr. Wilson, Captain Gates, Lieuten-
ants Bowers and Evans. When but a day's
distance from the Pole, laboring under the
excitement and stimulation of the thought
that they were to be the first men to set
foot upon the Pole, they ran across the
fresh tracks of Amundsen's party, tracks
headed both towards and away from the
Pole. And when they reached 90°, on Jan-
uary 29, 1912, they found at the Pole the
hut erected by Amundsen — on top, the Nor-
wegian colors, and within, the account of
Amundsen's trip.
The return trip proved a succession of
obstacles. Storm after storm, each of them
of a violence surprising even in Antarctic
regions, burst upon them, and made rapid
progress impossible. The ice had shifted,
and the heavy winds had churned it into
a rongh surface far different from the
smooth surface over which the Journey to
the Pole had been made. Open water con-
fronted them where their Journey south-
ward had found solid land. Evans died
from concussion of the brain, caused by a
fall. Gates became lame ; and realizing that
his weakness was delaying the party,
walked outside of the tent one night to a
deliberate death. Finally on March 21 pro-
visions for only one more day remained, and
the party, weakened and ill, was 153 miles
from the nearest spot where, according to
their knowledge, food awaited them. And
accordingly they made camp, wrote a calm
and dispassionate account of their achieve-
ments, and awaited courageously the ap-
proach of death. Their bodies were found
ten months later.
For further details of the Antarctic re-
gions and of attempts to conquer them, see
the article, Antarctic Regions.
South Pole, discovery of. (See South
Polar Eegions and Antarctic Eegions.)
South Sea Exploring Expeditions:
Delay in preparation of, 1646, 1683.
Expenses of, referred to, 994.
New continent discovered by, re-
ferred to, 1835.
Eeferred to, 1496, 1719.
Southern Claims Commission (see also
Court of Claims) :
Discussed, 4205.
Transfer of 4th of July claims to,
recommended, 4361, 4425.
Southern Commercial Congress. — An or-
ganization to promote and develop the in-
terests of the Southern states — Alabama,
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri,
North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina,
Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia.
Southern Exposition at Louisville dis-
cussed, 4773.
Board on behalf of Executive De-
partments designated, 4819.
Instructions to, 4820.
Southern Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Southern States (see also Confederate
States; Eeeonstruction; Secession;
Slavery; Civil War):
Acts —
For admission of certain, vetoed,
3846, 3848.
To provide for more efficient gov-
ernment of, vetoed. (See Eeeon-
struction.)
Blockade of ports of. (See Civil
War.)
Commercial intercourse with. (See
Confederate States.)
Condition of, discussed, 4107.
Courts for, referred to, 3576.
Direct tax to be collected from, re-
ferred to, 3589.
Diversification of agriculture in, 7537.
Elections in, complications growing
out of, and other disturbances
discussed, 4071, 4072, 4104, 4117,
4161, 4166, 4218, 4219, 4250,- 4259,
4273, 4367, 4372.
Federal interference in, discussed,
4259.
Habeas corpus, writ of, suspended
in certain sections, 4090, 4093.
Eevoked as to Marion County,
S. C, 4092.
Proclamations regarding, 4086
4088, 4089, 4090, 4092, 4093, 4177,
4226, 4230, 4276, 4350.
Troops stationed at polling places
in, referred to, 4367, 4372.
Farmers of, must sow other crops
than cotton, 8251.
Governments to be reestablished in,
proclamations regarding, 3414.
3423.
Act to guarantee to certain States
republican form of government
3424.
Discussed, 3390.
Joint resolution excluding electoral
Southern States
Encyclopedic Index
Spain
votes of States lately in rebellion
vetoed, 3849.
Kidnapping of negroes in, for purpose
of selling as slaves in Cuba, 3578.
Modification of oath of office per-
taining to efficient administration
of revenue and postal laws in,
recommended, 3580.
Opposition party should be formed
in, 7375.
Eeconstruction of. (See Eeconstruc-
tion.)
Eeport on conditions in, by —
Grant, Ulysses S., 3571.
Schurz, Carl, 3571.
Sherman, William T., 3576.
Truman, Benjamin C, 3584.
Kestoration of, intOiUnion. (See Ees-
toration.)
Revenue and postal laws in. referred
to, 3580.
Union and Confederate flags, return
of, to respective States recom-
mended, 5163.
Proposition withdrawn, 5164.
Unlawful combinations in. (See
Elections in, ante.)
Southwest Territory.— A region compris-
ing portions of the present States of Ten-
nessee, Kentuelsy, and Mississippi, together
witli a strip of land ceded to the General
Government by South Carolina. Though
never organized under one territorial gov-
ernment, it was Isnown as the Southwest
Territory. An unsuccessful attempt was
made to organize a portion of this territory
Into a new state to be called Franlslin
(q. v.). With the admission of Tennessee
and Kentucliy and the organization of a
Territorial government in Mississippi this
territory went out of existence.
Soviet. — The Russian Council of Soldiers'
and Workmen's Delegates, which met in
Petrograd immediately after the consum-
mation of the Russian Revolution, which
continued to meet during all the develop-
ments of that event, and which represented,
in fine, the real government of Russia and
the real source of power and management.
(See Russia, Russian Revolution.)
Spain.— The Kingdom of Spain occupies the
greater portion of the Iberian Peninsula of
southwestern Europe, and consists of Con-
tinental Spain, occupying eleven-thir-
teenths of the peninsula (the remainder
being occupied by the Republic of Portu-
gal and the British roclty fortress of Gi-
braltar), the Balearic Islands, the fortified
station of Ceuta, and the Canary Islands.
The Balearic and Canary Islands and Ceuta
form an Integral part of the kingdom,
which also possesses certain colonies and
dependencies. Continental Spain lies be-
tween 36''-43° 45' N. latitude and 4° 25' E.-
9° 20' W. longitude, and has a total area
of 190,050 square miles. The Balearic Isl-
ands are an archipelago of four large and
eleven small islands in the Mediterranean.
Of the four larger islands, Majorca has
an area of 430 square miles ; Minorca (260
square miles) possesses the magnificent har-
bor of Fort Mabon and a former capital in
Ciudadela ; Ivlza has La Ciudad as capital ;
and Formentera has an area of 87 square
miles. The eleven small Islands have an
area of 985 square miles — a total for the
Archipelago of 1,935 square miles. Ceuta ia
a fortified post on the Moroccan coast, op
poslte Gibraltar (the Straits of Gibraltar
being 14 miles wide between the two for-
tresses), and consists of a promontory con-
nected with the mainland by a narrow
Isthmus. At the seaward end of the pro-
montory is the Monte del Haeko, formerly
called Abyla, and one of the "Pillars of
Hercules." Ceuta has an area of 5 square
miles, with a population of about 13,000.
The Canary Islands are an Archipelago in
the Atlantic Ocean, about 60 miles from the
coast of West Africa. The total area is
2,807 square miles and the population
(est.) Is 513,959. The Archipelago consists
of seven Islands and six uninhabited islets.
Of the seven inhabited islands, Teneriffe
has an area of 782 square miles and a pop-
ulation of close on 150,000, its capital,
Santa Cruz, having 53,403 inhabitants in
1910, and forming the administrative cen-
ter of the group. Ifnerteventura, Grand
Canary, Lanzarote, Palma, Gomera, Hierro
are the others.
Physical Features. — Central Spain con-
sists of an extensive tableland, between the
Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees in
the north and the Sierra Nevada in the
south, with the Castillan Dlvinding Range
running almost east and west in the middle
of the plateau. Between the plateau and
the Pyrenees is the northeastern lowland
of the Ebro Valley, and in the southwest is
the valley of the Guadalquivir. The prin-
cipal rivers are tlie Tagus, Douro, Ebro,
Guadlana, and Guadalquivir.
The early Inhabitants were Celts and
Iberians, with Phoenician colonists.
The climate of the tableland has great
extremes, but that of the eastern (Mediter-
ranean) provinces is more equable, while the
southern provinces are sub-tropical, with
great summer heat and mild winters, vege-
tation being at its best in midwinter. The
north and northwest have a mild and equ-
able climate with abundant rainfall.
History Roman Spain was invaded In
the filth century by the Vandals, Visigoths,
and Suebl, and early in the eighth century
the country was conquered by Moslems from
northern Africa, who remained the domi-
nant power for nearly 700 years, but be-
fore their expulsion from Spain, at the in-
stigation of the Inquisition in 1502. they
had sunk from the position of conquerors
to semi-servile trading communities. The
greatness of the country began with the
reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-
1516), under whom the Kingdom was con-
solidated and its dominions extended by ad-
venturous conquerors, who carried the re-
ligion and flag oi Spain over a territory
many times greater than their native land.
Toward the close of the sixteenth century
the Netherlands passed to the Spanish
crown by inheritance, and the zenith of
Spain's grandeur may be said to have been
reached. The religious wars in the Low
Countries and in France and a war with
England, marked by the disastrous expedi-
tion of the Great Armada (1588), were ^
the beginnings of the decadence of Spain,
which suffered from a century of weak
kings, whose line ended in 1700 at the
death of Charles II. The succession led
to a great European war, which terminated
in the Treaty of Utrecht, signed by Eng-
land and France on April 11 (and by Eng-
land and Spain on July 13), 1713, by
which Gibraltar was ceded to England. At
the beginning of the nineteenth century the
country was an easy prey to the armies of
Napoleon, who placed his brother upon the
throne. Napoleon's generals occupied Spain
Spain
Encyclopedic Index
Spain
and Portugal in 1812, but within two years
the invaders were driven out by the genius
of Wellington, and Ferdinand VII. was re-
stored in 1814. The nineteenth century
witnessed many upheavals, including the
revolution of 1820, the revolt of the South
American Colonies, 1821-1823, the Carllst
Wars of 1840, 1860, and 1873-1876 (by
which the adherents of Don Carlos, brother
of Ferdinand VII., endeavored to obtain
the throne for their leader and his succes-
sors), a revolution of 1868 and the insti-
tution of a Republic 1868-1874, the Bour-
bon restoration of 1874, the Cuban insur-
rections of 1869 and 1898, and the Spanish-
American War of April-December. 1898,
terminating in the Treaty of Paris (Decem-
ber 12, 1898), by which Spain renounced
the sovereignty of Cuba and ceded Porto
Eico, the Philippine Islands and other terri-
tory to the United States. In the World
War Spain was neutral.
Government. — The government is that of
a constitutional monarchy ; hereditary In
the male (and eventually In the female) line
of the house of Bourbon-Anjou, the consti-
tution resting on the fundamental law of
June 30, 1876.
, The executive rests in the King and the
legislative power in the Cortes with the
King. The King has the power to convoke,
suspend or dissolve the Cortes ; but In the
last case a new Cortes must sit within
three months. The King and each of the
legislative chambers may take the Initi-
ative in law-making, and the Chamber of
Deputies may Impeach any of the ministers
lieMre the Senate. The King governs
through a President of the Council and
eight ministers, who are the heads of the
executive departments. The ministers are
-responsible to the Cortes, and all the King's
decrees must be signed by one of his
ministers.
The legislative body, or Cortes, is com-
posed of the Senate and the Chamber of
Deputies. The Senate contains 360 mem-
bers, of whom one-half are hereditary offi-
cial or life members and one-half elective,
in three classes: (1) Grandees o* Spain,
with Incomes exceeding 60,000 pesetas, and
higfh officials of the Church, Army, Navy,
nnd .1udiciar#; (2) Life members nominated
by the Sovereign; (3) Members elected by
the 49 provinces (8 each) and by the acad-
emies, universities, dioceses, and State cor-
porations, and renewable as to one-half
every five years. The Chamber of Dep-
uties consists of 417 members (one for
every 50,000 of the population) elected by
universal suffrage of all ,male Spaniards
aged twenty-five.
The Kingdom ts divided into 495 partldos
judiciales, each containing a court of first
instance, from which appeals are heard by
15 audiencias territoriales. Criminal causes
are determined by quarterly assizes in each,
of the 49 provinces. There Is a Suprem<!
Court of Cassation (with civil and criminal
departments) at the capital.
Population. — The census of the forty-nine
provinces taken in 1910 gave the population
as 19,588.688 in an area of 194,783 square
miles. The latest estimate of the popu-
lation is 20,719,598. Included within the
generic term "Spaniards" are about 500.000
Basques in the northern provinces, Catalans
in the northeast and Galicians in the north-
west.
The capital Is Madrid, with an estimated
populaticu of 652,000. The other large
towns are Barcelona, 620,000 ; Valencia,
245,000 ; Sevilla, 164,000 ; Malaga, 141,000 ;
Mnrcia. 133.000 ; Zaragoza. 125,000 ; Carta-
gena, 110,000; Bilbao, 100,000. The chief
ports are Barcelona and Bilbao.
About 55% of the people are Illiterate.
The latest educational statistics showed 26,-
108 public schools and 5,069 private schools,
the total number of pupils enrolled being
2,604,308. There are 58 secondary schools,
with 52,500 pupils. The eleven universities
have an enrolment of about 25,000.
The National Church Is the Roman Cath-
olic, and practically the entire population
belongs to that faith. The state supports
the clergy, the buildings, etc., of the
Church, although liberty of worship is
guaranteed other religious faiths. Much of
the education in Spain is in Church hands.
Production and Industry. — Spain is over-
whelmingly agricultural, with almost 90%
of the soil classed as productive. Of this
35% Is devoted to agriculture, 5%% to
vineyards and olive culture, 25% to natural
grass and 22% to fruits. The soil is ex-
tensively sub-divided among a great num-
ber of proprietors.
The most recent agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop t Acreage Oicts.
Wheat 10,499,667 70,352,992
Barley 4,303,887 35,623,758
Maize 1,193,155 12,982,452
Rye 1,828,935 11,835,142
Oats 1,613,842 9,555,392
Rice 113,400 6.052,866
Beans 1,280,650 6,973,934
The number of acres under vines was 3,-
292,925, with 7,915,000,000 pounds of
grapes produced, furnishing 544,000,000 gal-
lons of ordinary white and red wines. Silk
culture Is prosecuted actively in some of
the provinces. About 4,600,000 kgs. of cane
sugar and 75,000,000 kgs. of beet sugar are
produced annually.
The most recent figures for farm animals
were as follows : Horses, 576,900 ; mules,
1,049,500 ; asses, 916,300 ; cows, 3,173,600 ;
sheep, 17,735,000 ; goats, 3,685,800 ; pigs,
4,106,800.
Spain is rich In minerals, especially iron,
copper, coal, zinc, lead, salt, mercury, sil-
ver. In a recent year, more than 130,000^
persons were employed in the mines and the
total annual mineral output was valued at
more than $120,000,000. The output of the
more valuable minerals was as follows :
Minerals Metric Tons Value
Coal 6,134,986 $83,000,000
Lead 216,133 13,000,000
Iron and I. Pyrites . 5,282,659 11,000,000
Lignite 726,348 5,300,000
The annual value of the flsh catch is
about $18,000,000, with 15,300 boats and
86,000 persons engaged in the fishing In-
dustry. The sardine and tunny fish indus-
tries are especially important.
In the year preceding the outbreak of the
World War, theiannual imports were valued
at $230,000,000 and the exports at $190,-
000,000. In 1917, the imports were valued
at $260,000,000 and the exports at .$258,-
000,000; in 3918, imports at $120,000,000
and exports at $185,000,000.
In order of value, the chief Imports are
food substances ; cotton and cotton manu-
factures ; machinery and vehicles ; animals
and animal products. However, the Imports
are extremely varied. In order of value, the
chief exports are food substances, followed ,
by metals and metal manufactures ; cotton
and cotton manufacures ; wine ; wool, hair
and manufactures of these substances ;
stone, minerals, glassware, pottery, etc.
Spain
Encyclopedic Index
Spain
The Imports come chiefly from the United
States, followed at a distance by Prance
and the United Kingdom ; the exports go
chiefly to France, followed by the United
Kingdom and the United States. In a
recent year, the United States exported to
Spain goods valued at $151,440,032 and im-
ported from Spain goods valued at $42,-
013,051.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most Important products ex-
ported by the .United States to Spain, In
order of value, were as ^follows : Cotton ;
machinery and other Iron and steel goods ;
sugar ; tobacco ; staves ; leather ; chemicals,
drugs and dyes ; mineral oils.
Cotton and linen manufactures are the
most important Industries, and Increased
efforts are being exerted to supply the
Iiome demand since the loss of the former
colonial outlets, but the imports are still
considerable. Tobacco (a Government mo-
nopoly), leather, paper, soap, chocolate,
cork, distilling and fruit preserving are also
considerable industries,
Finance. — The most recent annual budget
was 1,648,000,000 pesetas revenue and 2,-
065,065,000 pesetas expenditure. The na-
tional debt amounts to about $2,400,000,000,
of which $180,000,000 Is foreign debt. The
unit of value is the peseta, valued at
$0.19 1/3 In United States currency.
Communications. — In the last year for
which figures are available, there entered
Spanish ports 12,475 vessels, with a total
tonnage of 8,475,000 ; and there cleared 13,-
836 vessels, with a total tonnage of 7,- ■
205,000. The length of the Spanish rail-
ways is 9,375 miles. There are 2,520 tele-
graph offices, with 65,227 miles of line ; and
153 urban and 208 interurban telephone sys-
tems, with 56,400 telephone stations.
RIO MUNI (or Spanish Guinea) is a
coastal settlement of West Africa between
German Cameroon and French Congo, ex-
tending about 125 miles Inland. The in-
habitants are Bantu tribes. Cocoa, coffee,
and bananas are cultivated, and rubber,
palm-oil, palm-kernels, and other forest
produce are exported.
BIO DE ORO Is a possession on the north
west coast of Africa, between Gape Boga-
dor and Cape Blanco. The territory is part
of the waterless Sahara, with a sparse
population of wandering Mohammedan
Arabs. There are valuable fisheries off the
coast, and cattle, sheep, and camels are
bred where vegetation permits.
SPANISH COLONIES (exclusive of
Ceuta and the Canary Islands, which form
an Integral part of Spain) consist of certain
settlements and islands of western Africa,
with a total area of close on 82,400 Eng-
lish square mil s, and a population exceed-
ing 275,000.
FERNANDO PO lies in the Bight of
Biafra in 3° 12' N. latitude and 8° 48' B.
longitude, about 20 miles distant from the
west coast of Africa, and is a mountainous
island (Pico de Santa Isabel, 10,800 feet),
with forests of oil palm, ebony, mahogany,
and oak, and sugar cane, cotton, and Indigo.
Cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla, and
kola nut are cultlvatedv and large quanti-
ties of cocoa and other products are ex-
ported.. The capital Is Baslle, and the larg-
est town Port Clarence (1,500 inhabitants).
Dependencies of the Island of Fernando Po
are :—
Annopon Island, in the Gulf of Guinea,
In 1° 24' S. latitude and 50° 35' B. longi-
tude. The roadstead at the capital (San
Antonio de Bala) is much frequented by
passing vessels, which also obtain water
and vegetables from the Islanders.
Ooriseo lalajnds, consisting of Corlsco,
Bana, Blobey Grande and Blobey Chico,
lie in Corisco Bay, and export ebony, log-
wood, and other forest produce.
MOROCCO AND THE SAHARA.— By a
treaty signed on Nov. 27, 1912, between
Prance and Spain, the latter acquired a
zone or sphere of InHuence in North Mo-
rocco, the capital being Tetuan, where the
Sultan's authority Is represented by a
Khalifa. The limits of the Elo de Oro
and Rio Miini were also defined in the
treaty with France (see "Morocco").
Mclilla Is a town on a rocky promontory
of the ElfE coast, connected with the main-
land by a narrow isthmus. The popular
tion is about 9,000, an(} the settlement
(which was conquered from the Moors in
1490) exports goatskins, eggs, and bees-
wax, and imports cotton goods and provi-
sions.
Spain (see also Barcelona; Madrid):
American citizens —
Conspiracies of, against, 146, 394.
Proclamation against, 392, 546.
Property of, destroyed by, 372, 376, -
682.
Eescued by vessel of, 1123.
Eights of, violated by authorities
of, 2770.
Authority of, in the Floridas almost
extinct, 600, 609.
Authority to grant or dispose of
lands of, in Louisiana referred to,
651.
Black Hawk seized by and interfered
with by Spain. (See Black Hawk,
Encyclopedic Article on.)
Blockade —
Establishment by, claims of United
States grovring out of, 1112.
Of Spanish Main referred to, 776.
Boundary line with, and questions re-
garding, 186, 192, 236,' 245, 263,
388, 962, 1038.
Improper advances made by Spain,
388.
Caroline Islands —
Dispute vyith Germany regardinK,
4916.
Questions touching rights of Amer-
ican citizens in, 5622, 5751,
5872. '
Civil war in, 1592.
Claims of, against United States (see
also Amistad, The; Bast Elorida
Claims; Nuestra Senora, The) —
Discussed, 2461, 2688, 2742, 2977,
3042, 3092.
Payment of, recommended, 2401,
2688, 2742, 2977, 3042, 3092.
Claims of, to lands in Arizona and
New Mexico under grants, 5484
5510, 5561. '
Claims of United States against, and
relations with, discussed (see
also Black Warrior, The; El
Dorado, The; Virginius, The) —
Spain
Encyclopedic Index
Spain
: Adjusted by arbitration, 4919.
Apportionment of funds received,
recommended, 1368.
Awards of commissioners referred
to, 4960, 5192.
Commissioners appointed to settle,
674.
Convention regarding, 339, 354,
372, 1269, 1271, 1316, 3124,
3172.
Interest due under, not paid,
1931.
"Cuban Claims" discussed, 3040,
3091, 3172.
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 242, 264.
Adams, J. Q., 990.
Arthur, 4758.
Buchanan, 2976, 3040, 3091, 3172.
Cleveland, 4919, 5871, 5910, 5962,
5989, 5998, 6069.
Fillmore, 2721.
Grknt, 4051, 4099, 4195, 4210.
Harrison, Benj., 5470, 5518, 5677.
Hayes, 4448.
Jackson, 1007, 1069, 1109, 1112,
1156, 1241, 1316, 1364, 1368.
Jefferson, 339, 354, 372, 376.
Madison, 560.
Monroe, 582, 608, 610, 641, 682.
Pierce, 2767.
Van Buren, 1592.
Joint commission referred to, 4535,
4626. ^
Appropriation for umpires of,
recommended, 4801.
Awards of, referred to, 5192.
Payment of, 867, 1316, 2869, 4052,
4290, 4797, 6069.
In coin demanded by claimants,
3777, 4003.
Eeferred to, 329.
Refused, 372, 376, 582, 2779.
Eesulting from Cuban insurrec-
tion discussed, 4051, 4099, 4448,
5874, 6180.
Treaty regarding, referred to, 1364.
Combination of sovereigns to assist
in subjugating American prov-
inces discussed, 790.
Commercial relations of United States
with Cuba and Puerto Eico. (See
Cuba; Puerto Eico.)
Commercial relations with, 110, 112,
113, 139, 161, 5089, 5663.
Treaty regarding, discussed, 4919.
Commissioner to, referred' to, 3890.
Commissioners arrange treaty of
peace with. (See Enc. Art. on
Spanish- American War.)
Conspiracy of citizens of United
States against, 146, 394.
Proclamation against, 392, 546.
Consul of, in United States exequa-
tur issued, revoked, 2588.
Consul of United States at Cadiz, re-
fusal of to certify invoices of wine,
3667, 4214.
Conventions with. (See Treaty with,
post.)
Copyright privilege extended, , by
proclamation, 6024.
Cuban insurrection, discussed. (See
Cuba.)
Decree of, regarding introduction of
Chinese laborers into Cuba, 4116.
Delivery to, of person charged with
crime against, referred to, 3412.
Differences and negotiations with,
discussed, 89, 139, 141, 143, 144,
145, 168, 174, 178, 241, 245, 251, 393,
415, 469, 598, 2811, 2840.
Expeditions against territory of, dis-
cussed, 146, 394, 582, 590, 592,
601, 609.
Proclamations against, 392, 546.
Florida, cession of, to United States
by. (See Florida.)
Force ordered to protect citizens of
United States from troops of, 394.
Foreign minister of, note to, from
Turkey, asking armistice in World
War, 8611.
Fugitive .criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 4376, 4699, 4738.
Eeferred to, 4757.
Gunboats constructed by, in and near
New Yprk to operate against Peru,
discussed, 3987.
Hostile disposition of, toward United
States, 376, 393, 611.
Imprisonment of American citizens
by, 594, 2643, 4116, 5905. (See
also Cuba.)
Pardon of, discussed, 2689, 2692.
Eeleased, 6284.
Indemnity paid by, on account of ex-
ecution of Gen. Eyan and others,
referred to, 4408.
Indians —
Aid furnished by, 611.
Eelations witli United States re-
garding, 139.
Interference by, with the commerce
of the United States, 329.
Internal contests in, 1368, 1592, 2112,
2811.
Hope expressed that prosperity will
return with peace, 1749.
Lands purchased from, by United
States, 956, 1029.
Letters regarding treaty of United
States with, transmitted, 794.
Louisiana, transfer of, to United
States disagreeable to, 376.
Maj.-Gen. Jackson's entrance into
Florida not an encroachment upon
rights of, 611.
Maritime jurisdiction of, in waters
. . surrounding Cuba, referred to, 3380.
Spain
Encyclopedic Index
Spain
Minister of, to United States —
Withdrawal of, 6296, 6312.
Minister of United States to, 107,
148, 164, 339, 6257, 6284, 6286.
Correspondence with, referred to,
3964.
New minister to be sent to, 2976,
3040.
Eecall of, 148.
Eequested, 2976, 3040.
Eeferred to, 2176, 2210.
Withdrawal of, 6312.
Navigation treaty, with, 106, 110, 164.
Neutral vessels deemed lawful prize
by, 432.
Obstruction of commerce on Mobile
Eiver, by, 372, 376.
Orders to the forces to protect citi-
zens of the United States from
troops of, 394.
Pacific policy of, toward former col-
onies, 1009.
Peace conference between South
American Eepublics and, held in
Washington, 4052, 4099.
People of, efforts to improve condi-
tion of, 762, 786.
Persons claiming American citizen-
ship captured on the Competitor by,
6180, 6183.
Policy of United States regarding
Cuban insurrection. (See Cuba.)
Prime minister of, assassination of,
referred to, 6284.
Prohibition by authorities of, to land
American cargoes at New Orleans,
334.
Provinces of. (See South American
Provinces.)
Provisional government establishment
of, recognized by United States, 3889.
Eeciprocity with, 6966.
Release of citizens, 6284. ,
Eepublican form of government in,
efforts of people of, to establish,
discussed, 4194.
Revenue laws of United States, com-
plaints of, against, referred to,
1956.
Revolution in, referred to, 3889.
Spoliations committed on commerce
of United States by, 329. (See
also claims against, ante.)
Subjects of, assaulted in New Or-
leans, 2654.
Claims arising out of, discussed,
2688.
Trade-marks, treaty with, regarding.
Referred to, 4757.
Treaty of, with —
France, 185.
South American Eepublics, 1369.
Treaty of peace with, proclaimed.
(See Enc. Art., Spanish-American
War.)
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, by President —
Adams, John, 241, 247, 292.
Arthur, 4699, 4738, 4842, 484 7,
4848, 4866.
Buchanan, 3124.
Grant, 4376.
Jefferson, 336, 372, 376.
Monroe, 619, 622, 623, 637, 638,
639, 644, 652, 653, 672.
Tyler, 2085.
Washington, 184, 185, 186, 192,
197. '
Copies of protocol transmitted,
6101.
Correspondence regarding, trans-
mitted, 2078.
Faithfully observed, 2585.
Proclaimed. (See Enc. Art., Span-
ish-i^.merican War.)
Protocol proclaimed, 6487.'
Eatification of, 652, 653.
Postponed, 623, 638.
Eefused, 376, 623, 639, 644.
Eeferred to, 682, 2834, 4800.
Withdrawn, 488fe, 4922.
Vessels of — •
Commerce of United States inter-
fered with by, 469.
Differential duty imposed upon, re-
ferred to, 4407.
Discriminating duties on, suspended
by proclamation, 4128, 4810,
5075, 5155.
Discussed, 5089.
Proclamation revoking, 5074.
Eecommended, 1242.
Discriminating duties paid by,
should be returned, 2249.
Duties on, referred to, 1138, 1156,
2249.
Insult to American flag by, repara-
tion must be made for, 560.
Interfered with by United States.
(See Amistad, The; Nuestra
Senora, The; Promdencia^ The.)
Minister of, displeased with de-
cision of United States Su-
preme Court regarding, 2085.
Recommendation of President re-
garding, 2085.
Release of, demanded by minister
of, 1805.
Repair of, at American docks, re-
ferred to, 4005,
Tonnage on, application made for
reduction in, 1795.
Vessels of United States — ,
Fines imposed upon by, and re-
taliatory measures .discussed,
4626, 4714, 4763, 4786, 4788,
5961.
Spain
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish- America n
Abolished, 4810, 5155.
Must have certificate to enter
> ports of, 147.
Seized or interfered with by, dis-
, cussed by President —
Adams, John, 243.
Arthur, 4626, 4759.
Buchanan, 2976.
Cleveland, 4919, 6068.
Fillmore, 2679, 2721.
Grant, 3986, 4052, 4189, 4195,
4196, 4210, 4276, 4290.
Haye^, 4436, 4560.
Jackson, 1112.
Pierce, 2761, 2767, 2778, 2869,
2900.
(See also Black Hawk, The; El Dor-
ado, The; Georgian, The; Tirginius,
The.)
War with —
Prance —
Declaration of, by Spain, March
23, 1793.
Privateers not to be commis-
sioned, 779.
Eeferred to, 821.
South Amferican Eepublics —
Armistice referred to, 4144.
Good ofaces of United States
tendered, 3776, 3884.
Accepted, 3987, 4052, 4144.
Vessels being built in New York
for Spain forbidden to depart,
3987.
Spanish Provinces. (See Wars,
Foreign.)
United States, preparations for, re-
ferred to, 376. (See also Span-
ish-American War.)
Spain, Treaties with.— The treaties with
Spain prior to the treaty of Paris were
expressly annulled and abrogated in 1902,
except the treaty of Feb. 17, 1833, which
was continued in force. It proTided for
the payment of claims of the United States
by the Issuance lay Spain of a series of
inscriptions. The commission to determine
the claims (appointed by Congress, June
7 1836) awarded the sum of $549,850.28
to the claimants. The payment of the in-
terest on this sum is made perpetual by
the convention.
The treaty of peace of 1898, known as
the Treaty of Paris, closed the Spanish-
American War. By it Spain relinquished
all authority and claim of sovereignty to
Cuba and ceded Porto Rico and Guam to
the United States. In consideration of the
payment by the United States, within
three months of the ratification of the
treaty, of twenty millions of dollars, Spain
ceded to the United States the archipelago
known as the Philippines. It was agreed
that the United States should for the
space of ten years from the signing of the
treaty admit Spanish ships and merchan-
dise to the Philippines on the same terms
as United States ships and merchandise.
Spanish soldiers taken as prisoners of war
at Manila were to be sent back to Spain,
at the expense of the United States, with
their arms restored to them. Spain should
evacuate the Philippines as speedily as pos-
sible, taking with her, as her property, the
movable munitions of war and arms, the
larger arms to be left In position and pur-
chased from Spain by the United States
upon terms to be agreed upon. AH pris-
oners of war to be released by both parties.
No indemnity to be sought by either gov-
ernment from the other. The United
States to settle all claims against Spain
covered by the relinquishment of this
treaty.
Spain relinquished to the United States
all wharves, docks, barracks, and similar
public property in Cuba, Porto Rico, Guam,
and in the Philippines without prejudice
to private interests therein. Provision
was made for establishing the political
status of subjects of Spain electing to re-
main within the ceded possessions. The
right of establishing a consular office by
Spain in any of the ceded districts was
accorded by the treaty.
In 1900 an additional treaty was made
to cover the cession of the outlying is-
lands of the Philippines not speciflcally
included In the treaty of 1898. These were
particularly the Islands of the Cagayan
Sulu and Sibitu, for which cession the
United States agreed to pay the sum of
one hundred thousand dollars to Spain.
In 1902 a treaty of friendship and gen-
eral relations was closed with Spain to
cover largely the points in the treaties
which had been abrogated by war. This
treity covered the points usual in treaties
of commerce and navigation, and consular
conventions.
An arbitration convention on the lines
prescribed by The Hague Convention of
1899 was signed April 30, 1908.
Spanish-American Provinces. (See
South American provinces; South
American Eepublics.)
Spanish-American War.— in February,
1895, the natives of Cuba, after years of
oppression by their Spanish rulers, which
was in no wise lightened by various unsuc-
cessful revolutions, determined to throw off
the yoke of Spain. They took up arms
against the mother country, and quickly
the entire island was in a state of insurrec-
tion. This revolution, like previous out-
breaks which had occurred in the island,
was not at first considered of sufficient im-
portance to warrant interference or recog-
nition on the part of the United States, al-
though Americans were outspoken In their
sympathy for Cuba and indignant at the
stories of mistreatment of Cubans at the
hands of Spanish governors.
A similar outbreak in the Island occurred
in 1868, during the Administration of Presi-
dent Grant. In his message to Congress
Dec. 6, 1869, President Grant said : ''The
contest (in the island) has at no time as-
sumed the conditions which amount to a
war In the sense of international law, or
which would show the existence of a
de facto political organization of the insur-
gents sufficient to justify a recognition of
belligerency" (page 3985). In a message
of June 13, 1870, describing the conditions
in the Island, he said ; "The insurrection
itself, although not subdued, exhibits no
signs of advance, but seems to be confined
to an Irregular system of hostilities, car-
ried on by small and illy armed bands of
men, roaming without concentration through
the woods and the sparsely populated re-
gions of the Island,, attacking from ambush
convoys and small bands of troops, burning
Spanish-AmericaQ
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish-American
plantations and the estates of those not
sympathizing with their cause" (page
4018). Again, Dec. 7, 1875, in a message
to Congress he used the following language
in "tespect to conditions in the island : 'Con-
sidered as a question of expediency, I re-
gard the accordance of belligerent rights
still to be as unwise and premature as I
regard it to be, at present, indefensible as
a measure of right (page 4293).
President Cleveland entertained an opin-
ion in regard to the insurrection in Cuba
arising in 1895 similar to those expressed
by President Grant in regard to the insur-
rection of 1868, and in his message of Dec.
2 of that year he said : "Whatever may be
the traditional sympathy of our country-
men as individuals with a people who seem
to be struggling for larger autonomy and
greater freedom, deepened,' as such sympa-
thy naturally must be, in behalf of our
neighbors, yet the plain duty of their gov-
ernment is to observe in good faith the rec-
ognized obligations of international rela-
tionship" (page 6068). He insisted that
belligerent rights shohld not be accorded
to the insurgents, because of peril and in-
jury to your own Interests. He said in his
message of Dec. 7, 1896 : "Imperfect and
restricted as the Spanish government of the
island may be, no other exists there, unless
the will of the military officer in temporary
command of a particular district can be
dlctnlfled as a species of government" (page
6151).
The foregoing expressions of opinion
prove unmlstalcabiy that there was no
reaching out on the part of the United
States to interfere with the Spanish rule
in Cuba. When President McKinley was
inaugurated the insurrection described by
his immediate predecessor still existed, and
the grave questions which had confronted
the latter were now presented for his con-
sideration. He declined to interfere in the
troubles in the island in any way and ex-
pressly refused to recognize the independ-
ence of Cuba. He declared Spain should
be given reasonable time in which to apply
promised reforms. In pursuance of Spam's
promise autonomous administrations were
established in some of the larger cities,
but subsequent developments demonstrated
the futility of such action and the failure
of the newly formed governments. The
revolution dragged on, sapping the sub-
stance of the people as it progressed and
rendering destitute the poorer classes.
Crimes were committed on every hand,
while desolation and disorder leigned.
To add to the horrors and atrocities of
the struggle, the Captain-General of the
Island, Vaieriano Weyler, Feb. 16, 1896,
Issued an edict initiating a cruel policy
which he called "reconcentration." By
Weyler's order the agricultural inhabitants
were herded into the cities, their lands laid
waste, and their homes destroyed. Crowd-
ed within the cities and lines of the Span-
ish armies, the non-combatant men, wom-
en, and children died from disease and
starvation In untold numbers. Reports of
the conditions in Cuba were from time to
time brought to the United States, and
the public mind throughout the country
was greatly stirred. While this state of
affairs existed the second-class battleship
Maine, which had been dispatched to Cuban
waters on a friendly mission, was on the
night of Feb. 15, 1898, blown up in the
harbor of Havana. In this catastrophe
two officers and 258 sailors and marines
perished (page 6295). A thorough investi-
gation of this disaster was immediately In-
stituted, and at its close a report was made
to the effect that the destruction of the
ship had been wrought by an explosion
from without, produced by a submarine
mine (page 6281)-
The tension of the public mind, already
great, was Increased by this report and by
the suspicion in the minds of many as to
the cause of the disaster. The' people could
not much longer be held in check, and to
those who were even casually observant it
was apparent that a crisis in our affairs
with Spain was imminent. Congress was
in session and unanimously appropriated
$50,000,000 for the national defense. The
coasts of the United States were poorly de-
fended, the Navy needed ammunition and
supplies and an increase in vessels, while
the Army required enlargement in men and
munitions. April 6 the continental powers,
through their envoys in Washington, gave
expression to the hope that an amicable
adjustment of the impending troubles might
be reached. The President replied to their
representations, and with them shared the
hope that peace might be preserved. The
President in his message of April 11,
1898, announced the failure of diplomacy
to bring about a satisfactory settlement of
the difficulties and recommended to Con-
gress forcible intervention (page 6281).
April 19, after refusing to recognize the
government of Cuba, Congress with much
unanimity declared the island independent
of Spain and authorized forcible interven-
tion (page 6297). The resolutions met with
the approval of the E,xecutive, and he
signed them the next day. Spain regarded
this act on the part of the United States
as "equivalent to an evident declaration of
war." The ministers of the two countries
were recalled and diplomatic relations ter-
minated. April 22 a blockade of Cuban
ports was proclaimed (page 6472), and the
following day a call was made for 125,000
volunteers (page 6473). A formal declara-
tion of war was recommended by the Presi-
dent, and April 25 Congress declared the
existence of war from and including April
21. Due notification of the existence of war
was given to the various governments April
25, nearly all of which immediately re-
sponded with proclamations of neutrality.
May 25 there was a second call for vol-
unteers, 75,000 in number (page 6477).
Like the initial call for 125,000, this was
responded to without delay. The regular
army was largely increased, as was the en-
listed force of the Navy. More than 100
vessels were added to the Navy by pur-
chase. The coast defenses were rapidly
strengthened, additional guns placed in po-
sition, and an auxiliary navy was created.
About 1,500 submarine mines were placed
at the most exposed points on the coast.
Cable, telegraph, and telephone lines were
constructed in many places. In addition to
the national defense fund of $50,000,000,
which was expended In large part by the
Army and Navy, Congress provided further
means for prosecuting hostilities by the
war revenue act of June 13, authorizing a
3 per cent popular loan not to exceed $400.-
000,000 and levying additional Imposts and
taxes. Of the authorized loan $200,000,000
was offered and promptly taken, the sub-
scriptions far exceeding the call.
The first encounter occurred April 27,
when a detachment of the blockading
squadron made a reconnaissance in force at
Matanzas, Cuba, shelled the harbor forts
and demolished several new works in course
of construction. The next engagement oc-
curred May 1, at Manila, In the Philip-
pine Islands. The American squadron at
Hongkong, under Commodore George
Dewey, had been instructed to proceed to
the Philippine Islands and to capture or
Spanish-American
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish- American
destroy the formidable Spanish fleet as-
sembled at Manila. At daybreak of May i
Dewey's neet, successfully passing over
the submarine mines, entered Manila Say
and after a few hours' engagement de-
stroyed the entire fleet of ten warships and
one transport, captured the naval station
• and forts at Cavite, and completely con-
trolled the bay of Manila, with the ability
to take the city at will. On the American
side not a life was lost, the wounded num-
bering only seyen, and not a vessel was
materially injured. The Spanish loss in
killed and wounded exceeded 400. Thus
the first great battle of the war was a
victory of the United States, magnificent
in effect and extraordinary In detail, stand-
ing unequalled in the achievements of naval
warfare. The effect of this remarkable
victory gave a prestige of invincibility to
the United States which, though long de-
served, had never been appreciated by the
great naval powers of the earth. Eeenforce-
ments, under MaJ.-Gen. Wesley Merritt, ,
were hurried to the Philippine Islands and
firmly established within sight of Manila,
which lay helpless before the American
guns. The first expedition sailed from San
Francisco May 25 and arrived oft Manila
June 30. Other expeditions seen followed,
nntil the total force landed at Manila con-
sisted of more than 15,000 oflScers and men.
In the meantime, large / forces were as-
sembled at various points along the coast
of the United States to Invade Cuba and
Porto Eico. San Juan, Porto Rico, and
the forts at the entrance to Santiago Har-
bor, Cuba, were shelled by the American
squadrons, but none of the attacks had any
appreciable result. On the night of June 3,
in an attempt to blockade the mouth of
Santiago Harbor, Assistant Naval Construc-
tor Richmond P. Hobson, accompanied by
seven men from the American squadron,
sank the collier Merrimac across the narrow
channel. This unparalleled act of heroism
thrilled not only the hearts of the Ameri-
can people, but challenged the admiration
of the world. Under the protection of a
portion of the American fleet a landing of
600 marines was effected at Guantanamo
Bav on June 10. This port was taken and
held after severe fighting by the marines,
who were the flrst organized forces of the
United States to land in Cuba. By June 16
additional forces had been landed.
June 20 the advance of the American
army under Maj.-Gen. William E. Shatter,
landed at Daiquiri, about fifteen miles east
of Santiago, and the next day began the
movement against the city. The first seri-
ous enga'gement in which the American
troops lost heavily occurred at Las Gnasi-
mas June 24. By nightfall of that day
ground within five miles of Santiago was
won. (See Santiago, Battle of). The out-
works of Santiago were taken July 1 after
a severe battle, and on the next day EI
Caney and San Juan were captured after a
desperate strtiggle. The Investment of the
city was now complete. The naval forces
co-operated, shelling the town and the coast
forts.
On the following day, July 3, occurred
the decisive naval combat of the war. The
Spanish fleet under Eear-Admlral Pascual
Cervera, which had been confined in the
harbor of Santiago for six weeks by the
blockading squadron under acting Eear-Ad-
mir.aj William T. Sampson, attem"pted to
escape. The Spanish vessels were inter-
cepted and utterly destroyed by the Ameri-
can fleet under the immediate direction of
Commodore WInfield S. Schley, who as-
sumed command during the temporary ab-
sence of Eear-Adrairal Sampson. The Span-
ish loss was 600 killed and about 1,400
prisoners. Including the admiral,
Spain was unable to recover from the
catastrophe, and her efforts upon the ocean
virtually ceased. The capitulation of San-
tiago, which embraced the. entire eastern
end of Cuba, soon followed. July 17 the
American army occupied the city. The
number of Spanish soldiers surrendered
was 22,000.
An expedition against ' Porto Rico, con-
sisting or about 3,500 men, under command
of Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles, was Immedi-
ately fitted out, and landed at Guanica July
25. Gen. MUes's force was subsequently
Increased to about 17,000. With the ex-
ception of a few slight engagements, there
was no serious reslstance,\ and the middle of
August found much of the Island in the
possession of the American troops.
As early as July 26 Spain made over-
tures for peace through M. Jules Cambon,
the French ambassador at Washington.
August 12 the peace protocol was signed,
by which hostilities were brought to an
end.
August 15, the news of the signing of the
protocol not having reached the Philippines,
I he battle of Manila was fought, and the
last scene of the war was enacted when,
.nfter a brief assault by the American land
and naval forces, the city was compelled to
surrender.
The number of military forces engaged
by the United States in the war, as re-
ported to the Commissioner of Pensions,
was : Regulars, 57,329 ; militia and volun-
teers, 223,235 ; navy. 31,959— total, 812,523.
The total casualties in killed and wound-
ed during the war were — Army, officers
killed, 23 ; enlisted men killed, 257— total,
280 ; ofilcers wounded, 113 ; enlisted men
wounded, 1,464 — total, 1,577. Navy —
killed, 17 ; wounded, 67 ; died as result of
wounds, 1 ; Invalided from service, 6 — to-
tal, 91. In the entire campaign by land and
sea the United States did not lose a fiag,
gun, ship, or transport, and, with the ex-
ception of the crew of the Merrimac, not a
soldier or sailor was taken prisoner.
August 7 the American troops in Cuba
began to embark for home, and the entire
force was returned to the United States by
August 24, after an absence of only two
months. A treaty of peace was signed at
Paris by the commissioners of the two
countries Dec. 10, 1898. It was ratified on
the part of the United States Feb. 6, and
on the part of Spain March 19, 1899. By the
treaty ft was provided that Spain relinquish
all claim of sovereignty over and title to
Cuba ; that Puerto Eico and other West In-
dian Islands of Spain, one island in the
Ladrones, and the entire Philippine group
be ceded to the United States, and that
Spain be paid $20,000,000. The ratification
of the two Governments were exchanged in
Washington April 11, 1899, and on the same
day President MeKinley issued the follow-
ing proclamation : "Whereas a treaty of
peace between the United States of Amer-
ica and Her Majesty the Queen Eegent of
Spain, In the name of her august son, Don
Alfonso XIII, was concluded and signed by
their respective plenipotentiaries at Paris
on the 10th day of December, 1898, the
original of which, being In the English
and Spanish languages. Is word for word
as follows : [Here the full text of the
treaty Is Inserted.] And whereas the said
convention, has been duly ratified on both
parts and the ratifications of the two Gov-
ernments were exchanged in the city of
Washington on the 11th day of April, 1899 :
Spanish-Americatt
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish-American
Now, therefore, be it known that T, William
MeKinley, President of the United States of
America, have caused the said convention
to be made public, to the end that the same
and every article and clause thereof may
be observed and fulfilled with good faith
by the United States and the citizens
thereof."
Vipws of President MeKinley signing the
treaty of peace and the peace makers will
be found opposite page 6357. Other illus-
trations pertaining to the war will be found
opposite pages 5227, 5355, 5603, 5667, 5699,
5731, 5763, 5795, 5822, 5886, 5918, 5950,
6172, 6293, 6325, 6357.
Spanish-American War:
Almodovar, Duke of, communication
from, regarding peace, 6302, 6316.
Auxiliary Navy of United States in,
referred to, 6313.
Bagley, Worth, killed -while attempt-
ing to silence batteries at Cardenas,
6302, 6316.
Barton, Clara, president Eed Cross,
work accomplished by, in, 6284,
6308, 6320.
Battle of July 3 discussed, 6317.
(See also Enc. Art., Santiago Har-
bor, Battle of.)
Blockade of Cuban ports proclaimed,
6472, 6481.
Discussed, 6296, 6312.
Removal of, referred to, 6321.
Brooke, John E. —
Member of military commission to
Porto Eieo, 6322.
Porto Eican expedition reenforeed
by corps of, 6318.
Butler, Matthew C, member of mili-
tary commission to Cuba, 6322.
Cambon, Jules, French minister, rep-
resentative of Spain in preliminary
peace negotiations, 6320.
Cardenas Bay, conflict in, discussed,
6304, 6316.
The Winslow rescued by the Hui-
son in, thanks of Congress, etc.,
to officers and men of latter rec-
ommended, 6304.
Casualties on American side in, 6319.
Causes leading up to, discussed and
reviewed, 6248, 6280, 6307.
Cavite, water batteries at, silenced
by American squadron, 6297, 6315.
Cervera, Pascual, Spanish fleet under
command of, in Santiago Harbor,
6316.
Destroyed by American squadron
while attempting to escape, 6317.
(See also Enc. Art., Santiago
Harbor, Battle of.)
Corbin, H. C—
Directs Gen. Otis to avoid conflict
with Philippine insurgents, 6584.
Dispatch to Gen. Otis, regarding
force, etc., for Philippine Islands,
6579.
Instructions to Gen. Merritt regard-
ing joint occupancy of Philip-
pine Islands with insurgents,
6579.
Order of, to send troops to Hoilo,
6583. , -
Crowninshield, A. S., report of, on
number of lives lost by siijking of
the Maine, 6296.
Cuban insurrection and policy of
United States regarding; discussed,
6248, 6280, 6307.
Davis, Cushman K., peace commis-
sioner on part of United States,
6322.
Day, William E., peace commissioner
on part of United States, 6322.
Dewey, George —
Attack of American land forces
and capture of Manila assisted
by squadron under, 6319.
Thanks of President tendered,
6579.
Member of Philippine Commission,
6584. ,
Spanish fleet destroyed in Manila
Bay by American squadron
under, 6297, 6315.
Appointed acting rear-admiral
6297, 6302.
Sword to be presented to, 6302.
Thanks of Congress to, 6298.
Eecommended, 6297.
Eeply of, 6302.
Thanks of President tendered,
6568.
Eeferred to, 6297.
Suggestions from, regarding force,
etc., for Philippine Islands, re-
quested by President, 6580.
Diplomatic relations broken off,
6296, 6311.
Discussed, 6296, 6297, 6298, 6302,
6305, 6307, 6468.
Efforts of foreign governments to
preserve peace discussed, 6309.
El Caney captured by American
troops, 6317.
Enlisted force of American Navy in,
6313.
Evacuation of —
Cuba, Porto Eieo, and adjacent
Islands, military commissions to
superintend, 6322.
Havana, order regarding, 6583.
Executive orders regarding, 6568.
Existence of, act declaring, 6348.
Eecommended, 6296.
Eeferred to, 6312.
Fighting force of American NavT
in, 6313. '
Fleet, United States, return of, illus-
tration, opposite 6154.
Frye, William P., peace commission-
er on part of United States, 6322.
Spanish-American
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish-American
Gordon, William W., 'member of
military commission to Porto
Eico, 6322.
Government for newly acquired pos-
sessionp of United States referred
to, 6322. (See also Military occu-
pation of, post.)
Graves of American soldiers in Cuba
to be marked, order regarding,
6578.
Gray, George, peace commissioner
on part of United States, 6322.
Guantanamo Bay, landing of Ameri-
can marines and subsequent fight-
ing at, 6317.
Higginson, Francis J., Puerto Rican
expedition conveyed by fleet un-
der, 6318.
Hobsou, Biehmond P., sinking of
the Merrimac in Santiago Har-
bor by, 6305, 6316.
Thanks of Congress to, and pro-
motion of, recommended, 6306.
Hodgsdon, Daniel B., recognition of
services of, in battle of Manila
Bay recommended, 6305.
Honors to the dead ordered, 6587.
Hostilities suspended by proclama-
tion, 6487.
Referred to, 6321.
Hudson, thanks of Congress to of-
ficers and men of the, for rescuing
the Winslow recommended, 6304.
Eug% McCulloch, recognition of ser-
vices of commander of the, in bat-
tle of Manila Bay recommended,
6305.
Illustrations of, 5227, 5355, 5603, 5667,
5699, 5731, 5763, 5795, 5822, 5886,
5918, 5950, 6172, 6293, 6325, 6357.
Joint resolution of Congress declar-
ing freedom of Cuba and author-
izing intervention by United
States in insurrection, 6297.
Discussed, 6311.
Regarded by Spain as "equiv-
alent to an evident declaration
of war," 6312.
Long, John D. —
Report of, on number of lives lost
by sinking of the Maine, 6296.
Thanks of President tendered
Commodore Dewey by, 6568.
Maine, destruction of the, in Havana
harbor, 6277, 6290, 6308.
Findings of court of inquiry dis-
cussed, 6277, 6290.
Number of lives lost in, report on,
6296.
Proposition of Spain to investi-
gate causes of, referred to, 6290.
Marietta, voyage and arrival of the,
from San Francisco, 6316.
Matanzas, harbor and forts at,
shelled by American squadron,
6345.
Merrimac, sinking of the, in Santi-
ago Harbor by Lieut. Hobson,
6305, 6316.
Naval Cadet Powell to be made
ensign for attempting to rescue
force of, 6306.
Thanks of Congress to and promo-
tion of Lieut. Hobson recom-
mended, 6306.
Merritt, Wesley, expedition to Phil-
ippine Islands under command
of, 6315.
Attack upon and surrender of Ma-
nila, 6319.
Thanks of President tendered,
6579.
Instructions of President regard-
ing military oceuptaion of
islands, 6569, 6571, 6572.
Joint occupancy with insur-
gents not to be permitted,
6579.
Miles, Nelson A., Porto Rican ex-
pedition under command of, dis-
cussed, 6318.
Military commissions to superin-
tend evacuation of Cuba, Porto
Rico, etc., 6322.
Military occupation by United
States, instructions of President
regarding —
Cuba, 6575.
Philippine. Islands, 6569, 6571,
6572, 6581.
Joint occupancy with insur-
gents not to be permitted,
6579.
Minister of Spain, to United States,
withdrawal of, 6296, 6312.
Minister of United States to Spain,
mentioned, 6257, 6284, 6286.
Withdrawal of, 6312.
Monument to soldiers killed in, at
Arlington, 6706.
Neutrality preserved by foreign
powers in, discussed, 6312.
Newcomb, Frank H., Commander of
the Winslow rescued by the Hudson
in command of, at Cardenas, thanks
of Congress to, recommended,
6304.
OflBcers and men compelled to re-
main in United States, tribute to,
6320.
Oregon, voyage and\ arrival of the,
from San Francisco discussed,
6316.
Otis^ Ewell S. —
Directed to avoid conflict with
Philippine insurgents, 6584.
Directed to send troops to Iloilo,
6583.
Member of the Philippine Com-
mission, 6584.
Spanish-American
Encyclopedic Index
Spanish-American
Suggestions from, regarding force,
etc., for Philippine Islands re-
quested by President, 6579.
Peace Commissioners on part , of
United States, 6322.
Peace negotiations discussed, 6320.
Protocol discussed, 6321, 6487.
Peace Treaty —
Delegates to frame, photograph of,
opposite 6357.
President McKinley signing, illus-
tration, opposite 6357.
Proclaimed, 6356.
Philippine Islands —
Cable communication with, recom-
mended, 6354.
Commissioners to, and duties of,
set forth by President, 6584.
Contributions to be levied upon,
(See Military occupation of,
post.)
Expeditions to, under command of
Gen. Merritt, 6315.
Force, etc., for, suggestions from
commanders regarding, request-
ed by President, 6580.
Gen. Otis directed to avoid con-
flict with insurgents, 6584.
Government for. (See Military
occupation of, post.)
Grants of public or corporate
rights in, order regarding, 6583.
Military ocupation of, by United
States, and government for,
orders regarding, 6569, 6571,
6572, 6581.
Joint occupation with insur-
gents not to be permitted,
6581.
Troops to be sent to Hoilo, order
regarding, 65S3.
Vessels of Spain from, discrimi-
nating duties on, suspended by
proclamation, 5155.
Victory of —
American squadron over Spanish
fleet in bay of Manila, dis-
cussed, 6297, 6315.
Commander of American
squadron —
Appointed acting rear-ad-
miral, 6297, 6568.
Sword to be presented to,
and medals to men under,
6302.
Thanks of Congress to, and
men under, 6298.
Recommended, 6297.
Reply of, 6302.
Thanks of President ten-
dered, 6568.
Referred to, 6297.
Commander of the Eugh Mc-
GuUoch, recognition of ser-
vices of, recommended, 6305.
American Squadron and land
forces at Manila discussed,
6319.
Thanks of President tendered,
commanders and men, 6579,
Popular loan for prosecuting, author-
ized by Congress, 6314.
Postal communication with Santi-
»ago, order regarding, 6577.
Postal service in, discussed, 6344.
Powell, Joseph W., to be made en-
sign for attempting to rescue force
of the Merrimac, 6306.
Preparations for, by United States
discussed, 6309, 6313.
Privateering not to be resorted to
by United States proclaimed, 6474.
Proclamation of war, 6474.
Facsimile of, 6421.
Proclamations regarding, 6472, 6473,
6474, 6477, 6481, 6487, 6491.
Protection of American interests in
Spanish jurisdiction confided to
British representatives discussed,
6331.
Porto Rican campaign discussed,
6318.
Red Cross work accomplished by, in,
discussed, 6284, 6308, 6320.
Red Cross, International, proposition
of Switzerland to extend compact
of, in, discussed, 6336.
Reid, Whitelaw, peace commissioner
on part of United States, 6322.
Return of troops to United States
discussed, 6319.
Roosevelt, Theodore, in, 6637.
Sampson, William T. — ,
Member of military commission
to Cuba, 6322.
Sinking of the Merrimac by Lieut.
Hobson, report of, on, discussed,
6305.
Spanish fleet attempting to escape
frpm Santiago Harbor de-
stroyed by American squa'dron
in command of, 6317. (See
Enc, Art., Santiago Harbor,
Battle of.)
Thanks of President tendered,
6573.
San Juan, Cuba, captured by Ameri-
can troops, 6317.
San Juan, Porto Rico, shelled by
American fleet, 6316.
Santiago —
American army under Gen. Shaf-
ter lands near, 6317.
British consul at, confiding of
American interests to, and death
of mentioned, 6331.
Movement against, and subse-
quent capitulation of, dis-
cussed, 6317.
Spanish-American
Encyclopedic Index
Speaker
Thanks of President tendered,
commander and men, 6574,
6577.
Postal communication with, order
regarding, 6577.
Santiago Harbor —
Shelled by American squadron, 6316.
Spanish fleet under Admiral Cer-
vera in, 6316.
Attempting to escape destroyed
by American squadron,
6317. (See Enc. Art., San-
tiago Harbor, Battle of.)
Thanks of President tendered
officers and men of Ameri-
can squadron, 6573.
The Merrimac sunk in, by Lieut.
Hobson, 6305, 6316.
Naval Cadet Powell to be made
ensign for attempting to res-
cue force of, 306.
Thanks of Congress to Lieut-
Hobson and promotion of, rec-
ommended, 6306.
Schley, Winfield S. —
Member of military commission to
Porto Eico, 6322.
Santiago Harbor shelled by Amer-
ican squadron under, 6316.
Spanish fleet attempting to escape
from Santiago Harbor destroyed
by American squadron under
direction of. (See Enc. Art.,
Santiago Harbor, Battle of;
also, 6317.)
Schwau, Theodore, Porto Rican ex-
pedition reenforced by brigade of,
6318.
Seventy - First Eegiment in the
trenches, illustration, opposite 6154.
Shafter, William E. —
Army under, lands, near Santiago,
6317.
Operations of, abound and sub-
sequent capitulation of Santi-
ago, 6317.
Thanks of President tendered,
6574, 6577.
Signal Corps, servipes' of, discussed,
6314.
Signifleanee of, discussed, 8736.
Spanish battleships, salvage of, in
Cuban waters, 7629. _
Suspension of hostilities proclaimed,
6487.
Thanksgiving and prayer, address of
President to people for, 6573.
Thanksgiving proclamation of Presi-
dent McKinley, 6491.
Treatment to be accorded foreign
vessels by United States pro-
claimed, 6477.
Discussed, 6312.
Treaty of Peace. (See Peace, above.)
Vessels of United States in Great
Lakes granted facilities by Can-
ada for returning, 6331.
Volunteers called for by proclama-
tion, 6473, 6477.
Discussed,, 6296, 6312, 6313.
Mustered out, referred to, 6322.
To be mustered out, 6342.
Wade, James P., member of military
commission, to Cuba, 6322.
War-revenue act discussed, 6314. ,
Wheeler, Joseph, operations of cav-
alry division under, around Santi-
ago, discussed, 6317.
Wilmington, attempts of tie, to si-
lence batteries at Cardenas, 6302,
6316.
Wilson, John M., Porto Eiean ex-
pedition reenforced by division of,
6318.
Winslow disabled in conflict in Car-
denas Bay, 6304, 6316.
Rescued by the Hudson, 6304.
Thanks of Congress to officers
and men of, recommended,
6304.
Woodford, Stewart L., minister to
Spain, mentioned, 6257, 6284,
6286.
Withdrawal of, 6312.
Young, Samuel B. M., operations of
brigade under, around Santiago
discussed, 6317.'
Spanish Colonies. (See Spain.)
Spanlsli Guinea. (See Spain.)
Spanish Main, blockade of ports of, re-
ferred to, 776.
Spanish Milled Dollars referred to, 239.
Spanish Milled Doubloons referred to,
304.
Spamish Treaty Claims Commission,
report of, transmitted, 7486.
Spanish War Veterans, Societies of.
(See Societies of Spanish War
Veterans.)
Spanish West Indies referred to, 4113.
Speaker. — The title of the presiding officer
of the House of Representatives. The Con-
stitution provides that "the House of Rep-
resentatives shall choose their Spealter and
other officers." It is doubtful, however, if
the framers of the Constitution eontem-
glated vesting the Spealser with the power
e now enjoys. The system of legislation
by committees which has gradually grown
up, carrying with it the prerogative of the
Speaker to name them, has greatly ex-
tended his influence. The first Speaker of
the modern sort — mora of a leader of the
House than a presiding officer — was Henry
Clay. As the representative of the House
the Speaker presides over the deliberations
of that body, appoints its committees, su-
pervises its journal, certifies to the amount
of compensation due its members, signs the
bills, resolutions, warrants, subpoenas, etc..
Speaker
Encyclopedic Index
Spitzbergen
and has the right, as a member to partici-
pate in debate after calling another mem-
ber to the chair. The Speaker rarely avails
himself of this privilege. He is chosen by
the House from among the members.
The Speakers of the House of Representa-
tives, with their periods of olfice, have been
as follows :
Speaker State Incumhency
F. A. Muhlenburg Pennsylvania . . 1789-1791
Jonathan Trumbull, F. .Connecticut 1791-1793
F. A. Muhlenburg, R.. .Pennsylvania. . .1793-1795
Jonathan Dayton, F New Jersey .... 1795-1799
Theodore Sedgwick, F. . Massachusetts . 1799-1801
Nathaniel Macon, E North Carolina. 1801-1807
Joseph B. Varnum, D. . .Massachusetts . 1807-1811
Henry Clay, R Kentucky 1811-1814
Langdon Cheves, R South CaroUna. 1814-1815
Henry Clay, R Kentucky 1815-1820
John W. Taylor, D New York 1820-1821
Philip P. Barbour, D.. . .Virginia 1821-1823
Henry Clay, R Kentucky 1823-1825
John W. Taylor, D New York 1825-1827
Andrew Stevenson, D.. .Virginia 1827-1834
.John Bell, W Tennessee 1834-1835
James K. Polk, D Tennessee 1835-1839
R. M. T. Hunter, D Virgmia 1839-1841
John White, W Kentucky 1841-1843
John W. Jones, D Virginia 1843-1845
John W. Davis, D Indiana 1845-1847
Robert C. Winthrop, W. . Massachusetts. . 1847-1849
Howell Cobb, T). Georgia 1849-1851
Linn Boyd, D Kentucky 1851-1855
NathanielP. Banks, R.. Massachusetts. .1855-1857
James L. Orr, D South Carolina. 1857-1859
William Pennington, R. New Jersey .... 1860-1861
Galusha A. Grow, R Pennsylvania. . .1861-1883
Schuyler Colfax, R Indiana 1863-1869
James G. Blaine, R Mame 1869-1875
Michael C. Kerr, D Indiana 1875-1876
Samuel J. Randall, D.. .Pennsylvania. . .1876-1881
Joseph W. Keifer, R Ohio 1881-1883
John G. Carlisle, D Kentucky 1883-1889
Thomas B. Reed, R Maine 1889-1891
Charles F. Crisp, D Georgia 1891-1895
Thomas B. Reed, R Maine 1895-1899
David B. Henderson, R..Iowa 1899-1903
Joseph G. Cannon, R.. .Illinois 1903-1911
Champ Clark, D Missouri 1911-1919
Frederick H. Gillett, R. Massachusetts . 1919-
F — Federalist, R — Republican. D — Democrat.
W—Wkig.
Special Agents, Treasury Department,
— ^These officials investigate the work of the
customs collectors, and make other Investi-
gations relative to the customs service of tlie
United States. ( See list of references under
Customs. )
Special-Delivery Stamps:
Discussed, 4836, 5881, 5971.
Special Privilege, laws against, 7126,
7132. (See also Business.)
Special Sessions of Congress and Senate,
proclamations convening and messages
to. (See Extraordinary Sessions.)
Specie Circular. — An order drafted by Sen-
ator Benton, of Missouri, and issued by
the Secretary of the Treasury July 11,
1836. by order of President Jackson (1468,
1501), designed to check speculative pur-
chases of public lands. In it the officials
were directed to receive nothing but gold
and silver in payment for public lands.
The circular was issued in opposition to
the sentiment of Congress, which at the
ne.xt session passed a bill to rescind the
order, but Jackson defeated the bill by a
pocket veto. The Freaident's action aroused
much indignation and, it is claimed,
hastened the panic of 1837.
Specie Payments. — The United states sus-
pended specie payments Jan. 1, 1862, and
Congress authorized the issue of large
quantities of United States notes to be a
legal tender. In this action the Govern-
ment had been preceded by most of the
banks of the country, following the ex-
ample of the New York banks. Jan. 14,
1875, the act authorizing the resumption
of specie payments of Government con-
tracts to begin Jan. 1, 1879, was approved
by President Grant In a special message
(4268). To this end the purchase of bul-
lion and the manufacture of subsidiary
coin was at once begun. The mints were
run overtime to supply the demand for
specie, and resumption became an accom-
plished fact.
Specie Payments:
Act providing for resumption of, ap-
proved and discussed, 426.8.
Banks refused to pay (Jovernment
demands in specie, 1810.
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 6073.
Grant, 3983, 4061, 4198, 4239, 4247,
4268, 4301, 4379.
Hayes, 4397, 4413, 4510, 4567.
MeKinley, 6253.
Reports on, 1726.
Resumption of —
By Chile discussed, 6059.
Discussed, 3879, 4379, 4510, 4567.
Recommended, 3983, 4061, 4102,
4239, 4247, 4301, 4310, 4413.
Suspension of, by banks discussed,
1541, 1751, 1757, 1777, 1789, 3330.
Speech, Freedom of. (See Freedom of
Speech.)
Spies. — In war-times, a spy is a person who,
in disguise or not wearing distinctive marks
of the belligerent with whom he is con-
nected, mingles with the enemy within the
enemy's lines of fortifications or other terri-
tory In order secretly to procure information
12'"^"*^ ""'' country. Because of the fact
that the status of spies had long heen in-
deflnlte and because of the penalty of death
involved, a series of regulations drawn up
by The Hague tribunal Indicates precisely
that no person shall be considered a spy who
Is not wearing a disguise, who is carrying
messages openly, or who obtains informa-
tion concerning the enemy in air-craft. The
regulations further provide that to he con-
sidered a spy a person must be traveling,
(a) under false pretenses, (b) within terri-
tory occupied by the enemy, (c) for the
proved purpose of ohtalninr Information of
use to his own forces. The regulations pro-
vide further that no person shall he con-
victed as a spy without fair trial or after
he has rejoined the forces with which he is
connected. In times of peace, a spy is a
person who secretly endeavors to obtain In-
formation concerning the defences, resources
etc., of a country In order to supply another
country with such information. (See Es-
pionage Law.)
Spies, Germany's Use of, condemned.
8231, 8290.
Spitzbergen Islands. — An archipelago
about 500 miles north of Norway, between
Spitzbergen
Encyclopedic Index
Springfield
76° and 81° N. latitude. It Includes also
Bear Island, about 130 miles to the south.
The total area is about 25,000 square miles.
Until recently, the Islands were of interest
chiefly as headquarters for hunters of whale,
seals and fur-bearing animals ; but of late
large mineral deposits, especially coal, hare
been found. A number of companies are
engaged in the exploitation of the coal
mines, but the largest claims belong to
British companies. In 1919, the coal ex-
ports amounted to 80,000 tons. By the
treaty of peace of the World War, Spitz-
bergen was placed under the sovereignty of
Norway.
Spitzliergen Islands:
International conference on, 7413.
Negotiations for adjusting claims in,
7670.
Problem of, discussed, 7782.
Spy Bill. (See Espionage Law.)
Spoils System. — The policy of bestow-
ing public offices upon members of the
party in power as rewards for political
services. These official rewards once se-
cured, the beneficiaries found it Incumbent
upon them to assist in Iceeping In power
the party to which they owed their posi-
tions not only by a strict attention to the
duties of their offices, but also by making
friends and votes for their superior officer.
Under the spoils system, it is charged, offi-
cial duties are often made secondary to
partisan obligations. This system is not
confined to American politics, but is carried
on in England, where Parliament has cre-
ated a patronage secretary, who takes
charge of the apportionment and keeps reg-
ular accounts with the members of Parlia-
ment of the positions which have been
filled upon their recommendation. In the
United States the system developed first In
New YorK and Pennsylvania. Tammany
Hall made effective use of the system in
Its fight against the Clintons In the first
quarter of the present century. It was ex-
tended to state politics by the "Albany
Regency," established by Martin Van Bu-
ren in 1818. It was not until Jackson's
time, however, that it became a feature of
Federal politics. The spoils system derived
the name commonly applied to It from a
sentence used in a speech made by Senator
William L. Marcy, of New Tork, while urg-
ing the Senate to confirm the nomination of
Martin Van Buren as minister to England.
In defense of the charge against Van Bu-
ren that he had introduced the custom of
removal from office for opinion's sake, Mr.
Marcy, speaking for the Democrats of New
Tork, declared that "they see nothing
wrong in the rule that to the victor be-
longs the spoils of the enemy," It has
since been a regular feature of American
politics in every Administration, tempered
of late by the provisions of the civil-service
act of 1883. (See also Civil Service.)
Spoliation Claims (see also Trancp,
claims against discussed):
Act providing for— -
Ascertainment and satisfaction of,
vetoed, 2316.
Ascertainment ofj vetoed, 2840.
Spoliations (see also Alabama Claims;
the several powers, claims
against; Vessels, United States,
seized) :
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 237.
Jefferson, 371, 383, 413.
Monroe, 765.
Washington, 138.
Spooner Act, mentioned, 7022.
Spot Besolutlons. — When President Polk
sent a message to Congress announcing that
American citizens had been killed by Mexi-
cans on American soil, and asked for a for-
mal declaration of war, Abraham Lincoln, in
the House of Representatives, Introduced
resolutions requesting the President to Indi-
cate the exact spot on American soil where
the killing had taken place. Thus the name
"Spot Resolutions." The results of Polk's
message were negative, for the declaration
of war was not voted.
Spottsylvania Court-House (Va.), Bat-
tle of. — After 2 days' fighting in the Wil-
derness, south of the Rapidan River, In
Virginia, Grant attempted to turn Lee's
right fiank and advance toward Richmond
by way of Spottsylvania Court-House.
This resulted in a series of battles. Lee
discovered the movement of Grant's army
and reached Spottsylvania first. By May
9, 1864, Grant had his army concentrated
near Spottsylvania. Hancock commanded
the right, warren the center, and Sedg-
wick the left. The latter was killed on the
9th while placing his artillery, and Wright
succeeded him in command of the Sixth
Army Corps. May 10 and 11 there was des-
ultory fighting, skirmishing, and maneuver-
ing for positions. Grant's losses during the
loth are supposed to have exceeded 10,000
men, and Lee's are also supposed to have
been severe. The morning of May 12
opened with an advance by Hancock's col-
umn, which surrounded and captured with
the salient an entire division (Gen. Ed-
ward Johnson's) of 3,000 Confederates, in-
cluding 2 generals and between 30 and 40
guns. The fighting of this day was as se-
vere as any during the war. Lee made five
furious assaults In quick succession, with
the view of dislodging Hancock and Wright
from the captured salient. From dawn till
dusk the battle raged. The Federal assault
on the Confederate line was checked. It
was renewed without success on the 18th.
After several days of maneuvering and
having received reenforcements enough te
make up for his losses, Grant, on the 20th
and 21st of May, moved southward toward
the North Anna River. The Federal losses
in the battle of Spottsylvania Court-House,
Including the conflicts at Todd's Tavern,
Corbin's Bridge, Alsop's Farm, Laurel Hill,
Po River, Ny River, the angle of the salient,
Piney Branch Church, Harris's Farm, and
6uiney'~a Station, between May 8 and 21,
1864, were officially reported as 2,725 killed'
13,416 wounded, and 2,258 missing, a total
of 18,399. The Confederate losses, only
partially reported, were (Swell's, John-
son's, and McGowan's divisions), 4,001
killed and wounded.
Springfield (N. Y.), Battle of.— June 6.
17^0, Generals Sterling, Knyphailsen,
Mathews, and Tryon left Staten Island with
5,000 men to attack Washington's army at
Morrlstown, N. J. Sterling was killed and
Knyphausen took command. He advanced
to within half a mile of Springfield, har-
assed all the^ way by the settlers and mi-
litia. Sir Henry Clinton returned to New
York on June 17 from Charleston, S. C,
and prepared to join Knyphausen. On June
Springfield
Encyclopedic Index
Standard Oil
23 the British advance was made In two
columns. The American outposts wtere
forced back upon Springfield, which the
British burned, and then retreated to Staten
Island. The British loss amounted to about
150, the American to 83.
Springfield, Ohio, act to establish port,
of delivery at, vetoed, 5002.
Squadron:
African, instructions to officers of,
referred to, 2173, 3071.
Asiatic. (See Manila Harbor, Battle
of.)
Home, proposed extension of duties
of, referred to, 2129.
Mediterranean, referred to, 1905,
1953.
Pacific. (See Manila Harbor, Battle
of.)
Squatter.— One who takes possession of or
"squats on" land, especially Government
land, without ownership or easement rights.
In the interest of public policy, and to en-
courage settlement, a squatter may acquire
permanent ownership of such land if unmo-
lested in its cultivation for the period of
statutory limitation. (See Squatter Sov-
ereignty.)
Squatter Sovereignty. — ^The rule allowed
by custom, whereby squatters may acquire
ownership to land. (See Squatter.)
Squawksin Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Squi-aitl Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Squin-^h-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Staff of Army. (See 'Army.)
"Stalwarts." — ^A term applied to the par-
tlzans who opposed the "Half-Breeds" (q.
v.). The "Stalwarts"^ were opposed to the
withdrawal of troops from the Southern
States, and favored the Spoils System (q.
V.) as against the Civil Service. When Gar-
field appointed a Collector of the Port of
New York in defiance of the traditional
method of first having a recommendation
from the Senior Senator of the State of
New York, Conkling, the Senior Senator
from that state, resigned, as did also Piatt,
the Junior Senator. The bitterness engen-
dered between the "Stalwarts" and the
"Half-Breeds" may have been largely re-
sponsible for the assassination of Garfield.
Stamford Harbor, Conn., survey of, re-
ferred to, 1043.
Stamp Act. — An act of the British Parlia-
ment passed In 1765 and put into effect In
the American Colonies Nov. 1 of that year.
It levied on British subjects in America
specific sums for each of the common trans-
actions of business. Deeds, bonds, notes
of hand. Indentures, Insurance policies,
leases, contracts of sale, etc., were not to
be enforced by courts unless written on
stamped paper bought of the officers of the
Crown. Without stamped wills testamentary
dispositions would be void ; without stamped
receipts debts could not be acquitted ; vessels
.Tt sea without clearances written on
stamped paper were liable to seizure and
confiscation It they fell in with one of the
King's ships; only stamped newspapers
could be exposed for sale : without stamped
certificates marriages could not lawfully be
contracted ; unstamped writs and execu-
tions tiad no force or effect ; in short, the
American citizen must have been daily pay-
ing money Into the British treasury at its
stamp office or In respect to much of the
protection which society undertakes to af-
ford he was an outlaw. Under this act
business was suspended. The people ab-
solutely refused to use the stamps. Ben-
jamin Franklin presented a petition of the
colonists to the House of Commons, and
on March 18, 1766. the stamp act was re-
pealed. The agitation resulting from the
act was one of the leading causes In effect-
ing the Revolution.
Stamp-Act Congress.— A body which met
at New York Oct. 7, 1765.. composed of
delegates from all the Colonies except Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, New Hampshire,
and Georgia. There were 26 members, In-
cluding 4 from New York, 2 each from
Rhode Island and Delaware and 3 each
from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jer-
sey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South
Carolina. Timothy Ruggles, of Massa-
chusetts, was chosen president. The mani-
festoes issued by this congress were "A
Declaration of the Rights and Grievances
of the Colonists of America," an address to
the King, a memorial to the House of
Lords, and a petition to the House of Com-
mons, all of a loyal and respectful tone.
The congress adjourned Oct. 25.
Stamps. (See Division of Stamps.)
Stand-Patters. — A term applied to members
of political parties who can not be in-
duced to subscribe to any change of policy
or to progress. The term became used
especially in the administration of Taft to
describe those Republicans who opposed
changes in the tarifE and in other methods of
government which were demanded by the
more radical element among the Republicans.
Standard Oil Casei — Antagonism to the
Standard Oil Company for attempting to
gain a monopoly by crushing competition
and for dishonest, discriminatory and un-
fair business methods came to a head with
an investigation by the Bureau of Cor.
poration authorized by Congress in Febru-
ary, 1905.
The report, submitted in May, 1906. said :
"The Standard Oil Company has habitually
received and is now receiving, secret rates
and other unjust and illegal discrimina-
tions. Many of these discriminations were
^clearly In violation of the interstate com-
merce laws, and others, whether technical-
ly Illegal or hot. had the same effect upon
competitors. These discriminations have
been so long continued, so secret, so in-
geniously applied to new conditions of
trade, and so large in amount as to make
It certain that they were due to concerted
action by the Standard Oil Company and
the railroads." '
A second investigation of the Standard
?t.i-P°<?^^°'' was undertaken by the Inter-
state Commerce Commission at the request
?L i^^^^i' i^n,?, *''^''" ""^PO'' was suSmit-
to^Hm^,;,^^A J^°^- " ^'"«^ = "The sworn
testimony before us abundantly confirms
the conclusions reached by the Commission-
er of Corporations. The ruin of competl.
*7^fH'"'l?^*i' % distinct part of the policy
of the Standard Oil Company in the naat
systematically and persistently pursued It
has maintained a system of espionage over
standard Oil
Encyclopedic Index
Standard Time
tbe shipments of Its rivals ; It has ruined
competitors by means of local competition,
that Is by reducing prices in the field of
operation of its rivals, while maintaining
prices elsewhere ; it has pursued the policy
of molding public opinion by purchasing
space in newspapers and printing Innocent
looking articles setting forth the benefits
conferred by the Standard Oil Company ;
it has induced the railroads to purchase all
their lubricating oil from It at a double
price, thus securing a profit very much like
a rebate ; it has paid employees of its
rivals for information, and has sold dlfEer-
ent grades of oil out of the same barrel.'
Herbert Knox Smith, Commissioner of
Corporations, presented a report May 20,
1907, dealing mainly with the Standard Oil
pipe lines. It showed these lines to consist pf
40,000 miles of trunk lines and feeders;
and it pointed out that, while the Standard
Oil Company had no monopoly in the pro-
duction of oil, it transported through its
pipe lines 90 per cent of the oil from the
Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Ohio fields and
98 per cent of that from the Kansas-Okla-
homa fields. Its monopoly was also shown
to consist in the fact that it refined about
86 per cent of all the oil refined In the
United States. The extent of these pipe
lines was believed to prevent the construc-
tion of rival pipe lines. Commissioner bmltn
estimated that a charge of 20 cents per
barrel would cover the cost of transporta-
tion from Lima, Ohio, to the seaboard, and
yield 10 per cent on the investment. The
actual charge was shown to be 531 cents
per barrel.
Early in 1907 the Attorney-General of
the United States brought suit against the
Standard Oil Company of Indiana, in the
District Court at Chicago, under the El-
kins law forbidding discrimination and the
sivine of rebates by common carriers en-
laged in interstate trafllc. The action was
based on the report of Commissioner Gar-
field mentioned above, which related to the
shipments of oil from the great refineries
of Whiting, Indiana, to the southwestero
Sarket, by way of. East St. Louis, I linois,
where the oil came into competition with the
product of the Kansas and Oklahoma fields.
This region was reached by three com-
peting railroads, the Chicago and Eastern
Illinois, the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy, and the Chicago and Alton. Eacn
road had filed with the Interstate Com-
merce Commission and kept P°|ted at its
freight offices a class rate of 18 cents per
100 pounds, but their books showed that
they had glVen the Standard Oil Company
i commodfty rate on oil of 6 or 6i cents
per hundred. Each company had its own
methods of concealing the true charge.
Commissioner Garfield stated that the
"wh"e scheme of the 6 cent rate, .includ-
InTboth the failure to file tar fEs with the
Interstate Commerce Commission and the
secret methods of billing, were devised at
the suggestion and with the knowledge of
the Standard Oil Company and primarily
f"r the purpose of concealing the extraor-
dtaarlly low rates from its competitors."
The defense plead that "these rates were
not solicited nor accepted knowingly with
the intentioS of violating the law; that the
law did not forbid a shipper to take di-
rectly from a carrier a rate less than the
nnblished rate, the purpose of the law be-
fng to prevent indirect methods and secret
devices r the company could have secured
rntea as low as those accepted over the
Ohicaeo Burlington and Quincy or over
Sr»Ph?caeo and Eastern Illinois, and that
thi eS law, under which the suit was
brought, was nullified by the Hepburn law,
subsequently passed." The case was based
Bpecincally on the transit of a car of oil
from Whiting, Indiana, over the Chicago
and Alton Railroad, at the slz-per-cent rate.
April 13, after deliberating two hours, the
jury returned a verdict of guilty on 1,462
counts. Before determining the amount of
the fine, Judge Laudls demanded evidence
of the actual ownership of the Standard
Oil Company of Indiana. This was shown
to be the Standard Oil Company of New
Jersey. Judge Landis then, on August 3,
imposed the maximum fine of $20,000 on
each count, an aggregate of $29,240,000.
The defendant company appealed the case
to the Circuit Court of Appeals for the
seventh circuit, and on July 22, 1908,
Judge Peter L. Grosscup, of Illinois, two
other judges concurring, handed down an
opinion reversing the finding of the District
Court, holding that the court below erred
in its ruling that a shipper may be con-
victed of re-accepting a concession from
the, lawful published rate, even though it
was not shown that the shipper knew what
the lawful published rate was ; its ruling
that the number of offenses is the number
of carloads of property transported, irre-
spective of the question whether each car-
load is the whole or only a part of a single
transaction ; and its ruling that the large-
ness of the fine imposed was due to the
effect , to reach and punish a party that
was riot before the court.
Judge Grosscup declared the fine im-
posed by Judge Landis "an abuse of ju-
dicial discretion." The validity of the
courts' reasoning was universally dis-
cussed. President Roosevelt pronounced
the ruling of Judge Grosscup "a gross mis-
carriage of justice." The Government ap-
plied to the Circuit Court of Appeals for a
rehearing, which was denied, and on Nov.
20, 1908, Attorney-General Bonaparte peti-
tioned the United States Supreme Court for
a writ of certiorari. This petition was dis-
missed Jan. 4, 1909, leaving the case to
be retried in the District Court.
Judge McCall, in the United States \Clr-
euit Court of Jackson, Tenn., Nov. 17, 1910,
instructed the jury to bring in a verdict of
not guilty.
Standard Oil Company:
Competition crushed out by, 7296.
Efforts of, to shape public opinion,
7138.
Secret rates given by railroads to,
7293. ■
Untruthful statements by, 7133.
Standard Time. — According to the stand-
ard tinae, which was adopted by agreement
at 12 o'clock on November 18, 1883, by all
the principal railroads of the United
States, the continent is divided into five
longitudinal belts, and a meridian of time
is fixed for each belt. These meridians are
fifteen degrees of longitude, or one hour's
time apart. The time divisions are called
intercolonial' time, eastern time, central
time, mountain time, and Pacific time.
Eastern Maine, New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia use the sixth meridian ; the Canadas,
New England, the Middle States, Virginia
and the Carolinas use the seventy-fifth
meridian, which is that of Philadelphia ;
Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, Kansas
and the larger part of Nebraska and Da-
kota use the nineteenth meridian, which is
that of New Orleans ; the territories toi
the western border of Arizona and Mon-
tana go by the time of the one hundred
standard Time
Encyclopedic Index
Stars and Bars
and fifth meridian, which Is that of Den-
ver ; and the Pacific States employ the one
hundred and twentieth meridian. In pass-
ing from one time-belt to another a per-
son's watch will be an hour too fast or too
slow, according to the direction in which
he is traveling. This new system, which
has reduced the time standards from fifty-
three to five, was suggested by Professor
Abbe, of the Signal Service Bureau at
Washington, and was elaborated by Dr. A.
P. Barnard, of Columbia University, New
Yorli.
Standards, Bureau <>'• (See Bureau of
Standards.)
Standing Rock Keseivation, oi)ening of,
8047.
Standpatism denounced, 8818.
Star Chamber. — ^Used as an adjective be-
fore "Proceeding," "Conference," "Delibera-
tion," or the Ulje, the term means that the
session is secret and, presumably, for some
selfish purpose, — ^not for the Interest of the
public.
Star Boutes. — Star Routes are those mail
routes of the United States Government
on which, owing to laclc of railroad or
steamboat facilities, the mall is carried
on horsebacli or wagons. They are called
star routes because in the route books of
the Post-OflBce Department they are marked
with three groups of four stars each, the
groups being intended to signify "celerity,
certainty, and security" In this method of
carrying the mall. ( See also Postal Service. )
Star Route Trials.— Early In 1881 vague
rumors were in circulation of extensive
fraud In this service. It was said that
there was a "ring" to defraud the gov-
ernment. Included in it were some of
the large contractors, the Second Assist-
ant Postmaster-General, Thomas J. Brady,
some subordinates In the department.
Senator Stepnen W. Dorsey, of Arkansas,
and others. Brady resigned April 20, 1881.
Proceedings in ohe of the principal cases
were begun against the conspirators, but
they were dismissed on account of Irreg-
ularity in the form of the action. Early
in 1882 several persons were arrested for
furnishing fraudulent bonds on the bids for
service, and Indictments were found against
Brady, Stephen W. Dorsey, John W. Dorsey,
John M. Peck and John H. Miner, who
had made the bids; H. M. Vaile, a sub-
contractor ; M. C. Eerdeil, S. W. Dorsey's
secretary ; Turner, a clerk in Brady's oflttce ;
and against one of the principal contractors.
The method by which, as charged, the gov-
ernment was defrauded consisted in first
obtaining the contracts for the routes, and
in subsequently having the payments vastly
increased, in compensati6n for additional
mail trips per week, and faster time on
each trip. This latter was called "ex-
pediting" the route. The Dorsey combina-
tion, as the conspirators were popularly
called, controlled one hundred and thirty-
four Star Routes, on which the original
compensation was $143,169. By Increas-
ing the number of trips beyond what the
locality required and by "expediting"
them, this amount had been Increased to
$622,808. On one route the compensation
had been Increased from $398 to $6.133.50 ;
the revenue derived therefrom by the gov-
ernment was $240.
The cases came up for trial In the
District of Columbia, June 1, 1882. The
government employed special counsel to aid
the district attorney, and the defendants,
too, were represented by eminent lawyers.
After a protracted trial, the case was sub-
mitted to the jury on Sept. 8 ; as they
were not able to agree as to all of the de-
fendants, they were kept out until Sept.
11, on which day the presiding judge,
Wylie, deeming an agreement on all the de-
fendants unlikely, accepted the verdict.
Peck and Turner were found not guilty ;
Miner and Rerdeli, guilty ; as to the Dor-
seys, Vaile and Brady there was a disa-
greement. Preparations were at once made
for a new^ trial in the cases in which there
had been a disagreement and the motions
of the counsel of Miner and Rerdeli for a
new trial were granted. The second trial
began in December, 1882. Rerdeli, on
this trial, pleaded guilty and turned state's
evidence. On June 12, 1883, the case was
given to the Jury, and on the 14th a verdict
of not guilty was rendered. In April, 1883,
W. P. Kellogg, ex-Senator from Louisiana,
and Brady were indicted for receiving
money for services in relation to a Star
Route contract. The cases never resulted
in a conviction.
At the conclusion of the first of these
trials charges of attempted bribery of the
jury, both on behalf of the government
and of the defense, were made. The fore-
man of the first jury, Dickson, and another
juror, claimed to have been approached on
behalf of the government, and still an-
other Juror on behalf of the defense. Be-
fore the first trial had ended Dickson had
made a sworn statement of the facts in his
case, and it was charged that he had used
it in the jury-room for the purpose of In-
finenclng the verdict. The Department of
Justice Investigated the cases, and declared
its belief that no government officials were
involved ; it Implied that all the attempts
had been for the purposes of the defense.
Dickson was subsequently indicted for at-
tempting corruptly to Infiuence the jury.
Star Spangled Banner. — A patriotic song
written by Francis Scott Key, of Baltimore
(q. V.) on the night of Sept. 13, 1814, dur-
ing the bombardment of Port McHenry by
the British. Key had gone under a flag of
truce to solicit the release of some friends
who had been seized by the English Ad-
miral Cochrane during the attack on the
city of Washington. Upon Key's arrival
the British fleet was about to begin the
attack on Fort McHenry. and though his
request for the release of his friends was
granted. Admiral Cochrane refused to al-
low him or his fniends to leave the ship
before the battle. During the excitement of
the bombardment Key wrote the famous
song on the back of a letter. It was pub-
lished and sung at the theatres to the tune
of "Auacreon in Heaven."
Stars and Bars.— The flag of the Confed-
erate States of America. The first provi-
sional Senate recommended that "the flag
of the Confederate States shall consist of
a red field with a white space extending
horizontally through the center and equal
in width to one-third the width of the
flag. The Union was a blue square ex-
tending across the upper red and the white
stripe, in the blue square nine stars were
arranged In a circle. The bars were, by
their colors, red and white. Intended to
express the qualities of courage and purity.
The blue field of the union expressed fortl-
tnoe, and the nine stars represented the num-
fi^=t "'/n!^?*"^ i" S"^ Confederacy. It was
first displayed March 4, 1861, slmulta-
E»?nJ''' ^^\ ^i'^ inaugurktion of L™?olS,
being unfurled over the statehouse at
Montgomery, Ala. In 1863, the Stars and
Stars and BarS
Encyclopedic Index
State Department
Bars too closely resembling the Stars and
Stripes, the Confederate Congress adopted a
white flag with one blue star In the center.
Another variation commonly used was a
white field with blue diagonal stripes and
white stars, and a piece of fringe at the
outer edge. Some of the army corps adopt-
ed a battle flag with a red ground, blue
diagonal cross, and white stars.
Stars and Stripes. (See Mag.)
State Banks. (See Banks, State.)
State Constitutions. (See Constitu-
tions, State.)
State Courts. (See Courts, State.)
State Debts, Assumption of. — Early in
the second session of the First Congress
Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treas-
ury, recommended that in order to restore
public credit the Federal Government should
fund and pay the foreign debt of the Con-
federation ($13,000,000), the domestic debt
($42,000,000) and also that it assume and
pay the unpaid debt of the States. JVIassa-
chusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-
sey, and South Carolina favored the plan.
Virginia strongly opposed the latter clause.
She was sustained in her opposition hy
Maryland, Georgia, and New Hampshire.
The influence of North Carolina thrown
against the measure defeated it for the
time, but It was revived later, and passed
Aug. 4, 1790, it was claimed, by a com-
bination of its friends with those of the
measure locating the Federal capital on
the Potomac. The amount authorized to
be assumed by the Government in the
liquidation of the State debts was $21,500,-
000, but the amount actually assumed was
$3,250,000 less than that sum.
State Debts:
Contracted abroad, discussed, 1940.
Guaranty of, by General Govern-
ment discussed, 2064.
In jure , public credit, 2061.
Eeferred to, 1769.
Eepudiation of contracts referred to,
1962.
State, Department of.— This Department
of the federal government had its origin
in a Committee of Correspondence, which
was appointed Nov. 29, 1775, to invoke for-
eign aid in behalf of the American Colonies.
This committee was succeeded by the Com-
mittee of Foreign Affairs, which was cre-
ated by an act of the Continental Con-
gress, April 17, 1777. "A plan for the De-
partment of Foreign Affairs" was reported
to Congress in January, 1781, and the De-
partment was organized Aug. 10 of that
year ; Robert B. Livingston was made Sec-
retary and he filled the position until June
4 1783. On the retirement of Livingston
the Department of Foreign Affairs prac-
tically ceased to exist for about a year.
Congress managing the foreign relations of
the country through committees. Sept. 21,
1784. John Jay was appointed Secretary
and the functions of the office were re-
vived.
After the acceptance of the Constitution
Congress passed a law entitled "an act for
establishing an Executive Department to
be denominated the Department of Foreign
Affairs," This became a law on July 27,
1789, and John Jay, being in charge of the
old Department, was continued temporarily
in charge of the new one. The existence
of this Department, however, was destined
to be brief, for on Sept. 15 following, an
B-13
act of Congress was approved which pro-
vided that ^'the Executive Department de-
nominated the Department of Foreign Af-
fairs, shall hereinafter be denominated the
Department of State, and the principal offi-
cer shall hereafter be called the Secretary
of State," and on Sept. 26 Thomas Jef-
ferson was made Secretary,
The Secretary of State is charged, under
the direction of the President, with duties
appertaining to correspondence with the
public ministers and the consuls of the
United States, and with the representa-
tives of foreign powers accredited to the
United States ; and to negotiations of
whatever character relating to the for-
eign alialrs of the United States. He is
also the medium of correspondence be-
tween the President and the chief execu-
tives of the several states of the United
States ; he has the custody of the Gre^t
Seal of the United States, and counter-
signs and affixes such seal to all executive
proclamations, to various commissions, and
to warrants for the extradition of fugitives
from justice. He Is also the custodian of
the treaties made with foreign States, and
of the laws, of the United States. He
grants and issues- passports, and exequaturs
to foreign consuls in tne United States are
issued through his office. He publishes
the laws and resolutions of Congress,
amendments to the Constitution, and proc-
lamations declaring the admission of new
states into the Union.
The scope of the department has been so
enlarged that it is now the most important
branch of tlie government, though many of
its original functions have been transferred
to other departments.
According to the law of April 10, 1790,
the Department was given charge of the
?atent business, which it retained until
849, when the wort was given over to
the new Department of the Interior. A
law passed May 31, 1790, made the De-
partment of State the repository of maps,
charts, and books for which copyright
might be granted by United States district
courts, but in 1859 these records were
turned over to the Department of the In-
terior and later to the Library of Con-
gress, where the business is now con-
ducted. From 1790 until 1850 the De-
partment also cared for the enumeration
of the census, but in the latter year that
work was given to the Departtaent of the
Interior, from w'hich, in 1903. it was trans-
ferred to the Department of Commerce and
Labor. Territorial affairs were also under
the care of the Department of State until
the organization of the Department of the
Interior in 1849.
In 1853 an Assistant Secretary of State
was provided by law with power to act
as Secretary during the latter's absence or
during an interregnum. A Second Assist-
ant Secretary was provided for in 1866,
and in 1875 the office of Third Assistant
Secretary was created.
In 1848 the office of Examiner of Claims
was created, whose duties were to examine
claims of our citizens against foreign gov-
ernments and of foreigners against our Gov-
ernment, but when the Department of Jus-
tice was formed, in 1870, this office passed
under its jurisdiction. In 1891 the title
of this office was changed to Solicitor for
the Department of State. In 1856 the Sta-
tistical Office of the Department of State
was established ; In 1874 the title was
changed to Bureau of Statistics and a year
later it was again changed to the Bureau
of Foreign Commerce and in 1903 trans-
ferred to the Department of Commerce
State Department
Encyclopedic Index
State Department
and Labor and made a part of its Bu-
reau of Statistics. The Bureau of Indexes
was established in 1870, the Bureau of Ac-
counts in 1873 ; and the Bureau of Rolls
and Library ^in 1874. Work originally
done by the Home Bureau has since been
given to the Passport Bureau and the Bu-
reau of Appointments. Other important
Bureaus are the Diplomatic Bureau which
has charge of all correspondence between
the Department and our diplomatic agents
abroad and foreign diplomatic agents in the
United States, prepares treaties, etc. ; and
the Consular Bureau. The Bureau of
Trade Relations was established in 3 90.3
to manage the work of the consular ofBciuls
in obtaining reports for the Department
of Commerce and Labor. Under this de-
partment are also placed the United States
Representatives on International Tribunals
of Egypt, and the Bureau of American Re-
publics.
Following is a list of the Secretaries of
State and the Presidents under whom they
served.
the Presidents' Messages and ICncyclopedic
articles under the following headings :
Washington
Adams ....
Jefferson. . .
Madison., .
Monroe
J.Q. Adams
Jackson —
Van Buren,
Harrison. , .
Tyler*
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia. . .
Edmund Randolph, Virginia.
Timothy_Pickering, Mass. . .
John Marshall, Virginia
James Madison, Virginia
Robert Smith, Maryland
James Monroe, Virginia
John Quincy Adams, Mass
Henry Clay, Kentucky
Martm Van Buren, New York. .
Edward Livingston, Louisiana . .
Louis McLane, Delaware
John Forsyth, Georgia
Polk
Taylor. . . ,
Fillmore.
Pierce
Buchanan.
Lincoln. . .
Johnson. .
Grant
Hayes. .
Garfield. . .
Arthur. . .
Cleveland
B.Harrison
(1
Cleveland .
McKinley .
If
Roosevelt..
Daniel Webster,* Massachusetts .
Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina. ,
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia
Joim C. Calhoun, S. Carolina . .
James Buchanan, Pennsylvania. .
John M. Clayton, Delaware. . . .
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts. .
Edward Everett, Massachusetts.
William L. Marcy, New. York. . .
Lewis CasB, Michigan
Jeremiah S. Black, Pennsylvania.
William H. Seward, New.-York, .
Elihu B. Washburn, Illinois
Hamilton Kah, New York
William M. Evarts, New_York . .
James G. Blaine, Maine
F. T. Frelinghuysen,-New Jersey .
Thomas F. Bayard, Delaware. . .
James G. Blaine, Maine. . .-
John W. Foster, Indiana
Walter Q. Gresham, Illinois
Richard Olney, Massachusetts. .
•John Sherman, Ohio
William R. Day, Ohio
John Hay, Ohio
Tatt
Wilson. . . .
"j
Harding .
Elihu Root, New York
Robert Bacon, New York
Philander C. Knox, Penn -.
William J. Bryan, Nebraska
Robert Lansing, New York
Bainbridffe Colby, New Jersey , .
Charles E. Hughes, New York. .
1789
1794
1795
1797
1800
1801
1809
1811
1817
1825
1829
1831
1833
1834
1837
1841
1843
1843
1844
1845
1849
1850
1852
1853
1857
1860
1861
1865
1869
1869
1877
1881
1881
1885
1889
1892
1893
1895
1897
1897
1898
1901
1905
1909
1909
1913
1915
1920
1921
* Daniel Webster also continued by President
Tyler in 1841 until appointment of successor.
For more detailed information of the
scope of the activities of the State De-
partment consult the Index references to
Great Seal of the
United States.
Information Bureau.
Latin American and
Mexican Divisions.
Library of' Con-
gress.
Naturalization.
Near Eastern Divi-
sion.
Neutral Rights.
Passports.
Patents.
Presidential Succes-
sion.
Proclamations.
Second Assistant
Secretary of State.
Solicitor for the
State Department.
State Rights and
State Sovereignty.
Third Assistant Sec-
retary of State.
Trade Adviser.
Trade Information
and Publicity.
Treaties.
Western European
Dlvlsioji.
Admission of States.
Ambassadors.
Arcbivos.
Assistant Secretary
of State.
Citizenship Bureau.
Claims, Court of.
Commerce Court.
Consular Appoint-
ments.
Consular Bureau.
Consular Conven-
tions.
Consular Service.
Consuls.
Copyright.
Counselor, State
Department.
Diplomatic and Con-
sular Service.
Diplomatic Appoint-
ments.
Diplomatic Bureau.
Director of Consular
Service.
Egypt. Tribunals of.
Exequaturs.
Extradition.
Extradition Treaties.
Far Eastern Affairs.
Foreign Relations.
State, Department of:
Agents employed by, without express
provisions of law, 2004, 2134.
Amount charged to, for service ren-
dered by naval vessels, 3660.
Aijpropriations and expenditures of,
referred to, 4381.
Building for —
Construction and completion of,
4301, 4524, 4638.
Illustration of, frontispiece, Vol-
ume VII.
Recommended, 2704, 4060.
Carriages, horses, etc., maintained bv,
6862.
Change in laws relating to manage-
ment of, referred to, 4587.
Changes made in force of, referred
to, 6178.
Clerks in, referred to, 3585, 3799, 4654.
Contingent fund of bureaus in, esti-
mates for, referred to, 5120.
Historical archives in, 6099.
Historical manuscripts in, plan for
publishing, referred to, 5198.
Increase of work of, 7022.
Legal services, amount paid for, by,
referred to, 3828.
Library in, referred to, 4740.
Officers commissioned by, referred
to, 4003.
Officers in, referred to, 4332.
Public records in, means for preser-
vation of, referred to, 4113.
Eeorganization of, 7420, 7767.
Salaries and expenses of, referred to,
3892.
Substitutes in employment of, re-
ferred to, 4975. ,
o
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State Department
Encyclopedic Index
States
Trade factor, 7415, 7502, 7599.
Transfer of —
Patent Office from, to Attorney-
General, recommended, 2265.
Portion of business of, recom-
mended, 1024, 2704.
Territorial affairs, from, to Interior
Department recommended, 4060,
4145.
State of the Union, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Adams, J. Q.,, 865, 916, 944, 978.
Arthur, 4822.
Buchanan, 2967, 3028, 3051, 3083,
3157, 3191, 3200.
Cleveland, 4909, 5358, 6146.
Fillmore, 2613.
Grant, 3981, 4050, 4107, 4138, 4238,
4259, 4286 4353.
Harrison, Benjamin, 5467, 5542, 5741.
Hayes, 3656, 3690, 3755, 3799.
Jackson, 1005, 1063, 1107, 1154, 1366,
1511.
Jefferson, 316, 344, 349, 373.
Johnson, 3551, 3570, 3589, 3593, 3643,
3756, 3837, 3871.
Lincoln, 3245, 3255, 3334, 3389, 3452.
McKinley, 6307.
Madison, 524, 552, 558.
Monroe. 623. 642, 667, 776, 791, 817.
Pierce, 2740, 2806, 2874, 2930.
Polk, 2321, 2382, 2479.
Eoosevelt, 6645, 6709, 6710, 6894,
6973.
Taylor, 2547.
Tyler, 1927, 2047, 2110, 2187.
Van Buren, 1590, 1700, 1746, 1819.
Washington, 95, 175, 205. '
State, Secretary of:
Appointments by, referred to, 1965.
iPlag for, 8887.
Letter to, regarding Lousiana prov-
ince, 336.
Eeport of, 26, 334, 384, 430, 637, 652,
1131, 6346.
South America visited by, 7059,
8887.
War administration details vested i%
8371.
State, War and Navy Building:
Construction of, 4301, 4524, 4638.
Illustration of, frontispiece. Volume
vn.
Staten Island, sale of fortifications on,
to United States proposed, 934.
State Eights. (See Powers of Federal
and State Governments.)
States of the Church. (See Italy; Pa-
pal States.) '
States of the Union. (See also the sev-
eral States):
Accounts of the United States with,
133.
Act-
Containing provisions denying
certain right to protect them-
selves with militia, discussed,
3670, 3871.
Granting lands to —
For benefit of insane persons ve-
toed, 2780.
Seasons for applying pocket ve-
to, 1275.
To provide colleges in, vetoed,
3074.
To pay moneys collected under di-
rect tax of 1861 to Territories,
District of Columbia, and, ve-
.toed, 5422.
To settle claims of, reasons for ap-
plying pocket veto to, 1200.
Admission of, see article Admission
of States.
Admission of, discussed and recom-
mendations regarding, 3033, 3086.
Agitation in, growing out of slavery
discussed. (See Slavery.)
Alliances between, discouraged, 209.
Amicable relations between, desired,
2806.
Area of, and extent of public domain
in, referred to, 2768.
Commerce between, discussed, 3560.
Constitutional rights of. (See pow-
ers of Federal and State Govern-
ments.)
Debts contracted by, abroad, dis-
cussed, 1940.
Guaranty of, by General Govern-
ment, discussed, 2064.
Injure public credit, 2061.
Eeferred to, 1769.
Repudiation of contracts by, re-
ferred to, 1962.
Disbursements made within Terri-
tories and, 1045.
Education in. (See Education.)
Federal Government in, uniform op-
eration of, suggested, 1024.
Funds deposited with —
May be necessary to use portion
of, 1458.
Not intended as a gift, 1458.
Eeferred to, 1823.
Governments to be reestablished in
Southern States. (See Confederate
States.)
Indebtedness of, to United States re-
ferred to, 379.
Insurrection, existence of, in certain,
proclaimed, 3238, 3293, 3366.
Proclamations declaring insurrec-
tion at an end, 3515, 3627, 3632.
Tax upon real estate in, declared
a lieu on same, 3293.
Lands —
Granted to —
For educational purposes, 1029,
1045, 3587, 4206.
States
Encyclopedic Index
States
In aid of internal improve-
ments, etc., discussed, 4065,
4206, 5380.
Purchased in, by United States re-
ferred to, 892, 893.
Legislation to secure property and
enforce law in, recommended, 4081.
Measures and weights of, sets of,
made for, 1477.
Payment or assumption of stocks of,
by General Government referred
to, 1907.
Powers of. (See Povvers of Federal
and State Governments.)
Prisoners in, provisions for. .(See
Imprisonment.)
Eeconstruction of Southern States.
(See Eeconstruction; the several
States.) ,
Eestoration of Southern States.
(See Provisional Governors; Ees-
toration.)
Eight of certain, to representation
in Congress, discussed, 3644.
Secession discussed. (See Secession.)
Sectional agitation in, mediation of
Virginia for settlement of, dis-
cussed, 3192.
Slavery in. (See Slavery.)
Suability of, amendment of Consti-
tution relative to, 250.
Surplus revenue should be appor-
tioned among, 1014, 1077.
States
1. Delaware . . . .
2. Pennsylvania .
3. New Jersey. . .
Georgia ....
Connecticut .
Massachusetts
Maryland . . .
South Carolina
New Hamp-
shire ....
Virginia . . .
New York. .
North Carolina
Rhode Island
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17-
18.
19.
20.
21.
Vermont . .
Kentuck.y .
Tennessee
Ohio
Louisiana .
Indiana . .
Mississippi
Illinois . . .
22. Alabama .
23. Maine . . .
■24. Missouri
25. Arkansas
26. Michigan
27. Florida . .
28. Texas . . . .
29. Iowa
30. Wisconsin
31. California
32. Minnesota
33. "Oregon . . ,
34. Kansas . . .
Admitted
to the
Union.
Dec. 7. 1787
Dec. 12, 1787
Dec. 18, 1787
Jan. 2,
.Ian. 9,
Feb. 6,
Apr. 28,
May 23,
June 21,
June 25,
.Tuly 26,
Not. 21.
May 29,
Mar. 4,
June 1,
.Tune 1.
Feb. 19,
Apr. 30,
Dec. 11,
Dec. 10,
Dec. 3,
1788
1788
1788
178S
1788
1788
1788
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1796
1803
1812
1816
1817
181S
Dec. 14, 1819
Nov. 15, 1820
Aug. 10, 1821
.Tune 15, 1836
Jan. 26, 1837
Mar. 3, 1845
33. West Virginia.
36. Nevada
37. Nebraska . . . ,
38. Colorado . . . .
39. North Dakota.
40. South Dakota.
41. Montana . . . .
42. Washington . .
43. Idaho
44. Wyoming . , . .
45. Utah
id. Oklahoma
47. New Mexico .
48. Arizona
Dec. 29,
Dec. 28,
May 29.
Sept, 9,
May 11,
Feb. 14.
Jan. 29,
June 19,
Oct. 31.
Mar. 1,
Aug. 1,
Nov. 3,
Nov. 3.
Nov. 8,
Nov. 11.
July 3,
July 10.
Jan. 4,
Nov. 16,
Jan. 6,
Feb. 14,
1845
1846
1848
1850
1858
1859
1861
1863
1864
186
1876
1889
1889
1889
1889
1890
1890
1896
1907
1912
1912
Area
Square
Miles.
2,370
45,126
8,224
59,265
4,965
8.266
12.327
30,989
9.341
42.627
49.204
52,420
1,248
9.564
40,598
42.022
41,040
48,506
36,354
46.865
56.665
51.998
33.040
69.420
53,335
57,890
58,666
265,896
56,147
56,066
158,297
84,682
96,699
82,158
24.170
110.690
77.520
103,948
70,837
77,615
146,572
69,127
84,313
97.914
84,990
70,057
122.634
113,956
Population
Jan. 1,1920
223,003
8,720,017
3,155,900
2,895,832
1,380,631
3,852,356
1,449,681
1,683,724
443,083
2,309,187
10,384,829
2,559,123
604,397
352,428
2,416,630
2,337,885
5,759,394
1,798,509
2,930,390
1,790,618
6,485,280
2,348,174
768,014
3,404,05.-1
1,752,204
3,668,412
968,471
4,663,228
2,404,021
2,632,067
3,426,861
2,387,125
783,389
1,769,257
1,463,701
77,407
1,296,372
939,629
645,680
636,547
,'548,889
1,356,62]
431,866
194,402
449,396
2,028,283
360,350
333,903
Nickname.
Diamond . . .
Keystone . . .
Red Mud . . .
Empire State
of the South
Nutmeg
Old Bay
Old Line, . . .
Palmetto . . .
Granite ....
Old Dominion
Empire
Tar Heel ....
Little Ehody
Green Moun-
tain
Corn Cracker
Volunteer . . .
Buckeye
Pelican
Hoosler ....
Bayou
Prairie
Land of Flow-
ers
Pine Tree . . .
Bullion
Bear
Wolverine . .
Everglade . .
Lone Star. . .
Hawkeye . . .
Badger
Golden
Gopher
Web-Foot . . .
Garden ....
Panhandle . .
Sage Brush . .
Black Water.
Centennial .
Cyclone ....
Coyote
Mountain . . .
Chinook ....
Gem of the
Mountains .
Peach Blossom
Violet
Cherokee Rose
Mountain Laurel
May Flower
Blackeyed-Susan
Flower.
Mormon
Boomer
Adobe . .
Purple Lilac
Dogwood
Rose
Daisy
Violet
Red Clover
Trumpet-Vine
Carnation
Magnolia
Carnation
Magnolia
Violet
Golden Rod
Pine Cone
Apple Blossom
Apple Blossom
Orange Blossom
Blue Bonnet
Wild Rose
Violet
California Poppy
Moccdsin
Oregon Grape
Sunflower
Rhododendron
Sage Brush
Golden Rod
Columbine
Wild Rose
Anemone Patens
Bitter Root
Rhododendron
Syrlnga
Indian Paintbrush
Sego Lily
Mistletoe
Cactus
Sahuaro
-States
Encyclopedic Index
Statuary Hall
Constitutional amendment neces-
sary for, recommended, 1015.
Derangement arising from distri-
bution of, 1707.
Funds, 'deposited with, not intend-
ed as a gift, 808.
May be necessary to use portion
of funds deposited with, 1458.
Table showing distribution of, 1479.
Tide of population flows into new,
2123.
Union and Confederate flags, return
of, to respective States recom-
mended, 5163.'
Proposition withdrawn, 5164.
Weights and measures, sets of, made
for, 1477.
State Eights and State Sovereignty.—
"State rights" is the doctrine that every
state is soTereign witliin the limits of Its own
sphere of action, made so by the declared
will of the nation as expressed in the Con-
stitution ; and that the will of the nation,
appropriately manifested, as provided in the
Constitution, may change that sphere.
"State sovereignty" is the doctrine that the
states, at the formation of the Union, dele-
gated a portion of their sovereignty to the
National government, reserving the right to
revoke the agency and to resume the ex-
ercise of all the elements of sovereignty
at any time by seceding.
In the Constitution, the rights of the Na-
tional government are distinctly stated ; the
rights of the state are limited only by
tile expressly declared national right. Pre-
vious to the Civil War the term "state
rights" was used to designate the idea of
"state sovereignty," and misuse has raised
a prejudice in many minds even against
the legitimate theory of "state rights"
brought forward since that event. The
arguments against "state sovereignty" may
be summarized as follows : The colonies did
not tight each for its own independence,
but each for the independehce of all, as
is shown by their joint action throughout,
in military as well as civil matters. The
sovereignty acquired in that struggle was
never indivitlually exercised, but all re-
mained under the national sovereignty
raised by the common tight for liberty.
All the elements and insignia of sover-
eignty were vested in the National govern-
ment, as the power to declare war and
peace and to coin money, and moreover
the power to amend the Constitution, ex-
cept in a very few particulars, was given
to three-fourths of the states, and on the
theory of state sovereignty this would im-
ply the self-contradictory condition of a
sovereign state voluntarily exposing itself
to changes in its government without its
consent to the change. It may be main-
tained that secession would afford the need-
ed relief ; but if this had been the inten-
tion, the consent of all the states to an
amendment would have been required, since
it must be presumed that the union was
intended to endure.
The doctrine of "state sovereignty" was
put forward at various times. (See Hart-
ford Convention ; Nullification.) Soon after
the nullification troubles it became the ally
of slavery, and the result of the Civil
War put it to rest forever. State sov-
ereignty and secession finally disposed of,
the theory of state rights as above out-
lined could be developed. The danger of
extreme particularism had been avoided ;
extreme centralization during the exercise
of war powers by the President and Con-
gress was inevitable. The Supreme Court
holds the balance, and its adjudication has,
since the war, laid down the relations of
the states and the National government as
above.
State Socialism. (See Socialism.)
States Belations Service, Agriculture
Department, — Under a plan of reorganiza-
tion of the Department of Agriculture ap-
proved by law of May 8, 1914, the States
Relations Service was created. It has gen-
eral charge of the department's business
with the State Agricultural Colleges and
Experiment Stations, and of certain other
related functions. The act provides for a
nation-wide system of instruction for the
farming population in agriculture and home
economics outside of the schools and colleges.
The general lines of the extension system
for the whole country have been wfell marked
out, and embrace (1) the county agricul-
tural agents, (2) the boys' and girls' clubs,
(3) the movable schools, and (4) the sup-
porting work of the college and department
specialists.
The appropriation for this work for the
first year of its existence (1914) was
$2,280,000. This was met by approximately
$2,653,000 from the states.
States Eights. (See Powers of Federal
and State Governments.)
Statistical Congress, International:
At St. Petersburg, 4142, 4221.
The Hague, 4082.
Invitation to hold next meeting in
United States recommended, 4142.
Statistics, Bureau of.— A Bureau of the
Department of Commerce and Labor. It
was established in 1866 as a Bureau of
the Treasury Department, but on the es-
tablishment of the Department of Com-
merce and Labor, in 1903, it was trans-
ferred to that Department. It collects and
publishes from time to time statistics of
the commerce of the United States with
foreign countries, immigration statistics,
etc. Its annual statistical Ahstract of the
United States and reports on commerce
and navigation are Important documents.
( See also Agriculture, Department of, and
Crop Estimates, Bureau of.)
Statistics, Bureau of, act to establish,
referred to, 4807.
Statuary Hall, formerly the hall of the
House of Representatives, was established
as Statuary Hall by act of Congress of
July 2, 1864. By this legislation a Na-
tional Hall of Statuary was created, and
the President was authorized to invite each
state to contribute to the collection to be
formed ; two statues, in either marble or
bronze, of deceased citizens of the- state
whom "for historic renown or from civil
or military services" the state should con-
sider as worthy of commemoration in this
National Hall of Statuary.
The following Is a list of statues pre-
sented by the states :
Alabama — J. L. M. Curry.
Arkansas — Uriah M. Bose.
Connecticut— Roger Sterman
statuary Hall
Encyclopedic Index
Statutes
Connecticut — Jonathan Trumbull.
Florida — John W. Gorrle.
Florida — B. Klrby Smith.
Idaho— George L. Shoup.
Illinois — James Shields.
Illinois— Frances E. Willard.
Indiana — Oliver P. Morton.
Indiana — I..ew Wallace.
Iowa — James Harlnn.
Iowa — Samuel J. Kirliwood.
Kansas — John J. Ingalls.
Kansas — George W. Glick.
Maine — William King'..
Maryland — Charles Carroll.
Maryland — John Hanson.
Massachusetts — Samuel Adaihs.
Massachusetts — John Winthrop.
Michigan — Lewis Cass.
Michigan — Zachariah Ciiandier.
Minnesota — Henry Mov/pr Ripe.
Missouri — Francis P. Blair.
Missouri — Thomas H. Benton.
New Hampshire — John Starli.
New Hampshire — Daniel Wei)sLer.
New Jersey— Kichard Stockton.
New Jersey — Philip Kearny.
New York — Robert R. Liviugston.
New York — George Clinton.
North Carolina — Zebulon B. Vance.
Ohio — James A. Garfleld.
Ohio — ^YiIliam Allen.
Oklahoma — Sequoiah.
Pennsylvania — J. P. G. Muhlenberg.
Pennsylvania — Robert Fulton.
Rhode Island^Nathanael Greene.
Rhode Island — Roger Williams.
South Carolina — John C. Calhonn.
Texas — Stephen F. Austin.
Texas — Samuel Houston.
Vermont — Ethan Allen.
Vermont — Jacob Collamer.
Virginia — Wa.shington.
Virginia — R. E. Lee.
West Virginia — John E. Kenna.
West Virginia — Francis H. I'ierpont.
Wisconsin — James Marquette.
Works of art in the Capitol Building,
Washington, have been acquired by gift
from private individuals interested in the
preservation of the historical, biographical,
or pictorial art of the nation ; by the gift
from states, as instanced by the statues of
distinguished citizens forming the collec-
tion in Statuary Hall, and by purchase by
the Government. A general supervision, of
the art works of the Capitol is exei'cised
by the Joint Committee on the Library.
This committee also lias charge of acces-
sions to the art works of tlie Capitol Bnild-
ing, except as otherwise provided by law.
Statues and Monuments:
Clinton, George, statue of, presented
to Congress by New York, 4214.
Dinosaur proclaimed, 8087.
Garfield, James ^-., statue of, to be
erected in Washington, 4795.
Unveiling ceremonies, order re-
garding, 5162.
Liberty Enlightening the World. (See
Liberty Enlightening the World.)
Eawlins, John A., statue of, recom-
mendations regarding erection of,
4124.
Thomas, George H., statue of, to be
unveiled, 4509.
Washington, George, statue of —
To be erected at Caracas, Vene-
zuela, 4716,
To be placed in Capitol, 881, 1170,
1910.
Washington Monument. (See Wash-
, ington Monument.)
Wooster, David, monument to mem-
ory of, information regarding, 801.
Torktown, Va., monument at, re-
ferred to, 4850.
Status Quo Ante Bellum in Europe
denounced, 8271.
Statute of Limitations should be re-
pealed in criminal cases, 1492.
Statutes of Limitations and Interest
Laws.— The following tabite gives the legal
and contract interest rates in the several
States, and the statutes of limitations of
notes, judgments and accounts :
States and
Tersitories.
Alabama..
Alaska —
Arizona
California
Colorado
Connecticut —
Delaware
D. of Columbia.
Florida
Hawaii..
Idabo. . .
Illinois. .
Indiana. .
Iowa
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts .
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
N. Hampshire. .
New Jersey
New Mexico . . ,
New York
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania. .
Porto Rico
Rhode Island .
South Carolina.
South Dakota. .
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington. . .
West Virginia,
Wisconsia. . . .
Wyoming
Interest Laws.
Legal
Rate.
Per ct.
8
.8
GtolO
6
7
Rate
Allowed
by
Contract.
Per ct.
8
12
6 to 10
10
Any rate,
.^y rate.
10
10
8
13
12
7
8
8
10
Any rate.
6
Any rate,
7
10
12
10
12
12
6tt
6
10
8
10
10
12(sl
5
ly rate.
20
8
10
12
80
6
10
10
10
12
8
(rl
6
6
20
12
ti
6
lU
10
20(n)
12
10
Statutes op
LlUITATlONS.
Judg-
ments.
Notes.
7
20
W)
5
15
10
6-20
12
6'c)
10
10
7
10
10
5
6
20
20
7
20(b)
10
10
21 M
5
10
5{f)
Years Years
20
10
10
4
5
20
(0)
10(m)
12
20
7
20
3
5
S
6
5
10
10
10
S
15
5
6W
3
15
5
6
6||
3
6
6(0
5<-
6
10
> 6
10
Open
Ac-
couats.
Years
3.
2 to 4
1
6
3
3
5
8
•Cnder seal, 10 years. § Unless a differ-
ent rate Is expressly stipulated. || Under
Statutes
Encyclopedic Index
Stockholders
seal, 20 years. ttNew York has legalized
any rate of interest on call loans of $5,000
or upward, on collateral security. §§Six
years from last Item. (c) Witnessed 20
years, (d) Thirty-flve years in Courts of
Record, in Justice's Court 18 years. (/)
Ceases to be a Hen after that period, unless
revived. («) Not of record 6 years, (o)
No limit, (p) Foreign. Domestic 6 years.
(r) No statute. (s) Pawnbrokers, 4%
monthly, (t) Witnessed promissory notes,
14.
Penalties for usury differ in the various
States. California, Colorado, Maine, Massa-
chusetts (except on loans of less than
$1,000), and >rontana and Nevada have no
provjlsions on the subject. Loss of principal
and interest is the penalty in Arkansas and
New York ; and loss of principal in Dela-
ware and Oregon.
Statutes of United States. (See Be-
vised Statutes.)
Statutory. — By authority of the statute.
Statutory law is law passed by the Legisla-
ture either of the nation or state. It Is
distinguished from common law in that It
is interpreted by the .iudiclary, as nearly
as ascertainable, according to the literal
meaning intended by the legislators. (See
Common Law.)
Steam Boiler Explosions:
Commission to inquire into causes of,
4213, 4434.
Examinations of inventions to pre-
vent, referred to, 1726, 1728, 1732.
Steam Engineering, Bureau of, Navy
Department. (See Bureau of Steam
Engineering.)
Steam Power:
Accident in navigation resulting
from criminal negligence in use of,
discussed, 1253.
Use and development of, in naval
warfare, discussed, 1901, 2122,
2132.
"Steam Roller" Tactics. — the action of
the Republican leaders in the nominating
convention of 1912 was characterized by
their opponents throughout the campaign
as "Steam Roller" Tactics, because it was
alleged that the Committee on Credentials
had arbitrarily seated contesting delegates
regardless of the merits of the cases In-
volved, and by so maneuvering had gained
a majority tor the platform and the can-
didates desired by the reactionaries.
Steamlioat Inspection Service, Com-
merce Department. — ^This service is
charged with the Inspection of all vessels
flying the United States flag which are not
directly connected with the Navy Depart-
ment. In addition to general inspection con-
cerning safety, the Service Investigates the
serviceability of all vessels for the kind of
service they are to render, sees that the ac-
commodations for both passengers and crew
are sufficient, and examines the safety of all
the equipment, with especial attention to
boilers. In a recent year, the Service in-
spected and certificated 7,736 domestic ves-
sels and 315 foreign steamers. The tonnage
of the domestic vessels Inspected was 12,-
741,807, and of the foreign vessels, 2,879,-
572. There were 33,614 officers licensed,
226,110 new life preservers Inspected, of
which 3,009 were rejected, 5,733 marine
boiler plates inspected at the mills. During
the year, more than 368,000,000 passengers
were carried on steam vessels required to
report the number of their passengers, with
470 lives lost from all causes and 911 per-
sons directly saved by the life-saving ap-
pliances required by law.
Steamboat Inspection Service, dis-
cussed, 4931.
Steamboats, casualties on, discussed
1611.
Steamship Companies, American, pos-
session and control of, 8487.
Steamship MaU Service. (See Postal
Service.)
Steamships:
Australian line referred to, 4101.
Claims of German lines to interest
on dues illegally exacted, 5084,
5367.
Construction of, into war vessels
when needed, recommended, 2203
Immigrant-bearing. (See Immigra-
tion.)
Line of, between —
Havre and New York referred to
2011, 2173.
San Francisco and Japan and
China, 4101.
Naval reserve of, recommended,
5492.
Proposals for construction of iron
steamships for trans-Atlantic serv- '
ice referred to, 4023.
Rapid service of, recommended by
International American Confer-
ence, 5511.
Recommendations regarding by
President —
Harrison, Benj., 5491, 5559.
McKinley, 6340.
Subsidized, between Europe and South
America, 7362.
Supervision of, by Interstate Com-
merce Commission, 6902.
Steel Industry. (See Iron and Steel
Industry.)
Ste'h-chass Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Steilacoom Indians. (See Indian Tribes )
St-kah-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
^*''^'',^°™P^'^«S, inspection of returns
o± 7960 (See also Corporations and
Interstate Commerce.)
Stock in Corporations, right of other
corporations to hold, 7079. (See also
Corporations.)
^^Tribef)^^ Indians. (See Indian
Stockholders, innocent, used to shield
iaw-(le±ying corporations, 7139.
Stockholm
Encyclopedic Index
Stone River
Stockholm, Sweden, International
Prison Congress to be held in, dis-
cussed, 4406.
Proceedings of, referred, to, 4464.
Stockton and Stokes, claims of, 1499.
Payment of, referred to, 1720.
Stockyards (see also Beef Packers and
Meat Packing) :
Chicago, report on condition of, 7296.
Licensed, 8528, 8582.
Stoluck-wha-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Stone and Webster referred to, 7162.
Stone, Clay and Cement.— Stone suit-
able for building purposes is found In near-
ly all the States. In value of output for
general purposes Pennsylvania takes the
lead. In the matter of stone for building
and monumental uses Vermont heads the
list. Marketable grades of stone are really
confined to a few states. - Granite comes
largely from the New England States, but
California also ships considerable <guanti-
ties. Slate is found mainly in Pennsylvania
and Vermont. Marble is quarried in Ver-
mont, Tennessee, Georgia, New York and
Massachusetts.
In 1785 a marble quarry was opened at
Dorset, Vt. ; about 1800, marble quarrying
and sawing was carried on at Marbledale,
Conn., and Stockbridge, Mass. Sandstone,
at present largely used for flagging, was
first.put on the market in the form of grind"-
st^les by John Baldwin ; tbe first slate
quarry In Vermont was opened in 1845 by
Col. Allen and Caleb Ranney at Scotch Hill,
Fair Haven. The granite Industry had its
beginning at Qulncy, Mass., about 1820.
The value of the production of stone in
the United States in 1914 reached the great
total of $77,412,292.
Clay Products. — The clay products indus-
tries are divided into two distinct classes :
(1) Brick and tile making, including paving
brick and sewer pipe; (2) pottery, terra
cotta, and fire-clay products, including
porcelain ware, earthen and stoneware,
china and sanitary ware. There were 5,037
establishments engaged in the two branches
of the business when reports were made for
the census of 1910. They were capitalized
at $316,022,470, and gave employment to
146,786 persons, paying in salaries and
wages $78,144,116. More than four-fifths
(83.7 per cent.) of these were engaged in
making brick and tile.
Pottery. — ^The art of molding clay into
articles for domestic use is one of the old-
est of handicrafts, and doubtless developed
shortly after or coincident with the carving
of weapons. Specimens of clay folding
carry fragments of the early history of all
races. The Mound Builders of prehistoric
America had distinctive pottery.
To the Chinese and the Egyptians we are
indebted for a later development of earth-
enware fabrication. Josiah Wedgwood was
the pioneer master of the ancient art in
England. In 1744, Edward Heylyn, of
the Parish of Bow, and Thomas Frye, of
the Parish of West Ham, Essex, England,
applied for a patent for the manufacture of
chinaware, in which they specify that the
material used is an earth produced by the
Cherokee Indians of America. As early as
1765 South Carolina had a pottery which
seriously threatened Wedgwood's American
trade. Before 1800 the pottery business
was fairly well established la Philadelphia
and vicinity. The Jersey Porcelain Com-
?SS? °i '^iJ^y City was incorporated in
1825. In 1837 the Indiana Pottery Com-
pany was started at Troy, Ind., on the Ohio
Kiver. East Liverpool, Ohio, owes Its pros-
perity to the disco+ery of Ootter's clay in.
the neighborhood by James Bennett, an Eng-
lish potter, who erected the first works
there in 1839. Trenton, N. J., built Its first
pottery in 1852. The earliest ware was
mostly plain white undeeorated or yellow,
followed by white, carrying blue designs.
The census of 1910 reported 822 estab-
lishments engaged in the manufacture of
stoneware, earthenware, white and cream-
colored ware, chinaware, delft and belleek-
ware, porcelain electrical supplies, archi-
tectural terra cotta, fire brick, sewer pipe,
StS: , These turned out products valued at
$76,118,861, and employed 56,168 wage-
earners, to whom they paid $29,753,495
for the year.
Cement. — Two classes of cement are gen-
erally recognized in this country — hydraulic
or natural rock cement (made from a lime-
stone containing a relatively high propor-
tion of clay, by burning at a low heat, and
grinding the product to powder) ; and Port
land cement (made from an artificial mix
ture of carbonate of lime (either chalk
limestone or marl,) with a certain propor-
tion of clay, burning at a white heat and
grinding the clinker to powder.)
Common natural rock, or hydraulic
cement, is sometimes called Eosendale ce-
ment, because it is made in large quanti-
ties near Eosendale, Ulster County, N Y
* P-,^'S? ^^^« iu Pennsylvania, Kentucky
ana Indiana, at several points in Illinois,
and around Milwaukee, Wis. Recent an-
nual outputs of these districts were : New
York, 2,500,000 barrels; Indiana and Ken-
tucky, 1,500,000: Pennsylvania, 1,340,000-
Wisconsin, 330,000 barrels.
lo,^''*'^''^/^™^?*,,^^^ ^''St made in Eng-
land in 1824, and derives its name from its
lesemblance to the limestone of Portland
Island, m the English channel. The indus-
try was then taken up in Germany, where
the annual output is something like 20 000
h^lltli- whereas England makes 9,000;000
??» TT?;u ?°«*?"?'' '^T?,"' wa« fli-st made in
the United States at Copley, Pa., in 1878
and since then works have been established
In more than a dozen other states.
The growth of the cement Industry is one
of the marvels of American progress. In
1885 we were able to make about 150 000
barrels. This amount was doubled every five
years till 1900 when the demand, public
and private, for concrete construction
caused the production to Jump to more
than 11,000,000 barrels ; two years later it
exceeded 17,000,000. Today the best grades of
American Portland cement are as good as
those produced anywhere, and in effective-
ness of equipment, extent of output, and
cheapness of production, the leading Port-
land cement plants of this country are
models for the world. Not even in the de-
velopment of our Iron and steel industry
have American energy, resourcefulness, and
mechanical ability been more strikingly dis-
played.
Stone Elver, or Murfreesboro (Tenn.),
Battle of.— Oct. 30, 1862, Gen. Buell was
succeeded In tha command of the Army of
the Ohio by Gen. William S. Eosecrans.
During December the Federal army of 41,-
421 infantry, 3,266 cavalry, and 2,223 ar-
tillery, with 150 guns, lay at Nashville,
Tenn. The recent invasion of Kentucky
by the Confederates under Gen. Bragg
having proven unsatisfactory to the Con-
Stone River
Encyclopedic Index
Strikes
federate government, he was again ordered
to the north soon after he had reached
Chattanooga. By Christmas he was posted
near Murfreesboro, about thirty miles south-
cast of Nashville, with an army of 37,000
men. Eosecraas had planned to assail the
Confederate right early on the morning of
Dec. 31, in front of Murfreesboro. Bragg,
auticipating his design, attacked McCoolJ
ou the Federal right and drove hlln from
his position with considerable loss, includ-
ing 3,000 prisoners and 28 guns. Some
Federal accounts represent the Confederates
as repulsed four times after their success-
ful charge. Both armies rested on Jan. 1,
1863. On the 2d Rosecrans resumed his
efforts to turn the Confederate right. Some
statements are to the effect that Bragg at-
tacked unsuccessfully. The one here fol-
lowed says the Federals advanced, were
forced back across Stone Elver, but later
recovered the ground and threw up breast-
works. Bragg retijed from his position on
the 3d and occupied Murfreesboro, which
he evacuated on the 5th. He then fell back
about twenty-five miles to Duck River. The
Federal loss in the fighting about Mur-
freesboro was 1,723 killed, 7,245 wounded,
and more than 3,000 prisoners — a total of
about 12,000. The loss of the Confederates
was about 11,000 men in killed, wounded,
and missing. This battle is called by the
Confederates the battle of Murfreesboro.
It was one of the bloodiest of the Civil War.
Stono Ferry (S. C), Battle of.— in the
early summer of 1779 the British under
Gen. Prevost advanced Upon Charleston and
demanded its surrender. They were driven
off by the vigorous action of Pulaski, Eut-
Ipdge, Moultrie, Laurens, and others. In
his retreat toward Savannah, Gen. Prevost
left a detachment in charge of Stono Ferry,
ten miles below Charleston on the Stono
River. June 20 these were attacked by
Gen. Lincoln. In the absence of concerted
action the assault failed and the Ameri-
cans withdrew after losing 146 in killed
and wounded.
Stony Creek (Canada), Battle of.—
AVlien the British were driven from Fort
George, on the Niagara Eiver, they fled
westward under command of Gen. Vincent
as far as Stony Creek, six miles southeast
of the present city of Hamilton, and about
fifty miles from , Niagara River. Here
they made a stand, having been reenforced
by troops from Kingston. They were closely
followed by 1,300 Americans under Gener-
als Chandler and Winder. At midnight
June 5, 1813, Vincent, with about 800 men,
started for the American camp. The at-
tack was made before daylight, and the
combatants were unable to distinguish
friend from foe. Chandler and Wmder
were both captured and Vincent was lost
in the woods. The British command then
devolved upon Col. Harvey, who, despairing
of driving the Americans from their posi-
tion, withdrew from the attack while it
was yet dark. The Americans fied to Forty-
Mile Creek, where they were Joined bv 400
reenforcements. The total casualties of the
battle were : Americans, 154 ; British, 178.
Stony Point (N. Y.), Storming of.—
With a view to regaining possession of the
Hudson, Gen. Clinton in June, 1779, occu-
pied and fortified Verplanck's Point and
Stony Point, garrisoning the latter with
600 men. To circumvent his movements
Washmgton sent for Anthony Wavne and
asked him if he could take Stony Point.
His reply is said to have been : "I will
storm hell if your excellency will plan it."
Accordingly, Washington planned the as-
sault, and on the night of July 16, 1779,
Wayne, with about 800 men selected from
three regiments of infantry, a detachment
from West Point, and Col. Lee's light-horse,
made a sudden assault upon the fort. The
plans were carefully executed, the guns
were^carried off, and the works destroyed.
The British casualties were 20 killed, 74
wounded, 58 missing, and -i72 prisoners — a
total loss of 624. The total American loss
was only 15 killed and 83 wounded. Among
the latter was Gen. Wayne. This, tlie
boldest exploit of the Eevolution, was initi-
ated by the capture and gagging of a senti-
nel, the countersign having been obtained
by a negro strawberry vender and by him
communicated to the Americans. While
the negro chatted with the sentry the lat-
ter was seized by the American advance
party.
Storage, Cold. (See Cold Storage.)
Straw Shoe Channel, steamers sailing
under American flag prohibited from
passing through, referred to, 3896,
3902.
Streight's Raid.— In the spring of 1863,
about the time Col. Grierson's flying col-
umn of cavalry was organized at Memphis,
Tenn., Col. A. D. Streight, of the Fifty-first
Indiana, was permitted by Gen. Eosecrans
to take a body of 1,800 cavalry from Tus-
cumbia, Ala., to attempt the destruction of
railroads and other property in northern
Alabama and Georgia. The raiders started
out April 12 and were captured Mav 3,
1*63, near Eome, Ga., having accomplished
nothing. The capture was made by For-
rest's cavali'.v.
Strict Accounta'bility of Germany for
destruction of property and life, 8056.
Strict Constructionist.— In political par-
lance, a political party or individual insist-
ing upon the precise application of the word-
ing of the Constitution. The Anti-Federal-
ists and their successors, the Democratic-
Republicans, and, until very recently, the
Democratic party have usually been regarded
as strict constructionists.
Strike Commission:
Discussed, 5983, 7037.
Eeport of, transmitted, 5988.
(See also Arbitration, Labor and
Strikes.)
Strikes and Lockouts. — The history of
strikes depends upon a careful definition
of the word. In some i'espects, the exodus
of the Children of Israel from Egypt was
a strike, as were the peasants' revolt in
England in the fourteenth century and the
various trade struggles of the mediaeval
guilds. But strikes in the common modern
sense of the term date from the rise of labor
organizations in the nineteenth century, and
truly serious strikes were ushered In with
the last quarter of that century. ' (See
Trade Unions.)
Strikes are generally called for the pur-
pose of raising wages, lowering working-
hours, opposing a decrease of wages or an
increase in hours, having the union recog-
nized or enforcing the closed shop, opposing
discrimination against unioii members, in
sympathy with labor struggles elsewhere or
for general Improvement of working con-
ditions. In recent years, there have been
many attempts to end or to minimize strikes
by arbitration (see Labor Arbitration).
In the United States, strikes as such have
not been declared illegal by national legls-
Strikes
Encyclopedic Index
Strikes
lation. However, certain states, notably
Kansas, have taken action to that effect,
and various legal decisions have forbidden
intimidation, the secondary boycott, the
destruction of property through strikes,
picketing and sympathetic strikes. Recent
judicial decisions also have seemed to es-
tablish the contention that unions are liable
tor damages incurred because of strikes. In
the coal strike of 1919, the Attorney-Gen-
eral of the United States filed an injunction,
under the Food Control Law (q. v.), com-
pelling the miners' leaders to call off the
strike. (See Boycott, Injimctions, Loewe
vs. Lawler, Bucks Stove Case, etc.).
There are reports of strikes In the United
States around the opening of the nineteenth
century, by the bakers, shoemakers and
sailors. In the early years of the century,
there were spasmodic strikes called among
various trades, and by 1835 strikes had be-
come numerous in this country.
Notable strikes in the United States have
been as follows : The great railroad strikes
of 1877, the first to assume serious national
significance ; in 1883, the telegraphers'
strike ; in 1885, the strike on the Gould
system of railroads ; in 1892, the bitter and
sanguinary Homestead strike ; in 1894, the
Pullman strike in Chicago, accompanied by
great disorder ; in 1900 and 1902, the
anthracite coal miners' strike ; in 1901, the
steel workers' strike ; in 1903-4, the strike
of the Colorado coal workers ; in 1906, the
bituminous coal strike, in which the federal
government finally was compelled to inter-
vene ; in 1909, the strike of the shirtwaist
workers in New York and in the same year
the riotous strike at McKees Roclts, Pa.,
near Pittsburgh ; in 1910, the strike of the
cloakmakers In New York ; in 1912, the
strike of the mill-hands at Lawrence, en-
gineered by the I. W. W. ; In 1913-4, the
strike of the copper workers in Michigan
and that in Colorado of employees of the
Colorado ruel'and Iron Company, in which
occurred the firing upon the strikers' tent
colony, and the death of some women and
children (the so-called Ludlow Massacre) ;
in 1913, the strike of the miners in
West Virginia and Colorado and that of the
silk workers in Paterson ; in 1916 and
1920-1, the garment workers in New York
City ; in 1919, a general strike in Seattle ;
and a policemen's strike in Boston ; in 1920,
the nation-wide steel strike.
In the twenty years from 1880 to 1900,
there were some 23,000 strikes called in
the United States, affecting 117,500 estab-
lishments and about 6,000,000 workers. The
average duration of each strike was 24
days. The strikes were chiefiy in the ive
states. New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois,
Massachusetts and Ohio.
Of the strikes in the period, 20% were
in the building trades, 11% in the coal and
coke industry, 9% in the metal trades, 7%
in tobacco and 6% in transportation.
Of the total number of strikes, 63%%
were ordered by unions. Of this number
53% were successful, 13%% partly success-
ful and 33%% failures. Of the strikes not
called by unions, only 35%% were success-
ful, 9% partly successful, while 55%%
were failures.
The causes of the strikes in this period,
1880-1900, were as follows: 29% concern-
ing wages: 11%, hours; 11%, hours and
wages; '7%, against a reduction in wages;
3%%, sympathetic; 2%%, against the
employment of non-union men; and 2%%,
for the recognition of the union.
The changes in the character of strikes
frdm the end of the nineteenth to the be-
ginning of the twentieth centuries may be
seen by comparing these figures with those
for 1916, 1917, 1918 and 1919, given below.
A recent survey of the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics gives figures for
strikes and lockouts in the United States for
the calendar years 1916, 1917, 1918 and
1919, as follows:
Tear Strikes Loclttiiits
1910 3,681 108
1917 4,324 126
1918 3,232 lOo
1919 3,253 121
The greatest number of strikes and lock-
outs seem to occur in the months of April
and May, doubtless because the trade agren-
ments in many industries expire on April
30.
By sections, the number of strikes and
lockouts was as follows :
N. of the Ohio and E. of Mississippi. 11,199
S. of the Ohio and B. of Mississippi. 1,004
West of the Mississippi 2,755
Tiie largest number of strikes and lock-
outs was in the following states :
Strikes Lockouts
New York 2,466 58
Pennsylvania 1,616 38
Massachusetts 1,433 30
Ohio 943 45
New Jersey 939 18
Illinois 914 37
Connecticut . .■ 71.'i 6
Washington 551 7
The greatest number of strikes and lock-
outs by cities was as follows in 1916, 1917,
1918, 1919:
City 1QI6 1917 1918 1919 Total
New York 363 484 484 3G0 1,691
Cliicago 73 123 100 124 420
Boston 62 86 66 96 310
Philadelphia 74 89 80 60 303
St. Louis 58 S3 70 36 217
Cleveland 60 76 39 47 2?2
Newark 55 SO 36 30 171
Baltimore 39 36 45 22 142
Cincinnati 29 33 26 36 124
San Francisco 23 37 30 33 123
Pittsburgh 47 37 19 17 120
Providence 21 46 18 30 115
Buffalo 41 28 24 19 112
Seattle 15 49 28 18 110
Detroit 31 19 18 37 105
By sex, the strikes and lockouts in the
abo%e four years were as follows :
Bex Strikes Lockouts
Male 11,537 321
Females 453 4
i Males and females 1,185 47
Not reported 1,315 . 88
According to unicTn affiliation, the strikes
and lockouts were as follows :
1919 1918 1917 1916 Total
Union 1,913 1,903 2,392 2,438 8,646
Non-union 29 26 55 71 181
Combination* 29 26 56 71 181
Not reported. . . 1,296- 1,046 1,794 814 4,950
♦Not_ union at time of striking, but organised
almost immediately afterwards.
According to reports received, the chief
causes of strikes and lockouts over the four
years were as follows :
Cause Strikes Lockouts
Wage-increase 5,221 66
Wage-increase and hours-
decrease 1,658 17
Recognition of union 1,173 127
Discharge of employees 605 8
Recognition and wages .... 493 14
Decrease of hours 423 15
Strikes
Encyclopedic Index
Submarines
By number of persons affected, the record
was as' follows :
Strikes Lockouts
10,000 and over 158 4
1,000 to 10,000 : . . 964 22
500 to 1.000 772 16
250 to 500 1,231 31
100 to 250 1,558 46
50 to 100 1,472 36
Less than 50 3,209 120
Unreported 5,120 185
The number of persons Involved was as
follows :
Strikes Lockouts
1919 3,950,411 162,096
1918 1,196,928 43,061
1917 1,208,121 19.113
1916 1,546,735 53,1,S2
The average number of persons affected
per strike and lockout, respectively, was as
follows: 1919, 1,647 and 1,724; 1918,
575 and 605 ; 1917, 530 and 416 ; 1916,
594 and 831.
By industries, the greatest number of
strikes and lockouts was as follows :
Lockouts
97
73
42
12
9
20
7
4
Industry Strikes
Metal trades 2,026
Building trades 1,663
Clothing industry 1,422
Mining 1,174
Transportation 1,023
Textiles industry 967
Lumber industry 453
Shipbuilding 367
Iron and steel industry... 267 10
Meat-cutting 214 4
Tobacco 207 , 8
Paper manufacture 166 6
Printing and publishing. . . 162 14
Furniture industry 137 9
Stone work 112 2
Leather work 95 6
By occupations, the largest number of
strikes and lockouts was as follows in
1916, 1917, 1918 and 1919:
Occupation Strikes Lockouts
Coal miners 1,019 12
Machinists 853 44
Molders 582 19
Teamsters 489 14
Street-railway employees ...395 5
Carpenters 331
Bakers 262
Plumbers and steam-fitters 229
Painters and paper hangers 219
Tailors r 199
Longshoremen 196
The duration of strikes and lockouts
follows:
Striken
More than 200 days 95
92 to 199 days 303
50 to 91 days 489
25 to 50 days 864
10 to 25 days 1,594
Less than 10 days 3,464
Unreported 1,708
12
39
9
8
4
1
Lock-
outs
9
25
26
35
39
42
61
1919 1918 1917 1916
Total Duration Days Days. Days Days
Strikes 57,855 28,779 25,077 46,305
Lookouts 2,215 1,116 1,904 3,375
Average Duration
.Strikes 34 18 18 22
Lockouts 38 31 56 64
The results of the strikes in the four years covered
were as follows;
1916 1917 1918 1919
Favor of Employers 727
Favor of Employees 733
Compromised 766
Strikers returned pending
arbitration 70
Not reported 99
382 450 624
614 610 573
698 668 729
131
190
200
188
42
33
The results of the lockouts were as follows: ^
1916 1917 1918 1919
Favor of Employers 21 13 6 18
Favor of Employees 15 17 15 16
Compromised 14 27 22 14
Not reported 2 1 21 20
Strikes:
Compulsory investigation of, 7089.
Denounced —
Carpenters in shipyards, 8456.
Coal miners, 8797.
Machinists in Bridgeport, 8581.
Policemen, 8796.
War-time, 8456, 8773.
Lockouts and, record of, 7037.
Record of, 7037.
Eight of, supported by President —
Eoosevelt, 7088, 7345.
Wilson, 8819.
Street-cleaners in New York, referred
to, 7726.
Strong Government Men. — A party organ-
ized in 1783 which favored a strong central
government and a loose construction of J:he
Constitution.
Students' Army Training Corps. — After
the passage of the selective draft laws in
the war against Germany and Austria-Hun-
gary, the War Department made special
arrangements for keeping qualified students
in their colleges and high schools pending
their call to the colors. Such students were
given military training in their schools, at
the same time taking such other regular
studies as their military training allowed.
Immediately upon their Induction Into
the S. A. T, C, students were placed upon
active service and were given private's pay
of $30 monthly. The War Department en-
tered into contracts with the students'
educational institutions for the quartering,
subsistence, and instruction of all such S.
A. T. C. members. There were no enlist-
ments, entrance being by voluntary induc-
tion or draft. Those eligible were those who
were physically able to perform military
service, who had received a grammar school
education or Its equivalent, and who were
in attendance upon an institution main-
taining an S. A. T. C.
Subcoustitutional Centennial Commis-
sion, memorial of, proposing to cele-
brate centennial anniversary of
framing Constitution, discussed, 5118.
Submarine Cables. (See Ocean Gables.)
Submarine Telegraph Company, claim
against United States, 6824.
Submarine Warfare of Germany, crimes
of, 8227 et seq. (See also Germany.)
Submarines. — Annalists trace the records
of under-sea operations back to the days
of Alexander the Great. Systematic study
of attack below the water line was made
Submarines
Encyclopedic Index
Subsidies
as early as the thirteentli and fourteenth
centuries, (or several English ships were
reported destroyed in 1372 by Are carried
under water. The idea certainly is not a
novel one, for what more natural sugges-
tion could present itself than a thrust in
the rear when a frontal attack fails
against a foe. Passing over the earlier ac-
counts of submarine boats for lacli of con-
firmation, we find fairly reliable descrip-
tions of such vessels in 1580, 1605, 1624,
1680, 1747, mostly built and operated in
England.
The earliest attempts at submarine naval
operations in America were made in 1775
by David Bushnell, who built an iron ves-
sel shaped lii£e a tortoise, water tight and
with an air capacity sufiicient for one man
one hour. This was made to dive under
water and propelled forward at a speed
of two or three Itnots an hour by means
of screws worked by the hands of the
operator. There were automatic air
tubes and a depth gauge, as well as an
auger for boring holes in the hulls of ves-
sels attaclsed and attaching torpedoes.
In this submarine, called the Turtle,
Sergeant Lee was enabled to get beneath
the English man-of-war Eagle in New Yoib.
harbor. Lee's attack .failed because his
auger was not sharp enough to penetrate
the copper-covered bottom of the Bagle. A
later att,empt to torpedo tne British frig-
ate Cerberus, at anchor off New London,
was made in 1777, but the torpedo drifted
astern and destroyed the schooner Ram-
illes and killed several men on board. This
was the first vessel ever destroyed in this
manner.
Between 1796 and 1810 Robert Fulton
built submarine boats in America and
France. On his Nautilus he once remained
submerged five hours. His Mute had an
armor plating and was propelled by a
noiseless steam engine. Fulton's work was
followed by more or less successful efforts
In England, France, Germany and Russia ;
but the civil war In America furnished a
notable stimulus to submarine architecture.
A partially submerged Confederate vessel
attacked the Federal Ironsides in 1863, and
the same kind of a craft destroyed the
Housatonic in Charleston harbor in 1864.
I Tliese Confederate submarines were called
"Davids," possibly in the hope that they
would vanquish their giant foes of the
United States Navy. Between 1878 and
1888 Garrett and Nordenfelt made success-
ful experiments with submersible boats,
and one by Gustave Z6d& in 1888 was
looked upon as a success ; it was fifty-six
feet long, thirty tons displacement, and had
a speed of ten knots. George C. Baker made
many submarine trips in Lake Michigan in
1892. Submarines built by Simon Lake in
1894 and 3 897 remained submerged more
than ten hours, and traveled 200 miles
under the waters of Lake Champlain.
These vessels were designed more for sci-
entific exploration and the salvage of
sunken cargoes than for offense.
Congress appropriated $200,000 in 1892
to enable the Navy Department to build
and test a suomarine. The plans of J. P.
Holland were accepted, and the tenth im-
provement on this type was ordered in
1900. It is fitted with three torpedo
tubes, carries the largest Whitehead tor-
pedoes, and makes eight to nine knots
speed. Eight of these boats were put in
commission in 1903. Variations in the
types are designated by letters (from A to
M) and the number of vessels authorized
has reached fifty-nine. (See Navy, De-
partment of.) March 25, 1915, the F-4
was submerged in Honolulu harbor, Ha-
waii, and her crew of twenty-one men
perished.
The Great European War increased so
rapidly the power and the scope of the
submarine that it Is impossible to forecast
the limits of its development. The sub-
marine in the war has proved to be one
of the determining factors In the conflict,
although it has fallen below the expecta-
tions of Its most ardent panegyrists, for
example. Sir Percy Scott, the English naval
expert, who predicted in a letter to the
London Times in 1914 that the under-water
boat would drive the above-water boat out
of existence. Among the famous exploits
of submarines in the war were the sinking
of the English armored cruisers Creasy,
Hague, and Aioukir, each above 12,000 tons,
by the German U-9 within the space of an
hour and a half on September 22. 1914 ;
and the entrance of the English B-11 Into
the Dardanelles early in 1915, where she
sank a Turkish battleship, passing under
five rows of submarine mines In her dash
into and from the harbor. It was the
actions of the German submarines which
led to the entrance of the United States
Into the war, Germany announcing in 1917
that all ships of any country entering the
war-zone which Germany had drawn around
th^ British Isles would be sunk on sight
after Feb. 1, 1917. Previously, the British
liner Lusitania (q.'v.) had been torpedoed
without warning on May 7, 1915, with the
loss of over 1,000 lives, 107 of them Ameri-
cans. After spirited negotiations with the
United States, the Imperial German Govern-
ment had agreed to cease its destruction of
Ships without warning, and to safeguard
lives on such vessels before destroying
them ; but these assurances, which were
never given unqualifiedly, were annulled by
the announcement of the campaign begin-
ning February 1, 1917.
For an account of the sinkings of vessels
in the World War, see the article under the
latter head ; for a contrast of the sub-
marines of the great naval Powers, see
Navies of the World.
Submarines:
Agreoment on use of, and drifting
mines, suggested by President Wil-
son, 8057.
American lives lost by action of,
8062, 8125.
Dangers to neutral commerce in use
of, 8057, 8063.
Eestrieted -warfare by, conditions of,
stated by Germany, 8057.
Unrestricted warfare —
Defence of, by Germany, 80o8.
Evils and wrongs of,8227.
Protest against, 8121.
Resumption of, announced by
Germany, 8204.
Vessels sunk by, 8062, 8117, 8125,
8210.
Subsidies, Mail, urged by President
Taft to assist in establishing direct
steamship lines to South America,
7374, 7435, 7503.
Subsidies to Industry by German gov-
ernment, denounced, 8388.
Subsidies to Railroads:
Discussed, 4064.
Subsidies
Encyclopedic Index
Sudan
Information regarding, transmitted,
4958.
Subsidies to Steamships:
Discussed, 4151, 4306, 4938.
Views of Postmaster-General regard-
ing, 3561.
Subsidy. — Derived from the Latin auh-
sidlum, originally the troops stationed in
reserve in the third line of battle, from
subsidere, to sit down. In Europe, after
the period of its first use, it meant a sum
of money paid to an ally to aid in carry-
ing on war. In England it was a special
tax levied upon persons and not upon prop-
erty. It has now come to mean money
paid by a government to individuals or
companies, such as steamship or railway
in excess of the value of services rendered
and in aid of individual enterprise. Rail-
ways in the United States have been as-
sisted by state and municipal subscriptions
to their bonds. National aid to railways,
with the exception of the Union and Cen-
tral Pacific, has been in the form of laud
grants. In the case of the Pacific roads,
in addition to 33,000,000 acres of land, the
company was granted a money subsidy of
more than $25,000 a mile.
The first subsidized steamships were
those of the Cunard Line, which in 1838
were allowed an annual subsidy of £81,-
000 by Great Britain. Two years later
agitation was begun in the United States
to have steamship mail lines established on
the subsidy plan, and in 1845 the Postmas-
ter-General was authorized to make con-
tracts for carrying foreign mail in steam-
ships sailing under the American fiag. In
1847 an act was passed requiring the Sec-
retary of the Navy, to arrange for United
States steamships to carry the mail from
New York to Liverpool, to the West Indies
and Gulf ports, and from Panama up the
Pacific coast. By 1852 the Government
was paying .$2,000,000 a year for foreign
mail service, but Congress soon after put
an end to all mall subsidies. An act of
March 3, 1891, directed the Postmaster-
General to pay .$4 a mile run for first-class
vessels for carrying foreign mails and in
consideration of their use as auxiliary
naval vessels.
In 1898 Senator Hanna introduced into
the Senate a comprehensive bill to provide
subsidies for all classes of American ship-
ping. The bill passed the Senate in March,
1902, but failed to pass the House, al-
though several small subsidies have been
granted both before and since that date.
Substantive Legislation, appropriation
bills containing, disapproved, 7752.
Subtreasury System.— The subtreasury
system of the United States is an out-
growth of the panic of 1837. In his spe-
cial session message to Congress that year
President Van Buren strongly recommended
such a system (1541). Silas Wright, of
New York, introduced a bill in Congress in
accordance with the President's recom-
mendation. It prohibited Government
agents from receiving anything but gold
and silver. In 1840 the bill became a law
and subtreasuries were established at New
lork, Boston, Charleston, and St. Louis,
the mint at Philadelphia and the branch
mint at New Orleans having been also
made places of deposit. The law was re-
pealed in 1841, and reenacted in 1846. The
subtreasury at Charleston has been sus-
pended, but subtreasuries have been es-
tablished at Baltimore, Chicago, Cincin-
nati, and San Francisco.
Subtreasury System;
Condemnation of, referred to, 1898.
Discussed by President —
Taylor. 2556.
Tyler, 1898, 2060.
Van Buren, 1541, 1596, 1706, 1751,
1757, 1827.
Modifications in, recommended, 2556.
Sudan. — Anglo-Egyptian Sudan stretches
southward from the frontier of Egypt, 22°
N. latitude, to the Belgian Congo and
Uganda^" N. latitude; and from the Ked
Sea to Wadai in Central Africa. The total
area is about 1,015,000 square miles, with
a population estim.ated at 3,500,000. The
native population ' is composed of Arabs,
Negroes and Nubians of mixed Arab-Negro
blood.
History. — Egypt extended her rule into
the Sudan in the nineteenth century, but
in the latter decades a native revolutionary
ruler held sway until vanquished by a
British force with Egyptian help. A con-
vention .between the British and Egyptian
Governments in 1899 provided for the gov-
ernment of the Sudan by joint arrange-
ment between the two countries. In 1900,
a Council was created to assist the Gov-
ernor-General, who now exercises Ms exe-
cutive and legislative powers In conjunc-
tion with the Council. The country is
divided into fifteen provinces, each of which
is administered by British officers of the
Egyptian army or British civil officials of
the Government. The local districts are
governed by British inspectors, the admin-
istration being supervised by district offi-
cials who are usually Egyptian officers of
the Egyptian army.
In recent years the expenditure has been
about $11,500,000 annually and the revenue
about $13,500,000 annually.
In a recent year the imports, including
Government stores, amounted to about $20,-
000,000 and the exports, including re-ex-
ports, to about $19,500,000. Most of {he
trade is with Egypt, with a proportion, go-
ing to the United Kingdom.
The Sudan is the world's principal source
of gum arable and Ivory. Cotton is being
grown successfully along the Nile and the
Red Sea, and cattle-raising Is on the in-
crease. Other products are ostrich feathers,
palm nuts, dates, sesame, senna leaves and
pods, nuts, hides, skins. The only mineral
worked is gold. Rubber is produced In the
south. The forests are thick and valuable.
The chief grain grown is durra, a kind
of millet.
The chief exports, in order of value, are
sheep and goats, gum, durra, cattle, fol-
lowed by cotton and hides and skins. The
chief Import Is cotton goods, followed
by sugar. Other Imports of value are coal,
coffee, sacks, tea and. tobacco.
Physical Features. — The greater portion
of the region consists of the Nubian Des-
ert on the east and the Libyan Desert on
the west, divided by the fertile valley of
the Nile, which is nowhere of great width.
The Nile basin covers an area of nearly
1,100,000 square miles, and while part of
the basin lies in Abyssinia and Eritrea, its
course from the Central African Lakes to
the Mediterranean is within the British
Protectorate of Uganda and Central Africa,
and the Anglo-Egyptian and Egyptian do-
minions.
Suez Canal
Encyclopedic Index
Sugar
Suez CauaL — The Idea of connecting the
Red Sea with the Mediterranean dates bacis
Into remote Egyptian history more than
thirteen hundred years before the Christian
Era. During the reign of Setl I and
Rameses II a carfal was dug from the Nile
to Lake Tlmseh and thence to the Red Sea.
This became choked up with sand and a
new canal was begun by Necho, a son of
Psammetichus I, about 600 B. Q. and com-
pleted by Darius Hystaspls a hundred years
later. At the beginning of the Christian Era
the canal was no longer navigable, but was
probably restored under Trajan. After
again becoming impassable the canal was re-
stored during the seventh century by Amru,
the Mohammedan conqueror of Egypt
When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798-'.)y,
he ordered surveys made for a canal, biit
was forced to abandon the country before its
completion. An international commission
made preliminary surveys for a canal in
1846; but one of the engineers recommended
a railroad across the istlinins jind this was
built by British capital in 18oS.
Under the direction of Fcrdinn.nd De
Lesseps plans for a canal were drawn in
1855 and submitted to an international
commission. A concession was obtained
from Said Pasha, Khedive of F.gypt, and De
Lesseps organized a stock company with
£8,000,000 capital to build the canal. Work
was begun April 25, 1859, and the canal
was opened to traffic Nov. 17, 1869, the en-
tire cost amounting to £16,632,953 — about
$80,000,000. Under the terms of the con-
cession the Khedive received nearly one-
half of the stock issued. Becoming
financially embarrassed in 1875, he sold his
shares to the British government for $20,-
400,000. This interest is now valued at
something like $170,000,000^ and yields a
revenue of some $5,000,000.
The length of the canal from Port Said
on the Mediterranean to Port Tewflk on the
Gulf of Suez is eighty-seven statute miles —
sixty-six actual canal and twenty-one miles
of lakes. The original width was 150 to
300 feet at the water level, seventy-two feet
at the bottom, and twenty-six feet deep.
Successive enlargements have increased the
depth to thirty-six feet and the width to
from 213 to 262 feet, permitting the passage
of 15,000-ton vessels. The net tonnage of
the canal during the first year of its opera-
tion was 6,576. When the practicability of
the Suez route to India became known the
tonnage increased by leaps and bounds till
In 1911 it reached 18,324,794, more than
11,000,000 of which was British. The toll
rates are $1.25 per ton.
In a recent year there passed through
the Canal 2,522 vessels, with a total ton-
nage o;C 9,251,601, and paying tolls of about
'$46,000,000. The figures are below the
average of the pre-war years, and doubtless
below the average which were maintained
several years after the close of the World
War.
Suffrage. — The privilege of participating in
the government of a state or nation by
voting at an election of officers or on a
change in the fundamental law. Suffrage
' under the Constitution of the United States
is exercised by such electors in each state
as have the qualifications necessary for
elector of the most numerous branch of the
state legislature (15). The Constitution
does not guarantee the suffrage to any citi-
zen, but by the fourteenth and fifteenth
amendments the states are forbidden to
abridge the privileges or immunities of
United States citizens or to deny or
abridge the right of suffrage on aicount of
race, color, or previous condition of servi-
tude. The age of twenty-one is universally
fixed upon as that when suffrage may be
exercised.
In some states ability to read and write
is required, in some a small property qualifi-
cation or tax is imposed, while in others
aliens who have declared their intention
to become citizens are allowed to vote.
Until the present century suffrage was
greatly restricted in America. Massachu-
setts and New Haven Colonies for a long
time allowed none but church members to
vote. There have been periods in the his-
tory of nearly all the Colonies when only
freeholders were allowed to vote. When
the states in the Federal Union first framed
their constitutions sorhe of them retained
the church-membership qualification, while
others permitted suffrage to freeholders
only. In 1798 Georgia abolished the prop-.
erty qualification, and was followed by
Maryland in 1801, Massachusetts and New-
York in 1821, Delaware in 1881, New Jer-
sey in 1844, Connecticut in 1845, Virginia
in 1850, North Carolina in 1854, South Caro-
lina in 1865, and Rhode Island, except in
municipal elections, in 1888. The new
states have mostly provided for manhood
suffrage from the first. Several of the
southern states have adopted methods, vary-
ing from each other, but all with the sin-
gle expressed purpose of excluding negroes
from the franchise and yet avoiding the
constitutional consequences of discriminat-
ing "on account of .race, color, or previous
condition of servitude."
For an account of the recent growth and
the history of the woman's suffrage move-
ment, see the article Woman Suffrage.
Suffren, The, French seamen on, acci-
dentally killed by salute from the
United States, 1273.
Sugar. — The term sugar, strictly applied,
means cane sugar, which is manufactured
from sugar cane, sugar beats, maple sap
and Sorghum. Up to about 1840 most of
the world's sugar was manufactured from
sugar-cane. "This plant appears to have
been a native of India and to have been
introduced to the rest of the world by way
of China. It was introduced Into Santo
Domingo soon after the discovery of Amer-
ica, and from there spread to Cuba and
was carried to Louisiana by the Jesuits
in 1751. Manufacture in the United States
begau in New Orleans in 1794. '
Cane sugar was discovered in the beet
root by Andreas Sigismund, Marggraf of
the Berlin Academy of Science in 1747, and
its extraction was developed by both
French and Germans. Experiments in the
culture and manufacture of beet sugar
were begun in Philadelphia in 1830 but
failed. Successive failures are reported up
to 1880, when the industry seems to have
been firmly established.
The Census of 1910 reported 233 estab-
lishments engaged in the manufacture of
sugar, with a capital of $153,167,000, em-
ploying 15,658 persons, paying in wages
and salaries $9,876,000, converting $247,-
583,000 worth of raw material into fin-
ished products valued at $279,249,000.
A recent report of the Census Bureau
gives a more recent survey of the sugar in-
dustry in the United States. The figures,
which are presented herewith, picture the
Industry before the war made all American
Industry abnormal, so that the survey made
Is of the industry in its recent normal
situation.
Practically all the mills for manufactur-
ing sugar from the cane are in Louisiana.
Sugar
Encyclopedic Index
SuUys HUl
Total
Number Establishments ■ 259
Persons Engaged 26,739
Capital $315,677,669
Salaries and Wages., 21,242,971
Cost of Materials... 321,442,937
Value of Products 373,639,298
Sugar Produced —
Tons (2,000 lbs.) 4,341,408
Value 363,034,123
Beet Sugar
Cane Sugar
defining
60
181
Ig
9,634
4,544
12,581
5142,181,326
$32,996,524
$140,499,819
8,884,853
2,052,621
10,326,597
41,399,361
15,968,218
264,086,358
62,605,210
21,635,373
289,398,715
743,473
264,801
3,333,134
68,590,460
18,947,683
286,496,974
A few small plantation mills outside of that
state are not included in the accompanying
liRures, because they produce chiefly syrup
which is consumed in their immediate neigh-
borhoods.
The refining done in this country is pri-
marily of cane sugar. Jlost of the raw
sugar used by tYp refineries is imported.
Accordingly, the refineries are located chiefly
where the imports are most accessible — at
New Yorlc, Boston, Philadelphia, New Or-
leans, San Francisco.
The following table shows the sugar pro-
duction of the world for some recent years :
Year Ending Cane Beet Total
June 30 Lang Tons Long Tons Long Tons
1900 3,056,294 5,590,992 8,647,286
1905 4,594,782 4,918,480 9,513,262
1910 8,327,069 6,597,506 14,914,675
1914 9,865,016 8,908,470 18,773.486
1917 11,235,136 5,752,838 16,987,975
1918 12,278,720 4,941,623 17,220,243
1919 11,965,030 5,355,624 16,320,654
1920 12,261,000 4,339,000 16,600,000
The production of sugar b.v chief coun-
tries in the fiscal year 1918-9 was as fol-
lows, in long tons :
Coun try Cane Beet
United States 674,892
Louisiana 250,802
Texas 3,21.")
Porto Rico 375,000
Hawaiian Islands . . 535,000
Virgin Islands 9,000
Philippine Islands . . 150,000
Cuba 4,000,000
Canada 22,300
British West Indies. . . 197,850
Santo Domingo 158,309
Mex. & Cent. America. 70,000
Argentina 130,226
Brazil 260,000
Peru 250,000
British India 2,337,000
Java 1,749,408
.Tapan and Formosa . . 415,678
Australia 226,000
Fiji Islands 80,000
Mauritius 252,772
Natal 144,000
Germany 1,411,900
Russia (pre-war) 700,000
Czecho-Slovakia, etc... 700,000
Holland 173,436
Spain 6,618 ' 135,000
Denmark 130,000
France 110,000
Italy 100.000
Belgium 75,000
In addition, in 1919, New York produced
3,161,000 pounds of maple sugar and Ver-
mont, 4,895,000 pounds. About 35,000,000
gallons of sorghum svrup is produced in the
United States annually.
The Imports and exports of cane sugar
from the United Sfates in recent years have
been as follows :
Year Ending _ Imports Exports
June 30 ' Pounds Pounds
1870 1,196,773,669 22,760,904
1890 2,934,011,660 47,495,577
1900 4,018,086,530 26,918,380
1910 4,094,645,936 189,304,962
1915 6,420,981,867 601,103,749
1917 5,329,587,360 1,268,306,254
1918 4,898,277,025 687,572,855
1919 6,831,982,457 1,118,872,723.
1920 7,550,195,838 1,450,793,630
Sugar (see also Beet Sugar):
Dealers in, licenses for, 8352.
Continued, 8868.
Terminated, 8875.
Economy in use of, urged, 8432.
Equalization Board referred to, 8876.
Manufacture of—
Encouragement of, recommended,
4578.
From sorghum and sugar cane, dis-
cussed, 5383.
Manufacture of milk, in Switzer-
land, referred to 4979.
Placed on free list, discussed, 5626.
Probable retaliatory action of for-
eign governments for proposed im-
position of duty on, 5910.
Protest of Germany to discriminat-
ing duty on, recommendations re-
garding, 5957.
Supervision provided by tariff law
for domestic production of, trans-
fer of, to Agricultural Department,
recommended, 5554.
Tariff duties on-;—
Absence of, discussed by President
Harrison, Benjamin, 5626.
Discriminating, protest of Germany
against, discussed, 5957.
Effect of, discussed by President
Wilson, 8918.
Foreign governments ' probable
retaliation for, discussed, 5910.
Trust, decision on, discussed, 7451.
Sugar-Beet Culture, 4534, 5554, 6347.
Sugar Bounty:
Discussed, 5875, 5964.
Payment of appropriation for, con-
tained in sundry civil bill, referred
to, 6095.
Suits Against Government, act regard-
ing bringing of, vetoed, 5682.
Sully's HiU Park. (See Parks, Na-
tional.)
Sumatra
Encyclopedic Index
Surveys
Sumatra. — A large Island forming part of
the Dutch East Indies (q. v.). Its area Is
about 159,750 square miles, with a popula-
tion oflacially estimated at slightly more
than 5,090,000.
Sumatra, attack on American vessels
by pirates on coast of, 1114, 1159.
Instriictions to commander of the
Potomac, regarding, 1138.
Sumter, Fort, Attack oa. (See illus-
tration opposite 3135.)
Sumpter, The,, arrest of part of crew
of at Morocco, referred to, 3345.
Sunday Laws. (See Blue Laws.)
Sunday Observance. (See Sabbath
Observance.)
Sunday ("Billy") Revivals.. (See
Eevivals, Religious.)
Superintendent of Finances. (See Fi-
nances, Superintendent of.)
Superintendent of Immigration, report
of, discussed, 5877.
Superintendent of Life-Savlng Service.
(See Life-Saving Service.)
Superior, Lake. (See Lake Superior.)
Supervising Architect, Treasury Depart-
ment.— ^Thls officer plans and supervises
the construction oi all buildings of the
United States Government, as well as the
repairs therein.
Supervising Architect referred to, 8848.
Supervision of Mall, State Department.
— ^The Division of Mail in the Department
of State was (treated in 1873. It has con-
trol of a general nature o*er the official
correspondence of the Department and its
representatives, and is under the supervi-
sion of the second assistant secretary of
state (Q. v.). (See State Department.)
Supplication and Prayer, Day of, pro-
claimed, 8377. (See also Fasting and
Prayer, Days of.)
Supplies, PubUc:
Distribution of, referred to, 141.
Officer should be placed in charge
of, 141.
Supply and Demand, Law of, break-
down of, 8404.
Suppression of Periodicals in war times
discusse.d, 8358. (See also Espionage
Law.)
Supreme Court. (See Court, Supreme.)
Supreme Court Justices. (See also Ju-
diciary and Courts):
Salaries of, increase in, 3996.
Should be exempted from other du-
ties, 830.
Supreme Court Reports.— The opinions
and decisions of the Supreme Court are
recorded in 214 volumes. Including the cases
decided up to October, 1908. They com-
prise Its work from Its first session In
1790 to the present time. They begin with
the volume numbered 2 Dallas and in-
clude 3 volumes by Dallas, covering the
Eerlod between 1790 and 1800 ; 9 volumes
y Cranch, 1800 to 1815; Wheaton, 12
volumes, 1816 to 1827 ; Peters, 16 volumes,
1828 to 1842 ; Howard, 24 volumes, 184b
to 1860; Black, 2 volumes, 1861 to 1862;
Wallace, 23 volumes, 1863 to 1875. Up
to that date the reports had reached 80
volumes by the different compilers. Since
1876 the reports have been styled 90 U.
S., 91 D. S., etc. ; 90 U. S. was reported
by Wallace ; 91 to 107 U. S. was reported
by William J. Otto, from 1875 to 1882;
108 to 186 U. S., between 1882 and 1902,
by J. C. Bancroft Davis, and the remainder
by Charles Henry Butler. (See Dallas, In
Biographic Index.)
Surgeon General. (See War Department
and Army.)
Surgeon General, Public Health. (See
Health Service.)
Surgeon-General of Army:
Building for library of, recom-
mended, 4657, 4833.
Ordered to accompany ex-President
Jackson home, 1540.
Surinam. (See Dutch Guiana.)
Surplus Revenue, Distribution of.— in
his annual message of Dec. 1, 1834 (page
1316), President Jackson announced the ex-
tinguishment of the public debt. The com-
promise taritC measure of 1832, while it
made some reduction in the revenue de-
rived from import duties, produced a sur-
plus in the Treasury. Jackson advocated
the distribution of this surplus among the
states ratner than the appropriation of it
to other purposes. A bill providing for such
disposition of the surplus was attached to
the bill regulatine public deposits and
passed by Congress in 1836. Under this
law all the money in excess of $5,000, 00()
in the Treasury, Jan. 1, 1837, was to be
deposited with the state in proportion to
their representation in the electoral col-
lege, and in four installments. The states
were required to give certificates of depos-
it payable to the Secretary of the Treasury
on demand. None of the banks selected
by the Government as the custodians of
public funds was under any kind of offi-
cial supervision by the states which char-
tered them or by the General Government.
The sum to be divided was •"!37,468,859.
Three installments of the money were paid
to all the states except the few that . had
refused to accept it on the conditions im-
posed. The return of these loans of the
states has never been demanded.
Surplus Revenue in Treasury. (See
Treasury.)
Surtax, — A tax over and above a previous
tax already levied against persons or articles
of the same class. .(See Income Tax.)
Surveyors, Public, punishment of per-
sons interrupting in performance of
the trusts confided to them, referred
to and recommendation for penalty
for the same, 1042.
Surveys and Maps, Board of, consti-
tuted and powers outlined, 8820.
Surveys, control and supervision of
geographical and geological, dis-
cussed, 4218. (See also the several
- surveys.)
Susan
Encyclopedic Index
Sweden
Susan B. Anthony Amendment. — The
amendment to the United States Constitu-
tion providing for equal suffrage for men
and women, named alter the pioneer leader
of the Woman Suffrage movement iu the
United. States.
Susan Iioud, The, seizure of, by Span-
ish or Cuban authorities referred
to, 2679.
Claims arising out of, referred' to,
2721, 2900. ,
Suspension Bridge, N. Y., proclamation
granting privileges of other ports to,
2859.
Susquehanna, The, repair of, referred
to, 2764.
SnscLHehanna Company.— An organization,
composed mostiy of Connecticut farmers,
formed in 1754 lor the purpose of coloniz-
ing the Wyoming country. This was the
uame given to a strip of land hought by
Connecticut from the Plymouth Company
in 1631. Under the charter granted by
James I. to the Plymouth Company in
1620, their territory extended from the At-
lantic to the Pacific and from lat. 40° to
46° north. The grant of Charles II. to
William Penu extended to 42° north, thus
overlapping the Plymouth grant to more
than the extent of the territory sold to
Connecticut, which extended to 41° south.
In 1754 the Susquehanna Company made
a treaty with the Six Nations of Indians,
securing the right to settlement upon their
purchase. Charles II. confirmed the sale to
Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, t.hough dis-
puting the sale, made no effort to prevent
a settlement. The first settlers in the
disputed territory were driven off by the
Indians In 1763. In 1769 some forty more
settlers arrived in the Wyoming region and
were arrested by Pennsylvania officials.
For the next six years a sort of civil war-
fare was kept up between the settlers of the
disputed tract, and only suspended during
the Revolution, after which the dispute was
arranged between the states and the titles
to the land confirmed. (See also Wyoming
Controversy.)
Susquehanna, or Conestoga Indians.
(See Indian Tribes.)
"Sussex," Sinking of —
Note to Germany concerning, 8125.
Eeply of Germany to, 8127.
Sutro Tunnel, referred to, 4148.
Swamp Lands. (See Lands, Swamp.)
Swanton, Vt., proclamation granting
privileges of other ports to, 2859.
Sweden. — Sweden occupies the eastern
and greater portion of the Scandinavian
peninsula of northern Europe, and lies
between 69° 3' iV-Zb' 20' 18" N. latitude
and 11° 6' 19"-24° 9' 11" B. longitude,
with an extreme length of close on 1,000
English miles and a greatest breadth of
about 250 English miles. The kingdom Is
bounded on the norlheast by the Grand
Duchy of Finland, on the east by the Gulf
of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, on the south-
west by the Cattegat and Skagerrack, and
on 'the west by the Kingdom of Norway.
The coast is fringed with an island fence
(skargard), the largest islands of the west
coast being Ornst nnd Tjovn, while Oland
(519 square miles) and Gotland (1,220
square miles) lie off the southeast coast, in
the Baltic Sea.
Physical Features. — The main Scandi-
navian range, known as the Kolen (keel),
forms a natural boundary between Sweden
and Norway from the northwestern bound-
ary to the center of tne kingdom, the great-
est elevations being in the extreme north.
Central Sweden consists principally of fer-
tile and wooded plains, and includes the
four great lakes of Hjalmaren, Malaren,
Vanern^and Vattern. In the extreme south
are the plains of Skane, consisting of rich
meadow land and occasional woods of beech.
The principal rivers of thE north are the
Torne, Kalix, Stora and Liila Lule (on
which Is the famous cataract, the Har-
sprang), the Pite, Skellefte, Ume and Vin-
del, Angerman, Indal and Ljusnan. In
the southern portion are the D*l and Klar,
while the short Gota contains the cele-
brated falls of Trollhattan. The surface of
the lakes and rivers of Sweden occupies
about one-twelfth of the total area of the
Kingdom.
About one-seventh of the Kingdom lies
within the Arctic Circle, but the country
receives a large measure of protection from
the western mountain barrier, and the pe
ninsula, as a whole, is warmed by the Atlan-
tic Drift. Compensation for the shortness
»of the northern summer is afforded by at-
mospheric refraction, which increases the
time of sunshine and light, but from Octo-
ber or November to May or June navigation
is impeded, and from December to April
the coasts are ice-bound.
History In 1319 the Kingdonj^ of
Sweden and Norway were united under one
sovereign, but in 1397 the League of Kalmar
TEormed tripartite kingdom under the hegem-
ony of Denmark. Sweden broke from the
League in 1523, and in 1814 the crown of
Norway was ceded by Denmark to Sweden.
In 1905 the King of Sweden renounced the
crown of Norway.
Government. — The Government is that of
a limited monarchy, hereditary in the male
line (by primogeniture) of the House of
Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte Corvo, who
was elected to the succession by the Riks-
dag on Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the
throne on Feb. 5, 1818. The constitution
rests upon the fundamental law of June
6, 1809, which declares the king to be irre-
^onsible, invests In him the executive au-
thority, and confers initiation and veto of
legislation.
The Riksdag consists of two elective
Chambers, of which the First Chamber con-
tains 150 members elected by the Lands-
ting, or Councils of the Lan (prefectures),
on a population basis, and with eligibility
confined to those of Swedish birth, aged
thirty-flve years, who possess real property
valued at 50,000 kronor, or annual taxed In-
comes exceeding 3,000 kronor. The Second
Chamber consists of 230 members, and are
elected for a maximum of three years by
universal suffrage, electors being registered
at the age of 24. The elections for the
Second Chamber are by a proportional
method. *
The King exercises his executive power
through a Council of State consisting of a
prime minister and ten other ministers. In
legislation, the King exercises his power in
conjunction with the Riksdag, and his assent
is required for new legislation ; but the sole
right of taxation adheres In the Riksdag.
All members of the Council of State are
responsible for the acts of the Government,
which thus is a responsible and representa-
tive one.
Sweden
Encyclopedic Index
Sweden
The local units of administration have
local self-government, although the twenty-
four governments into which the country is
divided (along with the city of Stockholm)
are administered by prefects nominated by
the King.
Justice. — ^The administration of justice is
independent of the Government, lying in the
hands of the chancellor of Justice and the
attorney-general, the former appointed by
the king and the latter by the Eiksdag. The
kingdom Is divided into 214 district court
districts, 91 urban and 123 rural. In the
urban districts, the courts are held by the
burgomaster and his assessors ; in the rural,
by a judge and twelve peasant proprietors
acting as jurors. However, the judge alone
decides, unless the jury unanimously dis-
agrees with him, in which case the jury's
decision stands. Ordinary trial by jury
exists only for actions regarding the press.
Popiilation. — The country is divided into
twenty-flve prefectures, having a total area
of 169,532 square miles. The Swedish peo-
ple are Scandinavians, but the population
Includes, in the north, about 2.T.000 Finns
and 7,000 Lapps. More than 99 per cent
of the people belong to the Swedish Luth-
eran Churcn.
The most recent figures for the popula-
tion placed It at 5,813,850. There Is a
slight preponderance of females. The prin-
cipal towns are the capital, Stockholm,
408,456 ; Goteburg, 197,421 ; Malmo, 110,459.
Education. — Primary education is com-
pulsory and free, and is maintained by
local taxation with State grants. Illiteracy
Is very rare, and good attendances at the
schools are secured. Most recent educa-
tional statistics show 77 public secondary
•schools, with 26,313 pupils ; 49 people's
high schools, with 2,976 pupils ; 9 technical
schools, with 3,900 pupils : and 16,821 pub.
lie elementary schools, with 23,657 teach-
ers and 708,075 pupils.
Finance. — The most recent figures for the
bud!;ct show revenue of $540,000,000 and
e>;penditures of $470,000,000. After the
close of the World War, it was hoped to
lower these figures materially. The total
value of land and house property in Sweden
is estimated at $3,500,000,000, of which
taxed agricultural land is represented by
about $1,450,000,000 and taxed other real
estate by about $1,720,000,000. The total
public debt is in the neighborhood of $295,-
000,000. The unit of value is the krona,
equal to about $0.27 in United States
money in normal exchange.
Producfion and Industry. — The common
cereals and potatoes and fruits are grown
and the live stock includes horses, cattle,
sheep, pigs, reindeer, goats and fowls. The
forests cover more than half the area of
the kingdom, and consist of pine, birch and
fir, producing timber, wood pulp, pitch, tar
and fuel. The number of farms cultivated
is 447,695. Of the total land area of
Sweden, about 9% is under cultivation,
SV^% under natural meadows, and 55%
under forests.
The acreage and production of the last
annual agricultural crop were as follows :
A creage Production
Crop (Hectares) (Tons)
Hay and fodder plants. 1,342,878 4,300,969
Sugar-beet and fodder
roots 127,650 3,838.372
Potatoes 168,689 2,1 11,213
Oats 712,372 1,111,730
Eye .'572.068 586,089
Mixed corn 260,782 473,749
Barley" 166,672 280,678
Wheat •• 140,913 258,792
The value of the total crop was put at
$535,000,000. The farm animals include
715,681 horses ; 2,550,818 cattle : 1,563,654
sheep and lambs ; and 716,783 pigs.
The kingdom is rich in minerals, includ-
ing iron of excellent quality (Dannemora
iron being converted into the finest steel) ;
gold and silvo. In email quantities ; copper,
lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, alum, sulphur,
porphyry and marble. In a recent year, the
mineral production included 6,623,661 tons
of iron ore ; 761,822 tons of pig iron ; 3,1 70
tons of silver and lead ore ; 21,410 tons of
copper ore; 48,500 tons of zinc ore; 16,570
tons of manganese ore ; 141,180 tons of
sulphur pyrites ; 404,500 tons of coal. The
gold produced amounted to 15 kilograms :
the silver to 980 ; the lead to 2,241,000 ;
the copper to 2,955,730 ; the zinc to 4,-
,098,150. Most of the Iron ore is exported.
There are about 48,000 persons engaged in
mining. . •
Industries are many, varied and import-
ant. Of especial importance are those con-
cerned with timber and wood-work, with
public forests of more than 8,000,000 hec-
tares, yielding annually about 4,850,000
cubic metres of timber. There! are 1,400
sawmills, with 45,000 workpeople and an
annual product valued at about $95,000,-
000 ; more than 500 factories for furniture,
etc., with more than 12,000 workpeople and
an annual product of about $15,000,000 ;
115 woodpulp factories, with more than 14,-
000 workpeople and with an annual out-
put valued at about $60,000,000 ; and 75
paper and pasteboard mills, with 12,000
workpeople and an annual output of almost
$50,000,000.
The number of workpeople and value of
output of some of the other industries are
as follows : Iron and steel, 24,000, $130,-
000,000 ; mechanical workshops, 57,750,
$130,000,000 ; iron and steel goods factories,
16,300, $50,000,000; flour and grain mills,
2,750, $35,000,000 ; spinning and weaving,
23,000, $55,000,000 ; shoe factories, 8,000,
$30,000,000 ; factories of metals other than
iron, 6,350, $25,000,000 ; dairies, 4,285, $25-
000,000.
In a recent year there were employed in
factories and workshops 295,600 men, 55,-
700 women and 50,000 boys and girls
■under 18.
Commerce. — ^In a recent year, the Im-
ports were valued at $200,000,000 and the
exports at $380,000,000. The chief exports
are wood pulp, paper and paper manufac-
tures ; metal goods, machinery, etc. ; metals,
raw and partly wrought ; timber. The
chief Imports are minerals, chiefly coal ;
metal gopds, machinery, etc., followed by
textiles and anitaals and animal food.
The Imports come chiefly from Germany,
followed by Denmark, the United States
and Great Britain ; the exports go chiefly
to Germany and Great Britain, followed by
Norway, Russia and Denmark. In a recent
year, the United States exported to Sweden
goods valued at $114,780,361 ; and imported
from Sweden goods valued at $31,612,153.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most important products ex-
ported by the United States to Sweden, in
order of value, were as follows : Meat
products ; cotton ; mineral and vegetable
oils ; copper, refined ; dried fruits ; leather ;
tobacco ; machinery and other iron and
steel goods.
The Swedish merchant marine comprises
2,544 vessels, of 1,057,700 tons, of which
1,240 vessels, of 911,660 tons, are steam
and motor vessels. In a recent year, there
entered and cleared from Swedish ports
Sweden
Encyclopedic Indcx
Swiss System
more than 22,000 vessels, representing; a
tonnage of more than fl,000,000. Slightly
less than one-half the tonnage was Swedish.
Communications. — There are about 9,400
miles of railroad, of which more than one-
third belong to the State. There are 47,000
miles of telegraph, about one-half of whi^h
belongs to the railroads. The wires of the
State telephone have a length of about 385,-
000 miles. There are almost 3,500 tele-
graph offices.
Sweden and Norway (see also Ber-
gen):
Claims of, against United States, re-
ferred to, 1172.
Claims of United States against, 867,
1109.
Payment of, 867, 1112.
Commercial relations with, 820.
Consul of, to United States, exe-
quatur to^ revoked, 3626.
Eevocation annulled, 3630.
Copyright reoiproeity proclaimed
vc'ith, 8827.
Ericsson, John, restoration of remains
of, to Sweden discussed, 5547.
Famine in, referred to, 3799.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 3114, 5871.
Gothenburg system of regulatjng
liquor trafSc in, report on, trans-
mitted, 5785.
Interference with the vessels of the
United States. (See Admiral P.
TordensMold, The.)
Minister of United States to —
Nomination of, 318.
Transfer of, to Bogota, referred
to, 3665.
Missionaries of Sweden, murder of,
in China discussed, 5868.
Naturalization treaty with, 4033,
4142.
Postal convention with, 4203.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 566, 919, 959, 962, 3114,
5871.
Commissioner to negotiate, nom-
inated, 254.
Vessels of, claims of, for reduction'
in tonnage dues, 5494, 5621.
Vessels of Norway —
Discriminating duties on suspend-
ed by proclanjation, 665. ,
Interfered with by Unitpd States.
(See Admiral P. TordensMold,
The.)
Reciprocal rights for, requested,
671, 707.
Vessels of United States seized or
interfered with by. (See Claims
against.)
Vice-Consul of, to United States,
exequatur of, revoked, 3627.
Eevocation annulled, 3630.
Sweden and Norway, Treaties with. —
The treaty of amity and commerce of 1783
expired in 1796 by its own limitations.
Some of its sections were revived by the.
treaty of 1816, which, in turn, expired by
its own limitations In 1826, and was re-
placed by the treaty of commerce and navi-
gation of 1827. By it freedom of com-
merce and trade was accorded to both
nations, and for the ships of the island
of St. Bartholomew, which was included.
Equable imposition of charges, tolls, dues,
and imposts was secured for the vessels
of both nations ; imports were to be taxed
without regard to the nationality of the
carrying vessel ; and the coastwise trade
was excluded from the terms of the treaty.
The consular office was created and pro-
vided for as in consular conventions. Hu-
mane provisions were made for the relief
of the shipwreclsed and for ships in dis-
tress. A naturalization convention was
concluded in 1869. Upon the dissolution
of the union of Norway and Sweden, the
Swedish government agreed to continue in
force and abide by all treaties with the
TTnited States. (For the extradition terms
of the treaty of 1893, see Extradition
Treaties.)
Swift & Co., vessels purchased for
Peru by, from United States detained,
3831.
Swin-a-mish Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Swine Products. (See Animals and
Animal Products.)
Swiss Confederation. (See Switzer-
land.)
Swiss System of Military Training. —
During the agitation in the United States
for universal military training, arising as a
result of the European War, much Interest
was manifested In the system of military
training as practised in Switzerland. Switz-
erland has no standing army, but military
training Is compulsory upon every citizen.
(Switzerland, having no seaeoast, lias
naturally no navy.) Switzerland, of about
the same size and population as the State'
of Massachusetts, by virtue of its present
system, completed in the year 1907. can
muster almost immediately upon call a half
million trained soldiers, with a larger num-
ber la reserve.
The Swiss T)oy begins his training for
future service at the age of 8, when he
begins a carefully-planned system of gym-
nastics; At the age of 11, he Joins a cadet
corps, in which membership is voluntary,
but well-nigh universal. In the cadet corps,
he receives his first practice in the "setting-
up" exercises, and Is put through simple
drills. Each corps has a uniform of its
own design, although the design Is usually
the same in each particular locality ; and
the state furnishes assistance only in the
shape of the rifle and the ammunition used
by the corps. From the age of 16-20, the
Swiss youth is a member of a voluntary
preparatory military organization, like the
cadet corps, except for the fact that the
rifle used is the standard army musket
and the marksmanship practice becomes
serious.
It is at the age of 20 that the Swiss youth
enters upon compulsory military service.
First, he must pass a physical and literary
examination, and if he is relected as unfit
for service, he becomes liable to a rather
severe special military tax. He receives
his instruction at a field camp something
like our own Plattshurg (q. v.), where the
recruits are subdivided Into the various
Swiss System
Encyclopedic Index
Switzerland
branches of the service for which they are
best qualified. This preliminary training
lasts for a period of between 60 and 75
days, according to the branch of service, and
during that time the recruit receives all his
expenses and a pay of ten cents a day.
Until the age of 32, these men are called
together for sixteen days' additional train-
ing every year or two years, according to
the branch of the service for which they
have been trained. Between the ages of
32 and 40, the Swiss is a member of the
Landwehr, or First Reserve, and after that
of the Landsturm, or last reserve. Appoint-
ment as ofilcers is open to men in the
ranks. ( See Compulsory Military Service ;
Australian System of Military Training ;
Preparedness.)
Switzerland.— The Federated Cantons of
Switzerland lie In Central Europe between
45° 49' 2"-47° 48' 32" N. latitude and 5°
57' 26"-10° 29' 40" E. longitude, and are
bounded on the north by the German Be-
public, on the east by Austria and Liech-
tenstein, on the south by Italy, and on
the west by the French Republic. The area
is given as 15,967 square miles.
Physical Features. — Switzerland Is the
most mountainous country in Europe, hav-
ing the Alps, covered with perennial snow
and glaciers, and rising from 5,000 to 15,-
217 feet above the level of the sea, along
the southern and eastern frontiers, and
throughout the chief part of the Interior,
and the Jura Mountains in the northwest.
The main chain of th& Alps occupies the
whole of southern Switzerland, the highest
peaks being the Dufourspitze of Monte Rosa
(15,217 feet;, the Don of the Mischabel
range (14,942 feet), and the Flnsteraar-
horn of Bernese Oberland (14,026 feet).
The highest summit of Europe (Mont
Blanc, 15,78^ fee>.) is in the Pennine Alps,
across the French frontier. The Jura
Mountains rise between the valleys of the
Rhine and Rhone and form a natural bar-
rier between France and Switzerland, the
highest peaks being Mont Tendre (5,512
feet) and the Dale (5,505 feet) ; while the
highest peak of the range, CrSt de la
Nelge (5,653 feet), like that of the Alps,
is in French territory.
Three great rivers rise in the mountains
of Switzerland, the Rhone, Rhine, and Aar,
while the Thur is a Swiss tributary of the
Rhine. The Lakes of Switzerland include
Geneva (225 square miles) in the south-
west, and Constance (208 square miles)
in the northeast, neither of which is wholly
Swiss ; while Neuchatel (93 square miles)
is entirely within Swiss territory ; Mag-
giore is partly Italian ; Lucerne and Zurich
are entirely Swiss ; Lugano is mainly Swiss ;
Thun and Bienne lie wholly within the
Canton of Berne ; Zug lies in three of the
northern cantons ; Brienz, in the Canton of
Berne ; Morat lies in the Cantons of Fri-
bourg and Vaud ; Wallensee is in St. Gall
and Glarus ; and Sempach in the Canton of
Lucerne.
History. — The Swiss Confederation Is a
collection of free States drawn together for
mutual protection and for the preservation
of their independence. The States so com-
bined were at one time part of Germany,
Italy or Burgundy, and nave been in alli-
ance since the thirteenth century ; and to
that alliance other States have been at-
tracted. In 1291 the league consisted of
the present Cantons of Schwyz, Uri and
Bnterwalden, to which five others were
joined between 1332 and 1353. -To these
eight Cantons five more were added from
1481-1513, six in 1803, and three in 1815,
in which year the perpetual neutrality and
inviolability of Switzerland were guaran-
teed by Austria-Hungary, the United King-
dom, Portugal, Prussia and Russia, and a
Federal Pact was drawn up at Zurich and
confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. This
Pact formed the basis of the Federal Con-
stitution until 1848, when a new constitu-
tion was adopted by a majority of the Swiss
people, and of tbe Cantons and deml-Can-
tons, and in the same manner, on Maj; 29,
1874, the present constitution was ratified,
since which date there have been a number
, of revisions of It. Switzerland remained
neutral during the World War.
Ethnography. — The latest estimate of the
population places it at 3,937,000. In the
1910 census, it was 3,741,971. In 19 of
the 25 cantons, German is the prevailing
language, French in 5, and Italian in 1. In
1910, there were 2,595,000 Swiss speaking
German, 795 speaking French, 300,000
speaking Italian, 40,000 speaking Romansch.
and 23,000 other languages. In 1910, there
were some 550,000 foreigners resident in
Switzerland, chiefly Germans and Italians.
The chief towns, with the latest esti-
mates of their population, are as follows :
Zurich, 212,000 ; Basle, 135,000 ; Geneva,
141,000 ; Bern, 112,000 ; Lausanne, 70,000 ;
St. Gallen, 70,000.
There is complete freedom of religion,
the last census showing about 60% Prot-
estants and 40% Catholics.
Education. — There .is no federal educa-
tional system, the schooling lying in the
hands of the cantons and the communes.
There is practically no Illiteracy, and
schooling is free and general. Latest edu-
cational statistics show 525 kindergartens ;
4,230 primary schools, with 13,115 teach-
ers and 557,300 pupils ; 532 secondary
schools, with 50,000 pupils and 1,875 teach-
ers ; 128 middle schools, with 26,000 pupils
and 1,540 teachers. There are also techni-
cal, professional and special schools, and
seven universities. There are some 6,000
libraries, with almost 10,000,000 volumes.
Government. — The central government is
supreme in those activities usually per-
taining to the federal government. The
supreme legislative and executive authority
is vested in the parliament, called the
Bundesversammlung or Assembl€e federale.
It consists of two chambers. The first, or
State Council, is composed of 44 members,
two for each canton, chosen and paid by
each canton as the latter sees fit. The Na-
tional Council consists of 189 representa-
tives, one for each 20,000 of population.
A general election takes place every three
years. There are generous provisions for
the use of the Initiative and referendum.
The chief executive authority rests in the
Federal Council of seven, elected for three
years by the Parliament. The President
and Vice-President are the head iii.agistrates
of the nation ; they are elected for one year
by the Parliament In joint session. They
are ineligible to hold oflice for two suc-
cessive terms ; the vice-president, however,
ia usually chosen to succeed the President.
Aside from the regulations imposed by
the federal constitution, each of the can-
tons is sovereign, and governs itself by
measures and methods which vary among
the cantons. There Is much local direct
government.
Finance. — In recent years, the annual
federal expenditure has been from ,$5,1,000,-
000 to $75,000,000 annually. The public
debt, exclusive of the railroad debt, amounts
to about $275,000,000, in addition to a
floating debt of about $70,000,000. Tha
Switzerland
Encyclopedic Index
Switzerland
unit of currency is the franc, divided Into
10 Batzen and 100 Cenymes or Rappen.
The net i)roceeds of tlie federal alcoliol
monopoly is divided aniong the cantons,
who must expend one-tenth of -it in fight-
ing the causes and effects of alcoholism.
The tax for exemption from military service
Is levied through the cantons, and one-
half of it 'goes to them, the -other half
to the federal government.
For the Swiss System of Military Train-
ing, see under that head.
Commerce. — For the first year after the
end of the hostilities of the World War,
the special trade, including precious metals,
amounted to $670,000,000 in imports and
$590,000,000 in exports. In order of value,
the chief imports were cereals, (cotton
goods, mineral substances, colonial produce,
sillt goods, followed by animal food sub-
stances, woolen goods and chemicals. The
chief exports were cotton goods and silk
goods, followed by clocks, machinery, cloth-
ing, colonial produce and timber.
Remembering that much of the trade with
frontier countries is really transit trade,
the imports came chiefly from Germany,
followed by the United States, France,
United Kingdom and Italy. The exports
went chiefly to Germany and France, fol-
lowed by United Kingdom and Italy.- In a
recent year, the United States exported to
Switzerland goods valued at $44,909,719,
and imported from Switzerland goods val-
ued at $54,556,098.
In the last year for which figures are
available, the most important products ex-
ported from the United States to Switzer-
land, in order of value, were as follows :
Wheat ; lard ; other breadstuflfs ; cotton ;
machinery and other iron and steel goods ;
copper ; tobacco.
Production and Industry. — The soil of
Switzerland is very equitably divided among
the population, there being almost 300,000
peasant proprietors. Of the total area,
i^S'Vi<% is unproductive; of the productive
area, 36% is under grasses and meadows,
29% under forests, 19% under fruit and
161/^% under crops and gardens. Most of
the food used in the country is imported,
but the chief crops, with their acreage and
yield in a recent year, are as follows :
Crop - Acres Tons
Wheat 130,223 105,900
Eye 54,513 41,500
Oats 57,014 42,000
Potatoes 828,000
In five of the cantons, wine Is produced
and tobacco in three. The last census
showed the following animals in Switzer-
land : Horses, 123,762 ; mules and donkeys,
4,209 ; oxen, 1,432,491 ; cows, 738,169 ;
sheep, 263,729 ; pigs, 464,402 ; goats, 349,-
794. As will be seen, cattle-raising is most
Important.
The chief agricultural Industries are
those of cheese and condensed milk manu-
facture. The forest area covers 3,290
square miles ; less than one-third of it be-
longs to private owners.
Although chiefly an agricultural and pas-
toral country, there is much manufactur-
ing in Switzerland. There are more than
9,000 factories, and they employ some 380,-
000 workers. Clock-making is particularly
Important, and in a recent year more than
15,000,000 clocks were exported. Salt Is the
only mineral mined extensively, and about
800,000 quintals are produced annually.
Brewing and embroidery are other Impor-
tant branches of industry.
Cotnmunications. — The State railways
have a length of approximately 3,700 miles.
There are some 4,000 post-offices, and an
extensive telegraph system, comprising 2,410
offices, 1,790 miles of line and more than
19,000 miles of wire. There are 800 tele-
phone systems, with 12,300 miles of line
and 250,000 miles of wire.
Switzerland (see also Berne) :
American citizens of Hebrew per-
suasion in, discriminated against
3123.
Claims of, against United States,
5199.
Consul of United States in, charges
against character of, refuted, 3718.
Consuls of United States requested
by, to protect citizens of, in coun-
tries where it is not represented,
4627.
Convention with, 1406, 23.56, 2414,
2634, 2723.
Discussed, 2634, 2723.
Copyright privilege extended by
proclamation, 5582.
Eeferred to, 5625.
Floods in, referred to, 3885.
Fruits, American, restrictions upon
importation of, into, discussed
6331.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2356.
Immigration questions with, 4520,
4627, 4715.
Milk sugar manufactured in, re
ferred to, 4979.
Minister of, to United States, ele-
vated to plenipotentiary mission,
4718.
Naturalization question with, 4715,
6337.
Postal convention with, 3775, 3883
4250.
President of, member of claims com
mission between United States
and Chile, 5867.
Proposition of, to extend Eed Cross
compact in Spanish-American War
discussed, 6336.
Treaty with —
To be negotiated, 4759.
Transmitted, 2356.
Switzerland, Treaties with. — The con-
vention of friendship, commerce, and ex-
tradition of 1850 ran until 1899, when no-
tice was given of intention to terminate
some of its provisions. Others were ter-
minated by the treaty of 1900. Those
which persist provide for personal and
property privileges of the citizens of the
one country residing and trading In the
country of the other, with all of the rights,
privileges, and immunities of the citizens
of the country. Freedom of conscience is
granted to all ; the right to hold, possess,
acquire, and to alienate property, immu-
nity from military service, and enforced
military contributions, and free and open
access to courts of justice are secured.
Switzerland
Encyclopedic Index
Syria
The taxes upon citizens shall be equita-
ble. Passports shall be supplied In order
to establlsn the character and the citizen-
ship of persons traveling between the two
republics. The disposal, acquisition, anS
inheritance of property shall be free, easy,
and unhindered. When an heir to prop-
erty is disqualified from holding it by rea-
son of his alienage, the heir or other suc-
cessor shall be granted the time permitted
by the canton In which the property is sit-
uated to dispose of the same. Consuls
shall be apjiointed under conditions com-
mon to consular conventions. (For terms
of the extradition treaty of 1900, see Ex-
tradition Treaties.)
Arbitration of international differences
on the lines laid down by The Hague Con-
vention of 1899 was agreed to by treaty
signed at Washington, Feb. 29, 1908.
Sydney, New South Wales, interna-
tional exhibition in, discussed, 4519,
4559, 4625.
Syndicalism. — Although Syndicalism has
many features in common with trade union-
ism and with Socialism, its distinct origin
in recent years lies with the French thinker,
Georges Sorel. As a matter of fact, the
term is derived from the French word for
trade union, "syndicat."
The American Syndicalists are the In-
dustrial Worlsers of the World (q.v.).
The philosophy of syndicalism distrusts
the abolition of the capitalist system by
legislation, and bases Its hope upon the
workers seizing control of industry by di-
rect action. Industry accordingly would
be directed by the worlsers in it, and the
activities of the state, as a political or-
ganization, would disappear. The general
strike of all workers ,is the means usually
proclaimed as the means to gain control
over all industry. For the I. W. W. Ije-
lleve that the lot of a worker in one Indus-
try cannot be dlCEerenti,ated from the lot
of a worker In another industry, and hence
insist upon the formation of all workers
into one big Industrial union, acting homo-
geneously, instead of Into separate craft
unions, acting independently, as in the
American Federation of Labor. Society at
present being a class struggle, the I. W.
W. endorse sabotage, or the limitation of
output and the destruction of property, if
necessarj*, in the fight against the employ-
ing class.
Although syndicalism has had its ups and
downs in the United States, there were in
France, prior to the war, about 600,000
syndicalists ; and the movement was also
especially strong among the agricultural
classes of Italy.
Syria. — The country extending from the
eastern shores of the Mediterranean to
Arabia. It was under Turkish rule until
the close of the World War. The Peace
Treaty with Turkey provided that Palestine,
comprising the southern portion of Turkey,
should he a national home for the Jewish
people, with Great Britain as the manda-
tory Power. The remainder of Syria was
given to France as a mandatory Power.
Native and Turkish resistance to the occu-
pancy of the country by France made the
exact boundaries of Syria uncertain, but
it is probable that its area will ultimately
comprise about 100,000 square miles, with
a population of some 3,000,000. The prin-
cipal towns are Damascus, 250,000 ; Aleppo,
2o0,000 ; Beirut, 150,000. The inhabitants
are Semites of the Mohammedan faith. The
principal agricultural products are wheat,
barley, maize, linseed, beans, vines and
olives.
Syria:
Disposition of, discussed, 8841.
Belief asked for, 8381, 8636.
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Tacoma
Encyclopedic Index
Taft
Tacoma, Wash., act granting use of
lands to, for purpose of public park,-
vetoed, 5282.
Tacubaya, American ministers assem-
ble in, 935. (See also Panama,
Isthmus of.)
Congress indefinitely postponed, 951.
Instructions to, referred to, 997.
Taft, William H.— 1909-1913.
Thirty-first Administration — Republican.
Tice-Preaident — James S. Sherman.
Secretary of State —
Philander C. Knox.
Secretary of the Treasury —
i^ranklln MacVeagti.
Secretary of War —
Jacob M. Didtinson.
Henry L. Stimsou.
Attorneu-Oeneral —
George W. WlclJeisham-
Postmaater-General —
Frank H. Hitchcock.
Secretary of the Navy —
George von Lengerke Meyer.
Secretary of the Interior —
Richard A. Ballinger.
Walter L. Flslier.
Secretary of Apriculture —
James Wilson.
Secretary of Commerce and Labor —
Charles ^'agel. ' ,
Platform. — The platform of the Republi-
can party In the Presidential campaign of
1908 on which Judge Ta^t based his can-
didacy declared for a downward revision of
the Dingley Tariff Law ; for statutory re-
form in injunction procedure so as to pro-
vide notice before the issuance of the writ ;
for Federal incorporation of interstate com-
merce corporations ; for postal savings
banks J for the settling of constitutional
questions regarding the income tax ; for the
encouragement by mail subsidies of Pacific
and South American .lines ; for the regula-
tion of railroad stock and bond issues by
the Interstate Commerce Commission, and
the incidental physical valuation of rail-
roads ; for the legalizing of rate agreements
when sanctioned by the Commission ; for the
reorganization of certain Bureaus so as to
facilitate the execution of the Interstate
Commerce and Anti-trust Laws ; and for the
continuance of the Roosevelt policies regard-
ing the ■ conservation of our natural re-
sources. Summarizing his purposes, Judge
Taft said : "The practical, constructive and
ditHcult work, therefore, of those who fol-
low Mr. Roosevelt is to devise the ways
and means by which the high level of busi-
ness integrity and obedience to law which
he has established may be maintained and
departures from it rastrainrd without un-
due interferences with legitimate business."
Tariff BeriMnn. — The first work to which
the new administration addressed itself was
tariff revision. Until Aug, 5, 1909, Con-
gress in special session wrestled with Its
intricacies. The Payne-Aldrkh Bill, passed
on that date, was a downward revision,
though in the President's estimation not
sufiiciently downward, ''and by its creation
of a Court of Customs appeals and a Tariff
Board was a distinctively progressive meas-
ure. The provision for an income, tax on
corporations with its incidental assurance
of control and surveillance was the answer
to the President's message of June 16,
1909 (page 7.189). The attacks on the
measure drew from the President his speech
at Winona, Minn, (page 7393), the most
careful and thorough discussion of the sub-
ject which has appeared. (See Tariff; In-
come Tax.)
Postal Savings Bank. — ^The Postal Sav-
ings Banks were established, one in each
of the forty-eight States, On Jan. 1, 1911,
under the law passed June 25, 1910. The
success of the plan induced the Postmaster-
General to recommend extending the system
to. five hundred localities. (See Postal Sav-
ings Banks.) ^
Reform In Injunction Procedure. — The
President urged upon Congress in his In-
augural Address and in his First and Sec-
ond Annual Messages the passage of a law
which would forbid the issuing of an In-
junction by any Federal Court without pre-
vious notice and hearing of the parties to
be enjoined, unless in the Court's discretion
the requisite delay would result in Irrep-.
arable Injury to the complainant (pp. 7378,
7431, 7524). (See Injunctions; Boycott.)
Federal Incorporation. — In his Message on
the anti-trust law (page 7449), the Presi-
dent discussed the causes of the tendency
of modern business to amass in ever-grow-
ing units, analyzed the beneficial and bane-
ful eSects of such amalgamation, defined di-
rect and indirect restraint of trade, outlined
the true intent and scope of the Sherman
law as affecting monopolistic combinations,
but not those actuated merely by desire
to reduce production cost, condemned the
Knight Sugar Trust decision, argued against
amending the law, mentioned the inquiry
into companies suspected of violations of
the law which was contemplated by the
Department of Justice if funds became
available, and recommended the enactment
of a law which would nrovide Federal char-
ters for Interstate commerce corporations
and assure governmental supervision and
control. (See Interstate Commerce.)
The Income Tam. — On the question of the
income tax Ihe President in his Message of
June 16, 1909 (page 7389), recommended
that, though he was convinced of the con-
stitutionality of such a tax. It would be
wiser not to contradict the Supreme Court
by reenacting a law which in the Pollock
case it had declared unconstitutional, but
by a two-thirds vote to submit to the States
an amendment to the organic law express-
ly conferring the requisite power, (See
Amendments ; Income Tax and Income Tax
Cases.)
Interstate Commerce Law. — To make the
Interstate Commerce Law a "complete and
effective measure for securing reasonable-
ness of rates and fairness of practices in
the operation of interstate railroads, with-
out undue preference to any Individual or
class over any others," adequate to "pre-
vent the recurrence of many of the prac-
tices which have given rise in the past to
so much public inconvenience and loss," the
President on Jan. 7, 1910 (page 7441), sent
to Congress a special message in which he
recommended the creation of a new Court,
to be called the United States Court or
Commerce and to have jurisdiction over
proceedings brought by carriers to nullify
orders of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion. The President .pointed out that car-
riers by injunctions could and did suspend
the commission's orders for months and
even years, and that few orders of any con-
sequence escaped such tactics. By means
of the new Court such proceedings could
be promptly and consistently disposed of
by Judges deeply versed in the Intricacies
of the subject. Its decisions were to be '
final excepting review by the Supreme
Court, and even if it appealed from the
order could not be stayed except by the
Supreme Court. The President recommend-
Taft
Encyclopedic Index
Taft
ed that the" Commission be empowered to
commence proceedings on Its own Initiative ;
that the law be amended so as to permit
the changing of rates only after submis-
sion of the schedule to the Commission,
in order that, if unsatisfactory, the pro-
posed change might be stayed pending in-
vestigation ; that its duties be confined to
quasi-judicial functions, utilizing the De-
partment of Justice to prosecute and defend
suits under the law. By an act passed
June 18, 1910, Congress put on the statute
books the recommendations above sum-
marized, but rejected two other suggestions
of the President, first, that the issue of
i-ailroad securities be made subject to the
Commission, and second, that rate agree-
ments under certain circumstances be per-
mitted. (See Interstate Commerce; Com-
mon Carriers.)
Consereation In the President's speech
at St. Paul, Minn, (page 7555), he took the
high ground that, as the successor to Theo-
dore RoAsevelt, he could not be other than
an earnest advocate of every measure cal-
culated "to prevent the continuance of the
,\vaste which has characterized our phenom-
enal growth in the past." But "conserva-
tion is national. It affects every man of
us, every woman, every child. What I can
do in the cause I shall do, not as President
of a party, but as President of the whole
people. Conservation Is not a question of
politics, or of factions, or of persons. It
is a question that affects the vital welfare
of all of us, of our children and our chil-
dren's children." The President's conserva-
tion address, like his tariif speech, is re-
plete with definite and detailed recommenda-
tions showing a minute study of the sub-
ject. The agricultural and mineral land
laws should be left unchanged ; the funds
available for reclamation should be concen-
trated on selected projects, .$20,000,000- in
bonds having been authorized for engineer-
ing purposes ; tiie states severally must con-
trol the handling of the seventy-five per cent
of existing forests which is privately
owned ; withdrawals had been legalized by a
definite statute ; oil, gas and phosphate
lands, and the coal fields of Alaslca should
be conserved by a leasing system ; and wa-
ter-power sites should be conserved by
leasing the Federal Government's riparian
rights to users or transferring such rights
to the states so as to complete their title to
and control of both stream and site. (See
Lands, Pulilic ; Conservation Commission.)
Ship Subsiiy.—ln President Taft's Inau-
gural and two Annual Messages he dis-
cussed the question of subsidizing steamship
lines to- South America under conditions as-
suring publicity by giving to them the profit
on mall carried by them, urging that if
action were not immediately taken we would
be the only nation unable to avail ourselves
of the Panama Qanal when completed and
that should war come we would find our-
selves destitute of sailors and 'shipping,
without which the navy is like arms with-
out a body. The question of the subsidy
was vigorously discussed in the last session
of the Sixty-first Congress, but no action
was taken. (See pp. 7374, 7435, 7503.)
(See Subsidy; Merchant Marine.)
"Navy Personnel Improved. — In order to
match the superb vessels of the navy with
efficiency in the personnel. Congress passed
measures submitted and urged by President
Taft in his Message of Feb. 25. I910, which
reduced the ages at which officers of the
line became captains and rear-admirals,
(See page 7470; Navy; Navy Department.)
Canadian Reciprocity. — On Jan. 26, 1911,
the President sent to Congress a special
message transmitting an agreement between
the Department of State and the Canadian
Government obligating both parties to at-
tempt to secure legislation which would re-
ciprocally lower tariff rates on about six
hundred items. (See page 7581.) In ursing
the passage of the treaty (which, as affect-
ing action on the tariff, liad to pass both
Houses) the President recalled Canada's
nelghborliness and friendship as shown in
the settlement of all disputes and in the
cooperation between the boards of railway
control on both sides the border, dwelt upon
the necessit.y of conserving our own re-
sources by buying those of our neighbor,
pointed out the similarity In labor and
transportation conditions here and there,
mentioned the harm to Americans which
will accrue if the "imperial preference" doc-
trine becomes a tenet of Canadian political
faLth. maintained that the accession of 'a
new supply of raw materials would inure
to the benefit of all sections and. in pro-
phetic vein, characterized the agreement as
a step toward closer friendship between
peoples related by blood, common sympa-
thies and identical moral and social ideas.
Animals, poultry, food stuffs, products of
farm, garden and dairy, fruits, fish, oysters,
salt, mineral waters, lumber, machinery,
minor metal manufactures, coal, meats,
flour, meal, farming utensils, fruit trees and
Portland cement were the articles on which
the tax was to be lowered or quite removed.
The effect of the proposed treaty, according
to 1910 figures, would be to decrease the
revenue of the United States by $4,849,933,
and that of Canada by $2,560,579. (See
Reciprocity.)
Turning to matters of administration,
Taft took judicial appointments out of pol-
itics ; made the taking of the thirteenth
census non-political (page "rssn) ; recom-
mended and by executive order effected the
extension of the civil service (pp. 7424,
7549) ; instituted a vigorous inquiry into
the government service in the interest of
ecouom.v and efficiency, which resulted in
a .f52. (100,000 saving in the 1011 estimates
(pp. 7424, 7550) ; advocated as an improve-
ment of efficiency the giving of pensions to
superannuated clerks (pp. 742.'5, 7551) ; and,
in his message regarding the rivers and har-
bors bill of 1910, declared his intention of
vetoing any future bill which did not con-
centrate tlie moneys thereby provided on a
certain few projects which .might then be
carried to completion instead of diffusing
at great cost temporary and futile activity
over a multitude of projects (page 7489).
President Taft was renominated by the
Republican Party for the Presidency in
1916, but the defection of ex-President
Roosevelt and the consequent formation of
the Progressive Party to contest the Presi-
dential election resulted In the triumph of
the Democratic Party and the election of
its Presidential candidate, Woodrow Wil-
son (q. v.).
Taft, WiUiam H.:
Addresses at —
New York City, 7588.
St. Paul, 7555.
"Winona, Minn., 7393.
Alaska, development and government
of, discussed, 7436, 7535, 7564,
7720, 7722, 7842.
Amendment to Constitution for in-
come tax suggested, 7389.
Annual Messages, 7409, 7492, 7644,
7766.
Anti-trust law discussed, 7368, 7432,
Taft
Encyclopedic Index
Taft
7449, 7G44, 7655, 7809, 7819, 7865.
Arbitration, international, reeorded
and discussed, 7410, 7494, 7617,
7656, 7771, 7789.
Army,- organization of, 7428, 7515,
7796, 7800.
Banks and banking system discussed,
7373, 7503, 7513, 7674, 7790, 7793.
Biography of, 7367.
Business discussed, 7415, 7440, 7453,
7555, 7751, 7771, 7778, 7791. (See
also Trade.)
Canada, reciprocity with, urged and
discussed, 7502, 7581, 7587.
Central America, policy toward, 776G,
7772.
Charges against, concerning Panama
Canal finances, refuted, 7349.
China, policy toward and situation in,
7418, 7496, 7664, 7666, 7771, 7784.
Civil Service discussed, 7424, 7549,
7698, 7732, 7739; 7753, 7755, 7814.
(See also Government Service.)
Colombia, relations with, 7771, 785^.
Commerce Court discussed, 7442, 775.^.
Conservation of natural resources dis-
cussed, 7370, 7436, 7459, 7555, 7573,
7816. (See also Lands, Public.)
Corporations. (See Trusts, Business
and Anti-trust Law.)
Cuba, policy toward, 7388, 7416.
District of Columbia, needs of, 7433,
>7544, 7821.
Executive order, reorganization , of
customs service, 7863.
Finances discussed, 7681. (See also
Banks and Banking System; Tariff;
Income Tax.)
Foreign relations discussed, 7409,
7656, 7766, 7790. (See also Arbi-
tration, International; Central
America; China; Colombia; Cuba;
Mexico; Eussia.)
Forests, preservation of, 7464, 7533,
7537, 7560. (See also Conserva-
tion.) .
Government service discussed, 7425,
7698, 7715, 7736, 7743, 7829. (See
also Civil Service.)
Immigration problem discussed, 7372,
7543, 7847.
Inaugural address, 7368.
Inauguration of. (See illustration op-
posite 7396.)
Income tax discussed, 7390.
Inheritance tax urged, 7370, 7890.
Injunctions discussed, 7378, 7431,
7524.
Interstate Commerce Commission,
power of, discussed, 7368, 7441,
7445, 7552..
Interstate Commerce Law, changes
suggested in, 7441, 7488, 7552.
Judge, opinion of, quoted, 7028.
Lands, public, policy toward, 7460,
7533, 7557, 7562, 7567, 7720, 7816.
"(See also Conservation.)
Liberia, conditions in, 7412, 7479,
7495, 7669, 7783.
Merchant marine discussed, 7374,
7435, 7503, 7674, 7789.
Messages — Annual, Special, Transmit-
ting, Veto. (See Annual Messages;
Special Messages; Transmitting
Messages; Veto Messages.)
Mexico, relations with and policy to-
ward, 7498, 7658, 7780, 7783.
Monroe Doctrine discussed, 7415.
Navy, needs and condition of, 7371,
7429, 7471, 7529, 7696, 7808. - ..
Negro problem discussed, 7376, 7439.
Panama Canal —
Fortification of, 7483, 7519.
Eailroad-owned vessels, prohibition
of, from, urged and effected,
7521, 7762.
Tolls on, discussed, 7518, 7688, 7758,
7806.
Work on, progress of, 7374, 7518,
7686, 7805.
Parcel post, establishment of, urged,
7528, 7694, 7732, 7814.
Peace, promotion of, 7372, 7494. (See
also Arbitration.)
Philippine Islands, conditions in and
policy toward, 7375, 7380, 7406,
7429, 7516, 7540, 7689, 7801.
Porto Eico, conditions in and policy
toward, 7383, 7467, 7517, 7801.
Portrait of, opposite 7366-B.
Postal Savings banks discussed, 7373,
7434, 7525, 7693, 7814.
Postmasters, inclusion of, in classified
service urged, 7732, 7814.
Proclamations —
Extraordinary' session of Congress,
7586.
Panama Canal tolls, 7766.
Sherman, Vice-President J. S., death
of, 7764.
Facsimile of, opposite 7460.
Thanksgiving, 7392, 7491, 7764.
Eailroads, control of and problems of,
discussed, 7368, 7444, 7487, 7552,
7815. (See also Interstate Com-
merce.)
Eeclamation projects, status of and
policy toward, 7463, 7532, 7558,
7576, 7719.
Elvers and harbors improvement mea-
sures discussed, 7371, 7465, 7489,
7517, 7690. '
Eussia, change needed in treaty
with, 7669. '
Shipping subsidies urged, 7374, 7435,
7503, 7674.
Special messages concerning —
Alaskan transportation problem,
7842.
Anti-trust law, 7449.
Taft
Encyclopedic Index
Taft
Boundary between Texas and New
Mexico, 7575.
Canada, reeiproeity with, 7581,
7587.
Conservation of natural resources,
7458.
Controller Bay, Alaska, elimination
from forest reserve of land front-
ing on, 7599.
Corporations, federal licensing of,
7449.
Customs frauds investigation, 7483.
Economy and Efficiency Commis-
sion, 7829. (See also Govern-
ment service, below.)
Government service, 7698, 7736.
(See also Economy and Efadency
Commission, above.)
• Income tax amendment, 7389.
Interior Department, work of, 7719.
Interstate Commerce Law, 7441.
Navy personnel, improvement of,
7470.
New Mexico, approval of constitu-
tion of, 7598.
Opium evil, suppression of, 7596.
Panama Canal Act, 7758.
Philippine Tariff Revision Law,
7380.
Porto Eico, changes in act govern-
ing, 7381.
Post-office matters, 7731.
Railroad rate increases, 7487.
Beelamation projects, 7576.
Rivers and harbors improvements,
7489.
School Hygiene Congress, appropri-
ation for, 7841.
Seals, preservatioh of, 7823.
Tariff Board, appropriation for,
7479.
Tariff Revision, 7379.
Workmen 's compensation, em-
ployer's liability and, 7729.
Speeches. (See Addresses.)
Tariff Board, appointment and work
of, discussed, 7422, 7427, 7480, 7511,
7646,' 7676.
Tariff, Payne-Aldrich (1909), defend-
ed and discussed, 7393, 7401, 7406,
7422, 7479, 7488, 7501, 7511, 7618,
7777.
Changes in, bills for, vetoed. (See
Veto Messages.)
Tariff principles, revision and results
discussed, 7369, 7379, 7394, 7403,
7408, 7425, 7483, 7508, 7511, 7751,
7795.
Trade, foreign, discussed, 7314, 7450,
7776. (See also Business.)
Transmitting messages, concerning —
Arbitration treaties with Great
Britain and France, 7617.
Argentina, construction of battle-
ships for, 7599.
Cancer in fishes, 7480.
Civil service employees' authority
to administer oaths, 7475.
Claims concerning naval operations
in Samoan Island, 7836.
Coal lands of Indian tribes, 7475.
Colombia, relations with, 7852.
Congo, conditions in, 7393.
Cuba, report of governor of, 7388.
Friedmann tuberculosis "cure,"
7838.
German workmen's wages, 7387,
7388.
Great Lakes, gunboat on, 7481.
Italy, international expositions in,
7466.
Lands, public, appeal to courts in
decisions concerning, 7488.
Liberia, condition's in, 7478.
Maine, The, appropriation for re-
moving wreck of, 7630.
Opium Commission, International,
report of, 7469.
Panama Canal defences, 7482.
Panama Railroad directors, 7840.
Porto Rico, change in government
of, 7467.
Porto Rico, franchises granted in,
7835.
Postage rate, two-cent, extension
of, 7851.
Silver coins, deviations allowed by
law from standard weight, of,
746£|.
Spanish battleships in Cuban
waters, salvage of, 7629.
Spanish Treaty Claims Commission
report, 7486.
Tariff negotiations with foreign
countries, 7488.
Venezuela, claims against, settle-
ment of, by Hague Tribunal,
738L
Waterways Commission. Interna-
tional, report of, 7476.
Waterways treaty with Great Brit-
ain, 7486.
Trusts, incorporation of, urged and
discussed, 7449, 7453, 7458, 7522.
(See also Anti-trust law.)
Veto messages —
Appropriation bill, 7752, 7864.
Immigration restriction, 7847.
Statehood for New Mexico and
Arizona, 7636.
Tariff schedules, acts to revise,
7618, 7625, 7631, 7745, 7749.
War Labor Board, member of, 8485.
War, Secretary of, recommendations
of, as, 7127, 7153, 7174, 7268, 7323,
7338.
Water-power sites, disposition of, dis-
cussed, 7462, 7534, 7570, 7723, 7804.
Workmen 's Compensation, Employers '
Liability and, Law discussed, 7449,
7542, 7692, 7729, 7810.
Taiwan
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
Taiwan. (See Formosa and Japan.)
Talladega (Ala.), Battle of.— After the
afestruction of Tallasahatchee; Jackson was
Infoi-med that 160 friendly Creek warriors,
with their families, were hemmed in at
Talladega, in Lashley's fort, by 1,000 hos-
tile Indians. Nov. 8, 1813, Jackson set out
wi:th 1,200 Infantry and 800 cavalry to
raise the siege. By 4 o'clock the next
morning they had surrounded the enemy,
who, 1,080 strong, were concealed In the
thickets. At daylight the battle began. It
resulted In thp complete rout of the sav-
ages. As many as 290 dead warriors were
found and many others doubtless ' perished
in the woods of the surrounding mountains.
The number of the wounded could not be
ascertained, but was large. The loss to the
whites was 15 killed and 85 wounded.
Tallasahatchee (Ala.), Battle of.— The
massacre at Fort Mims spread consterna-
tion throughout the region Inhabited by
the Creeks, and hardy volunteers came for-
ward thirsting for vengeance. Gen. Jack-
son led the Tennessee militia across the
line into Alabama. Upon his arrival at the
Coosa he was informed that the Creeks
were assembled at Tallasahatchee, a town
in an open woodland, not far from the
present village of Jacksonville, the county
seat of Benton County, Ala., on the south-
east side of the Tallasahatchee Creek.
Jackson sent Gen. Coffee with 1,000 horse-
men to destroy the town. Nov. 3, 1813,
Coffee's men surrounded the place and the
Indians came out to meet them. The bat-
tle was short, sharp, and desperate. The
victory for the whites was complete. Every
warrior was killed. None asked for quar-
ter, and each fought to the death. At the
close of the battle 186 bodies were counted
on the plain. It is believed that 200 were
killed. Eighty-four women and children
were made prisoners. The loss to the
whites was 5 men killed and 41 wounded.
Tammany. — In 1789 the Columbian Order
was organized in New York City by Wil-
liam Mooney, as a counter move against
the foundation of the so-called Aristocratic
Society of the Cincinnati. In 1805 It
was incorporated under the name of Tam-
many Society. This was in memory of Tam-
many, an aged, wise and friendly chief
of the Delaware Indians. At this time
charitable societies were also organized in
Philadelphia and other cities and named
in his honor. The only one of the number
that survives Is that in New York. William
Mooney was the first grand sachem of
Tammany, and was assisted by thirteen
sachems, representing the governors of the
thirteen states. The members wore Indian
Insignia. In 1811 the society built the
original Tammany Hall, fronting on City
Hail Park. Since then a local political
Earty, favored by a majority of the mem-
ers of the Tammany Society, has always
had Its headquarters in the house of the
society, and has been popularly known as
"Tammany Hall." In theory the Tammany
Hall general committee has no relation to
the Tammany Society save as tenant of
the latter's edifice, yet in practice they
are coordinate branches of one political sys-
tem, the society being In effect the citadel
of the controlling spirits of the Tammany
Hall party. Tammany Hall claims to be
the regular Democratic organization of the
city and county of New York, though that
claim has often been contested. By means
of a thoroughly organized system of Tam-
many clubs and assembly district associa-
tions It has usually held a paramount place
in city politics.
Tampico, arrest of American marines
at, 7935.
Taos (N. Mex.). Battle of.— Feb. 3, 1847,
Col. Price, with about 400 Americans, ax-
rived at tile town of Don Fernando ue Taos,
on the top of the Taos Mountain, which
bad been the scene of the murder of Gov-
ernor Bent and bis party. The Mexicans,
numbering 600, had taken refuge in a stone
church and two other large buildings.
They resisted the American assaults dur-
ing Feb. 4 and on the morning of the 5th
surrendered. The American Toss was 54
killed and wounded ; that of the Mexicans
152 killed and many wounded.
Target Practice. (See Navy.)
Tariff. — The word "tariff" is generally ap-
plied to the customs duties levied by Con-
gress on merchandise imported. Tradition
identifies the word with the town of Tarlfa,
Spain. Here, during the Moorish occu-
pancy of the country about Gibraltar, all
vessels passing through the strait were
compelled to put in and pay such duties as
were demanded by the chiefs in possession.
Among the Greeks and Bomans a duty
similar to the tariff of the present day
was known, and in England, as early as
980, during the reign of Ethelred, duties
on ships and goods were levied, to be paid
at Billingsgate. Charles XI. established a
regular schedule of rates In 1663. After
1846 England gradually abolished her tar-
iff duties, beginning with tlie repeal of
the corn laws and continuing until 1881-
1892, when revenue duties alone were col-
lected, and those upon less than twenty
articles.
In the United States the First Congress
passed a tariff law levying on an average
less than 8 per cent ad valorem on im-
ports. This was approved by Washing-
ton July 4, 1789. Madison opened the
discussion of this measure in Congress.
South Carolina and Georgia favored a rate
of 5 per cent, Pennsylvania one of 12 or
more, while New England and Virginia suc-
ceeded in getting the rate raised a little
above what the far south asked for, but
placed It lower than the chief manufactur-
ing states desired. The tariff of 1816 im-
posed duties of about 25 per cent on cer-
tain leading manufactures, under protest
from the leading agricultural states of the
south. In 1824 a new tariff act was passed,
increasing among the changes made, duties
on metals and agricultural products. Jan.
31, 1828, the "tariff of abominations," as
it was named by Its enemies, was intro-
duced in the House. It embodied in part
the recommendations of a national conven-
tion of manufacturers held at Harrisburg,
Pa., but satisfied neither the friends nor
the opponents of protection. This, bill pro-
posed a 41 per cent rate and was favored
by Daniel Webster, who reversed his posi-
tion of 1824. South Carolina protested
against' the proposed measure as unconsti-
tutional and unjnst and oppressive. North
Carolina also protested, and Alabama and
Georgia denied the power of Congress to
lay duties for protection. July 14, 1832,
President Jackson approved a bill reducing
the tax on iron, increasing that on woolens,
making some raw wools free, and leaving
cotton unchanged. This bill retained the
protective feature of the law of 1828, but
reduced the taxes somewhat. South Caro-
lina passed an ordinance nullifying this act
(see Nulliflcatlon), but her ordinance was
rescinded after the approval of the com-
promise tariff of 1833. This measure, in-
troduced by Clay and supported by Cal-
Tariff
Encyclopedic Indsx
Tariff
houn, provided for a gradual reduction of
duties to a uniform rate, to be reached in
1842. It secured a revenue tariff by suc-
cessive reductions. In 1842, the Whigs
being in a majority. Congress enacted a
protective tariH, which President Tyler
vetoed (2033).
July 30, 1846, a tariff law was enacted
which subordinated the principle of protec-
tion to that of revenue. It passed the
House Dy a vote of 114 to 95 and the Sen-
ate by the casting vote of Vice-President
Dallas. The average rate of duty was
fixed at about 25 per cent. This was low-
ered to about 20 per cent by an act of
1857. In 1861 the principle of protection
was reasserted in the Morrill Act, which in-
creased the rates of 1857 about one-third.
During the Civil War the tariff rates were
repeatedly raised to meet the expenses of
Government and stimulate manufacture.
These rates were continued long after the
cessation of hostilities. In 1882 a tariff
commission was appointed to visit different
sections of the country in the Interest of
tariff revision. The commission recotnmend-
ed a reduction of 20 per cent in rates.
President Cleveland, in his message of
Dec. 8, 1883 (page 4926), recommended a,
reduction of tlie tariff, and his message of
Dee. 6, 1887 (page 5165), was devoted ex-
clusively to this topic. From this time on,
party lines began to be drawn on the tariff
question, most of the Republicans favoring
protection and the majority of advocates ad-
vocating a revision in the direction of low-
er duties. The Mills bill, framed largely in
accordance with President Cleveland's
views, passed the House, but failed in the
Senate, where a bill embodying the ideas
of the protectionists on tariff revision was
substituted for it by the Republican ma-
jority. In the Fifty-first Congress, the
lElepubllcans being in control, passed the Mc-
Kinley tariff act of 1890 raising the duties
to an average of 48 per cent. By the
elections of 1890 and 1892 the Democrats
came into power, and In the Fifty-third
Congress the House passed the Wilson bill
providing for substantial reductions, espe-
cially on raw materials. Amendments were
added in the Senate which essentially
changed its cliaracter and the bill ' became
law In 1894 without the President's signa-
ture. It provided for an income tax
which was. however, declared unconstitu-
tional by the Supreme Court.
The elections of 1894 and 1896 returned
the Republicans to power, and in 1897 the
Dlngley law was passed, which imposed the
highest rates of duty ever known in our
history. It has been revised so far as con-
cerned the Philippines in 1905, when a
lower tariff came into force, and again in
1906, when the islands were given prac-
tically free trade with this country ; of the
few articles excepted, the most Important
were sugar, coffee, and tobacco.
The revision of the Dingley Tariff in
1909 is discussed by President Taft in his
address at Winona (page 7393) which was
evolied by the furious storm of criticism to
which the tariff and its sponsors were sub-
jected. This discontent produced a rup-
ture in the Republican ranks, "insurgent"
Congressmen lining up against "standpat-
ters.' The Federal patronage was em-
ployed to awaken insurgents to a sense of
duty to the party, but without avail. Pub-
lic sentiment on the question was ex-
pressed in the Democratic victory of 1910,
the insurgent Republicans being mostly re-
elected.
In the 1910 tariff, provision was made
for the application of a maximum or mini-
mum schedule of rates to the imports of a
foreign country in accordance as it dis-
criminates against or in favor of American
goods ; for corporation tax of one per
cent of net earnings ; for a revised tariff
establishing free trade with the Philip-
pines ; for a Customs Court of Appeals con-
sisting of five judges and six attorneys to
prosecute customs cases before the Court ;
and for a tariff board.
For the functions of the Tariff Board,
see Tariff Board. For a resumfi of the con-
tentions of the advocates of a protective
tariff, a. tariff for revenue only and free
trade, see Free Trade.
With the election of President Wilson
and a Democratic Congress in 1913 a
downward revision of the tariff was as-
sured, for Congress had already partially
framed the Underwood bill, and President
Wilson called an extra session April 8,
1913, and in his address called attention to
the duty of the party in power, and urged
immediate passage of the Underwood bill.
Oct. 3, 1913, the President signed the bill.
The main feature of the law was the In-
come tax provision, and the next Importance
was the removal of all protection from
agricultural products and meats. Duties
on the manufacture of cotton and woolen
goods were cut 10 to 50 per cent. Raw
wool was admitted free, and sugar became
free after three years. In the article Tar-
iff of 1913 following the rates of the Wil-
son tariff are compared with those of the
Payne-Aldrich act of 1909.
Foreign Trade Under the Hew Tariff. —
Secretary Redfield transmitted to the Ben-
ate a detailed statement of the results of the
Underwood-Simmons tariff act as reflected in
the foreign trade of the country up to the
time the war started in Europe. The state-
ment was prepared in the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce in response to a
Senate Resolution of Jan. 17, 1916, calling
upon the Secretary of Commerce for Infor-
mation In regard to trade under the pres-
ent tariff.
Free goods, not dutiable goods, are re-
sponsible for the increased imports for the
fiscal year 1914, the report states. Articles
subject to duty, if considered as a single
class, decreased perceptibly. Imports free of
duty increased from $988,000,000 to $1,128,-
000,000, whle the imports of dutiable goods
fell off from $825,000,000 to $766,000,000.
The increase In the total free imports was
due largely to the transfer of many Impor-
tant articles from the dutiable list to the
free list by the tariff act of 1913. Among
the articles so transferred are Iron ore, pig
iron, Bessemer ingots, steel rails, baling
and fencing wire, cotton ties, wool, flax,
hemp, burlap, cotton bagging, lumber, chem-
icals, wood pulp, leather, boots and shoes,
agricultural Implements, food animals, corn,
meat, milk, cream, and, when imported from
countries that admit free of duty similar
products from the United States, wheat
wheat flour, and potatoes.
The close correspondence between the es-
timated customs receipts and the actual re-
ceipts under the Underwood-Simmons tariff
is remarkable, the report shows. It Is esti-
mated that the bill as it passed the House
of Representatives would produce during
Its first full year of operation $258,000,000 :
as It passed the Senate, $248,000,006 ; and as
finally enacted, $249,000,000, or $20,750,000
a month. Since the new rates on sugar and
molasses became effective March Ij 1914,
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
the law was in full operation only five
months before the outbreak of the war.
During the quarter from April 1 to June
30 the duties amounted to $83,600,000, or
$21,200,000 a month. The receipts, there-
fore, exceeded the expected returns by $4S0,-
000 a month, or at the rate of $5,000,000 a
year.
Tariff:
Acij— ^
In relation to immediate transpor-
tation of dutiable goods re-
turned, 5502.
Begulating duties on copper, ve-
toed, 3903.
To extend for limited period pres-
ent laws for laying and collect-
ing, vetoed, 2033.
To provide revenue from imports,
etc., vetoed, 2036.
Protest of President Tyler against
action of House ia adopting re-
port assailing hia conduct re-
garding, 2043.
Act of —
1816, 760.
1827, 980.
1828—
Effect of, on agriculture, com-
merce and manufactures, 1012,
1014, 1519.
Modification of, recommended,
1013.
1833—
Compromise Act, 1896, 1934.
Eevenue diminished by, 1956.
Veto of bill to extend term of,
2033-6.
1842, 2254, 2301, 2349, 2402, 2497.
1846, 2402, 2497, 3051.
1890, 5556, 5626.
1894, 5984, 5998.
1897, 6652, 6713, 7369, 7379, 7393.
1909, 7393, 7406, 7422, 7479, 7488,
7501, 7618, 7622, 7631, 7676, 7745,
8920.
1913, 7871, 8030, 8151.
Dingley. (See 1897, above.)
Emergency of 1921, vetoed, 8917.
McKinley. (See Act of 1890, above.)
Payne-Aldrich. (See 1909, above.)
Underwood. (See 1913, above.)
Ad valorem duties —
Offer strong temptations to fraud,
2620, 2662, 2706.
Eecommended, 629, 667, 757, 870,
923, 952, 977.
Agricultural products, on, discussed,
8917.
Aldrich-Payne. (See Act of 1909,
above.)
Amount of, and statement in regard
to, 1159, 1246, 1895, 4633.
Artistic works, foreign, on, 4794,
4824, 4924, 5091.
Board — ^
Appropriation urged for, 7480.
Creation and functions of, 8151,
8158.
Permanent, appointed, 7677.
Provisions for, in Payne-Aldrich
.Law, 7407, 7427.
Report of, on wool, 7746.
Temporary, appointment of, 7676.
Bonds for payment of, postponed,
1708.
Change of rate of, causes halt in
business, 7369.
Chemicals, on, needed, 8718, 8813,
8886.
Coal, anthracite, duties should be re-
moved, 6714.
Coffee, on, recommended, 2366, 2405,
4303, 4422, 4511.
Bepeal of, recommended, 4062.
Collected by Great Britain and United
States in contravention of treaty
discussed, 596, 2274, 2296.
Collection of, 119, 122, 925.
Laws for, judicial construction of,
1788.
Commission, 4636, 4722, 4831. (See
also Board, above and Tariff Com.
mission, below.)
Investigations of, discussed, 8716.
Compromise act, diminution of duties
under, referred to, 1955.
Concessions, reciprocal, granted to —
Netherlands, 6961.
Spain, 6966.
Constitutionality of tariff questioned,
1086.
Copper, on, act for, vetoed, 3903.
Cotton, on, from British North
American colonies, 996.
Cotton, on, proposed, 1135.
Decrease in, 1955.
Differential principle to govern revis-
ion of, 7369, 7511.
Dingley. (See Act of 1897, above.)
Diplomatic negotiations concerning,
■ 2086, 7488, 7501. (See also Brazil,
Canada, Colombia, France, Ger-
many, Great Britain, Portugal,
Spain.)
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 943, 952, 968, 977,
979.
Arthur, 4636, 4721, 4839.
Buchanan, 2964, 3052, 3181.
Cleveland, 4926, 5093, 5169, 5359,
5890, 5984, 6173.
Fillmore, 2619, 2659, 2661, 2705.
Grant, 3984, 4061, 4102, 4201, 4247,
4303.
Harding, 8939.
Harrison, Benj., 5473, 5556, 5626,
5744.
Hayes, 4422, 4511.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Taritf
Jackson, 1115, 1123, 1135, 1156,
1159-60, 1172, 1246-7, 1380, 1470.
Jefferson, 367, 397.
Johnson, 3773.
McKinley, 6238, 6246, 6439, 6465.
Madison, 470, 552.
Monroe, 675, 760, 784.
Pierce, 2747, 2871, 2941.
Polk, 2253, 2301, 2348, 2366, 240.3,
2497, 2506.
Roosevelt, 6652, 6713, 7083, 7189,
7346.
Taft, 7369, 7393, 7399, 7422, 7479,
7501, 7511, 7618, 7631, 7677, 7745,
7777, 7795.
'Taylor, 2556.
Tyler, 1934, 1955, 1961, 2033, 2036,
2053, 2119.
Van Buren, 1555-6, 1823, 1829.
"Wilson, 7869, 7871, 8030, 8151,
8158, 8717, 8718, 8917.
Dyestuffs, on, needed, 8718, 8813,
8886.
Emergency, vetoed, 8917.
Finished articles should not be put
on free list when raw materials are
dutiable, 7751.
Flour, on, 1115.
Foreign powers, claims of, for re-
fund of, 1172.
Frauds in importation of foreign mer-
chandise discussed, 989, 4797.
Free List —
Increase in, recommended, 4102,
4247, 4723, 5474.
Sugar placed on, discussed, 5626.
Germany —
Protest of, against discriminating
duty on sugar and recommenda-
tions concerning, 5957.
Reciprocity with, discussed, 7283.
Relations with, concerning, 7122.
Great Britain, due to, payment of,
recommended, 568.
Hawaii, reciprocity treaty with Unit-
ed States regarding goods of, vio-
lated by, 5545.
Hemp, Russian, on, 3990.
High cost of living not caused by,
7403.
Increase in, recommended, 760, 1961.
Industry affected by, 6713, 7747.
Investigation of, discussed, 7189.
Iron and steel schedule, discussed and
vetoed, 7749.
Laws levying, repealed. (See Vessels,
Foreign, tonnage on.)
Liquors, distilled, on, 91, 104.
Luxuries, on, 397.
Machine tools, rates on, discussed,
7751.
McKinley. (See Act of 1890, above.)
Mail, foreign, on, recommended,
4527.
Minimum and maximum rates, dis-
cussed, 7406, 7422, 7426, 7479, 7488,
7501, 7777.
Moderate schedule of, recommended,
2054, 2620, 2662.
Payne-Aldrich. (See Act of 1909,
above.')
Philippines —
Free trade provided , for, 7407.
Urgent necessity of tariff in, 6737.
Portugal, complaint of, regarding,
1956.
Receipts from, 332, 588, 629, 675,
757, 849, 870, 907, 952, 977, 1118,
1159, 1160, 1246-7, 1829, 1895-6.
Reciprocity with —
Canada. (See Canada, Beeiproeity
with.)
Germany, 7283.
Reduction in, 1707, 1752, 2349, 2497,
4765.
Recommended by President —
Cleveland, 4926, 5093, 5165, 5359,
5374, 5890, 5984.
Grant, 4102, 4247.
Harrison, Benj., 5473.
Jackson, 1013, 1119.
Johnson, 3773.
Pierce, 2747, 2871, 2941.
Polk, 2253, 2301.
Taft, 7369, 7393, 7395, 7399, 7400,
7488, 7501, 7618.
"Wilson, 7871.
Regulation of, urged, 470.
Republican Party platform and prin-
ciples of, discussed, 7083, 7394, 7399.
Revision of —
Democratic Party principles domi-
nant in, 8151.
Differential principle to govern,
7369, 7511.
Downward, accomplished by Payne-
Aldrieh Law, 7399.
Need for, discussed by President —
Roosevelt, 7083.
Taft, 7369, 7379, 7393, 7511, 7751.
"Wilson, 7871.
Postponement of, in Payne-Aldrich
Tariff, urged, 7408.
Preparation for, 7346.
Rates, vetoed, 7618, 7631, 7745, 7749,
7751.
Schedule by schedule process urged
for, 7512.
Rice, on, 1243, 1931, 2112, 2181,
2274.
Salt, on, 397, 1470.
Schedule K. (See "Wool.)
Spain, complaint of, regarding, 1956.
Special privilege under, ended, 7872.
Specific duties recommended, 2556,
2620, 2661, 2706, 3052, 3181; 4422.
Sugar, on, discriminating, protest o*
Germany against, 5957.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
Tea, on, recominended, 2366, 2405,
4303, 4422, 4511.
Treaties, foi:eign, affected by, 2086.
Treaty provisions regarding, refusal
to abrogate, 8871.
Trusts and monopolies —
Created by, 7394.
Unhindered by reduction in, 6712.
Underwood. (See Act of 1913, above.)
Vessels, United States, on. (See
Vessels, United States.)
Warehousing system discussed, 1015,
2053, 2119, 2405. .
War measure, discussed, 2352, 2366.
Wines, on, 1131, 1321, 2127, 2250.
Wood pulp duties should be removed,
7099.
Wools, on, 1247, 4247.
Imposed b;sr —
Brazil, ^eductions in, 968.
Colombia, 1115, 5762.
Wool duties, reduction in —
Needed, 7402, 7618, 7677.
Vetoed, 7618, 7745.
World War's effect on system of, dis-
cussed, 8811, 8812.
Tariif Board. — The Payne-Aldrlch Tariff
Act of 1909 authorized the President to
appoint persons to secure Information con-
cerning the tariff and in other ways to aid
the administration of the customs laws.
In September, 1909, President Taft appoint-
ed, under this autliorlty, a Tariff Board of
three members, later increased to five. In
1910-11, Congress autliorized an appropria-
tion for the worl£ of tlie Board, and It func-
tioned in making investigations, and in re-
porting its findings to the President and to
Congress. However, dissatisfaction wltli
tlie Payue-Aldrlch Tariff included the Tariff
Board, as it was felt that the Board was
partly responsible for the refusal of the
Republican Party to lower the tariff rates
to a substantial degree ; and when the
Democratic Party obtained control in the
House of Eepresentatives in 1911, the appro-
priations for the Board were ended, so
that the life of the Board came to an end
in June, 1912.
Tariff Board. (See Tariff, Board,
above.)
Tariff Commission.— The plea long coming
from all classes and parts of the country
to "take the tariff out of politics" was
TABLE OF LEADING ARTICLES IMPOBTED INTO THE UNITED STATES OR ANT OF ITS POSSESSIONS (EXCEPT
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, GUAM AND TUTUILA), GIVING RATES AT ENTRY BY THE TARIFF ACT OF 1913 COMPARED
WITH THE TARIFF ACT OF 1909.
(The following table covers only the articles of principal importance imported.) (ad val. — ad val-
orem; n.s.p.f. — not specially provided for.)
Articles
Rates of Duty Under
Law of 1909 New Law of 1913
Schedule A — Chemicals, Oils and Paints:
Acids, n.s.p.f
Alcoholic compounds, n.s.p.f.
Alkalies, alkaloids, and all chemical and medicinal compounds,
preparations, mixtures and salts, and combinations thereof .
Ammonia, Carbonite of
Drugs ,
Glue, value not above 10c. per pound
Oil, castor, gals
Oil, olive in bottles, etc., gals
Oil, whale, gals : • -
Opium, crude and not adulterated, containing 9 per cent, and over
of morphia, lbs
Perfumery, cosmetics, containing alcohol
Perfumery, cosmetics, not containing alcohol
Soap, Castile
Soap, toilet
Soda, bi-carbonate of _
Sponges, not advanced in value by chemical processes
Schedule B — Earths, Earthenware and Glassware:
Cement •
Earthenware, porcelain, decorated
Earthenware, common
Glassware, plain and cut
Marble, manufactures of, except for jewelry
Spectacles, eyeglasses, opera and field glasses, and frames for
Schedule C — Metals and Manufactures of: ;
Iron, bar
Steel, u.s.p.f. in sec. 112 of act •"■■•,■■, .•■•,■ v
Automobile chassis and finished parts of automobiles not includ-
ing tires
Copper plates '•
3-14
25 p.c. ad val.
60c. lb. and 25 p.c.
ad. val.
25 p.c. ad val.
IMc lb.
IJ^c. lb. and
10 p.c. ad val.
2Mc. lb.
35c. gal.
50c.\gal.
8c. gal.
$1.50 lb.
60c. lb. and 50 p.c.
ad val.
60 p.c. ad val.
IJio. lb.
50 p.c. ad val.
5-8c. lb.
20 p.c. ad val.
8c. 100 lbs.
60 p.c. ad val.
25 p.c. ad val.
60 p.c. ad val.
50 p.c. ad val,
50 p.c. ad val.
6-lOc. lb.
Graduated rate
45 p.c. ad val.
2;^. lb. •
15 p.c. ad val.
10c. lb. and 20 p.c.
ad. val. to 40c.
lb. and 20 p.c.
ad. val.
15 p.c. ad val.
Kc. lb.
10 p.c. ad val.
Ic. lb.
12c. gal.
30c. gal.
5c. gal.
J3.00 lb.
40c. lb. and 60 p.a
ad val.
60 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val. '
30 p.c. ad val.
Kc. lb.
10 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val,
40 p.c. ad val.
15 p.c. ad val.
45 p.c. ad val.
45 p.c. ad val.
35 P.O. ad val.
5 p.c. ad val.
12 p.c. ad val.
30 p.c. ad val.
5 p.c. ad val.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
TABLE OF L&ADIHQ ARTICLES IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES — Continued
Articles
Rates of Duty Under
Law of 1909 New Law of 1913
Pens, metallic, except gold pens
Table and kitchen utensils, metal
Tin plates ,
Pins, not jewelry
Iron beams, eirders, joists ,
Cast iron andirons, plates, stove plates, hollow ware
Aluminum, and alloys of any kind in which it is the chief com-
ponent, in crude form
Watch movements not jewelled, watch cases
Schedule D — Wood and Manufactures of:
Briar wood and similar wood unmanufactured
Paving posts, railroad tires, telephone, trolley and telegraph poles
House or cabinet furniture, and manufactures of wood or bark,
n.s.p.f
Schedule B — Sugar, Molasses and Manufactures of:
Sugars and syrups of cane juice
Saccharin
Sugar cane in its natural state, or unmanufactured
Molasses, not above 40 degrees
Maple sugar and maple syrup
Glucose or grape sugar
Sugar candy, valued more than 15c per pound, and chewing gum
Schedule F — Tobacco and Manufactures of:
Tobacco, wrapper, filler, leaf
Snuff
Cigars and^cigarettes
Schedule G — Agricultural Products and Provisions:
Horses and mules and all live animals, n.s.p.f
Barley, bushel of 48 pounds
Barley malt.lbushel of 34 pounds
Oatmeal ana rolled oats
Oats, bushel. ....,*
Rice, cleaned
Macaroni, vermicelli, and all similar preparations . . .
Butter and substitutes
Cheese and substitutes therefor
Hay
Honey »
Hops
Seeds, flax seed, linseed and other oil seeds, n.s.p.f
Seeds, castor
Fish, except shell fish, packed in oil or in oil and other substances
Fruits, apples, peaches, quinces, cherries, plums and pears
Fruits, preserved, n.s.p.f..
Fruits, oranges, grapefruit, lemons and limes in bulk
Pineapples, in bulk
Nuts of all kinds, shelled or unshelled, n.s.p.f
Spices, ungrouud, n.s.p.f
- Chocolate and cocoa unsweetened, prepared or manufactured
n.s.p.f
Chocolate and cocoa, sweetened, prepared or manufactured, val-
ued at 20c. per pound or less
Schedule H — Spirits, Wines and Other Beverages:
Brandy and other spirits manufactured or distilled from grain or
other materials, n.s.p.f ,
Champagne and all other sparkling wines, quarts
Wines, still, in casks, vermuth ana similar beverages
Wines, still, in bottles, quarts
Malt liquors, in bottles, jugs, gallons
Mineral waters, in bottles, quarts ,
Schedule I — Cotton Manufactures:
Cotton thread, uncolored, according to munbers
Cotton thread, colored, bleached, according to numbers..
12c. gross
40 p.c. ad val.
12-lOc. lb.
35 p.c. ad val.
Graduated rate
8-lOc lb.
7c. lb.
Graduated rate
15 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
Above 75 degrees
polariscope 95-
100 of Ic. per lb.
and for each ad-
ditional degree
35-1000 of Ic.
per lb.
65c. lb.
20 p.c. ad val.
20 p.c. ad val.
4c. lb.
IJ^c. lb.
50 p.c. ad val.
S1.S5 lb. to $2.50
lb.
55c. lb.
$4.50 lb. and 25
p.c. ad val.
25 p.c. ad val.
30c. bushel
45c. bushel
Ic. lb.
15c. bushel
2c. lb.
IHc lb.
6c. lb.
6c. lb.
$4 ton
20c. gal.
16c. lb.
25o. bushel
25c. bushel
Ic.lb.
25c. bushel
2c. lb.
Ic. lb.
$8 per 1,000
Ic. lb.
Free list
Graduated rate
Graduated rate
$2.60 gal.
$9.60 per doz.
45c. gal.
$1.85 per doz.
45c. gal.
30c. doz.
8c. gross
25 p.c. ad val.
15 p.c. ad val.
20 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
2c. lb.
30 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
15 p.c. ad val.
Not above 75 de-
grees polari-
scope 71-100 of
Ic. per lb.; for
every addition-
al degree 26-
1000 of Ic.
lb.
65c. lb.
15 p.c. ad val.
15 p.c. ad val.
3c. lb.
IHc. lb.
25 p.c. ad val.
per
$1,85 lb. to $2.50
lb.
55c. lb.
$4.50 lb. and 25
p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
15c. bushel
25c. bushel
30c. 100 lbs.
6c. bushel
Ic. lb.
Ic. lb.
2Hc. lb.
20c. p.c. ad val.
$2 ton
10c. gal.
16c. lb.
20c. bushel
15c. bushel
25 p.c. ad val.
lOo. bushel
Ic. lb.
He. lb.
$5 per 1,000
Iclb.
Ic. lb.
8 p.c. ad val.
2c. lb.
$2.60 gal.
$9.60 per dos.
45c. to 60c. gat.
$1.85 per doz.
45c. gal.
20c. doz.
2Hc. lb. to 2Sc. lb. 5 to 25 p.c. ad val.
6c. lb. to 67c. lb. 7>^ to 27>^ p.c. ad
I val.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
TABLE OF LEADING ARTICLES IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES — Continued
Articles
Rates of Duty Under
Law of 1909 New Law of 1913
Cotton cloth, uncolored, according to numbers
Cotton cloth, colored, bleached, according to numbers..^.
Cotton handkerchiefs or mufflers, hemmed or hemstitched, n.a.p.f,
Cotton clothing, ready made
Cotton hosiery, pairs
Cotton shirts, drawers, and all underwear, n.s.p.f
Cotton, plushes, velvets, corduroys
Lace manufactures
Schedule J — Flax, Hem.'p and Jute and Manufaciurea of:
Flax hamp or ramie single yarns, finer than 80 lea or number. . . .
Mattings for floors
Schedule K — Wool and Manufactures cf:
Combed wool or tops, n.s.p.f
Yams
Cloths, knit fabrics, felts not woven and all manufactures of eveiy
description, wholly or chiefly of wool, n.s.p.f
Blankets, n.s.p.f., and flannels
Dress goods, women's and children's '
Clothing, ready made and wearing apparel of every description,
n.8.p.f
Carpets, woven whole for rooms, and rugs
Plushes, velvets and all other pile fabrics, cut or uncut
Schedule L—SiUc and Silk Goods:
Silk partially manufactured, or spun silk
Silk, wearing apparel
Silk, yarns, threads
Silk, all manufactures of, n.s.p.f
Schedule M — Papers and Books:
Printing paper, other than paper commercially known as hand-
made or machine hand-made, valued above 2^c. per lb., n.s.p.f.
Books, of all kinds, bound or unbound pamphlets, engravings,
photographs, n.s.p.f
Paper, manufactures of, n.s.p.f
Playing cards
Schedule N — SundrUs:
Beads
Brushes
Bristles
Diamonds and other precious stones, cut but not set
Feathers
Furs, dressed
Furs, wearing apparel
Gloves
Gutta Percha '. '.
Hair, human
Leather, manufactures of
Musical instruments
Phonographs, gramophones, graphophones, or parts
Pailktings and statuary
Toys
Umbrellas
Ic. sq. yard to Sc
sq. yard '
Graduated rate
4Kc. sq. yard and
10 p.c. ad yal.
50 p.c. ad val.
70c. doz. toS2doz
and 15 p.c. ad
val.
60c. doz and 15
p.c. ad val. to
S2.25 doz. and
35 p.c. ad val
9c. sq. yard and 25
p.c. ad val. to
12c. sq. yard
and 25 p.c. ad
val.
60 p.c. ad Tal.
35 p.c. ad val.
3Kc. sq. yard
Graduated rate
Graduated rate
Graduated rate
Graduated rate
Graduated rate
44c. lb. and 60 p.c.
ad val.
10c. sq. foot and
40 p.c. ad val.
Graduated rate
35 p.c. ad val.
60 p.c. ad val.
45c. lb. to 60c. lb.
Graduated rate
3-lOc. lb. to 8-lOc.
lb.
25 p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
10c. pack and 20
p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad
40 p.c. ad
7J^. lb.
10 p.c. ad
20 to 60
val.
20 p.c. ad
50 p.c. ad
$1.25 doz.
doz.
35 p.c. ad
20 p.c. ad
15 p.c. ad
45 p.c. ad
45 p.c. ad
15 p.c. ad
35 p.c. ad
50 p.c. ad
val.
val.
val.
p.c. ad
val.
vul.
to $5.80
val.
val.
val.
val.
val.
val.
val.
val.
IH to 27J^ p.c. ad
val.
10 to 30 p.c. ad
val.
30 p.c. ad val.
30 p.c. ad val.
$1.20 doz. pairs
and 30 to 50 p.c.
ad val.
30 p.c. ad val.
40 p.c. ad val.
35 to 45 p.c. ad val.
10 p.c. ad val.
2^c. SQ. yard
8 p.c. ad val.
IS p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
25to30Ip.c.adval.
35 p.c. ad val.
35 P.O. ad val.
50 p.c. ad val.
45 p.c. ad val.
20c. lb. to 35 p.c.
ad val.
50 p.c. ad val.
35 to 60 p.c. ad
val.
45 p.c. ad val.
12 p.c. ad val.
15 p.e. ad val.
25 p.c. ad val.
60 p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
7c. lb.
20 p.o. ad val.
20 to 60 p.c. ad
val.
20 p.c. ad val.
45 p.c. ad val.
$1 to $3 doz. pair
15 p.c. ad val:
20 p.o. ad val.
30 p.c. ad val.
35 P.O. ad val.
25 p.c. ad val.
25 P.O. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
35 p.c. ad val.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Tariff
THE FREE LIST
Acids (not provided for
in a^ove list under
Schedulb A).
Aconite.
Agates, unmanufactured.
Agricultural implements.
Albumen, n.s.p.f.
Alcohol.
Ammonia, nitrate and
sulphate of.
Animals brought into U.
S. temporarily or for
breeding purposes.
Animals, wild.
Anthracite coal.
Antitoxins.
Aromatic (not garden)
seeds.
Arrowroot, not manufac-
tured.
Arsenic.
Art, works of.
Articles returned after
having been exported.
Asbestos, unmanufac-
tured.
Aaphaltum.
Bacon.
Bagging for Cotton, etc.
Barbed fence wire.
Barks, n.s.p.f.
Beans, n.s.p.f.
Beef, fresh.
Beeswax.
Belting leather.
Benzine,
Berries, n.s.p.f.
Bibles.
Birds.
Bismuth. '
Bituminous coal.
Boneblack.
Books for the blind and
for religious, philo-
sophical scientific or
literary purposes, per-
sons or families from
foreign countries, pro-
fessional.
Boots.'
Borax, crude.
Brass.
Brimstone.
Briquets.
Broom corn.
Buckwheat.
Bullion,. gold or silver.
Burlaps.
Cabinet woods, unman-
ufactured.
Calcium, n.s.p.f.
Camel's hair.
Carbolic acid.
Cash registers.
Cast-iron pipe.
Cattle.
Cement.
Chalk, crude.
Charts, n.s.p.f.
Citizens of U. S. dying in
foreign countries, per-
sonal effects of.
Clapboards.
Coal.
Cobalt.
Cocoa, n.s.p.f.
Cocoanuls m the shell.
Cocoons, silk.
Cod liver oil.
Coffee.
Coins, gold, silver and
copper.
Composition metal,
n.s.p.f.
Copper, in plates, bars,
mgots or pigs, n.s.p.f.
and ore.
Copperas.
Cork, unmanufactured.
Corn.
Corn-meal.
Cotton and cotton bag-
ging. _
Cotton 'gins.
Cotton waste.
Cottonseed oil.
Cream.
Croton oil.
Curry.
Cyanide of potassium
and soda.
Darning needles.
Drawings.
Drugs, not advanced.
Dyeing and tanning ma-
terials.
Dyewooda, n.s.p.f.
Engravings, n.s^p.f.
Etchings, n.s.p.f.
Evergreen aeedings.
Explosive substances.
Extracts, n.s.p.f.
Fans, common palm leaf.
Fats.
Fencing, barbed and gal-
vanized wire.
Ferro Manganese.
Fibres and grasses.
Films, moving picture.
Firewood.
Flat rails, iron or steel.
Flax.
Flint, flints and flint
stones unground.
Flocks.
Flower and grass seeds,
n.s.p.f.
Foreign stamps.
Fossils.
Fowls.
Fruit plants, for purpose
of propagation or cul-
tivation.
Fruits or berries, n.s.p.f.
Fulminates.
Furniture of persons or
families from foreign
countries.
Furs, undressed.
Galvanized wire.
Gasoline.
Glass, plates or disks.
Glaziers' diamonds.
Gloves, leather, n.s.p.f.
Glue, stock.
Gold, bullion, metals, ore
and sweepings.
Gold, silver, copper or
other metal coins.
Grains.
Granite, n.s.p.f.
Grass seed and sisal.
Grasses and fibers.
Guano, manures and all
substances used only
in manure.
Gunny bags, old and
cloth.
Gunpowder.
Gutta-percha, crude.
Hair, D,9.p.f.
Hams.
Handle bolts.
Hand sewing needles.
Harness, saddles and sad-
dlery, or parts thereof.
Harvesters.
Hemlock bark, extract of.
Hemp, n.s.p.f.
Herbs, used as drugs,
n.s.p.f.
Hides.
Hones and whetstones.
Hoop iron or steel, coated
or no b coated wi th
paint.
Hoops, iron or steel, cut
to lengths.
Horns and paiia of.
Horsehair.
Horseshoe nails.
Horseshoes.
Household effects.
Ice.
India rubber, crude.
Indigo.
Ingots.
Insects' eggs.
Instruments, philosophi-
cal and scientifical.
Inventions, models of.
Iodine, crude and re-
sublimed.
Ipecac.
Iron Ore.
Iron or steel bands, cut
to lengths and manu-
factures of.
Iron pr steel billets.
Iron or steel nails, rails
and scrap.
Junk, old.
Jute.
Kerosene.
Kindling wood.
Lamb.
Lambskin.
Land fowls.
Lard.
Laths.
Leather, boots and shoes,
harness, rough, sad-
dles, and saddlery, shoe
laces, sole, uppers,
vamps.
Leaves used as drugs
n.s.p.f.
Leeches.
Lemon and lime juice. *
Lemon peel, not pre-
served.
Libraries.
Lifeboats and life-saving
apparatus.
Linotype machines.
Lithographic atones not
engraved.
Loadstones.
Logs.
Loops, iron.
Lubricating oils, n.s.p.f.
Lumber, planed or fin-
L4.ished, n.s.p.f.
Machines, for spreading
tar and oil and for
sugar making, lino-
type, sewing, thrash-
ing, typesetting.
Magnesite, crude or cal-
cined.
Maize.
Manganese, oxide and
P*ore of.
Manila.
Manures.
Manuscripts.
Maps, n.B-p.f.
Marroons.
Marrow.
Marshmallow.
Meal, com.
Meats.
Medals of gold, silver or
copper.
Metal composition, n.s.p.f.
Nut oil.
Nux vomica.
Oakum.
Oil cake.
Oils not provided iar in
list under Schedule A.
Orange juice, peel, not
preserved, candied or
dried.
Ore, cobalt, copper, em-
ery, gold, iron, man-
ganese, manganiferous
iron, nickel, silver, tin,
tungsten-bearing.
Paper, printing, n.s.p.f.
stock, crude.
Paraffin and paraffin oil.
Parchment.
Paris green.
Pearl, mother of, and
Saarl shells,
bles, Brazilian,
Periodicals and news-'
papers issued within 6
months of time of
entry.
Personal effects.
Petroleum.
Phosphates, crude.
Phosphorus.
Photographic, and mov-
ing picture films not
exposed or developed.
Pigs, copper, iron, •
Pipe, cast-iron.
Plants, fruits, tropical
and semi-tropical , for
propagation or cultiva-
tion.
Rapeseed.
Rattan.
Reapers.
Reeds, unmanufactured.
Regalia and gens, statu-
ary and casts of sculp-
ture.
Roots, n.s.p.f.
Rye and rye flour.
Saddlery.
Safety lamps.
Sago.
Salt.
Saltpetre, crude.
Scientific apparatus.
Seeds, all flower and
grass, n.s.p.f.
Sewing machines.
Sheep.
Shellfish and shells.
Shingles.
Shoddy.
Shoes, leather.
Silk, raw.
Silver, bullion, coins,
_ medals, ore, sweepings.
Skins, undressed.
Soda, arseniate, ash, cy-
anide, nitrite, silicate,
sulphate.
Sole leather.
Tariff
Encyclopedic Index
Taxation
THE FREE LIST — Coniin'J'ed
Specimens, botany and
mineralogy and natu-
ral history not for sale.
Spermaceti oil.
Spirits, turpentine.
Sprigs, cut.
Stamps, foreign.
Statuaiy.
Thrashing machines.
Timber.
Tin, except plates.
Tobacco stems.
Trophies, i
Turpentine.
Twine.
Type, old.
Typesetting machines.
Typewriters.
Vaccine virus.
Veal.
Vegetable substances.
Vellum.
Verdigris.
Vitrol, blue.
Wagons and carts
Waste.
Water fowls.
Wa;c, n.s.p.f.
W earing apparel. (See
below.)
Weeds' and wood used as
drugs, n.s.p.f.
Whalebone, unmanufac-
tured.
Whale oil, n.s.p.f.
Wheat, n.s-p.f.
Whetstones.
Wild animals.
Wire, barbed fence, gal-
vanized, nails, staples.
Wood, n.s.p.f.
Wood alcohol.
Wood pulp.
Wool, n.s.p.f..
Works of art.
Wrought and cast iron.
Wrought iron or steel
nails, n.s.p.f.
Yarn, Angora goat hair,
alpaca hair, etc., waste.
finally met In the Tariff Bill passed by Con-
gress on September 8, 1016. That bill pro-
vided for a Tariff Commission ot 6 mem-
bers, not more than 3 of whom are to belong
to the same political party. The members
are appointed by the President, by and
with the consent of the Senate, for a period
ot 12 years' service, and command a yearly
salary of $7,500. Provision is made for
power to subpoena witnesses, conduct inves-
tigations, etc., in order to make the work
of the Commission effective. The duties ot
the Commission are to investigate and to
report annually' on the effect of the tariff
rates to Congress, and at any other time
when requested to the President or to the
Tariff Committees of the House and the
Senate. The members of the first commis-
sion appointed under the act of 191B were :
Prof. P. W. Taussig, of Harvard University,
Chairman ; ex-Congressman David J. Lewis,
of Maryland ; Edward P. Costlgan, of Colo-
rado ; ex-Congressman William Kent, of
California ; W. S. Culbertson, of Kansas ;
and Daniel C. Roper, of South Carolina.
(See Tariff.)
Tariff Commission. (See Tariff, Com-
mission, above.)
Tariff Duties of Foreign Nations.
(See Foreign Import Duties and Ves-
sels, Foreign, Tonnage on.)
Tarler and Co., claim of, 6735.
Tarrateen Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Tarvis Valley, disposition of, referred
to, 8837.
Tawakaro Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Tax, Income. (See Income Tax.)
Tax, Inheritance. (See Inheritance
Tax.)
Tax, Poll. (See Poll Tax.)
Taxation.— The exaction of money from
the individual for the use of the state is
a function of all forms of government. The
generally accepted theory of taxation in
America Is that money to be used In the
service of all the citizens of the state is
Justly raised by taxation ; that a tax which
does not bear equally upon all or which,
bearing equally upon all, is used only for
the benefit of a few is unjust. The direc-
tion taken by all efforts at tax reform Is
toward self-annexation — 1. e., the commu-
nity as a whole to decide what is required
of each Individual for the public expense.
Out of this principle grew the doctrine that
no tax can be levied save by the repre-
sentatives of the people who must pay it.
It was in defense of this principle that the
American colonists objected to the stamp tax
Imposed by P.irliament and raised the claim
that "taxation without representation" is
tyranny. The tax levied by a conquering
nation upon a vanquished foe is tribute.
Direct taxation is authorized by the Con-
stitution In proportion to the population.
The first direct tax was for $2,000,000,
and was levied pro rata upon the sixteen
states existing in 1798. Others have since
been levied, notably that of 1861, when
$20,000,000 was levied in this manner fcr
prosecuting the war. Three-fourths of this
amount was by act of March 2, 1891, re-
funded to the states. Congress is forbid-
den by the Constitution to lay any tax
or duty on exports (page 20). States arc
forbidden to lay duties on either exports
or Imports, but may resort to direct taxa-
tion. Until the Civil War the federal gov-
ernment relied chiefly upon duties upon
Imports for its revenue, but since that time
an internal-revenue tax has been collected.
Income taxes have become established and
inheritance taxes have been recommended.
State taxation is direct and is assessed
upon real and personal property, upon privi-
leges, and upon Individuals or polls. Be-
fore 1800 most of the states passed laws
to regulate taxation. All except Delaware
levied a tax on land, and nine of the origi-
nal thirteen states collected a poll tax.
The, systems of county, state, and munici-
pal taxation are numerous and constantly
changing. According to the contention of
those who favor the single-tax theory,
taxation should be solely upon land values,
exclusive of improvements. (See Income
Tax ; Inheritance Tax ; Internal Revenue ;
Single Tax; laritC.)
Taxation (see also Import Duties):
Balance due from collectors, 620.
By States upon the franchises of
street railway and similar corpora-
tions, 7042.
Changes needed in, 8648, 8716, 8885.
Consular reports on, 5201. *
Corporation. (See Corporation Tax.)
Direct, discussed, 265, 268.
Excise. (See also Excise Laws) —
Of two per cent on earnings of cor
, porations, urged, 7391.
Provided for by 1910 tarifE, 7406,
7510.
Forms of, discussed, 7042.
Income. (See Income Tax.)
Increase in, 5549.
Urged by President —
Grant, 4247.
Washington, 134.
"Wilson, 7981, 8113, 8505.
Taxation
Encyclopedic Index
Taylor
Inheritance. (See Inheritance Tax.)
Internal-revenue stamps, referred to,
3903.
Joint resolution to correct clerical er-
rors in internal-revenue act, vetoed,
3471.
On capital and deposits of banks, re-
peal of, recommended, 4636.
Eeduction in, 4765.
Eecommended, 4102, 4422, 4636,
4721, 4831, 5474.
Repeal of laws regarding, recom-
mended, 316, 589.
Eevision of, urged by President Hard-
ing, 8938.
Simplification of, urged, 8811.
AVar, should be levied contempor-
aneously as far as possible, 8113,
8229.
Well-digested system of, recom-
mended, 514.
Taxes, Direct. — Section 8 of Article I of
tlie Constitution authorizes Congress to lay
and collect taxes. During the history of
the Governmeut It has not been deemed
necessary to lay direct taxes but five times
—in 1798, 1813, 1815, 1816, and 1862.
The last time was during the Civil War,
when a direct tax of $20,000,000 was lev-
led, to be proportionately assessed against
all lots .of ground with their improvements
and dwelling houses. The operation of the
act was suspended July 1, 1872, and by
an act of March 2, 1891, $15,000,000 of
this amount was refunded to the states.
The earlier direct taxes were levied on
houses, lands, and slaves. (See also In-
come Tax ; Inheritance Tax.)
Taylor, Zachary. — Marcb 5, 1849-July
9, 1850.
Sixteenth Administration — Whig.
Vice-President — Millard Fillmore.
Secretary of Stntc —
John M. Clayton.
Secretary of the Treasury —
William M. Meredith.
Secretary of ^Yar —
George W. Crawford.
Secretary of the Xary —
William B. Preston.
Secretary of the Interior —
Thomas Ewing.
Postmaster-Oeneral —
Jacob Collamer.
A ttorney-Qeneral —
Eeverdy Johnson.
Taylor was elected by the Whig party,
Nov. 7, 1848. He was nominated at the
Whig National Convention at Philadelphia,
June 7 and 8, 1848. Clay was the next
most popular candidate for nomination.
Platform, — The platform endorsed Gen-
eral Taylor's candidacy, proclaimed Wash-
ington's administration as the model, sup-
ported the Mexican War, and solicited the
support of the Whig party.
Opposition. — The Free-Soil Convention, or
Barnburners, and the Abolitionists support-
ed Van Buren. At the Free-Soil Convention
at Buffalo, Aug. 9 and 10, Van Buren was
formally nominated on a platform main-
taining the rights of free labor against the
slave power and the securing of a free soil
for a free people, proposing no Federal in-
terference with slavery, citing the Jefferson
proviso of 1800 against the extension of
slavery, advocating the prohibition of slav-
ery in all new territory, demanding freedom
in Oregon, cheap postage, and government
retrenchment, supporting Internal improve-
ments, recommending free grants of land
to settlers, and advising rapid payment of
the public debt. The Democratic National
Convention at Baltimore, May 22-26, 1848,
nominated Lewis Cass on a platform which
included the platforms of 1840 and 1844,
endorsed and justified the Mexican War, ex-
pressed sympathy with the republicans of
France, denounced monopolies and exclusive
legislation, and heartily endorsed the pol-
icies of Polls.
Toie.-^The popular vote cast by thirty
States gave Taylor, 1,360,601 ; Cass, 1,220,-
544 ; and Van Buren, 291,263. The elec-
toral vote, counted on Feb. 14, 1849, gave
Taylor 163 and Cass 127.
Party AfHUation. — Taylor's continuous
service in the army of the United States
left him entirely free from party or sec-
tional attachments. When his name was
brought forward for nomination at the
Whig convention, several resolutions were
offered seelsing to bind Taylor to the sup-
port of such Whig policies as the non-ex-
tension of slave territory, no more foreign
acquisition by conquest, the protection of
American industries, and opposition to the
usurpation of authority by the Executive.
But these resolutions were ruled out of or-
der. Upon all of these questions, and upon
Whig policies generally, Taylor had never
distinctly declared himself. He was the
only man available who. could heal the
breach in the party and unite all the dis-
cordant elements with possible hope of suc-
cess. Although the Whigs had opposed the
Mexican War with vehemence, they never-
theless chose as their candidate a man who
had played the most Important part in the
prosecution of the war.
Political Complexion of Congress. — In the
Thirty-first Congress (1849-1851), the Sen-
ate, of 62 members, was composed of 35
Democrats, 25 Whigs, and 2 Free-Soli ; and
the House, of 227 members, was made up
of 116 Democrats and 111 Whigs. In the
Thirty-second Congress (1851-1853), the
Senate, of 62 members, was composed ot
36 Democrats, 23 Whigs, and 3 Free-Soil;
and the House, of 233 members, was made
np of 140 Democrats, 88 Whigs, and 5
Free-Soil.
Foreign Policy.— The ratification of the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (see Great Britain,
Treaties with) toot place during the admin-
istration of President Taylor. The question
of the Panama railway, upon which it bore,
was referred to in President Tavlor'a First
Annual Message (page 2555) and again in
the message (page 2580) presenting the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to the Senate for
ratification. In expressing his reasons for
f.*!^*. eoic'uslon of this treaty, he says :
At the time negotiations were opened with
Nicaragua for the construction of a canal
through her territory I found Great Britain
in possession of nearly half of Central
M?squit6 lU'? "^"^ "°^ P™'^^*"-^ Of *«
Finances.— The public debt on July 1,
1849, amounted to $63,061,858.69 In
speaiiing ot the increase. President Tavio?
said (page 2555) : "The extraordinary ex-
penses of tlie Mexican War and the pur-
chase of California and New Mexico ex?eed
c
g
z
II
tf Q,
I
o
tf 0
cnQ.'Ar
•4
»1
1*4
"&,^
Taylor
Encyclopedic Index
Telegraph
in amount this deficit^ together with the
loans heretofore made for tliese objects. I
therefore recommend that authority be
given to borrow whatever sum may be nec-
essary to cover that deficit. I recommend
tile observance of strict economy in the
appropriation and expenditure of public
money." He leaves the matter of the sub-
treasury system to the wisdom of Congress,
and adds : "If continued, important modifi-
cations of it appear to be indispensable."
Tariff. — In his First Annual Message
(page 2558) President Taylor advocated a
revision of the tariff so as, to increase the
revenue. He said : "I do not doubt the
right or duty of Congress to encourage home
industry, which is the greal; source of na-
tional as well as individual wealth and
prosperity. I look to the wisdom and pa-
triotism of Congress for the adoption of a
system which may place home labor at last
on a sure and permanent footing and by
due encouragement of manufactures give a
new and increased stimulus to agriculture
and promote the development of our vast
resources and the extension of our com-
merce." He strongly recommends the plac-
ing of specific duties instead of ad valorem,
and suggested the fixing of duties high
enough "to afford substantial and suiflcient
encouragement to our own industry and at
the same time so adjusted as to insure sta-
bility."
Taylor, Zachary:
Admission of California and Nev7
Mexico into Union, discussed by,
2557, 2564.
Annual message of, 2547.
Biographical sketch of, 2541.
Commander of American forces in
war with Mexico, 2291.
Assignment of command to, re-
ferred to, 2299.
Brevet rank of major-general con-
ferred upon, referred to, 2299.
Correspondence with, referred to,
2369, 2415, 2418.
Dispatches from, regarding battles
of Palo Alto and Eesaca de la
Palma, 2295, 2300.
Compensation paid to, by Govern-
ment, referred to, 2456.
Death of —
Announcement of, to Vice-Presi-
dent and reply, 2589.
Announcements of, and honors to
be paid memory of, 2589.
Communication to Senate from
Vice-President, 2590.
Funeral arrangements, 2594.
Referred to, 2613.
Eemains of, removal of, referred to,
2611.
Resolutions of— -
Congress on, to be.transmitted to
Taylor, 2598.
House and Senate on, 2593.
Special message regarding, 2600.
Exequatur issued consulof Spain re-
voked by, 2588.
Finances discussed by, 2555.
Foreign policy discussed by, 2548,
2555.
Inaugural address of, 2542.
Mentioned, 681, 2174.
Neutrality laws observed by, 2548.
Portrait of, 2540.
Proclamations of —
Exequatur issued consul of Spain,
revoked, 2588.
Military expedition against prov-
inces of Mexico, 2545.
Ports of delivery constituted, 2588.
Remains of, removal of, referred to,
2611.
Signature of, 2548.
State of the Union, discussed by,
2547.
Subtreasury system, discussed by,
2556.
Tariff discussed by, 2556.
Veto po^er of President, discussed
by, 2561.
Tea:
Duties on —
Recommended by President —
Grant, 4303.
Hayes, 4422, 4511.
Polk, 3047, 3086.
Repeal of, recommended, 4061.
Growth and culture of, recommended,
4578.
Teclinical and Industrial Education,
discussed, 7045. (See also Education.)
Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, transit way^
across:
Discussed by President — *
Buchanan, 3117.
Cleveland, 4912, 4956.
Fillmore, 2617, 2656, 2702.
Pierce, 2766, 2901.
Polk, 2388.
Taylor, 2554, 2580.
Measures for protection of American
citizens and property in, recom-
mended, 3048, 3069, 3100.
Referred to, 2693, 3018.
Treaty regarding, with —
Great Britain, 2580, 2617, 2903,
2943, 3117.
Mexico, 2642, 2656.
Ratification of, opposed by Pres-
ident Pierce, 2766.
Rejection of, by Mexico, dis-
cussed, 2702.
Telegraph. — The earliest form of tele-
graphy is signaling, by means of flags,
smoke, etc., a form which has by no means
vanished from modern life ; but the use of
electricity to transmit messages over great
distances 'was first serio'usly investigated
around the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury. The succeeding progress of attempts
to perfect a telegraph system Is bound up
with the progress of knowledge concern-
ing the principles of electricity and magnet-
ism. (The history of the "Wireless Tele-
graph is treated under that head.)
In 1774 Le Sage of Switzerland improved
upon the experiments in the fields of teleg-
raphy which had been prosecuted for sev-
Telegraph
Encyclopedic Index
Telephone
era! decades before that date by perfecting
a wireless system about one mile long, in
which a separate Wire was used to trans-
mit each letter. Le Sage used frictlonal
electricity, as had his predecessors In that
field of research. In the same year, how-
ever, Volta discovered the fact that elec-
tricity could be generated by chemical
means, and this discovery was used in most
later experiments of importance, which had
become very numerous by the first two de-
cades of the nineteenth century.
In 1820 Oersted discovered that a magnet
needle was deflected when placed parallel
to a wire over which an electric current was
passing, and soon afterwards many tele-
graph magnetic needles came into use.
Faraday's announcement soon afterward that
an induced current was produced by pass-
ing a magnet through a helix of wire made
the completion of a practicable telegraph
system Inevitably Imminent. In 1831, Jo-
seph Henry of Albany, New York, set up
the first electro-magnetic telegraph system,
using voltaic batteries and electro-magnets.
The direct discovery of the methods used
in practically all modern telegraph systems,
however, was made by Samuel F. B. Morse
(1791-1872) of New York City, In 1837, and
a telegraph line between Baltimore and
Washington was put into operation In 1844.
In 1872 .T. B. Stearns perfected a system
whereby two messages could be sent at the
same time in opposite directions and In the
next two years Thomas A. Edison improved
upon Stearns' results by Inventions which
allowed four messages to be sent at the
same time In the same direction.
All the great European countries own and
direct their own telegraph systems in con-
junction with the postal systems. Under
President Taft's administration Postmaster-
General Hitchcock proposed (page 7732)
that the United States follow their example,
but his recommendation was not followed.
The latest available figures for the great
telegraph systems of the world are as
follows :
Country Miles Wire Offices Messages
Argentina 164,461 3,461* 8,805,700
A'-stralia. 133.491 8,565* 19,432,474
Belgium 26,505 1,707 9,798,751
Brazil 83,554 2,470 5,350,808
Canada 229,598 5,021 11,980,869
Chile 34,826 999 5,598,200
China 56,280
Czecho-Slovakia. . 48,210 3.519 6,993,626
France 451,195 23,117 67,771,000
Germany 474,501 50,013 57,542,900
Great Britain 3,375,247 14,035 83,163,000
India, British 357,472 10,373 21,314,943
Italy 224,607 8,980 20,284,041
Japan 122,000 7,647 53,482,185
Mexico 63,928 528 5,591,500
Netherlands 27,542 1,388 7,814,200
New Zealand 50,898 2,344* 11,989,882
Norway 15,151 1,814 3,085,157
Poland 54,615 1,005
Russia** 476,177 19,104* 37,733,804
Spain , 67,142 2,520 10,000,000
Sweden..; 46,861 3,309 7,769,426
Switzerland 19,053 2,410 7,707,473
United States (See adjoining table).
* Post-offiees. ** 1913.
Telegraph:
' Illustration of first, 1867.
Outrages committed on, 1695.
Telegraph Lines (see also Atlantic Tel-
egraph; International Ocean Tel-
egraph):
Censorship over, 8254.
The statistics of telegraph systems In the
United States are as follows :
Number of systems 27
Ofllces 28,865
Miles of single wire 1,890,245
Messages sent 151,725,228
Number of employees 51,574
Annual salaries and wages..., $ 39,643,911
Total revenue $109,703,428
Total expenses If 91,871,150
Contract for use of, by Post-Office De-
partment recommended, 5562, 5634.
Control of, by Interstate Commorcc
Commission, 7732.
Government control of, discussed by
President —
Arthur, 4728, 4769.
Grant, 4104, 4152, 4204.
Harrison, Benj., 5562, 5634.
Government possession and control
of—
Opposed, 7732.
Proclaimed, 8551.
Military possession of, taken by
United States, 3309.
.Operation of, discussed, 4297.
Pacific telegraph, referred to, 3329,
3382, 3445. .
Proposed overland, between America
and Europe, discussed, 3445.
Unification of, urged, 8719.
Union of Postal system and, dis-
cussed. (See Government Control
of, ante.)
Telephone. — The first forms of the mod-
ern telephone were the speaking tube and
the string telephone. The latter consisted,
of two membrane receivers and mouthpieces
combined, connected by a string, and men-
tion is made of it as early as 1667. The
name "telephone" occurs in print tor the
first time in 1821. The history of the dis-
coveries leading to the modern telephone
are wrapped up in the same 'progress of
knowledge concerning the principles of
electricity and magnetism as are described
in the article on the Telegraph (q. v.).
In 1837 Page of Boston discovered that
a bar would give out sound when subjected
to rapid magnetic waves, and in 1861 Eels
of Germany used this discovery to perfect
an electrical arrangement which he called
a telephone.
However, little advance in modern tele-
phony was made until 1876, when Alex-
ander Graham Bell filed in the Patent Of-
fice at Washington plans for an instru-
ment which bears a close approximation to
the modern telephone. Elisha Gray made
similar discoveries at about the same time,
but a Supreme Court decree finally awarded
the priority of discovery to Bell. The
growth of the telephone from the time of
Bell's discoveries was rapid. In 188,5 tele-
phone connection wa.s completed between
New York and Philadelphia ; in 1902, be-
tween New York and Chicago; and in 1915
between San Francisco and New York.
Many of the telephone systems of Europe
are under public management and control.
In the TTnited States, most of the tele-
phone systems are members of or are con-
nected with the Bell System. In 1918,
there were 9,847,192 telephone Instruments
Telephone
Encyclopedic Index
Tennessee
313,X03,060
780,200
28,827,188
*9,953,710
Per 100
Milef
Pop.
Wire
1.11
318,417
0.25
213,238
0.59
44,371
1.34
40,721
0.25
111,794
1.00
83,799
In use In this system, representing 19,850.-
000 miles of wire and 29,420,000 average
dally telephone conversations.
The most recent statistics for the tele-
phone systems of the United States are as
foUovf s :
Number systems „.5'52S
Number of employees....... iBQ?Ji>^22
Annual wages and salaries . . $ 169,685,001;
Capita Ttolk & funded debt .| l.l|?.0j;3.8T0
Revenue, total $ 372,501,800
Expenses, Including taxes . .$
Miles of pole line
Miles of single wire
Number of telephones..... ,„ oaq „«! na>i
Annual no. talks, estimated 19,809,061,085
Average talks per telephone. 1,9 JO
•Almost one to every two families.
Before the World War, it was estimated
that there were some 13,570,000 telephones
Tn use In the world. Of this number, about
65% were In the United States. The num-
ber of telephones In some other countries
was estimated as follows : Germany, 1,-
420,000 ; Great Britain, 780,500 ; Canada,
500,000 ; Russia, 375,000 ; France, 330,000 ;
Japan, 220,000.
A recent report of the American Tele-
phone and Telegraph Company estimates
the telephones" in the leading American re-
publics as follows :
Country 'Phones
Argentina 105,205
brazil 67,366
Chile 23,670
Uruguay i?'^??
Mexico 40,211
Cuba 28,152
The latest available records give the num-
ber' of telephone instruments in use In
some of the leading cities of the United
States as follows: ^^^^^
Telephones Pop.
27.6
24.4
20.5
18.9
17.8
15.3
15.2
15.0
14.1
14.1
12.9
12.T
12.2
12.1
10.S
13.9
9.1
6.9
6.6
6.1
5.9
5.5
5.0
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.!J
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
City or Area
San Francisco ^^5'§i§
Minneapolis ^§f •?9?
Chlcaso 554,114
Wasbfngton.D.C. 83,839
Boston ili'inf
Cleveland ^2I'fIl
Cincinnati otS'lnn
New York 845,890
Pittsburgh ^Sf '?5§
Milwaukee „iHgS
Philadelphia • ?§?'9^S
St. Louis ^§1'19S
Bulfalo J5'9^?
Detroit HM^}
Baltimore 79,011
FOREIGN COUJiTEIES
Copenhagen, Denmark 25'f?§
Montreal, Canada I9'iii
Sydney, Australasia ,gf2?§
Berlin, Germany I5f222
Melbourne, Australasia . . . 44,009
Hamburg, Germany il'Soo
Munich, Germany §?'?,g
Leipzig, Germany Sl.lTb
London, England 311.350
Warsaw, Poland ..... 32,804
Amsterdam, Netherlands . . 21,727
Glasgow, Scotland 39'?Sg
Liverpool, England 2S'J?5
Budapest, Hungary t'Aii
Buenos Ayres, Argentina... 54,676
Paris, France 15'9go
Vienna, Austria Sj'InS
Peking. China lo'lS?
Rome, Ttaly, •••••■■• ",701
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 23,510
Toklo, Japan 49,900
Telephone. (See illustration opposite
4450.)
Telepnone Lines:
Censorship over, 8254.
Control over, by Interstate Commerce
Commission, 7200.
Government possession and control
of, proclaimed, 8551.
In Philippines, 6732.
XTniiieation of, urged, 8719.
Ten-Hour System. (See Hours of La-
bor.)
Tenements, evils of, 6902.
Tennessee. — One of the southern group of
states. Nlcknamss : "The Volunteer State" ;
"The Big Bear State" ; motto : "Agricul-
ture : Commerce." It lies between lat. 35°
and 36° 35' north and long. 81° 37' and
90° 15' west. Tennessee is bounded on
the north by Kentucky and Virginia, on
the east and southeast by North Carolina
(separated by the Great Smoky and Bald
ranges of the Alleghanies), on the south
by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and
on the west by Arkansas and Missouri (sep-
arated by the Mississippi River). The area
is 42,022 square miles. The eastern portion
of the state is mountainous, while the
extreme western part, bordering on the
Mississippi River, consists of a flat alluvial
plain, where vegetation grows with almost
tropical luxuriance. Between these two ex-
tremes are the valley of the Tennessee in
Its southern course, an important agricul-
tural region, and the Cumberland Plateau,
a table-land with an elevation of 2,000
feet. Extending from this plateau to the
Tennessee River In its northern course
through the state lies the great central
basin, sometimes called the Garden of the
State. West of the Tennessee Valley rises
another fertile plateau before the descent
to the lowlands of the Mississippi. The
leading productions are corn, wheat, cotton,
and live stock. Tennessee produces some
of the finest tobacco grown in the United
States. Manufactures of cotton goods and
Iron have .grown up since the Civil War.
The capital, Nashville, is one of the great-
est educational centers in the South.
The first permanent settlement was made
in 1769 at Wautauga by immigrants from
North Carolina. When North Carolina pro-
posed to cede this territory to the General
Government these settlers objected and or-
ganized a state under the name of Franklin
(q. v.). This government . was overthrown
and a Territory was organized in 1790.
The state was admitted to the Union June
1, 1796. In January, 1861, a proposal to
secede from the Union was defeated by pop-
ular vote, but carried in the election of
June 8 of the same year. The state was
the scene of some of the fiercest battles
of the Civil War, including those of Island
No. 10, Nashville, Lookout Mountain, Mur-
freesboro. Port Donelson, Shlloh, Mission-
ary Ridge, etc. It was readmitted Into the
Union in 1866.
o o'^^^oli?^" census gave the population as
2.337,885. In 1910, the population was
•I? 'Ji nvi"* ■Whom 473,088 were negroes
I^IP^^-'S-"^" '''^^^ foreign-born, including
3,903 German, 2,296 Irish, 2,034 Italian.
2,045 English, 2,484 Russian. Of the total
population n 1920. 26% was urban, as
compared with a 20% urban population in
1910. About 40% of the population are
Baptists and 33% Methodists.
Tennessee
Encyclopedic Index
Tenure
The most recent educational statistics
show 697,110 children between the ages of
,5 and 18. of whom 591,346 were enrolled
In the public schools, with an average dally
attendance of 406,044. There were 12,947
teachers, of whom 3,376 were males. There
are 226 public high Schools, with 620 male
and 776 female teachers, and 12,438 male
and 18,096 female students.
Recent agricultural statistics of the Cen-
sus Bureau gave the number of farms In
the state as 246,012, with a total acreage
of 20,041,657, or 81% acres per farm. The
1920 census showed 252,691 farms. Fifty-
four per cent of the farm land was classi-
fied as Improved.
Hecent figures for farm animals showed
353,000 horses, 384,000 milch cows, 593,000
cattle, 584,000 sheep, 1,946,000 swine. The
last annual wool clip was estimated at 1,-
054,000 pounds.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Corn 3,325,000 93,100,000 $80,997,000
Cotton 824,000 aSlO.OOO 20,150,000
Hay 1,470,000 b2,050,000 41,915,000
Tobacco 117,000 c85,410,000 17,082,000
Wheat 424,000 4,028,000 7,855,000
Potatoes 43,000 3,570,000 5,710,000
Oata 350,000 8,225,000 6,416,000
Sweet Potatoes 42,000 4,285,000 5,269,000
a — bales; b — tons; c — ^pounds.
There Is much raising of fruit, particu-
larly strawberries. The last apple crop was
put at 5,304,000 bushels, peach and nectar-
ine at 1,000,000 bushels, pear at 146,000
bushels. In addition, peanuts are grown in
the lennessee Valley.
The most important mineral product Is
coal, of which the last annual production
was 6,100,000 long tons. The plg-lron pro-
duction was 190,000 tons ; Iron ore, 410,000
long tons. The average annual copper pro-
duction is in the neighborhood of 18,000,-
000 pounds and the zinc, 16,000 short tons.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Tennessee having an annual out-
put valued at more than $500 at the begin-
ning of 1915 was 4,775. The amount of cap-
ital invested was $211,423,000, giving em-
ployment to 88,514 persons, using material
valued at $123,430,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $212,071,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $44,910,000.
Tennessee (see also Confederate States;
Memphis) :
Amendment to Federal Convention,
ratification of, referred to, 249.
Commanding ofBcers in, instructions
to, as to conduct of war, 3476.
East Tennessee Relief Association.
Address regarding relief for people
in eastern section of, 3405.
Home of Andrew Jackson tendered
Government by, 2654.
Insurrection in, declared suppressed
by proclamation, 3515.
Joint resolution restoring, to Union,
approved and discussed, 3598.
Major-General Jackson conducts oper-
ations against Indian allies of
Great Britain, 533.
Murders committed by Indians in,
6269.
Ratification of amendment to Federal
Constitution by, referred to, 240.
Relief for people in eastern section
of, and address of East Tennessee
Relief Association regarding, dis-
cussed, 3405.
Volunteers of —
Expenses incurred by, recommenda-
tion that Government pay the,
1454, 1474.
Number of, in Indian wars, greater
than her proportion in general
apportionment, 1453.
Operation of, under Maj.-Gen. Jack-
son against Indian allies of Great
Britain, 533.
Recommendation that Government
pay expenses incurred by, 1454,
1474.
Tennesse Bond Cases. — A series of seven-
teen cases decided by the United States
Supreme Court in 1885. In 1852 the Ten-
nessee legislature passed an act malting cer-
tain railroad bonds a statutory lien upon
the property on which they were issued.
Holders of state bonds afterwards brought
suit to establish their lien upon the prop-
erty in question. The Supreme Court held
that the lien was created for the benefit
of the state and not of the holders of state
bonds issued under that act.
Tennessee Centennial. — An exposition held
In Nashville, Tenn., from May 1 to Oct.
30, 1897, to celebrate the one hundredth
anniversary of the admission of the state
Into the Union. The site covered about 200
acres and a notable feature was a lawn
of bluegrass, a characteristic of the region.
There were more than one hundred build-
ings, containing exhibits of art, education,
and progress in the various industries, as
well as forms of amusement. The total
attendance was 1,786,714. The total re-
ceipts were $1,101,285, and the disburse-
ments $1,101,246.
Tennessee River:
Canal from the Altamaha to, referred
to, 1027.
Survey of, referred to, 1128.
Tenure-of-Office Act. — Tinder the terms of
the Constitution the power of malsing ap-
pointments is vested in the President, to
be exercised with the advice and consent
of the Senate. In the course of his dis-
putes with Congress, President Johnson was
charged with a corrupt use of the power
of appointment and removal, and on the
first day of the second session of the Thir-
ty-ninth Congress a bill was introduced "to
regulate the tenure of certain civil oflices."
It was passed over the President's veto
March 2, 1867, and was repealed in 1887.
This act provided that, with certain ex-
ceptions, every officer appointed with the
concurrence of the Senate should retain his
office until a successor should be tn lilse
manner appointed. Johnson was impeached
for violating the act in 1868 with regard
to Secretary-of-War Stanton.
Tenure-of -Office Act:
Discussed by President —
Cleveland, 4965.
Johnson, 3767.
Interpretation of, referred to, 3721.
Repeal of, recommended, 3871, 3992,
4557.
Vetoed, 3690.
Tenure of Office
Encyclopedic Index
Territories
Tenure of Office in Civil Service, 8135.
Terceira, claims of United States
against Portugal arising out of
blockade of, 1098, 1113, 1243.
Territorial Expansion:
Annexation discussed. (See Alaska;
California; Cuba; Florida; Gadsden
Purchase; Hawaiian Islands; Loui-
siana Purchase; New Mexico; Phil-
ippine Islands; Porto Eico; St.
John Island; St. Thomas Island;
Santo Domingo; Texas; Virgin
Islands; Yucatan.)
Foreign policy discussed by Presi-
dent—
Adams, John, 228.
Adams, J. Q., 862, 868, 884, 895, 903,
922, 950.
Buchanan, 2966, 2998, 3037, 3041,
3066, 3089, 3092, 3173, 3177.
Cleveland, 4912, 5867, 5871, 5873,
5892, 5955, 5963, 6064, 6068, 6087,
6148.
Fillmore, 2614, 2656, 2701, 2715.
Grant, 3985, 4006, 4015, 4018, 4050,
4053, 4082, 4101, 4143, 4176, 4192,
4245, 4290, 4365.
Harrison, Benj., 5445, b'618, 5750,
5783.
Harrison, W. H., 1873.
Hayes, 4418, 4420.
Jackson, 1159, 1222, 1324, 1370,
1378, 1456, 1484, 1500.
Jefferson, 311, 346, 349.
Johnson, 3564, 3581, 3777, 3886,
3888.
Lincoln, 3248, 3255, 3327, 3444.
McKinley, 6248, 6280, 6295, 6307.
Madison, 452, 473.
Monroe, 573, 582, 624, 627, 639, 672,
685, 762, 787, 791, 817, 829.
Pierce, 2731, 2745, 2807, 2864, 2904.
Polk, 2229, 2236, 2248, 2276, 2322,
2337, 2361, 2386, 2431, 2437, 2444,
2480.
Taylor, 2548, 2555.
Tyler, 1890, 2049, 2064, 2160, 2169,
2171, 2176, 2190, 2193, 2206.
Van Buren, 1590, 1702, 1748, 1819.
Washington, 120, 213.
Territories. — At the close of the Revolu-
tionary War several of the states had claims
to extensive tracts of land beyond their
western borders. The claim was set up
, that these territories belonged to the United
States, as having been won by all in com-
mon. Between 1T81 and 1802 all these
outlying tracts passed by acts of cession
under the jurisdiction of the United States.
Subsequent additions hare been made by
purchase or treaty. (See' Alaska, Califor-
nia, Florida, Gadsden Purchase, Louisiana
Purchase, Oregon, Texas, etc.) The Con-
tinental Congress resolved that the western
territory to be ceded to the United States
"shall be settled and formed into distinct
republican states, which shall become mem-
bers of the Pedernl Union and have the
same rights of sovereignly, freedom, and
independence as the other states." The
Northwest Territory was organized in 1787,
the Southwest in 1790. The Federal Dis-
trict of Columbia is governed directly by/
Congress, through a commission. An or-
ganized territory has a governor, appointed
by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, for four years,
and a legislature composed of a council
and a hduse of representatives chosen every
two years by the people. A delegate to
Congress, who may speak but not vote. Is
elected by the people for two years. Ter-
ritorial legislation is subject to Congres-
sional control. Territorial courts are pro-
vided for, 'tt<! judges of which are appoint-
ed by the President for four years, and
confirmed by the Senate, and over which
the United States Supreme Court has ap-
pellate jurisdiction. Alaska has a form of
government similar to that originally pro- »
vided for organized territories, but has no
legislature. The only remaining territories
are Alaska, District of Columbia and Ha-
waii, of which Alaska and Hawaii are ad-
ministered by the Interior Department. In
Alaska, the Government is planning exten-
sive railroad construction under its own
management. The Interior Department reg-
ulates and patrols the fisheries (including
the seal hatcheries) of Alaska, conducts two
salmon hatcheries, supervises the reindeer
industry, and conducts Government agricul-
tural and mine experimental stations. (See
Hawaii, Alaska, District of Columbia, Inte-
rior Department.)
Territories (see also the several Terri-
tories) :
Act to pay moneys collected under
direct tax of 1861 to States, Dis-
trict of Columbia, and, vetoed, 5422.
Admission of, into Union, discussed
and recommendations regarding,
3033, 3086.
Affairs in, discussed by President —
Grant, 4157.
Harrison, Benj., 5640.
Courts of, appeals from, to Supreme
Court, recommendations regarding,
4939.
Distribution of arms, ordnance, stores,
etc., to District of Columbia and,
regulations regarding, 5159, 5462.
Judges in, authority of, as Federal
Judges referred to, 2268.
Mineral resources of, discussed, 3330.
Miners in, act for protection of, dis-
cussed, and recommendations re-
garding, 5563.
Northwest of Ohio referred to, 142, 183.
Officers in, absence of, referred to and
orders regarding, 3720, 4095.
Power of legislatures of, to authorize
corporations to issue bonds referred
to, 1757.
Eoads within, power to construct, dis-
cussed, 2749.
Slavery in, discussed. (See Slavery.)
South of Ohio-
Admission to Union sought by, 189.
Beferred to, 183.
Supreme Court decision regarding
slavery in. (See Slavery.)
Transfer of affairs of, from State
Territories
Encyclopedic Index
Texas
Department to Interior Department
recommended, 4060, 4145.
Teschen. (See Silesia.)
Teton Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Texan War. (See Wars, Foreign.)
Texas. — The largest of the United St.ites ;
nickname, "The Lone Star State." It lies
between lat. 25° 51' and 36° 30' north
and long. 93° 27' and 106° 40' west. It
Is liounded on the north by Ol^lahoma, on
the nortlieast by Arkansas, on the east by
Arkansas and Louisiana, on the south and
southeast by the Gulf of Mexico, on the
south and southwest by Mexico, and on the
west by New Mexico. It has an area of
265,896 square miles. It consists of a low
coast region in the southeast, west of this
a prairie country, a hilly region, elevated
plains to the north and west, and a moun-
tainous country west of the Pecos River.
It is an important agricultural state, the
leading products being cotton, corn, live
stock, sugar and rice. The manufacture of
lumber and timber products, cotton seed
oil and grist and flour mill products are
the chief industries. The discovery and
development of the oil fields has added to
the wealth and population of the State.
La Salle made a landing at Matagorda
Bay and built a fort in 1685. By the
treaty of 1819-1821 with Spain the United
States surrendered her claim that Texas
was included in the Louisiana Purchase.
Meanwhile Mexico had declared her inde-
pendence of Spain, and Texas with Coa-
buila formed a state of the Mexican Re-
public. Texas seceded from Mexico,
proclaiming her independence March 2,
1836. After the defeat of the Mexican
forces under Santa Anna, by General Hous-
ton in the battle of San Jacinto, April 21,
1836. the Republic of Texas was recognized
by England, France, Belgium and the United
States. Annexation was accomplished by a
joint resolution of Congress Dec. 29, 1845.
The dispute over the Western boundary
led to the Mexican War. On March 25.
1850, Texas ceded to the United States all
claims to territory outside her present lim-
its, receiving therefor $10,000,000. An or-
dinance of secession was passed Feb. 1,
1861. The State was readmitted to the
Union March 30, 1870.
In the eastern part of the state are
valuable yellow-pine forests, and there are
oyster and other fisheries on the coast.
In 1920, the population was 4,663,228, as
compared with 3,896,542 in 1910. In the
latter year, there were 690,049 negroes and
241,938 foreign-born, including 125,015
Mexicans, 44,929 Germans, 20,570 Austrians,
5,357 Irish, 8,498 English, 4,706 Swedes,
7,190 Italians, 5,739 Russians. The 1920
census showed 32% of the population as
urban.
The most recent educational statistics
show 1,441,881 children between the ages
of 5 and 18, of whom the enrolment in the
public schools is 1,098,989, with an average
daily attendance of 788,391 and a teaching
stafE of 29,001, of whom 5,229 are males.
There are 673 public high schools, with 1.-
110 male and 1,801 female teachers, and
45,735 male and 60,320 female students.
The most recent agricultural statistics
available show 417,770 farms in the state,
with an average of 269 acres to the farm,
and with 24% of the farm land classified
as improved. The 1920 census showed
435,666 farms. The number of farm ani-
mals is given as follows : Horses. 1,199,-
000 ; mules, 784,000 ; milch cows, 1,094,000 ;
cattle. 4,287,000 ; sheep, 2,232,000 ; swine.
2,320,000. The last annual wool clip
amounted to 11,250,000 pounds.
The last agricultural output was as fol-
lows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Cotton 12,576,000 a4,200,000 $277,200,000
Corn 6.700,000 174,200,000 146,328,000
Oats 1,875,000 44,100,000 29,106,000
Sorghums... 1,906,000 60,992,000 73,800,000
Wheat 1,225,000 15,925,000 27,391,000
Hay, tame.. 662,000 bl,092,000 14,633,000
Rice 281,000 9,554,000 11,942,000
Sw. Potatoes 89,000 9,345,000 12,148,000
Peanuts 184,000 4-,784,000 8,563,000
Potatoes 45,000 2,340,000 5,148,000
. a — bales; b — tons.
The last annual fruit production included
351,000 bushels of apples, 480,000 bushels
of peaches and 205,000 bushels of pears.
Texas is located in One of the richest petro-
leum fields in the United States ; the annual
output of petroleum for a recent year be-
ing 38,750,000 barrels, valued at more than
$70,000,000. There is also some production
of natural gas. The average annual coal
production Is more than 2,000,000 tons
Other minerals found and worked are quick-
silver, cement, asphalt and salt. The clay
products are valuable, and there is alac
some production of copper, silver and zinc.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Texas having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 5,084. The amount of capital
invested was $283,544,000, giving employ-
ment to 91,114 persons, using material
valued at $253,090,000 and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $361,279,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $59,179,000.
In rank of value of product, the leading
of these industries were as follows :
Slaughtering and meat-packing ; oil, cotton,
seed and cake ; flcmr and grist mill ; lumber
and timber.
Texas (see also Confederate States):
Acquisition of, not attempted by con-
quest, 2337.
Act-
Authorizing special seed distribu-
tion in drought-stricken counties
in, vetoed, 5142.
To constitute new division of judi-
' cial district of, etc., vetoed, 6185.
Admission of, into Union —
Constitution adoption by, 2236,
2266.
Discussed. (See Annexation of,
■post.)
Foreign interference discussed,
2237.
Withdrawal of application for, re-
ferred to, 1705.
Annexation of, to United States —
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 2167, 2168.
Desired by, 1456, 1487.
Discussed by President —
Polk, 2229, 2236, 2329, 2337.
Tyler, 2160, 2169, 2171, 2176,
2193, 2206.
Information regarding, desired by
Senate, refused, 2232.
Texas
Encyclopedic Index
Texas
Not an offense to Mexico, 2329.
Protest of Mexico against, referred
to, 2238.
Question of, presented to people of,
2196, 2337.
Immediate annexation favored,
2197 2337
Eeferred' to, ' 1587, 1693, 2210,
2483.
Terms of, accepted by, 2236, 2337.
Annexation treaty with United
States —
Consent of Mexico to, not required,
2171, 2177, 2195.
Debts of, to be assumed by General
Government, 2197.
Discussed and referred to, 2160,
2169, 2171, 2176, 2193, 2206.
Opposition to, discussed, 2171,
2176.
Eatification of, regarded by Mexico
as a declaration of war by United
States, 2170.
Referred to, 2175, 2194.
Eejection of, by Senate, discussed,
2176.
Transmitted, 2160.
Armistice between Mexico and, re-
ferred to, 2172.
Army in, mobilization of. (See illus-
tration opposite 7936.)
Army of United States sent to pro-
tect territory of, from invasion,
2238, 2261.
Boundary dispute regarding Greer
County. (See Greer County.)
Boundary line of, 2166.
Boundary line of, with Louisiana,
960.
Boundary line of, with New Mexico,
2566, 2568, 2586, 2587, 2601, 2609,
2628.
Proposition of United States re-
garding establishment of, ac-
cepted, 2630.
Proclamation regarding, 2643.
Views of President Fillmore on
settlement of, 2603, 2630.
Boundary line of United States
with —
Appropriation for expenses of
marking, recommended, 2839.
Convention regarding, 1684, 1705,
1706, 1750, 1822.
Commissioners appointed under,
1750, 1822, 1932.
Final decision of, 1944.
Demarcation of, referred to, 1957,
2003.
Proposition for establishment of,
accepted by, 2630.
Proclamation regarding, 2643.
Eeferred to, 4790.
Brazos Santiago, commerce of, re-
ferred to, 2610.
Civil and political condition of, dis-
cussed, 1484.
Eeferred to, 1449, 1457, 1496.
Civil authority of Mexico in, expelled,
1487.
Claims of, against United States,
2198, 2251.
Payment of, in stock, discussed,
2661.
Claitas of, to portion of New Mexico,
discussed. (See Boundary line of,
with New Mexico, ante.)
Claims of United States against, con-
vention for adjustment of, 1686.
Commercial relations with, 1964.
Treaty regarding, 2030.
Constitution of, ratification of, re-
ferred to, 2236..
Letter regarding, referred to, 2266.
Correspondence —
Eegarding title to, 2173.
With Mexico, regarding, 2014.
Debts of —
Eeferred to, 2210.
To be assumed by United States,
2197.
Defense and improvement of coast of,
referred to, 2304.
Diplomatic agents of, aocredited to
United States, 2175.
Disorders on frontier of. (See Eio
Grande Eiver.)
Frontiers of, increase of cavalry force
on, referred to, 4372.
Government established in, 1487.
Governor of, letter of, regarding ex-
tension of civil jurisdiction, dis-
cussed, 2603.
Eeferred to, 2609.
Independence of —
Acknowledgment of, by Santa
Anna, referred to, 2330.
Conditional agreement of Mexico
to acknowledge, discussed, 2239.
Discussed by President —
Jackson, 1484.
Eeferred to by President Mc-
Kinley, 6287.
Polk, 2330.
Tyler, 2113.
Eecognized by United States, 1500.
Indians in —
Assignment of lands to, recommend-
ed, 2710.
Colonization of, referred to, 2833.
Insurrection in, termination of, pro-
claimed, 3632.
Correction of date in, by proclama-
tion, 3747.
Invasion of United States frontier
by armed force from, 1726.
Judicial authority of, interference of
military forces with, referred to,
2568, 2585.
Texas
Encyclopedic Index
Thanks of Congress
Mexico threatens to renew war with,
discussed, 2194, 2206.
Military aid to be furnished to, by
United States, referred to, 2174.
Military force on frontier of, referred
td, 2173, 4424.
Minister of United States to —
Nomination of, 1501.
Beferred to, 2175.
Principles of civil liberty destined to
flourish in, 3280.
Prisoners rescued from jail in Starr
County by Mexicans, referred to,
4408.
Provisional governor for, appointed
and restoration of, into Union,
discussed, 3519.
Beferred to, 4000.
Reconstruction of —
Referred to, 4000.
Time for submitting constitution
to voters, proclaimed, 3971.
Referred to, 3983.
Relations with, 1943, 2014, 2168.
Treaties of, with France and Great
Britain, referred to, 2210, 2212,
2297.
Treaty with, 2030, 2160, 2168.
War with Mexico. (See Wars, For-
eign.)
Texas, Department of, neutrality laws
of United States and Mexico violated
in, and action of United States, dis-
cussed, 5878.
Texas Fever among cattle, discussed,
5887, 5957.
Texas vs. White et al. — A case before the
Supreme Court of the United States In
which the acts of secession of the Southern
States were declared void and the rights
of a State of the Union held to be unim-
paired by the acts of a revolutionary gov-
ernment within the State.
In 1851 the United States Issued to the
State of Texas 5,000 coupon bonds for
$1,000 each, payable to the State of Texas
or tiearer, with interest at 5 per cent
semi-annually, in settlement of certain
boundary claims. Some of these bonds
were seized by the officers of the State gov-
ernment during the Civil War and sold to
White & Chiles and others of New York.
The bonds were payable only when In-
dorsed by the governor. The State con-
vention in 1866 passed an ordinance look-
ing to the recovery of these bonds. An
act passed in October of that year author-
ized the governor to jlroceed in his discre-
tion to carry out this intention. The agent
appointed by the executive procured the
filing of a bin the same year asking for an
injunction and the recovery of the bonds
in question. The case came before the
Supreme Court of the United States at
the December term, 1868, on the original
bill. The injunction was granted on the
general ground that the action of a revo-
lutionary State government did not affect
the right of Te?as as a State of the Union
having a government acknowledging her
obligations to the Federal Constitution.
The court pronounced the act of secession
void, Chief Justice Chase rendering the
opinion. Justice Grier dissented on all
the points raised and fledded. Justices
Swayne and Miller concurred in dissent-
ing on the capacity of the State of Texas,
"In her present condition," to waive on
an original suit. On the merits of the
case they united with the majority.
Further hearing was accorded to certain
parties, and both complainant and de-
fendants were granted liberty In the de-
cree to apply for further directions In its
execution. In one place in the court's opin-
ion the Chief Justice said it was a his-
torical fact that in 1862 the govei'nment
of Texas in control was its only actual
government, its acts in almost all respects
valid, though unlawful and revolutionary
as to the United States. December, 1869,
the additional part of this celebrated case,
known in the reports as Texas vs. Harden-
berg, arose, the Chief Justice deciding for
the court that upon the whole case the de-
cree must be for the complainant as to the
bonds claimed by Hardenberg.
Further decisions of the Supreme Court
on additional portions of the case are as
follows, briefly : December, 1870, In re
Paschal, Justice Bradley delivering the
court's judgment. It was ordered that the
motion to compel George W. Paschal to
pay to the clerk of the court the money
received by him be denied. An order was
granted to discharge him as solicitor and
counsel for the complainant In the second
case. October, 187C In re Chiles, Justice
Miller rendering the court's opinion. Jus-
tices Field and Hunt dissenting. It was
ordered that Chiles pay a flue of $250
and the costs of the proceeding and stand
committed to the marshal's custody until
the same be paid. This was for contempt
In disobeying the court's decree.
Textiles, Dyeing and Finishing of.
(See Dyeing and Finishing Textiles.)
Textiles and Glass, report on cost of
producing in United States and Eu-
rope transmitted, 5674.
Thames (Canada), Battle of.^After Per-
ry's victory over the British fleet on Lake
ISrie, Gen. Harrison completed his prepara-
tions for the invasion of Canada. Sept. 21,
1813, the embarkation of the army on
Perry's transports began. On the after-
noon of the 27th the Army of the North-
west, consisting of 5,000 men, under the
immediate command' of Gen. Harrison and
Gen. Shelby, governor of Kentucky, landed
at Amherstburg (Maiden), but found that
Proctor's army, about 800 regulars and
1,200 Indians, had fled inland. Harrison
started in hot pursuit. In response to the
repeated demands of Tecumseh the British
made a stand about eight miles north of
the river Thames. Here they were at-
tacked on Oct. 5 by about 3,000 Americans.
A short but decisive battle took place, in
wbicli the British and Indians were com-
pletely routed and Chief Tecumseh was
killed. The precise number of casualties
in this battle is not known. The Ameri-
can loss was probably about 15 killed and
twice that number wounded. The British
lost about 18 killed, 26 wounded, and 600
taken prisoners, of whom 25 were officers.
Proctor made his escape. Thirty-three
dead Indians were found upon the fleld
after the battle. (See the Illustration op-
posite page 707.)
Thanks of Congress:
Tender of, recommended to —
Alden, James, 3277.
Bailey, Theodorus, 3277.
Thanks of Congress
Encyclopedic Index
Xhree-Cent Piece
Baldwin, Charles H., 3277.
Bell, Henry H., 3277.
Boggs, Charles S., 3277.
Breese, K. Eaudolph, 3277.
Caldwell, Charles H. B., 3277.
Craven, Thomas T., 3277.
Crosby, Pierce, 3277.
Cushing, William B., 3457.
Dahlgren, John A., 3284.
Davis, Charles H., 3284.
De Camp, John, 3277.
Dewey, George, etc., 6297.
Donaldson, Edward, 3277.
Du Pont, Samuel F., 3265, 3271.
Farragut, David G., 3276.
Poote, Andrew H., 3283.
GoldsboTough, Louis M., 3266.
Guest, John, 3277.
Harrell, Abram, 3277.
Harrison, Napoleon, 3277.
Hobson, Richmond P., 6306.
Lardner, James L., 3284.
Lee, Samuel P., 3277.
Morris, George TJ., 3345.
Morris, Henry, 3277.
Newcomb, Frank H., etc., .6302.
Nichols, Edward F., 3277.
Porter, David D., 3277, 3284, 3352.
Preble, George H., 3277.
Queen, Walter W., 3277.
Ransom, George M., 3277.
Renshaw, William B., 3277.
Rodgers, John, 3392.
Rowan, Stephen C, 3284.
Russell, John H., 3277.
Smith, Albert N., 3277.
Smith, Melancton, 3277.
Smith, Watson, 3277.
Stringham, Silas H., 3284.
Swartwout, Samuel, 3277.
Wainwright, Jonathan M., 3277.
Wainwright, Richard, 3277.
Winslow, John A., 3457.
Woodworth, Selim B., 3277.
Worden, John L., 3344.
Tendered to —
Dewey, George, etc., 6298.
Reply of, 6302.
Grant, Ulysses S., 3432.
Lyon, Nathaniel, etc., 3300.
Thanks of President:
Tendered to —
Burnside, Ambrose E., 3305.
Canby, Edward R. S., 3440.
Dewey, George, etc., 6568, 6579.
Referred to, 6297.
Farragut, David G., 3440.
Foote, Andrew H., 3305.
Goldsborough, Louis M., 3305.
Granger, Gordon, 3440.
Grant, Ulysses S., 3305.
Merritt, Wesley, etc., 6579.
Militia of —
Illinois, 3442.
Indiana, 3442.
Iowa, 3442.
Oiio, 3440.
Wisconsin, 3442.
Sampson, William T., etc., 6573.
Shafter, William R.,ete., 6574, 6577.
Sherman, William T., 3439. '
Wool, John E., 3313.
Worden, John L., 3313.
Thanksgiving Proclamations of Presi-
dent—
Adams, John, 258, 274.
Arthur, 4623, 4710, 4746, 4812.
Cleveland, 4895, 5076, 5156, 5328,
5865, 5943, 6025, '6127.
Grant, 3972, 4046, 4092, 4132, 4182,
4231, 4279, 4346, 4351.
Harrison, Benj., 5454, 5536, 5597, 5736.
Hayes, 4409, 4442, 4500, 4551.
Johnson, 3530, 3636, 3748, 3858.
Lincoln, 3290, 3371, 3373, 3429.
McKinley, 6470, 6491, 6518, 654*.
Madison, 498, 517, 543, 545.
Roosevelt, 6640, 6698, 6782, 6889,
6964, 6969.
Taft, 7392, 7491, 7764.
Washington, 56, 171.
Wilson, 7902, 8012, 8088, 8182, 8382,
8633, 8801, 8876.
Thetis, The. (See Schley, Winfield S.)
Third Assistant Postmaster-General.
(See Assistant Postmaatera-General.)
Third. Assistant Secretary of State,
State Department. — This offlce was cre-
ated in 1875, and at the present time car-
ries with it an annual salary of $4,500.
The third assistant secretary ot state is
appointed by the President, by and with
the consent of the Senate. Together with
the assistant secretary of state, he is in
charge of the diplomatic appointments ; and
in addition has charge of the Western IDuro-
pean Division (q. y.) and the Near Eastern
Division (q. v.) of the Department. lie
attends also to the Departments' represen-
tation in International Conferences and to
the ceremonial part of the diplomatic serv-
ice. He is also in charge of the Bureau
of Rolls and of the Library of the Depart-
ment. (See State Department.)
Third Internationale discussed, 8866.
Thrace. — The name applied to the eastern
part of the Balkan peninsula, north and
northeast of the Aegean Sea and southwest
of the Black Sea. Its boundaries are in-
definite. After the fall of Constantinople
in the fifteenth century, it fell to the
Turks. As a result of the Turko-Russian
War, the northern part was given a certain
amount of autonomy in 1S78, and after the
Balkan Wars of 1912-3, this northern sec-
tion was handed over to Bulgaria, while
much of the remainder of Thrace was given
to Greece. As a result of the defeat of
Turkey and Bulgaria, and the victory of
Greece, in the World War, most of Thrace
was assigned to Greece. The population of
Thrace is extremely mixed, with Bulgarian
Slavs, Greeks and Turks in the ascendency.
Thrace, territorial disposition of, 8840.
Three-Cent Piece. — A small sliver coin au-
thorized by Congress in 1851. It was coined
Three-Cent Piece
Encyclopedic Index
Tobacco
from 1851 to 1873, inclusive, with the ex-
ception of the year 1857. Its weight was
originally 12,375 grains, but in 1853 this
was reduced to 11.52 grains. The three-cent
coin was legal tender to the amount of
thirty cents. March 3, 1865, Congress au-
thorized another three-cent piece, to be
made of an alloy of copper and nickel.
With the exception of the year 1877, this
piece was coined continuously till 1890. Its
weight was thirty grains.
Three-Dollar Piece. — A gold coin of the
United States, authorized in 1853. Its coin-
age was begun the next year and continued
till 1890. The weight of the coin was 77.4
grains, and it was legal tender to an un-
limited, amount.
Thrift Stamps. — Certificates for sale at
twenty-five cents each, issued by the United
States Treasury during the war against the
Central Powers and later. They were is-
sued for those unable to purchase Liberty
Loan bonds (q. v.) or War Savings Stamps
(q. V.) ; and purchasers were appealed to
to purchase them, not by withdrawing
money from other sources but through the
exercise of economy or thrift. The sales
campaign was opened on December 3, 1918.
The arrangement by which thrift stamps
were sold was that no interest would be
paid upon them, but that when enough had
been purchased to buy an interest-bearing
War Savings Stamp, such an exchange could
be etEected.
Thrift, appeal for practise of, 8519.
Thunuan Act. (See Pacific Eailroads.)
Tihet. (See China.)
Ticonderoga (N. Y.), Capture of.— As
soon as the events of Lexington and Con-
cord became known it was decided by the
Americans to seize the British fort at
Ticonderoga, at the junction of Lakes
George and Champlain. The place was
garrisoned by 44 men under Capt. Dela-
place. On the night of May 10, 1775,
Col. Ethan Allen, with other officers and
270 Green Mountain boys, gained an en-
trance to the fort and Allen demanded its
surrender, as traditionally reported, "in the
name of the Great Jehovah and the Con-
tinental Congress." Finding resistance
useless, Delaplace surrendered the garri-
son 4Lnd 120 cannon, with muskets, ball,
and powder. The surprise was so com-
plete that not a man was lost.
Ticonderoga, The, cruise of, 4693.
Tigre, Island of seizure and occupa-
tion of, by Great Britain referred
to, 2570, 2601.
Timber-Culture Act.— An act passed by
Congress March 3, 1873, for the promo-
tion of forestry. It granted to settlers
160 acres of treeless land on condition that
they plant and cultivate a certain number
of forest trees. '
Timber-Culture Acti
Act respecting repeal of, returned,
6182.
Eepeal of, recommended, 4770, 4837,
5107.
Timber Lands. (See Lands, Public.)
Time, Begulation of. (See Interna-
tional Meridian Conference.)
Tippecanoe and Tyler too. — The cam-
paign cry used prior to the election of Har-
rison ana Tyler in 1840, arising from Har-
rison's success at the Battle of Tippecanoe.
(Sec Tippecanoe, Battle of.)
Tippecanoe, Battle of (Nov. 7, 1811).—
In 1806, Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnee
Indians, and his brother Eikswatana,
called the Prophet, formed a plan for a
great confederacy of all the western and
southern Indians against the whites. Their
doctrine was opposed to tribal rights, and
they claimed that no part of the terr/tory
could be sold by any tribe to the whites
without the consent of all the Indians.
William Henry Harrison, who had been
on the staff of General Anthony Wayne
at the battle of Maumee Rapids, and Sec-
retary to General Arthur St. Clair, Gov
ernor of the Northwest Territory, was ap
pointed in 1801, Governor of the Indiana
Territory, from which was later formed the
States of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and
Wisconsin. By the close of 1805 Harrison
had extinguished Indian titles to 46,000
acres of land in the territory. Sept. 30,
1809, he concluded a treaty by which, for
$10,550, he secured nearly 3,000,000 acres
along the Wabash and White Elvers. Te-
cumseh and the Prophet told the Indians
they were cheated Tby the treaties, and
appealed to their savage nature to turn
against the whites. About 1808 Tecum-
seh established his council flre on the banks
of the Tippecanoe River in Tippecanoe Coun-
ty, Indiana, near the site of the present
village of Battle Ground. Harrison was
aware of the hostile feeling among the
Indians over the treaties of Vincennes
and Fort Wayne, which he had negotiated,
and began preparations for defense. While
building a stockade on the site of the
present city qf Terre Haute, Oct. 11, 1811,
one of the white sentinels was killed by
an Indian in ambush. This determined
Harrison to march against the camp at
Tippecanoe. On the night of Nov. 6, 1811,
he encamped within a mile of the Indian
village, and the Prophet had agreed to a
conference on the following day. Harri-
son's party consisted of about> 800, in-
cluding 500 Indians and Kentucky militia-
men. The hostile Indians were estimated
by Harrison at 700. They were under
the command of White Loon, Stone Eater,
and Winnemac, Tecumseh being then on a
mission to the Creeks and Cherokees to
induce them to join his confederacy. With-
out waiting for the promised conference
or even the dawn of day, the savages made
a furious assault on Harrison's camp,
which they maintained with ferocious brav-
ery for two hours.' It was after daylight
when the last of the Indians were driven
from the field, leaving fortf of their num-
ber dead on the battleground. The loss to
the whites was 37 killed and 151 wounded.
The entire loss of the Indians was never
ascertained. Next day Harrison advanced
to the town, found it deserted, destroyed
it and returned to Vincennes. This disas-
ter broke the power of Tecumseh. (Set
illustration opposite page 497.)
Titles. (See Lands, Public.)
Tobacco, — A native American plant of the
Nightshade family (Nicotiana tahacum), the
leaves of which have strong narcotic ef-
fects. It was named from the Indian
tabaco or pipe in which the aborigines
smoked the leaves. The word was applied
by the Spaniards to the herb itself. Its
use was observed in Santo Domingo in
1492. It was introduced into European
countries by the early voyagers, and the
Virginia settlers maae it their chief agri-
cultural product, and even used it as the
Tobacco
Encyclopedic Index
Tobacco
standard of value. Tobacco was unknown
to tne civilized world prior to the discov-
ery of America. It is a sedative and nar-
cotic, and is used by more people and
among more nations than any similar sub-
stance, with perhaps the exception of tea.
After its Introduction into England in 1585,
Its habitual use soon spread over Conti-
nental Europe and into Asia, notwithstand-
ing the determined efforts of ecclesiastic
and civil authorities to prohibit It. When
the period of persecution had run its
course, It was looked upon as a medicine
and was prescribed for all sorts of human
ailments. Its habitual use was looked
upon as a luxury to be enjoyed only by
the well-to-do. From 1619 to 1641 prices
In London ranged from three pence to three
shillings per pound. During the Civil War
in the United States, the price of tobacco
ranged from twelve cents to forty-flve cents
per pound.
Foreign Pre-War Taxes. — Before the
World War, the United Kingdom levied a
tax of 77 cents to 85 cents per pound ;
cigars, ,S1.21 per pound. Norway taxed
manufactured tobacco 22 cents per pound ;
Sweden, 12 cents ; Switzerland, 22 cents ;
Gerniany, 9 cents ; Holland, 14 cents ; Rus-
sia, 38 cents. In France, Spain, Italy,
Portugal, Austria, Turkey, Rumania the
government monopolized the trade in to-
bacco. It was also made the object of spe-
cial excise taxes from time to time.
Owing to its general use, and to Its status
as a luxury rather than as a necessity,
and perhaps also to the fact that it Is of no
great direct benefit to the human system, to-
bacco Is heavily taxed In most regions of the
globe. The rates of the tobacco tax in the
United States and recent receipts from it
are given under Internal Revenue.
The most recent figures for the annual
tobacco crop in the United States are as,
follows :
Total pounds materials used 444,860,920
Acreage
25,000
700
17,900
550,000
29,000
10,000
3,500
2,700
554,000
90,000
41,000
135,000
110,000
230,000
15,000
48,000
39,400
Pounds
39,000,000
625,000
15,215,000
456,500,000
19,575,000
15,400,000
3,500,000
3,483,000
310,240,000
77,400,000
54,120,000
81,000,000
88,000,000
131,100,000
10,500,000
60,960,000
22,940,000
Value
818,057,000
105,000
5,356,000
174,383,000
5,872,000
7,130,000
1,260,000
784,000
166,289,000
26,084,000
9,200,000
18,468,000
22,088,000
62,141,000
5,250,000
13,533,000
65,470,000
Siale
Connecticut .
Illinois . i . . .
Indiana. . , .
Kentucky. .
Maryland . .
Massach'ts.
Missouri . . .
New York..
N. Carolina
Ohio
Pennsyl'ia. .
S. Carolina.
Tennessee. .
Virginia ....
W. Virginia
Wisconsin. .
All others . .
Total, U. S. 1,901,200 1,389,458,000 «542,547,0(W
War and post-war figures for the world's
tobacco production are not available, but
the average annual world production before
the World War was slightly above 4,000,-
000,000 pounds, of which continental United
States produced more than 1,000,000,000.
The other main tobacco-producing countries
were : Brazil, 100,000,000 pounds ; Cuba,
75,000,000 ; Austria-Hungary, 170,000,000 ;
Germany, 60,000,000 ; France, 50,000,000 ;
European Russia, 230,000,000 : British India,
1,000,000,000; China, 500,000,000; Dutch
Bast Indies, 200,000,000; Japan, 120,000,-
000 ; Philippine Islands, 100,000,000 ; Asi-
atic Turkey, 75,000,000.
The most recent figures for the annual
manufacture of tobacco in the United States
are as follows :
1,871
159,792,119
159,792,119
94,494,147
424,068,785
141,037,895
11,299,488
8,165,865
228,566,655
35,007,882
11,483
Tobacco factories in operation
Pounds unstemmed leaf
used
Pounds stemmed leaf used
Tobacco manufactured, lbs.
Plug, pounds
Twist
Fine cut
Smoking
SnuflE
Cigar factories in operation . .
Pounds of tobacco used :
Unstemmed 96,270,289
Stemmed 29,927,963
Scraps • 11,497,127
Cigars manufactured :
Weighing more than 3 lbs.
per 1,000 7,072,357,021
Weighing less than 3 lbs.
per 1,000 713,235,870
Cigarette factories operated . . . 237
Pounds of tobacco used :
Unstemmed
Stemmed
Scrap
Cigarettes manufactured :
Weighing 3 lbs. per 1,000
and more
Weighing less than above 53,119,784,232
The total internal revenue taxes collected
on tobacco during the last fiscal year were
as follows :
Cigars :
Weighing more than 3 lbs. per
1,000 $ 55,423,814
Weighing less than 3 lbs. per
1,000
Cigarettes :
Weighing more than 3 lbs.
per 1,000
Weighing less than 3 lbs.
per 1,000 151,208,482
SnutE ' 6,948,931
Tobacco 74,663,768
Manufacturers' tax, floor tax,
etc 6,286,313
41,782,130
85,572,016
8,179,803
31,888,910
992,114
285,934
Total tobacco taxes collected $295,809,356
In the last fiscal year, the imports and
exports of tobacco to and from the United
States were as follows :
Exports Value
Leaf, lbs 632,773,620 $271,940,888
Stems, Trimmings, lbs. 15,264,035 786,272
Cigarettes 17,547,371,000
Cigars, Cheroots 66,874,000
Plug, lbs 4,730,822
Smoking, lbs 4,371,925
Im-poris
Leaf
Wrappers
Cigars, Cigarettes.
All other tobacco. .
43,248,768
1,425,740
2,534,637
2,521,541
Pounds Value
86,676,463 $68,153,282
7,328,719 10,011,008
4,664,876 13,111,839
182,108 162,468
The last federal census of the tobacco
manufacturing Industry gave the following
figures :
Number of establishments 13,951
Proprietors and firm members.. 15,200
Salaried employees 16,822
Wage-earners, average number. 178,872
Capital $303,840,000
Salaries 22,124,000
Wages 77,856;000
Cost of materials 207,134,000
Value of product 490.165,000
Tobacco
Encyclopedic Index
Topeka
Tobacco:
Duties on, in foreign porta, 1648, 1738,
1909, 2167, 2192, 2909, 3120.
Exportation of, to countries at peace
with United States, orders regard-
ing, 3379, 3434.
Industry, referred to, 2133.
Tax on —
From Netherlands and Colonies, dis-
cussed, 4979, 4986, 5088.
Internal, removal of, urged, 5474.
Trade in, with foreign countries —
Promotion of, promised, 1588, 1713,
1822, 2167.
Referred to, 1806.
Value of annual production of, dis-
cussed, 5642, 5744, 5764, 5978.
Tobago, Island. of. (See Trinidad.)
Tobago, Island of, duties on vessels
from, suspended by proclamation,
. 5598, 6502.
Togoland. (See Africa and World
"War.)
Toledo, Ohio, proclamation granting
privileges of other ports to, 2859.
Toledo War. — A bloodless dispute between
Ohio and Michigan in 1835 over the terri-
tory wblch contained the city of Toledo.
Just previous to Michigan's making appli-
cation for admission to the Union, Ohio
proposed to assume control of the disputed
tract. Michigan passed an ordinance mak-
ing the occupation of Toledo by Ohio au-
thorities a penal offense and appealed to
the Federal Government to sustain the ac-
tion. The militia were called out on both
sides. When armed hostilities became Im-
minent, Michigan was admitted as a State
and awarded the Upper Peninsula in ex-
change for the Toledo tract in dispute.
Toledo War, controversy regarding
boundary between Ohio and Michi-
gan known as, 637, 1173, 1404, 1407.
Toll. — A fee collected for a privilege. This
form of collecting has been employed as a
means for paying the cost of building roads
and bridges, usually when a county or other
corporate body borrows the money on bonds
to pay for the work Involved, and then
sets up toll gates,, where, through a series
of years, money is collected from travelers
on the road for the redemption of the
bonds. Sometimes, however, the build-
ing is done by private enterprise and paid
for thereafter with tolls collected, both for
re-imbursement and for profit. Toll-bridges
and toll-roads are now almost extinct, the
preferred method being that of taxation.
Tonawanda Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Tonga or Friendly Islands. — Three groups
of Islands In the Pacific Ocean, between 15°
and 23° S. and 173° and 177° West. Con-
stituted a neutral territory by the Declara-
tion of Berlin, 1886, they became a British
protectorate by arrangement between Great
Britain, Germany and the United States in
1899 and later. The total area is about
385 square miles, and the population, about
25,000. Practically the only product and
export is copra.
Tonga Islands:
Treaty between Germany and Great
Britain and, referred to, 5121.
Treaty with, 5121.
Tonga, Treaties with.— The treaty of
amity, commerce, and navigation of 1886
provides privileges to the citizens of the
one country in that of the other equal to
those of the most favored nation. Trade
privileges, except In the case of laborers,
shall in no case be more restrictive than
those granted to others. Shipping charges
shall, be no higher than those paid by the
national ships in home ports.
Ships-of-war of either power shall have
free access to any of the ports ; and to
facilitate repairs the government of Tonga
agrees to sell to the United States land on
the Islands to provide a coaling or other
station. Mail steamers from the United
States crossing the Pacific Ocean shall have
full harbor privileges on payment of one-
third the customary shipping charges, so
long as the vessels so partaking of this
privilege shall carry the Tonga mails free
of charge. Whaling and fishing vessels
are granted large pt+vUeges ■ In the Islands
free of harbor charges so long as they do
not trade or barter spirituous liquors,
arms, or ammunition to the Tongas.
No United States citizen residing Id
Tonga shall be compelled to do mllTtary
service, or to pay higher or other license
fees than do the subjects of Tonga. De-
serters are to be apprehended by the local
authorities upon application from the con-
sul or, when such Is deficient, from the
master of the vessel. Consular officers
may be appointed in terms customary In
consular conventions. Freedom of con-
science is extended to all citizens of the
United States In Tonga.
Tonkawa Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Tonking. — A French colony In southeast-
ern Asia, a part of French Indo-China (q
v.). It has an area of some 46,500 square
?nn^nnn°'^ml PoPuIation of more than 6,-
000,000. The chief town is Hanoi, which
Is the capital of French Indo-China, and the
"^^^ ^JiF^ '^ Haiphong, visited yearly by
about 625 vessels. The chief crop Is rice
?i-f^o\?"^*'^*' annual exports run to about
}.ik'^^?.^t°^^ annually, valued at $3,300,-
000. Other products are maize, sugar-cane
Son nn'ft f?f ^^'j ^'"""'^ tobacco, etc. About
500,000 kllogriims of raw silk are pro-
duced annually and there is some produc-
tion of zinc ore. The coral deposits also
are extremely valuable. Latest figures show
the annual exports as $14,000,000 and the
Imports as $13,000,000.
Tonnage Duties. (See Vessels, Foreign.)
"Too Proud to Fight," stand of,
discussed, 8068.
Topeka Constitution.— The enactment of
the Kansas-Nebraska bill, which. It has
been claimed, In effect repealed the Mis-
sourl Compromise forbidding slavery north
of 36° 30', left the question of slavery
to be decided by the people of the terri-
tories before admission. The proslavery
and antislavery advocates at once began a
struggle for supremacy. Oct. 23, 1855, a
constitutional convention representing the
anti-slavery population of Kansas met at
Topeka. This convention adopted the
boundaries set by the Kansas-Nebraska
bill, prohibited slavery after July, 1857,
Topeka
Encyclopedic Index
Trade Commission
and conferred the right of suffrage on
"white male citizens" and on "every civ-
ilized male Indian who has adopted the
habits of the white man." This convention
was dispersed by Federal troops.. The bill
to admit Kansas into the Union under
the provisions of the Topelsa constitution
was introduced in the House of Represen-
tatives by Daniel Mace, of Indiana, April
7, 1856, and in the Senate by Lewis Cass,
of Michigan, March 24. The bill passed the
House, but failed in the Senate. (See also
Lecompton Constitution; Wyandotte Con-
stitution.)
Topeka Constitution. (See Kansas,
Government of.)
Topographical Corps:
Increase in, 873, 1474, 1607.
Internal improvements, operations of,
intrusted to, 1776.
Reorganization of, recommended,
1388.
Tornado, The. (See Virginius, The.)
Torpedo Boats. (See Vessels,* United
States.)
Torpedoes:
Adoption and construction of, dis-
cussed, 5759.
Appropriation for trial with, recom-
I mended, 4304.
Tortugas. (See Dry Tortugas.)
Tory. — The terms "Whig" and "Tory" had
been In use In English politics for a great
many years anterior to the American Kevo-
lution. The term "Whig" designated the
party opposing the royal prerogative and
who were generally In favor of reforms ;
tlie term "Tory," the party upholding the
prerogative and adhering to old institutions.
In our colonial days the term "Tory" was
applied to those who were adherents of
the Crown, and the term "Whig" to the
opponents thereof, and so the American
sympathizers were known as Whigs, the
supporters of England as Tories.
Town. — A word derived from the Anglo-
Saxon word "tun," meaning "a place In-
closed." The suffix still clings to the names
of many ISnglish towns. In the United
States the word has a varying signification.
In Pennsylvania it Is applied to any mu-
nicipal government. In New York, Wiscon-
sin, and most of the western states a town
is a subdivision of a county, and is often
called a township (q. v.), but the town Is
not necessarily always coextensive with
the latter. In New England the town is
the unit of civil organization, a county be-
ing simply an aggregation of towns.
Town Meeting.— A peculiarly democratic
institution of New England and some of
the newly formed western states. It is a
meeting of the citizens to legislate for the
town, levy taxes, elect the officers, usually
a town clerk, selectmen, a treasurer, asses-
sors, constables, overseers of the poor, and
school commissioners. In some of the states
the cities, by their aldermen, are authorized
to transact the business formerly attended
to by the town ineeting. That it still has
a legal existence was demonstrated as re-
cently as 1881, when the Labor Reform
Societv of Boston secured a writ of man-
damus to compel the city authorities to call
a town meeting on petition, as required by
Its charter.
Towns, Seaport, protection for. (See
Defenses, Public, provision for.)
Townshend Acts. — At the Instance of
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the ex-
chequer, two acts were passed by the Brit-
ish Parliament providing for the appoint-
ment of commissioners to enforce more
effectually the laws relating to taxes in
the Colonies. They authorized writs of
assistance and increased the duties on many
articles already taxed, basldes imposing
others on glass, paper, tolors, and tea. The
object of these taxes was to support the
civil government in the territories.
Township. — in the older United States
counties are divided, without reference to
their inhabitants, into townships varying
In size from five to ten miles square.
When in 1802 Col. Mansfield surveyed the
Northwest Territory he divided the entire
public domain into land districts, made up
of a varying number of tracts each six miles
square. These were called townships.
These townships were again divided into
thirty-six equal squares, called sections, of
one square mile each and containing 640
acres. A civil township may include more
or less than one township in area.
Toynhee Hail. (See Social Settle-
ments.)
Trade. (See Commerce.)
Trade Adviser.— The office of trade advis-
er was established by the State Department
several months after the outbreak of the
Great European War, In order to assist
American merchants who were experiencing
difficulties with shipments of goods consigned
to or fropi them, because of embargo and
other war regulations promulgated by for-
eign governments. The office, which is
under the supervision of the assistant sec-
retary of state (q. v.), later broadened out
into a bureau of general information and
assistance to American shippers upon trade
regulations and requirements of foreign gov-
ernments. (See State Department.)
Trade Commission. — Unde- the law Intro-
duced by Mr. Covington of -Maryland and
approved Sept. 26, 1914, the President is
authorized to appoint a commission of five
members, not more than three of whom
shall be members of the same political
party, to take the place of the Bureau of
Corporations and the Commissioners of
Corporations. Property, records and em-
ployees of the bureau are transferred to
the new Commission, whose duty it Is to
regulate commerce by preventing persons,
partnerships or corporations (except banks
and common carriers, regulated by other
laws), from using unfair methods of com-
petition.
Commerce is defined in the act as com-
merce in any territory of the United States
or in the District of Columbia or between
the States or Territories, or with a foreign
nation. A corporation is defined as an or-
ganization, incorporated or not, having a
capital stock, divided into shares or not,
formed to carry on business for profit
Whenever the Commission shall have
reason to believe' that any person, part-
nership or corporation has been using un-
fair methods of competition, and that a
proceeding would be to the interest of the
public, it shall issue a complaint and set a
day for a hearing. If found guilty, orders
to desist from the specified violation of the
Trade Commission
Encyclopedic Index
trade-Marks
law are issued. In case of failure of the
guilty party to comply with the law as
pointed out by the Commission, the latter
shall apply to the Circuit Court of Ap-
peals where the corporation resides or
where the competition complained of takes
place. The findings of the Commission as
to the facts shall be conclusive and the
decree of the court final, except for review
by the Supreme Court upon certiorari. The
jurisdiction of the Circuit Court of Ap-
peals in regard to orders of the Commission
shall be exclusive, and orders shall be ex-
pedited and given precedence. Processes
of the Commission may be served by per-
sonal delivery, registered mail or left at
principal place of business.
The powers of the Commission are to (a)
investigate and gather information con-
cerning business, and practices of corpora-
tions, etc.; (b) require certified reports
at any time; (c) report to the Attorney
General final decrees entered against de-
fendant corporations ; (d) investigate upon
direction of the President or either house ;
(e) make recommendations (upon appli-
cation of thp Attorney General), for the
readjustment of the business of any cor-
poration guilty X of violation of the anti-
trust laws, in order that the corporation
may thereafter maintain Its organization,
management and conduct of business in
accordance with law ; (f ) make public such
Information obtained by it, except trade
secrets and names of customers, as it shall
deem expedient to the public interest,
make reports to Congress and recommend
additional legislation ; (g) classify cor-
porations and make rules for carrying out
the provisions of the law; (h) investigate
trade conditions in and with foreign coun-
tries where such may affect the foreign
trade of the United States.
Suits in equity before the Attorney Gen-
eral under the anti-trust acts may be re-
ferred to the Commission as a master in
chancery to report an appropriate form
of decree, and accepted at the option of the
court. All departments of the government
are required to furnish information relat-
ing to corporations. Agents and m^m..
bers of the Commission shall have access
to evidence, are empowered to require at-
tendance, administer oaths and take tes-
timony at any place in the United States,
with the aid and authority, when neces-
sar.v of the Federal Courts. No person
shall be excused from testifying before
the Commission on the ground that his evi-
dence might tend to degrade or criminate
him. but no natural person shal be prose-
cuted on account of anything to which he
may testify, and no natural person shall
be exempt from punishment for perjury be-
fore the Commission. Refusal to testify
is punishable by a flue of from ?1,000 to
$5,000. Failure to file reports when or-
dered subjects a corporation to a fine of
$100 for each day of neglect. A member
or employee of the Commission who reveals
information imparted officially is subject to
a fine of $5,000 or one year in prison.
The terms of the first Commissioners are
to be three, four, five, six, and seven
years, respectively, as designated by the
President, and their successars are to be
appointed for terms of seven years. The
salary of the Commissioners is fixed at
$10,000, and a Secretary is provided for
at $5,000 per year.
The Webb-Pomerene Act, approved April
10, 1918, expressly gave the Trade Commis-
sion powers, similar to those outlined above,
over associations and organizations engaged
in the export trade. (See also Anti-Trust
Law and Clayton Law.)
Trade Commission:
Business justice could be guided by.
7916. ■'■'
Coal cost investigation, authority
over, given to, 8901.
Created, 8151, 8158.
Establishment of, recommended, 7819,
Investigations of, on cost of living,
8768. ^
Personnel and records transferred to
Fuel Administration, 8538.
Purpose of, 8030.
War administrative powers vested
in, 8370.
Trade Dollar.— A silver coin issued by the
United States from 1874 to 1878. It was
coined for use in trade with China in com-
petition with the Spanish and Mexican dol-
lars. It was not intended for general cir-
culation in the United States, though it
was made a legal tender to the amount of
$5 at the time of issue. The legal-tender
provision was repealed In 1876. The weight
of the trade dollar was 420 grains, while
the standard American silver dollar weighed
412i grains. An act of March 1, 1887, au-
thorized the Treasurer to redeem in stand-
ard silver dollars all trade dollars pre-
sented during the following six mouths.
Trade Dollars discussed, 1399, 1463.
Trade of Foreign Powers. (See Com-
merce of Foreign Powers.)
Trade Information and Publicity, State
Department.— In 1842, Daniel Webster,
Secretary of State, assigned a clerk to the
task of arranging and keeping up-to-date all
commercial Information from abroad which
might be of service to the United States.
i? ,^=5*, this work was organized as tlie
Statistical Office of the Department of
btate, and m 1897 the name was changed
to the Bureau of Foreign Commerce. When
the Department of Commerce and Labor was
organized in 1903, the Bureau of Foreign
Commerce was transferred to the new de- '
partment, and Secretary of State John I-Iav
organized the Bureau of Trade Information
Jhd Publicity, to cover activities which
the Department of Commerce and Labor
could not advantageously prosecute. The
duties of the new bureau were the super-
vision of trade reports and correspondence
from American consuls and diplomatic ofli-
cers, and also the publication of commercial
information of interest. ( See State Depart-
ment; Consuls; Consular Service.)
Trade-Marks. — The ancient custom among
merchants and manufacturers of using a
special device for marking their goods or the
packages containing them has long been
recognized by the common law ; and the
right to exclusive use thereof has been
sustained. The first statute providing for
the protection of trade-marks in the
United States by registration was the law
of 1870. As this law was not restricted In
its operation to trade between the states
6r with foreign nations, it was later held
by the Supreme Court to be unconstitu-
tional. Another general law was passed
In 1905, based upon the commerce clause
of the Constitution and amended in 1909.
This law recognizes the right of a trader
to stamp with his particular mark goods
manufactured by him or selected or
packed or in any way passing through his
Trade-Marks
Encyclopedic Index
Trades Unions
hands. The trade-mark then becomes part
of the good will of a trader's business and
he is protected against any use or in-
fringement thereof by another the same
as iu any other pi^operty right.
The existing act provides that no ;rade-
mark will be registered which consists of
or comprises immoral or scandaieus mat-
ter, or which consists of or comprises the
flag or coat of arms or other insignia of
the United States, or any simulation there-
of, or of any state or municipality, or of
any foreign nation or which consists of or
comprises any design or picture that has
been adopted by any fraternal society as
its emblem, or of any name, distinguishing
mark. Character, emblem, colors, flag, or
banner adopted by any institution, organ-
ization, club, or society which was in-
corporated in any State in the United
States prior to the date of the adoption
and use by the applicant ; Provided, That
said name, distinguishing mark, character,
emblem, colors, flag, or banner was adopt-
ed and publicly used by said institution,
organization, club, or society prior to the
date of adoption and use by the applicant ;
unless It shall be shown to the satisfaction
of the Commissioner of Patents that the
mark was adopted and used as a trade-
mark by the applicant or applicant's pred-
ecessors, from whom title is derived, at
a date prior to the date of its adoption
by such fraternal society as its emblem,
or which trade-mark is Identical with a
registered or known trade-mark owned and
in use by another, and appropriated to
merchandise of the same descriptive prop-
erties, or which so nearly resembles a
registered or known trade-mark owned and
in use by another, and appropriated to
merchandise of the same descriptive prop-
erties as to be likely to cause confusion
or mistake in the minds of the public, or to
deceive purchasers ; or which consists
merely in the name of an individual, firm,
corporation, or association, not written,
printed, impressed, or woven in some par-
ticular or distinctive manner or in asso-
ciation with a portrait of the individual,
or merely in words or devices which are
descriptive of the goods with which they
are used, or of the character or quality
Df such goods, or merely a geographical
name or term ; no portrait of a living in-
dividual will be registered as a trade-
mark, except by the consent of such In-
dividual evidenced by an instrument in
writing ; and no trade-mark will be regis-
tered which is used In unlawful business,
or upon any article injurious in itself, or
which has been used with the design of
deceiving the public In the purchase of
merchandise, or which has been abandoned.
Any mark, used In commerce with
foreign nations or among the several
states or with Indian tribes, may be regis-
tered If It has been in actual and ex-
clusive use as a trade-mark of the appli-
cant, or his predecessors from whom he
derived title, for ten years next preceding
the passage of the act of February 20,
1905.
The fee for registration Is $10 ; this
gives exclusive right to the trade-mark for
twenty years, and it may be renewed for
a like period.
Aliens may register trade-marks previ-
ously registered in their own country.
Application for a trade-mark must be
made to the Commissioner of Patents, set-
ting forth a description ot the trade-mark
and a drawing thereof, accompanied by an
affidavit to the effect that the applicant
does not know of any other person who
has the right to use It.
An Act of Congress, approved on March
19, 1920, puts Into effect the provisions of
the International Trade Mark Convention
of Buenos Ayres, In 1910, by requiring a
facsimile of the trade mark, name, resi-
dence of registrant, etc.
In recent years, the nrmber of trade
marks issued by the Commissioner of Pat-
ents of the United States has averaged more
than 4,000 annually. More than 130,000
trade marks have been issued altogether.
Trade-Marks (see also Copyright) :
Convention of South American coun-
tries for protection of, 7499.
International convention at Paris on
subject of, 4714.
Treaty regarding, vrith —
Austria-Hungary, 4114.
Belgium, 4799, 4822.
Brazil, 4460.
France, 3967.
Germany, 4114, 4142.
Great Britain, 4408, 4419.
Italy, 4789.
Eoumania, 4676.
Eussia, 3887, 4220, 4247.
Spain, 4696.
Trades Unions.— rhe rise of a free work-
ing-class dates from the latter years of the
Middle Ages. In ancient times, in well-
settled communities slave labor was the
rule, and In sparsely-settled communities
much of the subsistence was derived from
hunting, fishing and pastoral pursuits. Even
through the Middle Ages, there was liitle
work except that done In the households
or on the farms ; and the condition of the
agricultural laborer was practically that of
a serf.
In the fourteenth century in England,
however, towns grew up to facilitate ex-
change of commodities, and there gradually
flocked to them numbers of men who had
become freed from their agricultural ties,
and who had learned certain crafts. The
Statutes of Laborers in the reign of Ed-
ward III shows the existence of a distinct
class of workers, with some indication that
It was becoming worthy ot serious attention.
In 1348, the plague devastated England,
wiping out from one-third to one-half of
the population, so that tlie workers were
able to use the increased demand for labor
as a means of bettering their condition.
During the next several centuries, this
working-class organized itself Into guilds,
or associations of workingpeople grouped
according to their trades. Although the
modern trade union can hardly be said to
have developed directly from these guilds,
yet the indirect connection is very strong,
as may be seen from the fact that the
guilds .of the fourteenth, fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries had such familiar regula-
tions as those limiting the number pf ap-
prentices and those providing many kinds
of benefits for their members. The guilds,
however, soon grew to represent the aristoc-
racy of labor, and developed Into what
would be called today the middle class ;
and the condition of the lower classes was
almost unbelievably wretched. The guilds
did not survive much past Elizabethan times
in their pristine strength — a decline due
largely to the newer conditions of trade
and commerce. All the way down to the
beginning of the nineteenth century, the
workers' conditions continued to be In a
state not much above that of serfdom
Trades Unions
Encyclopedic Index
Trading-With-Enemy
It was the coming of the industrial revo-
lution, incident upon the Invention of ma-
chinery and the steam engine and upon
the establishment of factories at the begin-
ning of the nineteentb century, which be-
gan to change conditions for the laborers.
On the side of actual working conditions,
the new machines had decreased the de-
mand for labor, while making possible the
employment of women and children in place
of the men ; and on the other hand the
French Kevolution had filleJd the world with
new ideals of the rights of the working-
classes. In the years following the Na-
poleonic wars, there was little alleviation
of the wretchedness in which the mass of
the people lived, while at the same time
they could observe the etaploying and trad-
ing classes becoming steadily richer and
happier. Unpremeditated revolts showed
the futility of endeavoring to change con-
ditions by sporadic and unorganized efforts ;
and from this realization arose the modern
organizations of the working-class.
, The movement In England naturally was
not long in reaching the United States.
There is a legend that a typographical so-
ciety was organized in New York City in
1793. In 1803, the Journeymen shipmen
of that city definitely organized, but the
virtual beginning of an extensive American
trade union movement may be assigned to
1825. The organizations of this period were
puTely local in charact«flr, but the next
twenty-flve years saw the growth of the
amalgamation of all laborers' associations
in a given locality — the so-called trades as-
semblies. In 1830 there was even a con-
vention of the worklngmen of New York
state, and a candidate for governor was
named.
The strength of the new movcanent may
be gauged from the fact that in 1840 it was
able to establish a ten-hour working day in
government shipyards. In 1830, the first
vigorous union of national scope was formed
among the typographers ; and the cigar-
workers in 1874 inaugurated the practice of
using a lal>el to distinguish goods made
under union conditions.
After the Civil War, a national federa-
tion of traded unions became the next logical
step. In 1866, a National Labor Congress
met In Baltimore, with one hundred dele-
gates representing some sixty organizations ;
but many of the latter were local In their
nature, and others were little more than
secret or fraternal and beneficial organi-
zations. Meetings were held until 1872,
but the lack of unification among the con-
stituent Imdies and the drifting into polit-
ical action finally disrupted the body Jn
the last-mentioned year. The next year
was the year of the great panic, and labor
organizations suffered along with employeis.
In 1874, an Industrial Congress was held
In Rochester, in which the most influential
bodies represented were liie secret "Sov-
ereigns of Industry" and the "Industrial
Brotherhood of the United States." The
Knights of Labor (q. v.) was organized In
1869, and soon became the dominant labor
organization in the country, the member-
ship in 1886 bein? reported as 700,000.
But its influence finally paled before that
of the American Federation of Labor, which
was organized in 1881. For its growth and
strength in recent years, see Labor, Ameri-
can Federation of.
Some of the strongest unions in the
country, however, are not affiliated with
the A. V. of L., notably the four brother-
hoods of locomotive engineers, firemen, etc.,
and the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. For
many ^ears, the radical Western Federa-
tion Of Miners was outside the fold, and
at the present time there Is nothing but
enmity between the American Federation
of Labor members and tlie I. W. W. (q. v.).
A curious relation exists between the
American Federation of Labor and, the
Socialist Party. There are many Socialists
within the A. F. of L., but they represent a
minority of tho organization. The So-
cialists, as a political body, usually sup-
port the economic struggles of the unions,
although they Criticise severely the pres-
ent administration of the A. F. of L. The
unions, on the other hand, endorse many
of the planks in the political program of
the Socialists.
There can be little doubt that the trade
unions have succeeded in bettering ma-
terially the conditions of the working-
classes. Primarily, they have enabled the
workers to resort to collective bargaining
with their employers, so that in negotia-
tions the individual worker or group of
workers will be at no unfair advantage.
A tremendous amount of social legislation,
national, state and municipal must also be
placed to the credit of the unions, and
there is seldom an election in districts
where laborers are numerous where new con-
cessions are not made to obtain the labor
vote. Workers afttllated with the unions
have been able to acquire shorter working
hours, higher wages, better working condi-
tions than those not affiliated. Yet in the
United States the labor movement is not
so strong as in other countries ; and, more-
over, the United States is practically the
only great industrial nation where the
labor movement has not its own political
party, since the American Federation of
Labor gives no support to the Socialist
Party of America, which, Indeed, is weak
in comparison with the labor and Socialist
political parties of the other great Powers.
The following figures show the members
of the trades unions in those countries
where organized labor is strongest, togetl;ei-
with the ratio of the members to the total
population. The figures are the latest avail-
able.
Union Percentane
Country Members Population
Australia 582,000 11%
Austria 800,000 13 %
Belgium 980,000 13%
Canada 380,000 4%%
Czeeho-Slovakla 660,000 4%
Denmark 360,000 12%
France 1,500,000 31/2%
Germany 9,845,000 16%%
Great Britain 6,700,000 13 14 %
Hungary 500,000 5%
Itaiy 2,200,000 6%
Netherlands 873,000 5% %
Norway 120,000 5%%
Russia 4,300,000 214%
Sweden 235,000 4%
Switzerlana 265,000 6%
United States 5,000,000 5%
For an account of the states which forbid
Intimidation of employees and the exaction
of any agreement, as a condition of em-
ployment, not to join a labor organization,
see the article Boycott. See also Strikes.
Trades Unions (See also Labor)-.
Checks upon, 6974, 7072.
Label, injunctions to protect, 7213.
Legality of, 7345.
Members of, in government service,
6783, 6897.
Eights and duties of, 6650.
Tradlng-With-The-Enemy Act. — The
chief provisions of this act, as approved by
Trading-with-Enemy Encyclopedic Index
Transcontinental
the President on October 6, 1917. were as
follows ;
The War Trade Board succeeds the Ex-
ports Administrative Board in all the lat-
ter's 'functions, including complete control
over exports, under the powers created m
the Espionage Act (q. v.). The War 'trade
Board also licenses importations, the Act
giving the President the power to prohibit
the importation of any article or .to regu-
late its importation.
Under severe criminal penalties, trading
without a license with a person who there
is reason to believe is an enemy or an ally
of enemy is made unlawful. "Trade" is de-
fined to mean to pay, satisfy, compromise!,
or give security for the payment of any
debt or ohligation ; to draw, accept, pay,
draw for acceptance or payment, or en-
dorse any negotiable Instrument ; to enter
Into, carry on, complete or perform any
contract, agreement or oblisation ; to buy,
sell, loan, extend credit, trade in, deal with,
exchange, transmit, transfer, assign, or
otherwise receive or dispose of any form
of property ; to have any form of business
communicatiou or intercourse with.
An "enemy" or "ally of enemy" is defined
as a person of any nationality residing
within the territory of or occupied by Gti'-
many and any of her allies, IncludinK even
citizens of the United States who may be
thus situated. The term includes any ner-
son doing business within such territory,
wherever he reside or of whatever nation-
ality he be. (The term "person" includes
a business or corporation.) The term In-
cludes also every enemy government of the
United States, and every agent of such
government, wherever located. Enemy aliens
(q. V.) in the United States are not included
in this term, although they may be subject
to internment, and the President is given
power to issue licenses to trade 'vith the
enemy.
It is similarly unlawful to trade with
any person wliatsoever who may be acting
as agent for or for the henefit of an enemy
or ally of enemy.
It is made unlawful to take or send
outside of the United States any com-
munication intended for an enemy or ally
of enemy, and also to bring In or take
out any form of communication except by
mail — except through license.
A War Trade Council is created to re-
place the Exports Council and to act as
an advisory body in all matters referred
to it by the President of the War Trade
Board. It is composed of the Secretaries
of State. Treasury, Agriculture, Commerce
and the Food Administrator, and the Chair-
man of the United States Shipping Board.
The Federal Trade Commission is em-
powered to carry out various provisions
in the Act relating to patents.
A Censorship Board administers the reg-
ulations of the President concerning cable,
telegraph and mail communication between
the United States and foreign countries.
This Board is composed of representatives
of the Postmaster-general, the Secretaries of
War and Navy, the War Trade Board, and
the Chairman of the Committee on Public
Information.
Every paper printed in a foreign lan-
guage must furnish a translation to the
Postmaster-general of all matter concerning
the War printed by it.
It is made unlawful for any person
without a license therefor to transport to or
from the United States, or for any vessel
of the United States registry to transport
anywhere, any citizen of an enemy or ally
of an enemy nation.
Trading -with the Enemy Act:
Germans and Austro -Hungarians in-
cluded in terms of, 8522.
Rules and regulations under, 8366,
8433, 8444, 8462
Revoked, 8486.
Training Camps, Officers'. (See Army
and Preparedness.)
Transcontinental Highways.— In the days
of the oxteam and prairie schooner, the
plains and mountains were crossed by trails,
usually along the lines of least resistance,
keeping as close as possible to bases of
supplies and water. The pioneers over what
became known later as the "Santa Fe
Trail" and the "Oregon Trail" were the
first to leave permanent marks on routes
now rapidly becoming highways between the
Central-Western and the far-Western
States.
The American Automobile Association
gives the following list of important auto- '
mobile pleasure highways in the United
States :
Atlantic Highway. — Calais, Maine, tq
Miami, Florida, 2, SOS miles, through Boston
(448 mi.), Providence (492), Mew York
(B9B), Philadelphia (790), Baltiihore (893),
Washington (934), Richmond (1,07a),
Augusta (1,515), Macon (1,678), Jackson-
ville (1,928), Palm Beach (2,239). Side
routes, Boston to New York (235 mi.),
Augusta to Jacksonville (297), St. Augus-
tine to Tampa (252).
Bankhead Highway.! — Washington, D. C,
to San Diego, Cal., 3450 miles, through
Kichmond (134 miles), Haleigh (320), At-
lanta (797), Birmingham (998), Memphis
(1,301), Little Kock (1,459), Dallas (1,831),
Fort Worth (1,864), El Paso (2,542),
Douglas (2,810), Tucson (2,937), Phoenix
(3,068). Four-State Branch, Hot Springs to
Koswell, through Durant, 772 miles. White
Mountain Branch, Sweetwater to El Paso,
through Roswell, 505 miles.
Dixie Highway.— Chicago to Fort Myers,
1,672 miles, through Indianapolis (303 mi.),
Louisville (445), Mammoth Cave (533),
Nashville (646), Chattanooga (811), At-
lanta (949), Macon (1,044), Tallahassee
(1,245). Side Eoutes, Atlanta to Savannah,
298 miles ; Macon to Jacksonville, 255
miles ; Tallahassee to Jacksonville, 176
miles ; Kissimmee to Tampa, 78 miles.
Dixie Highway, East Division. — ^Detroit
to Miami, 1,561 miles, through Toledo (50
mi.), Lima (136), Dayton (210), Cincinnati
(262), Knoxville (571), Augusta (885),
Savannah (1,011), Jacksonville (1,181),
Palm Beach (1,492). Side Trips, Knoxville
to Chattanooga, 136 miles ; Augusta to
Macon, 127 miles.
Dixie Overland Highway. — Savannah to
San Diego, 2,814 miles, through Montgomery
(380 mi.). Meridian (561), Shreveport
(886), Dallas (1,101), Fort Worth (1,136),
Koswell (1,650), El Paso (1,890), Douglas
(2,159), Blsbee (2,183), Tucson (2,297),
Phoenix (2,429).
George Washington National Highway. —
Savannah to Seattle, 3,943 miles, through
Atlanta, (304 mi.), Memphis (790), St.
Louis (1.230), Kansas City (1,530), Omaha
(1,752), Sioux City (1.864), Sioux Falls
(1,959), Deadwood (2,398), Butte (3,215),
Spokane (3,597).
Jackson Highway. — Chicago to New Or-
leaTis, 1,066 miles, through Indianapolis,
(197 mi.), Louisville (332), Nashville" (531),
Meridian (865), Hattiesburg (950). Side
Transcontinental
Encyclopedic Index
Transcontinental
Trfp, Louisville to Cleveland, 427 miles ;
through Columbus, 309 miles.
Jefferson Highway. — Winnipeg, Canada,
to New Orleans, 2,277 miles, through Minne-
apolis (547 mi.), St. Paul (557), Dee Moines
<828), Kansas City, (1,060), Joplin (1,255),
Muskogee (1,394), Durant (1,554), Shreve-
oprt (1,859), Baton. Rouge (2,157). Side
Trip, Kansas City to Joplin, 204 miles.
King of Trails. — ^Winnipeg, Canada, to
litiredo, Texas (1,991 mi.), through Grand
Porks (159), Fargo (255), Sioux Falls
(526), Sioux City (612), Omaha (722),
Kansas City (943), Muskogee (1,272), Du-
rant (1,417), Dallas (1,525), Waco (1,620),
Austin (1,757), San Antonio (1,839). Side
Trip, Waco to Galveston, 246 miles ; through
Houston, 195 miles,
Lincoln Highway. — -JNcw York to San
Francisco, 3,323 miles, through Philadelphia
(94 ml.), Gettysburg (211), Pittsburgh
(886), Canton (487), Lima (644), Fort
Wayne (708), South Bend (784), Chicago
Heights (863), Joliet (896), Cedar Rapids
(1,114), Omaha (1,415), Big Spring (1,783),
Cheyenne (1,936), Rawlings (2,114), Salt
Lake City (2,419), Ely (2,675), Reno
(3,054), Sacramento (3,194), Oakland
(3,320).
Side Trips, Chicago Heights to Chicago
18 miles ; Big Spring to Denver, 240 miles ;
Cheyenne to Yellowstone Park, 541 miles ; ,
Cheyenne to Rocky Mountain Park, 93
miles ; Rawlings to Yellowstone Park. Salt
Lake City to Yellowstone Park, 360 miles ; '
Ely to Los Angeles, via Midland Trail, 565
miles.
Midland Trail (Roosevelt National High-
may.) — Washington, D. C, to Los Angeles,
3,368 miles, through Charlottesville (141
ml.). White Sulphur Springs (281), Charles-
ton (301), Huntington (446), Lexington
(583), Louisville (635), French Lick
Springs (719T, VIneennes (791), St. Louis
(943), Jefferson City fl,095), Kansas City
(1,270), Topeka (1,346),' Beloit (1,502),
Burlington (1,763), Denver (1,931), Grand
Junction (2,233), Salt Lake City (2.547),
Ely (2,803), Big Pine (3,102). Side Trips,
Washington to Charlottesburg, 206 miles,
through Richmond, 134 miles ; Big Pine to
San Francisco, 387 miles^ through Yose-
mlte National Park, 181 miles.
National Old Trails Road. — New York to
Los Angeles, 3,281 miles, through Phila-
delphia (94 mi.), Gettysburg (211), Hag-
erstown (245), Cumberland (311), Wheel-
ing (443), Columbus (572). Dayton (640),
Indianapolis (747), Terre Haute (818), St.
Louis (993), Columbia (1,135), Kansas City
(1,299), Dodge City (1.691), La Junta
1,910), Raton (2,020), Santa F6 (2214),
Albuquerque (2,280). Flagstaff (2,723),
Williams (2,759). Ash Forks (2,779), San
Bernardino (3,218), Pasadena (3,270).
Side Trips, Washington to Hagerstown,
78 miles ; La .Junta to Denver 186 miles, via
Pueblo, 66 miles (Pueblo to Trinidad, 92
miles) ; Raton to Santa L6, via Toas, 170
miles ; Albuquerque to Holbrook, 281 miles ;
Flagstaff to Grand Canyon, 84 miles ; Wil-
liams to Grand Canyon, 65 miles ; Ash Forks
to Phoenix, 174 miles, via Prescott, 6n
miles ; San Bernardino to Riverside, 11
miles.
National Old Trails Road, Mesa Verde
Branch. — La Junta to Holbrook, 670 miles,
via Pueblo (66 mi.), Del Norte f250), Du-
rango (377), Ship Rock (461). Side Trip,
Durango to Mesa Verde, 62 miles.
Meridian Highway. — Winnipeg, Canada,
to Galveston, 1908 miles, through Grand
Forks (159 mi.), Fargo (255), Watertown
(431), Belleville (852), Wichita (1,031),
Enid (1,151), Wichita Falls (1,371), Fort
^°JS^ <l'i.''^>V y^^^o (1.835), Houston
(1,856). Side trip, Waco to Laredo, 377
miles, through Austin, 131 miles and San
Antonio, 213 miles.
Mississippi Valley Highway.— Bnluth to
New Orleans, 1,635 miles, through St. Paul
(160 mi.K Cedar Eaplds (41ll, Burling-
ton (508), St. Louis (762), Cairo (925),
^?te? il'043), Corinth (1,108), Meridian
(1,365), Hattiesburg (1,459). Side Trips,
St. Louis to Chicago, 347 miles, through
SpnngUeld, 109 miles ; Hattiesburg to Gulf-
port, 74 miles.
National Parks Highway. — Chicago to
Taeoma, 2,712 miles, through Milwaukee
(97 ml.), Madison (180), Lacrosse (362),
Minneapolis and St. Paul (503), Fargo
(768), Bismarck (975), Dickinson (1,09.5),
Billings (1,447), Livingston (1,584), Butte
(1,723), Missoula (1,868), Kalispell (1,997),
Spokane (2,264), Wenatchee (2,436), Seat-
tle (2,671). Side Trips, Livingston to Yel-
lowstone Park, 55 miles ; Missoula to Spo-
kane, 212 miles; Kalispell to Glacier Na-
tional Park, 34 miles ; Wenatchee to Cle
Elum, via. Blewett Pass, 65 miles.
National Park.to-Park Highway. — A cir-
cuit route of the National Parks, 4,403 miles.
Beginning from Denver, through Cheyenne
(113 miles), Casper (320 miles), Cody
(585), Yellowstone Park (722), Great Palls
(945), Glacier National Park- (1,007), Kali-
sppll (1,114), Spokane (1,376), Seattle
(1,706), Taeoma (1,747), Portland (1,910),
Medford (2,237), Sacramento (2,622), Stock-
ton (2,071), Fresno (2,790), Visalia (2,838),
Los Angeles (3,059), Needles (3,370), Wil-
liams (3,582), Flagstaff (3,618), Gallup
(3,828), Durango (4,006), Canyon City
(4,273), Colorado Springs (4,328). Mount
Ronler National Park, 77 miles from Ta-
eoma ; Crater Lake Park, 82 miles fron>
Medford ; Yosemite National Park, 128 miles
from ."Stockton ; Roosevelt National Park, 57
miles from Visalia ; Zlon National Park, 314
milfs from Needles ; Grand Canyon, 65
miles from Williams ; Mesa Verde Park, 62
miles from Durango.
Old Spanish Trail. — Jacksonville, Florida,
to Los Angeles, 2,956 miles, through Talla-
hassee (174 mi.). Mobile (456), Bilo-vi
(520), New Orleans (027), Lake Charles
(953), Houston (1,104), San Antonio
(1,315), Fort Stockton (1,663), El Paso
(1,915), Douglas (2,184), Bishee (2,208),
Tucson (2,311), Phoenix (2,439), Yuma
(2,636), San Diego (2,822).
Pacific Highway. — Vancouver, in British
Columbia, toTla Juana, Mexico, 1,807 miles,
through Seattle (164 mi.), Taeoma (206),
Olympia (240), Portland (373). Salem
(419), Medford (686), Redding (873), Sac-
ramento (1,050), Oakland (1.168), San
Francisco (1,171), King City (1..S56), Santa
Barbara (1.559), Los Angeles (1,058), San
Diego (1,790).
Pershing Way. — Winnipeg, Canada to
New Orleans, through Ci'ookston, Jlankato,
Cedar Rapids, Hannibal, St. Louis, Mem-
phis, Little Rock.
Pike's Peak Ocean-to-Ocean Hiahway. —
New York to San Francisco. 3,606 miles.
New York to Pittsburgh (436 mi.), over
William Penn Highway (q. v.), then through
Steubenville (478), Columbus (636), Day-
ton (704). Indianapolis (811), Springfleid
(1,014), Chillicothe (1,258), St. .Joseph
(1,337), Norton (1.666), Colorado Springs
(1.990), Leadville (2,126), Rangelv (2,352).
Salt Lake City (2,601), Ogden (2,638),
Monteilo (2,831), Battle Mountain (3,020).
Reno (3,269), Sacramento (3,503), Oakland
(3,603).
Transcontinental
Encyclopedic Index
Transcontinental
Tuget Sound to the Gulf Highway. —
' Seattle to Corpus Chrlstl. Tex., 2,791 miles,
through Walla Walla ,(,327), Boise (6,36),
Twin Falls (780), Ogden (990), Salt Lake
City (1,027), Eawlings (1,324), Cheyenne
(1,502), Denver (1,617), Pueblo (1,736),
AmarlUo (2,080), Sterling City (2,391), San
Antonio (2,657).
Booaevelt National Highway. — Coinciding
with Midland Trail (q. v.) wes|; of Lexing-
ton, Ky. See also Theodore Eoosevelt In-
ternational Highway, below.
Theodore Roosevelt International High-
way.— Portland, Me., to Portland, Oregon,
through Bretton Woods, Montpelier, Platts-
burg, Watertown, Oswego, Rochester, Nia-
gara Falls, London (Canada), Port Huron,
Flint, Bay City, Cheboygan, Mackinaw City,
Bseanaba, Superior, Duluth, Grand Forks,
Devil's Lake, Glasgow, Glacier National
Park, Kallspell, Spokane, Seattle.
Tellowstone Trail. — New York to Seattle,
3,594 miles, through Albany (150 mi.),
Utlca (246), Syracuse (296), Rochester
(393), Buffalo (469), Erie (563), Cleve-
land (667), Toledo (789), South Bend
(952), Chicago (1,053), Milwaukee (1,143),
Oshkosh (1,224), St. Paul (1,533), Minne-
apolis (1,543), Montevideo (1,688), Bow-
man (2,160), Bluings (2,494), Livingston
(2,621), Butte (2^743), Missoula (2,894),
Spokane (3,116), Walla Walla (3,277). Al-
ternative routes, Boston to Albany, 190
miles ; New York to Erie, 500 miles ;
through Binghampton (195), Elmira (254),
Hornell (320), and Jamestown (441). Side
Trip, Livingston to Yellowstone Park, 55
miles.
William Penn Highkoay. — Easton to Read-
ing, 52 miles, Philadelphia to Reading, 58
miles; to Harrlsburg, 53% miles; to Lewis-
town, 67 miles ; to Huntington, 33 miles, or
37 miles ; to Ebensburg via Tyrone and
Altoona, 69 miles, or via Hollidaysburg,
Cresson and Loretto, 51% miles; to Pitts-
burgh, via Johnstown, 85 miles, or via
Greensburg, 80 miles ; to Paris, Pa., 34
miles.
Other Important automobile trunk lines
are as follows : —
Albert Pike. — Hot Springs, Arkansas, to
Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Alton Way. — Chicago to St. Louis, 295
miles.
Arrowhead Trail. — Salt Lake City to Los
Angeles, 853.
Big Four Route. — Terre Haute to St.
Louis, 211 miles, and to Hannibal, Mo., 343
miles.
Black Diamond Trail. — Springfield, 111. to
Nashville.
Blackhawk Trail. — Dixon, 111. to Belolt,
Wis., 60 miles.
Black Hills-Denver Diamond Highway.
— Denver to Deadwood, S. D., 460 miles.
Blue Grass Trail. — Momence, 111. to Bur-
lington, Iowa, to Omaha, Neb.
Blue Trail. — Glacier Park Station, Mon-
tana, to Banff, Canada, 327 miles.
Boone Way. — Lexington, N. C. to Louis-
ville.
Buffalo Trail. — Great Falls to Billings,
Mont., 253 miles.
California-Banff Bee Line Hiahway. — Los
Angeles to Banff, Canada, via Spokane.
Cannon Ball Trail. — Chicago to Hanni-
bal, 341 miles.
Caterpillar Trail. — ^Peoria to Pontiac, IlL,
60 miles.
Chicago, Kansas City and Gulf Highway,
— Chicago to Galveston.
Com Belt Route. — Effner, Ind., to Bur-
lington, Iowa.
Cross-State Highway. — Hannibal to St.
Joseph, Mo., 218 miles.
Custer Battlefield Highway. — Omaha to
Glacier National Park.
Denver-Tellowstone Highway. — From Den-
ver to Yellowstone Park.
Diamond Trail. — Freeport, 111., to Gales-
burg, 111., 124 miles.
Dixie Bee Line. — Danville, 111., to Louis-
ville.
Egyptian Trail. — Chicago to Cairo, 111.,
497 miles.
F. F. F. Highway. — Fort Worth, Tex., to
Las Vegas, N. M., 639 miles.
Fort Smith, Pawl's Valley and Wichita
Falls Highway. — Fort Smith, Ark., to Wich-
ita Falls, Tex., 331 miles.
Oeyser-to-Glacier Highway. — Yellowstone
I to Glacier National Park, 546 miles.
Grant Highway. — Chicago to Portland,
Ore., via Yellowstone Park, South Entrance.
Great White Way. — Davenport, Iowa, to
Omaha, 337 miles.
Hawkeye Highway. — Dubuque, Iowa, to
Sioux City, 340 miles.
Indian Head Trail. — ^Oalesburg, 111., to
Minneapolis, 413 miles.
Kansas-OklahomarTexas and Gulf High-
way.— Florence, Kan., to Dallas, Tex., 514
miles.
Kickapoo Trail. — Peoria to Muscatine, 111.
Lakes-to-Gulf Highway. — Dnluth, Minn.,
to Galveston, Tex., 1,826 miles.
Lee Highway. — Gettysburg, Pa., to New
Orleans.
'Lewis and Clark Trail. — Lewlston, Idaho,
to Missoula, Mont.
Liberty Highway. — New York to Erie, Pa.,
496 miles.
Logan-Lee Highway. — Rock Island, 111.,
to Paducah, Ky., 441 miles. ,
Mackinaw Indian Trail. — ^Peoria to Bloom-
ington, 111., 42 miles.
Mark Twain Route. — Chicago to Kansas
City, 555 miles.
Mohawk Trail. — Albany to Boston, 182
miles.
North Iowa Pike. — McGregor, Iowa, to
Sioux Falls.
Omaha-Lincoln-Denver Highway. — Omaha
to Denver, 627 miles.
Omaha-St. Louis Highway. — Omaha to St.
Louis, 476 miles.
Ozark Trail. — St. Louis to Las Vegas,
N. M.
Perry Highway. — Pittsburgh, Pa., to Erie,
Pa., 136 miles.
Park-to-Park Highway. — Yellowstone to
Glacier National Park, via Missoula.
Potash Highway. — Grand Island to Alli-
ance, Neb.
Rainbow Trail. — Pueblo, Col., to Grand
Junction, 238 miles.
Red Ball Route. — St. Paul, Minn., to St.
Louis, 487 miles.
River-to-River Road.-
Omaha, 349 miles.
-Davenport, Iowa, to
Robert E. Lee Highway. — New Orleans to
San Diego.
„„%o(« Highway. — Duluth, Minn., to Fort
William and Port Arthur, 210 miles.
Transcontinental
Encyclopedic Index
Treasury
Southwest Trail, — Chicago to Laredo,
Tex., 1,706 miles.
Utah-Idaho-Tellowstone Highway. — Salt
Lake City to Yellowstone Park, West En-
trance, 360 miles.
WautOiiHie Trail. — Keokuk, Iowa, to Lin-
coln, Neb.
Yellowstone Highway. — Denver to Yellow-
stone Park, East Entrance, 638 miles.
Y-& Bee Line Highway. — Yellowstone to
Glacier National Park via Great Falls, 355
miles.
Trans-Mississippi Exposition. — From
June 1 to Oct. 31, 1898, an exhibition of
the resources of the middle west was held
at Omaha, Neb. The site covered about
200 acres and the buildings were grouped
around a court which extended through
the middle of the grounds and surrounded
a lagoon or canal which terminated in a
lake, adorned by an electric fountain. The
grounds were ornamented with trees,
shrubs and flowers, and the buildings were
covered with white staff. A special fea-
ture of ethnologic interest was the gather-
ing of 500 Indians, representative of twen-
ty-five tribes. The -total attendance was
2,615,508, and the receipts $1,924,077.
Transportation, Miscellaneous. (See
Division of Miscellaneous Transpor-
tation.)
Transportation Problem, serious aspect
of, 8116. (See Kailroads.)
Transportation Systems of the United,
States placed under Federal control,
8409, 8412, 8418. (See Railroads.)
Transvaal. (See Union of South
Africa.)
Travelers' Aid Society. — A national non-
sectarian organization existing to protect
and assist travelers, but more especially
young women, girls and boys, and to safe-
guard them from the dangers of travel.
Women agents meet trains and boats to the
extent made possible by the resources of
the Society.
Treason. — The Constitution of the United
States declares that "treason against the
United States shall consist only in levying
war against them, or in adhering to their
eneifiies, giving them aid and comfort. No
person shall be convicted of treason unless
on the testimony of two witnesses to the
same overt act or on confession in open
court" (24). The penalty is death. Con-
spiracy alone does not constitute treason.
A motion to give Congress the sole power
of deflning the crimes of treason failed in
the Convention of 1787. An act of Con-
gress of July 17, 1862, provided for the lib-
eration of the slaves of a person convicted
of treason. At the close of the Civil War
there were no prosecutions for treason.
Most of the state constitutions contain
provisions similar to that of the National
Constitution. A notable Instance of trea-
son against a state was Dorr's Rebellion
(q. y.) in Rhode Island in 1840-1842.
Dorr was convicted, but was pardoned in
1852. A celebrated case of trial for trea-
son is that of Affron Burr, in 1807, which
occurred at Richmond, Va., and resulted In
the acquittal of Burr.
Article II, sec. 4 provides that any official
of the Government convicted of treason shall
be removed from office. (23) A Civil War
act, dated July 17. 1862, makes the punish-
ment, at the discretion of the court, either
death or imprisonment at hard, labor for
not less than five years, along with a fine
of not less than .$10,000, and disability to
hold office. No person is indictable for
treason three years after the alleged act of
treason was committed ; nor, by constitu-
tional interpretation, shall any one be open
to the charge of treason unless he has vol-
untarily given actual assistance to those
countries which are declared to be at war
with the United States. (See Misprision
of Treason.)
Treason:
Act to punish, etc., 3286, 3294.
Discussed by President Johnson, 3557.
Treason and Misprision of Treason, pro-
clamation of President Wilson con-
cerning, 8247.
Treasurer of the United States. (See
Treasury Department.)
Treasury:
Balance deposited in national banl^s,
7980.
Balances against collecting and dis-
bursing agents referred to, 1730.
Condition of, discussed. (See Fi-
nances discussed.)
Deficit in, discussed, 1955, 1959, 2079.
Experts appointed in for war risk in-
surance, 7979.
Food Administration and Grain Cor-
poration funds to be paid into,
8867.
Fraud practiced on, 1017.
Outstanding arrears due Government
discussed, 1016, 2747.
Prize money in, 2570.
Eeceipts in, fluctuations in, should be
prevented, 1789.
Statement of. (See Finances dis-
cussed.)
Surplus in —
Application of, to —
Educational purposes and inter-
nal improvements recommend-
ed, 397, 444.
Navy and national worlcs recom-
mended, 1380, 4766.
Purchase of bonds recommended,
3985.
Apportionment of, among States.
(See States of the Union.)
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4635, 4721.
Cleveland, 5093, 5165, 5361, 5372.
Fillmore, 2660, 2714.
Grant, 3985.
Harrison, Benj., 5473, 5549, 5630.
Jackson, 1014, 1077, 1380, 1458.
Jefferson, 397, 444.
Pierce, 2747, 2818.
Van Buren, 1707.
Joint resolution directing payment
of, on public debt, reasons for ap-
plying pocket veto to, 5073.
Proposition to deposit, in banks
throughout country discussed,
5168.
Treasury Board
Encyclopedic Index Treasury Department
Treasury Board.— Feb. 17, 1776, the Con-
tinental Congress appointed a standing com-
mittee of five members on ways and means.
Tiiey were given power over the Treasury
office of accounts, the committee of claims,
and some minor Dureau and officials. This
committee was known as the Treasury
Board. Two- years later provision was
made tor a building in which to transact
the business of the board, and the Treas-
ury office of accounts was superseded by a
Comptroller, an Auditor, and a Treasurer,
thus forming the germ of the present
Treasury Department. The office of Super-
intendent of -Finance (q. v.) was created
to talie the place of this board in 1781.
After a trial of three years this office
was abolished and the board reestablished
and continued until 1789, when it was
succeeded by the present Department.
Treasury Building:
Construction of, discussed, 1613, 1696.
• Destruction of, by fire, 1248, 1336,
1344.
Papers lost in, 1248.
Erection of new, recommended, 1248,
1336.
Illustration of, frontispiece Volume
II.
Incendiaries of, difBculties attending
conviction of, should be removed,
1492.
Plan of, discussed, 1515.
Treasury, Constitutional. (See Consti-
tutional Treasury System.)
Treasury Department. — After the Depart-
ment of State the most important execu-
tive branch of the National Government.
It is more complex and extensive than any
other Department, and its head officer,
though ranliing second to the Secretary of
State, is not inferior in influence and re-
sponsibility to that Secretary.
The Treasury Department was virtually
created Feb. 17, 1776, when the Continen-
tal Congress resolved : "That a standing
committee of Ave be appointed for superin-
tending the Treasury. April 1 of that
year a Treasury Office of Accounts was es-
tablished, to be carried on under the direc-
tion of the standing committee. Sept. 26,
1778, the Continental Congress established
the offices of Comptroller, Auditor, Treas-
urer, and two Chambers of Accounts, to
consist of three commissioners each, all of
whom were to be appointed annually by
Congress. Feb. 11, 1779, the office of Sec-
retary of the Treasury was established (the
holder to receive a salary of $2,000 annual-
ly), but on July 30, following, this office
was succeeded by a Board of Treasury con-
sisting of five commissioners and an Audi-
tor-General assisted 'by six Auditors. Again,
Feb. 7, 1781, it was resolved by Congress
that the finances of the Confederation
should be under a Superintendent of Fi-
nance (see Finances, Superintendent of),
who was later assisted by a Comptroller, a
Treasurer, a Register of Auditors ; and, May
24, 1784, the Superintendent of Finances
was superseded by the Board of Treasury,
consisting of three commissioners. This
ended the effort to organize the Treasury
Department under the Confederation.
The present Treasury Department was
established Sept. 2, 1789, during the first
session of the First Congress under the
Constitution ; and the act, drawn by Alex-
ander Hamilton, was constructed with
such precision and comprehensiveness that
few radical changes have since been found
necessary. The act provided that : "There
shall be a Department of the Treasury, in
which shall be the following officers, name-
ly : a Secretary of the Treasury, to be
deemed the head of the Department ; a
Comptroller ; an Auditor ; a Treasurer ; a
Register ; and an Assistant to the Secretary
of the Treasury."
On May 8, 1792, the office of Assistant
to the Secretary of the Treasury was super-
seded by the office of Commissioner of
Revenue, whose duties were to collect in-
ternal revenue and direct taxes. This
office was abolished by an act of Con-
gress April 6, 1802, reestablished July 24,
1813, and again abolished Dec. 23, 1817.
The General Land Office, whose head was
a Commissioner, was created in the De-
partment of the Treasury April 25, 1812,
and was transferred to the Department of
the Interior in 1849. As at present organ-
ized, the work of the Department is di-
vided among nineteen principal offices, bu-
reaus and divisions.
As head of the Department the Secretary
is charged by law with maintaining the
revenue for the support of the public credit ;
superintending the collecting of the revenue
and directing the forms of keeping and ren-
dering public accounts ; granting of war-
rants for all moneys drawn from the Treas-
ury in pursuance of appropriations made
by law, and for the payment, of moneys
into the Treasury ; and annually submitting
to Congress estimates of the probable reve-
nues and disbursements of the Government.
He also controls the construction of public
buildings and the coinage and printing of
money. There are three Assistant Secre-
taries. Up to 1817 the Comptroller of the
Treasury revised the report of the Account-
ants of th6 other departments, but an act
passed March 3, of that year, created the
offices of Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth
Auditors, whose duty it was to perform this
work. A Sixth Auditor was added in 1836.
In 1894 the designations and duties of the
auditors were changed and definitely estab-
lished as follows; That of the 'First Au-
ditor, to Auditor for the Treasury Depart-
ment ; Second Auditor, to Auditor for the
War Department ; Third Auditor, to Auditor
for the Interior Department ; Fourth Au-
ditor, to Auditor for the Navy Department;
Fifth Auditor, to Auditor for the Stat(*and
other Departments ; Sixth Auditor, to Au-
ditor for the Post-Offlce Department. Ac-
cording to the act of 1894 the offices of
First and Second Comptroller were succeed-
ed by the office C- Comptroller of the Treas-
ury, whose principal duties are the render-
ing of decisions in cases of appeals from
Auditors, heads of Departments or other of-
ficials, and the prescribing of forms for the
keeping of public accounts.
Treasurer of the United States. — The
Treasurer of the United States, whose office
is a part of the Treasury Department, re-
ceives and disburses all public moneys de-
posited in the Treasury sub-treasuries (q.
V.) and in national banlss that are United
States depositories ; is trustee for bonds
that secure the national bank circulation
and public deposits ; has the custody of
the Indian trust-fund bonds, and other pub-
lic trusts ; is fiscal agent for paying the
interest on the public debt ; and is ex-
officio commissioner of the sinking fund
of the District of Columbia. The duties
of the Treasurer's office are distributed
among eleven divisions.
Until 1894 the chief duty of the Regis-
ter of the Treasury was the recording of
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Treasury Dep't
Encyclopedic Index
Treasury Dep't
the receipts and expenditures of the Gov-
ernment and the office was organized In
several divisions, but In that year the
number of divisions was reduced to two,
viz., the Division of Loans and the Divi-
sion of Notes, Coupons and Currency, the
books relating to tne recording of the re-
ceipts and expenditures of the Government
being transferred to the Division of Book-
keeping and Warrants, of the Secretary's
office. At present the office of the Treas-
urer is charged with the issue, exchange,
transfer, and redemption of bonds and the
receiving and registering of redeemed notes,
certificates, coupons, etc.
Comptroller of the Currency. — The office
of Comptroller of the Currency was es-
tablished In 1863, its chief function being
supervision of the national banks, their
organization, and the issue and redemption
of their notes.
Following Is a list of the Secretaries of
the Treasury with the Presidents under
whom they served :
Washington
Adams. . .
Jefferson. .
Madison .
Monroe
J.Q. Adams
Jackson
Van Buren.
Harriaon.. .
Tyler
A
Polk.'.;;;;
Taylor
FiUihore...
Pierce
Buchanan. .
Lincoln.-. .
Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts... .
Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. . ,
George W. Campbell, Tennessee. .
Alexander J. Dallas, Pennsylvania
William H. Crawford, Georgia.
Kichard Rush, Pennsylvania. .
Samuel D. Ingham, Penn
Louis McLane, Delaware
William J. Duane, Pennsylvania. .
Roger B. Taney, Maryland
Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire
f
Thomas Ewing, Ohio
Johnson. . .
Grant
u
li
Hayes
Garfield...
Arthur. . . .
Cleveland.
B. Harriaon
Cleveland. .
McKinley..
Roosevelt..
Taft
Wilson
Harding . .
Alexander Hamilton, New York. .
Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut
Walter Forward, Pennsylvania.
John C. Spencer, New York. . . .
George M. Bibb, Kentucky. . . .
Robert J. Walker, Mississippi. .
W. M. Meredith, Pennsylvania.
Thomas Corwin, Ohio
James Guthrie, Kentucky
Howell Cobb, Georgia
Pliilip F. Thomas, Maryland. . .
John A. Dix, New York
Salmon P. Chase, Ohio
William P. Fessenden, Maine . .
Hugh McCulloch, Indiana
George S. Boutwell, Mass
Wm. A._ Richardson, Mass
Benjamin H. Bristow, Kentucky.
Lot M. Morrill, Maine
John Sherman, Ohio
William Windom, Minnesota. . . .
Charles J. Folger, New York
Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana. . . .
Hugh McCulloch, Indiana
Daniel Manning, New York
Charles S. Fairchild, New York . .
WilUam Windom, Minnesota. . . .
Charles Foster, Ohio
John G. Carlisle, Kentucky
Lyman J. Gage, Illinois
Leslie M. Shaw, Iowa
George B. Cortelyou, New York. .
Franklin MacVeagh, Illinois
William G. McAdoo, New York. . .
Carter Glass, Virginia..'
David F. Houston, Missouri
Andrew W. Mellon, Pennsylvania
1789
1795
1797
1801
1801
1801
1809
1814
1814
1816
1817
1825
1829
1831
1833
1833
1834
1837
1841
1841
1841
1843
1844
1845
1849
1850
1853
1857
1860
1861
1861
1864
1865
1865
1869
1873
1874
1876
1877
1881
1881
1884
1884
1885
1887
1889
1891
1893
1897
1901
1901
1907
1909
1913
1919
1920
1921
Revenue-Cutter BeriHce. — The Revenue-
Cutter Service is a military arm of the
Government attached to and under the
direction of the Treasury Department. (See
Revenue-Cutter Service.)
Secret Service. — The Secret Service Divi-
sion of the Treasury Department was cre-
ated in 1861, but from 1862 until 1865 it
was under the State Department. In the
latter year it was permanently organized as
a division of the Treasury Department. It
Is chlefiy concerned with the detection of
counterfeiting and of other frauds and
crimes against the Government, but in time
of war the scope of its duties is somewhat
enlarged. Details are also furnished for
the protection of the President of the Unit-
ed States, and in the frequent journeylngs
of the present President he is always accom-
panied by one or more secret-service men.
The arrest of counterfeiters number
about 400 annually ; other arrests are for
bribery, impersonating United States Gov-
ernment officers, perjury, etc.
Supervising Architect. — The office of Su-
pervising Architect, charged chiefly with
the erection and maintenance of Govern-
ment buildings, was created in 1864. Since
1853 this work has been done by a Divi-
sion of Construction with an officer of
the Engineer Corps of the army at its
head.
Health Bureau. — The work of the Bureau
of Public Health and Marine-Hospital Serv-
ice was established in 1798 but was reor-
ganized and the office of Surgeon-General
created in 1872. This official has super-
vision of the health of seamen, the quaran-
tine service, and the weekly publication of
"Public Health Reports of the United
States."
For more detailed information of the
scope of the activities of the Treasury De-
partment consult the index references to
the Presidents' Messages and Encyclopedic
articles under the following headings :
Appropriations.
Assistant Secretaries
of the Treasury.
Auditors, Treasury
Department.
Banks.
Banks, National.
Bank Notes.
Banks. Pet.
Banks, Savings.
Banks, State.
Bonds.
Buildings, Public.
Bureau of Engrav-
ing and Printing.
Bureau of War Risk
Insurance.
Coinage Laws.
Comptroller of the
Treasury.
Currency Law.
Customs.
Debt, Public.
Duties.
Engraving and
Printing.
Excise Laws.
Federal* Reserve
Board.
Finances.
Health Service.
Import Duties.
Life-Saving Service.
Mints.
Money.
National Banks.
Public Deposits.
Public Monies.
Reserve Banks.
Revenne-Cutter
Service.
Revenue Flag.
Revenue, Internal.
Revenue, Public.
Secret Service.
Special Agents,
Treasury Depart-
ment.
Sub-Treasury.
Supervising Archi-
tect.
Tariff.
Taxation.
Treasury Department:
Appropriations for, transferred, 1254,
1404, 1612, 1772, 1904, 1943, 2125.
Budget system, appropriations body
under, should cooperate with, 8883.
Coast Guard re-transferred to, 8782.
Credit market no longer controlled
by, 8884.
Treasury Dep't
Encyclopedic Index
Treaties
Efficiency and economy in, 7683.
Employees of, permitted appointment
to defence bodies, 8247.
Food Administration details vested
in, 8351.
Health activities of Government
centred under, 8352.
Laws governing, amendment needed
in, 7469.
'Neutrality law enforcement author-
ized to, 7964.
Eeforms accomplished in, 7506.
Vacancy by death of head of, 5568.
War Bisk Insurance experts in,
7979.
Treasury Notes.— To meet the expenses of
the War of 1812, $36,000,000 In Treasury
notes bearing 5i per cent interest were
Issued. They were receivable for ali du-
ties to the Government, but were not legal
tender. Beginning with the panic of 1837
and extending through the Mexican War,
$73,000,000 were issued, and following the
Sanlc of 1857 theye was an issue of $53,-
00,000. The exigencies of the Civil War
required the Issue of Treasury notes In
large amounts. An act of Feb. 25, 1862,
authorized the Issue of $150,000,000 of
such notes with a legal-tender character
and not bearing interest. These were
called greenbacks (q. v.). The United
States seven-thirties, of which $830,000,-
000 were issued, were a variety of Treas-
ury note. Treasury notes were issued to
pay for the monthly" purchase of bullion
authorized by the Sherman Act of 1890.,
Treasury Notes. (See also Currency.)
Appropriation to meet outstanding,
recommended, 3073.
Issuance of, 549, 2119.
Additional, discussed, 3350.
Becommended, 2989.
Payment of silver, 6078, 6176.
Eedemption of, referred to, 1751.
Beissua'nce of, prohibition on, should
be removed, 1686.
Betirement of, issued in payment of
silver purchased under act of 1890,
recommended, 6078, 6176.
Treasury Oface of Accounts. — An im-
portant bureau under the Treasury-
Board as established by the Conti-
nental Congress. It was presided
over by an auditor-general.
Treasury Savings Certificates. (See
War Savings Stamps.)
Treasury, Secretary of:
Death of, vacancy caused by, how
filled, 5568.
Plans of, concerning taxation, 8643,
8644, 8811, 8885.
Power of, over deposits unqualified,
1227.
Beport of, 335, 464, 638, 652, 772, 800,
907, 909, 912, 1098.
Vacancy occasioned by death of. rec-
ommendations regarding filling of,
5568.
War administration details vested in,
8368.
Treasury, Solicitor of, office of, estab-
lished, 1090.
Operations of, referred to, 2539.
Treaties. — The modem deflnition of a
treaty is an agreement or covenant be-
tween two or more nations or sovereign-
ties formally signed by duly authorized
commissioners and solemnly ratified by
each. In ancient times terms of treaties
were dictated rather than contracted. A
conqueror with an army at the gates of
a capital stated bis terms and declared
his intention of remaining and inflicting
such punishment as he saw Qt until he
received satisfactory assurances that his
wishes would be carried out.
In the fifteenth century a jurisprudence
of political treaties began to grow and
was closely connected with the develop-
ment of European statecraft. The treaty
of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty
Years' War, marked the turning point be-
tween ancient and modern diplomacy, tfp
to this time treaty negotiations had been
based upon rights which had once ex-
isted and were recognized before rupture.
After the treaties of Miinster and Osna-
bruck, the object of diplomacy was to
establish a political equilibrium at the ex-
pense of preexistent rights and to main-
tain the status quo. The efforts of Euro-
pean diplomats during the early part of
the nineteenth century were directed to-
ward the suppression of the revolutionary
spirit and the curbing of monarchical
ambitions. Later the maritime rights of
neutrals, suppression of slave trade, and the
international emancipation of trade, navi-
gation, arts, and labor became leading sub-
jects for diplomatic consideration.
The popularity of the principle of arbi-
tration marks the latest step in diplomatic
progress. The proposition made by the
Czar of Russia in 1898 for the general dis-
armament of the world and the settlement
of international disputes by a court , of
arbitration points to a culmination of the
science of diplomacy. In this connection
may also be noted Secretary Bryan's peace
treaties.
The first treaties of the United States
were conceived before the Declaration of
Indpendence was signed. Nov. 29, 1775,
the Continental Congress appointed a com-
mittee on secret correspondence, charged
with ascertaining whether, if the Colonies
should be forced to form themselves Into
an independent State, France would en-
ter into any treaty or alliance with them.
On Feb. 6. 1778, two treaties were con-
cluded in Paris with France — a treaty of
alliance and a treaty of amity and com-
merce. On Oct. 8, 1782, a treaty of amity
and commerce was concluded with the
Netherlands, and April 3, 1783, a similar
treaty with Sweden.
Jan. 20, 1783, an armistice with Great
Britain was arranged at Versailles, fol-
lowed Sept. 3 by a definitive treaty of
peace, later concluded in London, recogniz-
ing the independence of the United States.
This was signed by David Hartley on the
part of Great Britain and by Benjamin
° Franklin, John Adams and John Jav on
the part of the United States. Other
treaties concluded before the adoption of
the Constitution were a treaty of amity
freaties
Encyclopedic Index
Treaties
and commerce with Prussia, Dec. 10, 1785 ;
a treaty of peace and friendship with Mo-
rocco in Janviary, 1787, and a consular
convention with France, Nov. 14, 1788.
In the United States the right of mak-
ing and of ratifying treaties is, by Articie
II., Section 2, of the Constitution, vested
in tlie President under the advice and
with the concurrence of two-thirda of the
Senate. The right of changing the terms
and conditions of a treaty before ratifi-
cation is claimed by the Senate.
International law or the iaw of nations
Is very clear upon the question of treaties
and of all the interpretations of its condi-
tions. No treaty may be made which will
in any way or in the slightest degree over-
ride the Constitution, or which will bind
either nation to any terms or conditions
that flac.antly sacrifice the interests of
^ther, or cause the nation to do anything
morally wrong in the fulfillment. A treaty
becomes binding at the time of signature
by duly authorized commissioners, and if
the ratification is delayed, such ratifica-
tion becomes retroactive ; though it may
be specified in the treaty that its terms
become operative only upon ratification.
Where an ambiguity of expression or pos-
fiibillty of other construction, of the terms
of a treaty exists, no strained interpre-
tation is permitted and the common use
of the words is followed unless this leads
to an absurdity. Where two meanings
are possible, that one is chosen which con-
fers the least benefit upon the party who
sought or demanded the insertion of the
doubtful clause. When clauses impose
hard conditions upon either party these
are to be interpreted strictly so as to mini-
mize the hard conditions ; and where Jus-
tice, equity, and humanity are favored by
the doubtful clauses they are interpreted
with broad construction, so as to confer
the fullest benefits.
The term "convention" is limited to
agreements which deal with subordinate
questions. Treaties are classified as
treaties of peace, alliance, truces, com-
mercial treaties, extradition treaties, con-
ventions and protocols — a name given to
less formal agreements between nations.
Defensive treaties are designed to defend
the parties mutually against the encroach-
ments of others. Offensive and defensive
treaties or alliances obligate tLe parties to
aid one another at all times during conflict
of either of the parties against the encroach-
ments of other nations. Treaties of neutral-
ity obligate the contracting parties to take
no part in conflicts between other nations.
Extradition treaties, which provide for
the return of accused criminals, are de-
scribed below :
When Washington was called to the
Presidency he found the northern frontier
of the United States occupied by British
military posts and Spain making encroach-
ments on the south. With the outbreak
of the French Revolution, Spain joined
England, and French sympathizers in
America were attempting to fit out priva-
teers to prey upon Spanish and English
commerce. Washington was urged to cast
the fortunes of the United States into one
side of the struggle. To avoid any en-
tangling alliances he sent John Jay, Chief
Justice of the United States, as a special
envoy to Loudon (page 146). Nov. 19,
1794, Jay concluded the treaty which has
since borne his name. In consequence
of the irritating conduct of M. Genet, the
French minister at Washington, Congress
in 1798 abrogated the treaties and consu-
Inr conventions with France. Anojther
treaty was made in 1800, and in 1803
three conventions were signed, Including
the one ceding Louisiana. One of the
most enduring treaties made by the United
States was that of Oct. 27, 1795, with
Spain, which stood for more than 100
years. This was the only treaty not swept
away by the Napoleonic wars.
The treaty of Ghent, signed In 1814, was
Important a^ settling some disputed bound-
ary questions, as well as concluding peace
between the United States and England.
No mention was made of the right of
search and the impressment of American
seamen, though these were the especial
causes of the war. Other notable treaties
made by the United States were the Web-
ster-Ashburton treaty, signed at Washing-
ton in 1842, defining the northeastern
boundary between Canada and the United
States, and the treaty of Guadalupe Hi-
dalgo, in 1848, concluding the Mexican
War, by which Mexico ceded territory now
comjfrising Nevada, Utah, most of Ari-
zona, a large part of New Mexico, parts
of Colorado and Wyoming, and all of Cali-
fornia. The treaty with Japan in 1854
secured humane treatment for American
sailors shipwrecked on the coast of Japan
and the right to appoint a consular agent ;
it also led to the establishment of Im-
portant trading privileges with the United
States and Great Britaip in 1858.
The treaties of Tientsin, concluded In
1858, and the Burlingame treaty of 1868
opened China to foreign travel and gave
protection to Christians within her bor-
ders. The treaty of Washington was
signed in 1871, and settled questions pend-
ing between the United States and Great
Britain. It submitted {he Alabama claims
to a commission of arbitration and ad-
justed the fisheries questio'n on a reciprocity
basis. There was also a concession of im-
portant privileges by each of subjects of
the other in America, and the question of
the northwestern boundary of the United
States was submitted to the arbitration of
the German Emperor.
At the close of the Spanish-American
War, in 1898, Spain was forced to relin-
quish Cuba and cede to the United States
the island of Porto Rico, together with
the Philippine Islands and Guam. Under
the Constitution treaties are made a part
of the supreme law of the land and they
have a legal status similar to that of
contracts. Numerous treaties have been
made with the Indians and with various
countries on the subject 'f extradition.
(See Foreign Relations and Treaties with
the various nations following descriptions
of the countries.)
The Peace Treaty between the Allied and
associated Powers on the one hand and Ger-
many on the other hand, the Treaty of
Versailles, was signed on June 28, 1919.
The ratifications of It by all the countries
concerned, except the United States and
China, were deposited on January 10, 1920,
after which the treaty went Into effect.
The treaty was submitted to the United
States Senate by President Wilson on July
10, 1918. (.See 8727.) After long consider-
ation, the Senate added a number of reser-
vations, with the result that the treaty
failed to be ratified by the necessary two-
thirds majority, by votes held on Novem-
ber 19, 1919, and on March 19, 1920. (See
8840.)
The treaty of peace with Austria, known
as the Treaty or St. Germain, was signed
on September 10, 1919, and ratifications
were exchanged on July 16, 1920. The
Treaties
Encyclopedic Index
Trinidad
trea<7 with Bulgaria, known as tbe Treaty
of Neullly, was signed on November 27,
1919, and ratifications were escbangcd on
August 9, 1920. The peace treaty with
Hungary was signed at Versailles on June
t, 1920. That with Turkey, known as the
Treaty of Sevres, was sigoed on August 10,
X920.
Treaties (see Indians) ; for treaties with
foreign nations, see tlie respective
countries:
Alleged violation of, memorial re-
garding, referred to, 2003.
Assent of House to, not required, 188,
Boundary survey made under treaty
of Washington, 3588.
Commercial provisions of, refusal of
President Wilson to terminate,
8871.
Contract for proposed edition of, re-
ferred to, 2273.
Power to make, vested in President
with consent of Senate, 187.
Priority of one over another, law in
regard to, 302.
Eef erred to, 2538, 2540, 4851.
Request of House for correspondence
regarding, declined, 186.
Return of, requested, 4888.
Secret, denounced, 8230. (See also
Secret Treaties.)
Withdrawn, 4888, 4922.
Treaty of lliondon. (See Secret Trea-
ties.)
Trehizond, vilayet of, disposition of,
8841, 8854.
Trent Affair. — In the autumn of 1861 the
government of the Confederate States sent
J. M. Mason and John Slldel as commis-
sioners to Great Britain and France, re-
spectively. They went first to Havana,
where they took passage on the British
merchant ship Trent for St. Thomas, on
their way to England. Nov. 8 the vessel
was stopped in the old Bahama Channel
by the U. S. S. San Jacinto, Capt. Wilkes.
The Confederate commissioners were seized
and taken to Boston as prisoners. Wilkes's
act was in violation of tbe rights of neu-
tral nations, for which the United States
had always contended. The British Gov-
ernment promptly instructed Its minister
at Washington to withdraw from the United
States unless the prisoners were set at
liberty and an apology tendered within
seven days. The United States disavowed
the act of Capt. Wilkes and set the pris-
oners free.
Trent, The, removal of Confederate en-
voys from. (See Mason and Slidell.)
Trenton, The, loss of, at Samoan Is-
lands, 5479.
Trenton (N, J.), Battle of.— Washing-
ton's retreat through New Jersey left him
with scarcely 3,000 men on the west bank
of the Delaware Klver on Dec. 8, 1776.
On the night of Dec. 13, Dr. Charles Lee
was taken prisoner at Baskingridge by
the British, and his army added to that
of Washington gave the latter some 6,000
able-bodied soldiers. On the night of Dec.
25, 1776, Washington, with about 2,500
B-15
men, crossed the 'Delaware River and on
the morning of the 26th attacked an out-
post of 1,500 Hessians at Trenton under
Coi. Rahl and captured about 1,000 of
them and killed 40. The American casual-
ties were 2 killed, 2 frozen to death, and
3 wounded. The effect of this victory
and that of Princeton following It was
electrical. The Americans were uplifted,
and the British discouraged.
Trianon Decree. — A secret edict issued by
Napoleon at the Grand Trianon Palace, at
Versailles, Aug. 5, 1810. It placed a duty
of 50 per cent on colonial products and
ordered the immediate confiscation of all
American vessels ana merchandise brought
into French ports prior to May 1, 1810, the
date of the approval of the act exclud-
ing French vessels from American waters.
It also ordered that until Nov. 1 American
vessels were to be allowed to enter ti'rench
ports, but not to unload without his per
mission, offering at the same time to revoke
the Milan and Berlin decrees Nov. 1. The
revocation was not carried Into effect, anc
American ships and cargoes availing them
selves of the promised protection were con
flscated. (See also Berlin Decrees; Em
bargo ; Milan Decree ; Orders In Council.)
Tribunal of Arbitration at Paris:
Acts to give effect to award of, pro-
claimed, 5926, 6123.
Award of, discussed and recommenda-
tions regarding, 5958, 6062.
Case of United States at, prepared by
John W. Poster, 5748.
Convention for settlement of claims
under, 6097.
Discussed, 5869.
Enforcement of regulations in ac-
cordance vrith decision of, referred
to, 6000.
Failure of negotiations of, to prptect
fur seals of Alaska, 6182.
Reports of agent of United States to,
transmitted, 5909.
Tribunal of Paris, killing of fur seals
regulated by, 7063.
Tribute paid Algeria by United States
referred to, 115, 174, 325.
Trieste assigned to Italy, 8704.
Trinidad. — A British Island possession in
the West Indies, with an area of 1,860
square miles and a population, chiefly negro,
of some 400,000. In a recent year, the im-
ports and exports almost balanced, at about
$25,000,000. In order of value, the chief ex-
ports are cocoa, sugar, petroleum, molasses,
cocoanuts. There Is a large asphalt lake on
the Island. There are 110 miles of railway
167 miles of telegraph and 3,500 miles of
telephone wire. In a recent year, the United
States Imported from Trinidad goods valued
at more than $9,000,000 and exported
thither goods valued at about $12,000,000,
although in the previous years the exports
and Imports to and from the United States
had almost balanced at between $7,000,000
and $8,000,000. These figures Include also
the Island of Tobago (114 square miles),
which is a part of the administration of
Trinidad.
Trinidad, vessels from ports of, duties
.on, suspended by proclamation, 4889,
6503.
Triple Alliance
Encyclopedic Inde.v
Tripolitan War
Triple Alliance. — The popular name ol
three different political combinations of
European powers : First — An alliance con-
cluded at The Hague In 1668 between Eng-
land, Holland and Sweden, having for Its
object the checking of the conquests of
Louis XIV. Second — An alliance concluded
in 1717 between England, France and Hol-
land against Spain. With the addition of
Austria in 1718 it became known as the
Quadruple Alliance. Third — The Dreibund,
originally formed October 7, 1879, as a dual
alliance between Germany and Austria-
Hungary, on the basis of mutual assistance
in case of an attack by Russia on either
party, and friendly neutrality in case of an
attack by any other power. Italy joined
this alliance and with the beginning of
1883, it has been known as the Triple Al-
liance. The treaty between Italy and Ger-
many provided for common action in case
of French encroachments on either power,
and that between Italy and Austria-Hun-
gary for the maintenance of a friendly neu-
trality in case of hostilities between France
and Italy or between Russia and Austria-
Hungary. (See World War.)
Triple Entente. — One of the political alli-
ances or understandings between the Euro-
pean nations. Although published treaties
bound the powers to no political or mili-
tary alliance, it was generally conceded
that Russia had an understanding with
France that in the event of hostilities the
two nations would unite against Germany.
Great Britain also became a secret ally of
France in her diplomatic and commercial
rivalry with Germany. At the outbreak of
the European War of 1914, Germany came
to the assistance of Austria-Hungary when '
the latter was menaced by Russia, agree-
ably to the terms of the Triple Alliance, and
France made ready to attack Germany on
behalf of Russia in accordance with the
Triple Entente. Italy maintained neutrality
when the other members of the Alliance be-
came involved, and Great Britain joined
France and Russia in their operations
against Germany on the ground of the vio-
lation of the neutrality of Belgium. (See
World War.)
Tripoli. — An Italian province in northern
Africa, wrested from Turkey by the war
of 1911-12, and cotiflrmed by the Treaty of
Ouchy. It is bounded on the north by
the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by
Egypt, on ,the west by Tunis and on the
south by the Desert of Sahara. Its exports
consist mainly of products of the Sudan
brought across the Sahara by caravan. The
Oasis of Fezzan and some smaller oases are
within its borders. It anciently belonged
to Carthage and at a later date to Rome.
It was overrun and conquered by the Arabs
in the seventh century and by the Turks
in the sixteenth century. It became an in-
dependent state in 1713, but was recon-
nuered by the Turks about 1835. A war
occurred between Tripoli and the United
States. (See Tripolitan War.) The area is
put at 406,000 square miles and the popula-
tion, chiefly Arab and negro is estimated at
6,000,000.
Tripoli:
Blockade of, by TJnited States squad-
ron referred to, 388, 389.
Citizens of United States imprisoned
in, liberated, 373.
Claims of United States against, 1025.
Corvette on coast of, destroyed by
United States vessels, 353.
Ex-Bashaw of, treaty v^ith United
States relative to restoring family
of, to, 418.
Hamet Caramilli, appeals of, to
United States to place on throne
of, in place of his younger brother,
380. ^
Philadelphia, wreck of the, on coast
of, 356, 362.
Officers and crew of, fall into
hands of citizens of, 356.
Pirates of, illustration of, opposite
410.
Treaty with, 235, 378.
War with. .(See Tripolitan war.)
Tripoli, Treaty with. — The treaty of
peace and amity of 1805 closed the Tri-
politan War. By its terms freedom of
commerce was granted to citizens of the
United States upon conditions of the most
favored nation. The Bashaw of Tripoli
agreed to deliver to tbe commander of
the American squadron all Americans in
his hands in return for all of his subjects
in the hands of the Americans. As the
Americans to be released numbered about
three hundred, and the Tripolitans in the
hands of the Americans only one hundred,
the United States agreed to pay the Ba-
Bhaw of Tripoli the sum of sixty thousand
dollars in compensation for the difference.
The United States land forces should be
immediately withdrawn without supplies ;
and the United States agreed to use her
best offices to induce the brother of the Ba-
shaw, her ally, to withdraw also. But the
United States agreed not to use force to
bring this about. Should the brother ac-
quiesce, the Bashaw agreed to return his
wife and child, held as hostages.
Passports should be granted to vessels
of both nationalities, and provisions were
made to render examination of passports
and other papers as easy as possible. Hu-
mane provisions were made for a supply of
food, repairs, and relief to distressed or
shipwrecked sailors or vessels. The com-
merce, protection of merchants, and ap-
pointment of consuls in Tripoli were pro-
vided for on terms of the most favored
nation. Freedom of conscience was guar-
anteed to all citizens of the United States.
Tripolitan War. — A war between the
United States and Tripoli, 1801-1805. Dur-
ing the latter part of the eighteenth century
the United States, following the custom of
the leading European nations, paid an an-
nual tribute to the rulers of the various
Barbary States as the price of immunity
from their piratical depredations. In con-
sequence of a refusal on the part of the
United States to increase the tribute the
Bashaw of Tripoli, June 10, 1801, declared
war (314). In anticipation of this event
the United States had already sent a
squadron to the Mediterranean. In October,
1803, the frigate Philadelphia, Capt. Bain-
bridge, while chasing a corsair into the
harbor of Tripoli, struck a sunken rock and
was captured with all on board. Commo-
dore Decatur, of the Intrepid, ran his vessel
into the harbor of Tripoli on the night of
Feb. 16, 1804, and under the Are of the
s'hore batteries burned the Philadelphia.
Between July and September, 1804, Commo-
dore Edward Preble made a series of attacks
on the fortifications o£ Tripoli. Meantime
Gen. William Eaton, United States consul
at Tunis, joined Hamet, the rightful Bashaw
Tripolitan War
Encyclopedic Index
Tunis
of Tripoli, In an expedition against his
usurping brother. Marching from Egypt
acioss the desert, they toolc Derne April 27,
1805. The success of this expedition made
It possible to extort a highly favorable
treaty from the Bashaw June 4, 1805, the
United States agreeing to pay $60,000
ransom for the officers and crew of the
Philadelphia and Hamet being Induced to
retire.
Tripolitan War:
Blockade established by United
States referred to, 388, 389.
Discussed, 314, 331, 358, 379, 380.
Establishing blockade, 388, 389.
Letter of American consul regarding,
transmitted, 363.
Treaty of peace transmitted, 378.'
Troops. (See Army; Militia.)
Truant Court for the District of Col-
umbia, 7035.
Trust. — In modern commercial usage an or-
ganization for the control of several cor-
porations or establishments under one di-
rection or in one combination, the object
being to enable the trustees or managers
tu direct and govern all the corporations or
e'^tablishments, so as to control and sus-
pend at pleasure the work of any, and
thus to reduce expensles, regulate produc-
tion, and defeat competition. In later years
these combinations or trusts have greatly
multiplied and increased, both in number
and capital involved. The first anti-trust
enactment was a provision in the constitu-
tion of Georgia; passed in 1877 and directed
against the formation of pools among rail-
roads. The Interstate Commerce (q. v.)
law passed by Congress in 1887 also pro-
hibited the formation of railroad pools. In
1889 several states passed anti-trust laws,
and in 1890 Congress passed what is Isnown
as the Stierman Anti-trust law. This de-
clared combinations in restraint of trade
among the several states or with foreign
powers illegal and fixed a penalty of $5,000
or one year's imprisonment. The operation
of , the Sherman law was not entirely sat-
isfactory, and in 1903, on Attorney-General
Knox's recommendation. Congress passed
laws for expediting cases instituted under
the Sherman Act, made the Interstate Com-
merce (q. V.) Act more effective and cre-
ated the Bureau of Corporations in the
new Department of Commerce and Labor
( q. V. ) to investigate corporations other than
railroads engaged in interstate or foreign
commerce. The latest enactment of Con-
gress on the subject of trusts is the Clay-
ton law passed m 1914.
The decisions of the TTnited States Su-
preme Court, March 14, 1904, in the North-
ern Securities case preveuted the combina-
tion of the Great Northern and Northern
Pacific Railroads, declaring that a corpora-
tion organized to vote the majority of the
stocks of the two railroads was not a mere
holding company but a combination in re-
straint of trade, and ordered it dissolved.
On July 1, 1905, five corporations and sev-
enteen individuals engaged In the meat-
packing industry were indicted at Chicago
by the Federal Grand Jury for violation of
the Sherman anti-trust law, and later
pleaded guilty and were fined. The largest
trust Is the United States Steel Corpora-
tion, organized in 1901, which in 1908 had
securities outstanding to the amount of
$1,432,597,873.31, and assets aggregating
$1,703,168,118.40. Moody's "Manual of
Corporations" mentions some 1,500 trusts.
and stat«8 that 440 large Industrial and
transportation trusts are active, and have
a floating capital of $20,379,162,511.
Trust Companies, subject to the same
supervision as banks, 7082. (See
Banks.)
Trust Funds:
Discussed, 4920.
Referred to, 4990.
Trusts (see also Corporations and Anti-
Trust Law):
Causes of formation of, 7449.
Distinguishable, not by size, but by
intent and deed, 7450.
Evils of, discussed and recommenda-
tions concerning, 5358, 5478, 6176,
6240, 6360.
"Good and bad," impossible to de-
fine as, 7454.
Government and, discussed, 7914.
Ignorant legislation against, helpful
to, 6647.
Incorporation, Federal, of, urged and
discussed, 7453, 7458, 7522.
Overcapitalization of, 6647.
Prosecution of, to continue, 7456.
Eegulation of, discussed, 6648.
Tariff reduction no hindrance to,
6712.
Tuberculosis, Priedmann "cure" for,
report on, 7839.
Tunis. — A French protectorate in northern
Africa. It is one of the Barbary States.
Tunis is bounded on the north and north-
east by the Mediterranean- Sea, on the
southeast by Tripoli, on the south and
southwest by the Desert of Sahara, and on
the west by Algeria. It produces grain
and fruits (principally dates and olives),
and has Important fishing Interests. It is
peopled by Arabs, Berbers, and Jews. Tunis
formed a part of ancient Carthage, and
later, as Roman Africa, it became the lead-
ing seat of Latin Christianity. It passed
successively under the dominion of the
Vandals, Greeks and Arabs. It was made
a Turkish province In 1575. For a long
time It was noted as a piratical state. It
became a French protectorate In 1881.
Area, about 50,000 square miles, with a pop-
ulation estimated at about 2,000,000.
Tunis:
Blockade of Tripoli, 388, 389.
Claims of, against United States, 388,
389.
Condolence of Bey of, on death of
President Lincoln, 3565.
Consul of United States in, 169, 379,
833, 2611.
Convention with, 833.
Differences with, unsettled, 374.
Gratuity promised to, by United
States partially delivered, 325.
Peace negotiations with, 389.
Questions with, regarding blockade of
Tripoli, 388, 389.
Eelations with, uncertain, 395.
Treaty with, 192, 253, 359, 821, 833,
852.
War with, threatened, 388.
Tunis
Encyclopedic Index
Turkey
Tunis, Treaties with. — The treaty of
amity, commerce, and navigation of 1797
was in some respects modified by tlie latter
treaty of 1824. Both, in turn, were super-
seded by the treaty with France regard-
ing Tunis of May 9, 1094. By this latter
the consuls of the United States residing
in Tunis are no longer governed by the
conditions of the former treaties, but are
to be regulated in all cases by international
law. The government of France agrees by
this treaty to accord to the said consuls all
of the rights, privileges, and immunities so
provided. (See France, Treaties with.)
Turin, Italy, Hygienic Congress at,
4626.
Turkestan. — A region of central Asia, east
of the Caspian Sea and north of Persia,
Afghanistan and Tibet, largely a desert.
That part of It belonging to Imperial Russia
had an area of 420,800 square miles and a
population of 6,685,000 In 1915. Chinese
Turliestan has an area of about 200,000
square miles and a population of several
hundred thousand.
Turkey. — The Turkish or Ottoman Em-
pire, before the World War embraced an em-
pire In Europe and Asia of some 615,000
square miles, with a population of more than
20,000,000. At the dawn of the twentieth
century, the Empire had been even larger,
but by the war with Italy, 1911-12, Turkey
lost Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 square
miles and a population of some 6,000,000 ;
and in, the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, Turkey,
which had held possession of the Balkan
Peninsula between Old Servla and Old
Greece to the Adriatic Sea, lost this terri-
tory to Servla and Greece, with the
creation of the Independent state of Albania
along the Adriatic littoral and with much
of Thrace surrendered to Greece and Bul-
garia. At the beginning of the World War,
Turkey in Europe had an area of only 10,-
882 square miles, with a population of about
1,890,000.
By the terms of peace of the World War
(Treaty of Sfivres), Turkey surrendered (1)
practically all her territory In Europe to
Greece, with the possible exception of Con-
stantinople and the Immediately adjacent
territory ; (2) the Islands In the Aegean Sea,
to Greece with Cyprus to Great Britain ; (3)
Syria to France; (4) Palestine to Great
Britain ; (5) Smyrna and most of the cen-
tral eastern littoral of the Aegean Sea and
a considerable hinterland, to Greece ; (6)
Armenia ; (7) Mesopotamia, to Great Bri-
tain ; (8) The Hejaz, along the eastern
coast of the Red Sea; (9) Kurdistan. The
new Turkey thus consists only of an area
of about 175,000 square miles, almost all
In Asia Minor, with a population estimated
at 8,000,000.
In the small territory In Europe left to
Turkey, Moslems are in the majority, with
a sprinkling of Greeks, Bulgarians, Armeni-
ans, Jews, Gypsies. Most of the Turks
are to be found In Asia Minor, but In
the Turkish territory there the number of
Arabs probably Is close to 4,000,000, and
there are also Greeks, Syrians, Kurds, Jews,
Circassians, Armenians, and other races.
Physical Features. — In the western
vilayets are the Granlcus and Scamander,
which rise in Mount Ida, 5,750 feet, the
latter flowing through the plains of Troy ;
and the Meander, whose winding course to
the Gulf of Miletus, on the JEgenn coast,
is the classical symbol of purposeless wan-
dering.
ffovemment. — The form of government In
Turkey, before the country was thrown Into
turmoil by the World War and the suc-
ceeding peace arrangements, provided for a
Parliament of two houses. The Senators
were appointed by the Sultan. The members
of the House or Deputies were elected by
an Indirect method. The Sultan ruled
through a Grand Vizier and a cabinet of
ministers of the executive departments. Mo-
hammedanism was established as the state
religion.
Finance. — The annual budget estimates at
the close of the World War provided for a
revenue of some 34,000,000 Turkish pounds
and an expenditure of some 52,000,0()0 Tur-
kish pounds. At the close of the World
War, the total debt was placed at 465,000,-
000 Turkish pounds. Including 155,000,000
Turkish pounds for foreign debt and 235,-
000,000 Turkish pounds for war debt. The
ndrmal pre-war foreign exchange gave the
Turkish pound a value of $4.40 In United
States currency ; It was divided Into 100
gold piasters.
The most recent statistics available
showed about 16,500,000 acres under culti-
vation In Asiatic Turkey, chiefly under
cereals. The soil is fertile, but agriculture
is quite primitive. The tobacco crop is an
Important one. There , are practically no
manufactures. There are varied and ex-
tensive mineral deposits, but they are little
worked.
Production and Industry. — The country Is
rich In minerals, including gold, silver,
nickel, mercury, copper, iron, lead and coal,
but Its resources are almost entirely unde-
veloped ; the forests of the northern moun-
tains contain pine, fir, cedar, oak and beech,
and the lower slopes and plains of the west
produce figs, olives and grapes in abun-
dance, while fruit trees flourish in the
north. Cereals, cotton, rice and tobacco
are cultivated, and buffaloes, camels, horses,
sheep and goats form the principal wealth
of the inhabitants. Carpets, rugs and cot-
tons and mohair and silk stuffs are manu-
factured. Coffee, textiles and other manu-
factures, petroleum and salt are the prin-
cipal Imports. The Anatolian Railways,
built by German enterprise, run from the
coast to Angora, to Brusa, and to Konia,
whence an extension is being built as a sec-
tion of the Bagdad line (see Mesopotamia).
There are also English and French lines In
the west ; these railways have given a great
impetus to the trade of Anatoua.
Commerce. — In the last pre-war year,
Turkey Imported goods valued at $180,000,-
000, and exported goods valued at $90,000,-
000. The imports. In order of value, came
chiefly from Great Britain, Austria-Hun-
gary, Germany, Russia, France, Italy, Rou-
mania, Egypt, United States. The exports.
In order of value, went chiefly to Great
Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Egypt,
United States, Germany.
In the most recent calendar year for which
figures are available, the United States im-
ported from Turkey In Europe goods valued
at $11,176,999 and exported thither goods
valued at $31,330,913 ; and Imported from
Turkey In Asia goods valued at $28,589,937,
exporting thither goods valued at $10,916,-
885. In order of value, the most valuable
goods exported to European Turkey were
cotton manufactures ; sugar ; breadstutfs ;
leather ; meat products and to Asiatic Tur-
key,— mineral oils ; cotton manufactures ;
leather goods ; sugar ; iron and steel goods :
alcohol.
mstory.—The Ottoman Turks are de-
scended from Asiatic tribes, who migrated
westward under the pressure of the Mongol
invasion, and spread from Asia Minor Into
Turkey
Encyclopedic Index
Turkey
southeast Enrope at tbe beginning of tbe
fourteenth century. The Turks eaptuied
Constantinople in 1453, and spread over
tbe whole of the Balkan Peninsula, their
name of Osmanll, or Ottoman Turks, being
derived from Othman, or Osman, a notable
Turkish leader In tbe thirteenth century.
Early in the sixteenth century the Otto-
man Empire was spread over Egypt and
northern Africa, and penetratec^ northward
Into Hungary, a great part of which was
Incorporated with the Turkish dominions
until 1699, when the Peace of Cariowitz
freed the country from Turkish rule. In
the nineteenth century the outlying Afri-
can dominions, with the exception of Tri-
poli, broke away from their suzerain, or
were occupied by other Powers, and in the
latter part of the centuj-y the northern
states of the Balkan Peninsula asserted
their independence, under guarantees of the
Cbristlan Fovfers.
The revolution of 1908-1909 aimed at the
restoration ol the constitution granted in
1876, but withdrawn by the Sultan in 1877,
from which date the rule of the Sultan was
a despotism, tempered only by religious ob-
servances and the fear of a popular rising
or of intervention by other Powers. The
1876 constitution, restored on July 23, 1908,
consists of a monarchy and of an Assem-
bly of two houses. During the process of
constitutional reforms, which drove the Sul-
tan Abdul Hamid (1876-1908) from the
throne, war broke out between Italy and
Turkey, and Tripoli and Benghazi were
ceded to Italy under the Treaty of Ouchy.
These events were followed in the autumn
of 1912 and early months of 1913 by a dis-
astrous war with the States of the Balkan
League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and
Greece). At the outbreak of hostilities the
European dominions of Turkey extended
westward to the Adriatic and northward to
Bosnia-Herzegovina, thus including the dis-
tricts known as Macedonia, Thrace, and
Albania. By the Treaty of London (1913),
the northwestern boundary of European
Turkey was a line drawn from Enos, on
the Adriatic coast, to Midia on the Black
Sea, thus excluding Adrianopie, which had
capitulated (after a long siege) to the Bul-
garian forces. At the outbreak of the sec-
ond Balkan war (in which Servia and
Greece were aided against Bulgaria by Ru-
mania), Turkey took advantage of the mili-
tary difficulties of Bulgaria and reoccupied
Adrianopie, thus recovering a part of the
lost dominions. (See Balkan Wars.) For
Turkey's part in the World War, see World
War.
Turkey:
American citizens —
Agreement respecting rights of, in,
proclaimed, 4231, 4344.
Discussed, 4244, 4405.
Emigration of, to, for purpose of
acquiring lands referred to, 3661.
Injuries inflicted upon in, referred
to, 6090, 6147.
Privileges accorded, in, 4920.
Steps taken for protection of, in,
referred to, 4321, 4627.
Treatment of religious and educa-
tional establishments of, in, dis-
cussed, 5752, 6070, 6147.
American college at Scutari exempted
from taxation, 6070.
American missionaries in, protection
for and treatment of, discussed.
4627, 5090, 5872, 5962, 6069, 6147.
Anatolia College partially destroyed
by mobs in, and indemnity paid for,
discussed, 5872.
Arabian horses brought by Charles
Ehind from, referred to, 1099.
Armenia and, relations betvreen, dis-
cussed, 8909.
Armenia and, boundary between, to
be fixed by President Wilson, 8854,
8881.
Armenians persecuted by. (See Ar-
menians.)
Autonomy to be granted nationalities
under, 8401, 8425.
Peace Eesolution of Congress does
not provide for, 8851.
Boundaries of, to be changed, 8731,
8840, 8854.
Capitulations of, 4602, 4664.
Claims of United States against, dis-
cussed, 6148, 6337.
Commercial relations with, 1732.
(See also Black Sea.)
Constantinople occupancy by, con-
demned, • 8840.
Consular courts of the United States
in, discussed, 3352.
Consuls of United States in, exequa-
tur to, refused, 6070, 6092, 6148.
Investigation 'of atrocities com-
mitted on Armenians by, dis-
cussed, 5989, 6069.
Eeferred to, 6090.
Believed of judicial powers, dis-
cussed, 4192.
Dardanelles must be international-
ized, 8425.
Embassy to Sultan of, 7496.
Europe must be freed from, 8840.
Expulsion of Greeks from Constanti
nople, referred to, 2774.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 4258, 4296.
German domination over, must end,
8401.
Immigration of citizens of United
States into. (See Iminigration.)
Invasion of, by Eussia. ( See Wars
Foreign.)
Jurisdictional rights of United States
in, discussed, 4715, 5472, 6337.
Kemalist faction in, referred to, 8909.
Massacre by Turks in Bulgaria, re-
ferred to, 4376.
Nationalities under. (See Autonomy,
above.)
Naturalization treaty with, referred
to, 4258, 5398.
Questions regarding, discussed,
4920, 5089, 5872, 5962, 6337, 6379.
Treatment by, of naturalized cit-
izens of United States of Ar-
menian origin, referred to, 6095.
Turkey
Encyclopedic Ind^x
Turpentine
Peace treaty with, discussed, 8839,
8841, 8910, 8916.
People of, to be helped, 8618.
Progress in, 7414.
Eelations with, 4826, 6379.
Sultan Mehmed V, accession of, 7414.
Sultan of —
Death of, referred to, 1750.
Visit of Agent of, to United States,
referred to, 2655. ,
Tariffs of, revision of, participated in,
by United States, 4759.
Territory taken from', after World
War, administration of, discussed,
8877.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Grant, 4258, 4296.
Jackson, 1067, 1093, 1114, 1127,
1137, 1138, 1157.
Lincoln, 3272, 3329.
Construction of, referred to, 3997.
Eeferred to, 1093.
Termination of, 4357.
Sought by, 4920.
Troops of, in World War, view of,
opposite 8442.
War with —
Germany, neutrality in, 8014.
Greece, hope for the independence
of latter entertained by United
States, 762, 786, 828, 875, 950.
Italy, neutrality in, 8065.
Russia, discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 973.
Hayes, 4418.
Neutrality preserved by United
States in, 4418.
Threatening aspect of, 762.
Treaty of peace, referred to, 1008.
World War, armistice in, correspond-
ence with, concerning, 8611.
Turkish Petroleum Company, rights of,
in Mesopotamia discussed, 8880.
Turpentine and Eosiu Products. — The
earliest settlers in Virginia and the Caro-
llnas extracted pitch and tar by charring
wood under sod in kilns and pits. As in
those days pitch and tar were used almost
entirely in ship-building, they were called
naval stores, by which name they and tur-
pentine and rosin are still known. Today,
however, spirits of turpentine and rosin are
used chiefly as Ingredients in paints, oils,
varnishes, soap, paper, rubber, oilcloth, lino-
leum, war, lubricants, medicines, etc. The
replacement of wooden ships by steel to a
Ki'oat extent has decreased the demand for
tar and pitch in recent times.
A recent report of the Census Bureau
gives figures for the production of turpen-
tine and rosin products In the United
States. The report covers the industry be-
fore the demands for putting all industries
upon a war basis had produced abnormal
conditions in the American business world,
so that the adjoining figures give a picture
of the Industry In its normal condition.
The statistics show that the greatest
source of outlay Is wages. The decrease in
the number of establishments in recent years
is due first to the decrease in the supply of
the long leaf pine and secondly to the ten-
dency to concentration in large establish-
ments In the industry.
The increase in capital indicated Is due
to the development of new territory, the re-
placement of the old box systam of collect-
ing the gum by the more efficient but more
costly cup system, and the increased cost of
purchasing turpentine rights.
The price of turpentine decreased from
$.4365 per gallon in 1909 to $.39 in the re-
port year. During the same time the price
of rosin decreased from $3.85 a barrel to
$3.58.
In 1850, the industry was located chiefly
in eastern North Carolina. In 1880, South
Carolina took the lead, to be succeeded in
1890 and 1900 by Georgia. In recent
years, Florida has taken the lead in produc-
tion, and North Carolina has' fallen to last
place. In the report year, 44% % of the
wage-earners in this industry were employed
in Florida, which produced 45%% of the
value of the products in the entire indus-
try. The corresponding figures for Georgia
were 26% and 22%.
There were 2,926 proprietors and firm
oflicials in the industry in the report year,
with 34,817 as the average number of waso-
earners. The greatest activities in the in-
dustry are in spring and summer.
In the report year, 552 establishments
were owned by individuals, as compared with
099 in 3 909. 221 were owned by corpora-
tions, as compared with 196 in 1909, while
other forms of ownership were represented
in 621 firms, as compared with 790 in 1909.
The establishments owned by Individuals
produced 22 % % of the value of the entire
output as compared with 27% In 1909. The
establishments owned by corporations pro-
ducd 40% of the value of the" entire output
in the census year, as compared with 24%
in 1909.
There was one establishment employing
more than 500 wage-earners, 7 employing
between 250 and 500, 20 between 100 and
250, 77 between 50 and 100, 419 between
20 and 50, and 652 less than 20.
In 1909, only 12% of the crops were
worked by the cup system, but in the report
year 65% were so worked. The timber is
usually worked 4 or 5 years, and then
allowed to rest for a similar period to re-
store its vitality.
Retort Year 1909 1904 1899
Number Establishments 1,394 1,585 1,287 1,503
Persons Engaged 38,294 44,524 37,526 45,945
Capital 920,744,872 $12,400,978 $6,961,185 $11,847,495
Salaries and Wages 10,017,385 11,018,750 9,534,922 9,172,177
Rent and Taxes 192,027 193,617 62,502 99,632
Cost of Materials 6,535,661 4,910,838 3,774,637 6,186,492
Val'ie of Products 20,990,191 25,295,017 23,937,024 20,344,888
Gals. Spirits of Tuipentine Produced. 26,980,981 28,988,964 30,687,051 37,733,500
Barrels (280 lbs. gross) Basin Frod. 2,885,077 ?;2e3,8S7 3,508,347 4,348,894
Turtle
Encyclopedic Index
Tyler
Turtle Mountain Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Tuscaloosa, Ala., bill to provide for pur-
chase of site and erection of public
building at, vetoed, 5521.
Tuscany.^^A compartimento of the King-
dom of Italy. Tuscany corresponds nearly
to the ancient Etrurla. It was ruled by
the Romans, Goths, Byzantine Greeks, Lom-
bards, and Franks. It became completely
disintegrated about the eleventh century,
but was afterwards erected into the Grand
Duchy of Tuscany. After several changes
In its government it was taken by France
and became a part of that country about
1808, and was restored to the Hapsburg-
Lorraine line In 1814. Tuscany was an-
nexed by Italy in 1860. (See Italy.)
Tuscany:
Treaty with France, 185.
Vessels of, discriminating duties on,
suspended by proclamation, 1452.
Tuscarora Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Tutuila. (See Samoan Islands.)
Twenty-Cent Piece.— A silver coin of
United States of the weight of 77.16 grains.
It was authorized in 1875 and designed
principally for use in the Pacific states. It
was a legal tender to the amount of .fo.
Coinage of it was discontinued in 1878.
Two-Cent Piece.— A bronze coin of the
United States of the weight of 96 grains.
It was first Issued In 1864, and was the
first coin to bear the motto "In God we
trust." It was legal tender to the amount
of 25 cents. Coinage of the 2-cent piece
was discontinued in 187Z.
Two-Penny Act.— a law passed in 1755
by the Virginia assembly. The principal
medium of exchange had up to this time
been tobacco, it being considered more
substantial than the paper money of the
Colony. Under the provisions of the two-
penny act, or option law, all debts pay-
able. In tobacco were made payable,
at the debtor's option, in money of the Col-
ony at the rate of 16s. 8d. per hundred-
weight of tobacco. This was equivalent to
2d. a pound. On appeal to the Crown the
law was vetoed.
Tygris, The, detention of, admitted by
Great Britain, 2111.
Tyler and Luckett (assignees), act for
relief of, vetoed, 4334.
Tyler, John.— April 6, 1841-March 3,
1845.
Fourteenth Administration — continued-
Whig.
Harrison died April 4, 1841 ; Vice-Presi-
dent Tyler took oath of office Apru 6.
Secretary of State —
Daniel Webster (continued).
Hugh S. Legarfi.
Abel P. Upshur.
John Nelson (acting).
John C. Calhoun.
Secretary of the Treasury—
Thomas Ewlng (continued).
Walter Forward.
Caleb Cushing.
John C. Spencer.
George M. Bibb.
Secretary of War —
John Bell (continued).
John McLean (declined appointment).
James M. Porter (rejected by Senate).
John C. Spencer.
William Williams.
Secretary of the Navy —
George E. Badger (continued).
Abel P. Upshur.
David Henshaw (rejected by Senate).
Thomas W. Gilmer.
John Y. Mason.
Postmaster-General —
Francis Granger (continued).
Charles A. WlcklifCe.
Attorney-Qeneral —
John J. Crittenden (continued).
Hugh S. Legarfi.
John Nelson.
John Tyler was elected Vioe-Presjdent
by an electoral vote of 234 — equal to that
received by President Harrison. He suc-
ceeded to the position of President on the
death of President Harrison, which oc
curred in a little more than one month after
his inauguration. As this was the first
break in the Presidential office since tbf
organization of the Government, some dis-
pute arose as to Tyler's title. Leading
statesmen of both parties were actively dis-
cussing whether he was President or only
Acting President. But Tyler settled the
question for all time by signing his first
message, "John Tyler, President."
Party AfflHation. — In the early part of
his political career, Tyler was a strong
supporter of President Madison's policies.
In 1811 he opposed in the Virginia Assem-
bly the recharter of the first Bank of the
United States. As a member of Congress
he was , a strict constructionist ; voted
against Calhoun's internal improvement
bill, the Missouri compromise, and protec-
tive tariff. In the Senate he opposed the
"tariff of abominations" (1828). In 1832
he supported Jackson as the least i objec-
tionable candidate, but this support was
only temporary. His nomination to the
Vice-Presidency with Harrison was an ef-
fort to secure for the ticket the assistance
of the dissatisfied Democrats.
Finance. — The great financial event of
President Tyler's administration was his fa-
mous struggle with the Whig majorities in
Congress over the Fiscal Bank and Fiscal
Corporation, both of which measures he ve-
toed. In his opening message (page 1896)
he recounted the history of the United
States Bank, the sub-treasury system of
President Van Buren, and other financial
aspects. He uttered a note of warning to
Congress which passed unheeded. He said ;
"I shall be ready to concur with you in
the adoption of such system as you may
propose, reserving to myself the ultimate
power of rejecting any measure which
may, in my view of it, conflict with the
Constitution or otherwise jeopard the pros-
perity of the country, a power which I
could not part with, even if I would, but
which I will not believe any act of yours
will call into requisition." Both houses
passed, and the President signed, a bill to
abolish Van Buren's sub-treasury plan.
The fight for the national bank then came
on. President Tyler had always main-
tained that t^e Federal Government had
no Constitutional right to establish a na-
tional bank within a state without first
having obtained the consent of that state.
Both nouses passed an act incorporating a
bank of the United States without provid-
ing for the consent of the states, and the
President vetoed it. It failed to sec\ue the
necessary two-thirds vote and died. The
"fiscal corporation" bill was then brought
forward incorporating such a bank in the
o«,
i«
oo
in tQ
B
o.
Tyler
Encyclopedic Ipde.v
Tyler
District of Columbia, with power to estab-
llBti branclies in ottier states. Pressure of
all kinds was brought to bear upon the
President to compel nim to either sign this
bill or to resign. But he was neither to be
hoodwinked nor bullied. The bill passed
both houses in September, 1841 ; but the
President promptly vetoed it. Whereupon
the majority of his Cabinet resigned, Web-
ster alone remaining. No hoped-for em-
barrassment followed, for the President
promptly filled the vacancies, and his nomi-
nations were at once confirmed. The great
effect of the undoubted victory which Tyler
won was the death-blow to paternal gov-
ernment.
Public Debt. — The public debt of the
United States during the Tyler adminis-
tration stood as follows : Jan. 1, 1842, $20,-
601,226.28; 1843, $32,742,922.00; 1844,
$23,461,652.50; 1845, $15,925,303.01.
Tarift. — In the second year of Tyler's
administration the strife between Congress
and the President was renewed. Instead
of the bank question, the tariff formed the
matter of dispute. The importations were
Insufficient to supply the Government with
means, and the reduction of duties by the
compromise tariff had been so great that
there was not money enough to meet the
expenses. A bill was passed restoring the
high protective tariff of 1833 and provid-
ing that the surplus revenues that were
sure to accrue therefrom should be divided
among the states. The President vetoed
this bill on the ground that the compromise
tariff provided that the protective tariff
should come to an end in 1842, and be-
cause of the provision for distributing the
surplus. Congress then framed another
bill based on a tariff for revenue plan,
with an incidental provision for protection
and distribution. The President gave great
offence to Congress by vetoing this bill
also. There were threats of impeachment
for unwarrantable assumption of author-
ity : but the Whigs were afraid to go
before the people for election in the au-
tumn without settling the tariff, and they
were obliged to pass a bill without the
distributing clause. This the President
promptly signed. Later, an attempt was
made to pass the distributing clause in a
separate bill, but the President vetoed
that. In the next Congress, the Whig
majority of 25 was replaced by a Demo-
cratic majority of 61.
Internal Improvements. — Congress passed
two bills for river and harbor improve-
ments, one for the eastern part of the coun-
try, and the other for the Mississippi sec-
tion. The eastern bill President Tyler ve-
toed (page 2183) ; the Mississippi bill he
signed. The discrimination was on the
groiind that the Mississippi was a great
national highway, and therein differed from
all other rivers, and was on that account
a feature for the consideration of the Fed-
eral Government. An attempt to override
the President's veto in this matter was
not successful.
Tyler, John:
Annexation of Texas, discussed by.
(See Texas.)
Annual messages of, 1927, 2047, 2110,
2187.
Appointing power of President, dis-
cussed by, 1903, 1958.
Biographical sketch of, 1888.
Commissioner from Virginia to confer
with President in effort to prevent
war, .S193.
Day of fasting and prayer recom-
mended by, in consequence of death
of President William Henry Harri-
son, 1887.
Death of President William Henry
Harrison announced to, 1877.
Discretionary power of President over
nominations, removals, and other
acts, discussed by, 1903, 1941, 1958,
2073, 2080.
Dorr's Bebellion, discussed by, and
correspondence regarding, 2136,
2139, 2160.
Exchequer plan of, recommended by,
2057, 2119.
Finances discussed by, 1895, 1916,
1934, 1955, 1959, 2052, 2057, 2079,
2117, 2119, 2199.
Foreign policy, discussed by, 1890,
2049, 2064, 2160, 2169, 2171, 2176,
2190, 2193, 2206.
Hawaiian Islands, independence of,
desired by United States, and con-
trol over, must not pass to foreign
power, 2064.
Inaugural address of, 1889.
Internal improvements discussed by,
2183.
Large standing army unnecessary in
time of peace, 1901.
Medium of exchange disci'ssed, 1897,
1935, 2119.
Monroe Doctrine reasserted by, 2065.
Oath of office administered to, 1886.
Peace with all the world the true
foundation of our policy, 2050.
Pocket vetoes of, 2108, 2182.
Portrait of, 1887.
Powers of Federal and State Govern-
ments, discussed by, 1916, 1921,
1941, 2036, 2043, 2183.
Proclamations of —
Extraordinary session of Senate,
2220.
Military expedition against Can-
ada, 1925.
Prostration in business, referred to
by, 2057.
Protest of, to action of House in
adopting report assailing official
conduct of, 2043.
Request of House for information in
possession of, refused, 1958, 2073,
2080.
Signature of, to Webster-Ashburton
Treaty, 2026.
Special session message of, 1893.
State banks, measures should be
adopted respecting creation of,
1899.
State of the Union, discussed by, 1927,
2047, 2110, 2187.
Subtreasury system, discussed by,
3898, 2060.
Tyler
Encyclopedic Index
Tyler
System of government, discussed by,
2188.
Tariff discussed by, 1944, 1961, 2033,
2036, 2053, 2119.
Texas, relations with, discussed by,
(See Texas.)
Veto messages of —
Appropriating proceeds of sales of
public lands, reasons for applying
pocket veto, 2078.
Improvement of rivers and harbors,
2183.
Incorporating Piscal Bank, 1916.
Incorporating Fiscal Corporation,
1921.
Payment of Cherokee certificates,
reasons for applying pocket veto,
2182.
Revenue cutters and steamers, 2219.
Tariff bills, 2033, 2036.
Protest of President against ac-
tion of House in adopting re-
port assailing his conduct re-
specting, 2043.
Testimony in contested - election
cases, reasons for applying pocket
veto, 2108.
War between Texas and Mexico, dis-
cussed by. (See Wars, Foreign.)
Warehousing system recommended by,
2053, 2119.
Uganda
Encyclopedic Index
Uncompahgre
Uganda. — A British protectorate In east
central Africa, The total area Is about
110,000 square miles, including more than
15,000 square miles of lakes. The total
population Is about 3,400,000. In a recent
year, exports amounted to $6,000,000,
chiefly cotton, coffee, hides and skins and
iTory. There are more than 1,550 miles of
telegraph In the protectorate.
TTkraine. — The name loosely applied to
southern Eussia from Poland to the Sea or
Azov and the region of the Don River. The
. literal translation of "Ukraine" Is "border-
land." The Ukrainians are generally
known also as Little Russians, and the
Ukraine as Little Russia.; and the section of
the Ukrainian stock which lived befoi'e the
World War In Gallcla, in Austria, was
known as Buthenes.
The extent to which the Ukrainians dif-
fer ethnologlcaliy from the Great Russians,
the dominant race of Russia, and the ex-
tent to which the Ukrainian language dif-
fers from Russian are matters of dispute.
Strictly speaking, Ukralnla in Russia had an
extent of^ about 200,000 square miles, but
the total territory claimed by the Ukrain-
ians, Including sections of other countries
Inhabited predominantly by the Ukrainians,
is more than 300,000 square miles in ex-
tent. The Ukrainians number about 32,000,-
000. Most of them belong to the Ukrainian
Orthodox church, which is closely akin to
the Greek Catholic or Russian Orthodox.
The Ukraine is predominantly agricul-
tural, but the agricultural methods are still
extremely primitive. The crops are varied,
but wheat and other grains are especially
abundant. After the Russian Revolution, the
peasants gained control of the land. There
are rich mineral deposits, especially iron and
manganese, and one rich coal-field, in the
Donetz basin. The petroleum deposits in the
Gallcian region are extremely prolific and
valuable.
Odessa on the Black Sea Is the main sea-
port, but the capital and principal town is
Kiev.
History. — ^From the ninth century, when a
loose union of states in the Ukraine rep-
resented probably the highest form of civil-
ization existing at that time in the ter-
ritory known to-day as Russia, until the
present, Ukrainian history has been the
history of a race which has kept alive its
national unity in spite of cruel persecu-
tion. In the eleventh century from the in-
vading Tartar hordes, iater from the Poles,
in whose country Ukraine was long incor-
porated, and finally xrom the Russians, who
uad gained complete possession of the coun-
trv in 1793 when the final partition of
Poland took place (except Gallcla, which
fell to Austria), the Ukrainians have suf-
fered extreme oppression and discrimination.
In the nineteenth century, the Russian
government spared few efforts to Russify
the Ukraine. The native language fell un-
der rigid and cruelly enforced restrictions,
the considerable Ukrainian culture was
stamped out, there was general Russian
colonization and the leaders of the Ukrain-
ian nationalistic feeling were exiled. But
firound the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the movement for. separate Ukrainian
culture and political autonomy was revived,
and persisted, in spite of persecution, on
into the twentieth century. The first Duma
had 63 Ukrainian representatives, • 40 of
whom were formed into a political unit
for national independence, and the same
situation was presented ^in the second Duma.
This was the situation of the Ukraine
in European politics when tlie European
War broke out. Not only were the Little
Russians the hereditary foes of Russia, hut
also the Russian espousal of the cause of
a restored Poland was in violation of the
Ukraine's hopes lor Independence ; so tliat
Ukrainian sympathies were largely with the
Central Powers. Although with the out-
break of the Russian Revolution in March,
1917, much of the hostility of Ukraine to-
ward Russia ended, yet that occurrence
v/as seized naturally as a godsend to the
movement for Ukrainian national and cul-
tural Independence. Indeed, several month?
before, Ukraine had responded to the Allies'
statement that autonomy for subject minor'
nationalities was one of their war alms with
a demand that this principle be applied to
the Little Russians.
With the Russian Revolution In March,
1917, the movement for Ukrainian independ-
ence gained headway, and on November 21,
1917, only several days after the Bolshevist
Revolution in Russia, Russian Ukrain(>
proclaimed Its independence. Austrian
Ukraine followed suit about one year later.
In December, 1918, a provisional govern-
ment was established. There were many
disputes and some armed conflicts with
the Bolshevist government concerning
Ukraine's right to independence, and the
Bolshevist government opposed the separate
peace which the Ukraine made with the
Central Powers several weeks before Russia
made peace In the Treaty of Brest-Lltovsk.
In 1919 and 1920, the Ukraine was in
armed conflict with both the Poles and the
Bolshevlki, and was overrun on several
occasions by the armies of its opponents.
In 1921, It was not yet clear what the ulti-
mate fate of Ukraine would be, although
the western part had been assigned to Po-
land.
Ukrainians:
Contribution day for, 8273.
Included within Poland to extent of
3,000,000, 8837.
Umatilla, The, rewards to Osette In-
dians for rescuing, recommended,
4803.
Uncle Sam.— A personification of the Unit-
ed States Government. Several explanations
have been given as to the origin of this ex-
pression, but the most plausible is the fol-
lowing: During the War of 1812 Ell)ei-t
Anderson, an army contractor, bought large
quantities of provisions for the Army and
had them shipped to himself at Troy, N.
Y. The shipping mark was "E. A." above
and "U. S." beljw. One of the Inspectors
at Troy was Samuel Wilson, popularly
known as "Uncle Sam" Wilson. A worli--
man was asked the meaning of the in-
itials "U. S.„ which at that time were
rarely used as an abbreviation for the Unit-
ed States. The prompt reply was "Elbert
Anderson and Uncle Sam," referring to
Sam Wilson. This interpretation became
current among the workmen, many of whom
afterwards enlisted and communicated the
explanation to their comrades from ail parts
of the country as the mystic cipher elic-
ited inquiry. The story went the rounds
of the press and "Uncle Sam" became the
popular appellation of the Government.
Uncle Tom's Cabin.— A novel written in
1851 by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Its suc-
cessful purpose was to show the evils of
slavery, and its wide popularity contributrd
creatly to the abolition sentiment.
Uncompahgre Reservation, bill 1 .
change boundaries of, vetoed. S.ias.
UndergroundR. R.
Encyclopedic Index
Union S. Africa
Underground Ballroad. — A name common-
ly applied before the Civil War to an ar-
rangement whereby fugitlTe slaves were
assisted to escape to Canada. The idea
originated in some one of the northern
states, and the plan consisted in harboring
fugitives during the day and at night con-
ducting them to the next "station" till
they finally reached the border line. This
"railroad" had many branches and the
stations were a night's journey apart. The
principal routes were from Kentucky across
Virginia and Ohio, and from Maryland
through Pennsylvania and New Sork. This
system of aiding escaping slaves was par-
tially organized in 183S, but did not attain
Its highest activity until the passage of the
fugitive-slave law, about 1850.
Underwood Tariff Act. — The Tariff Act
passed in 1913. (See Tariff.)
Unemployment Insurance. — ^Une m p 1 o y-
ment may be of various kinds. There is
that of the unskilled worker, dependent
upon the fiuctuating demand for his kind of
services, and the first to be thrown oulc of
work in slack times. There is that due to
the seasonal, nature of the workman's call-
ing. There is that due to the fact that the
worker is trained for a calling which is
dying out or in which machinery is taking
the place of manual labor. There is that
due to the fact that women and children,
or cheaper immigrant labor, have entered
the field. There is that due to the fact
that the worker is more unemployable than
unemployed. And there Is that due to a
depression in industry and a consequent de-
crease generally in the demand for labor.
From whatever species of unemployment,
however, the worker may be suffering,
society has come more and more to realize
that the causes for his condition, even
those which may be due to personal ineffi-
ciency, are social rather than individual
causes ; and that the responsibility for alle-
viating the distress due to unemployment la
the responsibility of society. From this
fact arose the movement for unemployment
insurance, which attracted general attention
in the United States for the first time in the
depression of 1914.
On the Continent of Europe, most of the
unemployment insurance is handled by local
bodies. The most popular form seems to
be the so-called Ghent system, in which
trade unions which give unemployment
benefits to their members are subsidized by
the authorities. In 1911, Great Britain ap-
plied unemployment insurance to the build-
ing and construction trades, covering about
2,250,000 workmen. In 1916 occurred a
temporary extension of the principle to
other trades, notably those concerned with
munitions and other kinds of war materials
manufacture. On November 8, 1920, a new
Unemployment Insurance Act came Into op-
eration, of which the salient features are
as follows, including amendments as of
March 3, 1921 :
Those Covered. — All covered by health
Insurance (q. v.), except outworkers, do-
mestic and agricultural workers, and those
employed under conditions which make un-
employment insurance unnecessary. Per-
sons over 70 insurable, except those covered
by old age pensions (q. v.). It was ex-
pected that altogether more than 12,000,000
workers would be thus protected against
unemployment, including most of those
earning less than $1,225 annually.
Contrihutions. — From employer, employee
and state, the first giving 6d, for men of
18 and over, 5d. for women of 18 and over
and 3d. for boys and 2%d. for girls of 16
and under 18. The second gives- 5d. in the
case of a man, 4d. In the case of a woman,
2%d. in the case of a boy and 2d. in the
case of a girl. (Id. equals two cents in
United States currency.) The state contrib-
utes 2%d.formen, 2%d.for women and pro-
portionate amounts for boys and girls. The
payments are made through special stamps
affixed to unemployment books issued to
employed persons through the employment
exchanges. These payments are made week-
ly.
Benefits. — 15s. weekly for men and 12s.
weekly for women. (Is. equals 24 cents
in United States currency.) Contributors
under 18 entitled to half the ' full rate.
Maximum payment, 26 weeks in any one
insurance year (after July, 1922).
Eligibility. — Besides the provision for an-
nual salary under $1,225, the worker must
prove that he is available for work and
cannot find it, is not out on strike, has not
lost his employment through misconduct on
his part, or voluntarily, and has kept up
his contributions.
However, a person Is not rendered In-
eligible if- he refuses to accept a position in
an establishment where there is a labor
dispute or where the wages are lower or
the conditions of work worse than those to
which he has been accustomed, or in a dis-
trict at a wage or in conditions of employ-
ment less favorable than those generally
recognized in that district by agreements be-
tween unions and employers, or than those
generally recognized in that district by good
employers.
Refund. — Insured contributors who have
made 500 contributions on reaching the age
of 60 are entitled to a refund of the ajnount
of their contributions with interest, less
any benefit paid.
Special Schemes. — Arrangements are
made for industries of their volition to set
up special schemes under this act, giving
equal or superior advantages.
The British trade unions seem, on the
whole, to have opposed these provisions, on
the grounds that they were merely pallia-
tive, and did not attempt to decrease unem-
ployment; that the relief granted was in-
adequate; that the relief might be admin-
istered by non-tradeunion societies ; that
the discrimination between men and women
was unfair ; and that there was no allow-
ance for the numbei of dependents.
In the United States, practically the only
form of unemployment insurance at the
present time is that of the trade unions and
other voluntary, often fraternal, societies.
Unie, island of, disposition of, 8837.
Union Army of 1861-5, Societies of.
(See Societies of the TJnion Army of
1861-5.)
Union Flags, return of Confederate and
to respective States, recommended,
5163.
Proposition -withdrawn, 5164.
Union Iiabor Party. — A successor of the
Greenback party. It was organized at
Cincinnati Feb. 23, 1887, and promulgated
a platform embodying the principles of
the Knights of Labor. In 1891 it united
with the Farmers' Alliance and other ele-
ments to form the Populist party.
Union of South Africa.— This British do-
minion at the southern end of Africa ex-
Union S. Africa
Encyclopedic Index
Union S. Africa
tends northward from the Cape of Good
Hope to the Limpopo Elver on the east,
separating it from Southern Rhodesia, and
to the Orange Elver on the west, separating
It from Southwest Africa and Beehuana-
land.
msforu.— The Cape of Good Hope was
discovered In 1486 ^y Bartholomew Diaz,
the commander of one of the many expedi-
tions sent out by successive Kings ot
Portugal to discover an ocean route to
India. Diaz merely doubled the Cape and
returned home. Eleven years later, In
1497 Vasco da Gama not only doubled
the 'Cape and landed In what Is now
Natal, but successfully accomplished the
voyage to India. In 1652 the Netherlands
East India Company took possession of
the shores of Table Bay, established a
fort and occupied the adjacent lands. In
o?der to be always ready with supplies
for their passing ships. In 1814 the cape
was formally ceded to the British Crown.
Natal derives its name tr<"n 3®ilo7*
of its discovery on Christmas Day, 1497,
by the celebrated Portuguese navigator,
Vasco da Gama. The first European set-
Hement was formed (1824) by ^ a party
of Englishmen, who established themselves
on the coast where Durban now stands.
Natal 'was then a P/rt of the great Zuta
kingdom. Between 1835 and 1837 another
settlement was formed by a body of Dutch
Boers^ who came with their wagons over-
&nd from the Cape Colony and settled in
he northern districts, where to this day
the Boers preponderate. In the year 1843
Natal was Vclaimed British and annexed
L°ecf^l &T. a°^^Ite coVony!'^1th"rer|
l^ntative institutions, and in 1893 acquired
responsible government.
The Transvaal was formed as the South
African Republic by parties of Dutch Boers
from the English colonies who "trekked
in?S^ the, intlrior of the conUnent and
wrested the land across the Vaal River
J^^^t^+ho native chiefs. The discovery of
he goW fieSr wUhin Its borders led to
the lettlement of large numbers of for-
iilners: and eventually to bostilities with
E?» ritTo^wis 4gTt;«g
SSi %"/ ^be tolfth-^ifrTcYneM
Sm"t-^ ^^ gqir-aiSTi^r.
dlatPly. (See Boer War.)
The Orange Free State was founded. In
much the sSme way as the Transvaal by
Boer'' emigrants from Cape Colony and its
Independence was granted in 1884.
Physical Features. — The sonthernmost
province contains many parallel ranges,
which rise In steps toward the interior.
The southwestern peninsula contolns the
famous Table Mountain (3,582 feet),
wMle the Great Zwarte Bergen and Lange
Bergen run in parallel lines from west to
east of the southern province. Between
thlse two ranges, and the Eoggeveld and
Niluweveld to the north Is the Great Karoo
Pin tSu which is bounded- on the east by
The SneeiTwbCTgen, containing the highest
sSmralt in the province (Compassbera
7 800 feet). In the east are ranges which
ioin the Drakensbergen (11,000 feet) be-
t^^en Natal and the Orange Free State.
The Orange Free State presents a spc-
cession of undulating grassy plains with
2oorl nasture-land. Transvaal Is also main-
ly an elevated plateau. The eastern prov-
Sce of Natal has pastoral lowlands and
rich a^icultural land, with the Interior ris-
ing In terraces as in the southern prov-
inces.
The Orange, with Its tributary the Vaal,
is the principal river of the south, rising
In the Drakensbergen and flowing Into the
Atlantic between German Southwest Africa
and the Cape of Good Hope. The Limpopo,
or Crocodile River, in the north, rises in the
Transvaal and flows Into the Indian Ocean
through Portuguese East Africa. Most of
the remaining rivers are furious torrents
after rain, with partially dry beds at other '
seasons,
Oovernment. — The Union of South Africa
Is constituted under the South African Act,
passed by the Parliament of the United
Kingdom on Sept. 20, 1909. In terms of
that Act the self-governing Colonies
of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the
Transvaal, and the Orange River Cfolony
became united on May 31, 1910, in a
legislative Union under one Government
under the name of the Union of South
Africa, those Colonies becoming original
Provinces of the Union under the names
of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the
Transvaal, and the Orange Free State re-
Bpectively.
The Union Government Is seized of all
State property, and the railways, ports,
harbors, and customs are administered by
Union Commissioners for the benefit of the
Consolidated Revenue Fund. The former
debts of the Provinces are administered
by and form a first charge upon the funds
of the Union. Provision is made in the
Act for the admission to the Union of
Rhodesia, and for the transfer to the ,
Union Government of the administration
of protected and other native territories.
The Union was inaugurated by His Royal
Highness, the Duke of Connau^ht, in 1910.
The seat of the Government is Pretoria ;
the capital Is Cape Town. The Executive
is vested in a Governor-General appointed
by the Sovereign, and aided by an Execu-
tive Council, with a Legislature of two
Houses.
The Senate consists of forty members.
For ten years after the establishment of
Union eight are nominated by the Govern-
or-General In Council and thirty-two are
elected, eight for each Province.
The House of Assembly consists of 130
elected members, flfty-one of whom repre-
. sent the Cape of (Jood Hope, seventeen
Natal, forty-five Transvaal, and seventeen
the Orange Free State. Members of both
Houses must be British subjects of Euro-
pean descent.
The Governor-General administers the
executive department through a cabinet of
ministers of stat^, beaded by a premier. He
has the power to summon, prorogue or dis-
solve either or both houses. The Assembly
originates money bills, but may not pass a
bill for taxation or appropriation unless It
has been recommended by the Governor-
General during the session. There are limits
upon the amendment of money bills by the
Senate.
Each province . has an administrator
.appointed by the Governor-General and an
elected provincial council. The restriction
as to European descent does not apply to
the provincial councils. Their enactments
are subject to veto of the Governor-Gen-
eral. Both the English and the DUtch
languages are offlcial.
Area and Population. — The area of the
• Union of South Africa is 473,096 miles, as
follows : Cape of Good Hope, 276,966 ; Na-
tal, 35,291 ; Transvaal, 110,450 ; Orange
Free State, 50,389 square miles. The last
census showed a population of 5,973,394, of
Union S. Africa
Encyclopedic Index
United Labor
whom 1,276,242 were white and 4,697,152
were colored. There is a preponderance of
males. The largest towns, with their esti-
mated populations, are .Johannesburg, 273,-
000 and Cape Town, 195,000. The Cape of
Good Hope is the most populous province,
and Orange I'ree State, the least.
The last census of occupations showed
342,000 persons engaged in mining ; 290,-
560 in domestic pursuits ; 192,424 in agri-
culture; 143,255 in industry; 81,62T com-
mercial ; 59,721 professional ; miscellaneous
and unspecified, 15,696. Classed as depend-
ents, 492,9.59. White persons engaged In
the government or defence of South Africa,
26,258.
The chief religions represented among the
white population were ; Dutch churches,
693,898 ; Anglicans, 255,640 ; Wesleyans,
80,402 ; Presbyterians, 58,633 ; Roman Cath-
olics, 53,793 ; Jews, 46,919. Among the
non-Europeans, the chief religions repre-
sented were : Wesleyans, 456,017 ; Angli-
cans, 276,849 ; Dutch churches, 204,702 ;
Lutherans, 195,308 ; Congregatlonalists,
173,982.
There are some 5,000 schools for whites
and 2,730 schools for colored, with 275.000
white and 190,000 colored pupils, and a
combined teaching staff of almost 20,000.
Finance. — Recent annual budgets have
been in the neighborhood of $100,000,000.
The total gross debt is approximately $830,-
000,000.
Production. — Recent figures show an an-
nual wheat production of 610,000,000
pounds of wheat and 2,530,000,000 pounds
of maize. More than 20,000,000 pounds of
butter and 6,000,000 pounds of cheese are
produced every year. In a rpcent year,
exports included 115,000,000 pounds of
wool, 20,000,000 pounds of mohair, and
$11,500,000 worth of hides and skins. The
production of ostrich feathers is an im-
portant activity. Cotton-Crowing is on the
increase, a recent crop being above 800,000
pounds ; more than 100,000 tons of sugar
are produced annually ; and the almost
5,000 acres under tea produce annually
more than 5,000,000 pounds of green leaf
tea.
A recent industrial census puts the value
of the annual industrial output at $300,-
000,000. There were 5,919 factories, with
total capital of $265,000,000 ; value of ma-
terials used, $140,000,000 ; number of per-
sons employed, 134,000 (50,000 whites) ;
wages paid annually, $61,000,000. Accord-
ing to number, the principal Industries are
those concerned with the preparation and
preservation of foodstuffs and drinks ; met-
als, engineering and cutlery ; clothing and
textile production ; and vehicle manufac-
ture.
The total mineral production from earli-
est records to a recent year amounted to
$4,000,000,000, of which .$2,775,000,000 was
represented by gold and $915,000,000 by
diamonds. The other Important minerals
produced are coal, copper and tin. In a
recent year, the mineral production was
valued at $260,000,000, of which $190,000.-
000 represented gold, $38,000,000 repre-
sented diamonds, $16,000,000 represented
coal and $5,500,000 represented copper.
Cjommerce and Communications. — ^In a
recent year, the Imports amounted to $198-
000,000 and the exports to $164,000,000. In
order of value, the chief imports were cotton
manufactures, followed by food and drink
and apparel. The chief exports in order of
value, and exclusive of specie, were wool,
diamonds, hides and skins. The imports
come chiefly from the United Kingdom, fol-
lowed by the United States, India and
Japan. The exports go chiefly to the United
Kingdom, followed by the United States
and Japan. In a recent year, the Unitid
States imported from British South Africa
goods valued at $20,616,766 and exported
thither goods valued at $60,939,159.
The railroads are owned by the state,
and have a mileage of almost 10,000. There
are 2,623 post-offl<;es ; 16,000 miles of tele-
graph line, carrying 54,000 miles of wire :
and 3,215 miles of telephone line, with 130 -
000 miles of wire. Recent maritime statis-
tics show more than 1,000 vessels, of 3,000,-
000 tons net, entering and clearing in the
overseas trade and 1,775 vessels, of more
than 2,500,000 tons net, in the coastwise
trade.
Union Pacific Railroad, junction of, with
Central Paeifie, illustration, opposite
3856. (See also Eailroads.)
Union Station, Washington, D. C. (See
illustration opposite page 5635.)
Union Veteran Legion.— Organized at
Pittsburgh, Pa., March 1884, and the Na-
tional Organization was perfected Nov. 17,
1886. Encampments are now organized in
twenty-one states and the District of Co-
lumbia, numbering 152 encampments. The
membership is over 20,000. To become a
member, the applicant must have been an
officer, soldier, sailot or marine of the
Union army, navy, or marine corps, during
the late Civil War, who volunteered prior
to July 1, 1873.
United Cigar Stores referred to, 7648.
United Confederate Veterans.— An asso-
ciation the objects and purposes of which
are set forth in the constitution as finallj
adopted at the Houston reunion. May 23,
1895, It is a federation of all associa-
tions of Confederate veterans, soldiers and
sailors. The purposes are the cultivation
of ties of friendship between those who
have shared common dangers, sufferings,
and privations : the encouragement of the
writins, by the participants therein, of
narratives, episodes, occurrences, etc., of
the Civil War : the collection of authentic
data for an impartial history, and the pres-
ervation of war records ; care for needy
survivors and their dependents. Member-
ship is by camps, and numbers about
60,000.
United Daughters of the Confederacy.
—The United Daughters of the Confeder-
acy was organized at Nashville, Tenn., gept.
10, 1894. It is composed of the widows,
wives, mothers, sisters, and lineal female
descendants of men who served the Con-
federate cause. The objects are to unite,
and to cultivate ties of friendship among,
such women, to Ijeep unsullied the record
of Southern achiefvements in the Civil War,
and to develop Southern character. It has
about 100,000 members.
United Hatters. (See Loewe vs. Law-
lor, et al.)
United Kingdom. (See Great Britain.)
United Labor Party.— A local political
party organized in New York City in 1886.
It nominated Henry George for mayor on
• a platform based upon his theory that
values arising from the growth of society
belong to the community as a whole, and
that therefore land values should bear the
burden of taxation (see Single Tax).
Uniled Mine Workers Encyclopedic Index
United States
"DTnited Mine Workers of America,
strike of, denounced, 8797.
Vnited Son^ of Confederate Veterans.
(See Confederate Veterans, United
Sons of.)
United States. — The United States Is a
federal republic consisting of forty-eight
states and one federal district, besides the
outlying territories of Alaska, Hawaii, the
Philippine Islands, Porto Eico, Guam,
Samoa (Tutuila), Wake and other Islands,
Panama Canal Zone, the Virgin Islands, Con-
tinental United States occupies the south-
ern portion of the North American Con-
tinent, between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, in latitude 25°-49° North and
longitude 67''-124'' 30' West, Its northern
boundary being Canada and the southern
boundary Mexico.
PhysicaX Features. — The coast-line on
both oceans has un estimated length of
about 15,610 miles, besides 3,620 miles
on the Great Lakes and 5,744 on the Gulf of
Mexico. The principal river is the Missis-
sippi-Missouri, traversing the whole coun-
try from north to south, and having a
course of 4,500 miles to Its mouth in the
Gulf of Mexico, with many large affluents,
the chief of which are the Yellowstone,
Nebraska, Arkansas, Ohio, and Red Rivers.
The rivers flowing Into the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans are comparatively small ;
among the former may be noticed the
Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac,
and Savannah ; of the latter, the Colum-
bia, Sacramento, and Colorado. The Mo-
bile and . Colorado of Texas fall into the
Gulf of Mexico, also the Eio Grande, which
partly forms the boundary with Mexico.
The chain of the Rocky Mountains sepa-
rates the western portion of the territory
from the remainder, all communication be-
ing carried on over certain elevated passes,
several of which are now traversed by rail-
roads ; west of these, bordering the Pacific
coast, the Cascade Mountains and Sierra
Nevada form the outer edge of a high ta-
ble-land, consisting in great part of stony
and sandy desert, and in which occurs the
Great Salt Lake, extending to the Rocky
Mountains. Eastward the country is a
vast, gently undulating plain, with a gen-
eral slope southward towards the marshy
flats of the Gulf of Mexico, extending to
the Atlantic, interrupted only by the Alle-
ghany Mountains, in the eastern states.
Nearly the whole of this plain, from the
Kocky Mountains to some distance beyond
the Mississippi, consists of Immense tree-
less prairies. In the eastern states large
forests of valuable timber, as beech, birch,
maple, oak, pine, spruce, elm, ash, walnut ;
and In the south, live-oak, water-oak, mag-
nolia, palmetto, tulip-tree, cypress, etc.,
still exist, the remnants of the wooded
region which formerly extended over all
the Atlantic slope, but into which great
Inroads have been made by the advance of
civilization. The Mississippi valley is
eminently fertile. The mineral kingdom
produces In great abundance iron, copper,
lead, zinc, and aluminum ; the non-metallic
minerals Including immense quantities of
coal, anthracite, petroleum, stone, cement,
phosphite rock, and salt. Precious metals
include gold and sUve^ raised mainly In
Colorado, California, and Alaska (gold), and
Colorado, Montana, Utah and Idaho (sil-
ver) ; while precious stones are worked in
great variety. Including the turquoise, sap-
phire, tourmaline, and garnet
History. — United States history may be
said to commence with the colonizing ex-
peditions from Ilurope in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries ; for, although Co-
lumbus discovered America In the fifteenth
century (Oct. 12, 1492), no definite Euro-
pean settlement was attempted until the
last quarter of the sixteenth contury, when
England, Holland, Sweden, France, and
Sj)ain made determined efforts to bring in-
to account the potential wealth of the new-
ly discovered continent. Of these nationali-
ties the English secured a paramount in-
fluence amongst the nations of Europe'. In
the seventeenth century a chartered com-
pany founded Jamestown (1607), and
many Royalist settlements were established
In the district which had been named Vir-
ginia, after Queen Elizabeth, in the previ-
ous century. But step by step with the
Church and Royalist foundations in the
south a similar series of Puritan and Sepa-
ratist centres was established in the north.
The small band of "Pilgrim Fathers" in
their 180-ton Uayftower, from Southamp-
ton, Erigland, to Plymouth, Massachusetts
(1620), was soon followed by a stream of
well-to-do merchants from Boston, Lincoln-
shire, and other east coast English towns,
and New England became rapidly prosper-
ous. Between these two settlements the
Dutch had established themselves in New
Netherlands (1621), and the Swedes in New
Sweden (1638). Other English foundations
were Maryland (1632), Carolina (1663).
New York (1664), New Jersey (1665), and
Pennsylvania (1681). Georgia (1732) was
the last of the English settlements.
The Spaniards began colonizing with the
second voyage of Columbus, but their settle-
ments were mostly In Cuba, Haiti, Mexico
and the islands of the Caribbean Sea and
in South America. The few colonies planted
on the plain land were never of hardy
growth. The discoveries of Cabot and Car-
tier opened the mouth of the St. Lawrence
to French enterprise, and Champlain found-
ed Quebec in 1608. Traversing the Great
Lakes Jesuit missionaries and explorers de-
scended the Mississippi River and estab-
lished posts at St. Paul, Dubuque, Kaskas-
kia, and St. Louis, finally reaching New
Orleans, thereby confirming the claim of
France to tha whole interior of the country
A continuous struggle was waged between
the English and French settlements in
America, but until the War of 1754-1763
little part was taken by Great Britain in
the actual campaigns. The issue of this
war decided the fate of America. The
British Government levied an excise tax
on many articles in everyday use in the
colonies. The colonists resisted in arms,
and bloodshed ensued at the flrst engage-
ment at Lexington, April 19, 1775. and
continued until the Capitulation of York-
town, Oct. 19, 1781, when Lord Corn-
wailis surrendered with the whole of his
forces to General Washington. When peace
was concluded, Sept. 3, 1783, between
America and Great Britain, no vestige of
territory over which the dispute had raged
remained under British rule. On July A,
1776, the delegates of the various American
colonies adopted the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. (See .Revolutionary War and
the various battles.)
The Declaration of Independence (q. v.)
was followed by the framing of a Constitu
tion, which was ratified in 1787 to 179C
by the thirteen Original States (Delaware,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Con-
necticut, Massachusetts, Maryland. South
Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New
York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island).
(See Admission of States.) This Constltn-
tion established a legislature of two bouses.
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United States
Encyclopedic Index
United States
and vested the executive power in an elec-
tive President ; and on April 30, 1789,
George Washington entered oiBce as the
first of a line of Presidents of the United
States of America.
The maritime war of Britain and France
led to the outbreak of hostilities between
the former and the 'United States, owing
mainly to the rival Interpretation of the
law of allegiance in connection with im-
pressment of British subjects from Ameri-
can ships to serve in the British Navy,
On June 18, 1812, the United States de-
clared war against Britain, In whltfh the
latter was generally successful on land and
the United States almost Inevitably vitt-
torious on the sea. Peace was concluded
by the Treaty of Ghent, on December 24,
1814, after a purposeless war.
The Mexican War, the Civil War, the
Spanish-American War and the World War
arc described under separate headings.
Government. — By the Constitution (q. v.)
of September 17, 1787, (to which nineteen
amendments (See Amendments) have been
added), the government of the United
States is entrusted to three separate au-
thorities— the Executive, the Legislative,
and the Judicial.
The Executive power Is vested In the
President, advised and assisted by the heads
of ten executive departments. The descrip-
tion and history of these departnients will
be found under the headings, State, Treas-
ury, War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-
General, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Com-
merce, and Labor. (See also President.)
THB PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES IN AREA, POPULATION AND MATERIAL INDUSTRIES
TROM 1800 TO 1920 IS SHOWN IN THIS TABLE, WHICH IS COMPILED FROM A STATE-
MENT PHEPAEBD BY THE BUREAU OF lORBIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, DEPART-
MENT OF COMMERCE.
Area * square miles
Population c no.
Population per sq. mlle«. .no.
Wealth .<« dols.
Wealth, per capita d e. . .dols.
Public debt, less cash in '
Treasury i-. flols.
Public debt, per capita, .dols.
Interest bearing debt h. . dols.
Annual interest charge, .dols.
Interest, per capita dols.
Gold coined dols.
Silver coined dols.
Gold In circulation i dols.
Sliver In circulation «. . . . dols
Gold certificates in circ. dole.
Sliver eertlflc. In clrc dole.
U. S. notes dols.
National banfe notes In
circulation dols.
Federal Reserve notes. . .dols.
Fed. Res. bank notes. . . dols.
Total clrc. of money dols.
Per capita dols.
National banks no.
Capital dols.
Bank cleargs. N. York. . dols
Total United States. . dols'
Deposits In Nat. banks, dols
Deposits In savgs. banks dols'
Depositors In aavgs. bks. no|
Farms and farm prop. . a dols.
Farm products, valuer) . .dols.
Manfg. establishments ei no.
Value of products d. . .dole.
ITnlted States Govt, re-
celpta-netordlnaryrdols.
Customs dols.
Internal revenues dols .
tJ. S. Govt., disburse-
ments , net ordinary ^ dols .
War dols.
Navy dols.
Pensions dole.
Int. on public debt ..dole.
Imports of merchandise dols.
Bxports of merchandise dols.
Imports, silk, raw lbs.
Rubber, crude lbs.
Tin plates lbs.
Iron and steel, manu-
factures of dols.
Don^estlc exports. Iron
and steel manufac dols.
Domestic exports, all
manufactures dols.
Farm animals, value dols.
Cattle no.
Horses no.
Sheep no.
Mules no.
Swine no.
1800
892,135
S,308,4S3
6.47
82,976,294
15.63
82,976,294
3,402,601
0.64
317,760
224,296
Production of gold dels.
Silver, com. value dols.
Coal long tons.
Petroleum. gals.
Pig iron tons
»1S50
2,997,119
23,191,876
7,135,780,000
307.69
63,452.774
2.74
63,452,774
3,782,393
0.16
31,981,739
1.866,100
147.395,456
26,500,000
5.00
10,848,749
9,080,933
809,397
10,813,971
2,660,879
3,448,716
64,131
3,402,601
91,252,768
70,971,780
2;8,761,982
12.02
1880
3,026,789
50,155,783
16.86
42,642,000,000
850,20
1,919,326,748
38.27
1,723,993,100
79.633.981
1.59
• 62,308,279
27,411,694
225,695,779
68,622,345
7,963,900
5,789,669
327,895,457
337,416,178
43,431,130
251,354
3,967,343,580
123,025
1,019,106,616
43,692,889
39,668,686
40,948.383
9,687,025
7,904,725
1,866,886
3,782,393
173,509.626
144,375,726
20,145,067
1,953.702
23,223,106
544,180,516
17,778,907
4,336,719
21,773,220
659,331
30,364,213
50,000,000
60,900
6,266,233
663,755
973,382,228
19.41
2,076
455,909,565
37,182,128,621
1900 •
1920a
3,0|26,789
76,994,576
25.66
88,517,306,776
1,164.79
1,107,711,268
14.62
1,023,478,860
33,546,130
0.44
99,272,943
36,346,321
610,806,472
142,050,334
200,733,019
408,466,574
313,971,646
833,701,034
819,106,973
2,335,682
12,180,501,638
2,212,460,927
263,852
5,369,579,191
333,626,501
186,522,065
, 124,009,374
264,847,637
38,116,916
13,636,986
66,777,174
96,767,575
667,964,746
835,638,658
2,562,236
16,826,099
379,902,880
71,266,699
14,716,624
121,818,298
1,676,917,566
33,268,000
11,201,800
40,766,900
1,729,600
34,034,|00
36,000,000
34,717,000
63,822,830
1,104,017,166
3,835,191
2,056,150,998
26.93
3,732
621,536,461
61,964,688,664
84,582,450,081
2,458,092,768
'2,389,719,964
6,107,083
n20,439,901,I64
4,417,069.973
?207,514
«'11,406,926,70I
667,240,862
233,164,871
296,327,927
487,713.792
134,774,(68
55,963.078
140,877,316
40,160,333
849,941,184
1,394,483,082
11,259,310
49,377,138
147,963,804
20,478,728
121,913,648
484,846.236
2,228,123,134
43,902,414
13,637,624
41,883,066
2,086,027
37,079,366
79,171,000
35,741,100
240,789,310
2,672,062,218
13.789,242
3,026,789
106,380,246
36.77
187,739,071,090
1.764.64
24.330.889,731
228.60
24,061,096,361
1,062,333,621
11,068,400
*834,687,970
i385,083,071
390,622,842
118,621,774
337,299.793
696,345,834
3,122,001,747
198,735,191
6.084,864.678
67.19
7,990
1,214,769,000
214,703,444,468
387,091,941,000
»<13,633,9OS,0OCr
6,902,677,000
11,434,881
40,991,449,000
24,982,000,000
275,791
y24,246,434,724
6,688,900,647
322,902,660
5,405,031,576
6,304,098,173
9,263,059,384
2,009,272,389
221,614,781
616,867,337
5,238,621,668
8,111,039,733
44,816,918
632,392,636
66.944
26,880,164
932,675,866
3,827.919.628
8.566,313,000
68,232,000
21.109,000
48,615,000
4,996,000
72,909,000
68,488.800
61,966,412
485,949,107
16,864,198,000
31,015,364
United States
Encyclopedic Index
United States
THE PKOGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES IN AREA, POPULATION AND MATEMAI, INDUSTEIES
FROM ISOO TO 1920 — Continued.
1800
1850
1880
1900
1920
1,247,335
10,188.329
849,004,022
270,588
288,636,621
522,229,605
2,105,102,516
10,245,602
322,549,011
4,477,175,236
3,603,616
3,100,583,188
194,262
576,831,251
141,596,551,161
0.;29
34,713
1,416,125
393,790
4,338,145
826,694
1,565,587
22,315,834
10,774
138,495,673
76,688
102,354,579
63,167,783
137,6871746
• 26,499
448,572
44,462,432
3,301,624,244
3oi,i?:8§g
940,987,000
2,917,450,000
11,420,763
241,998,400
9,721,948,011
„ 6,288,920
3,643,743,487
264,233
1,084,997,896
394.465,400.493
0.715
2.S15;737
3,880,639
6,395,429
9,928,595
3,138,690
50,089,490
3,352
86,743,876
53,084
436,239,126
151,725,288
436,4f^;gEa
38,598
621.576
TUi plates . . . lbs
650
52.516,959
100.485.944
592.071.104
2,454,442
247,577,000
422,626
638,381,604
9,021
232,500i000
498,549.868
1,717,434,543
6,605,760
178,872,000
1,979,221,478
1.865.922
1,822.081.114
93.267
Wool Iba.
Com bush.
Cotton. ^ bales
V53.669
Sugar consumed lbs.
Cotton consumed 500-lb.bales
Domestic cotton exported lbs.
" " ■ 18.829
Passenger cars no.
American vessels built y tons
Trading domestic, etc. tons
Trading Icreign tons
106.261
301.919
669.921
279,255
1,949,743
1,585,711
198,266
157.409
2.715,224
1,352.810
605.102
1.734,890
f 4.735
65,752.000
42.989
33,315.479
29.215,509
9,723
55,942,972
13.947
457.267
VesselB passing through
Poat-Orflees no.
Receipts of P,-0. Dept.. dols.
Telegrams sent (1) no.
Newspapers, etc. (3) no.
903
280.804
18,417
6,499,985
'2.526
Patents Issued no.
Immigrants arrived (5) . . no.
993
369,980
aFIgures of 1920 are somewhat preliminary and sublect to revision: Incertain cases, the figures are the nearest
to 1920 available. * Exclusive ol Alaska and islands belonging to the United States, c Census figures, relating to
Continental United States, rf Census figures, e True valuation of real and personal property. ^ IbOO to 1850
outstanding principal of the public debt. January 1. AFlgures for the years 1800 to 1850 Include the total public
debt, j Gold and silver cannot be stated separately prior to 1876. From 1862 to 1875. Inclusive, gold and silver
were not in circulation, except on the Pacific Coast, where It Is estimated that the average specie circulation was
about 525,000.000, and this estimate is continued for the three following years under the head of gold. After that
period gold was available forclrcuiation. iAstheresultof aspeelalinvestlgationbytheDirectoroftheMlnt.arc-
ductlon of $135,000,000 was made In the estimate of gold coin in circulation on July 1, 1907, as compared with the
basis of previous years, and on September 1, 1910, a reduction of $9,700,000 wasmadeln the estimate of silver coin
m Includes all deposits, demand and time. « Includes value of buildlngs,S3.556.639,496. The Twelfth Census
was the first to collect statistics of buildings on farms, o Includes value of buildings, p Gross value of all farm
products. The figures of the various censuses are not comparable, reason for which will be found In census reports
a E.xclusive of neighborhood Industries and hand trades. Included in years previous to 1905. r "Ordinary receipts"
include receipts from customs, internal revenue, direct tax, public lands, and "miscellaneous," but do not include
receiptsfromloans.premlimiB, Treasury notes, orrevenuesofPost-OfficeDepartment. ("Ordinary disbursements" -
include disbursements for war, navy, Indians, pensions, payments for interest, and "miscellaneous, "but do not
include payments for premiums, principal of public debt, or disbursements for postal service paid from revenue
thereof, tf Domestic exports only after 1860. y Includes canal boats and barges prior to 1880. (1) Figures relate
to the Western Union only and after 1900 do not Include messages sent over leased wires or under railroad contracts.
(3) 1800 to 1850. inclusive, from census of 1880; from 1880 to 1900, Inclusive, from Rowell's Newspaper Directory
after 1900 from Ayer's American Newspaper Annual. (4) Includes salaries for teachers only. (5) 1850, total alien
passengers arrived; 1850, 15 months ending December 31 ; after 1850, fiscal years ending, June 30.
The Legislative power is vested in two
Houses, the Senate and the House of Repre-
sentatives, the President having a veto
power, whicli may be overcome by a two-
thirds vote of each House. Two Senators
from eacli state are elected by the people
thereof for the term of six years ; and
Representatives are chosen in each state,
by popular vote for two years. The num-
ber of Representatives for each state Is
allotted in proportion to its population — at
present one for 212,407. (See articles on
Apportionment, Congress, Senate and
House.)
The Judiciary consists of three sets of
federal courts: (1) The Supreme Court
at Washington, D. C, consisting of a Chief
Justice and eight puisne judges, with orig-
inal jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassa-
dors, etc., or where a state is a party to
the suit, and with appellate Jurisdiction
from inferior federal courts. (2) The
Circuit Court of Appeals, dealing with ap-
peals from district courts, and consisting
of the Justice of the Supreme Court for the
circuit and all the Circuit and District
Judges within the circuit. (3) The District
Courts, eighty-flve In number, served by a
District Court Judge. Besides these, the
Court of Customs Appeals (q. v.) was
created in 1909. (See Judiciary Courts, and
Supreme Court.)
Education. — The system of public in-
struction extends from the ktodergarten
to the university. Control Is vested in the
state and local authorities, the only cen-
tral organization being the Bureau of Edu-
cation charged with statistical and ad-
visory functions only. The number of Il-
literates Is swollen by Immigrants, and by
the fact that some 44 per cent of the col-
ored population receive no Instruction. It
Is said that no home Is beyond reach of a
school, whilst In some cases pupils are con-
veyed to and fro at public expense. A
salient feature of the American system
Is co-education of the sexes throughout,
there being comparatively few Institutioni
where the tuition Is not dual. Powerful
aid is afforded by private and philanthropic
Initiative. ' Special Schools and Profession-
al Establishments are nilmerous. Leading
Universities are California, the Catholic
University of America, Chicago, Clark, Co-
lumbia, Cornell, Harvard, the Johns Hop-
Isins, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Princeton,
Stanford, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Tale.
(See Education.)
Articles on the co-ordinate branches of the
United States government will be found al-
United States
Encyclopedic Index
United States
phabetlcally arranged In tlie Encyclopedic
Index under the following headings :
Executive — House
Executive Representatives
Executive Depts. Appoctionment
Executive Man- Speaker of the
slon House
President Veto
Vice-President Impeachment
Capitol Miscellaneous^ —
Cabinet Pan American
State, Dept. of Union
Treasury Dept. Government Ptg.
War Dept. Office
' Justice Dept. Botanic Garden
Post-Offlce Dept. Soldiers' Home
Navy Dept. (Reg.)
Interior Dept. Soldiers' Home
Agriculture Dept. (Vol.)
Commerce Dept. Geographic Board
Labor Dept. General Supply
Dist. of Columbia Committee
Federal Commissions —
Confederate Interstate Com-
Judiclal — merce
Judiciary International Wa-
Courts terways
Supreme Court Civil Service
Justices Fine Arts
Attorney General Am. National Red
Court of Claims Cross
Smittisonian In- Indians
stitution Industrial Rela-
Legislative — tlons
Senate Board of Media-
Senator ' tlon and Arbi-
Vice-Presldent tration
United States (see also States of the
Union) :
Accounts of, with States. (See States
of the Union.)
Act regarding bringing of suits
against, vetoed, 5682.
Admission of States discussed. (See
Admission of States.)
Aliens in. (See Aliens.)
American system discussed, 2504.
Army of. (See Army; Militia.)
Attempts made by Great Britain and
France to draw, into their contests,
437.
Attorney-G-eneral of. (See Attorney-
General.) "
Attorneys, district. (See Attorneys,
District.)
Boundaries of, and disputes regard-
ing (see also Indians; Mexico;
Northeastern Boundary; North-
western Boundary; Spain; the
several States) —
Northeastern Boundary referred to.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Canada, relations with. (See Can-
ada, Dominion of.)
Capital of. (See District of Colum-
bia; Washington City.)
Capitol of. (See Capitol.)
Census of. (See Census.)
Cessions of territory to. (See An-
nexation.)
Citizens of. (See Citizens of United
States.)
Civil War in. (See Civil War.)
Claims of, against foreign powers.
(See the several powers.)
Claims of —
Citizens against. (See Private
Claims against United States.)
Foreign powers against. (See the
several powers.)
States against. (See States of the
Union.)
Coast survey of. (See Coast Sur-
vey.)
Colonial trade with Great Britain.
(See Great Britain.)
'"jolors of France presented to,
through French minister, accom-
panied by an address from the
committee of public Safety, 181.
Combinations against. (See Illegal
Combinations.)
Commerce of. (See Commerce.)
Compulsory payment of claims
against, by judiciary process, dis-
cussed, 1720.
Conspiracies against. (See Illegal
Combinations.)
Constitution of. (See Constitution.)
Consuls of. (See Consuls of United
• States.)
Consuls to. (See Consul to United
States.)
Conventions of. (See Treaties.)
Courtesies extended to foreign na-
tions, 410, 023, 822.
Courts of. (See Courts.)
Credit of. (See Credit, Public.)
Creditors of. (See Creditors, Govern-
ment.)
Debt of. (See Debt, Public.)
DifEereuoes with foreign powers.
(See the several powers.)
Disbursements of, for intercourse
with Barbary Powers, 464.
Dismemberment of, combinations for,
discussed, 424, 427.
Divisions between people and, dis-
couraged, 229.
Drafts of. (See Government -Drafts.)
Emigrants to. (See Immigration.)
European War. (See World War.)
Expeditions in, against foreign pow-
ers. ' (See Expeditions Against
Foreign Powers.)
Expenditures of. (See Expenditures,
Public.)
Finances of. (See Finances.)
First treaty of commerce of, 820.
Fiscal operations of, should be sep-
arated from those of individuals,
1545, 1598.
Foreign intercourse of. (See For-
eign Intercourse.)
Foreign paupers introduced into.
(See Paupers.)
United States
Encyclopedic Index
United States
Foreign policy of. (See Foreign
Policy.)
Foreign relations. (See the several
powers.)
Foreigners in. (See Aliens; Natu-
ralized Citizens.)
Geographical distinctions in, dis-
couraged, 208, 2413.
Health Department, 261.
Illegal combinations in. (See Illegal
Combinations.)
Immigration discussed. (See Immi-
gration.)
Imprisonment of —
Citizens of. (See Imprisonment.)
Foreigners by. (See the several
powers.)
Indemnity received by, from other
powers. (See Claims.)
Indians, relations with. (See In-
dians.)
Inhabitants of. (See Census.)
Insolvent debtors of. (See Bank-
ruptcy; Debtors, Insolvent.)
Insurrections in. (See Illegal Com-
binations.)
Interference of foreign powers in
affairs of. (See Foreign Policy.)
Internal improvements in. (See In-
ternal Improvements.)
International obligations of. (See
International Obligations of United
States.)
Invasion of northern frontier of, by
troops of Great Britain, 1618,
1676, 1695, 1840, 1929.
Invasion of southwestern frontier of,
from Texas referred to, 1726.
Invasion 'against, for arrest of cit-
izens of, by foreign government
shall not be permitted, 1929.
Judges in. (See the several judges.)
Judiciary system of. (See Judiciary
System.)
Lands —
Ceded to, by Indians. (See Lands,
Public; Indian.)
Purchased by (see also Lands,
Indian; Lands, Public).
From France, 956.
Spain, 956, 1029.
Loans of. (See Loans.)
Losses sustained by. (See Claims.)
Maritime rights of. (See Maritime
Eights.)
Merchandise transported from one
port to another in, over Canadian
territory, discussed, 5770.
Military expeditions against. , (See
Illegal Combinations.)
Militia of. (See Army; Militia.)
Ministers of. (See Ministers of
United States.)
Ministers to. (See the several pow-
ers.)
Mints of. (See Mint.)
Naval force on the Lakes. (See
Great Lakes.)
Navigation questions. (See Naviga-
tion.)
Neutral rights of. (See Neutral
Eights.)
Neutrality of. (See Neutrality.)
Northeastern boundary discussed.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Northwestern boundary discussed.
(See Northwestern Boundary.)
Outrages committed on citizens of.
(See Citizens of United States.)
Panics in. (See Panics.)
Pardons granted citizens of. (See
Pardons.)
Parties in, people warned against
baneful effects of, 210.
Peace with other nations, hope ex-
pressed that it may be preserved,
229, 230.
Persons from foreign countries cross-
ing borders of, and committing
depredations, order regarding, 3484.
Pledge of, to Mexico. (See Mexico.)
Policy of, toward foreign powers.
(See Foreign Policy.)
Political affairs of Europe not inter-
fered with by, 2050, 2248, 2715,
4050.
Population of. (See Census.)
Powers, foreign, relations with. (See
Powers, Foreign.)
Powers of. (See Powers of Federal
and State Governments.)
Prefers war to tribute, 560.
Preparation for war recommended.
(See War.)
Presents offered to, by —
Emperor of Morocco, 1256.
Imaum of Muscat, recommenda-
tions regarding, 1809, 2169.
Private armed vessels of, instructed
to furnish aid to neutral vessels.
(See Vessels, United States.)
Private claims against. (See Private
Claims against United States.)
Public statutes of. (See Revised
Statutes.)
EebeUions in. (See Illegal Combi-
nations.)
Reception of letter of thanks from
Greece, 950.
Recommending active and hasty
preparation for war. (See War.)
Relations with foreign powers. (See
Powers, Foreign.)
Relations with Texas. (See Texas.)
Resolutions of —
Pennsylvania legislature —
Pledging support to, 446, 482.
Revenue of. (See Revenue, Public.)
Revised Statutes of. (See Revised
Statutes.)
United States
Encyclopedic Index
United States
Bights of, on ocean must be respect-
ed, 384.
Seat of Government of. (See Dis-
trict of Columbia; Seat of Govern-
ment; Washington City.)
Secret agent employed by Great
Britain to foment disaffection in,
referred to, 483, 488.
Should not consume what it is ex-
pected to guard, 317.
Stock held by, in corporations should
be sold, 1162.
Subscribes for shares in canal com-
pany. (See Chesapeake and Dela-
ware Canal Co.)
Supported by ballot box, not musket,
1390.
Supreme Court of. (See Court, Su-
preme.)
System of government of discussed,
2188, 2614, 2715, 2745, 2825, 2874,
3566, 5358.
Texan forces invade territory of, 1726.
Texas, relations with. (See Texas.)
Thanks, letter of, received from
Greece, 950.
Trade with foreign powers. (See
Commerce.)
Transfer of Louisiana to, disagree-
able to Spain, 376.
Treason, citizens punished for. (See
Treason.) ^
Treaties of. (See Treaties.)
Troops of. (See Army; Militia.)
Unity of—
Best preserved by local self-gov-
ment, 208.
Essential to liberty, 207.
Wars of. (See Algerine War; Indian
Wars; Mexican War; Revolution-
ary War; Spanish-American War;
Tripolitan War; Civil War; War
of 1812; World War.)
United States, Federal Government of.
(See articles under.)
United States, The. — A famous frigate
of the War of 1812. She was built at
Philadelphia In 1797 and carried forty-four
guns. Oct. 25, 1812, near the Island of
Madeira, she met and captured the British
ship Macedonianj also of forty-four guns.
Of the 300 men on the Macedonian, thirty-
six were killed and sixty-eight wounded.
The loss on the United ' States was five
Icllled audi six wounded.
United States, The:
Combat with and capture of British
frigate Macedonian, 506.
French seamen injured by, while
firing salute, 1273.
Provision should be made for fam-
ilies of, 1273.
United States Bank of Pennsylvania:
Payment of bonds of, held by United
States, referred to, 1726.
Suspension of, referred to, 1768.
United States Daughters of 1812.—
Membership Qualifications — Any woman
over eighteen years of age of good charac
ter and a lineal descendant of an ancestor
who rendered civil, military, or naval ser-
vice during the War of 1812, or the perlurt
of the causes which led to that war (sub-
sequent to the War of the Revolution),
may be eligible to membership, provided tbc
applicant be acceptable to the Society. The
membership is about 3,000.
United States Employees' Compensation
Commission, — This body was created by
Act of Congress approved September 7,
1916, to control the payment of compensa-
tion to all civil employees of the Federal
Governihent Injured, except by Intoxication
or wilful misconduct, In the performance of
their duties. By Executive Orders of the
Presidents, compensation for employees of
the Panama Canal Commission and Alasltan
Engineering Commission has been placed
under the jurisdiction of those bodies.
United States Employment Service.
(See Employment Service, United
States.)
United States, Buiopean and West Vir-
ginia Iiand Co., agreements entered
into with agents of Mexico, referred
to, 3723.
United States Food Administration.
(See Food Administration.)
United States Fuel Administration.
(See Fuel Administration.)
United States Geographic Board. (See
Geographic Board.)
United States Grain Corporation:
Capital stock of, reduced, 8857.
Liquidated, 8867.
Organized, 8711.
United States Library. (See Library
of Congress.)
United States Notes: (See also Cur-
rency.)
Act to fix amount of, and circulation
of national banks vetoed, 4222.
Discussed and recommendations re-'
garding, 6073, 6078, 6175.
United States Shipping Board. (See
Shipping Board, United States.)
United States vs. Peters. — ^A case of
mandamus decided In February, 1809, by
the Supreme Court of the United States,
the execution of which was opposed by
the State authorities of Pennsylvania,
backed by the militia. In the case of Olm-
stelad et al. vs. BIttenbouse's Executrixes
(q. V.) Judge Peters, of the United States
district court of Pennsylvania, decided In
favor of the plaintiffs, but refrained, he
stated, for prudential reasons, from carry-
ing his Judgment into execution. April 2,
1803, a Pennsylvania statute was enacted
forbidding the execution of the decree of
the Federal court. A mandamus was then
aslJed for against Peters. The Supreme
Court granted it, Chief Justice Marshall
declaring that the legislature of a State
can not annul the judgment or determine
the jurisdiction of a United States court
The execution of the original judgment re
quired the payment of £11,496 9s. 9(1..
Pennsylvania currency, which had been
United States
Encyclopedic Index
Uruguay
placed In the custody o£ the State court.
The PennsylTanla officials, with the militia,
resisted payment for twenty-six days, when
the marshal assembled a posse comitatus of
2,000 men, and the money was paid over
without actual collision.
United States vs. Todd.— A case not
printed, there having been no reporter at
the time. It was possibly the first case in
which the United States Supreme Court
declared a Federal statute unconstitutional.
Under an act of Congress passed in 1792
the name of Yale Todd was by the circuit
court of Connecticut ordered to be placed
upon the pension list. It was afterwards
(Feb. 17, 1794) decided by the Supreme
Court of the United States that the circuit
court could not constitutionally make such
a decree, nor could it act In the capacity
of a commission not of judicial function.
United States Wheat Director (see also
United States Grain Corporation) :
Appointed, 8710.
Resignation accepted and v^ork
ended, 8868.
Universal Expositions. (See Exhibi-
tions.)
Universal Military Training. (See Com-
pulsory Military Service.)
Universal Military Training League.
(See Preparedness Societies.)
Universal Postal Union discussed, 4574,
4640, 5971, 6164.
Universities. (See Education, National
University, Seminaries of Learning.
University of Paris praised, 8651.
University Settlement. (See Social
Settlements.)
Unlawful Expeditions. (See Illegal
Combinations.)
Unrest. (See Social Unrest.)
Upper Pend d' Oreille Indians. (See
Indian Tribes.)
Treaty with, 2913.
Uruguay. — Uruguay is the smallest of the
South American Republics and lies between
30°-35° S. latitude and 53° 25'57° 42' 'W.
longitude, with an. eastern (Atlantic) sea-
board of 120 miles, a southern shore line
of 235 miles on the estuary of Eio de la
Mata, and 270 miles of the Uruguay River
on the west. In the north the territory is
conterminous with Brazil for 450 miles.
Physical Features. — The country consists
mainly (and particularly in the south and
west) of undulating grassy plains. In no
case do -the peaks exceed 2,000 feet.
The principal river of Uruguay is the
Bio Negro, flowing from northeast to south-
west into the Rio de la Plata. The bound-
ary river Uruguay (Is navigable from its
pstuary to Salto, about 200 miles north, and
the Negro is also navigable for a consider-
able distance. On the southeast coast are
several lagoons, and the northeast boundary
crosses Lake Mirim.
The climate Is extraordinarily healthful,
with great uniformity of temperature, the
summer heat being tempered by the breezes
of the Atlantic and the geographical posi-
tion causing a high thermometer In winter.
History. — Uruguay resisted all attempted
Invasions of the Portuguese and Spaniards
until the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury, and 100 years later the Portuguese
settlements were captured by the Span-
iards. From 1726-1814 the country formed
part of the Spanish South America and un-
derwent many vicissitudes during the Wars
of Independence. In 1814 the armies of the
Argentine Confederation captured the capi-
tal and annexed the province, and it was
afterward annexed by Portugal and became
a province of Brazil. Aug. 25, 1825,
through the heroism of the thirty-three lib-
erators (whose memory is perpetuated in
the name of one of the provinces), the
country threw off the Brazilian yoke. This
action led to war between Argentina and
Brazil, which was settled by the media-
tion of the United Kingdom, Uruguay be-
ing declared an independent state in 1828.
Oovernment. — In 1830 a Republic was In-
augurated, with a Constitution of Sept. 10,
1829, amended last in 1918 and effective in
1919. The President is elected by the legis-
lature for a term of four years and is In-
eligible for a consecutive period of office.
There is a Congress of two houses. The
Senate consists of nineteen members (one
■ for each department), elected by indirect
vote for six years and renewable as to
one-third every two years. The Chamber
of Deputies is composed of ninety members,
elected for three years by direct vote. Con-
gress meets in annual session from Febru-
ary to June.
Each of the nineteen Departments has a
Prefect appointed by the President, and
an elective municipal council. Justice is
administered in subdistriet and district
courts, and in departmental courts at each
provincial capital. There is a high court at
Montevideo composed of three judges elected
by Congress.
The executive power is divided between
the President and the National Administra-
tive Council. The latter consists of nine
members, elected by the people. Six belong
to the majority party and three to the
leading minority. The President has charge
of the Departments of War and Marine,
Foreign Affairs and Interior, and appoints
their ministers. The other departments.
Education, Industry, Finance and Public
Works, are controlled by the Council, which
appoints their ministers.
Area and Population. — The area of
Uruguay is 72,153 square miles, with a
population estimated at 1,429,585. The
last preceding census showed a population
of 1,042,686, of whom 181,222 were foreign-
ers, chiefly Italian and Spanish. The capi-
tal, Montevideo City, has an estimated
population of 365,000. It is the only large
town.
Most of the people are Roman Catholics,
but there is complete separation of church
and state. Primary education is compulsory.
Latest educational -statistics showed 987
public schools, with 105,475 pupils and
207 private schools, with 19,909 pupils.
There are a university at Montevideo and
some special and professional schools, in-
cluding many schools conducted by the
churches.
Finance. — The unit of value Is the peso,
equal to $1.03% in United States currency.
Recent budgets have been in the neighbor-
hood of .$30,000,000 annually. The public
debt is officially announced as $173,703,012.
Production and Industry. — More than
100,000 of the people are engaged in agri-
culture. The last annual yield of the prin-
cipal crops was given as follows :
Uruguay
Encyclopedic Index
Utah
Metric
Crop Acreage Tons
Wheat 849,427 187,523
Oats 165,221 53,655
Linseed 52,275 12,660
Barley 5,197 1,578
There Is much production of wine, the
vineyards yielding in a recent year more
than 40,000,000 kilos, of grapes and 5,-
ti30,000 gallons of wine. OJives and tobacco
also are cultivated.
The rearing of live-stock is the most im-
portant Industry. Latest figures showed
within Uruguay 7,802,442 cattle, 567,154
horses, 11,472,852 sheep, 16,663 mules, 12,-
218 goats and 304,000 pigs. The extensive
pasture lands are particularly suitable for
cattle breeding and sheep farming, and
there are many establishments for the
preparation of jerked beef (tasajo) for
Brazil and Cuba, and of meat extract for
Burope, while the department of Fay-
sandu sends a special brand of ox-tongues
all over the world. The frozen meat in-
dustry Is now developing rapidly.
The mining Industry Is in its Infancy
and awaits capital. Gold and silver, lead,
copper, magnesium and lignite are indicated,
and gold is produced in small quantities.
Manufactures. — The Industries connected
with the live stock raising constitute the
chief manufactures, with the exception of
flour from home-grown grain. Outside these,
Uruguay still depends very largely on Im-
ported goods.
Commerce. — In a recent year the imports
were valued at $40,000,000 and the exports
at $135,000,000. In order of value, the
chief exports are wool and canned goods
and food extracts. The Imports come chiefly
from the United States, Argentina, Brazil
and the United Kingdom. The exports go
chiefly to the United Kingdom, United
States, Spain, Francte, Italy, Argentina.
In a recent year, the United States im-
ported from Uruguay goods valued at $33,-
780,647 and exported to Uruguay goods
valued at $33,720,550. The chief exports
to Uruguay from the United States were,
In order of value, iron and steel goods ;
mineral oils ; sugar.
Communications. — The three railroads, all
British-owned, have a total mileage of 1,654.
There are 260 telegraph offices and 4,808
miles of telegraph lines. There are 27,000
miles of telephone wire in Montevideo and
37,300 miles elsewhere In the country.
There are more than 1,000 post-offices.
Uruguay:
American citizens aggrieved by acts
of, referred to, 2014.
Treaty with, 2703, 2718, 2813, 4072.
Delay in exchange of ratifications
of, referred to, 2915.
Uruguay, Treaties ^th.— An extradition
treaty was concluded with Uruguay March
,11, 1905, and a naturalization convention
was signed at Montevideo Augnst 10, 1908.
Uruguay also became a party to the con-
vention between the United States and the
several republics of South and Central
America for the arbitration of pecuniary
claims and the protection of inventions,
etc., which was signed In Buenos Aires In
1910 and proclaimed In Washington, July
29, 1914. (See South and Central Amer-
ica, Treaties with.)
Usury, — A charge for the use of money in
excess of the legal rate of interest. Usury
is universally discredited and in many states
it is a penal offense. (See Statutes of Lim-
itations and Interest Laws.)
Utab. — One of the western group of states
sometimes referred to as "Deseret," a word
taken from the Book of Mormon and sig-
nifying "Honey Bee." Nickname, "Mor-
mon State." The State extends from
lat. 37° to 42° north, and from long.
109° to 114° west. It 18 bounded on the
north by Idaho and Wyoming, on the east
by Colorado and Wyoming, on the south by
Arizona, and on the west by Nevada. The
area is 84,990 square miles. The surface
is largely mountainous and includes part
of the Great Basin and all of the Great
Salt Lake. The region formed a part of the
territory ceded by Mexico in 1848. Agri-
culture, mining and manufacture, are the
leading industries. Probably no other state
in the Union has such a variety of re-
sources. Irrigation has been practiced from
the beginning and was once thought abso-
lutely necessary, but in later years arid
farming has achieved wonderful success.
The main products of the soil are wheat,
oats, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, corn,
alfalfa and timothy. The yearly wool clip
amounts to many millions of pounds and
is continually increasing. Utah fruits are
superior in sweetness, firmness, beauty and
fine flavor. The most successful manufac-
turing industry, aside from the smelting,
milling and refining of ores, is the making
of beet sugar. Salt production is also ex-
tensive, as is fruit and vegetable canning.
The mountains of Utah contain inexhaust-
ible deposits of minerals of great variety ;
some of them unique and peculiar to the
region. Silver, lead, coal and iron have
been mined for many years, and gold has
also been found ; but copper is the great
mining staple in Utah at the present time.
The first white settlements were made
by the Mormons in 1847-1848. The Terri-
tory of Utah was organized in 1850. Pre-
judice against these people and the polyg-
amous practices of some of them, kept
Utah out of the Union for many years,
though she possessed every qualification for
statehood and made repeated efforts to se-
cure it. After the issuance by the Mormon
Church of its manifesto discontinuing the
practice of polygamy a State Constitution
was framed prohibiting plural marriages,
and this instrument being approved at
Washington, the State was admitted Jan.
4, 1896. The Mormons still have a major-
ity in Utah, though in the leading cities
the Gentile or non-Mormon element pre-
dominates.
In 1910, the population was 373,351. Of
these, 65,882 were foreign-born, including
more than 18,000 English, 3,963 Germans,
8,300 Danes, 4,039 Greeks, 7,227 Swedes,
1,657 Irish, 2,853 Scotch, 1,672 Welsh, 2,305
Norwegians, 3,117 Italians, 1,870 Austrians,
2,050 Japanese. Forty-six per cent of the
population was urban. Tlie 1920 census
gave the population as 449,396.
The most recent educational statistics
show 131,374 children between the ages of
5 and 18, of whom 110,193 were enrolled in
the schools, with an average daily attend-
ance of 85,996. There were 917 male and
2,532 female teachers, and 642 public ele-
mentary schools. There were 43 public
high schools, with 256 male and 215 ftmale
teachers, and 4,648 male and 5,449 female
students.
The 1910 census showed 21,676 farms
in the state, with an average of 157 acres
to the farm and 40% of the farm land
classed as improved. Tho 1920 census gave
the number of farms as 25,664.
Utah
Encyclopedic Index
Ute Indians
The last annual agricultural production
was given as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Value
Hay, tame 472,000 *1,265,000 $16,445,000
Wheat 280,000 5,366,000 8,210,000
Potatoes 17,000 3,298,000 2,638,000
Oats 78,000 3,143,000 2,514,000
Corn 24,000 521,000 782.000
Barley 17,000 685,000 085,000
Sugar Beets. . . 112,700 *1,305,000
* Tons.
The last annual fruit crop included 918,-
000 bushels of ■ apples, S25,000 bushels , of
peaches and 60,000 bushels of pears.
Utah is one of the leading states in min-
eral production. In a recent year, the
copper production amounted to 182,589,000
pounds, $31,573,000 ; lead, 219,098,000
pounds, ,f 10,165,000 ; silver, 12,724,000 fine
ounces, $6,244,000 ; coal, 3,085,000 tons,
$5,860,000 ; gold, 189,107 fine ounces, $3,-
908,000 ; zinc, 22,643,000 pounds, $3,325,-
000. Other important mineral products are
salt, gypsum, manganese ores, petroleum,
sulphur.
The raising of live-stock, especially sheep,
is prosecuted on a wide scale. Eecent fig-
ures for farm animals give 145,000
horses, 109,000 cows, 518,000 other cattle,
2,245,000 sheep, 114,000 swine. The last
annual wool clip was estimated at 15,800,-
000 pounds, '
The number of manufacturing estahlish-
ments in Utah having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning 0f
1915 was 1,110. The amount of capital
invested was $71,653,000, giving employ-
ment to 17,129 persons, using material
valued at $62,234,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $87,114,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $13,696,000.
Utah:
Admission of, into Union proclaimed,
6120.
Affairs in, correspondence regarding,
referred to, 3115, 3123.
Alleged rebellion in, under leadership
of Brigham Young, discussed, 2986,
3034.
Appropriation bill passed by legisla-
ture of, and vetoed, discussed and
recommendations regarding, 4984.
Brigham Young, first governor of,
2985.
Alleged rebellion under leadership
of. (See Alleged Rebellion in,
ante.)
Removal of, and successor ap-
pointed, 2986, 3034.
Difficulties with, terminated, 3018,
3034, 3179.
Extraordinary session of legislature of,
act authorizing, recommended, 4984.
Gilsonite or asphaltuiri in, disposition
of lands containing, discussed, 6168.
Government of, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Arthur, 4837.
Buchanan, 2985, 3014, 3024, 3034.
Fillmore, 2663.
Hayes, 4558.
Increase in numbers and influence
of non-Mormon population in, dis-
cussed, 5553.
Industrial home in, report of board
on, referred to, 5186.
Information regarding, transmitted,
2678.
Judiciary of, and administration of
laws in, discussed,, 4162, 4204.
Land laws, extension of, over, rec-
ommended, 2623, 3037.
Laud ofSce in, recommended, 3037.
Lands in, set apart as public reser-
vation by proclamation, 6205.
Legal, proceedings and condition of
affairs in, referred to, 3115.
Mormon Church in —
Commissioners appointed under
"act in reference to bigamy,"
etc., referred to, 4678, 4731.
4771, 4801, 4837, 4946.
Letter of president of, advising
Mormons to refrain from con-
tracting marriages forbidden by
law, referred to, 5553, 5803, 5942.
Mountain Meadow massacre in re-
ferred to, 3123.
Peace restored in, 3179.
Polygamy in, discussed by Presi-
dent—
Arthur, 4644, 4731, 4771, 4837.
Buchanan, 2985.
Cleveland, 4946, 5379.
Garfield, 4601.
Grant, 4105, 4157, 4309, 4310.
Harrison, Benj., 5553, 5641.
Hayes, 4511, 4557.
Pardons granted persons guilty of
unlawful cohabitation in polyg-
amous marriage, 5803, 5942.
Proclamation regarding, 3024.
Recommendations regarding sup-
pression of, 2987.
Referred to, 3013.
Termination of difficulties in, 3018.
3034, 3179. ' '
Troops sent to suppress, 2986,3035.
Threatened conflict between Federal
and Territorial authorities in, dis-
cussed, 4162.
"CJnlawful combinations in, proclama-
tion against, 5932.
Utah and Northern EaUway. agreement
with Shoshone and Bannock In-
^'^Lti'' disposal of lands for use
or, 4655, 5187.
Failure of railroad to compensate
Indians, 1953.
^*?r|l;, *^'""'"^^^*°'»' referred to, 4678
4731, 4771, 4801, 4837, 4946. '
Utah Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Ute Commission, appropriation for
recommended, 4672. '
Ute Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Vacancies
Encyclopedic Index
Van Buren
Vacancies In Public Oi&ces, power of
President to mak^ provisional ap-
pointments to fill, discussed, 3190.
Vallandlgham Case. — May 5, 1863, Clem-
ent L. Vallandigham, a lawyer and poli-
tician ol Ohio, was arrested In accordance
with orders issued by Gen. Burnside, of
the United States Army, commanding the
Department of Ohio. On the day following
he was taken before a military commis-
sion, and subsequently tried, convicted and
imprisoned for uttering opinions disloyal to
the Union. May 19 the President com-
muted this sentence to banishment. Val-
landigham applied to the Supreme Court
for a writ or certiorari to review the pro-
ceedings of the commission, by which he
. claimed to have been unlawfully convicted.
The Supreme Court, Justice Wayne deliv-
ering the opinion, decided that it had no
power to review proceedings ordered by a
feneral oflBcer of the United States Army,
ustices Nelson, Grier and Field concurred ;
Chief Justice Taney and Justice Miller were
not present.
Valparaiso, Chile, sailors of the Balti-
more, assaulted at. (See Baltimore,
The.)
Van, vilayet of, referred to, 8854.
Van Buren, Martin. — 1837-1841.
Thirteenth Administration — Democratic.
Tice-President — R. M. Johnson.
Secretary of State —
John Forsyth (continued).
Secretary of the Treasury —
Levi Woodbury (continued).
Secretary of War —
Joel B. Poinsett.
Secretary of the Navy —
Mahlon Dickerson (continued).
James K. Paulding.
Postmaster-General —
Amos Kendall (continued).
John M. Niles.
Attorney-General —
Benjamin F. Bntler (continued),
Felix Grundy.
Henry D. Gilpin.
Martin Van Buren was elected by the
Democratic party in 1836. At the Demo-
cratic National Convention, held at Balti-
more, May 20, lie was nominated on the
first ballot.
Opposition. — A rival faction of the party
nominated Hugh L. White, of Tennessee.
Several rival candidates were named by
States as National Republican or Whig can-
didates. Among these were William Hen-
ry Harrison, Daniel Webster and Willie
P. Mangum. Twenty-six states partici-
pated in the election, Arkansas and Michi-
gan baying been recently admitted.
Tote. — At the election held Nov. 8, the
popular vote was Van Buren, 762,678; Har-
rison, 548,007; White, 145,396; and Web-
ster, 42,247. The electoral vote, counted
Feb. 8, 1887, gave Van Buren, 170 ; Har-
rison, 73; White, 26; Webster, 14; and
Mangum, 11 — all of South Carolina.
Party Affiliation. — In his youth. Van
Buren was a zealous adherent of Jeffer-
son ; he was elected to the State senate
of New York as a Clinton Republican ; but
In 1813 resumed friendly connections with'
Madison's administration. He disentangled
the political complications that prevailed
during the "era of good feeling" (1819-
1821) in New York and brought about the
election to the Senate of Rufus King, an
old-school Federalist. Later, he became a
generous supporter of Jackson, but in all
of his political affiliations his conduct was
marked by conservatism and moderation.
Political Oomplecdon of Congress. — In the
Twenty-flfth Congress (1837-1830) the
Senate, of 52 members, was made up of
81 Democrats, 18 Whigs, and 3 Independ-
ents ; and the House, of 242 members, was
made up of 117 Democrats, 115 Whigs, and
10 Independents. In the Twenty-sixth Con-
fress (1839-1841) the Senate, of 52 mem-
ers, was composed of 22 Democrats, 28
Whigs, and 2 Independents ; and the House,
of 242 members, was made up of 103
Democrats, 132 Whigs, 6 Independents, and
1 vacancy.
Finance. — A commercial panic began in
March, 1837, by the failure of Brlggs &
Co., of New Orleans. The panic reached
its height in May, when all the banks in
New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Balti-
more suspended specie payments. This so
much embarrassed the Government that
President Van Buren convened Congress in
special session in September, 1837, to con-
sider the situation. In his Special Message
(page 1541) he analyzes in detail the finan-
cial crisis and the causes which led to it.
He then unfolds his plan for the Institu-
tion of an independent treasury for the
keeping and disbursing of Government
funds. It was the return to the system
in use in Washington's time and was de-f
parted from, despite the earnest warnings
of Jefferson, when the United States Bank
was chartered for the deposit of Govern-
ment money. Congress was unwilling to
sanction the plan, but the President, with
unusual Insistence, succeeded, near the
close of his term of ofilce, in securing the
assent and cooperation to his sub-treasury
plan. The Whig Congress of 1842 repealed
the measure and deposited the funds in
selected private banks until 1846, when
the sub-treasury system was again adopt-
ed and has persisted to the present day.
In his Fourth Annual Message (page 1827)
the President gives a survey of the fiscal
affairs of the country and says that "It
will serve to illustrate more fully the prin-
ciples by which I have been guided in ref-
erence to two contested points in our public
policy which were earnest in their develop-
ment and have been more important In
their consequences than any that have
arisen under our complicated and difficult,
yet admirable, system of government- I
allude to a national debt and a national
bank. . . . Coming into office a declared
enemy of both, I have earnestly endeav-
ored to prevent a resort to either."
PubUc Debt — The public debt of the
United States during the administration of
President Van Buren stood as follows:
Jan. 1, 1838, $10,434,221.14 ; 1839, $3,573,-
343.42 ; 1840, $5,250,875.54 ; 1841, $13,594,-
480.75.
Commerce. — ^The commercial status of
the United States in the year 1840 is
shown by the following statistical sum-
mary : Area, 2,059,043 square miles ; popu-
lation, 17,069353 ; population per square
mile, 8.29 ; wealth, $7,135,780,000 ; money
In circulation, $186,305,488 ; imports, $98,-
258,706 ;• exports, $123,668,932; miles, of
railway, 2,818 ; vessels built, 121,203 tons ;
vessels in deep-sea trade, 899,765 tons ;
vessels in coastwise trade, 1,280,999 tons ;
vessels on the Great Lakes, 54,199 tons ;
post-ofSces, 13,468 ; Immigrants arrived,
84,066.
OS
■Si .J
5%
*n ^-,
^
a.
1
g
2
g
^
i?ZJ^
Van Buren
Encyclopedic Index
Venezuela
Foreign PoUoy. — It Is regarded as one ot
the most creditable features of the Van
Buren administration that It was able, de-
spite the popular wish in some quarters,
to remain neutral during the rebellion In
Canada. The burning of the Caroline in
this connection caused the President to Is-
sue hla proclamations of neutrality (pages
1698, 1699). In this case, as in all others,
the President consistently followed the
course laid down in his Inaugural Addresf5
(page 1537) where he said: "We have no
disposition, and we disclaim all right, to
meddle ih disputes, whether internal or
foreign, that may molest other countries,
regarding them in their actual state as so-
cial communities, and preserving a strict
neutrality in all their controversies."
The Democrats renominated Van Buren
but he was defeated by V7m. H. Harrison.
Van Buren, Martin:
Annual messages of, 1590, 1700,
1746, 1819.
Banking system discussed by, 1541,
1597, 1707.
Biographical sketch of, 1528.
Credit system, discussed by, 1541.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 3319, 3320.
Executive authority of, over public
moneys, discussed by, 1541.
Expenses of Government, discussed
by, 1541, 1752, 1824.
Finances discussed by, 1541, 1596,
1686, 1706, 1751, 1757, 1789, 1822.
Fiscal operations of Government
should be separated from those of
individuals. (See Subtreasury Sys-
tem, post.)
Foreign policy, discussed by, 1590,
1702, 1747, 1820.
Inaugural address of, 1530.
Large standing army unnecessary in
time of peace, 1607.
National and State banks discussed
by, 1541, 1707, 1757, 1828.
Northeastern boundary, correspond-
ence regarding. (See Northeastern
Boundary.)
Portrait of, 1527.
Presents offered, by Imaum of Mus-
cat, declined, 1809.
Proclamations of —
Discriminating duties on vessels of
Greece suspended, 1539.
Facsimile of, 1553.
Extinguishment of Indian titles,
1538.
Extraordinary session of — ,
Congress, 1538.
Senate, 1857.
Levying duties on vessels of Por-
tugal, 1589.
Neutrality in war in Canada, 1698,
1699.
Public money, views of, on custody
and distribution of, 1541.
Secretary of State, 1003.
Special session message of, 1541.
State of the Union, discussed by,
1590, 1700, 1746, 1819.
Subtreasury system discussed by.
1541, 1596, 1706, 1751, 1763, 1827!
Tariff- discussed, 1752.
Veto message of, act regarding distri-
bution of Madison papers, reasons
for applying pocket veto to, 1745.
Vancouver Island: Agent sent to, re-
ferred to, 3068, 3072. Boundary ques-
tion regarding. (See Northwestern
Boundary.)
Vandalia, The, loss of, at Samoau Is-
lands, 5479.
Vanderbilt, The, presented to United
States by Cornelius Vanderbilt,
recommendations regarding, 3288.
Referred to, 3585.
Vatican. (See Pope.)
Venezuela.— Venezuela lies on the north
of the South American continent and is
bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea,
west by the Eepubllc of Colombia, east by
British Guiana, and south by Brazil. The
western boundary is in dispute, the area
estimated by Venezuelan geographers (599,-
538 square miles) lying between 1° 40' S.-
12° 26' N. latitude and 59° 40'-73° 31' W.
longitude. Included in this area are over
seventy islands o£C the coast, with a total
area of about 14,650 square miles, the
largest being Margarita, which is politically
associated with Tortuga, Cubagua and
Coche to form the newly constituted State
of Nueva Esparta. Margarita has. an area
of about 400 square miles.
Physieal Features. — The Eastern Andes
from the southwest cross the border and
reach to the Caribbean Coast, where they
are prolonged by the Maritime Andes of
Venezuela to the Gulf of Paria on the
northeast. The main range is known as
the Sierra Nevada de Merida, and con-
tains the highest peaks in the country iu
Plcacho de la Sierra (15,420 feet) and
Salado (13,878 feet), the maritime ranges
containing the Silla de Caracas (8,531 feet).
Near the Brazilian border the Sierras Pa-
rlma and Pacaraima and on the eastern
border the Sierras de Rincote and de Usu-
pamo enclose the republic with parallel
northward spurs, between which are val-
leys of the Orinoco tributaries. The
slopes of the mountains and foothills are
covered with dense forests, but the basin
of the Orinoco is mainly llanos, or level
stretches of open prairie, with occasional
woods.
The principal river of Venezuela Is the
Orinoco, exceeding 1,500 miles in length.
The Orinoco is navigable for large steam-
ers for some 700 miles, and by smaller ves-
sels as far as the Maipures Cataract, some
200 miles further up stream. The coastal
regions of Venezuela are much indented and
contain many lagoons and lakes, of which
Maracalbo, with an area exceeding 7,000
square miles, is the largest lake in South
America.
The climate is tropical and except where
modified by altitude or teinpered by sea
breezes Is nnhealthy. Yellow fever Is en-
demic at Caracas, and plague oases have
occurred there since 1908.
History. — ^Venezuela was visited by Co-
lumbus in 1498, and in 1499 by Alonzo 'de
Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, the former
naming the Gulf of Maracalbo Venezuela,
or "Little Venice" (on account of the Indi-
an plle-buUt settlements on the coast and
Venezuela
Encyclopedic Index
Venezuela
shores of the lake), and the name was
afterwards extended to the whole of the
Orinoco basin. In 1550 the terriioiy was
formed Into the captalncy-generah of Ca-
racas, and the country remainder under
Spanish rule until the revolt under Simon
Bolivar, a native of Caracas, who defeated
the Spanish forces in the battles of Las-
toguanes (1813) and Carabobo (1821), and
thus secured the independence of the coun-
try. Bolivar was an untiring hero in the
cause of independence, and through bis ef-
forts (and those of his adjutant Sucre)
Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia (Upper
Peru) achieved their freedom from Spain,
while Peru was enabled to establish its In-
dependence in consequence of his victories.
He died in 1830, at the age of forty-seven,
and his remains were re-interred at Cara-
cas in 1842. Venezuela formed part of the
Federal Republic at Colombia from 1822-
1830, since which time it has been inde-
pendent. There have been many revolutions
since 1846, particularly in 1849, 1868, 1889,
1891, 1900, and 1908. In 1854 President
Monagas liberated the African slaves, and
in 1864 President FalcSn divided the coun-
try into States and formed them Into a
Federal Eepubllc.
Venezuelan Question. — ^Protection of the
sovereignty of Venezuela by the United
States through the application of the Mon-
roe Doctrine has, on two notable occasions,
called for prompt and determined action
by our Presidents — Cleveland in 1895, and
Roosevelt in 1902. (See Monroe Doctrine.)
The contention in 1895 was with Great
Britain over the boundary between Vene-
zuela and British Guiana. In July 1888,
President Cleveland laid a statement of
the dispute before the Senate (Page 5204).
President Harrison, in his first annual
message, expressed the hope that the ques-
tion might be amicably adjusted in accord-
ance with the historic titles of the two
parties (Page 5471), but regretfully an-
nounced in his third annual message (Page
5616). that the friendly efforts of the
United States in that direction had proved
unavailing.
Upon his return to the Presidency, Cleve-
land was again confronted by the question,
and In his first message announced that the
controversy was still pending. (Page 5873.)
In the second message during his second
term he declared his determination to bring
about arbitration— "a resort to which Great
Britain so conspicuously favors in prin-
ciple and respects In practice, and which is
earnestly sought by her weaker adversary."
(Page 5958.)
In July, 1895, the American Ambassador
at London was instructed to communicate to
the British Government the position of tha
United States on the question. This took
the form of a protest a^inst the enlarge-
ment of the area of the British possessions
on the American continent, especially at the
expense of Venezuela without the latter's
consent, referring to the traditional and
established policy of this Government (Page
6064), and denying the right of Great
Britain to establish an arbitrary line
through the territory in debate and submit
to arbitration only tne portion lying on one
side of it.
Great Britain's reply called forth a spe-
cial message from (Cleveland December 17,
1895 (Page 6087), in which he laid the
British reply before the Senate. The reply
declared the Monroe Doctrine "inapplicable
to the state of things in which we live at the
present day." (Page 6088.) CHeveland firmly
upheld the Monroe Doctrine, and proposed a
commission of his own to determine the
boundary line, and asked Congress to appro
priate money to carry out the terms, what-
ever the consequences, which he Intimated
might be forcible maintenance of his con-
tention, under the Monroe Doctrine. (Page
6090.)
Mr. Cleveland's attitude caused much ex-
cited comment throughout the country, but
his position was stoutly backed by the peo-
ple and newspapers of all political parties.
DiplomaticaUy, the matter was skillfully
handled, and finally referred to arbitration,
and It was announced to the next Congress
that a general arbitration treaty with Great
Britain was under way, (See page 6154.)
The arbitral tribunal was appointed under
the treaty of February 2, 1897, and the
award was made October 3, 1899. The terms
of award were announced by President Me-
Kinley in his third annual message, Decem-
ber 5. (See page 6380.)
(See also illustration opposite page 5195.)
The next invocation of the traditional
doctrine by the United States in behalf of
Venezuela was during Roosevelt's Adminis-
tration. Debts due by the South American
Republic to citizens of England, France,
Germany, Italy, and other foreign countries,
were long over-due, and payment seemed re-
mote, if not hopeless. The creditors ap-
pealed to their respective governments for
redress. England, Germany and Italy
agreed upon what they termed a pacific
blockade for the forcible collection of the
claims. Operations began December 3, 1902,
and on the 9th four Venezuelan vessels were
seized and an ultimatum was sent to Presi-
dent Castro. Upon Its rejection, two forts
at Porto Cabello and San Carlos were bom-
barded by the allies.
In his first message to Congress, Decem-
ber 3, 1901, President Roosevelt said of the
Monroe Doctrine (page 6664) that there
must tie "no territorial aggrandizement by
any non-American power at the expense of
any American power on American soil.
• * * We do not guarantee any state
against punishment If it misconducts itself,
provided that punishment does not take the
form of the acquisition of territory by any
non-American power."
By diplomatic interviews, all the Powers
concerned, except Germany, were brought to
a state of willingness to arbitrate. In the
case of Germany, President Roosevelt found
it necessary to Intimate that Admiral Dewey,
in command of the fieet, would prevent
forcible occupation of the Venezuelan ports.
At the same time the President informed the
German Ambassador that in event the Em-
peror should consent to arbitration the
credit for such advanced ground in inter-
national disputes would be accorded to the
Emperor.
The German Ambassador conveyed person-
ally to the President the assurance of the
German Emperor that his Majesty's govern-
ment would consent to arbitration and that
it had no purpose or intention to make even
the smallest acquisition of territory on the
South American Continent or the Islands
adjacent This voluntary and friendly
declaration was afterwards repeated to the
Secretary of State.
Throngh the offices of the diplomatic rep-
resentatives of the United States at Caracas
and the Government at Washington, proto-
cols were signed whereby Venezuela agreed
(see page 6794) to set apart a certain per-
centage of the customs receipts of two of
her ports to he applied to the payment of
whatever obligations might he ascertained
by mixed commissions appointed for that
Venezuela
Encyclopedic Index
Venezuela
purpose to be due from her, not only to tlie
three powers already mentioned, whose pro-
ceedings against her had resulted in a state
of war, but also to the United States, France,
Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden and Mexico, who had not employed
force.
The blockading powers, however, de-
manded that the sums ascertained to be due
their citizens by such mixed commissions
should be accorded payment in full before
anything was paid upon the claims of any
of the so-called peace powers. The powers
at this juncture asked that the question be
referred to President Roosevelt for decision,
but he declined, and suggested that the whole
matter be submitted to the Hague Tribunal
for adjudication. This was finally agreed
to, and amicable settlement was reported In
a special message by Roosevelt, January 23,
1905. (See pa^e 6941.) The Hague Tri-
bunal pronounced in favor of the allied
powers.
This later Incident found echo in the
Third International Conference of South
American Republics at Rio Janeiro in July
and August, 1906, when Dr. Drago, former
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Argentina,
announced the adherence of South American
Republics to the Monroe Doctrine, and the
conference, after discussion, recommended
that their delegates to the Second Peace Con-
ference at the Hague oppose the compulsory
collection by armed forces of debts due Its
citizens by any other government. This be-
came known as the Drago Doctrine. (See
Drago Doctrine.) Mr. Roosevelt stated the
policy of the United States on this question
in his sixth annual message. (Page 7060.)
Area and Population. — The area is given
as 398,594 square miles. Estimates for the
population range from 2,250,000 to 2,850,-
000.
Roman Catholicism is the state religion.
Oovernment. — ^The present constitution '
in force was oflicially adopted on June 13,
1914. -By its provisions the government Is
that of a Federal Republic of twenty au-
tonomous States, a Federal District, and
two Territories, with a President elected
by the federal congress for seven years
and ineligible for a consecutive term of
office and a cabinet of seven members, each
In charge of an executive department.
The Federal Congress consists of two
Chambers. The Senate consists of forty
members (two from each State), native
born Venezuelans above thirty years of age,
elected for four years. The Chamber of
Deputies consists of 117 members elected
for four years by direct vote in each State,
in the proportion of one per 35,000 inhab-
itants (each State having at least one rep-
resentative, irrespective of population) with
other representatives for every 15,000 in
excess of that number.
Each of the States has an elective Presi-
dent and Legislative Assembly.
Education. — Primary education Is free
and nominally compulsory, but little effort
is made to Instruct the Indians, and schools
are confined to urban areas. More than half
of the people are Illiterate.
Finance. — The revenue is derived from
customs and customs surtax of 30 per cent,
and. excise. Salt and matches are State
monopolies and are farmed out, the latter
to an English company ; Cigarette paper is
also a farmed monopoly, and with the ex-
cise on cigarettes produces 6,000,000 boll-
vares. Recent budgets have been in the
neighborhood of $14,500,000. The unit of
currency is the bolivar, valued at $0.19 la
United States currency.
The latest figures gave the public; doht
as $28,500,000.
Production and Industry. — Agriculture
and ^tock raising are tiie principal indus-
tries of the country, and most of the land
is suited for these purposes. The chief
agricultural products are coffee, cacao,
sugar, maize, beans, wheat, rice, potatoes,
vegetables and fruit of various kinds. Cpt-
ton is now being grown successfully for
three native cotton mills. The Live Stock
Is stated to Include about 2,000,000 cattle,
1,750,000 pigs, 1,500,000 goats, and 200,-
000 sheep. The llanos, or grassy plains,
could support many times the present esti-
njated number with organization and de-
velopment of the industry, much of the
pastoral area having been abandoned since
the War of Independence.
The fisheries round the coast and of the
lakes are of much importance for the food
of the people. Round the northern islands
are important pearl fisheries, but they are
only carried on in a primitive way by na-
tive fishers.
Gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, mer-
cury, sulphur, coal, asphalt and petroleum
are known to exist.
It is estimated that 200,000 acres are
under coffee, with more than 30,000 coffee
plantations. There are about 5,000 cocoa
and 11,000 sugar plantations. About 3,000
tons of sugar are produced annually.
Commerce. — Recent trade statistics show
imports of $16,500,000 and exports of $19,-
000,000. The chief exports are coffee and
cocoa, followed by hides. The trade is
chiefly with the United States, followed by
the United Kingdom, Spain and France. In
a more recent year than that for which the
above figures were given, the United States
imported from Venezuela goods valued at
$22,388,862 and exported thither goods
valued at $29,151,969. In order of value,
the chief exports from the United States to
Venezuela are cotton goods ; iron and steel
goods ; fiour ; chemicals, etc,
Ooinmunicationa. — There are twelve rail-
road lines, vpith a total length of 535 miles.
There is much navigation by water. There
are 5,814 miles of telegraph wire, with 213
telegraph offices; and 12,511 miles of tele-
phone wire. The post-offices number 310.
OfMe«.— Capital, Carileas. Estimated pop-
ulation, 75,000. Other towns are Maracaibo
(35,000), Valencia, Puerto Cabello and La
Guaira, and Ciudad Bolivar.
Venezuela (see also Caracas):
American citizens expelled from, 2952.
Blockade of ports of, by Great
Britain, Germany, Italy, 6794.
Boundary dispute with Great Britain
regarding British Guiana, 5204,
5471, 5616, 5873. 5958, 6064,
6087, 6154.
Arbitration of —
Discussed, 6337, 6380.
Eecommended, 6064.
Treaty for, 6154.
Monroe doctrine reasserted and at-
titude of United States respect-
ing, 6064, 6087.
Civil war in, terminated, 2552.
Claims of France against, 4761.
Claims of United States against (see
also Aves Island; Caracas Com-
mission; Venezuela Steam Trans-
portation Co.)—
Venezuela
Bncyclopedic Index
Vera Cruz
Acknowledged, 2702.
Adjustment of, 6338.
Awards of commission, referred to,
4321, 4539, 4693, 4716, 4853.
Distribution of, 4421, 4629, 4807.
Convention for adjustment of,
3111, 3587, 3721, 3885, 3891,
4055, 4100, 4371, 4951, 5195,
5198, 5220, 5369, 5391, 5962.
Course pursued to enforce pro-
visions of, 4320.
Discussed by President —
Arthur, 4761, 4807.
Cleveland, 5090, 5369.
Fillmore, 2702.
Grant, 3964, 4005, 4012, 4014,
4144, 4192, 4245, 4295, 4320.
Harrison, Benj., 5673.
Jackson, 1319.
Johnson, 3587.
Pierce, 2952.
Taylor, 2552.
Tyler, 2193.
Indemnity to be paid satisfactorily
arranged, 2206.
Mixed claims commission dis-
cussed, 4432, 4761, 4920, 5471.
Termination of, 5547.
Payment of, 3444, 4295, 4320, 4321,
4359, 4629, 5873.
Objection to, 4144, 4192, 4245.
Abandoned, 4295.
Submitted to Hague Court and
decided, 7380, 7493.
Correspondence with, transmitted
5907.
Differences of, with Prance and Bel-
gium, discussed, 6070.
Diplomatic relations with, 4562.
Disputes with, settlement of all,
7416.
Foreign claims against, submitted to
Hague Court of Arbitration, 6794,
6941.
Fugitive criminals, convention with,
for surrender of, 2917, 3185.
Discussed, 5962.
Import duties imposed upon Ameri-
can products by, 5672.
Retaliatory measures proclaimed,
5703.
Imprisonment of American citizens
in, 4789, 4803, 5198.
Independence of, asserted, 613.
Minister of, to United States, grade
of raised, 4718. _ ^
One hundredth anniversary of inde-
pendence celebrated, 7658.
Relations of, with France, discussed,
4629.
Revolution in, followed by provision-
al government, referred to,-4522.
Treaty with, transmitted and dis-
cussed by President —
Buchanan, 3111, 3185.
Cleveland, 5196.
Jackson, 1444, 1450.
Johnson, 8587.
Pierce, 2917.
Van Buren, 1751.
Vessels of United States —
Seized or interfered with by,
4114, 4371, 5198, 5547, 5673,
5873, 5962, 6070.
To transport remains of Gen. Paez
to, recommended, 5193.
Venezuela, Treaty -with. — Apart from
certain claims conventions, the only diplo-
matic relation between the United States
and Venezuela which survives is the pro-
tocol of 1903, by which United States
claims against Venezuela were submitted
to arbitration. The comr- slon, consist-
ing of two members (one chosen by the
President of the United States, the other
by the President of Venezuela) must sit at
Caracas. An umpire must be appointed
to preside over the deliberations, and It
was agreed that the umpire should be
chosen by the queen of the Netherlands.
The commissioners, acting under oath,
should determine after due investigation,
the justice of the claims. Should the two
commissioners be unable to reach a deci-
sion, the vote of the umpire should decide
the questions. Venezuela also became a
party to the convention between the United
States and the several leading repub-
lics of South and Central America for the
arbitration of pecuniary claims and the pro-
tection of inventions, etc., which was signed
in Buenos Aires in 1910. (See South
and Central America, Treaties with.)
Venezuela Steam Transportation Co.,
seizure and detention of steamers
of, and claims arising out of, 4114,
4371, 5198, 5547, 5673, 5873, 5962.
Award in favor of, 6070.
Venice, Italy, Geographical Congress
at, 4626.
Venus, Transit of. (See Naval Obser-
vatory.)
Vera Cruz (Mexico) , Siege and Capture
of. — March 9, 1847, Gen. Scott, who had
been ordered to Mexico to conduct an ex-
pedition against Its capital city by way of
Vera Cruz, landed a force of 12,000 men on
the beach in the vicinity of that port. By
March 22 the attacking forces were in posi-
tion and the siege guns mounted. Gen.
Scott summoned the governor of Vera Cruz
to surrender. Upon his refusal a bombard-
ment was begun and kept up until the morn-
ing of the 26th, when overtures for sur-
render were made by Gen. Landero. Arti-
cles of capitulation were signed March 27.
The Mexicans lost nearly 500 pieces of
artillery, besides other arms and much
ammunition. Five thousand prisoners were
taken and paroled, and the best port of
Mexico, with its famous and almost im-
pregnable fortress of San Juan de Ulloa,
was captured. The American loss was In-
significant.
Vera Cruz, Occupation of. — During the
Mexican revolution of 1913, Americans and
other foreigners In Mexico were sujjjected to
(jross hardship and abuse. Property was
seized and the owners were insulted, llirciii-
ened, imprisoned, and in sevrral iil.stiiuees
actually met death at the hands of one or
tbe other of the warring tactions. Presi-
Vera Cruz
Encyclopedic Index
Vessels
dent Wilson Increased the regular troops at
the border posts and sent naval vessels to
the Mexican seaports to protect the lives
and pi'operty of Americans and citizens of
foreign countries.
On the 9th of April, 1914, a paymaster of
the U. S. S. Dolphin landed at Iturbide
brldce, Tamplco , vrith a' whaleboat and
boars crew to take off supplies. The men
were unarmed and the boat carried, both at
her bow and at her stern, the flag of the
United States. The men were arrested, but
later released, and an apology was made,
but Admiral Mayo demanded that the flag
of the United States be saluted with special
ceremony. This was refused by President
Huerta of Mexico. Citing this and a num-
ber of similar insults preceding it. Presi-
dent Wilson, April 20, 1914, asked Con-
gress to approve the use of the land and
naval forces of the country to enforce the
fullest recognition of the rights and dignity
of the United States. This was granted and
Vera Cruz was occupied by the American
forces. In the three days of fighting seven-
teen sailors and marines were killed and
fifty wounded. The naval occupation was
followed by a brigade of the regular army
under Gen. Funston. Before attftnpting an
advance into the interior, oper.ations were
halted by an offer of mediation between
the United States and Mexico made by the
diplomatic representatives of Argentina,
Brazil and Chile. These met in Niagara
Falls, Canada, in May. An attempt was
made to adjust the differences between the
two countries, but the demand for a salute
to the American flag was not complied with
and the American forces were withdrawn
from Vera Cruz on November 23, 1014. (See
illustrations opposite pages 7682 and 7778.)
Vera Cruz, Mexico:
Battle of, referred to, 2385.
Occupation of —
Funeral of marines killed in, ad-
dress of President Wilson at,
7939.
Illustrations of, 7682, 7778.
Verdun, Siege of. (See World War.)
Vermont. — One of the New England
States : nickname, "The Green Mountain
State" ; motto, "Freedom and Unity." It
extends from lat. 42° 44' to 45° 1' north
and from long. 71° 38' to 73° 25' west.
It is bounded on the north by Quebec (Can-
ada), on the east by New Hampshire (sep-
arated by the Connecticut River), on the
south by Massachusetts, and on the west
by New Tork (separated in part by Lake
Champiain). It has an area of 9,564 square
miles. Vermont Is traversed from north
to south by the Green Mountains. It is an
agricultural state and has extensive quarries
of marble and granite. The manufacture
of wood-pulp Is an important Industry. It
was explored by Champiain in 1609. The
first settlement was at Brattleboro in 1724.
Vermont was early claimed by both New
Hampshire and New York. It was admitted
to the Union in 1791.
In 1910, the population was 355,956, of
whom 49,891 were foreign-born, including
14,643 French Canadians, 4,594 Italians,
11,415 English Canadians, 4,938 Irish, 2,436
English, 2,455 Russians, and 2,615 Scottish.
In that year, 47%% of the population was
urban. The 1920 census gave the popula-
tion as 352,428.
There are 2,472 public schools, with 3,023
teachers and 61,059 enrolled pupils. There
are 78 public high schools, with 385 teach-
ers and 3,403 male and 4,673 female stu-
dents.
The last federal census gave the number
of farms as 32,709, with an average of
142% acres to the farm, and with 35% of
the farm land classified as improved. More
recent figuros give thi» number of farms a?
29,072.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crof, Jcreagi Bushels ' Falue
Hay, tame 910,000 al,320,000 J30,3a0,000
Corn 25,000 1,175,000 1,480,000
OatB 81,000 2,835,000 2,126,000
Potatoes 27,000 3,510,000 4,388,000
a — tons.
Barley is also grown, as is tobacco, and
the apple crop is important. The produc-
tion of maple sugar and syrup Is a valuable
industry. The fruit crop included 1,600,00('
bushels of apples and 19,000 bushels of
pears.
There is much attention to cattle-raising,
especially cows. Latest figures gave the
farm animals as : Cows, 281,000 ; other cat-
tle, 190,000 ; horses, 86,000 ; sheep, 107,000 ;
swine, 120,000. The last annual wool clip
was 663,000 pounds.
About half of the marble produced In the
United States comes from Vermont. In n
recent year, the marble product was valued
at more than $3,000,000.
The forests of the state are extensive,
and have given rise to an extensive manu-
facture of lumber and timber products and
paper pulp.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Vermont having an annual output
valued at more than $500 at the beginning
of 1913 was 1,772. The amount of capital
invested was $79,811,000, giving employ-
ment to 37,217 persons, using material
valued at $42,555,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $76,811,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $22,002,000 in
the course of the year.
Vermont:
Admission of, into Union, 90.
Application made for, 87.
Constitution of United States, evi-
dence of ratification of amendment
to, 107, 166.
Officers appointed for, 91.
Vessels (see also Steamboats; Steam-
ships; Vessels, Foreign; Vessels;
United States) :
American registry for American
ovyned, 5985.
Canadian, permitted to aid disabled
vessels in waters of United States,
proclaimed, 5828.
Vessels, Foreign (see also under the
several powers) :
Appropriation for vessels detained by-
United States recommended, 6336.
Bond required of, 145.
Vessels
Encyclopedic Index
Vessels
Committing open hostility, right to
detain for inquiry, 353.
Consular jurisdiction over crews of,
in United States, 4038, 4129.
Correspondence regarding, 81.
Detained by tJnited States, appro-
priation for, recommended, 6336.
Discriminating duties on —
Discussed, 5089.
Recommended, 81, 1242.
Referred to, 667, 707, 755, 866,
917, 918, 969.
Should be refunded, 1172.
Suspended by proclamation —
Austria, 1003, 1004.
Brazil, 2372.
Bremen, 606.
Chile, 2612.
China, 4552.
Cuba. (See Spain, post.)
France, 752, 2371, 3711, 3969,
3973, 4182.
Revoked, 4132.
Greece, 1539.
Hamburg, 607.
Hanover, 970.
Hawaiian Islands, 3713.
Italy, 942, 3021.
Japan, 4131.
Lubeck, 642.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 1365.
Nicaragua, 3416.
Norway, 665.
Oldenburg, 666, 1059.
Portugal, 4080.
Spain, 4128, 4810, 5075, 5155.
Revoked, 5074.
Tuscany, 1452.
Suspension terminated, 4132.
Duties on. (See Tonnage on, post.)
Embargo on —
For 60 days recommended, 484.
Governor requested to call forth
militia if necessary to enforce,
144.
Imposed, 458.
Removed, 457, 466.
Equipped with warlike force must
give securities against abuse of
armaments, 567.
Forfeitures of, 504.
Guilty of committing depredations
shall not reenter waters of United
States, 391.
In ports of tJnited States during
"World War, placed under control of
Secretary of Navy, 8414. (See also
Netherlands, Vessels of.)
Number of, departing from United
States with permission, 446.
Reduction on duties, of claims of
governments to, 81, 4974, 5494,
5621.
Sailing under United States colore,
243.
Tonnage on —
Claims of German steamship lines
to interest on duties, illegally ex-
acted, 5084, 5367.
Claims of governments to reduc-
tions on duties of, 81, 4974, 5494,
5621.
Duties on —
Discussed, 4922, 5370, 5388.
Suspended by proclamation,
4871, 4872, 4889, 4895, 5154,
5326, 5327, 5598, 5930.
Proclamation revoking, 6129.
Treaty provisions regarding, re-
fusal of President Wilson to
terminate, 8871.
When armed shall not enter waters
of United States, 463.
When . within territory of United
States must be protected, 252, 264.
Vessels, Neutral, declared lawful prize
by-
France, 253, 432. ,
Spain, 432.
Vessels, United States (see also Mer-
chant Vessels; Steamboats; Steam-
ships; War Steamers; Navy, De-
partment of) :
Act to abolish certain fees for of-
ficial services to, approved and
reasons therefor, 4987.
Appropriations for, unexpended, 348,
504.
Armed, when they shall not enter
the waters of United States, 463.
When within the territory of
United States must be protected,
252, 264.
Armor for. (See Armor and Armor
Plate.)
Built for Japan, 3354.
Order regarding clearance of,
3443, 3444.
Prohibition of departure of, re-
moved, 3539.
Canal, Kiel, at opening of, 6062.
Oanal, Welland, discriminations
against, in. (See Welland Canal.)
Certificate to enter Spanish ports
required, 147.
Construction of naval, discussed and
recommendations regarding, by
President —
Adams, John, 26, 263.
Adams, J. Q., 876, 927, 955.
Arthur, 4638, 4727, 4768, 4796,
4834.
Buchanan, 2990, 3055.
Cleveland, 4935, 5100, 5376, 5882,
> 5972, 6164.
Grant, 4150, 4202, 4249, 4304.
4362.
Vessels
Encyclopedic Index
Vessels
Harrison, Benj., 5479, 5551, 5635,
5758.
Hayes, 4565.
Jackson, 1022, 1392, 1411, 1476.
Jefferson, 317, 333, 360, 407, 442.
Lincoln, 3385, 3450.
MoKinley, 6344.
Madison, 455, 461, 471, 504, 513,
538, 551.
Monroe, 594, 615, 618, 631, 649,
677, 765.
Pierce, 2748, 2821, 2872, 2942.
Polk, 2262, 2276, 2355, 2411.
Tyler, 1941, 2122, 2130, 2131.
Van Buren, 1609, 1719.
Washington, 185, 193.
Destroyed by Eebel vessels during
war, 3964.
Discriminating duties and fines on,
in Cuba, 1242, 4626, 4714, 4763,
4786, 4788, 5961, 6069.
Abolished, 4810, 5155.
Discriminating duties on, abolished
by Prussia, 969.
Discriminations against, in Welland
Canal. (See Welland Canal.)
Dry docks constructed for. (See
Docks.)
Duties levied on, by Great Britain
returned, 596. ,
Effect of, in protection of harbors,
407.
Embargo imposed on, referred to,
427.
Employed in coast survey. (See
Coast Survey.)
Encomiums bestowed upon, at open-
ing of Kiel Canal, 6062.
Fees collected from, by American
consuls, 4667.
Fines imposed upon, by Spain dis-
cussed, 4626, 4714, 4763, 4786,
4788, 5961.
AboUshed, 4810.
Fired upon by Honduras authorities
and disavowal of act discussed,
5869.
Forfeitures referred to, 504.
Fresh-water basin for, site for, re-
ferred to, 3591.
In Great Lakes granted facilities by
Canada for returning, 6331.
Injunction restraining, from sail-
ing in armed condition removed,
255.
Instructed to furnish aid to neutral
vessels, 529.
Interference with and the seizure of,
by foreign powers, 138, 184, 242,
374, 477, 560, 3017.
Ironclad, referred to, 4009.
Marine railway for repair of, re-
ferred to, 1043.
Must not depart from ports of Unit-
ed States while dangers are threat-
B-16
Cned from belligerent nations, 421.
Northern and Northwestern lakes,
passage of gunboats from tide
water to, referred to, 3402.
Number of, necessary for principal
seaports, 407, 455, 504.
Papers for protection of, engaged in
whale fisheries, 1774.
Privileges at foreign ports denied,
proclamation regarding, 3482.
Proposed distribution of, 408, 416.
Prussian^ abolition of duties on, 969.
Purchased for Peru, detention of,
3831, 3835.
Restrictions on, in Bosporus and
Dardanelles, 4078.
Right of search. (See Eight of
Search.)
Sale and transfer of, while abroad,
laws regarding, defective, 1755.
Sale of, referred to, 3«30.
Saved from shipwreck by Neapolitan
navy, 2899.
Seamen on. (See Seamen, Ameri-
can.)
Seized or interfered with by foreign
powers, 138, 184, 242, 374, 477,
560, 3017.
Brazil, 962, 2779. (See also Caro-
line The.)
Chile,' 1822.' 2051, 2116, 2193, 3445,
4289.
Colombia, 4289, 4358.
Denied privileges at foreign ports,
proclamation regarding, 3483.
Denmark,, 5388,'~6249.
France, 138, 243, 252, 387, 490,
(See also France, claims against.)
Great Britain discussed or re-
ferred to by President —
Adams, John, 242, 264, 271.
Buchanan, 3062.
Cleveland, 4990, 5198.
Fillmore, 2603, 2675, 2680.
Grant, 4068, 4070, 4114.
Jefferson, 410, 414, 420, 433
441.
Madison, 454, 477, 481.
Polk, 2286, 2297.
Tyler, 1909, 1920, 1929, 2016,
• 2076, 2111, 2215, 2219.
Van Buren, 1676, 1693, 1695,
1732, 1784, 1806, 1839, 1840,
1857.
Washington, 118. (See also
War of 1812 discussed.)
Haiti, 2680, 5368. 5390.
Honduras insurgents, 5869.
Mexico, 1684, 1685, 5123, 5502.
Morocco, 352, 353.
Paraguay, 2980, 3046, 3091, 3195.
Portugal, 1070, 1098, 1113, 1243.
Eussia, 3794, 6336.
Spain discussed by President —
Adams, John, 243.
Arthur, 4626, 4759.
Vessels
Encyclopedic Index
Vice-President
Buchanan, 2976.
Cleveland, 4919, 6068. '
Fillmore, 2679, 2721.
Grant, 3986, 4052, 4189, 4195,
4196, 4210, 4276, 4290.
Hayea, 4436, 4560.
Jackson, 1112.
Pierce, 2761, 2767, 2778, 2869,
2900. (See also Blade Warrior,
The; El Dorado, The; Virgin-
ius, The.)
Venezuela, 4114, 4371, 5198, 5547,
5673, 5873, 5962.
Should be navigated exclusively by
American seamen, 540.
Slaves transported by. (See African
Slave Trade.)
Sold to Algiers, 237.
Steam engines for, improvement in,
2122, 2262. f
Tonnage duties illegally levied on,
2948, 3049.
Tonnage duties on, referred to, 1123.
Transfer of property in, while abroad,
laws regulating, referred to, 1791.
Visited by British officers, 3062.
Whaling Interfered with by Eussian
vessels, 3794.
Veterans of CivU War, gratitude of
country to, 6672.
Veterans of Indian Wars of the United
States. — Instituted by officers of the Unit-
ed States Army at Philadelphia, April 23,
1S96. The objects are "to perpetuate the
faithful services, heroism, and privations
of the officers and soldiers of the Army of
the United States of America, as well as
of the auxiliary forces of the several states
of the Union, in their successive campaigns
conducted against a savage foe on our
frontiers, In the interests of civilization,
and for the settlement and defense of our
Territories at different periods in the his-
tory of our common country since the close
of the War of the Revolution ; and also to
collect and preserve for publication a
record of thes^ services and other histori-
cal data relating thereto, as well as to
unite in a fraternal bond of union all
those who are entitled to membership
therein."
Veto. — The act by which the executive rj-
fuses his approval of a measure of the
legislative body with which he Is associat-
ed. The Constitution gives the President
of the United States power to veto any act
of Congress by refusing to sign the bill
after its passage. In the Colonies (except
Rhode Island and Connecticut) the govern-
ors had power to veto acts of the colonial
legislatures. Massachusetts was the first
of the original states to grant the veto
power to its governor. This was in 1780.
In the Convention of 1787 several veto
plans were discussed, one of which pro-
posed to associate the Supreme Court with
the President in the exercise of the power.
The plan finally adopted resembled that in
use In Massachusetts. If the President re-
fuses to sign an act, It is returned to the.
House in which It originated with his rea-
sons for refusing his signature. That
House may then proceed to reconsider the
act. and if It again passes both Houses
with a majority of two-thirds It becomes a
law. The Constitution also provides that
"if any bill shall not be returned by the
President within ten days (Sundays except-
ed) after It shall have been presented to
him, the same shall be a law in lilse man-
ner as if he had signed it, unless the Con-
gress by their adjournment prevent Its re-
turn, In which case it shall not be a law"
(18). The veto power was used quite spar-
ingly by the early Presidents.
Following Is the number of veto messages
sent to Congress by the several Presidents.
Those whose names are not mentioned sent
no veto : Washington, 2 ; Madison, 6 ;
Monroe, 1 ; Jacljson, 9 ; Tyler, 8 ; Folic, 3 ;
Pierce, 9 ; Bncfhanan, 7 ; Lincoln, 3 ; John-
son, 22 ; Grant, 46 ; Hayes, 8 ; Arthur, 4 ;
Cleveland, first term, 301 ; Harrison, Benj.,
19 ; Cleveland, second term, 42 ; McKlnleyj
6, and Roosevelt, 15.
Veto Messages. (See the several Presi-
dents; the several subjects.)
Veto, Pocket. — The power of the Presi-
dent to prevent the enactment into law of
a bill presented to him within ten days be-
fore the adjournment of Congress, without
sending in a refusal to sign or his objec-
tions in writing, is known as a poclcet veto.
Veto Power discussed by President —
Polk, 2512.
Taylor, 2561.
Vetoes, Pension. (See Cleveland, Gro-
ver; Grant, Ulysses S.)
Vetoes, Pocket. (See the several Presi-
dents; the several subjects.)
Vice and Disease Centers in District of
Columbia, eradication of, 7548.
Vice-Admiral. — An honorary rank in the
United States Navy created by Congress
Dec. 21, 1864, and conferred upon David
G. Farragut. At the time of its creation
it was the highest grade in the Navy. Two
years later (July 25, 1866) Congress creat-
ed the rank of admiral and bestowed it upon
Farragut, making David G. Porter vice-ad-
miral. Oct. 17, 1870, after the death of
Admiral Farragut, Porter was promoted to
the vacancy and Rear-Admiral Stephen C.
Rowan was made vice-admiral. On his
death in 1890 the grade became extinct
During the colonial period it was custom-
ary for the royal governor to be appointed
vice-admiral, which made him head of the
colonial admiralty courts. (Sec also Ad-
miral.)
Vice-Admiral, creation of grade of,
recommended, 3450, 6423.
Vice-President of United States.— The
Constitution provides for the office of Vice-
President. His duty is to preside over the
Senate, and in case of the removal, death,
resignation, or disability of the President
succeed him. His salary Is $12,000 per
annum. Until the adoption of the twelfth
amendment, in 1804, the candidate for
President receiving next to the liighest
number of votes was declared Vice-Presl.-
dent. Five Vice-Presidents have succeeded
to the Presidency, (by reason of the death
of the President, viz. : John Tyler, who suc-
ceeded William Henry Harrison In 1841 ;
Millard Fillmore, who succeeded Zachary
Taylor in 1850 ; Andrew Johnson, who suc-
ceeded Abraham Lincoln In 1865 ; Chester A.
Arthur, who succeeded James A. Garfield in
1881 ; and Theodore Roosevelt who suc-
ceeded William McKinley in 1901. The at-
Vice-President
Encyclopedic Index
Virgin Islands
tempt was made la 1841 to give Tyler only
the title and rights of "Acting President,"
but he claimed the full office of President.
Six Vice-Presidents have died In office,
namely, George Clinton, Elbrldge Gerry,
William R. King, Henry Wilson, Thomas A.
Hendricks and James S. Sherman. Only
one resigned, John C. Calhoun,
A list of Vice-Presidents follows:
Name and Birthplace Inaugurated
John Adams, Qulncy, Mass 1789
Thomas Jefferson, Shadwell, Va. . . . 1797
Aaron Burr, Newark, N. J 1801
George Clinton, Ulster Co., N. Y 1805
Elbrldge Gerry, Marblehead, Mass... 1813
Daniel D. Tompkins, Scarsdale, N. Y. 1817
John C. Calhoun, Abbeville, S. C 182S
Martin Van Buren, Kinderhook, N. Y. 1833
Richard M. Johnson, Louisville, Ky. . 1837
John Tyler, Greenway, Va 1841
George M. Dallas, Philadelphia, Pa.. 1845
Millard Fillmore, Summerhlll, N. Y.. 1849
William R. King, Sampson Co., N. C. 1853
John C. Breckinridge, Lexington, Ky. 1857
Hannibal Hamlin, Paris, Me 1861
Andrew Johnson, Raleigh, N. C . . . . 1865
Schuyler Colfax, N. Y. City, N. Y., 1869
Henry Wilson, Farmington, N. H . . . 1873
William A. Wheeler, Malone, N. Y... 1877
Chester A. Arthur, Fairfield, Vt 1881
Thos. A. Hendricks, Muskingum Co., O. 1880
Levi P. Morton, Shoreham, Vt 1889
Adlal E. Stevenson, Christian Co., Ky. 1893
Garret A. Hobart, Long Branch, N. J. 1897
Theodore Roosevelt, N. Y. City, N. Y. 1901 ,
Charles W. Fairbanks, . /
UnionrlUe Center, O... 1905
James S. Sherman, Utica, N. Y 1909
Thomas R. Marshall,
No. Manchester, Ind.. . 1913
Calvin Coolldge, Plymouth, Vermont. 1921
Vicksburg (Miss.), Siege and Capture
of. — The night after the battle of the Big
Black, May 17, 1863, McPherson's and Mc-
Ciernaud's corps crossed the river on float-
ing bridges made of bales of cotton covered
with plank. Sherman, who carried the only
pontoon train in the army, passed' over at
Bridgeport, a few miles above. The whole
army then moved upon Vicksburg. Sher-
man, still holding the right, marched toward
the Yazoo River, and on the 19th rested
his right on the Mississippi, within plain
view of Porter's gunboats. McPherson fol-
lowed Sherman with the Seventeenth Army
Corps, halting where the latter had turned
oft McClernand came up by the Jackson
road and deployed to the left. The invest-
ment of Vicksburg was thus complete by
May 19, 1863. At this time Grant's army
was over 30,000 strong. The Federal force
was increased to nearly 70,000 during the
siege. The Confederate garrison, command-
ed by Gen. Pemberton, consisted of about
25,000 or 30,000 men and 102 guns. Vicks-
burg's fortifications were bastioned earth-
works. The place was provisioned for about
two months.
On the afternoon of the 19th Grant or-
dered a general assault, which was repulsed
with a loss to the Federals of 942. Three
days later he made another attack, but the
assailants succeeded merely In planting their
flags on the outer slopes of the bastions.
The city was found to be too strong to be
taken by assault. The Federal loss on the
22d was 3,199. During the skirmishing on
the 18th, 20th, and 21st of May the Union
army lost 241 men. Porter assisted ma-
terially in these attacks by a constant fire
from his gunboats and mortar boats. Pem-
berton soon began to feel the effects of the
• siege. By the end of May his meat rations
were reduced one-half, and not long there-
after the bacon supply was entirely ex-
hausted. There were no signs of the arrival
of reenfo.rcements and 6,000 men lay sick
and wounded in the hospitals and private
houses. Some of his men had been in the
trenches forty-seven days and nights. Be-
sides, they, were by this time constantly ex-
posed to bursting shell and the fire of sharp-
shooters.
Thus despairing of aid, his resources
about exhausted, the Confederate com-
mander resolved to capitulate. July 3, 1863,
Vicksburg was surrendered to Grant. Gen.
Grant accorded magnanimous terms. The
entire garrison was paroled and was allowed
to depart with rations to last them beyond
the Union lines. The results of the cam-
paign were the defeat of the Confederates in
several engagements, the occupation of the
capital of Mississippi, and the capture of
the important post of Vicksburg with its
garrison and munitions of war, a loss to tho
Confederate of over 30,000 prisoners and
several thousand killed and wounded.
Among the'dead were Generals Tracy, Tilgh-
man, and Green. Grant's losses in the cam-
paign, from the first skirmish at Port Gib-
son, May 1, to the surrender of Vicksburg,
were 1,511 killed, '?J,396 wounded, and 453
missing — a total of 9,360.
Victory Iioan. (See Liberty Ijoan.)
Vienna, Austria:
International Exposition in, dis-
cussed, 4142, 4190.
International Patent Congress in,
-1215.
Vienna, Congress of, denounced, 8402.
VillerS's Plantation (La.), Battle of.—
After the battle of Lake/Borgne, La. (q. v.),
the British expedition pushed on toward
New Orleans by way | of the Bayon Bieu-
venue and VillerS's Canal. Dec. 23, 1814,
within an hour after hearing that the Brit-
ish were approaching, Jackson had 1,800 of
his troops on the march to meet them. Half
of the invading army, some 2,500 men, had
approached to within nine miles of New
Orleans without serious check. The schoon-
er Carolina dropped down the river to a
point opposite Vlllere's and opened a ter-
rible fire upon the invading army, killing
or maiming 100 men in 10 minutes. The
general engagemeht lasted about' two hours.
Both combatants retired from the field In
the darkness. The loss of the Americans
was 213, while that of the British was
about 400 men.
Violence, lavrs needed against resort-
ers to, 8814.
Virgin I^ands. — Formerly the Danish
West Indies. They comprise the islands of
St. Thomas, St. Croix and St. John, which
lie In the Caribbean Sea almost due east
of Porto Rico on an Important trade route
to the Panama Canal, and are the northern-
mostoand westernmost of the Lesser AntU-
las. Their principal product is sugar cane,
although molasses, cotton and live stock are
also produced. St. Thomas is an Important
coaling and cable station.
Unsuccessful attempts had been made by
the United States in 1867 and in 1002 to ob-
tain the Islands from Denmark. In 1916 the
Government announced officially that nego-
tiations for their purchase had been com-
pleted, and on January 18, 1917, ownership
formally passed to the United States. The
price paid was $25,000,000 and abandon-
ment of any United States claims in Green-
land arising from American explorations In
that country. The Islands are of especial
Virgin Islands
Encyclopedic Index
Virginia
value to this country because their fortl-
ricatlons are o( great service in protecting
the Panama Canal.
The total area of the islands is 132 square
miles. The population is 26,051, of which
about 10,000 are on St. Thomas and 15,000
on St. Croix. There are three cities —
Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas, with 7,747
Inhabitants ; and Chrlstiansted and Fred-
eriksted, on St. Croix, with 4,574 and 3,144
inhabitants, respectively. Most of the in-
habitants are negroes.
Under the Act of Congress approved
March 3, 1917, known as the Organic Act,
the military, civil and judicial powers neces-
sary for the Government of the islands are
vested in a Governor, appointed by the
President of the United States 6y and with
the consent of the Senate. All laws as set
forth in the Danish code of April 6, 1906,
are continued in force until otherwise pro-
vided for by the Congress of the United
States. Danish citizens residing in the is-
lands at the time of the signing of the
treaty were permitted to retain their Dan-
ish citizenship by making declaration to
that effect before a court of record ; other-
wise. United States citizenship is consid-
ered to have been accepted.
There are two municipalities — that of
St. Thomas and St. John, and that of St.
Croix. The legislative functions of each are
vested in a colonial council, the former of
elected members and 4 appointed by the
Governor ; the latter with 13 elected mem-
bers and 5 appointed by the Governor. The
members serve for four years. The right
of franchise is restricted to those citizens
of unblemished character who have resided
on the islands for five years and who have
an annual income of at least $300. The
Governor administers through a cabinet of
six heads of departments, and the entire
administration is directly under the Navy
Department.
There are twenty public and twenty-
seven private and parochial elementary
schools, with 139 teachers and 3,793 pupils.
High, Industrial and night schools are
planned.
In a recent year revenues were estimated
at $175,000. The annual deficit in the
Government is met by appropriations by the
United States Congress. Both Danish and
United States currency is legal tender.
There are 430 farms on the islands, with
a total acreage of about 70,000. There are
also 85 industrial establishments. Sugar
and cotton are grown, and bay rum is pro-
duced. In a recent year, the United States
imported from the Tirgin Islands goods
valued at $4,541,786 and exported thither
goods valued at $3,993,478.
There is fortnightly service direct to St.
Thomas, and also schooner service to • San
Juan, Porto Rico. There are a post-office,
a cable office and telephone connections in
each municipality. There is a powerful
radio station at the Naval Station on St.
Thomas.
Virgin Islands:
Cession of, to United States, treaty
for, discussed and submitted, 3777,
3779, 3796, 3886.
Lighthouse service on, 8319.
Quarantine duties on, 8361.
Payment for, 8224.
Eules for government of, 8332, 8426.
Virginia. — One of the thirteen original
states ; nicknames, "Old Dominion,"
"Mother of State*," "Mother of Presidents" ;
motto, "Sic semper tyrannis" ("Be it ever
thus to tyrants"). Virginia is bounded on
the northwest and north by West Virginia
(separated by the Alleghany Mountains),
on the north and northeast by Maryland
and the District of Columbia (separated by
the Potomac Elver), on the east by the
Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean,
on the south by North Carolina and Ten-
nessee and on the southwest by Kentucky.
The county of Accomac lies east of the
Chesapeake. The area of the state is 42,-
627 square miles. Virginia is traversed
by the Blue Ridge Mountains from north-
east to southwest. It is level toward the
southeast. It is one of the foremost States
In the Union in the production of tobacco.
The State also produces largely wheat, corn,
vegetables, fruit, timber, coal, iron, salt
and building stone, and manufactures flour,
leather, Iron and tobacco.
Virginia was the first settled of the Brit-
ish American Colonies, the settlement hav-
ing been made by the English at James-
town in 1607. Virginia became a royal
colony in 1624. It was the largest and
most influential of the colouies. It took a
conspicuous part in the events leading up
to the Revolution. Virginia ceded to the,
United States all its territory beyond the
Ohio River in 1784. It ratifled the Con-
stitution in 1788. This great state fm-
nished four of the first five Presidents, and
altogether five of the Presidents of the
United States. It seceded from the Union
April 17, 1861, and became one of the
principal battle grounds of the Civil War.
The state was readmitted to the Union in
1870.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Virginia having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 5,508. The amount of capital in-
vested was $261,501,000, giving employ-
ment to 118,109 persons, using material
valued at $155,320,000, and turning out fin-
ished goods worth $264,039,000. Salaries
and wages paid amounted to $56,118,000.
In 1910 there were in the state 184,018
whom 671,096 were negroes and 27,057
were foreign-born, Including 4,228 German,
4,379 Russian, 3,687 English,. 2,450 Irish,
2,449 Italian, 1,246 Scotch. The urban
population was 23% of the whole. The
1920 census gave the population as 2,-
309,187.
Latest educational statistics showed 13,-
597 elementary schools, with 13,911 teachers
and 481,138 pupils enrolled. The average
dally attendance was 326,296. These fig-
ures should be read in the light of an
estimate of 678,455 as the number of chil-
dren between the ages of 5 and 18. There
are 415 public high, schools, with 439 male
and 1,010 female teachers and 11,435 male
and 17,722 female students.
In 1910, there were in the state 184,018
farms, with an average of 106 acres to the
farm and with 50%% of the farm land
classed as improved. The 1920 census
showed 186,011 farms.
The last fruit crop included 15,210,000
bushels of apples, 1,470,000 bushels of
peaches and 296,000 Bushels of pears.
The most recent figures for farm animals
were as follows : Horses, 369,000 ; mules,
66,000; cows, 424,000; other cattle, 567,'
000 ; sheep, 700,000 ; swine, 1,094,000. The
last wool clip was 1,918,00 pounds.
The fisheries, especially the oysters, are
valuable.
Virginia Encyclopedic Index Virginius
The most recent annual agricultural pro- contracts. An act of the Virginia legisla-
ductiou was as follows: ture In 1871 authorized the receipt of cou-
Crop AcTea.ce Bushels lvalue P°°^ °' ^^^ state's funded debt in payment
n ° ^^in^ cnfn^„„;^ ..„,^„^„„ ot taxes and debts due the state. An act
S°™; ■„ *'S9'nSR*,?S'JSn'mn *^S'iS?'SSS «* 1882 required payment of tax dues in
l^^""" ^2'0OO*i",39O,0OO 42,574,000 ..gold, sUve?, United States Treasury notes,
w/eat 914 000 11 'lls'ooo loSM 000 °ational-banl£ currency, and nothing else."
IvStoe^ :::::; lieioOO lailoiiooo ^"lilsiooo ^he tax collectors thereupon refused to ac-
Peannts 138,000 4 416000 6,006,000 cept tne coupons In payment of taxes, as
Oats 220,000 4 818 000 3,903 000 S"*?"']^^! ''^ tl*® '/'^ „9,* l^^Ji The court
Rye 72.000 864,000 1339 000 decided the law of 1882 void, and judg-
Cotton 39,000 ***19,000 1,425,000 ment was found for the plaintiff taxpayers.
Sw. Potatoes . . 36,000 4,032,000 3i830i000 .
*Pounds; **Tons; ***Bales. Virginia Plan.— At the opening of the
Convention of 1787 to amend the Articles
The chief mineral is coal, of which 9,- of Confederation, Edmund Kandolph, of
500,000 tons were produced in a recent "year. Virginia, on behalf of his delegation, set
The next most important minerals are forth the defects In the old articles and sub-
granite and pig iron. mltted a series of fifteen resolutions drawn
up by Madison. This was the first plan of
Virginia (see also Confederate States; L''sometiS[eTcIuedVe'''"R™nJo^'l,h°°P.an"
Kiohmond;: or the "National Plan." It provided for
Alexandria County retroeeded to, by representation according to population in
nrnplaTnatirm P^Pfl ^'^° branches of Congress— the first chosen
proclamation, ^dzu. ,,y ^jjg people, the second by the state legls-
AppUcation of loyal persons in, to latures ; Congressional control of taxation
remove within Union lines, 3360. and commerce : Congressional veto of state
Aiithoritv of TTnited Stateq rppstal, enactments; an Executive chosen by Con-
r 1, ^^ a>;a>? states reestab- g^egs . a limited veto by the Executive and
lisnea m, dooo. part of the judiciary upon acts of Congress.
Boundary line of, referred to, 125, There were other and less Important pro-
]^42 visions. The Constitution as framed and
, ratified was based on the Virginia plan, but
Bounty lands of, referred to, 80. quite a number of Its leading features were
Census of, incomplete, 654. I't^e"" rejected altogether or greatly modi-
Claims of, for militia services in ^ ' '
War of 1812, 806. , Virginia Kesolutions.— A set of nine reso-
i?i.3«4.;»«c 5- 4..»»»„ „i-4.-« A «4.^«n lutions drawn up by James Madison, then
Elections m, troops stationed at poll- ^ member of the Vl/ginia legislature, passed
mg places, referred to, 4367, 4372. by that body, and signed by the governor
Lands ceded to Indians by, 108. Dec. 24, 1798. The reason for the passage
Loyal persons in, application of, to ?? ^^^^ resolutions and similar ones by
,o™„™ ,,^4.i,i„ TT„f™ i;„„„ OQcn Kentucljy about the same time was to give
remove within Union lines, 3360. expression to the feeling that had been
Mediation of, for settlement of ques- growing since 1791 that the Federal party
tions threatening Union, discussed, !^^/„ ^^^ll*!,"'?^ 'S obtain greater power
„.,o„ ° ' ' than that conferred upon the Government
oi-')'^- by the Constitution. The direct cause of
Militia services in War of 1812, t^ieir adoption was the passage of the alien
rlaima of for ROfi ^^^ sedition laws (q. v.) by Congress. The
Claims or, lor, ouo. resolutions deplored the broad construction
Persons in, attempting to exercise given to the Constitution, as tending to-
Offleial powers of civil nature, or- ^f^rd monarchical government. They de-
j J- on At: clared the Union to be a compact between
der regarding, 6m>. the states composing It, and that when this
Ratification of amendment to Fed- compact was Infringed, each state might
prnl flnnqtHiitioTi hv rpfprrpfl to interpose to protect itself. The alien and
?n^ i>.fl oin ^' ^'^^^^^^°- *"' sedition laws were denounced as "palpable
100, lUo, IVd. and alarming Infractions of the Constitu-
Eeconstruction of, recommendations tion." (See also Allen and Sedition Laws ;
^ a- „ oocK Kentucky Kesolutlons.)
regarding, 6yb5.
Referred to, 4000. Virginius, The.— Oct. 31, 1873, the Tir-
Time for submitting constitution Oinius. an AmAlcan schooner suspected of
.„ „„i^ „ „i„f J oncT carrying men and arms from New York to
to voters, proclaimed, 3967. ^he Cuban Insurgents, was captured by the
Referred to, 3983. Spanish gunboat Tornado on the high seas
» War between the States, course re- "l**>,^^"^l£*-„„S*?*;,/7„v?°^ J?i=*'';°''^
,. 3 , nnnt of the crcw and four Cuban passengers
garding, pursued by, 3224. were executed. The affair created much 111
Withdrawal of, from Union, dis- ^f "°,S between the United States and Spain.
.Yiuiiuittvvo. , >/ , vx o ^jjg latter country made such reparation
cussea, a.i^4. as lay within her power by disclaiming any
"^%^^^. ^."^?f ^'1?^^' P'^"''^ ^y- pS°Llni?Z\y^lnri*/'su?r'e"^rerlS|
President Wilson, 8103. 102 remaining prisoners. It was proved
_,,,-, _ A I < . 1,4. that the Yirginiua was not entitled to sail
Virginia Coupon Cases.— A series of eight under our flag. She foundered at sea :,«
cases In which the United States Supreme Cape Fear Dec. 19, 1878, while on her way
Court in 1884 denied the right of a state to New York. (See illustration opposite
to pass laws Impairing the obligation of page 4329.)
Virginius
Encyclopedic IndeJe
Vote of Thanks
Virginius, The, seized by Spanish ves-
sel and citizens of United States
on, put to death, discussed, 4189,
4195, 4210.
Claims regarding, settled, 4276.
Condition of indemnity fund, re-
ferred to, 5187, 5908.
Correspondence regarding, transmit-
ted, 4436.
Distribution of indemnity to claim-
ants, discussed, 4290, 5122."
Orders regarding, 5077, 6339.
Visits of Foreign Commissions. — On
April 20, 1917, a commission to the United
States from England arrived at an American
port to consult and to be consulted concern-
ing the part to be played by the United
States in the straggle against Germany. It
was followed by the arrival, on April 24, of
a similar commission from France; and on
May 9, by the advance-guard of a similar
commission from Italy. The leading figure
In the English Commission was Minister
Balfour, and the leading figures in the
French Commission. ex-Premier Viviani and
Marshal JofEre. (For the careers of these
men, look under their names in the Bio-
graphical Index.) The advance-guard of the
Italian Commission "was headed by Enrico
Arlotta, Minister of Maritime and Railway
Transportation. After consulting In Wash-
ington with the President, the Cabinet, and
high oflicials of the United States Army and
Navy, the French and English commissions
paid visits to different cities of the East
and Middle West, being received everywhere
with acclamation. The remainder of the
Italian Commission arrived In Washington
on May 23, 1917. It was headed by the
Prince of Udine, the eldest son of the
Regent of Italy ; and included In Its per-
sonnel Guglielmo Marconi, the Inventor of
the wireless telegraph. In June, a Belgian
commission arrived in the United States.
It was headed by Baron Moncheur. formerly
Belgian minister to the United States,
Mexico, and Turkey, and later chief of the
political bureau of the Belgian Foreign
Office. The counsel of the commission was
M. earlier, a prominent Belgian banker ;
and other members were General Leclerq,
Major Osterrieth, and Count d'Ursel. In
the same month, a similar commission from
Russia was received in the United States.
It was headed by Special Ambassador Boris
A. Bakhmetieif. In September, 1917, a
conrtnisslon from Japan was received in
Washington under the leadership of Vis-
count Ishll.
Vizcaya, The, mentioned, 6317.
Vladivostok, American and Allied
troops at, 8591, 8824,^8825.
Vocational Education, Federal Boa^d
for. This body was created by act of
Congress apprpved on February 23, 1917.
It is the representative of the Government
cooperating with boards appointed by the
States, according to the provisions of the
Act, to stimulate and Inaugurate vocational
education and to train teachers in vocational
education In agriculture and. the trades and
industries. The Board also makes studies
of and investigation In vocational education.
Vocational Education, advocated by
President Wilson 8187. (See also
Education.)
Vocational Rehabilitation of soldiers
and sailors, support urged for, 8758,
8886.
Volpna, port of, assigned to Italy, 8707.
Volunteer Act regarding IkUlitla, pas-
sage of, 7514.
Volunteer Naval Reserve. (See Naval
Reserve.)
Volunteer System of Army:
Assistance to, discussed, 7800.
Reliance upon in crisis, discussed,
6672.
(See also Army and Preparedness.)
Volunteers. — Persons who enter the mili-
tary seivice of their own free will for
temporary duty, as distinguished from reg-
ulars of a permanent military establishment.
By an act passed in 1792 the American Con-
gress recognized the existence in a number
of states of volunteer organizations not In-
cluded in the militia of those states. The
Government has since from time to time
raised volunteers for temporary purposes.
Such trooDS are United States rather than
state forces, and their officers are to be ap-
pointed by the President. A provisional
force of 25,000 volunteers was authorized
by Congress for the war with England In
1812. During the Mexican War 73,500
volunteers were enlisted. During the Civil
War a number of calls were made for vol-
unteers, aggregating nearly 2,800,000 en-
listments. In the war with Spain over
200,000 volunteers were enlisted. (See
also Militia ; Army.)
Volunteers of America. (See Salvation
Army.)
Votes for President, Count of.— The
electoral votes of the states are received
by the President of the Senate. The two
Houses meet in Joint session on a day fixed
by law, and the President of the Senate
opens the returns and hands them to tellers,
who count the votes and announce the re-
sult. In 1876 two sets of returns were
received from certain states. A special elec-
toral commission was appointed by Congress
to decide which were the regular returns, i
In 1887 Congress passed a law providing
that contests over electors should be finally
decided under state laws as far as possible.
Vote of Thanks. (See Thanks of Con-
gress.)
Wabash
Encyclopedic Index
War Claims
Wabash and Erie Canal, grant of land
in aid of, to Indiana, 1725.
Wabash Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Instructions to commissioners in
making treaty with, 6271.
Troops must be called for, to sup-
press, 53, 74.
Treaty with, 127.
Wabash River, act for improvement
of navigation on, reasons for apply-
ing pocket veto to, 1337.
Wageworkers. (See Labor.)
Wahpetou Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Wake and Other Islands.— The United
States flag was hoisted over Wake Isl-
and in January, 1899, b; Commander Taus-
sig, of the Bennirtgton, while proceeding to
Guam. It is a small island in the direct
route from Hawaii to Hongkong, about
2,000 miles from the first and 3,000 miles
from the second.
The United States possesses a number
of scattered small islands in the Pacific
Ocean, some hardly more than rocks or
coral reefs, over which the flag has been
hoisted from time to time. They are of
little present value and mostly uninhab-
ited. The largest are Christmas, Gallego,
Starbnck, Penrhyn, Phoenix, Palmyra, How-
, land. Baker, Johnston, Gardner, Midway,
Moreil, and Marcus islands. The Midway
Islands are occupied by a colony of teleg-
raphers in charge of the relay in the cable
line connecting the Philippines with the
United States, in all about forty persons.
The Santa Barbara group Is a part of /
California and the Aleutian chain, extend-
ing from the peninsular of Kamchatka In
Asiatic Russia to the promontory in North
America which separates Bering Sea from
the North Pacific, a part of Alaska.
Wakefield, Va., appropriation for ap-
proaches to monument at, to mark
birthplace of Washington, recom-
mended, 4803.
Wales. (See Great Britain.)
Walker vs. Jennison. — A slave case de-
cided by the Massachusetts Supreme Court
in 1783. ' It placed a construction upon the
State constitution which soon afterwards
put an end to slavery in the State. A
negro servant had been whipped and im-
prisoned by his master, and public indig-
nation was aroused by the offense. The
owner of the slave was prosecuted. The
Supreme Court, sitting in Worcester, found
the defendant guilty of assault and imposed
a fine upon him. The holding of the court
was that the State constitution of 1870,
in declaring all men free and equal, had
abolished slavery in Massachusetts. As a
matter of strict fact, runaway slaves were
advertised for in the Boston newspapers
after the decision had been promu^ated.
Nevertheless, the institution of slavery very
soon after 1783 came to an end in Massa-
chusetts.
^alker River Reservation, Nev., right
of way for railroad through, 4736,
4776, 4953, 5178.
Walla Walla Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Wall Street, New York City, Liberty
Loan campaign in. (See illustration
opposite 8570.)
Wampum. — An Indian word meaning
"white" and referring to strings of white
beads worn for ornament and used as a
medium of exchange. The beads were
made of clam shells, through which holes
bad been drilled, and were strung upon a
thread. Tradition says the Narragansets
were the first Indians to use wampum.
This is perhaps true as regards the beads
made of the quahog or clam shell of the
coasts of Rhode Island and Connecticut,
though periwinkle shells were also used.
Its use as money spread from the coast
Indians inland. It was also used by the
colonists of New England and the Middle
States, having been deemed legal tender
from 1627 to 1661. Beads of black or dark
purple were rated at double the white
wampum. Wampum was Icnown to the
Dutch settlers under the name of "sewon"
or "zeewand." Payments were made by
cutting off the desired number of beads.
They were also used In the simple arithmet-
ical calculations of the Indians.
Wanderer, The, landing of, with cargo
of slaves, 3065, 3086.
War (see also Algerine War; Indian
Wars; Mexican War; devolution;
Revolutionary War; Spanish- Am-
erican War; Tripolitan War; Civil
War; War of 1812; Wars, Foreign;
World War; also Peace) :
Between civilized countries, decrease
in, 6717, 6993.
Evils of, reduced by Hague agree-
ment, 7120.
Instant redress, conferring of author-
ity upon President to demand, rec-
ommended, 3100.
International agreement to regard
private property at sea as exempt
from capture by belligerents, rec-
ommended, 6338.
Justifiable under certain conditions,
7065.
One-half of every century consumed
in, 791.
Possibility of, with Great Britain,
referred to, 2277.
Power to declare, discussed, 3100.
Preparation for, by Great Britain,
2277.
Preparation for, with-r-
Franoe, I'eoommended, 262, 268,
270, 1411.
Spain, referred to, 376.
Threatened by Tunis, 388.
War Aims of America. (See Peace,
Terms of.)
War Between the States. (See Civil
War.)
War Claims (see also Fourth of July
Claims; Southern Claims Commis-
sions) :
Discussed, 4205, 4303, 5755.
Payment of, referred to, 4148.
Q
C3'
S 5
War College
Encyclopedic Index
War Department
War College. (See War, Department
of and illustration, frontiapieee. Vol.
IX.)
War Department. — An Executive Depart-
ment of the federal government established
by act of the First Congress under the
Constitution, on Aug. 7, 1789. The work
then taken up by the Department was be-
gun by the Continental Congress, that body
on June 15, I775, having elected George
Washington "to command all the conti-
nental forces raised or to be raised for the
defense of American liberty." An Adjutant
General, Quartermaster-General, and Com-
missary-General were also appointed, and
on Dec. 26 of the following year Congress
gave General Washington power to appoint
all officers below the grade of Brigadier-
General and to fill vacancies in all depart-
ments of the American Army.
In response to the recommendation of
Washington, Congress, on June 13, 1776,
created the Board of War, which was the
germ of the modern War Department. The
office of Secretary of War was created In
1781 and was filled by Henry Knox from
1784. When the War Department was for-
mally established in 1789 he was made the
first Secretary under the Constitution.
In addition to preparing estimates and
directing expenditures for the Army, and
being generally responsible for the efficiency
of the military arm of the Government, the
Secretary of War has supervision over the
Military Academy at West Point, the Army
War College at Washington, and bridges
across navigable streams and harbors. He
also has charge of the publication of the
Official Records 0} the War 0} the Rebellion.
Adjittant-General. — The office of Adju-
tant-General was formally created by an act
of Congress of March 3, 1813, there having
been no regular Adjutant-General from the
disbanding of the Army in 1783 up to that
time. An act of March 5, 1792, created the
dual office of Adjutant and Inspector-Gen-
eral, but on the reorganization of the De-
partment this office was changed to that of
Adjutant-General. By an act of Congress
approved April 23, 1904, this office was
united with the Record and Pension Office
to form the office of the Military Secre-
tary. This is the Department of records,
orders and correspondence of the army and
militia, the Military Secretary being charged
with transmitting all orders of the Secre-
tary of War, conducting the recruiting
service, etc.
Inspector-General. — The Inspector-Gener-
al's office was established under the Con-
stitution by an act of March 3, 1813, al-
though in 1777 an Inspector-General of
Cavalry, and of Ordnance and Military
Manufactures, had been appointed. It is
the duty of the Inspector-General to inspect
all military commands, stations, schools,
armories, arsenals, fortifications and public
works carried on by the War Department.
Judge-Advocate General. — The office of
Judge-Advocate General of the Army was
created in 1775, was discontinued In 1802,
and existed again from 1812 to 1821. An
act of March 2, 1849, authorized the Presi-
dent to appoint a Judge-Advocate of the
Army, but in 1862 the tiile was changed
to that of Judge-Advocate General. This
office was made head of the Bureau of
Military Justice, created June 20, 1864, but
by the act of July 5, 1884, the office of
Judge Advocate-General and the Bureau
of Military Justice were united under the
designation of Judge-Advocate General's De-
partment, of the War Department. It is
the duty of the Judge-Advocate General to
review the proceedings of all courts-mar-
tial, courts of ^inquiry and military com-
missions, and give opinions on legal ques-
tions arising under laws and regulations
pertaining to the War Department.
Quartermaster. — The Quartermaster's of-
fice was formally organized in the War
Department by an act of Congress of March
28, 1812, although provision had been made
for a Quartermaster-General by the Con-
tinental Congress as early as June 16, 1775.
Various enactments were also made con-
cerning the office up to 1785, when it
ceased to exist until, as stated. It was
finally organized in 1812. It Is the duty
of the Quartermaster's Department to fur-
nish the army with military supplies ; pro-
vide ' transportation for troops ; construct
military roads and bridges; maintain na-.
tlon,al cemeteries ; and provide supplies for
the militia of the various states.
Commissary-General. — The earliest legisla-
tion concerning the subsistence of the army
was the resolution of the Continental Con-
gress of June 16, 1775, creating the office
of Commissary-General of Stores and Pro-
visions. This office was succeeded on June
10, 1777, by two offices, the Commissary-
General of Purchases and the Commissary-
General of Issues, which acted under the
direction of a committee of Congress un-
til Nov. 25, 1779, when they were placed
under the supervision of the War Board.
The clothing of the troops was provided
for by the ordinance of June 17, 1777,
which created the office of Clothier-Gen-
eral, this office being placed under the di-
rection of the War Board on April 10, 1782,
An act of the Continental Congress of July
10, 1781, directed the Superintendent of
Finance to procure all supplies by con-
tract ; and again on March 8, 1792, the
Congress under the Constitution placed a
similar duty upon the Treasury Depart-
ment, which had succeeded the Superin-
tendent of Finance. The latter act was re-
pealed on July 16, 1798, and the Secre-
tary of War was required to provide sub-
sistence for the army. An act of March
16, 1802, provided for three military agents
to do this work, but this system was
abolished by an act of March 28, 1812.
which created the office of Commissary-
General of Purchases. This in turn was
abolished by an act of March 28, 1812,
its duties transferred to the Quartermas-
ter's Department.
The office of Commissary-General as it
exists to-day was first established by an
act of April 14, 1818, the head of this
office being later referred to as Commis-
sary-General of Subsistence. He provides
and Issues rations, and distributes articles
authorized to be kept for sale to the offi-
cers and men of the army.
Promos* Marshal General. — For the work
of this officer in administei'lng the provisions
of the selective service law, consult the
article Drafts.
Surgeon^General. — A hospital department
for the army was created by Congress
on July 27, 1775, its head being called
Director-General and Chief Physician. By
an act of March 3, 1813, the office of
Physician and Surgeon-General was cre-
ated and on April 11, 1818, the medical
branch of the War Department was given
a permanent head with the title of Sur-
geon-General.
Paymaster-General. — The office of Pay-
master-General was provided by the reso-
lution of Congress of June 16, 1775, but on
March 23, 1787, it was merged with that of
Commissioner of Army Accounts. A Pay-
War Department
Encyclopedic Index
War Department
master of the Army was appointed by an act
■of May 8, 1792, and the Pay Department
was definitely organized in the war De-
partment under an act of April 24. 1816.
Engineer Corps. — The Corps of Engineers
was created on March 11, 1779, disbanded
in November, 1783, but restored by the
acts of May 9„ 1794, and March 16, 1802.
As early as July 25, 1777, however, there
had been a "geographer and surveyor of
roads" appointed. By an act of March 3,
1818, the appointment of topographical en-
gineers was authorized, and in August,
1818, a Topographical Bureau was estab-
lished in the War Department under the
direction of the Secretary of War and the
Chief Engineer. On July 5, 1838, an In-
dependent corps of topographical engi-
neers was created, but by the act of March
3, 1863, It was merged with the Corps of
Engineers. Besides those duties germane
to its military nature, the Corps of Engi-
neers conducts the river and harbor im-
provements.
Ordnance Bepartment. — To consider ways
and means of supplying the continental
troops with arms and ammunition, a com-
mittee was appointed by the Continental
Congress on May 27, 1775 ; and although
a Commissioner of Artillery Stores (later
called Commissioner-General of Artillery
Stores) was appointed, the business of pro-
viding arms and ammunition was conducted
by a secret committee of the Contii^ental
Congress and the Board of War. An act
of April 2, 1794, authorized the President
to appoint an officer who, under the War
Department, should perform ordnance duty,
and on May 14, 1812, the Ordnance De-
partment was formally established in the
war Department. By an act of March 2,
1820, it was merged with the artillery but
was reorganized as an independent bu-
reau by an act of April 5, 1832.
Signal Corps. — The Signal Corps was
practically created June 21, 1860, when
Congress authorized the addition of a sig-
nal officer to the staff of the army. The
Signal Corps, by that name, was organized
by an act of March 3. 1863. The duties
now performed by the Weather Bureau
were added to those of the Signal Corps
in 1870, but in 1890 that worls was trans-
ferred to the Department of Agriculture.
The Chief Signal Officer has charge of all
means of military communication.
Aviation Servide. — (See Signal Corps.)
Customs and Insular Affairs. — A Divi-
sion of Customs and Insular Affairs was
established in the War Department in De-
cember, 1898, for corducting the business
relating to the civil government of Cuba,
Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands.
In 1900 the designation of this division
was changed by Department orders to that
of Division of Insular Affairs, and by an
act of July 1, 1902, it was definitely estab-
lished by law as a bureau of the War De-
partment.
General Staff. — To better coordinate the
various offices of the Department, the Gen-
eral Staff Corps was established by an
act of Congress approved Feb. 14, 1903.
It consists of a Chief of Staff, who toolc
the place of the Commanding General of
the Army ; two general officers d ,'tailed by
the President from the regular army not
below the grade of brigadier-general, and
forty-two officers of minor grade similarly
detailed by the President. It is the duty
of the General Staff Corps to prepare plans
for the national defense, and for the mo-
bilization of the military forces in time of
war ; to assist the Secretary of War in in-
creasing the efficiency of the military es-
tablishment ; and in ease of war to act as
a board of strategy. The Chief of Staff,
under the direction of the President, or the
Secretary of War under the direction of
the President, has supervision of ail troops
of the line, the Adjutant-General's, Inspec-
tor-General's, Judge-Advocate General s,
Quartermaster's, Subsistence, Medical, Pay,
and Ordnance Departments, the Corps or
Engineers, and Signal Corps.
In administering the affairs of the De-
partment, the Secretary is aided by an As-
sistant Secretary, as well as by the chiefs
of the various offices, bureaus, divisions
Pollowing Is a list of the Secretaries of
War and the Presidents under whom they
served ;
Phbsident
Wasiungton
Adams . . .
Jefferson..
Madison. .
Monroe..
J.Q.Adams
Jackson
Van Buren.
Harrison...
Tyler*
Henry Knox, Maasachuaetta. ,
Timothy Piclcering, Mass...
James McHenry, Maryland. .
Polk...
Taylor..
Fillmore. .
Pierce. .. .
Buchanan.
u
Lincoln. . .
Johi^son. .
Grant.
Secretary of War
John Marshall, Virginia
Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, . ,
Roger Griawold, Connecticut
Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts. .
William Eustia, Massachusetts. , .
John Armstrong, New Yoric
James Monroe, Virginia
William H. Crawford, Georgia. .
Isaac Shelby, Kentucky. ....
Geo. Graham (ad. in.), Virginia. .
John C Calhoun, S. Carolina. . .
Jamea Barbour, Virginia
Peter B. Porter, New York
Jolin H. Eaton, Tennessee
Lewis Cass, Michigan
Benjamin F. Butler, New York. .
Joel R. Poinaett, South Carolina.
Jolin Bell,* 'Tenneaaee
Joim McLean, Ohio
John C. Spencer, New York
James M. Porter, Pennsylvania. .
William Wiikins, Pennsylvania. .
William L. Marw, New York . . .
George W. Crawford, Georgia. . .
Edward Bates, Missouri
Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana. . .
Jeffeison Davis, Miaaisaippi
.Jolin B. Floyd, Virginia
Joseph Holt, Kentucky
Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania. .
Edwin M. Stanton, Ohio
Hayes. .
Garfield. .
Arthur. . .
Cleveland.
B.Harrison
Cleveland.
McKinley.
u
RooseveU..
U. S. Grant (ad. in,), Illinois. . . .
Lor. Thomaa (ad. in.), Illinois. . .
Joim M. Schofield, New York. . .
John A. Rawlins, Illinois
William T. Sherman, Ohio
William W. Belknap, Iowa
Alphonso Taft, Ohio
James Don. Cameron, Penn
George W. McCrary, Iowa
Alexander Ramsey, Minnesota. .
Robert T. Lincoln, Illinois
Taft.
Wilson. . .
Harding . .
William C. Endioott, Mass. . .
Redfield Proctor, Vermont
Stephen B .^Ikina, West Virginia .
Daniel S. Lamont, New York. . .
Russell A. Alger, Michigan
Elihu Root, New York
a
William H. Taft, Ohio
Luke E. Wright, Tennessee
Jacob M. Dickinson, Tennessee. .
Henry L. Sbimson, New York
Lindley M. Garrison, N. Jersey. .
Newton D. Baker, Ohio
John W. Weeks, Massaobusetts. .
1789
1793
1793
1797
1800
1800
1801
1801
1809
1813
1814
1815
1817
1817
1817
1825
1828
1829
1831
1837
1837
1841
1841
1841
1843
1844
1843
1849
1850
1850
1853
1857
1861
1861
1862
1865
1867
1868
1868
1869
1869
1869
1876
1876
1877
1879
1881
1881
1885
1889
1891
1893
1897
1899
1901
1904
1908
1909
1911
1913
1916
1921
* John Bell also continued by President Tyler in
1841 until appointment of successor.
War Department
Encyclopedic Index
War Finance
and corps named above, who are oflScers of
the regular army of the United States.
Two bureaus of the Department not now
in existence are : The Bureau of Refugees,
Freedmen and Abandoned Lands (1865-
1873), which aided in the, worls of recon-
struction, after the Civil War ; and the
Bureau of the Provoat-Marshal General
(1863-1866), which had to do with the
enrolling and calling out of the national
forces and the arrest of deserters and spies.
(See Army.)
An act of Congress approved April 6,
1018, creates in the Department a Second
Assistant Secretary of War and a Third
Assistant Secretary of War. They are ap-
pointed by the President, by and with the
consent of the Senate, and receive an an-
nual salary of $4,500, their duties being such
as may be assigned by the Secretary of
War or by law.
War College. — To coordinate and direct
the instruction in the various service schools
and to extend the opportunities for Investi-
gation and study in the army and militia
Congress established the War College at
Washington, and placed it under the im-
mediate direction of the Secretary of War.
For more detailed information of the
scope and activities of the War Depart-
ment consult the index references to the
Presidents' Messages and Encyclopedic ar-
ticles under the following headings :
Arms and Ammunl- Civil War.
tion.
Army.
Arsenals.
Artillery.
Board of Ordnance
and Fortification.
Bureau of Insular
ASairs.
Coast Artillery.
Fortifications.
Indian Wars.
Military Academy.
Military Department.
Military Education.
Militia Bureau.
Wars, Foreign.
War Department:
Act making appropriations for sup-
port of Army, etc., vetoed, 4475.
Appointments and removals in, re-
ferred to, 1965, 2004.
Appropriations for, 927, 1334.
Eecommended, 1444, 4680, 4681.
Special session messages regarding
failure to make, 2927, 4404, 4472.
Transfer of balanc^es of, 2929.
Transfer of, to Medical Depart-
ment, 1254, 1773.
Army service corps, urged, 7685.
Augmentation of business in, 484.
Building for, recommended, 2281,
2704, 4062. (See also State, "War,
and Navy Building.)
Clerks in, increase in number of, re-
quested, 250.
Consolidation of departments in,
7685.
Control of, vested in (3hief of Staff in
absence of Secretary and Assistant
Secretary of War, 8362.
Expenditures and estimates of, dis-
cussed by President —
Arthur, 4638, 4832.
Buchanan, 3106.
Cleveland, 4933, 5099, 5373, 5877,
5967.
Fillmore, 2668.
Grant, 3993, 4147.
Hayes, 4397, 4523, 4569.
Jefferson, 327, 335.
Johnson, 3773, 3882.
Monroe, 602.
Tyler, 2054, 2121.
Freedmen 's Bureau transferred to,
4147.
Functions of, 7511.
Increase in clerical foree in ofldees
of Adjutant-General and Surgeon-
General, recommended, 4675.
Lincoln's birthplace presented to,
8160.
Officers in, employment of, without
express provision of law, 2004,
2168.
Record and Pension Division of —
Bill to establish, vetoed, 1991.
Discussed, 5631.
Records of association founded for
purpose of aiding soldiers of Civil
■ War offered, and recommendations
regarding, 4798.
Referred to, 766, 808, 926.
Subordinate appointments in, recom-
mended, 484.
Tramsfer of Pension Bureau to, from
Interior Department, recommend-
ed, 4060.
Transfer of Weather Bureau from,
to Agricultural Department, rec-
ommended, 5486.
War Finance Coiporation. — An. act ot
■Congress approved by President Wilson on
April 5, 1918. provides that the Secretary
of the Treasury and four other persons shall
be created a body corporate and politic io
deed and in law under the name of the
War Finance Corporation, to have succession
for a parked of ten years, provided that it
close all its active business within six
months after the end of the war with the
Central Powers.
The capital stock is $500,000,000, all sub-
scribed by the United States of America,
subject to call upon the vote of three-flfths
of the Corporation, with the approval of
the Secretary of the; Treasury.
The management of the Corporation Is
vested in the Board of Directors, of which
the Secretary of the Treasury is the chair-
man, the other four being the four persons
named in the first paragraph, and being
appointed by the President by and with
the consent of the Senate. No director or
employee of the Corporation shall directly
or indirectly participate in the discussion
of any question in which his own Interests
are involved, or the interests of any busi-
ness association with which he is directly
or Indirectly connected. Two of the di-
rectors first appointed shall serve for two
years and two for four years, after which
directors shall be appointed to serve for
•four years. Directors receive an annual
salary of $12,000, or such amount which
will make their total annual salaries from
all services performed by the United States
equal to $12,000.
The Corporation Is authorized to make
advances, upon its own terms and for not
more than five years, to banks, bankers,, or
trust companies in the United States which
shall have made since the beginnlmr of the
War and which shall have outstanding any
loan or loans to any person, firm, business,
or corporation whose operations are neces-
War Finance
Encyclopedic Index
War Finance
sary or contributory to the prosecution of
the War, and evidenced by notes. No such
advance, how£ver, shall exceed 75% of
the value of such loans.
The Corporation is empowered, further-
more, to make such advances to any bank,
banker or trust company which has given
Snaneial assistance dlrectly_ or indirectly to
any such pel'son, firm, business or corpora-
tion by the purchase of its bonds or other
obligations since the War, the advances
not to exceed 75% of the value of such
bonds or advances.
All advances shall be made upon the
promissory note or notes of such banks,
etc., secured by the notes, bonds, or other
obligations which are the basis of any
such advance, together with all the se-
curities, if any, which such banks may hold
as collateral for such notes, bonds, or other
obligations.
Howevei', the Corporation Is given power
to make advances up to 100% of the face
value of such loan made by such bank to
any such person, firm, etc., and up to
100% of the value of such bonds or other
obligations purchased, provided that every
such advance is secured in the manner de-
scribed above and in addition by collateral
security, to be furnished by the bank, of
such character as may be prescribed by the
Board of Directors of the War Finance
Corporation, at the value at the time of
such advance of at least 33% of the fcmount
advanced by the Corporation. The Cor-
poration retains power to require additional
security at any time.
The Corporation may make advances at
any time, for periods not esceeding one
year, to any bank or building and loan
association, on their promissory notes,
whenever the Corporation deems such action
helpful to the prosecution of the War or
to the public interest. But such notes must
be sccurpd by the pledge of securities which
In the opinion of the Corporation are 133%
of the value of such advances. Tbe rate
of interest charged for such advances must
bt at least 1% more than the rate of dis-
count for 90-day commercial paper con-
temporaneously prevailing in the Federal
Reserve district in which the borrowing in-
stitution is located ; but must not be more
than the average rate receivable by the
borrowing institution on its loans and in-
vestments made during the sir months prior
to the advance, except that the rate of in-
terest shall not be less than the rate of
discount on 90-day commercial paper.
The Corporation is similarly empowered
to make advances to private establishments
conducting business necessary for the prose-
cution of the War, but only for that purpose
as carried out within the United States,
and when such advance cannot be obtained
through private sources, and not for an
amount greater than 12 % % of the sum
of the authorized capital stock of the War
Finance Corporation plus the aggregate
amount of the bonds of the Corporation out-
standing when the Capital Stock is paid in:
All such advances must be secured by se-
curity estimated by the Directors of the
Corporation as being of the value of 125%
of the advance made, except in the case of a
railroad under the control of the President
of the United States. The rate of interest
as above.
The Corporation may deal in bonds or
other obligations of the .United States is-
su'ed or converted after Sept. 24, 1917.
The Corporation may issue bonds aggre-
gating not more than six times Its paid-in
capital, to mature in from one to five years
of the date of issue, as determined by the
The condition of the Corporation as of
November 15, 1919, was as follows:
A.SSETS
Due from Depositaries $13,468,729
Advances made —
Railroads 204,794,520
Public utilities 39,661,400
Warehouse receipts 25,211,500
Industrial loans 23,776,152
Cattle loans 7,779,826
Miscellaneous 5,259,778
U. S. Bonds and Treasury Cer-
tificates of Indebtedness.... 482,544,098
U. S. Bonds purchased, not yet
delivered 4,208,269
Public utility bonds 58,400
Miscellaneous 1,183,796
Total assets $807,946,468
LIABILITIES
Capital stock paid in $455,000,000
Advances repaid —
Railroads 134,436,310
Public utilities 17,124,767
Warehouse receipts 25,211,500
Industrial loans 22,737,500
Cattle loans 5,074,915
Miscellaneous 3,583,536
Interest and collected profits. 12,584,940
1 yr. 5% gold bonds, less
amount repurchased' ^ 132,193,000
Total liabilities $807,946,468
♦The difference between $200,000,000 and
$67,807,000.
Directors with the approval of the Secre-
tary of the Treasury.
The net earnings of the Corporation must
be invested in Government securities or de-
posited in Federal Reserve banks, or may
be used to "purchase and redeem the Cor-
poration's own bonds. Principal and in-
terest of the Corporation's bonds are exempt
from taxation except inheritance taxes, sur-
taxes, war profits taxes and excess profits
taxes, and from the latter taxes interest on
less than $5,000 worth of the bonds is
exempt. The United States is not liable
for securities or for the actions of the
Corporation.
In explaining its purpose, the Corporation
made public soon after its organization a
statement explaining that the credits ex-
tended by it would normally come through
banks and not go directly to industries of
war-time importance, which would be ex-
pected to get their loans as usual through
banks. Only in case the latter needed assist-
ance in making such loans would appeal to
the War Finance Corporation be considered.
In the Victory Loan Act (see Liberty
Loans), the War Finance Corporation was
further empowered to make advances, simi-
lar to those described above, to persons and
firms, and to banks which had made ad-
vances to such persons and firms, who ex-
port domestic products from the United
States to foreign countries. The advancos
might not exceed the contract price for the
products to be exported ; or in the case of
banks, the. unpaid amount of the advances
made by the banks to facilitate the ex-
porting of the domestic products. The rate
of interest might not be less than one per
cent above the prevailing rate of discount
for 90-day commercial paper. The total
advances by the Corporation for this pur-
pose remaining unpaid might not exceed
$1,000,000,000, and advances under this
head might be made for one year after the
War Finance
Encyclopedic Index
War of 1812
proclamation by the President of a state of
peace. Eenewals of ttie time of payment for
such advances might be made up to five
years beyond the time of the original ad-
vance.
By Act of Congress of January 4, 1921,
the War Finance Corporation, which had
ceased in May, 1920, to make further ad-
vances, was directed again to function ac-
tively.
The original directors of the Corporation
appointed by President Wilson were W. P.
G. Harding, who was elected vice-chairman
and general manager, Allen B. Forbes, Eu-
gene Meyer, Jr., and Angus W. McLean.
Oapital Issues Committee. — ^Thls body
consists of seven members, of which at least
three must be members of the Federal Re-
serve Board, appointed by the President,
by and with the consent of the Senate.
The terms of office are determined by the
President, and the salaries of the members
not on the Federal Reserve Board are $7,500
annually, or such amount as will make all
their annual remunerations for services per-
formed by the Government equal to $7,500
each. The President designated the first
chairman, but all subsequent vacancies In
the chairmanship are to be filled by the
Committee.
The Committee may investigate, pass npon
and determine whether it Is compatible!
with the public Interest that securities is-
sued hy any private person, firm or corpora-
tion above the amount of $100,000 since
April 5, 1918 should be sold or offered
for sale. The Committee, however, may
not pas? upon borrowing not for capital
purposes or the renewing or refunding of
indebtedness existing before April 5. 1918,
or the resale of securities previously ap-
proved by the Committee or the securities
issued by railroads under the control of
the President of the United States or the
bonds of the War Finance Corporation.
No action of the Committee may be con-
strued as carrying the approval of the Com-
mittee or of the United States upon any
securities.
The Committee suspended active opera-
tions on December 31, 1918, and was for-
mally dissolved by the President on August
30, 1919. From its organization on May 17,
1918, to Its close of active operations, the
Committee passed upon 3,309 applications
involving new securities of an aggregate
value of $3,777,313,000. The total amount
disapproved by the Committee was $917,-
133,000.
War Finance Corporation, Tesumption
of activities of, opposed, 8906, 8919.
, , War Industries Board, establishment
and powers of, 8518. (See also Coun-
cil of National" Defense.)
War Labor Board established, 8485.
War Message of President Wilson, 8226.
War of 1812. — This war grew out of the
British orders in council made to destroy
the commerce of France and of nations trad-
ing with France, the arbitrary Impressment
of American seamen, and the exercise of the
right of search. These orders in council
and the Berlin and Milan decrees of Na-
poleon subjected to capture vessels trading
with England and France.
In the early part of this century European
nations did not admit the right of expatria-
tion. Great Britain held that "once an Eng-
lishman always an Englishman," and main-
tained the rights of search and Impressment.
Many of our vessels were stopped on the
high seas and searched ; seamen claimed to
be British subjects were taken from them
and forced to serve In the British navy or
imprisoned for refusing to serve. Several
of our men-of-war were fired upon and com-
pelled to give up seamen in their crews.
The arrogance of Great Britain was further
shown by her interference with our com-
merce under her paper blockades. She in-
terfered with rights which our government
claimed for our vessels as neutral ships.
(See Embargo Act.) The Henry affair (see
Henry Documents) also Increased the bitter
feeling of our people. For several years
previous to the war, England's action had
been intolerable.
Congress passed acts known as the Em-
bargo Act, the Nonintercourse Act, and
the Nonimportation Act in an effort to check
British aggressions on the commerce of the
United States. The Federalists were op-
posed to war ; the Republicans favored it.
Madison, the Republican President, was per-
sonally not disposed to warlike measures,
and it was asserted that he "could not be
kicked into a war." Finally, however, the
pressure from public and party became too
strong for him. The Congress which as-
sembled in December, 1811, was heartily
disposed to resort to arms. It passed acts
to increase the army, and appropriated
large sums for the army and navy. Finally,
on June 18, 1812, the PresiUent declared
war against Great Britain. The war at
first was waged along the Canadian frontier.
The Americans suffered some serious re-
verses the first year In the Northwest. De-
troit was surrendered by Hull, and Port
Dearborn, on Lake Michigan, the present
site of the City o* Chicago, was captured by
the British. Detroit was recovered by
Perry's splendid victory on Lake Erie In
1813. The military and naval forces ol
Great Britain were greatly superior to those
of the United States. Nevertheless, some
notable victories were won by the Americans
as the war progressed.
The Navy especially distinguished Itself
, In a remarkable series ol engagements with
the enemy's ships. In 1814 the British at-
tacked and captured Washington City and
burned the public buildings. The mosi
famous victory won by the Americans In
the war was that of Gen. Jackson over the
British commanded by Sir Edward M
Pakenham, Jan. 8, 1815, at New Orleans.
This battle was fought fifteen days after
peace had been declared, but before the news
had reached New Orleans. Dec. 24, 1814.
by the treaty of Ghent, (q. v.), peace was
restored. By this treaty several questions
pending between the two countries were set-
tled, but the three principal ones, out ot
which the war grew, were not mentioned.
The total number of enlistments in the
regular service was 38,187, and in the
militia 471,000. The total cost of the Wat
of 1812 was $107,159,003. The cost of the
Revolutibnary War was $135,193,703 ; of
the Mexican War, $66,000,000.
War Of 1812:
Alexandria, Va., retreat of British
from, 532.
American blood wantonly spilled by
Great Britain, 485.
Armistice proposed by Great Britait
declined, 502.
Bainbridge, William, commander of
the Constitution, 507,
Baltimore, retreat of British from,
533.
War of 1812
Encyclopedic Index
War of 1812
Blakely Johnston, British ship cap-
tured by vessel in command of,
534.
British attacks on Craney Island,
Fort Meigs, Sacketts Harbor, and
Sandusky, repulsed, 524.
British Government in state of war,
while United States remains in
state of peace, 489.
Brown, Jacob, victories of, over
' British forces, 533.
Canada, York, reduced by American
forces, referred to, 524.
Capitol destroyed by British forces,
531.
Capture of British ship by vessel in
command of Lewis Warrington,
534.
Chauneey, Isaac, naval talents of,
commented on, 520.
Cochrane, Alex, order of, to destroy
American coast towns and dis-
tricts, referred to, 530, 536.
Coffee, John, Indians defeated by
Tennessee militia under command
of, 521.
Conduct of Great Britain toward
United States, discussed, 484.
British cruiser violates American
flag, 485.
Pretended blockades without pres-
ence of adequate force, dis-
cussed, 486.
Connecticut, refusal of governor of,
to furnish militia, discussed, 501,
6268.
Constitution-GuerrUre naval engage-
ment, discussed, 502.
Constitution- Java naval engagement,
discussed, 507.
Decatur, Stephen, commander of the
United States, 506.
Deserters, pardon granted. (See Par-
dons.)
Destruction of American coast towns
by order of Admiral Cochrane, 536.
Detroit, Mich., surrender of, to Brit-
ish, 499.
Recovery of, referred to, 524.
Discussed, 484, 499, 505, 506, 507,
509, 511, 519,. 525, 526, 527, 528,
530, 532, 537.
Effort of the United States to obtain
command of the Lakes, discussed,
501.
Engagement of the United States
with the Macedonian and capture
of the latter by Captain Decatur,
506.
Existence of, proclaimed, 497.
Forts Erie, George, and Maiden, re-
duction of, by American forces, re-
ferred to, 524.
Frolic-Wasp naval engagement, dis-
cussed, 506.
Gaines, Edmund P., victories of,
over British forces, 533.
Chierriere-Constitution naval engage-
ment, discussed, 502.
Harrison, William Henry, military
talents of, commented on, 520.
Hornet, British ship destroyed by
the, 513.
Hull, Isaac, commander of the Con-
stitution, 502.
Hull, William, surrenders town and
fort of Detroit, Mich., 499.
Increase in army and militia, recom-
mended by President Madison,
534, 538.
Indians employed by Great Britain
in, 500, 520.
Instructions to American vessels not
to interfere with neutral vessels,
529.
Intention of British commander to
lay waste American towns, proc-
lamations regarding, 520.
Invasion of capital by British, re-
ferred to in proclamation, 530.
Jackson, Andrew, victory of. volun-
teers under, over Indians, 521,533.
Java-Constitution naval engagement,
discussed, 507.
Johnson, Kichard M., military tal-
ents of, commented on, 520.
Jones, Jacob, commander of the
Wasp, 506.
Lawrence, James, commander of the
Hornet, 513.
Maodonough, Thomas, British ships
captured on Lake Champlain by
American squadron under, 534.
Mackinaw, Mich., attempted reduc-
tion of, by American forces, dis-
cussed, 534.
Massachusetts, refusal of governor of,
to furnish militia, discussed, 501.
Mediation of Russia in, 511.
Accepted by United States, 511.
Declined by Great Britain, 519, 532.
Michigan Territory, recovery of,
from British, referred to, and rec-
ommendation of assistance to the
destitute, 520, 527.
Niagara Falls-
American attack near, unsuccess-
ful,_ 501.
American victory on Canadian
side of, 533.
Order of Ad,miral Cochrane to de-
stroy American coast towns, 530,
536.
Pacific advances made to Great Brit-
ain, discussed, 502, 506.
Pardons granted deserters. (See Par-
dons.)
Peace (see also Mediation) :
Mediation of Russia accfepted by
the United States, but declinea
War of 1812
Encyclopedic Indent:
War Hisk Insurance
by Great Britain, 511, 519.
Negotiations for, proposed by-
Great Britain should not stay
preparations fsr war, 526.
Eeferred to, 536.
Terms of, proposed by President
Madison declined, 502.
Treaty of, transmitted and dis-
cussed, 536i 537.
Proclamation of President Mad-
ison regarding, 545.
Pensioners of. (See Pensions, dis-
cussed.)
Perry, Oliver H., victory of naval
forces under, on Lake Erie, 519.
Plattsburg, N. Y., defeat of British
at, 533.
Preparation for, recommended, 479,
483.
Pretended blockade without ade-
quate force, referred to, 486.
Preventable by a strong navy, 7067.
Proclaimed by President Madison,
497.
Proclamations of President Madi-
son regarding, 457, 465, 476, 497,
517, 528, 543, 557, 571.
Public buildings destroyed by British
forces, 530, 531.
Beduction attempted at Mackinaw,
Mich., by American forces, dis-
cussed, 534.
Eeferred to, 8883.
Resolutions of —
Pennsylvania legislature —
Pledging support to Government.
(See Pennsylvania.)
Eetreat of British from Baltimore,
533.
Eodgers, John, frigates under com-
mand of, referred to, 502.
Scott, Winfield, victories of, over
British forces, 533.
Threatened by- Great Britain, re-
ferred to, 479, 489.
Threatening aspect of —
Congress convened on account of,
412.
Discussed by President Madison,
484.
Treaty of peace transmitted and dis-
cussed, 537.
Proclamation of President Madison
regarding, 545.
Troops in, number and kind of, re-
ferred to, 3013.
Unfriendly policy of Great Britain,
discussed, 460.
United States, engagement of the,
with the Macedonian, 506.
Van Eensselaer, Stephen, attack of
forces under, near Niagara, dis-
cussed, 501.
Vessels, American, instructed not to
interfere with neutral vessels, 529.
Victories of American arms. (See
Discussed, ante.)
Waged by Great Britain on account
of extravagant views, 532.
Warrington, Lewis, British ship cap-
tured 'by vessel in command of,
534.
Wasp-Frolic naval engagement, dis-
cussed, 506.
York, Canada, reduction of, by Amer-
ican forces, referred to, 524.
War of 1812, Societies of. (See
Societies of the War of 1812. )
War of Rebellion. (See Civil War.)
War of Rebellion, Official Records of:
Compilation of, appropriation for,
recommended, 4304.
Publication of, plan for, recommend-
ed, 4451.
War Risk Insurance. — in addition to com-
pensation to soldiers and sailors, and to
their families, in case of injury or d'eatli
while in service in tile World War, mem-
bers of the military and naval forces of the
United States had the privilege of talfiug
out Government Insurance. (For the Com-
pensation arrangements, see Soldiers and
Sailors Compensation ; see also Bureau of
War Risk Insurance.)
During the War, a person in the military
or naval service of the United States could
purchase insurance against death and total
permanent disability up to $10,000, for an-
nual premiums averagmg about $8.00 per
$1,000. This insurance continues in force
for Ave years after the official proclamation
of the end of the War by the President of
the United States, and the premiums In-
crease slightly every year.
But at any time during those five years,
the insured person may convert this in-
surance into a permanent Government policy,
■which protects him for the remainder of his
life, if the insured person does not make
that change during the five-year period, his
protection lapses at the end of the five
years after the proclamation of peace. The
insured person must continue to pay the
' premiums on this five-year Insurance until
he converts it.
In the converted insurance, the premiums
are fixed and do not change as the insured
grows older. Furthermore, after the pay-
ment of one year's premium in the con-
verted Insurance, the policy has a sur-
render and loan value, should the insured
person be compelled to give it up or make
a loan on it. The loan may be made up to
94% of the cash surrender value.
The permanent life insurance may be
taken in six forms — ordinary life ; 20-pay-
ment life ; 30-payment life ; 20-year endow-
ment ; 30-year endowment ; endowment ma-
turing at the age of 62. These policies
follow the ordinary life insurance procedure
with respect to premiums, etc.
There are provisions also for extended in-
surance and pure endowment, and in case
of total and permanent disability the in-
sured receives $5.75 monthly for each $1,-
000 of insurance as long as he lives. In
case of the death of such a disabled person
before 240 such monthly instalments have
been paid, the remainder of these 240 instal-
ments will be paid the beneficiary.
At death, the war term insurance Is pay-
able to the beneficiary in 240 monthly in-
War Risk Insurance
Encyclopedic Index
War Zone
stalments. In case the beneficiary dies be-
fore the last of these payments has been
paid, they become payable to the next bene-
ficiary, or If all the possible beneficiaries in
case of death without a will have been ex-
hausted, the balance of the monthly pay-
ments reyerts to the estate of the last per-
mitted beneficiary in such case. ■
Instead of the 240 monthly payments, the
Insured may malie provlslbn that the In-
surance may be paid to his beneficiaries in
one lump sum ; or in a certain number of
instalments ; or in instalments through the
entire lUe of the beneficiary.
In contrast with non-Goyernment Insur-
ance, no medical examination Is necessary.
The insurance is free from taxation and
from restrictions as to travel and occupa-
tion.
Any one or more of the following persons
may be named as the beneficiaries of the
insured : Parent, grand-parent, step-par-
ent, parent through adoption ; wife or hus-
Ijand ; child, grand-child, step-child, adopted
child ; brother, sister, half-brother, half-
sister, step-brother, step-sister, brother or
sister through adoption ; uncle, aunt,
nephew, niece ; brother-iulaw, sister-in-law :
a person who has stood in the relation of
parent to the insured for one year or more
before the insured's entrance into service,
and the children of such a person ; parent,
grand-parent, step-parent through the adop-
tion of the insured's wife or husband.
The beneficiary may be changed at any
time and any number of times. Also, the
division of the insurance among the bene-
ficiaries may be as desired.
There Is a period of 31 days' grace after
the premium becomes due, in which it may
be paid. If not paid within that time, the
policy lapses, and its protection ceases.
However, there are liberal provisions for
reinstatement of the policy after it has
thus become void, as well as for its in-
crease or decrease.
The amount of the premiums and further
information are obtainable through the
Bureau of War Eisk Insurance, Washington,
D. C. ; through the American Legion or
similar organizations of veterans ; or
through the Red Cross or any other welfare
agency cooperating with the Bureau of War
Kisl: Insurance.
War Bisk Insurance:
Discussed, 8350.
Experts appointed for, 7979.
War Savings Securities:
Maturity of, referred to, 8884.
Purchase of, appeal for, 8519.
War Savings Stamps. — Certificates Issued
by the United States Treasury for pur-
chase by those unable to buy Liberty Bonds
(q. v.). The money derived from their sale
was used to help finance the war activities
of the United States. The War Savings
Stamps of the first issue were dated Janu-
ary 2, 1918, and were purchasable during
that month at $4.12. The selling price was
one cent higher for each month after Janu-
ary, 1918, in which the war savings stamp
was sold. The stamps were Issued to ma-
ture on January 1, 1923, at which time the
Government was to pay $5.00 for each
stamp. The interest paid by the Govern-
ment accordingly represented 4%, com-
pounded quarterly.
No person might hold more than $1,000
worth of the stamps of any one issue.
Stamps might be redeemed before maturity,
the owner receiving the purchase and in-
terest thereon at a rate of about 3%. The
stamps might be registered against loss at
any post-office, without charge. For meth-
ods by which war savings stamps might
be purchased In instalments of twenty-five
cents each, see Thrift Stamps. There were
later Issues of War Savings Stamps, under
terms similar to those of the first issue.
To meet the demand for War Savings
Stamps of higher denominations, the Treas-
ury issued certificates, linown as Treasury
Savings Certificates, of denominations of
$100 and $1,000. The purchase prices, re-
deipption value and final redemption value
of these followed the same ratios as the
War Savings Stamps.
From December, 1917, to January, 1919,
the War Savings Stamps, Thrift Stamps and
Treasury Savings Certificates sold amounted
to $971,913,873. From January, 1919, to
November, 1919, the amount sold was $143,-
162,566, making a total of $1,115,076,439.
During this period, the redemptions
amounted to $204,391,451.
Warsaw, Poland, attack on, 8862.
War, Secretary of.— An act of the Con-
tinental Congress of Feb. 7, 1781, created
the office of Secretary o£ War to take the
place of the Board of War. Benjamin Lin-
coln was the first secretary, serving from
1781 to 1785, when he was succeeded by
Henry Knox. Under Knox the present War
Department was established. (See also
War, Department of.)
War, Secretary of:
Adjutant-General of Army designat-
ed to act as, interim, 3819, 3861.
Clerks of, taking advantage of in-
solvent-debtors act, dismissed, 107.
Correspondence of, referred to, 2427.
Governor-General of Philippines to
report to, 8170.
Beport of, transmitted and referred
to, 291, 333, 335, 455, 622, 909, 954,
981, 995, 1018, 1036, 1089, 1097,
1128, 1113, 1444, 2055, 6345. (See
also War Department.)
Suspension and removal of Secretary
Stanton. (See Stanton, Edwin M.)
War Steamers:
Construction of, recommended, 2990.
3055. -
Introduction of, into navies of
world, referred to, 2262.
War Trade Board. — This body was organ-
^ed to carry out the provisions of the
Trading-with-the-Enemy Act, and its power
and functions are described under that head.
War Trade Board:
Created and explained, 8367.
Eepresentative of War Industries
Board placed on, 8569.
Services to Europe renderable bv
8643.
War Trade Council.— The functions and
power of this body are described under the
heading Trading-with-the-Enemy Act, which
War Trade eouncil created, 8868.
War Zone around British Isles, danger
to neutrals in establishing, 8055. (See
also Submarines and Germany.)
Ward Claim
Encyclopedic Index
Wars, Foreign
Ward Claim, referred to, 4436, 4801.
Ware vs. Hylton. — A Supreme Court case
denying the right of any State or citizen
to repudiate debts contracted with British
subjects before tlie Eevolutionary War. In
1796 Ware, a citizen of Great Britain, ad-
ministrator of William Jones, surviving
partner of Farrell & Jones, brought suit
against Hylton, of Virginia, for the recov-
ery of a debt. Hylton refused payment on
the ground that the Virginia legislature of
1777 had passed an act to sequester Britlmti
property and enable debtors of British sub-
jects to pay such debts to the State loan
office. The act was signed by Governor
Jefferson. Hylton claimed to have com-
plied with this statute. The United States
circuit court for Virginia rendered a de-
cree in favor of the defendant. The United
States Supreme Court, however, reversed
this decision on the ground that the legis-
lature had not the power to extinguish
the debt, when payment of such debts had
been stipulated in the treaty of 1783.
The justices rendered separate opinions to
this effect. At the close of the Eevolution
and for a number of years afterwards there
was a great deal of feeling aroused in Vir-
ginia and other States over efforts to collect
British debts which had been contracted in
colonial times.
Warehouse Act. — ^The central purpose of
the United States Warehouse Act, which be-
came a law on August 11, 1916, is to estab-
lish and make generally current a form of
warehouse receipt for cotton, grain, wool,
tobacco and flaxseed, which will malse these
receipts easily and widely negotiable as de-
livery orders or as collateral for loans and
therefore of definite assistance In financing
crops. This purpose the act aims to attain
by licensing and bonding warehouses under
conditions which will insure the Integrity
of their receipts and make these receipts
reliable evidence of the condition, quality,
quantity and ownership of the products
named which may be stored with them.
The Secretary of Agriculture is given
general authority to investigate the storage,
warehousihg, classification, weighing and
certifying of cotton, wool, grains, tobacco
and flaxseed, and to classify warehouses for
which licenses are applied for or issued.
He may Issue to warehousemen licenses
for the conduct of warehouses in which such
products may be stored for Interstate or for-
eign commerce, and also of warehouses lo-
cated in places under the exclusive jurisdic-
tion of the United States ' In which such
products may be stored. Persons who are
not warehousemen may also be licensed,
subject to the same requirements as licensed
warehousemen, to accept such products for
storage in warehouses owned, operated or
leased by any State. Licenses may be
issued for periods not exceeding one year
and are renewable upon a showing satisfac-
tory to the Secretary of Agriculture, i fee
not- exceeding $2 may be charged for each
license or renewal, and, In addition, a rea-
sonable fee for each examination or inspec-
tion of a warehouse made upon application
of the warehouseman. It is not, however,
compulsory that any warehouseman be
licensed by the Secretary of Agriculture.
Every applicant for a license as a ware-
houseman must agree to comply with the
act and the rules and regulations prescribed
under it. He must give a bond, with other
than personal surety, to secure the perform-
ance of his obligations as a warehouseman
under the laws of the place in which the
warehouse is conducted, under his contracts
with bis depositors and under the United
States Warehouse Act. The right is given
to any person Injured through its breach to
sue in his own name on the bond for any
damages sustained by him. When such bond
has been given the warehouse may be desig- .
nated as bonded under the United States
Warehouse Act.
The Secretary of Agriculture is author-
ized to inspect warehouses licensed, or for
which licenses are applied ; to determine
whether they are suitable for the proper
storage of agricultural products ; to pre-
scribe the duties of licensed warehousemen
with respect to their care of, and responsi-
bility for, agricultural products ; and to
examine agricultural products stored in
licensed warehouses. Deposits of agricul-
tural products in such warehouses are made
subject to the act and the rules and regula-
tions under it.
Licensed warehousemen are not permitted
to discriminate between persons desiring to
store agricultural products in their ware-
houses. All agricultural products, except
fungible products (such as grain and the
like), of the same kind and grade, for which
separate receipts are issued, must be kept
that they may be separately identified and
redelivered to the depositor. Warehousemen
may mix grain and other fungible products,
ordinarily mixed in storage, when they are
of the same kind and grade and are de-
livered from the same mass, but may not
mix such products when they are of different
grades.
Original receipts must be issued for all
agricultural products stored in licensed
warehouses, but only when such products
are actually stored at the time of the issu-
ance of the receipts. Additional or further
receipts for the same products may only be
issued in plaae of lost or destroyed receipts,
and then only under specified conditions.
Warehousing System discussed by
President —
Jackson, 1015.
Polk, 2405.
Tyler, 2053, 2119.
Warrior, Th6, illegal detention of, 2051.
Wars, Foreign:
Acheen with Netherlands, neutrality
preserved by United States in,
4192.
Austria with Hungary, sympathy of
American Government with latter,
2550, 2579.
Brazil with Buenos Ayres —
Peace concluded, 977.
Questions between United States
and Brazil growing out of, 929,
951.
Brazil with Paraguay —
Good offices of United States ten-
dered, 3776, 3883.
Keferred to, 4078.
Canada, civil war in, neutrality of
United States in, 1702, 1748.
Proclaimed, 1698, 1699.
Central America, republics in, at war
with each other, 977.
Chile with Peru and Bolivia, 4522,
4563, 4628, 4717.
Wars, Foreign
Encyclopedic Index
Wars, Foreign
Claims of United States arising out
of, 4913, 5083, 5369, 5544.
Conditions of peace presented by
Chile, discussed, 4662, 4717, 4760.
Efforts of United States to bring
about peace, discussed, 4522,
4563, 4582, 4662, 4717.
Negotiations for restoration of
peace, referred to, 4676.
Terminated, 4822.
Treaty of peace discussed, 4760.
China with Japan —
Action taken by United States re-
garding, 5957, 6059.
Agents of United States requested
to protect subjects of contest-
ants, 5957, 6059.
Discussed by President —
Adams, John, 238.
Jefferson, 314, 349, 357.
France with China, 4823.
Europe, in. (See World War.)
France with Prussia —
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 4068, 4434.
Diplomatic relations resumed, 4098.
Neutrality of United States in,
4050.
Proclaimed, 4040, 4043, 4045."
Suspension of hostilities recom-
mended by President Grant,
4055.
France with Spain —
Attempted recruiting, 2864.
Privateers, commissions not grant-
ed to, 779.
Referred to, 821.
Great Britain and France with China,
neutrality preserved by United
States in, 3037, 3089, 3174.
Great Britain with France, neutrality
of United States proclaimed, 148.
Great Britain with Russia —
Attempts of Great Britain to draw
recruits from United States, dis-
cussed, 2864.
Neutrality maintained by United
States during, 2864.
Japan, civil war In, neutrality of
United States in, 3888.
Proclaimed, 3712.
Mexico, civil war in. (See Mexico.)
Mexico with Texas —
Armistice referred to, 2172.
Battle of San Jacinto, referred to,
2330.
Correspondence between President
Jackson and Santa Anna regard-
ing, 1493.
Defeat of Mexican arms, 1487.
Desire of Texas to become part of
United States, 1456, 1487.
Discussed by President Tyler, 2113,
2164, 2193.
Hostilities should cease, 2113, 2164,
2194.
Independence of Texas —
Acknowledgment of, by Santa
Anna referred to, 2330.
Recognition of, by United States
discussed, 1484, 1500, 2113.
Interference of citizens of United
States in, complained of by Mex-
ico, 2050.
Neutrality of United States in,
1370.
Physical force, disparity of, on side
of Mexico, 1487.
Referred to, 2329.
Result of, of Importance to United
States, 1456, 1487, 2113.
Strong prepossession felt by United
States for Texas, 1456, 1487,
2113.
Threats of Mexico to renew hostil-
ities, discussed, 2193, 2206.
Neutrality preserved by the United
States during war of Great Britain
with Russia, 2864.
Russia with Turkey —
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 973.
Hayes, 4418.
Neutrality preserved by United
States in, 4418.
Threatening aspect of, discussed,
762.
Treaty of peace, referred to, 1008.
Salvador with Guatemala, 5543.
Slesvig-Holstein, neutrality of United
1 States in, discussed, 2548.
Spain with Cuba (see also Spanish-
American War) —
Armistice proposed by United
States, discussed, 6285.
Autonomous government promised
by Spain, discussed, 6152, 6261,
6284, 6308.
Captain-General Blanco directed to
suspend hostilities, 6292.
Claims of United States against
Spain resulting from, 4051, 4099,
4448, 5871, 6180.
Concentration policy of Captain-
General Weyler, discussed,
6256, 6283, 6284, 6308.
Revoked, 6285.
Forcible Intervention in, by United
States, discussed, 6261.
Re.oommended, 6289.
Friendly ofices of United States,
tender of, refused, referred to,
6255, 6282.
Joint resolution of Congress de-
claring freedom of Cuba, au-
thorizing intervention, etc.,
6297.
Discussed, 6311.
Regarded by Spain as "equiva-
lent to an evident declaration
of war, ' ' 6312.
Wars, Foreign
Encyclopedic Index
Wars of U. S.
Neutrality proclamations of Presi-
dent Cleveland, 6023, 6126.
Policy of United States regarding,
discussed by President —
Cleveland, 6068, 6148.
Befdrred to by President Mc-
Kinley, 6291.
Grant, 3985, 4018, 4051, 4101,
4143, 4245, 4290.
Referred to by President Me-
Kinley, 6259, 6286, 6291.
Hayes, 4438, 4448.
McKinley, 6248, 6281, 6307.
Questions with Spain, growing out
of, 4115, 4195, 4196, 4245, 4520.
Recognition of belligerency of
Cuba by United States deemed
unwise by President —
Cleveland, 6068, 6151.
Grant, 3985, 4018, 4292.
McKinley, 6258.
Becognition of independence of
Cuba by United States opposed
and precedents cited by Presi-
dent McKinley, 6286.
Referred to, 4004, 4024.
Surrender of insurgents, referred
to, 4437.
Termination of, announced, 4448.
Spain with South American prov-
inces—
Discussed by President —
Adams, J. Q., 922, 950.
Jackson, 1318, 1369, 1486.
Monroe, 582, 612, 627, 639, 646,
657, 674, 685, 762, 828, 829.
Independence of South American
provinces —
Achieved before recognized by
United States, 829.
Asserted, 612.
Emperor of Russia intervenes for
recognition of, 892.
Not recognized until danger of
subjugation had passed, 1486.
Referred to, 706, 761.
Should be recognized by United
States, 685.
Negotiations opened for establish-
ment of peace, 1369.
Neutrality preserved by United
States in, 582, 627, 639, 685, 762.
Referred to, 892, 969.
Successful management of war by
South American provinces, 646,
674.
Spain with South American Repub-
lics—
Armistice referred to, 4144.
Good offices of United States ten-
dered, 3776, 3884.
Accepted, 3987, 4052.
Vessels being built in New Tork
for Spain forbidden to depart,
3987.
Turkey with Greece; hope for suocesB
of Greece manifested by United
States, 762, 786, 828, 875, 950.
World War. (See World War.)
Wars of the United States.— The princi-
pal wars In which the United States has
been engaged are the Revolutionary war,
the war with France, war with the Barbary
States (Algeria. Tunis and Tripoli), the
War of 1812, the Mexican war, the Civil
War, the Spanish-American war, the Indian
wars, and the war with Germany. The
most Important conflicts with Indian tribes
are described under Indian Wars. The
near approach to war with France at
the close of the Eighteenth Century Is
chronicled In the article entitled X, Y, Z
Mission, and some of the minor domestic
Insurrections are treated under the head-
ings : Aroostook War, Bear Flag War,
Whisky Insurrection, Buckshot War, etc.
The duration of the several wars and the
troops engaged are shown In the table on
the following page.
Minor exijedltlons and engagements other
than those in the preceding table in which
United States have been engaged are as
follows :
1782-1787 — Wyoming Valley (Pa.) Eevolt.
1786-1787— Shay's Eebellion (Mass.).
1799 — Fries Rebellion (Pa.).
1806 — Burr Conspiracy.
1806 — Sabine Expedition (La.).
1807 — Chesapeake Bay Naval Affair.
1808 — Lake Champlaln Embargo Trou-
bles.
1811-1813 — Second War, Northwestern In-
dians.
1812 — Seminole War (Florida).
1813 — Peoria Indian War (Illinois).
1819 — Yellowstone Expedition.
1823 — Blackfeet and Arickaree In-
dian Wars.
1832-1833— Nullification, South fcaroUna.
1834 — Pawnee Expedition.
1837 — Osage Indian Troubles.
1838 — Heatherly Indian War.
1838 — Mormon Disturbances.
1846-1847 — Doniphan Expedition (Mexico).
1846-1848 — New Mexican Expedition.
1850 — Pitt River Expedition (Cal.).
1855 — Snake Indians Expedition.
1855-1856 — Sioux Expedition (Nebraska).
1855 — Yakima Expedition (Oregon).
1855-1856 — Cheyenne and Arapahoe Trou-
bles.
1856-1858 — Kansas Border Troubles.
1857 — Gila Expedition (New Mexico).
1857 — Sioux Indian Troubles (Minn.,
la.).
1857 — Mountain Meadow Massacre
(Utah).
1857-1858— Utah Expedition.
1 858 — Expedition vs. Northern Indians.
1858 — Puget Sound Expedition.
1858 — Spokane, Coeur d'Alene and
Paloos Indian Troubles.
1858 — ^Navajo Expedition (New Mex-
ico).
1858-1859 — Wichita Expedition (Ind. Ter.).
1859 — Colorado River Expedition.
Wars of U.S.
Encyclopedic Index
Wars of U.S.
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Wars of U. S.
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
— Pecos Expedition (Texas).
— Antelope Hills Expedition (Tex.).
— Bear Elver Expedition (Utah).
— San Juan Trouble (Wash. Ter.).
— John Brown Raid (Virginia).
Troubles (Mex. Bor-
1859
1859
1859
1859
1859
1859-1860 — Cortina
der).
1860 — Pah-Ute Expedition (Cal.).
1860 — Kiowa and Comanche Exepdi-
tiou (Ind. Ter.).
1860 — Carson Valley Expedition (Utah).
1860-1861 — Navajo Expedition (New Mex-
ico).
1861 — Apache Indian War (Ariz., N.
M.).
1862 — Indian Troubles, (New Ulm,
Minn.).
1862-1867 — Sioux Indian War (Minn., Da-
kota).
1863-1869 — War vs. Cheyenne, Arapahoe,
Kiowa, Comanche Indians in
Kansas, Neb., Col., and Ind. Ter.
1865-1868 — Indian War, Ore., Id., Cal.
1863-1866 — Fenian Raids, Canada Border.
1867-1881 — Mexican Border Indian Wars.
1868-1869 — Canadian River Expedition (N.
M.).,
1871 — ^Yellowstone Expedition..
1871 — Fenian Troubles, Dakota Border.
1872 — Yellowstone Expedition, Dakota.
1872-1873 — ^Modoc Campaign. ~
1873 — Yellowstone Campaign, Dakota.
1874-1875— Indlan'Wars, Ind. Ter.
1874 — Sioux Expedition, Wyo., Neb.
1874 — Black Hills Expedition, Dak.
1875 — Campaign vs. Nevada Indians.
1876 - — Sioux Indian War.
1876 — Powder River Expedition (Wyo.).
1876-1877 — Big Horn, Yellowstone Expedi-
tions.
1876-1879 — Sioux and Cheyenne War.
1877 — Nez Percys Campaign.
1878 — ^Dte Campaign.
1879 — Snalze Indian Troubles (Id.).
1890-1891 — Sioux Indian War.
1891-1893^Tln Horn War, Mexican Bor-
der.
1895 — Bannock Indian Troubles.
1898 — Chippewa Indian Troubles.
1912-1913 — ^Nicaraguan Expedition.
1913-1914 — Haitian and Santo Domingo Ex-
peditions.
— Occupation of Vera Cruz, Mex-
ico.
— Punitive Expedition, Mexico.
— ^Military Occupation of Haiti
and Santo Domingo.
Casualties. — ^The recorded casualties In
the forces of the United States in all Its
military and naval enterprises, from the be-
ginning of the War of Independence to the
signing of the armistice with Germany,
totalled about 1,500,000. Of this number
about 700,000 were killed or died of wounds,
disease or other causes. The figures for the
War of Independence, however, are purely
conjectural, as no records of any kind con-
cerning casualties are available. The above
total includes the Confederate losses In the
Civil War. In the Union Army alone they
were distributed as follows :
Deaths Officen Men Total
Killed in Action 4,142 62,916 67,058
Died of Wounds . . . 2,223 40,789 43,012
Died of Disease 2,795 221,791 224,586
Miscellaneous 424 24,358 24,782
1914
1916
1916
Total Deaths 9,584 349,944 359,528
Wounded 275,175
The Confederate losses In the Civil War
are estimated at 95,000 dead from action
and 60,000 dead of disease, with some 175,-
000 wounded and missing, etc.
Casualties in the War of 1812 were as
follows :
Officers Men Total
Killed in action alone. 642 4,220 4,862
Wounded 4,000
Deaths in the Mexican War were 19,349,
with a total casualty list of 43,300.
In the war with Spain,* 265 men were
killed, of whom 21 w,ere officers ; 1,596 were
wounded, of whom 116 were officers ; and
3,729 died of disease.
Losses In the World War will be found
under that head.
Wars of United States. (See Algerine ,
War; Indian Wars; Mexican War;
Revolutionary War; Spanish- Ameri- .
can War; Tripolitan War; Civi>
War; War of 1812; Mexico; World
War.)
Wasco Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Washington, G-eorge. — 1789-1797.
(PIEST TEEM, 1789-1793).
First Administration — Federal.
Vice-President — John Adams. ■!
Secretary of State —
Thomas Jefferson, from March 21,
1790.
Secretary of the Treasury —
Alexander Hamilton, from Sept. 11,
1789. '^
Secretary of War —
Henry Knox, from Sept. 12, 1789.
Attorney-Oeneral — •
Edmund Randolph, from Sept. 26,
1789.
Postmaster-General —
Samuel Osgood, from Sept. 26, 1789.
Timothy Pickering, from Aug. 12,
1791.
The first session of the First Congress
under the Constitution met In New York,
April 6, 1789. Speaker of the House, F.
A. Muhlenbergi of Pennsylvania.
The electoral vote was immediately
counted and George Washington was found
to be the unanimous choice for President.
He took the oath of office April 30, and
the organization of the United States gov-
ernment under the Constitution was begun.
The first tariff bill was passed July 4.
By the end of September the departments
of State, War and Navy, Treasury, Post-
Office and Attorney-General had been or-
ganized and the Supreme Court estab-
lished.^
It was by perfectly natural and logical
steps that WaBhlngton passed from the
military leadership of the people In their
struggle for independence, through the
Presideney of the National Convention at
Philadelphia, where months of the ypiir
1787 were spent In framing a Constitution,
to the position of first President of the
Washington, George
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
United States. Speaking of Wasliington'a
eminent fitness for ftie office, Bancroft, in
Ills "History of tlie Constitution," says:
"But for liim tlie country could not liave
achiered its independence ; but for liim it
could not liave formed its Union ; and now
but for him it could not set tlie Govern-
ment in successful motion." The election
should have been held in November, 1788 ;
but it did not take place until the first
Wednesday in January, 1789. The Consti-
tution required that to become operative it
should be ratified by nine of the thirteen
states. It was not until June 21, 1788,
that New Hampshire, the requisite ninth
state, gave its approval ; Vermont followed
on the 26th of June, and New' York on
July 26. It was Sept. 13, 1788, before
Congress passed the resolution declaring
the Constitution ratified, and ordered the
appqintment of the electors. The interval
between this date and that set for the
election alloweH no time for the participa-
tion of the people In the election. The
electors were appointed by the legislatures
of all states except that of New Tork,
where a bitter struggle over the Constitu-
tion between the Elouse and the Senate
prevented the necessary compliance with
the order, and those of North Carolina
and Rhode Island, whose legislatures had
not yet ratiflea the Constitution. There was
, no nomination or preparation of platform,
, yet when on April 6, 1789, the votes of
the electors were counted in the presence
of the two houses, it was found that Wash-
ington had received every vote of the ten
states that had participated In the election,
and that John Adams had received 34. The
third highest vote was that of John Jay,
who received nine, the votes for the latter I
two being for the Vice-Presidency.
After submitting twelve constitutional
amendments to the states (ten of which
were ratified, taking effect Dee. 15, 1791),
Congress adjourned, and President Wash-
ington paid a visit to the northern and
eastern states.
The second session of the First Congress
met in New York, Jan. 4, 1790, and Wash-
ington delivered his First Annual Address
(page 57). At this session Secretary Ham-
ilton's scheme for funding the National
Debt was adopted, providing (1) fund and
pay the foreign debt of the Confedera-
tion ($12,000,000) ; (2) fund and pay the
domestic debt ($40,000,000) ; (3) assume
and pay the unpaid war debt ($21,500,000)
of the states. This session also passed
acts authorizing the census, the patent of-
fice and the acquisition of the District of
Columbia as a permanent seat of govern-
ment. Meanwhile the last of the thirteen
original states had ratified the Constitu-
tion, and after amending the tariff law by
increasing duties, the second session ad-
journed Aug. 12, 1790.
The third session of the First Congress,
which met in Philadelphia, Dec. 6, 1790,
passed the act incorporating the Bank of
the United States, and adjourned March
3, 1791. This Congress in two years estab-
lished the government on a permanent basis
and provided the means to maintain it.
England further recognized the young
republic by sending a minister to the
capital.
The Second Congress opened at Phila-
delphia Oct. 24, 1791, with Jonathan Trum-
bull, of Connecticut, Speaker of the House.
The Mint was established and an appor-
tionment act was passed. (See Appor-
tionment.) At the second session the Pres-
ident's salary was fixed at $25,000, and
the electoral vote was counted, sliowlne
Washington to have received 132 (all) ana
John Adams 77 and George Clinton 50 as
second choice, or Vice-President, in the
second Presidential election.
(SECOND TEEM, 1793-3 797).
Second Administration — Fedaral.
Vice-President — John Adams.
Secretary of State —
Thomas Jefferson (continued).
Edmund Randolph, from Jan. 2, 1794.
Timothy Pickering, from Dec. 10, 1795.
Secretary of the Treasury —
Alexander Hamilton (continued).
Oliver Wolcott, from Feb. 2, 1795.
Secretary of War —
Henry Knox (continued).
Timothy Pickering, from Jan. 2, 1795.
James McHenry, from Jan. 27, 1796.
Attorney-Oeneral —
Edmund Randolph (continued).
William Bradford, from Jan. 8, 1794.
Charles Lee, from Dec. 10, 1795.
Postmaster-Oenerat —
Timothy Pickering (continued).
Joseph Habersham, from Feb. 25, 1795.
Party Afflliation. — At no time did Wash-
ington make an avowdl of party. He en-
tered upon the duties of office with a pro-
found veneration for the Constitution, a
determination to adhere to its every pro-
vision, and with a fixed purpose of pro-
moting the unity of the nation. Before
his election he said In a letter: "I have
ever been a friend to adequate powers in
Congress, without which we shall never
establish a national character. . . . We are
either a united people under one head and
for federal purposes, or we are thirteen
Independent sovereignties, eternally coun-
teracting each other." When he was con-
sulted about the choice of a Vice-President,
be expressed no preference save that he
hoped it would be "a true Federalist."
Even at the end of his eight years as
President, after the installation of the ma-
chinery of the Government, the formulation
of the policies of the country, and the
application of the provisions of the Con-
stitution to the practical duties of the
administration had erected the party of
which he was the head, hereafter to be
known as Federalists, and that of his op-
ponents, known for a time as Anti-Federal-
ists— even then in his memorable Farewell
Address (see page 205) he denounced party
affiliation and cautioned his countr.vmen
against Its, to him, baneful effects. While
he, therefore, must be regarded as the
founder of a party, he, nevertheless, says :
"The alternate domination of one faction
over another, sharpened by the spirit of re-
venge natural to party dissension, which in
different ages and countries has perpe-
trated the most horrid enormities. Is it-
self a frightful despotism." . . . "It opens
the door to foreign influence and corrup-
tion, which find a facilitated access to the
Government itself through the channels of
party passion."
The war between England and France
had made Itself felt In America through
vexatious interference by both belligerents
with the commerce of the United iStates.
The French Government directed the seiz-
ure of all vessels carrying supplies to an
enemy's port and Great Britain ordered
her war ships to stop all vessels laden
with French supplies and to turn them Into
British ports. War sentiment ran high
In America and Washington was severely
criticised for his proclamation of neutral-
ity. These aggressions on the seas were
the beginnings of a series of provocations
which finally led to the second war with
o 3
—3
o
fe
Washington, George
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
Great Britain in 1812. During the summer
of 1793 the cornerstone of the Cai)itol
was laid. Hamilton was the recognized
leader of the Federalist party, and the fol-
lowers of Jefferson began to assume the
name of Republicans in opposition.
The Third Congress opened in Philadel-
phia Dec. 2, 1793, with F. A. Muhlenberg
as Speaker of the House. Thomas Jeffer-
son resigned from the State Department ow-
ing to his opposition to the administra-
tion, and dissensions among the Federalists
themselves resulted in that party's over-
throw. The Eleventh Amendment to the
Constitution, securing states against suits
In the United States Courts, was declared
in force Jan. 8, 1798. Six ships of war
were authorized — three of 44 guns and
three of 38 guns. Of these the Constitii-
tion (44 guns). United States (44 guns),
and the Constellation (38 guns) were com-
pleted. In retaliation- for the English navi-
gation acts an embargo was laid on all
shipping for sixty days, and an act was
passed forbidding any American vessel to
supply slaves to any other nation. On
account of the popular sympathy with
France in her war with England it was
deemed necessary to pass a neutrality law
In order to avoid war with England, and
John Jay was sent as envoy with a treaty.
Indrans in the Ohio territory, which had
been giving considerable trouble, were de-
feated by Gen. Anthony Wayne. Stringent
naturalization laws were i)assed at this
time. Hamilton resigned his portfolio as
Secretary of the Treasury In Januarv, 1795.
The Third Congress adjourned March 3,
and the following summer Washing'ton
called the Senate in extra session and the
Jay Treaty with England was ratified in
spite of popular remonstrances against it.
Treaties were also signed with the Ohio
Indians, with Spain and Algiers.
The Fourth Congress met in Philadelphia
Dec. 7, 1795, with Jonathan Dayton as
Speaker of the House. The Jay Treaty
was proclaimed March 1, 1796, and the
House demanded the papers in relation
thereto, and Washington refused. About
this time Jefferson wrote the famous Maz-
zei letter (g. v.), which later severed the
friendly relations between himself and Wash-
ington. The closing days of this session
were enlivened by Fisher Ames' speech
in the House on the Jay Treaty.
Political Complexion of Congress. — In the
First Congress, the Senate was composed
of twenty-six members, all of whom were
Federalists ; the House, of sixty-five mem-
bers, was composed of fifty-three Federal-
ists and twelve Democrats. In the Sec-
ond Congress, the Senate was composed
of seventeen Federalists and thirteen
Democrats ; and the House, of sixty-nine
members, was made up of fifty-five Feder-
alists and fourteen Democrats. In the
second term of Washington's administra-
tion, the Third Congress was composed of
a Senate of thirty-one members, of whom
eighteen were Federalists and thirteen
Democrats; the House, of 105 members, was
made nn of fifty-one Federalists and fifty-
four Democrats. The Fourth Congress
consisted of a Senate of thirty-two mem-
bers, of whom nineteen were Federalists
and thirteen Democrats ; and a House of
105 members, composed of forty-six Fed-
eralists and fifty-nine Democrats.
At the third presidential election the
I-'odprals voted for John Adarnq and Thom-
MS Pinckney for President and Vice-Presi-
dent, respectively, while the Republicans
voted for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron
Burr. When the votes were counted one
of the great faults In the method of
electing the President and Vice-President
became apparent. Of the 138 votes cast
for President, Adams received 71, and Jef-
ferson, 68, and, under the Constitution.
Jefferson, though a candidate for President
on the opposition ticket became Vice-Pres-
ident. This resulted in the Twelfth
Amendment to the Constitution.
Constitution. — The failure of the confed-
eration to secure for his country that
unity of government which he most de-
sired, caused Washington great anxiety ;
and Shays's rebellion added greatly to his
disquiet. He said in a letter to Madison,
in November, 1786 : "It was but the other
day xnat we' were shedding our blood to
obtain the constitutions under which we
now iive^constitutions of our own choice
and making — and now we are unsheathing
the sword to overturn them." He was
persuaded by his friends to head the dele-
gation from Virginia to the convention at
Philadelphia in May, 1787, and there was
unanimously elected president of the con-
vention that passed the Constitution, on
Sept. 17, 1787. He immediately an-
nounced the fact to Congress by letter,
in which he said: "In all our deliberations
on this subject we kept steadily in our
view that which appears to us tue greatest
interest of every true/ American — the con-
solidation of our Union — in which is in-
volved our prosperity, felicitv, safety, and,
perhaps, our national existence." His firm
adherence to the Constitution and his influ-
ence in interpreting it were remarked by
his contemporaries. In his appointments
to the several offices he acted as he him-
self said : "With the best intentions and
fullest determination to nominate to office
those persons only who, upon every consid-
eration, were the most deserving, and who
would probably execute theii* several func-
tions to the interest . and credit of the
American Union, if such characters could
be found by my, exploring every avenue
of Information respecting their merit and
pretensions that it was in my power to
obtain." His regard for the Constitution
seems to be epitomized in his statement in
his Farewell Address (page 209) : "The
basis of our political system is the right
of the people to make and to alter their
constitutions of government. But the Con-
stitution which at any time exists till
changed by an explicit and authentic act
of the whole people is sacredly obligatory
on all."
Finances. — When Washington took office
the finances of the country were in a de-
plorable state. He appointed Alexander
Hamilton, of New York, Secretary of the
Treasury. A loan of 3,000,00u florins
(about $1,200,000) was negotiated from
Holland in 1790 (see page 73), after which
eame Hamilton's plan for providing reve-
nues. The first step toward the revenue
was taken in the tariff bill of July 4, 1789,
the preamble of which reads : "Whereas, it
is necessary for the support of government,
for the discharge of the debts ol^ the United
States, and the encoxiragement and pro-
tection of manufacturers, that duties be
laid on goods, wares, and merchandise im-
ported. Be it enacted," etc. Hamilton's
plans for finanding the nation .and of re-
storing public credit involved the funding
system, of which Hamilton was the origi-
nator in America, and the establishment of
the Bank of the United States, the subscrip-
tions of which were made in a single day
(see page 96). Three other loans from
Holland were made and are referred to by
Washington with much satisfaction in his
Fourth Annual Address (see page 120).
Washington, George
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
The establishment of public credit was
very dear to Washington. In his Second
Annual Address (page 75) he expresses sat-
isfaction at the sumcieney of tne revenue
provisions and adds the hope "that it will
be the favorite policy with you, not merely
to secure a payment of the interest of the
debt funded, but as far and as fast as
the growing resources of the country will
permit to exonerate it of cbe principal it-
self." In his Fifth Annual Address (page
134) he says: "No pecuniary consideration
is more urgent than the regular redemption
and discharge of the public debt. On none
can delay be more injurious or an economy
of time more valuable." In his Sixth An-
nual Address (page 159) he again refers
to this subject : "Indeed, whatsoever is un-
Snished in our system of public credit can-
not be benefited by procrastination ; and
as far as may be practicable we ought to
place that credit on grounds whicii cannot
be disturbed, and to prevent that pro-
gressive accumulation of debt which must
ultimately endanger all governments." His
last official word on this subject is given
in his Seventh Annual Address (page 177) :
"Congress have demonstrated their sense to
be, and It were superfluous to repeat mine,
that whatsoever will tend to accelerate the
honorable extinction of our public debt
accords as much with the true interest of
our country as with the general sense of
our constituents."
The attention of Congress was repeatedly
called to the necessity of producing uni-
formity in the coins, weights, and measures
of the country, to overcome the confusion
resulting from the several standards in use.
By the power vested in him', Washington
reduced the weight of the copper cent to
one pennyweight and sixteen grains, and
that of the half-cent proportionately.
Public Debt. — The public debt of the
United States during the years of Wash-
ington's administration stood as follows :
Jan. 1, 1791, $75,463,476.52; 1792, $77.-
227.924.66 ; 1793. $80.352,634.04 ; 1794,
$78,427,404.77 ; 1795, $80,747,587.39 ; 1796,
$83,762,172.07; 1797, $82,064,479.33.
roriff.— The tariff act of July 4, 1789,
imposed duties varying from five per cent,
to ten per cent, upon iron, steel, wool,
carpets, and glass ; and duties of from
five to twenty cents per gallon on certain
liquors. An act, passed on Aug. 10, 1790,
"making further provision for the payment
of the debts of the United States," In-
creased the duties upon some of the duti-
able imports : and both increased and added
to the duties imposed on liguors. The
first case of indirect taxation in the coun-
try, other than duties' on imports, was the
act of March 3, 1791, "repealing after the
iRst day of June next the duties heretofore
laid upon distilled spirits imported from
iibroad, and laying others in their stead ;
and also upon spirits distilled within the
United States, and for appropriating the
same." The duty v/iried from nine to
twenty-five cents a gallon according to
strength ; with a yearly duty of sixty
cents per gallon of capacity on all stills
employed. Duties on nearly all duti-
able goods were slightly increased by
the act of May 2. 1792, "for raising a fur-
ther snm of money for the protection of the
frontier, and for other purposes therein
mentioned." The act of June 5, 1794,
"laying certain duties upon snutt and re-
fine"d sugar ; also upon carriages ; and re-
tail dealers of wines, etc., were required to
pay five dollars a year for license." The
duty on snuff made in the country was laid
at eight cents a pound ; and refined sugar,
two cents a pound. The act of June 7,
1794, laid additional duties on goods Im-
ported and Imposed a duty upon auction
sales. On March 3, 174)7, an act was
signed imposing stamp duties on some
kinds of certificates, bills of exchange, let-
ters patent. Insurance policies, promissory
notes, etc.
Opposition to the payment of excise
taxes by certain distillers of western Penn-
sylvania necessitated sending troops to the
scene of disorder, and was made the sub-
ject of three proclamations by Washington.
(See Whisky Insurrection, and proclama-
tions, pp. 116, 150 and 153.)
Commerce. — The regulation of commerce
in the young republic was a task of ex-
treme diSaculty, but Washington addressed
himself to the development of trade and
industry with such ardor that in his Sev-
enth Annual Address (page 176) he was
able to say : "Every part of the Union dis-
plays indications of rapid and various im-
provement ; and with burdens so light aa
to be scarcely perceived, with resources
fully adequate to our present exigencies,
with governments founded upon the gen-
eral principles of rational liberty, and with
mild and wholesome laws, is it too much to
say that our country exhibits a spectacle
of national happiness never surpassed, if
ever equalled?" In Hamilton's plan for
raising revenue there was included a tax
on spirits. This was opposed as being a
tax on a necessity, but especially because
suits arising out of its imposition were
triable only in Pennsylvania, thus involv-
ing great trouble and expense. The pro-
test against the tax is known as the
Whisky Rebellion. Washington bore the
defiance against that law with admirable
patience and issued no fewer than three
placating proclamations on the subject
before resorting to force. An army of 15,-
000 men was called out, but order was re-
stored without their aid.
In the Second Annual Message (page
75) a warning is sounded for the need ol
better protection of American commerce by
building a merchant marine, that the coun-
try be not dependent upon foreign bot-
toms for carrying its produce to other
countries. Especial attention is called to
the Mediterranean trade which was then,
interfered with by African pirates. ,
Slavery. — Washington inherited a great
many slaves, and used them in his success-
ful operations as a planter. He was,
while President, the richest man in the
United States. The slavery question as-
sumed no political status in his time ; but
in 1786, in a letter to Mr. Morris, he
said : "There is no man living who wishes
more sincerely than I do to see a plan
adopted for the abolition of slavery." In
proof of the sincerity of this statement,
all of his slaves were emancipated by his
win.
Foreign FoUcy. — In his First Annual Mes-
sage Washington (page 64) asked for pro-
vision to be made by Congress to enable
him to conduct intercourse with^ foreign
nations In a manner most conducive to
public good. He adopted a firm policy of
neutrality, and greatly embittered the
Anti-Federalists by his refusal to aid the
French revolutionists in their war against
Great Britain ; but consummated with the
latter country the famous Jay Treaty.
This spirit be embodied In his counsels
that "nothing is more essential than that
permanent, inveterate antipathies should
be excluded and that in place of them just
and amicable feelings toward ail should be
cultivated." His everv act was regulated
by the principle "that fhe great rule of
conduct for us in regard to foreign na-
tions Is, to have in extending our commer-
Washington, George
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
cial relations with them as little political
connection as possible. Why by inter-
weaving our destiny with that of any part
of Europe entangle our peace and prosper-
ity In the tolls of European ambition, rl-
valsbip, interest, humor, or caprice?" So
determined was the opposition against this
policy that his famous proclamation ot
neutrality of April, 1793 (page 149), was
denounced as "a royal edict and a daring
assumption of power." Still Washington
maintained this attitude even to the length
of insisting upon the recall of M. Genet
from America while using this country as
a base and a means of making war upon
Great Britain in that year. The seizure of
American vessels by British cruisers fo-
mented this opposition and Washington's
act in closing the Jay Treaty exposed him
to the severest censure.
Army. — Washington In his First Annual
Address (page 57) urged attention to Army
organization with the statement : "To be
prepared lor war is one of the most effec-
tual means of preserving peace." He ad-
vocated the arming and discfplining of the
people, the manufacture of military sup-
plies, and the establisnment of troops. In
a special message (page 52) he had al-
ready advised that the experience and
training of the "well-instructed officers
and soldiers of the late Army be util-
ized in the development of an efficient mi-
litia." This experience he speaks of as a
"resource which is daily diminishing by
death and other causes. To suffer this
peculiar advantage to pass away unim-
proved would be to neglect an opportunity
which will never again occur, unless, un-
fortunately, we should again be involved
in a long and arduous war." In his Eighth
Annual Address (page 194) he urges the
institution of a military academy, and
adds : "However pacific the general policy
of a nation may be, it ought never to be
without an adequate stock of military
knowledge for emergencies. The art of was
Is at once comprehensive and complicated.
It demands much previous study, and the
possession of It in ItS most improved and
perfect state is always of great moment to
the security of a nation."
Education. — In his First Annual Address
(page 58) Washington urges upon Congress
the necessity of making provision for the
promotion of science and literature.
"Knowledge," he says, "Is In every coun.
try the surest basis of public happiness."
He suggests efficient patronage either by
aiding seminaries already established or by
the Institution of a national university.
In his Eighth Annual Address (page 194)
he says : "True it Is that our country, much
to its honor, contains manv seminaries of
learning highly respectable and useful ; but
the funds upon which they rest are too
narrow to command the ablest professors
in the different departments of liberal
knowledge for the Institution contemplated,
though they would be excellent auxiliaries.
He lays particular stress upon the "educa-
tion of youth in the science of govern-
ment."
Veto Messages. — In the eight years of his
administration Washington issued only two
veto messages. The first on April 5, 1792
(page 116), refused sanction to an act regu-
lating the apportionment of Representa-
tives in the several states because it was
contrary to the provisions of the Constitu-
tion. The second veto messa-'e was the last
message sent by Washington to Congress.
Tt refused sanction to an act amending the
military estabiishment because of its un-
fairness and injustice to the bodies of
troops which it might affect (page 203).
Indian Affairs. — Washington's remarkable
patience and good judgment were fully dis-
played in his treatment of the Indians in
the uprisings that occurred among the
Creeks, Wabash, Five Nations, Senecas,
and Six Nations. In a special message up-
on treaties with the Indians (page 59)
he maintains that a "due regard should be
extended to these Indians whose happiness
in the course of events so materially de-
pends upon the national Justice and hu-
manity of the United States." Agafn
(page 61), he declares that it is "impor-
tant that all treaties and compacts formed
by the United States with other nations,
whether civilized or not, should be made
with caution and executed with fidelity."
Washington, George:
Anniversary of birth of, proclama-
tion regarding celebration of,
3289.
Annual addresses of, 57, 73, 95, 117,
130, 154, 174, 191.
Addresses of Senate in reply, 59,
76, 100, 122, 134, 160, 178, 196.
Eeplies of President, 60, 77, 101,
123, 135 161, 179, 199.
Addresses of House in reply, 61,
77, 101, 123, 136, 162, 179, 199.
Eeplies of President, 62, 79 102,
124, 137, 163, 180, 201.
Argentiuan honors to, 7060.
Biographical sketch of, 33.
Birthplace of, appropriation for ap-
proaches to monument to mark,
recommended, 4803.
Bust of, presented by Trench citizens,
6858. .
Centennial celebration of inaugura-
tion of, 5371.
Proclamation regarding, 5453.
Colors of France presented to United
States on the occasion of the pres-
entation of an address to the
United States by the Committee of
Public Safety in France expressive
of good-will and amity towards
them, 181.
Commander-in-Chief of Armies, proc-
lamation recommending commem-
oration of anniversary of surrender
of commission, 4810.
Committee appointed by House to
meet, 37.
Constitution, right to make and alter,
basis of our political system, 209.
Deathi of —
Addresses on, 287, 288, 289, 290.
Resolutions of Congress on, trans-
mitted to widow of, 290.
Beply of, 291.
Departments of Government to be
preserved in constitutional spheres,
211.
Discretionary ;^ower of President
over nominations, removals, dis-
cussed by, 186.
Washington, George
Encyclopedic Index
Washington, George
Discussion of the state of the Union
by, 95, 175, 205.
Disregard of Indian treaty by, and
transactions discussed and recom-
mendations made, 103.
District of Columbia, boundaries of,
discussed and referred to, 92, 94.
Election —
For third term declined by, 205.
Of&cial information of, 35.
Farewell address of, 205.
To be read to Army, 3306.
Ordered read at birthday celebra-
tion, 3290.
Finances discussed by, 75, 98, 121,
133, 159, 177.
Foreign policy discussed by, 120, 213.
Foreign policy of, discussed bv Presi-
- dent Wilson, 8643.
Geographical distinctions in country
discouraged by, 208.
Good faith and justice toward all na-
tions enjoined by, 213.
Illustration of, resigning commission,
14.
Inaugural address of —
First, 43.
Address of Senate in reply, 46.
Eeply of President, 47.
Address of House in reply, 48.
Iteply of President, 49.
Second, 130.
Inauguration as President, proceed-
ings initiatory to, 34,
Centennial anniversary of, celebra-
tion of, 5371.
Illustration of, 38.
Order of conducting, 41.
Eesolntions of House on report of
committee, 42.
Indian affairs, notifies Senate that he
will meet and advise with, regard-
ing, 53.
Indian treaty, disregards transac-
tions regarding, 103.
Knowledge the surest basis of public-
happiness, 58.
Letter of, to Charles Thomson ac-
cepting Presidency, 34.
Lieutenant-General and Commander-
in-Chief of Army, nomination of,
257.
Letteif of acceptance, 257.
Military Academy, establishment of,
recommended by, 194.
Eeferred to, 878.
National university, establishment
of, recommended by, 58, 194.
Eeferred to, 878.
1 Notifies committee that he will meet
it at Elizabethtown, 38.
Oath of ofSce, report of committee as
to time and place of taking, 40.
Pardon granted insurgents in Penn-
sylvania by, 173.
Eeferred to, 176. ^
Parties, people warned by, against
baneful effects of, 210.
Passionate attachments to other na-
tions should be excluded, 213.
Peace and harmony enjoined by, 213.
Pecuniary compensation as President
refused by, 45.
Portrait of, 32.
Powers , of Federal and State Govern-
ments discussed by, 186.
Proclamations of —
Boundaries of District of Columbia,
92, 94.
Extraordinary session of Senate,
130, 204, 572.
Indian treaties, 72.
Insurrection in Pennsylvania, 150,
153.
Military expedition against foreign
power, 149.
Neutrality in war between allied
forces and France, 148.
Opposition to revenue laws, 116,
150, 153.
Pardons to insurgents in Pennsyl-
vania, 173.
Eegarding armed force under James
O 'Fallon, 83.
Revenue laws, opposition to, 116,
150, 153.
Eeward for persons destroying In-
dian town, 129.
Thanksgiving, 56, 171.
Facsimile of, 66.
Treaty with Creeks, 72.
Public credit, strength and security
of Government rest upon, 212.
Eeception of, to be held in house of
Samuel Osgood, 35, 36.
Eeligion and morality indispensable
supports to prosperity, 212.
Eeports of committee respecting in-
auguration of, 39, 40.
Bequest of House for correspondence
regarding foreign negotiations re-
fused by, 186.
Eetirement from office announced by,
and replies of Congress, 196, 198,
199, 200. o , , ,
Salary as President, refused by, 45.
Seminaries of learning, establishment
of, recommended by, 58.
State of the Union discussed by, 95,
175, 205. -
States of the Union, alliances be-
tween, discouraged by, 209.
Statue of, to be —
Erected at Caracas, Veifezuela,
4716, 4760.
Placed in Capitol, 881, 1170, 1910.
Thanksgiving proclamations of, 56,
171.
Facsimile, 224.
Unity of Government —
"Washington, George Encyclopedic Index Washington City
Best preserved by local self -govern- 000,000 acres in the state oyster bed re-
ment, 208 serves.
Tr'»„„«j-;„i i„ _ Tv„.i„ oirr In 1920, the population was 1,356,621.
Essential to our liberty, 207. ^ the preceding census year it was 1,141,-
Veto messages of — 990- Of the latter, there were 256,241 for-
AnnnTtioTiTnpTit nf TfenTPspntativpa eign-born, including 39,482 Canadians, 29,-
11R representatives, ggg G„,naus, 32,200 Swedes, 28,368 Nor-
•••l"- wegians, 19,430 English, 10,180 Irish, 10,-
Military establishment, 203. 961 Eus.fians, 12,177 Japanese, 13,121 Ital-
TTr.. cT,j« «'«.»« ?>-„ „* *i,„ -o^niKr, nno-t- ians, 12,745 Austrians. In that year, 53%
Washington.— One of the Pacific coast of the population was urban. There are a
: tates — nickname, "Chlnools State." It number of Indian Eeservations (see In-
ixtends from lat. 45° 40' to 49° dians).
north, and from long. 117° to 124° 44' jjost recent educational statistics showed
west. It is bounded on the north by the 363,812 children between the ages of 5 and
Strait of San Juan de Fuca and British 18, of whom 262,829 were enrolled in the
Columbia, on the east by Idaho, on the public schools, with an average daily at-
south by Oregon (partly separated by the tendance of 194,855. There were 1,349
Columbia Eiver), and on the west by the male and 8,012 female teachers in the pub-
I'aciflc Ocean. Area, 69,127 square miles. lie schools. There were 293 public high
The Cascade Eange traverses the State schools with 803 male and 1,172 female
from north to south, west of the center. teachers and with 15,171 male and 21,699
There are extensive forests, particularly in female students.
the western part, and the eastern portion ^^^ number of manufacturing establisli-
produces large quantities of wheat. Gold ^ents In Washington having an Annual out-
and silver are also found in paying quan- put valued at $500 or more at the beginning
lities. Salmon fishing and shipbuilding are of 1915 was 3,8.30. The amount of. capital
important industries. invested was $277,717,000, giving occupation
The country was visited as early as 1592. |'^o'L^i?,?,'^„S^''^°°|' "^'°S material valued at
The mouth of the Columbia River was ex- *^^?{?"S'.?Pi''on^^,Ji"^°'S^,°"-* A^iished goods
IJlored in 1792 by Captain Gray, and fur- ^°?}^ *-^^;^i^i''*'2^<, MS^'i^^S^ ^'^^ vSLSe&
iher explorations were conducted by Lewis Paid amounted to $63,207,000.
and Clark in 1805. John Jacob Astor „ (See also "Fifty-four Forty or Fight" ;
founded a trading post at the mouth of the Northwestern Boundary ; Oregon.)
Columbia Elver in 1811. The State was Washineton*
formed from part of the Oregon region, aj • • j- •
which was claimed by both England and Admission of, into Union proclaimed,
.America for many years. It was organized 5460
as a Territory by an act of Congress passed Disen<!«ip<1 '^i.R'i
-March 2, 1853, and admitted to the Dnion .„ iJiscussea, t)4»&.
-Nov. 11, 1889 (5460). Boundary line with British provinces.
The last federal census gave the number (See Northwestern Boundary.)
"t farms In the state as 66,288. In the Chinp.sp iniurpd h-r IowIpso mp„ 4„
preceding census, the figure was 56,192, !„! . ;^^J„ :.„L ^ ^ ™'
with an average of 208% acres to the farm 4914, 4968, 5083.
and with 54% of the farm land classified Indemnity to, recommended, 5219
as improved. Appropriation for, 5367.
The last annual agricultural production Troops sent to protect, 4933.
was as follows : i-i i • i j. ' « -.
Cr.t Acreage BuMs Valu, SOlf' '"""^"^ ' '
Wheat 2,329,000 37,982,000 851,276,000 y j- ' ■
Hay r 844,000 1,659,000*30,360,000 Indians m —
Oau, 323,000 15,052,000 10,8ci7,uuo Agreement with, for relinquishment
Potatoes 56,000 8,680,000 8,246,000 nf Innflo A7S1
Barley 110,000 3,883,000 3,883,000 T^ ^"■"^°» *'°^- „
Corn 78,000 i!,808,000 3,510,000 JJepredations 0%, referred to, 2873,
*Tons. 2894, 2896, 2900, 2911, 2916,
Fruit-growing Is prosecuted on a most 2941.
extensive scale. In a recent year, 13,420,- Eeferred to, 3015, 3016
000 bushels of apples were produced, 423,- T.nnfla in oof oTiQ^t «= t,„vu„ ,„„„-„„
000 bushels of peaches, 2,246,000 bushels -Liands in, set apart as public reserva-
of pears. Extensive systems of Irrigation tion by proclamation, 5810, 6209,
make possible much farming in the arid 6215, 6218, 6219.
region east of the Cascade Mountains (see T ;■,■»,(■ i,„„o„ „„ „ i j? ■ j. j. i.
Irrigation). There are almost 10,000,000 Liignt-house on coast of, point to be
acres of timber lands. (For the National selected for, 3902.
Forests, see Forests, National.) Martial law in, proclamatioh of gov-
Most recent figures for the farm animals ernor rpfprrpd to P77R
showed 303,000 Wses, 20,000 mules, 228,- ernor reierrea to, ^//b.
000 milch cows, 807,000 other cattle, 780,- I'ossessory claims m, convention with
000 sheep, 317,000 swine. As will be seen. Great Britain regarding, 3380
?SlTsf I'n^fuil ^oTc*un°/s*?s*tirt'e1*li ^°l^-f-l <^°'"^'T«*^rir^ P^'"=^^'"^-
more than five and a half mllUon pounds. t^ohs against, 4896, 5073, 5932.
The coal mines are productive, a recent Washington, The, seizure of, by British
annual coal output being more than 3,000,- authorities, referred to 4114
000 tons, which was below the normal. ,„ \.- ^ n- > ^^■
Gold, silver, copper, quarry products, ce- Wasnington City. — The capital of the
ment, lead and zinc also are produced. United States. It is situated in the Dls-
The fisheries, especially the salmon, have trict of Columbia, on the Potomac Elver
an annual output whose value runs into at the head of navigation, in latitude 38°
the millions, and there are more than 10,- 53' N. and longitude 77° 1' W The site
Washington City
Encyclopedic Index
Washington City
for the capital was chosen la 1790 and
he seat of government was established at
Washington in 1800. Washington is one of
the best planned cities in the world ; in
addition to the usual rectangular arrange-
ments of streets it has a number of fine
wide avenues radiating in all directions
from both the Capitol and the White House.
At their intersections are circles laid out as
small parks and most are lined with pleas-
ant shade trees. It contains the principal
public buildings in which the business of
the Government is transacted.
Besides the Capitol (g. ».) the city eon-
tains the official residence of the President,
buildings devoted to the various Depart-
ments of Government, the Congressional Li-
brary, the Smithsonian Institution, Na-
tional Museum, Naval Observatory, Cor-
coran Art Gallery, National Soldiers' Home,
Washington Monument, and many other ob-
jects of national interest. The White
House, or Presidential residence, was first
occupied by John Adams in 1800. The pub-
lic buildings were burned by the British in
1814, and more imposing ones erected sub-
sequently. In 1920, the population was
437,571, as compared with 331,069 in 1910.
Of the latter figure, 101,339 were negroes.
(See District of Columbia and Capital of
United States.)
Washington. City (see also District of
Columbia) :
Act transferriBg duties of trustees of
colored schools in Georgetown and,
vetoed, 3903.
Artistic development of, 7822.
Bridge across Potomac Eiver at. (See
District of Columbia.)
Buildings in —
Commission of inquiry relative to,
referred to, 2012.
Erection of, proclamation regard-
ing, 312.
On three sides of Lafayette Square,
recommended, 4578.
Eeferred to, 356, 1911, 1957.
British invasion of, referred to in
proclamation, 530.
Centennial anniversary of founding
of, for capital to be held in 1900,
6347, 6404, 6456.
Civic and social conditions in, dis-
cussed, 6902, 7821.
Conference in, of representatives of
Canada and United States regard-
ing commercial exchanges, 5675,
5678, 5748.
Conspiracy to prevent inauguration
of President-elect in, referred to,
3200.
Defense of, clerks in Departments in,
to be organized into companies for,
3323, 3642.
Erection of buildings in, proclama-
tion concerning, 312.
Grand Army of Eepublic —
Appropriation for reception and
entertainment of, in, recommend-
ed, 5672.
Order permitting members of, em-
ployed in public service to par-
ticipate in parade of, 5740.
Parade of, discussed, 5763.
Improvement of Potomac flats and
river front of, recommended,
4458, 4532, 4579, 4651.
Bill for, submitted, 4533.
Improvements in, recommended, 831,
909, 2710, 2837.
Inhabitants of, should not be granted
ballot, 7821.
Insane asylum in. (See Grovernment
Hospital for Insane.)
International American Conference
at, 5369, 5467.
Centennial celebration of discovery
of America, resolution regarding,
5512.
Discussed, 5542.
Extradition, reports on subject of,
adopted by, 5514.
Importations and exportations, rec-
ommendations of, regarding,
5506.
Intercontinental railroad, survey
of route for, »ecommended by,
5504.
International American bank, es-
tablishment of, recommended
by, 5505.
Discussed, 5560.
International American monetary
union, establishment of, recom-
mended by, 5513.
International arbitration, reports
on, adopted by, 5518.
Eeferred to, 5623, 5874.
International bureau of informa-
tion, establishment of, at, rec-
ommended by, 5506.
International law, adoption of uni-
form code of, recommended by,
5513.
Latin-Anierican library, establish-
ment of, recommended by, 5506.
Memorial tablet in State Depart-
ment to commemorate meeting
of, recommended by, 5514.
1 Patents, trade-marks, and copy-
rights, report of, concerning pro-
tection of, 5512.
Port dues and consular fees, recom-
mendations of, regarding uni-
form system of, 5514.
Postal and cable communication,
establishment of improved facili-
ties for, recommended by, 5511.
Public health, recommendations of,
for protection of, 5513.
Reciprocal commercial treaties rec-
ommended by, 5509.
Steamship service, establishment of
rapid, recommended by, 5491,
5511.
Washington City
Encyclopedic Index
Washington City
Weights and measures, report of,
on, 5513.
International Marine Conference at,
discussed, 5180, 5370, 5468, 5493,
5498, 5543.
International Peace Congress at, dis-
cussed, 4684, 4717.
Invitation to countries of North
and South America to attend,
4685.
Postponement of, referred to, 4717.
International Sanitary Conference at,
discussed, 4564, 4622^ 4631.
Jail erected in, 343.
Necessity for new one, 1621.
Justices of the peace in, referred to,
3800.
Loan from Maryland, pajrment of,
guaranteed by United States,
. 321
Lots in, chargeable with, 321.
Referred to, 833.
Eesales of lots for deficiency in,
343.
Lots in, sale of, referred to, 833,
1838.
Model city, plan to make of, 6902.
Monetary union International Ameri-
can establishment of, recommended
by, and discussed, 5513.
Officers of, salary of, 343.
Pennsylvania Avenue in —
Bill for paving, vetoed, 4341.
Improvement of, referred to, 1844.
Macadamizing of, referred to, 201.5.
Eepavement of, referred to, 4368,
4432, 4587.
Police systeni for, recommended.
(See District of Columbia.)
Post-office building in, erection of,
recommended, 5363.
Postal Congress to be held in, dis-
cussed, recommendation regarding,
6164.
Protection for, recommendations re-
garding, 3323, 3642.
Public schools in. (See District of
Columbia.)
Public works in, appointment of eoBi-
missioners to investigate, referred
to, 1904.
Eeeommendation for the erection of
\ buildings on three sides of Lafa-
yette Square, 4578.
Referred to, 253, 285, 295, 298.
Reservations in, appropriation for
removing snow and ice from, rec-
ommended, 4739.
School system of, praised, 7821.
Seat of Government —
Boundaries of, referred to and pro-
claimed, 86, 192, 194.
Removed from Philadelphia to,
281, 295, 298, 299, 300.
Smoke nuisance in, elimination of,
7012.
Steam railway lines —
Construction of certain, urged by
authorities of, 3351.
Controversies regarding occupation
of streets by, discussed and re-
ferred to, 4950, 5114, 5385.
Recommendations regarding loca-
tion of depots and tracks, 4459,
4579, 4651.
Street railroad companies in, report
of board on amount chargeable to,
referred to, 4273.
Streets in —
Bill for paving, vetoed, 4341.
Improvement of, referred to, 2015.
Macadamizing of, 2015.
Superintendent of, salary of, dis-
cussed, 343.
Surveyor of —
Report of, referred to, 356.
Salary of, discussed, 343.
Troops assembled in, by order of
President Buchanan, discussed, 3200.
Truant court of, 7035.
Water supply for, discussed, 2628,
2698, 2710, 2725, 2750, 4579, 4651,
4773.
Opinion of Judge Brewer in Great
Falls land case, referred to, 3072.
Plan to take, from Great Falls of
Potomac, approved, 2750.
Woman labor in, 6983.
Washington City Canal, Improvement
of, referred to, 3579.
Washington City (D. C), Capture of.—
After the flight o£ the Americans from the
field of Bladensburg Aug. 24, 1814, the
British army advanced to the plain between
the present Congressional Cemetery and the
Capitol. Cockburn and Ross, with 200 men,
rode into the city in the evening to destroy
the public buildings. The unfinished Capitol,
containing the IJbrary of Congress, was
fired. The President's house, the Treasury
building, tlie arsenal, and barracks for 3,000
men were next burned. In a few hours
nothing but the blackened walls remained
of the public buildings, the Patent Office
alone having been spared. Only such pri-
vate property as was owned or occupied by
persons offensive to the British was de-
stroyed. The President and his chief ad-
visers fled to different points in Virginia and
Maryland.
Mrs. Madison, the wife of the President,
when advised of the defeat at Bladensburg,
sent away the silver plate and other valua-
bles from the Presidential mansion and at
great personal risk saved from destruction
the full-length portrait of Gen. Washington
by Gilbert Stuart, which now adorns the
Blue Room of the White House. With her
sister and brother-in-law she was then con-
veyed to a place of safety beyond the Poto-
mac. Commodore Tingey, in command of
the navy-yard, burned the property under
his control to prevent Its falling into the
hands of the British. The bridge over the
Potomac was also destroyed. The total
value of property destroyed by British and
Americans In Washington was estimated al
Washington City
Encyclopedic Index
Water Power
$2,000,000. On the night of the 25th Ross
and Cockbura withdrew from Washington.
Washington Headoiuarters Association.
— The purpose of this Association is to
preserve the old mansion on 160th Street,
near Amsterdam Avenue, New York City,
which was at one time. In the War of the
Revolution, the headquarters of Washing-
ton. The property Is owned by the city
and is under the care and direction of the
Knickerbocker, Mary Washington, Colonial
and Manhattan Chapters of the Daughters
of the American Revolution. It is open
daily to the public.
Washington Monument. — An obelisk-
shaped tower of white marble erected at
Washington, D. C, In honor of George
Washington. The cornerstone was laid July
4, 1848, but soon the work languished and
then stopped entirely. Work was resumed
in 1876, and the monument was finally
completed Dec. 6, 1884. It is 555 feet
high and fifty-five feet square at Its base.
The Interior walls are built of granite and
contain many memorial stones from foreign
nations. The entire cost of the monument
was $1,187,710.
See photograph of, and appreciation,
frontispiece. Vol. XVIII.
Washington Monument:
Construction of, discussed and rec-
ommendations regarding, 4430,
4532, 4579.
Dedication of. Government employ-
ees to participate in, 4879.
Washington Post, dispatches to, quoted,
6832, 6833, 6834.
Washington, Treaty of. — Many treaties
have been negotiated ' at Washington, but
the one usually referred to as the treaty
of Washington was negotiated between the
United States and Great Britain at that
city in 1871. After thirty-four meetings
commissioners of the United States and
England concluded a treaty between the
two countries to settle pending questions.
It was ratified June 17, 1871, and pro-
claimed to be in force July 4.
To adjust the Alabama claims it was
agreed to submit them to a tribunal of
arbitration, to meet at Geneva, Switzer-
land, and to consist of members appointed
by each of the parties and by three neu-
tral nations. Concerning the difficulties with
regard to the fishing privileges of the
United States vessels on the coast of Brit-
ish America, the treaty adjusted the differ-
ences on the basis of the reciprocity
treaty of 1854, giving to persons of each
nation the right of flshing on the coasts
of the other. There was a mutual conces-
sion of privileges, such as that of trans-
portation from one place to another in one
country across the territory of the other
without the payment of duties. Lake
Michigan, the lower course of the St. Law-
rence, and certain rivers in Alaska were
opened to the people of both nations. It
was also agreed to submit the disputed
boundary line between the British posses-
sions and the State of Washington to the
arbitration of the German emperor, who,
on Oct. 21, 1872, rendered a decision
awarding the Island of San Juan and the
group of which It forms a part to the
United States. (See also Alabama Claims;
Geneva Tribunal.)
Washington, Treaties of. (See also Ala-
bama Claims; Ashburton Treaty):
Of July 4, 1850, referred to, 2760.
Of May 8, 1871—
Powers to be invited to accede to
rules of neutrality In, 4462.
Proclamations regarding, 4179,
4227.
Report regarding, 4086. •
Referred to, 3588.
Washington Turnpike Road Co., act au-
thorizing subscription of stock in, ve-
toed, 1056.
Washington's Farewell Address to be
read to Army, orders regarding, 3306.
Washita River, exploration of, 387.
Wasp, The.— An American warship of eight-
een guns, built at Washington in 1806.
Oct. 13, 1812, the Wasp left the Delaware
for the West Indies, under Capt. Jacob
Jones, with 137 men. Five days later she
fell In with six merchantmen under convoy
of the Briti^ brig FroUo, eighteen guns
and 110 men. The Wasp attacked, and in
less than an hour the FroUe struck her
colors after a loss of 90 men. The fight
was In a heavy sea. Within two hours the
Wasp and its prize were captured by the
British frigate Poictiers, seventy-four guns,
and the Americans were sent to Bermuda
as prisoners. In 1814 the United States
built a naval vessel at Newburyport and
christened It the Wasp. It was a ship-
rigged sloop of war and carried twenty-two
guns and 160 men. Leaving Portsmouth
May 1, 1814, under Capt. Johnson Blakely,
she ran Into the English Channel to look
for British merchantmen. June 28 she en-
countered the British sloop Reindeer, eight-
een guns and 118 men. In less than half
an hour of fierce fighting the Reindeer
struck her colors, having sustained a loss of
25 killed and 42 wounded. The American
loss was 27 In all. Sept. 1, after a fight
of about two hours, the Wasp captured the
British brig Avon, eighteen guns. Oct. 9, In
lat. 18° 35' north, long, 30° 10' west, she
spoke and boarded the Swedish brig Adams
and took oS Lieut. McKnight and a master's
mate of the United States ship Essex, on
their way from Brazil to England. The
Wasp was never beard from again.
Wasp, The:
Engagement of, with the Frolic, 506.
Mentioned, 6318.
Refused permission to enter ports of
Paraguay by Brazilian blockade
commander, 3883.
"Watchful Waiting."— A term used by
President Wilson with i^eference to our at-
titude In the Mexican question In his ad-
ministration, 7908.
Water Power and Water Supply:
Forest reserves conserve, 6657.
Full use of, by Government, neces-
sary, 8405.
Government control of, discussed,
6659.
Monopoly of, danger of, 7154.
Private enterprise and, discussed,
6657.
Public development of, 8017, 8029.
Regulation of, discussed, 7804.
Eights over, basis of granting, dis-
cussed, 7346.
Water Power
Encyclopedic Index
Weather Bureau
Sites, control of, 7462, 7534, 7570,
7723, 7804.
Water Transportation, emergency pro-
claimed in, 8220.
Water Witch, The, fired upon by Para-
guayan fort, 2980.
Commissioner sent to demand com-
pensation, 3050. ^
Demands of, acceded to, 3091.
Discussed, 3195.
Naval force sent to Paraguay, 3050.
Watervliet Arsenal, N. Y., gun factory
to be established at, 5374.
Waterways:
Commission —
International, appropriation urged
for, 7487:
Report of, 7289.
Support of, 7189.
Development of, 7094.
Improvement of, 7222, 7264, 7346,
7465.
Changes urged in administration
of, 7491.
Payment by bonds for, 7371.
Wautauga Association.— June 2, 1789, a
company ot North Carolina hunters formed
an organization to settle the territory to
the west of the Cumberland Mountains,
w'hlch had been opened by the treaty of
Fort Stanwlx in the previous year. Their
settlements were on the Wautauga, one of
the tributaries of the Tennessee River,
within the limits of what is now the State
of Tennessee. The settlers framed a code
of laws, which was signed by each of them,
and the body politic thus formed was
called the Wautauga Association. The
tyranny of Governor Tryon, of North Caro-
lina, caused many of the independent-
spirited settlers of that Colony to cast their
lot with the Wautauga Association. In
1784, at a convention held in Jonesboro, a
separate state government was organized
under the name of Franklin. (See also
Franklin.)
Waxhaw (S. C.) Massacre.— After the
capture of Charlestown, Sir Henry Clinton
sent a detachment of 300 men under Col.
Tarleton to disperse Col. Buford's command
of 380 men, who, hearing of the fall of
Charleston, had retired to a point near the
North Carolina line. May 29, 1780, Tarle-
ton, having overtaken Buford at the Wax-
haw River, made a furious charge, while the
Americans were awaiting flags of confer-
ence, believing hostilities suspended. Many
of the Americans threw down their arms
and begged for quarter ; 113 were killed on
the spot, 150 so badly wounded that it was
Impossible to move them, and only 53 were
taken prisoners. Col. Buford and about 100
Infantry and a few horses escaped. The
British lost but 5 killed and 15 wounded.
Ways and Means Committee, tariff re-
port of, discussed, 8917.
Wea Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Wealth:
Accumulation of, incidental benefit
to all, 6646.
Attacks of, on administration, 7138.
Malefactors of, difficulty of convict-
ing, 7085, 7091.
Predatory, acts of representatives of,
7135.
Weather Bureau. — Since 1870 the Feder-
al Government has maintained a service hav-
ing tor its object the forecasting of weather
conditions throughout the United States.
Although originally designed for the beneflt
of navigation alone, an ever-broadening
recognition of the practical utility of such
a service has necessitated Its continued ex-
tension ' in the interest of both agriculture
and commerce. During the first twenty
years of its development the work was con-
ducted by the Signal Corps of the Army,
under the direction and control of the War
Department, but the demand for a strictly
scientific bureau, unhampered by regulations
of a military character, resulted in a re-
organization of the service in 1891, and the
establishment of the present Weather Bu-
reau as a branch of the Department of
Agriculture.
In the act providing for this re-organiza-
tion, approved Oct. 1, 1890. the functions
of the Bureau are thus summarized : "The
Chief of the Weather Bureau, under the
direction of the Secretary of Agriculture,
shall have charge of forecasting the
weather ; the issue of storm warnings ; the
display of weather and flood signals for
the benefit of agriculture, commerce, and
navigation ; the gaging and reporting of
rivers ; the maintenance and operation of
seaccast telegraph lines, and the collec-
tion and transmission of marine intelligence
for the benefit of commerce and navigation ;
the reporting of temperature and rainfall
conditions for the cotton interests ; the dis-
play of frost, cold-wave, and other signals ;
the distribution of meteorological informa-
tion in the interest of agriculture and com-
merce, and the taking of such meteorolog-
ical observations as may be necessary to
establish and record the climatic conditions
of the United States, or are essential for
the proper execution of the foregoing
duties."
O'bservatlons and Forecasts. — To the gen-
eral public the Weather Bureau is probably
best known through the medium of its
daily forecasts and weather maps. These
forecasts are based upon simultaneous ob-
servations of local weather conditions taken
daily at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. seventy-fifth
meridian time, at about 200 regular observ-
ing stations scattered throughout the United
States and the West Indies, and upon sim-
ilar reports received daily from various
points in other parts of the Northern Hem
isphere. Each of the Weather Bureau sta
tions is operated by one or more trained
observers, and is equipped with mercurial
barometers, thermometers, wind vanes, rain
and snow gauges, and anemometers, and
many of them with sunshine recorders,
barographs, thermographs, and other devices
which make a continuous automatic record
of the local weather conditions and
changes. The results of the twice-daily
observations are immediately telegraphed
to the central office at Washington, D. C,
where they are charted for study and inter-
pretation by experts trained to forecast
the weather conditions that may be ex-
pected to prevail during the following
thirty-six to forty-eight hours.
A complete telegraphic report includes
the following data : Temperature, pres-
sure (reduced to sea level), precipitation^
direction of wind, state of weather, cur-
rent wind velocity, maximum or minimum
Weather Bureau
Encyclopedic Index
Weather Bureau
temperature since last observation, and
kind and amount of clouds, with the direc-
tion of their movement. I'rom these data
the forecaster, by comparison with pre-
ceding reports, is able to trace the paths
of storm areas from the time of their
appearance to the moment of observation,
and approximately determine and forecast
their subsequent courses and the occur-
rence of other weather conditions.
Weather services similar to that of the
United States are maintained by the Cana-
dian and Mexican governments, and, by a
system of Interchange, dally reports are
received from a number of stations in those
countries. Daily observations are also re-
ceived from the Azores, Iceland, the Fa-
roe Islands, Great Britain, Germany, France,
Portugal,' European and Asiatic Russia, the
Philippines, Hawaii, and Alaska, so that
the field represented by the daily reports
extends over practically the entire North-
ern Hemisphere.
The system for the collection and distri-
bution of telegraphic reports of observa-
tions Is so arranged that all of the prin-
cipal stations in the United States receive
8 a. m. reports' from a sufficient nilmber
of other stations to represent the general
weather conditions over a considerable por-
tion of the country.
Forecast centers are also established at
Chicago, 111. ; New Orleans, La. ; Denver,
Colo. ; San Francisco, Calif., and Portland,
Ore. At the first three, morning forecasts
only are prepared and distributed ; at the
last two both morning and evening fore-
casts. The Chicago district comprises the
upper Mississippi Valley and the Northwest ;
the New Orleans district, Louisiana, Texas,
Arkansas, and Oklahoma ; the Denver dis-
trict, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Ari-
zona ; the San Francisco district, California
and Nevada ; andi the Portland district,
Washington, Oregon and Idalio. Forecasts
are issued at Washington. D. C, for all' por-
tions of the United States not included in
the aforementioned districts.
Distribution of Forecasts. — ^Within two
hours after the morning observations have
been taken the forecasts are telegraphed
from the forecast centers to more than
2,300 principal distributing points, whence
they are further disseminated by telegraph,
telephone and mail. The forecasts reach
nearly 135,000 addresses daily by mail, the
greater part being delivered early in the
day, and none later, as a rule, than 6
o'clock p. m. of the day of issue, and
more than 3,500,000 telephone subscribers,
mainly in the rural districts; receive the
forecasts by telephone within an hour of
the time the prediction is made. This sys-
tem of forecast distribution is wholly under
tbe supervision and at the expense of the
Government, and is in addition to and dis-
tinct from the distribution effected through
the press associations and the daily news-
papers. The rural free mail delivery sys-
tem and rural telephone lines afford means
of' bringing within the l)enefits of this sys-
tem a large number of farming communi-
ties which before It was Impracticable to
reach with the daily forecasts. The inde-
pendent rural telephone lines are being
utilized to their fullest extent and this plan
of distribution has been enlarged to cover
the entire telephone service of many states.
The Weather Map. — ^The weather map is
mailed Immediately after the morning fore-
cast is telegraphed. /On this map the salient
features of current weather conditions
throughout the country are graphically rep-
resented, accompanied by a synopsis of these
conditions, in addition to which complete
B-17
reports from all the observing stations are
presented in tabulated form. In order that
all sections of the country may receive
wedther data, maps or bulletins containing
the data in tabulated form are Issued from
about one hundred of the larger stations.
The maps issued at Washington and other
forecast centers contain detailed forecasts
for the respective forecast districts, while
other station maps and bulletins contain
forecasts only for the localities in which
they 'are distributed.
Climatological Service. — Although the 200
regular observing stations, each representing
about 21,000 square miles of territory, fur-
nish sufficient data upon which to base the
various forecasts, observations at many
intermediate points are necessary before the
climatology of the United States can be
properly studied. This need has given rise
to the establishment of an Important and
Interesting feature of the Weather' Bureau
In its Climatological SerVice, which is di-
vided into forty-four local sections, each
section, as a rule, covering a single state,
and having for its center a regular observ-
ing station. These centers collect tempera-
ture and rainfall observations from more
than 3,600 co-operative stations. During
the crop-growing season (from April to
September, inclusive) each section also re-
ceives weekly mail reports of weather condi-
tions from numerous correspondents. Dur-
ing the same season the Central Office at
Washington issues weekly a National
Weather Bulletin, containing a series, of
charts graphically illustrating current and
normal conditions of temperature and rain-
fall for the entire country, and a general
summary of the weather for each state.
There Is Issued at the Central Office every
Tuesday during the winter a publication
entitled Snow and Ice Bulletin, which shows
the area covered by snow, the depth of
snow and the thickness of Ice in rivers, etc.,
as indicated by a large number of reports
of observations made on the afternoon of
the day preceding the issue of the Bulletin.
This publication is of especial value to
those interested in the winter wheat crop,
to ice dealers, and to the manufacturers
of rubber goods and all other articles the
sale of which Is largely affected by the
presence or absence of snow and ice. Dur-
ing the growing season in the cotton, corn,
wheat, sugar and rice-producing sections,
designated centers receive telegraphic re-
ports of rainfall and daily extremes of
temperature for publication in bulletin form,
each local center receiving the reports from
all others.
Special Publications. — By the assistance
of several thousand co-operative observers,
many of whom have maintained local rec-
ords for long periods, the Weather Bureau
endeavors to collect special local data and
thus perfect the records that are needed for
the study of the relations between climate
and agriculture, forestry, water resources,
and other kindred subjects.
In the utilization of these meteorological
data the Weather Bureau employs a staff of
officials of high scientific ability who are
not only engaged in the practical work
already mentioned, but are also occupied
In the elaiwratlon of those fundamental
principles which must necessarily play an
important part In the development of mete-
orology and Its kindred sciences. The re-
sults of these investigations are presented
to the public through regular and special
reports.
Among the publications of the Weather
Bureau the following are worthy of special
notice :
Weather Bureau
Encyclopedic Index
Weather Bureau
(a) The Monthly Weather Review, which
has been published regularly since January,
1873. It contains elaborate meteorological
tables and charts showing the weather con-
ditions for the month over the United States
and neighboring countries. The tables con-
tain the details of observations made at the
regular and co-operative stations of the
Weather Bureau. The arrangement of the
material, however, as well as the discussion
of the meteorological data is according to
the natural drainage areas of the country,
instead of by states.
(b) The Bulletin of the Mount Weather
Research Ohservatorf/, a publication devoted
to the discussion of the scientific investi-
gations o-f atmospheric phenomena, espe-
cially to those that are being carried on at
the research station located at Mount
Weather.
(e) A vast amount of cUmatological
data is being prepared In a series of sepa-
rates, each treating of the principal climatic
features of a limited area, the complete
set — 106 In all — to cover the entire United
States. Besides the general discussion and
cUmatological tables, these reports will con-
tain valuable notes furnishel by the Geo-
logical Survey concerning the water power
of the districts under consideration.
(d) The bulletins, published occasionally
and now numbering about sixty, that con-
tain the larger reports made by the experts
of the service.
The Iiibrar.v of the Weather Bureau con-
tains about 28,000 books and pamphlets,
consisting principally of technical books
on meteorology and allied sciences and of
published cUmatological data from all parts
of the world. It is available to all Weather
Bureau officials and to students of meteor-
ology generally, who either consult it per-
sonally or through correspondence. In ad-
dition to its general card catalogue it keeps
up to date a catalogue of the meteorological
contents of the principal scientific serials
of the world.
The annual report of the Chief of the
Bureau presents a full summary of climatic
data for the United States.
Instruments and Apparatus. — ^The appa-
ratus used at Weather Bureau stations for
recording weather conditions is largely the
result of Improvements devised by the
Instrument Division, to which is intrusted
the care of all standards. The kites, mete-
orographs, self-registering instruments, and
other forms of apparatus devised by the
Weather Bureau are favorably known
throughout the world.
The United States Government does not
manufacture the instruments and apparatus
employed In its meteorological work. These,
in general, are purchased under formal an-
nual contracts with responsible manufac-
turers, from whom instruments and appara-
tus of the standard Weather Bureau patterns
may be procured by private parties.
Forecasts and Warnings. — The extent to
which the work of the Weather Bureau
affects the dally life of the people and
becomes a factor in their vocations and
business enterprises, already very great. Is
Increasing yearly. Of the warnings men-
tioned those of storms and hurricanes. Issued
for the benefit of marine interests, are the
most valuable.
Storm warnings are displayed at nearly
300 points along the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Gulf coasts and the shores of the Great
Lakes, including every port and harbor of
any considerable importance, and so nearly
perfect has this service become that scarcely
a storm of marked danger to maritime in-
terests has occurred for years for which
ample warnings have not been issued from
twelve to twenty-for.r hours in advance.
The reports from the West Indies are es-
pecially valuable in this connection, as
they enable the Bureau to forecast with
great accuracy the approach of those de-
structive hurricanes which, during the period
from July to October, are liable to sweep the
Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The sailings
of the immense number of vessels engaged
in our ocean and lake traffic are largely
determined by these warnings, and those
displayed for a single hurricane are known
to have detained in port on our Atlantic
coast vessels valued with their cargoes at
more than $30,000,000.
The warnings of those sudden and destruc-
tive temperature changes known as cold
waves are probably next in importance.
These warnings, which are Issued from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours in advance,
are disseminated throughout the threatened
regions by means of flags displayed at reg-
ular Weather Bureau and sub-display sta-
tions, by telegraph, telephone and mall
service to all places receiving the daily fore-
casts and to a large number of special
addresses In addition. The warnings Issued
for a single cold wave of exceptional severity
and extent resulted in saving more than
$3,500,000 through the protection of prop-
erty from injnry or destruction.
The warnings of frosts and freezing
weather are also of immense value, particu-
larly to the fruit, sugar, tobacco, cranberry,
and market gardening Interests. The early
truck-raising industry, so extensively carried
on in the, regions bordering on the Gulf and
South Atlantic coasts and in Florida, and
which has increased so greatly in the last
few years is largely dependent for its suc-
cess on the co-operation of the Weather Bu-
reau in this particular, and the growers of
oranges and other fruits in Florida and Cal-
ifornia have also received great benefit
therefrom. The value of the orange bloom,
vegetables and strawberries protected and
saved on a single night In a lintited district
in Florida through the instrumentality of
warnings of freezing weather sent out by
the Bureau was reported at over $100,000.
The commerce of our rivers is greatly
aided, and lives and property in regions
subject to overflow are protected, by the
publication of the river stages and the
issue of river and flood forecasts based on
reports received from about 500 special
river and rainfall stations. On one occa-
sion live stock and other movable property
to the estimated value of about $15,000,000
were removed from regions in the lower
Mississippi Valley that were afterward In-
undated, as a result of warnings Issued
by the Bureau a week in advance of the
flood.
The value of the service was even more
strongly emphasized during another great
flood from March to June in the Mississippi
watershed. The flood in the upper Missis-
sippi watershed was one of the greatest "in
its history, while in many portions of the
lower watershed the stages were the high-
est ever known. Yet, notwithstanding the
enormous volumes of water the forecasts
and warnings were accurately verified, both
as to location, stage and date. Warnings
were issued from four days to three weeks
in advance and in no single instance did the
stage that was forecast differ from that ac-
tually recorded by more than four-tenths of
a foot. The average difference was about
two-tenths of a foot. The value of prop-
erty saved by the Weather Bureau warn-
ings could not be accurately computed, but
Weather Bureau
Encyclopedic Index
Weldon Railroad
probably exceeded tbat mentioned lu the
preceding paragraph.
Special Benefits Derived from Reports and
"Warnings. — while the value of the Bureau's
reports and warnings to many interests Is
BO obvious as scarcely to need more than
the brief mention already given, there are
numerous special applications of the infor-
mation to individual pursuits and industries
that might not be suspected. An account
of some of these might 'lead to an in-
creased use of the data in quarters where
the possibility of their application has not
yet been recognized, and additional detail
- of the manner in which the informa^on is
utilized in a number of enterprises will
doubtless be found of interest.
The railway and transportation compa-
nies make continued use of the forecasts
in all of their shipments. Perisliable prod-
ucts are protected against temperature ex-
tremes by icing or heating, as conditions
may require.
The uses made of temperature forecasts
in the cities are more varied than is gener-
ally supposed. With notice of an approach-
ing cold wave greenhouses are- closed and
boilers fired. Fire plugs, exposed water
mains, and general plumbing are protected ;
large stock yards drain their mains ; gaso-
line engines are drained ; work in concrete
Is stopped ; merchants curtail advertisements
or direct attention largely to cold weather
articles ; coal dealers supply partial orders
to all customers Instead of full orders to
a few.
In the agricultural districts the frost and
cold wave warnings are invaluable to the
trucker and fruit grower, especially in the
spring, when tender vegetables are pro-
tected by coverings of paper, cloth or soil.
Marine Bervice. — Meteorological informa-
tion pertaining to the oceans is collected
from about 2,000 co-operative observers on
vessels of war and commerce and other sail-
ing craft. Many vessels equipped with
wireless telegraph send messages twice daily
to the stations at San Francisco, Cal., and
Portland, Ore., for use In the forecast work
at those points. The data thus obtained
are platted on daily synoptic charts for the
use of the Hydrographic Office, of the Navy.
Eight stations are maintained on the ocean
coasts for vessel reporting and the announce-
ment of wrecks, marine disasters and other
casualties. In one year these stations re-
ported the passing of more than 30,000
vessels.
Em/ptoveea. — The conduct of the regular
observation stations outside of Washington
requires the constant services of about 530,
and the business of the central office in
Washington of about 185 employees. The
annual disbursements of the Bureau amount
to about $1,600,000. Original appointments
are to the lowest grades, and upon certlfi- ,
cation by the Federal Civil Service Com-
mission ; promotion depends upon ability.
Applicants for positions should communicate
with the Civil Service Commission at Wash-
ington.
Weather Bureau:
Discussed, 5979, 6171, 6347.
Establishment of, in Department of
Agriculture, recommended, 5487.
Weather Flags. — ^There are five forms of
flags designated by the Weather Bureau (q.
V.) to communicate its weather forecasts :
Square White Flag — ^Fair weather. Square
hlue flag — Rain or snow. Square white and
Hue flag — Local rain or snow. Triangular
Hack flag — Placed above any of the forego-
ing, tils temperature flag indicates warmer
weather ; when placed below, colder weather ;
when not displayed, no change in tem-
perature Is forecasted. White flag with
black square in center — Cold wave.
Whistle Signals. — A warning blast of
about fifteen seconds' duration is first blown,
to attract attention. After this warning,
blasts of about five seconds' duration are
blown first to inditate the weather, and
blasts of about two seconds' duration follow
to indicate the temperature, as follows :
One long — fair weather ; two long — rain or
snow ; three long — local rain or snow ; one
short — lower temperature ; two short —
higher temperature ; three short — cold wave.
Small craft, storm and hurricane warn-
ings.— Tted triangular pennant — moderately
strong winds. Bed flag with black centre —
violent storm. White pennant above this
flag indicates that the storm will come
from the northwest ; red pennant above,
from the northeast ; white pennant below,
from the southwest ; red pennant below,
from the southeast. Two red flags with
black centres — Hurricane. At night a red
lantern indicates easterly winds and a white
below it, westerly.
Signals for Great Lakes only. — As above,
except that at night two red lanterns indi-
cate a violent storm from tlie northeast ;
one red lantern — a violent storm from the
southeast ; a white lantern below a red, a
violent storm from the southwest ; a white
lantern above a red, a violent storm from the
northwest ; a white lantern between two red
lanterns, a hurricane.
(See plate under Flags.)
Weather-Map. — ^A^ map issued by the
Weather Bureau forecasting weather condi-
tions by such Indications as wind, temper-
ature and other elemental phenomena. (See
Weather Bureau.)
WehTj-Kenyon Law. (See Prohibition,
National.)
Webster-Ashburton Treaty. (See (rreat
Britain, Treaties with; and facsimiles,
opposite 1987 and lfl88.)
WobSter-Hayne Debate.— A debate in the
Senate in 1830 between Daniel Webster and
Robert Y. Hayne on Constitutional inter-
pretation.
Weehawken, The, engagement of, with
the Fingal, referred to, 3392.
Weeks Law. (See Forest Reservations.)
Weighers and Gaugers, compensation of,
referred to, 2723.
Weights and Measures:
International bureau of, establish-
ment of, referred to, 4437.
International commission upon, at
Paris, 4560.
International movement for reform
of system of, referred to, 3592.
Obligatory use of metric system of,
referred to, 4408.
Referred to, 166.
Report of International American
Conference on, referred to, 5513.
' Set of, for each State, 1477.
Uniformity of, necessity for, 58, 60,
75, 100, 561, 879.
Weldon Eallroad (Va.), Seizure and De-
struction of.— June 21, 1864, during Grant's
Weldon Railroad
Encyclopedic Index
West Virginia
ono.-atlons against Petersburg and Rich-
inoiid. an attempt was made to capture the
I'l'tersburg and Weldon Railroad, an Im-
iiurtant supply line tor the Confederate
aimy. The Second and Sixth Corps, under
lii'iievals Birney and Wright, cut the tele-
svaph wires three miles south of Petersburg,
Imt were repulsed with a loss of seven guns
:ind many prisoners. Another and success-
ful effort was made . on Aug. 18, 1864.
I.ce had drawn heavily from his forres in
T'otersburg to resist a threatened attack on
H^e north side of Richmond. The Fifth
Army Corps, under Gen. Warren, moved
from its position at the extreme left of
Grant's army and struck the railroad four
miles below Petersburg. Mahone's division
of Lee's army tried to force Warren back,
but he held his position, with a loss, after
three days' fighting, of 4,543 men. By the
\ 24th seven miles of railroad were destroyed.
Aug. 25 the Second Army Corps and Gregg's
cavalry, while at Reams Station destroying
the railroad, were assailed. The fighting
was desperate and a part of the Union line
gave way after losing 5 guns and 2.400
men, three-fourths of whom were missing.
Welland Canal, controversy with Can-
ada respecting tolls upon, discussed,
5211, 5213, 5675, 5678, 5749.
Eetaliatory measures pToclaimed by
President Benj. Harrison, 5725.
Eeferred to, 5749.
Revoked by proclamation, 5812.
Settlement of, referred to, 5869.
West India Company.— in 1621 the
States-General of the United Netherlands
chartered the Dutch West India Company.
Among other important grants it received
from the Government the exclusive right of
trading with a large part of the coasts of
America and Africa, planting colonies
building forts, employing soldiers and
fleets, making treaties, and attacking the
colonies and commerce of Spain and Portu-
gal. This company planted the colony of
New Netherlands in the United States, as
well as the Dutch settlements in Brazil,
Guiana, the West Indies, and on the Gold
Coast of Africa. In 1674 the company re-
linquished New Netherlands to the English.
Its powerful fleets took many rich nrizps
on the coasts of Spanish and Portuguese
America. In 1624 the projector of the
Dutch West India Company obtained a
charter from Gustavus Adolphus. of Swe-
den, granting special trading privileges in
America. Under its auspices settlements
were made along the Delaware River.
West Indies.— -The area of the West In-
dies is about 92,000 square miles. The
archipelago, however, is much scattered, ex-
tending from north of Florida to the coasts
of South America, from 10° to 28° N.
latitude and from 58° to beyond 85° W.
longitude. There are three Independent
republics, Cuba, with the Isle of Pines ;
Haiti and Santo Domingo. The United
States possessions are Porto Rico and the
Virgin Islands.
British possessions cover about 12,630
square miles, including the Bahamas ;
.Tamaira, with the Turks and Caicos Islands ;
the WinrtwArrl Islands, including Grenada ;
St. lyucia ; St. Vincent and Grenadines ;
Trinidad and Tobago ; the Leeward Islands ;
St. Kitts (St. Christopher) ; Nevis, Anguiila,
Dominica, Montserrat.
French possessions, with an area of more
than 1,000 square miles and a population of
more than 400,000, comprise Guadeloupe and
dependencies and Martinique. France and
the Netherlands share possession of St.
Martin. Other Dutch possessions comprise
Cura.5oa, Aruba, r.onnire, St. Eustache, Saba.
Several small Islands, finally, belong to
Venezuela.
For detailed Information, consult the
articles on the more important of the islands
listed above ; also Atlantic Islands.
West Indies (See also Cuba; Porto
Eico; Isle of Pines; Haiti; Santo
Domingo; Bahama Islands; Virgin
Islands; Grenada; Trinidad; To-
bago; Guadeloupe; Martinique):
Cession of islands in, to United
States, treaty regarding, 3778,
3779.
Discussed, 3796, 3886.
Commerce of United States, destruc-
tion of, by pirates in, discussed,
765.
Commercial relations 'with, 818.
Armed vessels stationed for protec-
tion .of, by, 1476.
Naval force of United States in, 650,
875, 2677.
Piracy in, 758, 765, 984, 3777.
Value of, as naval outposts, discussed,
3777. (See also St. John Island;
St. Thomas Island.)
Vessels from Montserrat Island, du-
ties on, suspended by proclamation,
4871.
West Point, N. Y.:
Military Acadamy at. (See Military
Academy. )
Military Department of, discontinued,
4713.
West Virginia. — One of the central group
of states. Nickname, "The Pan Handle
State" ; motto, "Montani semper liberi"
("Mountaineers are always freemen"). It
extends from lat. 37° 12' to 40° 38' north,
and from long. 77° 40' to 82° 35' west, an
area of 24.170 square miles. West Virginia
is bounded on tlie northwest by Ohio (sep-
arated by the Ohio River), on the north
by Maryland and Pennsylvania (separated
from the former by the Potomac), on the
east and south by Virginia, and on the west
by Kentucky (separated by the Big Sandy
River). The state is hilly or mountainous
and contains abundance of timber and coal,
being, in fact, one of the leading states in
the production of the latter. Of the manu-
facturing interests the iron and steel in-
dustry, confined almost entirely to Wheel-
ing, is the most important.
West Virginia was originally a part ot
Virginia. When that state adopted the
ordinance of secession, April 17, 1861,
many of the people of the western and
northwestern parts of the state claimed
that they were not to be bound by that
action. A convention was called in 1861,
Wjhlch resolved not to recognize the State
oflBcers who were in opposition to the
National Government. This convention
elected Francis H. Plerpoint governor of
Virginia and called a legislature to meet at
Wheeling. It also voted to erect a new
state, called Kanawha, and the legislature
which was called by the convention voted
to recognize the new state. It was ad-
mitted to the Union as the State of West
Virginia June 19, 1863 (page 3368).
West Virginia
Encyclopedic Index
Whig
The 1920 census gave the population as
1,463,701. The preceding census gave it
as 1,221,119. Of the latter, 64,173 Were
negroes and 57,218 were foreign-born. In-
cluding 17,292 Italians, 6.327 Germans,
3,511 English, 2,292 Irish, 5,143 Russians,
8,360 Austrians, 5,939 Hungarians. Only
19% of the total population in the latter
census was urban. i
The most recent educational statistics
estimated that there were 416,483 children
between the ages of 5 and 18. The en-
rolment In the public schools was 317,144,
with an average daily attendance of 222,-
523. There were 10,978 teachers In the
public schools, of whom 3,774 were males.
There were 104 public high schools, with
286 male and 465 femalte teachers and 6,-
857 male and 9,507 female students.
The last federal census showed 87,289
farms in the state. The preceding census
showed 96,685 farms. Of the latter, the
average size was 104 acres, and 55% of the
farm land was classified as improved.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop Average Bushels Value
Corn 650,000 22,100,000 $25,636,000
Hay 808,000 1,010,000* 24,360,000
Wheat 340,000 4,250,000 8,075,000
Tobaooo 13,000 10,400,000** 2,600,000
Potatoes 57,000 6,840,000 9,234,000
Oata 200,000 5,400,000 4,266,000
♦Tons; **Pounds.
The latest fruit crop Included 7,000,000
bushels of apples, 992,000 bushels of peaches
and 66,000 bushels of pears.
The latest figures for farm animals show<?d
104,000 horses, 12,000 mules, 243,000 milch
cows, 366,000 other cattle, 766,000 sheep and
439,000 swine. The last annual wool clip
was estimated at 2,830,000 pounds.
West Virginia's deposits of coal, petro-
leum and natural gas have placed the value
of Its total annual mineral output close to
that of Pennsylvania, the leading state.
During the participation of the United
States In the World War, more than 5,-
000,000 tons of coal were produced an-
nually, although the norm showed by
figures for a number of years would seem
to lie closer to 75,000,000 tons. In a recent
year, more than 8,000,000 barrels of petro-
leum were produced and natural gas to the
estimated value of close to $50,000,000:
The coal area extends over almost 20,000
square miles, and more than 50,000 men are
employed in the mines.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in West Virginia having an annual
output valued at $500 or more at the be-
ginning of 1915 was 2,749. The amount of
capital Invested was $175,727,000, giving
employment to 79.278 persons, using ma-
terial valued at $110,033,000, and turning
out finished goods worth $193,512,000. Sal-
aries and wages paid aggregated $51,378,000.
West Virginia (see also Clarksburg) :
Admission of, into Union, proclama-
tion of, 3368.
Facsimile of, 3257
Unlawful combinations in, discussed
and proclamation regarding, 4399,
4424.
Western Expansion. (See Expansion ;
also illustrations opposite 843, 1083,
1777.)
Western European Division, State De-
partment.— This division was organized in
1909 by Secretary of State Knox. It has
charge of other than administrative matters
in Great Britain and Colonies, F^'ance, Bel-
gium, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Norway,
Sweden, Morocco, the Congo, the Nether-
lands, Luxemburg, Denmaric and Liberia.
This division of the work of the State De-
partment ('q. V.) is under the supervision
of the third assistant secretary of state
(q. v.).
Western Reserve. — The charters of most
of the original Colonies granted territory
extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Ocean. After the Revolution the unsettled
western portions were ceded to the General
Government. When Connecticut made her
cession the state reserved a tract of land
between the forty-first parallel of latitude
and Lalie Erie as a foundation for her
school fund. It extended 120 miles west-
ward from the Pennsylvania boundary line,
and contained 3,666,291 acres, afterwards
Included in Ohio. An act of Congress in
1800 authorized the President to deed to
Connecticut the title to this Western Re-
serve, to quiet titles of settlers, on condi-
tion that the state surrender ail claims to
Its jurisdiction. On the admission of Ohio
as a state, Connecticut lost all Interest In
the territory. The tract was settled largely
by Connecticut people.
Western Beserve, emigrating to. (Sco
illustration opposite 1083.)
Western Territory, instructions to gov-
ernor of, regarding employment of
militia against Indians, 6306.
Westward Ho!, illustration opposite
1777.
Whale Fisheries, papers for vessels en-
gaged in, referred to, 1774.
Wheat:
Control discussed, 8767.
Director. (See United States Wheat
Director.)
Imports and exports of, discussed,
8918.
Prices of —
Discussed, 8580.
Fixed, 8346, 8457, 8577.
Use of, economy in, necessity and
regulations for, 8432.
Whig. — A name taken by the political party
In the American Colonies which favored the
Revolution, as opposed to the Tories, who
advocated adherence to the mother country.
The name was first used in Great Britain
to designate those Scotch Covenanters
whose rebellion In 1699 led to the fixing the
name upon any opponents of the court. The ~
term as generally used in America, how-
ever, refers to the political party in the
United States which began to develop to-
ward the end of John Quincy Adams's ad-
ministration, favoring a national bank, a
protective tariff, a system of Internal im-
provements, and in general holding to a
latltudlnarian construction of the Consti-
tution. They were at first called National
Republicans, and those who opposed them
were known as Democratic Republicans.
After the defeat of Adams, in 1828, Henry
Clay became the leader of the National
Repuolicans.
The party took the name of Whig in
1834. and in 1836, failing to unite on any
Whig
Encyclopedic Index
White House
candidate of their own for tlie Presidency,
Martin Van Buren was elected by tlie op-
position. In 1840 tlie Whigs elected Wil-
liam Henry Harrison. After the death of
Harrison they quarreled with Vice-Presi-
dent Tyler, who had succeeded Harrison
as i-*resident and had vetoed the fiscal
measures passed by the Whig Congress.
In 1844 they nominated Henry Clay for
the Presidency, but he was defeated by
James K. Polk. The annexation of Texas,
the Mexican War, the Wilmot Proviso, and
other phases ofthe slavery question caused
serious dissensions in the Whig party, but
they preserved their power for another
term by nominating a military candidate
In the person of Zachary Taylor. He was
elected, but the disintegration of the Whig
party had begun.
Many of the northern Whigs became
Free Soilers, and by 1856 Eepublicans,
while many tempot'arily joined the Ameri-
can or Know-Nothing party. Large num-
bers of the southern Whigs became Demo-
crats. The factions of the old party united
and nominated Winfield ■ Scott for Presi-
dent in 1852, but he was defeated by
Franklin Pierce. A small number of Whigs
formed the Constitutional Union party and
nominated Bell and Everett in 1860. Be-
sides those already mentioned, the chief
leaders of the party in the north were wera
Webster, Winthrop, Choate, Seward, Gree-
ley, and Weed ; in the south, Mangum,
Badger, Bell, Berrien, Forsyth, Stephens,
Toombs, Prentiss, and Crittenden, and in
the west, Giddings, Ewing and Corwin.
Whisky. (See Liquors — Malt, etc.)
Whisky Insurrection.— A revolt against
the enforcement of a Federal excise law by
the people of four counties of western
Pennsylvania.
The first bill for an excise law was beaten
in Congress June 21, 1790. The project
was revived the following year, and the first
excise law was passed March 3, 1791. The
Senators from Pennsylvania were instructed
by their legislature to oppose the law, "es-
tablished on principles subversive of peace,
liberty, and the riglits of citizens." In
Pennsylvania the law was violently opposed
by one Bradford and his followers and con-
demned by more peaceable and reflecting
citizens, following the lead of Albert Galla-
tin, afterwards Secretary of the Treasury,
minister to France, envoy extraordinary to
England, etc., and William Findley and
John Smiley, members of Congress. Numer-
ous meetings were held to protest against
this law. which bore with particular force
upon the settlers of western Pennsylvania
because of their isolated position, distance
from the seaboard, and the scarcity of
money in that region. In response to
repeated protests Congress on May 8, 1792,
passed an act reducing the duties on- whisky,
but, on account of the threatening attitude
of some of the settlers, empowering the
President to use militia in suppressing dis-
turbances within a state, the agents of
the Government sent to collect the excise
having been maltreated and driven from
the country and the marshals refused office
room and assistance in serving writs. Presi-
dent Washington, by a proclamation of
Sept. 15, 1792 (116), called upon the citi-
zens to abandon their unlawful proceedings.
Instead of complying, resistance to the
service of writs continued and the oflScers
were tarred and feathered. Aug. 1, 1794,
a mass meeting of 7,000 armed insurgents
was held on Braddock's Field, a county
judge presiding, with Albert Gallatin as
secretary and Bradford as the leading
spirit. An emergency had now arisen.
Governor MifSin, of Pennsylvania, having
declined to take the initiative, a certificate
of the existence of an insurrection was ob-
tained from a Federal Judge, and on Aug. 7,
1794, President Washington again called
upon the insurgents to disperse and retire
peaceably to their homes on or before Sept.
1, 1794 (150). This warning was unheeded
and was followed by a third proclamation
on Sept. 25, 1794 (153). A requisition for
15,000 militia was issued to the governors
of Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and
New Jersey. A Federal commission of three
and a State commission of two preceded tlie
troops with offers of amnesty on full sub-
mission. Bradford urged armed resistance,
Gallatin counseled submission. Washington
accompanied the troops, whlcli were in com-
mand of Governor Lee, of Virginia, as far
as Carlisle. Alexander Hamilton, then Sec-
retary of the Treasury, accompanied the
expedition to the scene of disorder. The
troops arrived in the rebellious district early
in November. After giving the people time
to obey the President's proclamation, Lee's
force arrested many of those who failed to
accept the proffered amnesty. Bradford and
the more violent leaders escaped. Those
captured were tried, convicted, and later
pardoned by the President. The first show
of Federal force had suppressed the insur-
rection. (See illustration opposite 198.)
Whisky Insurrection (see also Penn-
sylvania, insurrections in):
Discussed, 154, 160, 162.
Pardon granted insurgents, 173,
Eeferred to, 176.
Proclamations against, 116, 150, 153.
Whisky Eing. — A conspiracy of distillers
and United States officials formed in St.
Louis, Mo., in 1872 to defraud the Govern-
ment of internal-revenue taxes. By 1874
the ring had attained national proportions,
with branches in Milwaukee, Chicago, Pe-
oria, St. Louis, Cincinnati, New Orleans,
San Francisco, and Washington. Distillers
who refused to enter the combination were
trapped into technical violations of the
revenue laws, and when made liable to
seizure they were given their choice be-
tween ruin and surrender to the»ring. The
combination became so powerful that When
Secretary Bristow ordered a transfer of
supervisors, which would have thrown the
ring into confusion, their agents at Wash-
ington procured a countermand of the order
from President Grant. After diligent effort
evidence was obtained against the distillers
and revenue agents, tfpon this evidence
the Government seized $3,500,000 worth of
property and procured indictments against
238 persons. It was shown that the
Treasury had been defrauded of $1,650,-
000 between July 1, 1874, and May 1, 1875.
When the papers were laid before President
Grant he indorsed them with orders to "let
no guilty man escape." The most im-
portant convictions were those of John A.
Joyce, special revenue agent; John Mc-
Donald, supervisor, and William O. Avery,
chief clerk in the Treasury Department.
White House, The, — The site for the erec-
tion of the White House, or the "President's
Palace," as it was termed on some of the
earlier maps, was selected by President
Washington and General L'Enfant when
they laid out the city of Washington In
1702. The corner stone was placed In that
year.
The plans were procured by competition,
which gave the award to James Hoban, a
distinguished young architect from Dublin,
afterward identified for many years with
V/faite House
Encyclopedic Index
White House
the architectural work of the capital city.
By the architects of today his design is con-
Bldered to surpass anything of a similar
style since constructed in this country. The
White House was so called after the home
of Martha Washington In Virginia, the name
being particularly appropriate, becapse of
the fact that the free-stone of the eaiflce is
painted white.
According to the original plan, the bulld-
ihg was 160 feet long. It is built In the
English Renaissance style. The North and
South porches, constructed from designs
made by Latrobe in 1803, were added twenty-
five years after the first occupancy of the
house ; and In Jefferson's time and under his
direction, terraces were built extending 350
feet east and west of the mansion. The
West Terrace, enclosed in glass and other-
wise disguised, became in time the Conserva-
tory so dear to the heart of the Washington
Blgnt-seer. Tlie East Terrace was removed
about the time of the Civil War, but, hap-
pily, botli of these were restored and beau-
tified during the general reconstruction of
the house in 1902.
The White House, when President Adams
came to take possession of it in 1800, was
neither finished nor furnished, and Its sur-
roundings were rough and unattractive, lit-
tle or no effort having been made to reclaim
the adjacent country from muddy and
ragged woodland. From time to time Con-
gress made small appropriations for the
adornment of the Executive Mansion, and
this money was spent more or less wisely by
the several administrations in their efforts
to make the official residence comfortable.
An appropriation of fifty thousand dollars
was made to President Madison after the
fire of 1814, during the occupation of Wash-
ington by the British, for the purpose of re-
furnishing ; but despite the expenditure of
more than two million dollars upon the fur-
nishing and decorating of the building dur-
ing the first three-quarters of a century of
its existence, It contained but few articles
of value at the time of the remodelling un-
der President Roosevelt. President Roose-
velt also restored the official title "White
House" to the edifice, which had been called
for several previous administrations merely
the "Executive Mansion."
It was originally intended that the public
offices should be separate from the Presi-
dent's home; and previously to 1814, the
Executive Departments occupied small de-
tached buildings in the White House
grounds. But of necessity the President's
privacy was invaded by the business of his
office, until finally, during the Civil War,
President Lincoln set aside the second story
of the East Wing for official business pur-
poses. This invasion llmited,the accommoda-
tions for comfortable living and introduced
a. degree of publicity into the family life of
the Chief Executive which was far from
agreeable. But these and many other, dis-
comforts were at last removed In 1902-3 by
the construction of the new office building
and by the remodelling of the entire old
building. There is now little business of an
official nature conducted in the house proper,
and the East Wing has been. reclaimed for
domestic purposes. With the exception of
the outside walls, scarcely any part of the
building has been left unchanged. The old
flooring, long in a dangerous condition, has
heen replaced by new, supported upon steel
beams. The latest Improvements in heating,
lighting, and plumbing have supplanted the
old-fashioned arrangements tolerated by
many administrations. In this process, it
is to be regretted that many nooks and
crannies of historic interest have heen ob-
literated, but it is comforting to know that
the alterations will preserve in good condi-
tion and for a much longer period the main
structure and the chief beauties of the old
house.
The East Reom. — In viewing this magnifi-
cent apartment it is difficult to realize that
it was a{ one time used by Mrs. John
Adams as a drying-room for the family linen.
The Bast Room was not finished until 1838,
and a bare, bleak place it must have been in
those early days ! In former times state
banquets were held there, but in more recent
years it has been used chiefly for public re-
ceptions. During the administration of
I'resident Arthur this room was redecorated
and refurnished, and afterward no changes
of Importance were made until 1902, when,
with the rest of the building, it underwent
almost complete transformation. Before this
period the walls were hung with historical
portraits, among them the Gilbert Stuart
portrait of Washington, saved from the fire
of 1814 by Mrs. Madison ; Ijiit these were
removed, as were also the pillars and beams
of the old room, to give place to the present
beautiful scheme of decoration. The walls
and ceilings are now of white ; the spaces
over the doors and windows contain low-
relief panels, each lllustratiug one of the
fables of .^sop. The ceiling Is most elabo-
rate, but of delicate design ; from each of
its three panels bang the splendid cut-glass
chandeliers, which have taken the place of
the former larger, but less artistic ones.
Four beautiful' mantels of colored marbles
are features of the recent remodelling. The
draperies are of rich yellow silk.
The Blue Room. — It Is in this famous
apartment that the President receives his
guests upon state occasions. The room is
considered the handsomest in the house In
point of decoration, and also In its beautiful
proportions. The floor is a fine, highly pol-
ished parquetry, and tlTe/ walls are covered
with a heavy steel-blue silk, with yellow em-
broideries at tile ceiling and wainscot. In
the pattern of this embroidery and in the
decoration of the ceiling and of the window
hangings, the star is used with graceful
effect. Each of the three windows is sur-
mounted by a golden eagle. A feature of
the room is the fine marble mantel with its
supports representing sheaves of arrows
tipped with gold bronze. Wlien receiving in
the Blue Boom, the presidential party stands
in front of the windows, but formerly it
occupied the north end of the room. A
heavy rope of silk encloses a passageway for
the procession of guests, who must pass from
the Red Room Into the presence of the host,
and thence into the Green Room. This
change Is one of the many that were brought
about by the re-arrangfement of the entire
premises. During the administration of
John Adams, the Blue Room was used as a
sort of vestibule, its convenient location
making it available for this purpose.
The Red Room. — In early times this was
the anteroom to the Library and the Cab-
inet Room. It adjoins the State Dining
Room, and by recent Changes has been
turned into a smoking room, except when it
is required for service on receiving days. It
is then usejl as formerly, in conjunction
with the series of state parlors. Its walls
are covered with dark red velvet and are
hung with historical portraits. Its marble
mantel is one of those which formerly
adorned the State Dining Room, — ^the other
being placed In the Green Room.
The Green Room. — In previous days the
Green Room was the family dining-room.
The present Private Dining Room was then
White House
Encyclopedic Index
Wilderr.ess Battle
used for state dinners. As in the Blue
Koom, the walls of tne Green Boom are hung
with velvet ; here, however, the color Is an
exquisite eilvery green. Some of the orig-
inal paintings which are reproduced In the
White House Gallery of Portraits of the
Presidents also adorn the walls of this room.
State and Privofle Dining Boems. — The
State Dining Room was enlarged In 1902 by
the addition of a corridor from wliich tlio
private stairway led. This necessitated the
removal of that portion of the stairs. The
room now measures forty by fifty feet and
will accommodate as many as one hundred
guests at table. The walls are of panelled
oak, and the window draperies of heavy
green velvet. Flemish tapestries of the six-
teenth century are a feature of the room,
which is further decorated by trophies of
the chase in American hunting-grounds ar-
ranged around the beautifully carved cor-
nice. The furniture is of red mahogany ;
it includes two tables, — the larger crescent
in shape, and the smaller a rounded oblong.
An Interesting feature of the furnishings
of the State Dining Room is the complete
service of china and cut glass, manufactured
from special designs made exclusively for the
White House and, selected by Mrs. Roosevelt
from a number submitted to her for ap-
proval. The design is simple but rich in
effect, and the china is of the purest texture,
the whole having been very costly. The
glads, which includes many pieces, is of the
best American cut.
The Private Dining Room has been re-
modelled in a style essentially colonial, with
an attractive color scheme of ivory white
and red. The ceiling is domed and the win-
dow hangings are of red velvet. The fur-
niture in this apartment harmonizes With
the general plan of decoration, it also being
distinctly colonial in design.
The Lihrary. — The room, which is oval In
shape, is situated on the second story of the
ISxecutive Mansion and was once used as the
President's office, but is now converted Into
a private sitting room. It was during Presi-
dent Fillmore's administration that the
Library was first planned, an appropriation
being made for that purpose. The low book-
cases lining the walls contain over seven
thousand volumes, principally literature of
a historical and classical character, and
chiefly of Mrs. Fillmore's own selection.
She greatly deplored the lack of books in
the White House and urged the need of a
more extensive Library. However, it did
not progress as it should have done, and is
not catalogued.
The Executive Offloe. — From the time of
President Lincoln's idministration, the busi-
ness of the White House began to encroach
seriously upon the living quarters. The dis-
comfort and inconvenience resulting from
this combination of public and priv.ate life
under one roof — and that a roof of very
limited dimensions — had long been realized.
Plans to relieve the situation were occa-
sionally brought forward, but nothing was
accomplished until 1902, when the recon-
struction of the entire establishment took
place. It was then that the one-storle"d and
basement building was erected at the end of
the West Terrace for the accommodation of
the Executive Offices. The architects have
placed the structure most effectively in its
relation to its surroundings. It contains a
Reception Room, the President's suite of
rooms, the offices of the President's Secre-
tary and Assistant Secretary, telegraph and
telephone rooms and several other offices.
The building is comparatively small and will
probably give place to a larger one in the
course of time. (See llUustrations opposite
pages 166, 256, 811, 900, 1211, 1649, 1809.
6046.)
White House:
Completion and furnishing of, 595.
Improvement of, 808.
Eestoration of, 6729, 6739.
White Leagues referred to, 4251. (See
also Klu-Klux-Klan.)
White Plains (N. Y.), Battle of.— After
the battle of Harlem Heights, in wUich
Washington was enabled to maintain his
ground in the face of the British attack,
Uen. Howe's war ships advanced up the
lOast River and landed troops at Frogs Point
(now Throggs Neck). His purpose was to
gain a position in Washington's rear and
thus cut him off from communication with
his army outside of New York. About 4,000
British were sent to dislodge some 1,400
Americans who were intrenched on Chat-
terton IJill. After a short and sharp
skirmish the Americans fell back in good
order to the main body of the army, having
lost but little more than half as many as
their opponents. The American loss is vari-
ously stated at from 125 to SOD, while the
lowest official estimate of the British loss
places it at 231. The following night Wash-
ington retired to a much stronger position
about five miles north and Howe withdrew
to Dobbs Ferry.
White Slavery.— A term applied to the en-
ticing and incarceration of girls for immoral
purposes. Exposures in Great Britain,
France and the United States led to an In-
ternational conference In Paris In 1902,
which resulted in a treaty, afterwards rati-
fied by nearly all the civilized governments.
In March, 1910, Congress adopted what was
known as the Bennett Law, making the Im-
portation of women for immoral purposes a
penal offense, and, in June, 1910, Congress
adopted what was known as the Mann Law,
making interstate transportation of women
for immoral purposes a penal offense. The
constitutionality of the Mann Law was vig-
orously attacked, but was sustained by the
Court.
White Slave Trade, suppression of,
7438.
Whitehall, N. Y., proclamation granting
privileges of other ports to, 2540.
Whitman National Forest enlarged,
8219.
Wichita Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Wife-Beaters, corporal punishment sug-
gested for, 6905.
Wilderness (Va.), Battle of.— The rank
of lieutenant-general was revived on March
2, 1804, and on the 9th of that month i't
was conferred upon Gen. Grant, who was
given the command, under the President,
of all the armies of the United States. The
plan of campaign agreed upon between
Grant and Sherman was to make a simul-
taneous advance against Lee's army in Vir-
ginia and that of Johnston In Georgia
Meade was left in control of the army of the
Potomac and Sheridan placed in command
of the cavalry in Virginia. Gen. B. F. But-
ler was made commander of the Army of
the James, consisting of 38,648 men and
90 guns. May 4, 1864, Grant crossed the
Rapldan with the Army of the Potomac,
aggregating on May 1, according to the
report of the Secretary of War, 120,380 in
men and 310 guns. The Ninth Corps, 20 780
WMerness Battle
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
lu number, was subsequently added. Lee
lay on the south bank of the Eapidan with
63,984 men. The Confederate position was
in the midst of a wilderness of scraggy oak,
sassafras, hazel, and pine. It is a region
of -worn-out tobacco fields, and lies directly
west of the battlefield of Chancelloi-sTille.
It was not Grant's Intention to fight Lee
there, but the Confederate attack early on
the 5th compelled it. Lee gained ground
In the two days' fighting. The battle was
a bloody bush fight. More than 200,000
men fought In a vast jungle. Grant's loss
amounted to over 20,000, of whom 5,000
were made prisoners. The Confederate loss
was about 10,000. Grant now resolved to
turn "Lee's left flank and put his army be-
tween the latter and Richmond. On the
night of the Tth the Federal army took up
the march t'oward Spottsylvania Court-
House. on the morning of the 8th of May
the men of the opposing forces arrived
almost at the same moiBent at the Court-
House. Then occutred the great battle of
Spottsylvania (q. v.). (See Illustration
opposite 3353.)
"Wild Cat." — Tte currency Issued by a
"Wild Cat Bank." (See "Wild Cat Bank-
ing.") During Jackson's administration
and the period following, up to the Insti-
tution of the National Bank System by
Congress, state banks and private banUs
Issued paper money with but little security
back of them — practically mere promises to
pay. This lack of soundness and stability
in the banking methods of the time worked
great injury to the commercial Interests
in the United States, and greatly retarded
progress. The approbrious name "Wild Cat
Banking" was applied by those seeking to
reform the banking method.
Wildfire, The, ca^pture of, by the Mo-
liawk, 3124.
Wilkes's Exploring Expedition, expen-
ditures of publication of, referred to,
3068.
WiUamette Valley, etc.. Wagon Eoad
Co., lands granted to Oregon for, re-
ferred to, 4665.
William I., Emperor of Germany, death
of, referred to, 5367.
William, The, captured with African
negroes on board, 3126.
, William and Francis, The, satisfaction
to be allo'wed by Great Britain for
detention of, 2111.
Williamsburg (Va.), Battle of.— As soon
as It was discovered that the Confederates
had withdrawn from Yorktown (May 5,
1862), a column was sent in pursuit. It
came up with the retreating rear guard at
Williamsburg. The Confederates had been
reenforced from Johnston's army at Klcn-
mond. Longstrcet's division, having, passed
beyond the town, retraced its steps to resist
the attack. Hooker, of Helntzelman's divi-
sion, and Smith, of Keyes's, bore the brunt
of the assault, fighting from morning till
late in the afternoon, vainly calling for re-
enforcements. The arrival of Kearny s
division about 4 p. M. caused the Confed-
erates to retire toward Richmond. The
Federal loss was 2,228 men, of whom 456
were killed. The Confederate loss was 1,560,
of whom 288 were killed.
Williamson's Farm (S. C), Battle of.—
One of the minor skirmishes of the Revolu-
tionary War In the South and the first dis-
aster to the British arms after the capture
of Charleston, July 12, 1780, Capt iSouk,
with 115 British and Tories, was sent from
the garrison at Rocky Mount to collect
militia and drive back the Americans.
Thoma^ Sumter, with 75 men, surprised and
captured them. Capt. Houk was killed in
the fight.
Wilmington, The, attempts of, to si-
lence batteries at Cardenas, Cuba,
6302, 6316.
Wilmot Proviso. — President Polk, in a
special message Aug. 8, 1846 (2309), made
a request of Congress for money to adjust
the boundary between Mexico and the Unit-
ed States by the purchase of certain Mexi-'
can territory outside of Texas. In ac-
cordance with this request a bill was in-
troduced into the House appropriating $2,-
000,000 for the purpose. David Wilmot, a
Democrat from Pennsylvania, offered an
amendment wtileh provided "that neither
slavery nor involuntary servitude shall
ever exist In any part of said territory,
except for crime, whereof the party shall
«rst be duly convicted." This was the Wil-
mot Proviso. The bill as amended passed
the House, but failed in the Senate. Early
the next year another bill passed the House,
appropriating $3,000,000 for the same pur-
pose, with the Wilmot proviso, but the
amendment was omitted in the Senate.
Wilson, Woodrow. — 1913-1921.
Thirty-second Administration— Democratic.
Tice-President — Thomas K. Marshall.
Secretary of State —
William Jennings Bryan.
Robert Lansing.
Secretary of the Treasury—
William Gibbs McAdoo.
Secretary of War —
Lindley M. Garrison.
Newton D.' Baker.
Attornev-Oeneral —
James Clark McEeynoIds.
T. W. Gregory.
Postmaster-General —
Albert Sidney Burleson.
Secretary of the Tlavy —
Josepbus Daniels.
Secretary of Interior —
Franklin Knight Lane.
Secretary of Agriculture —
•David Franklin Houston.
Secretary of Commerce —
William C. Redfield.
Secretary of Labor —
William Bauchop Wilson.
The Democratic National Convention met
in Baltimore, Md., June 25, 1912, and on
July 6, on the forty-sixth ballot, chose
Woodrow Wilson, Governor of New Jer-
sey, as the nominee of the party. Other
prominent candidates before the conven-
tion were Champ Clark, of Missouri ; Jud-
son Harmon, of Ohio, and Oscar W. un-
derwood, of Alabama.
Platform. — The convention reaffirmed
its devotion to the P"?ciples of Demo-
cratic government formulated by Thomas
Jefferson: declared that the high Repub-
lican tariff was the principal cause of the
unequal distribution of wealth and fa-
vored Immediate downward revision of the
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
rates. President Taft was denounced lor
his veto of the Farmers' Free List bill,
and tha Republican party was charged
with having been faithless to its pledges
of 1908. The people were appealed to tor
support in a demand for a tariff for reve-
nue only. Other planks declared a pi'ivate
monopoly indefensible and intolerable ; fa-
vored enforcement of the criminal as well
as civil law against trusts and their offi-
cials;, prevention of holding companies,
of interlocking directors, stock-watering,
and discrimination in prices ; legislation to
restore to the Sherman Antitrust law the
strength of which it was deprived by in-
terpretation ; the unhampered exercise by
the states of their reserved rights ; favored
an income tax and the popular election
of Senators ; publicity *of campaign contri-
butions ; presidential primaries and a sin-
gle term for the President ; supervision of
railroad, express, telegraph and telepTione
companies ; opposed the establishment of
a central bank, and favored the revision
of the banking laws ; favored rural cred-
its, and national aid to state and local
roads ; equal justice to capital and labor ;
conservation of national resources ;' ex-
emption from tolls of American ships on
the Panama Canal ; fostering the growth of
our merchant marine ; independence for the
Philippines ; establishment of a parcel post
and extension of rural free delivery.
Opposition. — Months before the end of
President Taft's administration, ex-Presi-
dent Roosevelt had become dissatisfied with
the principles and practices of his successor,
and finally broke publicly with him and cam-
paigned for the Republican nomination.
Although generally endorsed In those states
in which Presidential primaries were held,
Roosevelt failed to receive the nomination
of the Republican Party, which renominated
President Taft for a second term. Roosevelt
declared that he had been deprived of the
nomination by the denial of credentials to
properly-selected Roosevelt delegates and,
withdrawing from the Republican Party,
organized the Progressive Party to contest
the election. His running mate was Gov-
ernor Hiram Johnson, of California, and his
platform was an advanced one, declaring'
for equal suffrage, labor and welfare legis-
lation, forms of social insurance, direct
primaries and direct legislation, popular
election of Senators, the regulation, rather
than the prohibition, of trusts. The Social-
ist Party nominated Eugene V. Debs and
the Prohibitionists, Eugene W. Chafin.
Tote. — The popular vote showed Wilson
6,293,019; Roosevelt, 4,119,507; Taft,
3,484,956 ; Debs, 901,873, and Chafin, 207,-
928. Wilson's popular plurality over Roose-
velt was 2,173,512 and over Taft, 2,808,Q63 ;
but the combined Roosevelt and Taft vote
was 1.311,44 higher than the Wilson vote.
The electoral vote was as follows : Wilson,
435 ; Roosevelt 88 ; Taft 8.
Party Problem. — The immediate task con-
fronting Mr. Wilson was the consolidation
of the Democratic Party into an effective
organism. The commitment of the Party
in 1896 and 1900 to the leadership of Wil-
liam Jennings Bryan and his free silver
platform had alienated many of its ablest
members, and the attack made on Mr.
Clark by the Wilson forces under the lead-
ership of Mr. Brj^'an at the Baltimore con-
vention had embittere'd to no slight extent
the powerful Clark faction. Moreover, the
party had so long been out of power that
priietical men of affairs able to handle con-
crete problems were no longer as prom-
inent in it as they had been.
Mr. Wilson's Cabinet reflected this prob-
lem By the appointment of Mr. Bryan as
Secretary of State, the cooperation of the
"Peerless Leader" and his followers was
assured ; and even In later days when the
two separated in a difference of opinion
regarding foreign policy, their personal ties
and political allegiance remained unbroken.
The claims of the South were recognized
by the appointment of a number of South-
ern leaders, and in, the appointment of Mr.
William B. Wilson as Secretary of Labor
a strong bid was made for the continued
support of organized labor. For the prac-
tical problems of the Commerce, Interior and
Treasury Departments, President Wilson se-
lected men with first-hand experience in
administration.
Tariff. — April 8, 1913, Wilson convened
Congress in extra session for the purpose
of revising the tariff law in accordance with
the "duty laid upon the party at the recent
elections" (page 7871). The Sixty-third
Congress consisted of 96 Senators, of whom
52 were Democrats ; and 435 Representa-
tives, of whom 290 were Democrats. The
tariff bin Introduced by Mr. Underwood, of
Alabama, embodied the essential ideas of the
Democratic platform— that duties should be
imposed primarily to produce revenue for
the government without thought of pro-
tection, and that such duties should be es-
tablished by legislation that would not in-
jure or destroy legitimate industry. One
hundred items were added to the free list,
including acids, salt,' bread, meat, flour
and meal, potatoes, paper, manufactures
of leather, lumber and iron and certain
machinery. Duties were imposed on sev-
enty articles previously free. As a whole,
the rates of the Underwood Tariff were about
one-fourth lower than those of the tariff of
Federal Reserve Banking Act. — The bank-
ing act passed early In the administration
provided for a decentralized banking system,
with twelve reserve banks, of which all
national and many state banks were mem-
bers. The federal reserve system was gov-
erned by a central board In Washington,
and all of its members were government
officials with no connection with private
banking interests. State banks were still
not allowed to issue currency, but the sys-
tem provided for a greater elasticity in our
currency system by providing for issue and
withdrawal of paper money through the fed-
eral reserve banks.
Farm Loan Act. — Another notable legis-
lative achievement of the first Vi'llson adrnin-
istration provided for lending money at low
interest to farmers on farm mortgages,
pending the sale of their crops.
Anti-Trust Legislation. — True to his cam-
paign promises, President Wilson effected
legislation making more stringent and more
detailed the provisions of the Sherman Anti-
?J"^' r ^^^- ^^^ Clayton Act also declared
that Labor was not to be regarded as a com-
modity and placed restrictions upon in-
junctions in labor disputes, achievements
J?.F™i°J"' weakened by court interpretation.
The Federal Trade Commission was estab^
lished, Jiot only to investigate the practices
of business enterprises, but also to lodge
complaints and. make charges.
Other Legislation.— A federal statute for-
bidding the employment of children under
fourteen in factories and workshops was
passed, only to be declared unconstitutional
several years later. The Seamen's Act im-
posed upon shipowners niany welfare re-
quireqients making fbr improved hours
wages and conditions of employment for sea-
men. After the outbreak of the war in
Europe, the Bureau of War Risk Insurance
was established to assist the American raer-
WUson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
chant marine. The popular election of
United States Senators dates from thls'^ad-
ministration, and President Wilson's anger
at the bar to armed neutrality legislation
for American merchant vessels made possi-
ble by filibustering tactics in the Senate
during the last days of the administration
was responsible for the adoption of proced-
ure m the United States Senate allowing
closure to be applied to debates under cer-
tain conditions. A bill applying a literacy
test to Immigrants was passed over the
President's veto. The parcel post system
was broadened and a notable reform was the
extension of the civil service requirements
to the first, second and third class post-
masters. Largely because of the threat of
a strike of the four brotherhoods of rail-
way employees, President Wilson Induced
Congress to pass the Adamson Law, pro-
viding that eight hours was to be considered
the normal day's work upon railroads.
By the authority of the Sixteenth. Amend-
ment, Income taxes were levied upon indi-
viduals and corporations.
With the outbreak of war in Europe, a
period of Industrial depression set in, due
largely to the disturbance of international
trade and banking ; but as the Entente be-
gan to turn more and more to the United
States for supplies of all kinds, and as
neutral nations began to turn to the United
States for goods no longer purchasable from
the belligerent nations, a period of well-nisrh
unsurpassed prosperity set in. Immigration
practically ceased and there was a shortage
of labor, with the returns to both capital
and labor largely increasing. However, this
increase was parallelled by a rapid increase
in the cost of living, which continued until
after the end of the war.
Mexico. — The problem of conditions In
Mexico was one of the most difficult with
which the administration had to deal and
the Wilson policy of "watchful waiting"
caused much adverse criticism. After the
overthrow of Porflrlo Diaz in 1911, Mexico
slipped into a state of civil commotion in
which the lives and property rights of
United States citizens were increasingly en-
dangered. Finally, in 1913, Francisco 'Mad-
ero, a leader of liberal and democratic tend-
encies, who had been installed as President,
was murdered with the connivance of Vlc-
torlano Huerta, who had led a successful
revolt against his rule. Because of the
murder and the unconstitutional usurpation
of power by Huerta, President Wilson re-
fused to acknowledge him as the President
of Mexico, but supported Venustiano Car-
ranza and Pancho Villa in their revolts
against the Huerta government.
Deprived of the support of the United
States, Huerta finally fell before the attacks
of Villa, Carranza, Zapata and other revolu-
tionists and resigned in 1914. Carranza
was elected President and finally obtained
the recognition of- the United States, al-
though Villa soon revolted against the Car-
ranza government.
However, just before the end of Huerta's
rule, some American sailors were arrested
at Tampico, and, although the Mexican
Government soon ordered their release, it
refused to salute the United States flag as
atonement. At this juncture. President
Wilson authorized the port of Vera Cruz to
be occupied by United States forces, in
order to prevent a consignment of arms for
Huerta from being landed there. The oc-
cupation was accomplished only after a
struggle, in which some United States sailors
lost their lives, and open war between the
two countries seemed imminent. It was
averted by the good offices of Argentina,
Brazil and Chile, who acted as mr.dlators
and arbitrators, and by the fact that soon
after the occupation of Vera Cruz, Huerta
abdicated.
. In the spring of 1916, border raids by
Mexican bandits culminated In a raid by
Villa on the town of Columbus, New Mex-
ico. A punitive expedition under General
Pershing was at once dispatched Into Mexico
and penetrated Mexican territory to a con-
siderable depth, although without capturing
Villa. The expedition was dispatched
against the will of the Carranza govern-
ment, and there was one serious clash be-
tween United States and Carranzista
forces ; but the United States forces were
withdrawn nearer the Kio Grande before
open war resulted, and finally were alto-
gether withdrawn from Mexico in January,
1917.
Other Foreign Relations. — The first Wil-
son administration saw a liberal measure
of self-government granted to Porto Rice
and the Philippines, with ultimate independ-
ence definitely promised the latter. The Dan-
ish West Indies were purchased from Den-
mark, further to safeguard the Panama
Canal, and were re-christened the Virgin
Islands of the United States. At the re-,
quest of President Wilson, the bill exempt-
ing United States coastwise shipplfig from
Panama Canal tolls was repealed, there be-
ing strong support for the contention of
Great Britain that such exemption was in
violation of the trea|ty between the two
countries bearing upon the subject. The
difficulties with Japan due to discriminatory
legislation in California against Japanese
citizens in that state became acute. Dis-
orders in Haiti and Santo Domingo led to
the military occupation and administration
of those countries, a course of action
roundly denounced in Central and South
America, not only because it was alleged
to represent a policy of aggressive imperial-
ism, but also because of alleged irregularities
and misconduct on the part of the forces of
occupation.
European War. — ^Neutrality.— When the
greatest of all wars broke out in Europe in
1914, America firmly resolved to try to stay
neutral. Our traditional policy of isolation,
in spite of the implications of the Monroe
Doctrine, kept us free from passions in
favor of either group of belligerents. True,
the invasion of Belgium in violation of
treaty rights caused strong feeling against
Germany, which was increased when the
reports of the atrocities committed in the
invaded country were substantiated, but
on the other hand we had more immigrants
from Germany in our population th.-in from
any other country ; our second largest im-
migrant grou^ was the Irish, most of whom
were anti-British ; and the large Jewish
group was by no means alone in the United
States in its hatred of everything which
was signified by the kingdom of the Tsar.
Before long, however. In spite ' of our
desire to remain neutral in thought as well
as in jieed, and in spite of our feeling that
the holocaust was due to secret diplomacy,
political rivalries, imperialist and economic
ambitions which seemed queerly alien to
America, we became definitely Involved in
the problems of the war. In accordance
with the rights of international law, we
began to sell great quantities of military
supplies to the Entente Allies, the Central
Powers being unable to avail themselves of
similar privileges because of England's con-
trol of the seas. Our policy was regarded
by Germany as unneutral, and soon we saw
our ships sunk in Germany's submarine
warfare and the lives of our citizens en-
dangered and on occasion lost. Moreover,
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
the consciousness that the greatest military
power in the world regarded us as her
enemy made us wonder what would be the
result to us In our comparatively unpre-
pared state if that power should emerge,
victorious In the conflict.
President Wilson objected firmly to the
violation of the rights of the United States
by Germany. He objected similarly to the
blockade Imposed by the Entente, its list-
ing of food as contraband, its search of
mail, its misuse of neutral flags, its black-
listing of American firms for tracing with
Germany. But these practices Involved no
loss of American lives and the protests
against them were not so strong as those
invoked when the German submarine cam-
paign came to a head with the sinking of
the "Lusltania," on May 7, 1915, witb the
loss of more than one hundred United States
citizens. Germany finally was led to modify
her submarine campaign so as not to sink
liners without warning and without provis-
ions for the safety of non-combatants. The
crisis resulted in the resignation of ■ Secre-
tary of State Bryan, who wanted the dis-
pute arbitrated. The dilatory nature of the
German assurances incensed this country,
and when on January 31, 1917, the Ger-
man government, without warning, an-
nounced the resumption of its unrestricted
■submarine warfare, there were only a few
pacifists. Socialists and German sympathiz-
ers in the United States not to support
President Wilson in ending diplomatic re-
lations with Germany, three days later.
European War, — Mediation. — In the very
first days of the War, President Wilson
made a purely conventional offer of med-
iation, without effect, In December, 1916,
several days after Germany herself had
suggested a peace conference, he definitely
asked that the belligerents state their peace
terms, saying that the professed aims of
both camps were largely identical. The
Central Powers replied to the President's
offer with a vague suggestion that a peace
conference be held, and the Entente replied
by making certain stringent conditions neces-
sarily precedent to a peace discussion. On
.lanuary 22, 1917, in an address to the Sen-
ate, President Wilson declared that unless
the war ended in a "peace without victory,"
its settlements would be but transitory ;
that to prevent a similar war, the nations
of the earth would have to unite into an
association rather than divide along the
lines of a Balance of Power ; that all nation-
alities must have freedom or self-determin-
ation ; that the seas must be free and arma-
ments reduced : that the war was the last
in which the United States could hope to
remain neutral and that therefore she was
vitally Interested in the terms of its settle-
ment and in the formation of such a league
of nations.
SECOND TERM
Thirty-third administration — Democratic.
Vice President — Thomas E. Marshall.
Secretary oj State —
Robert Lansing.
Balnbrldge Colby.
Secretary of the Treasury —
William Gibbs McAdoo.
Carter Glass.
David Franklin Houston.
Secretary of War —
Newton Diehl Baker.
Attorney-G-encral —
Thomas W. Gregory.
A. Mitchell Palmer.
Postmaster-Qcneral —
Albert Sidney Burleson.
Secretary of the Navy —
Josephus Daniels.
Secretary of Interior —
Franklin Knight Lane.
John Barton Payne.
Secretary of Agriculture —
David Franklin Houston.
Edwin T. Meredith.
Secretary of Commerce —
William C. Redfleia.
Joshua W. Alexander.
Secretary of Labor —
William Bauchop Wilson.
Platform — On June 15, 1916, Woodrow
Wilson was re-nominated by acclamation
for the Presidency by the Democratic con-
vention in St. Louis. With little contest
Thomas R. Marshall was re-nominated for
vice-president. Mr. Bryan played little
or no part in the proceedings. The plat-
form praised the achievements of Mr. Wil-
son's first administration, strongly com-
mendin,"! the handling of foreign disputp^
both with Germany and with Mexico. It
re-afflrmed the traditional Democratic tariff
policy ; and in addition, proposed a gov-
ernment-owned and -operated merchant ma-
rine. Preparedness, conservation, the Mon-
roe Doctrine, a federal child labor law,
ultimate Independence for the Philippines,
and a Federal Trade Commission were en-
dorsed. Woman Suffrage was also endorsed,
but by state action.
Opposition — Mr. Roosevelt exerted every
energy to capture the Republican nomina-
tion ; but the memory of his disruption of
the Republican Party by the organization
of the Progressive Party four years pre-
viously was too fresh In the leaders' minds
to allow him success. As soon as the Re-
publican convention met in Chicago on
June 7, it was evident that there was a
strong , drift to Charles Evans Hughes,
formerly governor of New York, and at
that time on the Supreme Bench of the
United States — In spite of the American
tradition that Supreme Court justices should
play no part in politics, and in spite of the
fact that Mr. Hughes had recognized that
tradition by refusing to stir a finger for
nomination, or ev^n to be quoted In con-
nection with It. The first ballot gave Mr.
Hughes 20314 votes, Mr. Weeks, 105, Mr.
Root, 103, Mr. Cummins, 85, Mr. Roosevelt,
65, and Mr. La Follette, 25. Jlr. Hughes
was nominated on the third ballot.
The Progressive Party held its conven-
tion in Chicago at the same time, and
nominated Mr. Roosevelt for the Presi-
dency. Mr. Roosevelt, however, declined
the honor, and advised that the conven-
tion endorse the nomination of Mr. Hughes ;
and that action saw the end of the Pro-
gressive Party as an important factor In
American politics. The Prohibitionists
nominated J. Frank Hanly ; the Socialists,
Arthur Benson.
The campaign was fought almost en-
tirely on the question of the foreign policy
of the preceding administration, Mr.
Hughes, Mr. Roosevelt and the other Re-
publican leaders assailing it as weak, un-
American, and more likely to plunge the
country into war than would a more vigor-
ous assertion of American rights. The
enactment of the eight-hour law for rail-
road employees was also denounced by Mr.
Hughes as a surrender to the labor un-
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
\7ilsoii
Jons ; and as a result he made himself popu-
lar among business men, whereas most of
the labor vote seemed to be cast for Mr.
Wilson.
Re-election. — The first reports of the
election indicated that the Republicans hail
won a sweeping victory, and that the next
President of the United States would be
Mr. Charles Krans Hughes. Even on the
second day after the voters had gone to
the polls, it seemed that Mr. Wilson had
been defeated, although it was then evi-
dent that the result would be close. It
was not until a weels had elapsed that Mr.
Wilson's re-election, by the narrow margin
of 23 electoral votes, was conceded. The
East went almost solidly for Mr. Hughes ;
and it was the West, with the scattered
agricultural districts, which turned the tide
In Mr. Wilson's favor. There was every
evidence that the women voters of the West
materially helped Mr. Wilson to his vic-
tory. The deciding state was California,
where Mr. Wilson's majority was less than
4.000 in a vote of 925,000. The total
Wilson popular vote was 9,129,606, as com-
pared with 8,538,221 for Hughes. The Wil-
son electoral vote was 277 and the Hughes,
254. The Prohibition vote, 220,506, rep-
resented a slight increase over that of
1912, but the Socialist vote, 585,113, was
only about 65% of the 1912 Socialist vote.
The Democratic majority in the Senate was
reduced and the membership of the House
of Representatives was almost equally di-
vided politically.
Mr. Wilson made no change in his Cab-
inet from the first administration. His
attention was occupied entirely by the
crisis with Germany, and his policy re-
mained uninterrupted, as indicated by his
brief. Second Inaugural Address (page
8221).
War with Germany and An fttria-Hunffary.
— Despite the severance of diplomatic re-
lations on February 3, 1917, the Germ.in
Government made good its threat to use its
submarines without restrictions, and on
April 3, 1917, President Wilson aslced a
Joint session of Congress, meeting in special
.session, for a declaration of war against
Germany. After rehearsing the crimes of
Germany against the United States, he de-
lined the struggle as not merely one of self-
defense, but also as one of democracy njxainst
autocracy. On April 6, a state of war with
Germany was proclaimed. War with Aus-
tria-Hungiiry was proclaimed in the foliow-
.ng December.
The military and naval achievements of
the United states are outlined in the article
on World War. The Navy at once cooper-
ated with the navy of Great Britain in at-
tacking submarines, laying mines, escorting
transports ; but due to the length of train-
ing required, the need for shipping, the great
volume of requisite supplies, as well as
to the need for a large preponderance in
strength on the side of the Allies if Ger-
many was finally to be defeated decisively,
it was not until the spring of 1918 that
United States troops began to arrive in
I'^rance in great numbers. Almost at once
I ho policy of military conscription was put
into effect in order to marshal the military
strength of the country.
War Anenciea. — Revolutionary readjust-
ments were' necessary to mobilize the non-
military strength of the country, and in
most fields of production and distribution of
war supplies, private enterprise gave way
to Gov'"'"m''nt control. Shipping conH'ol
:ind routing was given to the Shipping
Board, with the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
tion In direct charge of building new bot-
tdms to transport American forces and their
supplies. A Committee on Public Informa-
tion was created. The railroads and some
coastwise steamship lines were talten over
by the Government, and were administered
by the Railroad Administration. The prob-
lem of food conservation, production and al-
location fell to the Food Administration,
and the Fuel Administration 'functioned
similarly for coal and other fuels. Wheat
and coal prices were fixed by the Govern-
ment. /
The express companies were taken over by
the Government and placed under the Ameri-
can Railway Express Company, administered
by the Director General of Railroads. The
telephone, telegraph and cable systems were
also taken over by the Government and ad-
ministered through the Postmaster General.
The War Finance Corporation attended to
the financing of private firms In essential
fields in need of such assistance and the
War Labor Board endeavored to smooth the
differences between Capital and Labor which
might lead to strikes and lockouts.
The Industrial mobilization of the coun-
try's resources was at first placed under
the advisory commission of the Council of
National Defence, but ultimately was placed
in the hands of the War Industries Board.
Exports were controlled through an Exports
Council and finally through the War Trade
Board, The Food Control Act provided for
a check upon profiteering in essentials gen-
erally as well as for the control of all
agencies concerned with food. The Espion-
age Act and the Sedition Act gave authority
for the suppression of periodicals and news-
papers, and for the Imprisonment of indi-
viduals, attempting to thwart the country's
war program, even by means of criticizing
adversely the form of government and the
constitution. The Sabotage Act was aimed
at the stoppage of the nation's industries
by sabotage or conspiracy.
The" production of war material proper,
such as machine guns and ammunition, was
supervised by the War Department itself.
Sepiirate agencies, howevei", were created
for the production of aircraft. Control
over commerce which might accrue, even
indirectly, to the benefit of the enemy was
empowered by the Trading with the Enemy
Act, and property in the United States
owned by enemy aliens was taken over
by the Government and administered or sold
l)y the Alien Property Custodian.
The financing of the war was made pos-
sible chiefly by five great popular war loans
and also by great increases in taxes, espe-
cially those upon individual and corporate
incomes. For the dead and Wounded, a sys-
tem of automatic compensation was estab-
lished to replace the pension grants util-
ized after former wars, and government in-
surance up to S10,000 was also opened at
cost to those in the military and naval
services. The welfare of the soldiers and
sailors was attended to by the Red Cross,
the Young Men's Christian Association, the
Young Men's Hebrew Association, the
Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army
and other agencies, for the support of
which the American people contributed gen-
erously.
There were many other agencies created
to care for the special problems of the war,
such as those concerned with the availabil-
ity of adequate housing for war workers,
especially those in the shipyards ; the en-
listment, distribution and stabilization of
labor, especially unskilled labor ; the ra-
tioning of sugar, etc.
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Domestic Legislation. — The most striking
legislative enactments of tiie second Wilson
administration were the amendments to the
constitution providing for the prohibition
of the sale and manufacture of alcoholic
beverages and for the extension of the- suf-
frage to women. The latter amendment (vas
achieved largely through the insistence of
President Wilson. A bill providing for the
budget system wag vetoed by the President.
With the end of the hostilities of the War,
the Government quickly abandoned its in-
terference with production and distribution,
and most of the control of the war agencies
over private business came to an end. The
railroads were returned to their owners
with the Government guarantee of profits
continuing six months after their return,
and with an increase in passenger and
freight rates granted by the Interstate Com-
merce Commission. The size of the war debt
which had been accumulated permitted but
a slight reduction In taxation. Foreign-born
non-citizens who believed in and preached,
or who belonged to organizations believing
in or preaching, the use of force in changing
the form of government were deported.
During the hostilities of the war, the coun-
try continued to enjoy unsurpassed prosper-
ity, but soon after the armistice, a period
of sharp depression set in and remained until
the end of the administration. Unemploy-
ment was extremely wide-spread and distress
was acute. Wages generally increased until
this period of depression set in, and it was
not until the closing months of the admin-
istration that prices and the cost of liv-
ing stopped increasing.
Political Developments. — ^In the Congress-
ional elections of 1918, President Wilson
aroused much hostility by asking for the de-
feat-of the Republican Party, because on the
whole it had been opposed to the adminis-
tration during the war, although unquestion-
ably patriotic In the prosecution of the
struggle. The voters returned the Republi-
can Party to power in Congress, with a
Republican majority of two in the Senate
and of almost fifty in the House of Repre-
sentatives. The administration had become
unpopular. The combination of a Republican
Congress and a Democratic President served
to make the administration barren of not-
able legislation and administrative achieve-
ments after the end of the hostilities of the
World War. ' In the Northwest, a radical
agrarian political organization, the Non-
partisan League, became powerful. The
Socialist Party became strong in the elec-
tions of 1917, but suffered a decline In
strength in the elections of 1918, largely
because of Its anti-war attitude and pro-
gram. The I'arty was later split by the
secession of those elements endorsing un-
qualifiedly the program of Bolshevism or
Communism.
Foreign Affairs. — Aside from the problems
of the war and of the resulting peace, the
foreign policy of the administration was
notable chiefly for its recognition of the
special interests of Japan in China, as ex-
pressed In the so-called Lansing-Ishii Agree-
ment ; a vigorous ultimatum to Mexico,
threatening war unless an American con-
sular agent named Jenkins, who had been
arrested, was released ; the continuation of
the armed occupation of Haiti and Santo
Domingo : and the continuation of armed
intervention in, hostility to, blockade and
nonrecognition of the Bolshevist govern-
ment of Soviet Russia.
The President at the Peace Oon/er«noe in
Paris. — In December. 1918, the President of
the United States of America set sail for
Europe to participate in the formulation of
the peace terms which were to end the
greatest of all wars. He returned to this
country toward the end of February in the
following year, aailing again tor France,
however, in the first week of March. He
finally returned from his labors in July,
1918, having been the first President to set
foot upon European soil during his In-
cumbeney of office.
Germany and her associates in the war
had surrendered on the basis of the prin-
ciples enunciated by President Wilson in
his addresses on the war. and similarly
those principles had been accepted by the
associates of the United States as the plat-
form upon which the peace must be built.
In particular. the "Fourteen Points"
enunciated by President Wilson in his ad-
dress to Congress on January 8, 1918, be-
came a ralLying ground for the peace dis-
cussions. And President Wilson went to
Europe in the hope and with the intention
of effecting his program in spite of the
forces opposed to it.
It cannot be said that, on the whole, he
succeeded. Although received in Europe
with an enthusiasm which showed him en-
trenched firmly in the hearts of the
European masses as no other statesman of
his time, the hatreds of war and the limita-
tions of national self-seeking were obstacles
which the President on many occasions
could not surmount. The cornerstone of
his policy, a League of Nations, was
achieved, but with many limitations which
served to make it of narrower scope than
had been hoped. For Instance, there were
no effective provisions for a reduction of
armaments or for the abolition of conscrip-
tion ; decisions of international disputes
could be rea<:hed only by unanimous vote
of the nine great Powers represented on
the council of the League; Great Britain
retained control of the seas : there was no
provision for an international police force
nor for an international Supreme Court,
etc. Furthermore, in the treaty proper
there were awards, such as those of the
Shantung peninsula in China, the north-
east Adriatic sea-coast, and the Austrian
Tyrol, which manifestly violated the prin-
ciple of nationality. All that was claimed
for the treaty was that it was the best
obtainable under adverse circumstances, and
that it would prove the foundation for bet-
ter things.
The Defeat of the Peace Treaty. — ^^'hen
the Treaty of Versailles was submitted to
the Senate for ratification in the early sum-
mer of 1919, strong opposition to it arose.
This was due only partly to personal and
political opposition to the President, as
many Republicans were in favor of the
treaty, especially if certain reservations were
added. The opposition centred rather
around the covenant of the League of
Nations, especially around Article X,
through fear that it compromised the inde-
pendent natiouallsm of the United States
and involved it in European entanglements
in which it was not concerned. The Republi-
can majority in the Senate added many
reservations to the treaty, reservations
which President Wilson refused to accept,
on the ground that they constituted an
effective nullification of the treaty and a
repudiation of the purposes for which the
United States had entered the 'War, and
fought it through.
In addition, there were twelve Senators,
eleven, Republicans, the so-called Irrecon-
cilables, opposed to the treaty even as modi-
fied by the reservations. They effectively
aroused the country to a similar opposition.
Although they voted for the reservations
which had been added to the treaty, they
voted against it when the vote on the rati-
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
flcation was finally taken. The Democratic
supporters of the administration In the Sen-
ate similarly voted against It, and this
combined opposition was sufficient to pre-
vent the treaty from obtaining the two-
thirds vote necessary for ratification. How-
ever, a resolution declaring a state of peace
similarly failed to receive the two-thirds
vote necessary to pass It over the President's
veto. >
President Wilson suffered an almost fatal
attack of paralysis while defending the
treaty In a coast-to-coast trip, and the clos-
ing months of his administration passed
with the head of the nation In a state of
physical invalidism.
The extent of continental United States
was the same as under the administration
of President Taft. (See Map under Taft,
Willlaan H.)
Wilson, Woodrow (topics not included
below vfill be found in their alpha-
betical positions in the Encyclo-
pedic Index):
Addresses —
At—
Baltimore, Md., 8481.
Boston, 8690. ~
Columbus, Ohio, 8784.
Columbus statue, Genoa, Italv,
8663.
Gettysburg, Pa., 7881.
Guildhall, London, England, 8656.
Hotel Biltmore, New York City,
8068.
Independence Hall, Philadelphia,
Pa., 7952.
Indianapolis, Ind., 8024.
Luncheon of King George, 8655.
Luncheon of President Poinear§,
8650.
Manchester, England, 8658.
Manhattaii Club, 8081.
Metropolitan Opera House, New
York City, 8593.
Mount Vemon, Virginia, 8532.
Sorbonne, Paris, 8651.
Before —
American Bar Association, 7991.
American Federation of Labor,
8386.
American soldiers in France,
8653.
Associated Press, 8051.
Chamber of Commerce of United
States, 8034.
Confederate veterans, 7948.
Congress. (See Annual addresses
and Special addresses.)
Daughters of American Eevolu-
tion, 8077.
Grand Army of the Eepublie,
7946, 8073i 8075.
Italian Chamber of Deputies,
8661.
Labor Committee of Council of
National Defense, 8248.
Naturalized citizens, 8066.
Naval Academy Graduating
Class, 7949.
Naval Advisory Board, 8070.
Pan-American Financial Confer-
ence, 8071.
Peace Conference at Paris, 8664,
8665, 8669, 8681.
Senate. (See Annual addresses
and Special addresses.)
Woman Suffrage Convention,
8163.
Y. M. 0. A. of Pittsburgh, Pa.,
7993.
On—
Barry, John, unveiling of statue
of, 7942.
Flag Day, 8276.
Funeral of soldiers'and marines
killed in Mexico, 7939.
Inauguration, 7868, 8221.
Jackson Day, 8024.
Lincoln Birthplace cession to
War Department, 8160.
Memorial Day, 8265, 8720.
Eed Cross, 8500.
Eenomination, 8149.
Addresses to fellow-countrymen on —
Armistice in World War, first anni-
versary of, 8803.
Children in Europe, relief of, P-900.
Coal production, need for increased,
8566.
Democratic Party, victory for, in
1918 elections, 8627.
Farm work for boys, 8470.
Food Conservation, 8379, 8431.
Independence Day in war-time,
8535.
Labor Day, 8576, 8783.
Liberty Loans, 8627, 8702.
Mob spirit, 8556.
Neutrality in European war, 7978.
Peace treaty, signing of, S726.
Pilgrims' landing, tercentenarv of,
~8861.
Prices, control and fixing of, 8311.
Eed Cross, support for, 8417, 8648.
Thrift, practise of and purchase of
securities aimed to further, 8520.
War needs and activities, 8249.
Addressing Congress. (See illustra-
tions opposite 8028 and 8664.)
Adrianople, disposition of, 8840.
Agricultural production, stimulation
of, needed, 8814, 8886.
Albania, status of, 8832, 8836, 8838.
Alien enemies' departure for Euro-
pean ports, 8826, 8858.
American Eelief Administration re-
ferred to, 8901.
Anatolia, disposition of mandated
territory in, 8916.
Announcements. (See Statements.)
Annual addresses and messages to
Congress, 7906, 8015, 8102, 8183,
8399, 8627, 8810, 8881.
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Anti-trust law discussed, 7919, 7916,
7918, 8040, 8151, 8901.
Appropriations, system of making,
8405, 8883, 8885.
Arabia, boundaries and natural "re-
sources of, 8840, 8841, 8878.
Armenia, status and needs of, 8381,
8636, 8679, 8696, 8841, 8853, 8864,
8866, 8881, 8886, 8909.
Army (see also Preparedness") —
Air Service referred to, 8913.
Chemical Warfare Service referred
to, 8913.
Punishments in, fixed, 8892.
Size of, discussed, 8912.
War dead of, flags at half-mast
for, 8874.
Azerbaijan, independence of, not
recognized, 8864.
Baltic States, independence of, not
recognized, 8863.
Bafum, disposition of and request to
send armed force to, 8841, 8853.
Belgium, war debts of, agreement to
use German bonds to meet, 8913.
Biography of, 7867.
Budget system, national, discussed,
8810, 8846, 8851, 8883.
Bulgaria, territorial rearrangement
of, 8840.
.Business interests, attitude toward,
7871, 8015, 8033, 8037, 8151, 8418,
8474, 8714, 8771, 8812, 8817, 8886.
Cabinet of. (See illustration opposite
7932.)
Caucasus, unrest in, 8910.
Children in Europe, relief asked for,
8900.
Civil service requirements waived,
7959, 8175, 8253, 8262, 8376, 8377,
8700, 8701, 8875.
Clayton Law discussed, especially
Section X, 8905. (See also Anti-
trust Law.)
Coal industry, committee to arbitrate
wage differences in, 8856.
Cold storage, regulation of, 8770,
8815, 8886.
Commerce of United States discussed,
7873, 8016, 8405, 8424, 8811, 8812,
8907, 8919. (See also Tariff and
Merchant Marine.)
Constantinople —
American High Commissioner at,
referred to, 8909.
Disposition of, 8840.
Corn imports and exports discussed,
8918.
Corporations in interstate commerce,
licenses for, 8771, 8816, 8886.
Cotton imports and exports discussed,
8918.
Credit market, Treasury Department's
withdrawal from, 8884.
Credit needs of Europe, 8919.
Crimea, situation in, '8910.
Currency reform. (See Federal Ee-
serve Banking System, below.)
Debt, public reduction in, 8884.
Democracy, mission of, 8882.
'Diplomatic notes. (See Notes.)
Dyestuffs and chemical industry, pro-
tection needed for, 8718, 8813,
8886.
Economy urged in Government ex-
penditures, 8019, 8885.
Efficiency Bureau, jurisdiction over,
8848.
Engagement book of, facsinrile of
page of, 8092. .
Esthonia, independence of, not recog-
nized, 8863.
European Belief Council, relief work
in Europe centred in, 8901.
European War. (See World War.)
Excess profits tax discussed, 8716,
8717, 8811, 8885.
Executive Orders —
Airplanes, production and control
of, 8513.
Alaskan townsites, 8005, 8171, S300.
Alien enemies-
Departures of, for foreign ports,
8826, 8858.
Exceptions in classification of,
8634.
Listed for International Bed
Cross, 8274.
Alien Property Custodian 's powers,
8380, 8462, 8479, 8542, 8543.
Aliens for civil service positions,
7959.
American citizens in Europe, relief
of, 7961, 7962. '
Army —
Increase in, 8172.
Punishments in, 8892.
Bastile Day, 8542.
Canal Zone, 7903, 7905, 7918, 7919,
7923, 7930, 7963, 7964, 7966, 7988,
8140, 8213.
Censorship over cables, telephone,
telegraph, 8254, 8593.
Civil Service commissions, cooper-
ation among, 8253.
Civil Service requirements —
Established, 8225, 8874.
Waived, 8175, 8225, 8262, 8276,
8376, 8377, 8700, 8701.
Coal prices, 8398.
Coast Guard, jurisdiction over,
8782.
Conscientious objectors, rules for,
8475.
Consular reguations amended, 7938,
8176, 8177, 8275, 8373.
Council of National Defence em-
ployees, 8253.
Customs collection districts, 7989.
Wilsoa
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Executive Orders (continued) —
Customs, regulations on neutrality
enforcement, issue of, 7964.
DeadmaJi 's Island, jurisdiction
over, 7979.
Director General of Railroads, coal
distribution powers of, 8826.
Draft exemption for Government
employees, 8320.
Eight-hour law provisions sus-
pended, 8233, 8253, 8360, 8361.
Elk refuge, land for, 7988.
Emergency Fleet Corporation
powers, 8527.
Espionage Act regulations, 8366,
8415, 8433, 8520, 8539.
European food relief distribution,
8690. , ■
Explosives, manufacture of, 8378.
Exports Council, 8300.
Exports of coin, etc., regulations
concerning, 8357.
Flag, sizes and proportions of, 8173.
Flags at haM-mast for American
war dead, 8874.
Food Administration Grain Corpor-
ation, 8324, 8529.
Forests, national, 7966, 7987, 7989,
7990, 8005.
Fuel Administration, 8330, 8800,
8801.
Gas experiment station, jurisdiction
over, 8542.
German vessels, possession of, 8805.
Grain Corporation, United States,
stock and liquidation of, 8857,
8867.
Health activities centred in Trea-
sury Department, 8532.
Hoboken piers, retention of, 8873.
Housing program placed under Sec-
retary of Labor, 8527.
Income tax returns, inspection ofj
7960.
Inspectors, foreign, emploj'ment of,
8272.
Internal Revenue Collection Dis-
tricts, 8724.
Law activities of Government cen-
tred in Justice Department, 8521.
National Guard dispatched to
Mexican border, 8130.
National Research Council, 8496.
Navy, Secretary of, powers dele-
gated to, 8326.
Netherlands ' vessels, possession t)f ,
8478.
/ Nitrate plants, board on location
of, 8218.
Panama Canal —
Gaillard Cut, name of Culebra
Cut changed to, 8050.
Opening of, committee for, 7944.
Organization and administration
of, 7920, 7923, 7930, 7990, 8557,
8806.
Passports, need for and regula-
tions concerning, 7966, 7968, 8169,
8170, 856L
Petroleum products' specifleations
left to Fuel Administration, S560.
Philippines, Governor General of,
to report to Secretary of War,
8170.
Profits an food sales, determination
of, 8398.
Public Information, Committee,
appointment of and divisions
under, 8247, 8426, 8472.
Requisitioning of foods and feeds,
8376.
Sabbath observance in Army and
Navy, 8433.
Sea areas, defensive, established
and regulated, 8234, 8236, 8240,
8338, 8531.
Seamen, regulations concerning,
8091, 8101, 8860.
Sheep experiment station, 8101.
Shipping Board and Emergency
Fleet Corporation, powers of,
8316.
Ships, foreign-built, American regis-
try for, granted and denied, 8006,
8354.
Smith Island reservation for birds,
7959.
State, Secretary of, flag for, 8887.
Surveys and Maps Board, 8820.
Trade Commission, powers and
records of, 8537, 8901.
Trading with the Enemy Act, regu-
lations under, 8366, 8415, 8433,
8447, 8486.
Treasury Department —
Employees of, on defence bodies
8247.
Food administration details left
to, 8351.
Virgin Islands, administration of
8319, 8332, 8361, 8426.
War I)epartment, chief of staff
made third in control of, 8302.
War Industries Board, 8518.
War Risk Insurance experts,
appointment of, 7979.
War Trade Board, change in, 8569.
War veterans' reinstatement in
civil service, 8551, 8700.
Wheat Director, 8710.
Wireless telegraph —
On ocean-going vessels, 7958.
Stations, rules for and control of,
7958, 7960, 7962, 8006, 8215,
8241.
Executive power. Congressional en-
croachments upon, 8845, 8852.
Exports of 1920 discussed, 8907, 8918.
Farm 'Loan Act, 7870, 7908, 8028,
8116,
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Farmers, needs of, 7870, 7908, 8028,
8116, 8251, 8405, 8760, 8813, 8814,
8919.
Federal Eeserve Banking System dis-
cussed, 7869, 7879, 7908, 8026, 8151.
Finances discussed, 7980, 8112, 8229,
8505, 8643, 8716, 8811, 8885.
Finland, independence of, recognized.
Flags ordered at half-mast for Ameri-
can war dead, 8874.
Flour imports and exports discussed,
8918.
Food Administration —
Referred to, 8867.
Terminated, 8868.
Georgia, independence of, not recog-
nized, 8864..
Germany (see also Notes, 'below, Ger-
many and World War) —
Belgian War debt to be met by
bonds of, 8913.
Islands in Pacific formerly belong-
ing to, disposition of, 8916.
Haiti, military occupation of, by
United States, protests against,
8902.
How the War Came to America, 8282,
Inaugurals, 7868, 8221.
Inauguration of. (See illustration
opposite 7900.)
Income tax discussed, 8113, 8505,
8716, 8717, 8811, 8885.
Internationale, Third, discussed, 8866.
Labor discussed, 8184, 8255, 8349,
8359, 8389, 8576, 8713, 8773, 8783,
8792, 8816, 8818. (See also Strikes,
below.)
Latvia, independence of, not recog-
nized, 8863.
League of Nations —
Covenant of, discussed, 8669-8686,
8787, 8835, 8849.
Text of, 8673.
Need of, discussed, 8191, .8200,
8288, 8425, 8596, 8652, 8657, 8659,
8663, 8665, 8722, 8733, 8787, 8822.
Letters. (See Statements.)
Liberty loans and bonds discussed,
8365, 8481, 8490, 8588, 8627, 8702,
8884.
Lincoln, Abraham, quoted, 8882.
Lithuania, independence of, not
recognized, 8863.
Mandatory principle in League of
Nations discussed, 8673,8793,8879,
8915.
Merchant marine discussed, 8016,
8018, 8028, 8072, 8108, 8110, 8151,
8250, 8564, 8642, 87}6, 8919.
Mesopotamia, disposition and adminis-
tration of, 8841, 8877.
Messages to Congress. (See Annual
addresses, above and Special ad-
dresses, below.)
Mexico, situation in and policy to-
ward, 7886, 7888, 7892, 7904, -7907,
7928, 7934, 7936, 8032, 8089, 8090,
8103, 8131, 8133, 8136, 8140, 8155,
8756, 8762, 8807.
Milk, preserved, imports and ex-
ports of, discussed, 8918.
Natural resources, conservation of,
8017, 8029, 8159, 8405.
Naval policy, 8069, 8085, 8107, 8108,
8644.
Notes to —
Austria-Hungary on —
Anconn sinking, 8117, 8120.
Reply to, 8118.
Armistice proposals, 8603, 8607.
Replies to, 8603, 8604, 8610.
Central Powers, on peace medi-
ation, 8190.
Reply to, '8193.
China on armistice, 8625.
Entente Allies on peace mediation,
8190.
Replies to, 8195, 8196.
France on —
Armistice, 8622.
Blockade of European waters,
8059.
Italian-Jugo Slav territorial dis-
pute, 8830-9.
Mails, interference with, reply to,
8165.
Turkish territory, disposition of,
8839.
Germany on —
Armistice, 8604, 8605, 8608, 8611.
Replies to, 8604, 8605, 8607,
8610.
Lusitania sinking, 8062. (See also
illustration opposite 8192.)
Modus Vivendi with Great Brit-
ain, 8057.
Sussex sinking, 8125.
Reply to, 8127.
War zone dangers to United
States ships, 8055.
Reply to, 8057.
Great Britain on —
Armistice, 8622.
Blacklisting of American firms,
8143.
Reply to, 8178.
Blockade of European waters,
8059.
Italian- Jugo Slav territorial dis-
pute, 8830-9.
Mails, interference with, reply
to, 8165.
Mandatories and Mesopotamia,
administration of, 8877.
Modus Vivendi with Germany,
8057.
United States flag, use of, 8056.
Guatemala on armistice, 8626.
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Notes to (continued) —
Italy on —
Armistice, 8623.
Polish-Russian situation, 8861.
Japan, on armistice, 8624, 8625.
League of Nations on —
Armaments reduction conference,
8889.
Armenians and Turks, mediation
between, 8881.
Eussia, policy toward, 8909.
Yap, disposition of, 891.5.
Mexico on —
Bandits, pursuit of, 8131.
Jenkins, consular a,gent, release
of, 8807.
United States army prisoners in,
release of, 8140.
United States rights in, protection
of, 8132, 8762.
Panama on armistice, 8626.
Pope on peace proposals, 8341.
Turkey on armistice negotiations,
8611.
Peace Conference and Trefities. (See
Addresses, above; Germany; Tur-
key; World War.)
Philippine Islands, policy toward,
7911, 8017, 8110, 8169, 8887,
Pictures of, 7872, 7904, 8096, 8384.
Preparedness discussed and urged,
8021, 8076, 8084, 8106, 8302. (See
also illustration opposite 8096.)
Proclamations —
Aircraft —
Expositions prohibited, 8427.
Plying of, regulated, 8468.
Alaskan Eailroad coal, disposition
of, 8570.
Alien enemies, regulations for,
8392, 8445, 8491.
Amnestv and pardon grants con-
firmed, 8317, 8318.
Arbitration of claims with .South
and Central American republics,
7982. -
Arkansas, unlawful assemblages in,
' 8013.
Austria-Hungary, war with, 8406.
Birds, migratory, protection of,
7895, 7986.
Boy Scout Week, 8708.
Cable systems, control of, 8630.
Cabrillo National Monument, 7901.
Canal Zone, neutrality regulations
for, 8008, 8266.
Cape Cod Canal, Government pos-
session of, 8553.
Census, Fourteenth, 8802.
Coal Industry Wages Arbitration
Commission, 8856.
Colorado, domestic violence in,
( 7937.
Copyright, 8479, 8517, 8827, 8842,
8889.
Dinosaur National Monument, 8087.
Director General of Eailroads,
powers of, 8686, 8828, SS29.
Draft, registration for, in Conti-
nental U. S., 8256, 8510, 8567,
8570; Alaska, 8303, 8539, 8586;
Hawaii, 8304, 8586; Porto Eico,
8302, 8524, 8586.
Warning against evasion of,
8269.
Exports, regulation of, 8309, 8333,
8355, 8396, 8455.
Express Companies, control of,
8632.
Relinquished, 8895.
Fire Prevention Day, 8872.
Flag Day, 8173.
Food and Fuel Administrations,
licensing under, 8322, 8352, 8362,
8383, 8428, 8429, 8443, 8444, 8460,
8470, 8497, 8499, 8528, 8582,
8584.
German insurance companies' agen-
cies in United States, 8246, 8314.
German letters patent, 8269.
German steamship lines, property
of, taken over, 8536.
Germany, war with, 8242.
Grain in manufacture of nonalco-
holic beverages, 8687.
Hawaii, public lands in, 8541.
Imports, regulation of, 8395, 8453.
Jews in Europe, relief of, 8174.
Liberty Day, 8365, 8490, 8588.
Malt liquors, manufacture and al-
coholic content of, 8415, 8583,
8698.
Mexico, exports of arms and muni-
tions to, 7929, 8089, 8756.
Mothers' Day, 7941.
National Guard into federal serv-
ice, 8306, 8508.
Near East relief, 8636.
Negro Exposition, 8064.
Netherlands' vessels, possession of,
8477.
Neutrality in European war and
regulations therefor, 7969, 7974,
7977, 8014, 8065, 8141, 8142.
Facsimile of, 7996.
Panama Canal, opening of, 88:"9.
Patents and ^ designs, treaty for
protection of, 7984.
Prayer, days of, 8007, 8377, 8495.
Prohibition amendment to Constitu-
tion, 8688.
Eailroads, federal control of, 8409.
Eelinquished, 8804.
Eed Cross Week, 8264, 8494.
Eoosevelt, ex-President, death of,
8685.
Santo Domingo, end of occupation
of, 8908.
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Wilson
Proclamations {continued) —
Seals and otter, protection of, 7877.
Shipping, IT. S., elimination of
foreign interests from, 8564.
Shipping Board, powers of, 8558.
Ships in ports of United States,
8414.
Special session of Congress, 8709;
of Senate, 8216, 8911.
Standing Eoek Indian Reservation,
lands in, 8047.
Steamship lines, U. S., federal pos-
session of certain, 8487.
Sugar dealers' licenses cancelled,
8875.
Telegraph and telephone systems,
federal possession of, 8551.
Thanksgiving, 7902, 8012, 8088,
8182, 8382, 8633, 8801, 8876.
Trading with the Enemy Act re-
quirements, 8522.
Treason and misprision of, 8247.
Ukrainians, contribution day for
relief of, 8273.
Virgin Islands, payment for, 8224.
War Labor Board, 8485.
Water transportation, emergency
in, 8220.
Wheat prices, 8457, 8577.
Whitman National Forest, 8219.
Woman Suffrage Amendment to
Constitution, 8870.
Prohibition legislation, attitude to-
ward, 8305, 8720, 8774, 8799.
Russia, revolutionary, policy toward,
8230, 8270, 8299, 8421, 8423, 8424,
8469, 8483, 8501, 8590, 8592, 8595,
8819, 8824, 8840, 8858, 8862, 8910.
Self-determination of nationalities
discussed, 8202, 8424, 8425, 8450,
8791, 8837, 8840.
Special addresses and messages to
Congress on —
Anti-trust law changes, 7913.
Armed neutrality, need for, 8209.
Armenia, mandate for, 8833.
Armistice terms of World War,
8613, 8620.
Banking system, revision in, 7879.
Cost of living, 8764.
Fourteen Points of peace, 8421.
France, special defensive treaty
with, 8762. (Text of, 8764.)
General and admiral,' permanent
ranks of, for J. J. Pershing. P.
C. March, W. S. Sims, W. S. Ben-
son, 8761.
German Donds for Belgian war debt,
8913.
Germany —
Diplomatic relations with, sev-
ered, 8206.
Mexican note of, confirmed, 8216.
Submarine warfare of, 8121.
War with, 8226.
Legislation, ddmestie, 8712,
Mexico, relations with and situa-
tion in, 7884, 7934.
Panama Canal tolls exemption, re-
peal of act for, 7933.
Passport control, continuation of,
8778.
Peace mission to Paris, expenses
of, 8780, 8888.
Peace terms and war aims, 8447.
Peace treaty with Germany, 8727.
(Summary of, 8737.)
Peace without Victory, 8199.
Reply of Germany to, 8204.
Railroad strike, threatened, and
eight-hour day, 8144.
Railroads, federal control of, 8418.
Revenue increases, needed, 7980,
8504.
Tariff revision, 7871.
Woman suffrage, 8599.
Speeches. (See addresses.)
Statements, announcements and let-
ters concerning —
Armed neutrality act, failure of
I Senate to pass, 8217.
Armenian and Syrian relief, 8381.
Army division sent abroad, 8260.
Bryan, Secretary of State, resigna-
tion of, 8417.
California alien land law, 7875.
Carpenters' strike in shipyards,
8456.
Coal prices and regulations, 8327,
8328.
Coal strike, 8797.
Congress —
Failure of, to pass legislation,
8698.
Work of, commended, 8000.
Court-martial legislation, 8493.
Democratic Party in New Jersev,
8473.
Disloyalty of foreign-born citizens.
8120.
Draft regulations and inventorv,
8306, 8385.
Education in war-time, 8586.
Employment Service, U. S., un-
skilled Labor to be recruited
only through, 8526.
European trip, 8649.
Exports control during war, 8301,
8311, 8337.
Fiume and Adriatic territorial dis-
pute, 8702, 8705.
Food control program, 8262.
Food relief in Europe, appropria-
tion for, 8684, 8685.
Free trade, 8629.
Insurance for army and navy,
8350.
Labor, loyalty of, 8349.
Labor disputes in West, committee
to investigate, 8359.
Machinists' strike in Bridgeport.
8581.
Wilson
Encyclopedic Index
Winchester
: Statements {continued) —
Mexico —
Arms and munitions shipments
to, 8090.
Non-intervention in, 8131.
Mooney dase, 8635.
National army, 8352.
New York, New Haven ' and
Hartford Eailroad, proceedings
against, 8023.
Peace treaty with Germany, ratifi-
cation of, 8821.
Pershing, General, greetings to, on
return from France, 8795.
Philippine Islands, first meeting of
native assembly in, 8169.
Poland, recognition of, 8689.
Policemen's unions and strikes,
8796.
Prohibition legislation, 8305, !;774.
' Eailroad control by Government,
8412.
Eailroad shopmen's demands for in-
creased wages, 8775.
Eed Cross, school children urged
to join, 8358.
Eoosevelt, ex-President, refusal to
grant army command to, 8261.
Eussia, situation in and policv to-
ward, 8469, 8589, 8824, 8858.
Santo Domingo, occupation of, 8903.
Schools' study of new national
problems, 8331.
Shantung peninsula, disposition of,
8774.
State banks and federal reserve
banking system, 8374.
Suppression of periodicals in war-
time, 8358.
Treaty provisions, commercial, re-
fusal to abrogate, 8871.
War aims of United States, 8270.
Wheat prices, 8346, 8580.
Woman Suffrage, 8375.
Zionist movement, 8575.
Strikes discussed, 8456, 8581, 8773,
8796, 8797, 8819. (See also Labor.)
Tariff discussed, '7869, 7871, 8030,
8151, 8158, 8629, 8717, 8718, 8811,
8812, 8917, 8920.
Taxation. (See Finances and Income
Tax.)
Veto messages —
Appropriation bill, 8845.
Army, reduction in size of, 8912.
Budget system, bill for, 8851.
Clayton Act, extension of time for
Section X of, 8905.
Daylight Saving Law, repeal of,
8757, 8760.
Immigration restriction, 8043.
Land patent to gun club, 8912.
Peace resolution, 8849.
Prohibition enforcement, 8799.
Tariff bill, 8917.
Vocational Eehabilitation act, 8758.
War Finance Corporation, resump-
tion of activities of, 8906.
Woman suffrage discussed, 8163,
8375, 8599, 8639, 8719.
World War and. (See World War.)
Wilson's Oreek (Mc), Battle of.— Dur-
ing the summer of 1861 Confederate troops
in large numbers were sent Into Missouri
from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Gen-
eral Lyon was stationed at Springfield with
5,500 Federal troops. The Confederates,
20,000 strong, advanced in two columns
under McCuUoch and Price. During the
night of August 9, 1861, Sigel was sent with
1,500 men to attacls the Confederate rear
nine miles distant, at Wilson's Creek, while
Lyon attacked the front. Both attacks were
repulsed. Slgel lost 5 of ils 6 guns and
more than half of his men. Lyon was killed
while leading a charge. The Federal loss
was 1,246 in killed, wounded and missing.
The Confederate loss was about the same.
Winchester (Va.), Battles at. — Winches-
ter and its vicinity were the scene of
several engagements during the War between
the (States. Winchester is In the Shenandoah
Valley, on the line of the opposing armies
as they marched and countermarched
through the valley. An engagement occurred
at Kernstown, near Winchester, March 23.
1862, between detachments of Federals un-
der the command of Shields and Kimball
and Confederate detachments under Jack-
son. In killed, wounded, and missing t'.w
Federals lost 590 and the Confederates 71b.
Jackson retreated to his main force.
In May, 1862, the Federals under Bank:
were pasted at Harrisonburg, in the valley
Banks was about to be attacked by t!u
Confederates under Jackson, when be re
tired down the valley to the heights of Win
Chester, where on May 24 he gave battle
Being assailed on both flanks, he retreatec
rapidly on the 25th to the north banli oi
the Potomac, making the distance, about .^t
miles, in forty-eight hours. He was pursued
by Jackson to a point near Harper's Ferry.
Again, on June 15, 1863 the Feder.ils under
Milroy were encamped near Winchester,
numbering about 7,000, which force wns
deemed suflicient to hold the place against
all the confederates believed to be In the
valley ; but on that day MUroy found him-
self almost surrounded by the combined
corps ot Longstreet and Ewell. An artillery
fight was maintained all day and at night
the divided and scattered troops of Milroy
retreated to the Potomac River, having lost
4,000 men, 28 guns, about 300 horses, and
a large number of wagons. The Confederate
loss was insignificant.
A small force of Federals under Averell
■was attacked by the Confederates under
Early near Winchester on July 12, 1864.
The Confederates defeated the Federals, who
lost 3 guns and about 400 men. Early then
marched on Chambersburg, Pa.
In August, 1864, Sheridan took command
of the Federal army In the Valley, known
as the Army of the Shenandoah. The Con-
federates under Early were encamped on the
west bank of Opeguan Creek, covering Win-
chester. They were attacked on September
19 by Sheridan. The battle began about 10
lA. M., and was maintained until nearly .'i
P. M., when the Confederates retreated to
and beyond Winchester. Sheridan took 2,500
prisoners and found 2,000 wounded In the
hospitals at Winchester. The Confederate
loss was 653 killed, 3,719 wounded, and U18
Winchester
Encyclopedic Index
Woman Suffrage
missing — ^a total of 4,990. This is also
called the battle of Opeguan.
Wines, duty on, discussed, 1131, 1321,
2127, 2250.
Winslow, The, disabled in conflict in
Cardenas Bay, Cuba, 6302, 6316.
Eescued by the Hudson, 6302.
Thanks of Congress to officers and
men of, recommended, 6302.
Wireless Telegraph. — Heinrieh Hertz, of
Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1888 demonstrated
the existence of electric waves and devised
means for producing and receiving them,
Edpuard Branly, of Paris, France, in 1900
brought out a sensitive detector for mani-
festing the presence of electric ■waves, to
which he gave the name radio-conductor.
This was improved and called a coherer by
Oliver Lodge of Birmingham, England, and
later perfected and used as a wireless tele-
graph receptor by William Marconi, of Eng-
land, who patented it. The first receptor
tor receiving and Indicating electric waves
was designed by Alexander Popoff, of St.
Petersburg, Russia, in 1895. Lodge later
designed a syntonic system for sending and
receiving, which could be tuned to the same
period of oscillation by means of inductive '
coils and condensers. The principal sys-
tems in practical use are the Marconi, the
Lodge-Muirhead, the Fessenden, the De
Forest, the Telefunken, the Popp-Branly
and the Paulson.
The government station at Arlington, Va.,
has developed a high power transmission
range of 3,500 miles, conducting experiments
in conjunction with the Eiffel Tower in
Paris. Other high power stations are at
Belmar, N. J., owned by the Marconi Com-
, pany, and at Sayville, L. I., owned by the
Te'efunken Company, operating direct with
Nauen, Germany.
Wireles^ Telegraph:
Lands in Alaska set aside for naval
radio stations, 8215.
Neutrality of stations ordered en-
forced, 7962.
Ocean-going vessels ordered to be
fitted with, 7958.
Station established in Canal Zone,
7960.
Stations taken for use of government,
8006, 8241.
Wisconsin. — One of th» western group of
states ; nickname, "The Badger State" ;
motto, "Forward." It lies in the northern
part of the country, between lat. 42° 27'
and 4T° north and long. 86° 53' and 92°
54' west, not including islands in Lake
Superior and Michigan. It is bounded on
the north by Lake Superior and the upper
peninsula of Michigan, on the northeast and
east by the upper peninsula of Michigan
and Lake Michigan, on the south by Illi-
nois, and on the west by Iowa and Minne-
sota (separated mostly by the Mississippi
and St. Croix Rivers). The area is 56,066
square miles. Wisconsin Is hilly In the
north and southwest, but elsewhere Is gen-
erally level. It has Important agricultural,
mining, and lumbering interests and exten-
sive manufactures of flour, machinery, and
beer.
Wisconsin was visited as early as i634
by Nicollet, La Salle, and French fur tra-
ders, who established a settlement at Green
Bay in 1639. It was included in the North-
west Territory till 1800, when it became
a part of the Indian Territory. In 1809 it
was included in Illinois Territory, and in
1818 In Michigan Territory, and In
1836 it was organized as Wisconsin Terri-
tory, and included, besides its present area,
the territory now embraced in the states
of Iowa and Minnesota and part of the
Dakotas. It was admitted to the Union
May 29, 1848. _ _
The 1910 poptilation was 2,343,860/^ The
1920 census put it at 2,632,067. In 1910,
the foreign-born population was 513,000, of
whom 233,000 were German. In that year,
43 per cent of the population was urban.
Latest figures show a school population of
801,456, with 3,897 schools, an enrollment of
458,102, an average daily attendance of
371,494, and a teaching staff of 16,288.
Statistics of agriculture collected for the
1910 federal census placed the number of
farms in the state at 177,127, comprising
21,060,466 acres, valued, with stock and
improvements, at $1,413,043,000. TBe aver-
age value of land per acre was $43.30.
The 1920 census gave the number of farms
as 189,196.
The latest figures show the production
and value of the principal crops as follows :
Crop Bushels Value
Corn 69,538,000 $90,399,000
Hay 3,537,0000 76,390,000
Oats 110,162,000 73,809,000
Potatoes 33,040,000 26,432,000
Barley 25,383,000 23,352,000
Wheat 9,837,000 20,166,000
Rye 7,674,000 11,511,000
Tobacco 65,170,0006 19,551,000
a — tons ; 6— pounds.
There is also extensive cultivation of
fruits. The last annual wool clip amounted
to 2,635,000 pounds. Latest figures show
694,000 horses in the state ; 1,800,000 milch
cows ; 1,435,000 other cattle ; 716,000 sheep :
and 2,181,000 swine.
The chief mineral output is zinc, followed
by iron ore, pig ifron and stone.
The number of manufacturing establish-
ments in Wisconsin having an annual output
valued at $500 or more at the beginning of
1915 was 9,104. The amount of capital in-
vested was $754,287,000, giving employment
to 230,273 persons, using material valued
at $417,415,000, and turning out finished
goods worth $695,172,000. Salaries and
w;^ges paid amounted to $149,762,000.
Wisconsin:
Act for continuing certain works in,
reasons for applying pocket veto/
to, 2460.
Boundary line with Michigan, re-
ferred to, 1846.
Constitution adopted by, transmitted.
2359, 2427.
Volunteers from, thanks of President
tendered, 3442.
Wisconsin Eiver, act regarding improve-
ment of, vetoed, 423S.
Witnesses:
Pees of, referred to, 4730, 4770, 4836.
Protection of, from injury, recom-
mended, 5477.
Woman Suffrage.— The first American
woman to demand the ballot, so far
Woman Suffrage
Encyclopedic Index
Woman Suffrage
known, was Mistress Margaret Brent, of
Maryland, in 1647. She was heir of Lord
Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, and
exec\itor of the estates of both in the
colony, and, as representation ta the Legis-
lature was based on property, she demanded
"place and voyce" — two votes — In that
body. Her petition was hotly debated for
several hours and finally denied.
The colonial records of Massachusetts
show tiiat women voted under the Old'
Province Charter from 1691 to 1780 for all
elective officers. When a constitution was
adopted they Were excluded from a vote for
Governor and Legislature but retained it for
other officials. In March, 1776, Mrs. Abigail
Ad.nus wrote to her husband, John Adams,
in the Continental Congress asking him to
reuiemoer the ladies in the new code of
laws, and in 1778, Mrs. Corbin, sister of
Eiehard Henry Lee, of Virginia, presented
her own petition for the right to vote. The
Continental Congress left the suffrage to be
dealt with by the states in their constitu-
tions and New Jersey was the only one
which conferred it on women. Its constitu-
tion giving the franchise to "all inhabitants
worth $250, etc." In 1790 a revision of
the election law used the words "he or she,"
thus emphasizing the inclusion of women in
the electorate, but in 1807 the Legislature
?assed an arbitrary act limiting the suf-
rage to "white male citizens." This was
declared to be a usurpation of authority, on
the ground that the constitution could be
changed only by action of the voters.
In 1826 Frances Wright, a young Scotch
womau of beauty, education and wealth,,
came to the Unfted States and in a series of
lectures was the first to bring the question
of woman suffrage thus before the public,
where It met with almost universal derision.
In 1836 Ernestine L. Eose, daughter of a
Rabbi in Poland, made a lecture tour of
America advocating the full enfranchise-
ment of women and was the first to urge
them to secure the repeal of laws which
affected their interests. In the winter of
1836-7 she circulated a petition In Albany,
N. Y., for a law that would enable a married
woman to hold property and could get only
five signatures, including men and women,
but she carried these to the Legislature a'nd
addressed that body in behalf of such a
law. She kept up this work steadily and
by 1840 she bad associated with' her Eliza-
beth Cady Stanton, Paulina Wright Davis
and Lucretia Mott. They continued their
petitions and addresses to the Legislature
until 1848, when the law extended prop-
erty rights to married women, and there-
after they devoted themselves to working
for the suffrage.
Margaret Fuller, one of a coterie of think-
ers in Boston, in her writings and semi-
public addresses in 1840 demanded political
rights for women. In 1847 Lucy Stone, just
graduated from Oberlin College, began
speaking on woman's rights. Soon after-
wards Lucretia Mott published a "Discourse
on Woman," in answer to a lecture which
Eiehard H. Dana was giving In many cities
ridiculing the idea, of political equality for
women.
The first woman suffrage convention in
the United States was held in the Wesleyan
Chapel, at Seneca Falls, N. Y., on the 19th
and 20th of July, 1848. It demanded for
women equal rights with men. James Mott
presided and addresses were made by Lu-
cretia Mott and her sister, Martha C.
Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann
McClintock, Frederick Douglass and several
men prominent in the locality. A declara-
tion and resolutions were discussed, the
latter adopted and the former signed by one
hundred men and women, some of whom
withdrew their names when "the storm of
ridicule began to break." This declaration
stated the whole case for woman as compre-
hensively as it ever has been stated since ;
the resolutions comprised practically every
demand that ever afterward was made for
women, and, taken together, they formed a
remarkable documeut.
In 1852 a bona flde woman's rights con-
vention, with delegates present from eight
statest and Canada, was held in Syracuse. It
brought to the front the wonderful galaxy
of women whose names were henceforth
connected with this movement, and here
began its fifty-four years' leadership by
Miss Anthony.
April 19 and 20, 1850, a woman's rights
convention was held in the Second Baptist
Church of Salem, Ohio. Emily Robinson,
J. Elizabeth Jones and Josephine S. Grifiing
were three of the. leading spirits. The
"Memorial to the Constitutional Convention"
and the "Address to the Women of Ohio"
have not been surpassed in eloquence and
force in the years that have since elapsed.
It is said that nearly 8,000 signatures to
the memorial were secured. In 1852 the
first State Suffrage Association was formed.
Woman's rights conventions were held an-
nually in Ohio thereafter until the approach
of the civil war.
In May, 1850, a few women decided to
call a convention to discuss exclusively the
rights of women, and the time and place
were fixed for Oct. 23 and 24 in Worcester,
Mass., and from ttie holding of this con-
vention the woman's rights movement may
be said to have assumed a national aspect.
Nine states were represented by speakers
and among these were Garrison, Phillips,
PiUsbury, Poster, Burleigh, Douglass, Chan-
nlng, Mrs. Met, Mrs. Rose, Abbv Kelly,
Lucy Stone, Antoinette Brown and Dr. Har-
riot K. Hunt, and letters were read from
Emerson, Alcrtt, Whittler, Gerrlt Smith,
Joshua E, Giddings, Mrs. Swisshelm, Elizur '
Wright, Mrs. Stanton and others. Mrs.
Davis presided A national committee was
formed; under whose management conven-
tions were held annually in various cities,
while the question was always thereafter a
leading one in Massachusetts. An account
of this Massachusetts convention In the
Westminster Review, London, by Mrs. John
Stuart Mill, marked the beginning of the
movement for woman suffrage in Great
Britain.
In 1850 the constitution of Indiana was
revised and the laws for women were liber-
alized beyond any then existing. A
woman's rights convention took place In
Dublin, Ind., in October, 1851. Therefore
these meetings became annual.
In June, 1852, the first woman's rights
convention of Pennsylvania was held In
West Chester, and was largely under the
auspices of the Friends, or Quakers, among
them James and Lucretia Mott.
From 1852 woman's rights conventions
were held in many parts of the country.
Woman suffrage was slowly gaining ground,
when the breaking out of the civil war
banished all other questions from the public
thought. When the war was ended and the
women again took up their cause they met
the vast complication of' the nights of the
emancipated negroes, and were compelled
even by those who had been their strongest
supporters to yield their claims to those of
negro men.
The civil, legal and political results of the
fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the
Woman Suffrage
Encyclopedic Index
Woman Suffrage
national constitution tended still further ts
obscure and hinder the efforts to obtain the
franchise for women. An Equal Rights As-
sociation had been formed to promote the
interests of both negroes and white women,
lint in 1869 the latter were forced to recog-
nize the necessity for a separate organiza-
tion and a National Woman Suffrage Asso-
ciation was formea whose sole object was to
secure an amendmeut to the national con-
stitution which should enfranchise women.
Mrs. Stanton was made president. As, there
was some division of sentiment at this
time, a call was issued by Lucy Stone,
Julia Ward Howe and others for a con-
vention to meet in Cleveland, Ohio, the fol-
lowing November, and here the American
Woman Suffrage Association was formed,
with Henry Ward Beecher, president. It
worked principally to obtain the stiffrage
through amendments to state constitutions.
Both societies held national conventions
every year thereafter. In 1890 the two bod-
ies united under the name National Ameri-
can Woman Suffrage Association, and since
then both methods of work have been fol-
lowed. Mrs. Stanton was elected president
of the new organization ; Miss Anthon'y,
vice-president-at-large ; Lucy Stone, chair-
man Executive Committee. In 1892 Mrs.
Stanton resigned her office because of ad-
vancing age ; Miss Anthony was elected
president and the Rev. Anna Howard Shaw,
vice-president. Miss Anthony resigned the
presidency in 1900 and Mrs. Carrie Chap-
man Catt was elected to It. In 1904 she
was succeeded by Miss Shaw. National
headquarters *were opened in 1895.
. Full suffrage to women was voted by
states as follows :
Wyoming 1869 Oregon 1912
Colorado 1893 Alaska 1!)13
Utah 1896 Montana 1914
Idaho 1896 Nevada 1914
Washington ...3 910 New Yorkr . . . .1917
California 1911 Michigan 1018
Kansas 1912 Oklahoma 1918
Arizona 1912 South Dakota . . 1918
The right to vote in all but state elec-
tions— that is, Presidential and Municipal
Suffrage — was granted by states as follows :
Illinois 1913 Nebraska 1917
North Dakota.. 1917 Tennessee 1919
The right to vote in Presidential elections
was granted as follows :
Rhode Island.. 1917 Missouri 1919
Indiana 1919 Wisconsin ....1919
Iowa 1919 Ohio 1919
Maine 1919 Vermont .... 1919
Minnesota .... 1919 Kentucky .... 1920
In the following states, women were given
the right to vote In primary elections,
which in the South are practically equiva-
lent to the elections themselves :
..1917 Texas 1918
Arkansas .
Women were granted the right to vote
only in municipal elections by Vermont in
1917.
In 1915, equal suffrage was defeated by
referendum in New York. New Jersey, Mas-
sachusetts, Pennsylvania ; in 1916, in South
Dakota, West Virginia, Iowa ; in 1917, in
Maine and Ohio.
The right .to vote on school or tax ques-
tions was granted to women by states as
follows: Kentucky (1838); Minnesota
(,1875) ; New Hampshire (1878) : Massa-
chusetts (1879) ; Mississippi (1880) ; New
Jersey (1887) ; Connecticut (1893) ; Iowa
(1894) ; Ohio (1894) ; Delaware (1898) ;
Louisiana (1898) ; Wisconsin (1900) ; New
Mexico (1910).
By 1920, almost 17,000,000 women voters
were qualified to vote for the President of
the' United States.
The full rl.ght of suffrage was granted by
foreign nations as follows ;
New Zealand . .1893 Latvia 1918
Australia 1902 Czecho-Slovakia. .1918
Finland 1906 Hungary 191s
Norway 1907 Poland 1918
Iceland 1915 Sweden 1915
Denmark 1915 Germany 1919
Russia 1917 Holland 1919
I'kraine 1917 Italy 1019
Great Britain'.. 1918 Servia 1919-
Austria 1018 Luxemburg 1910
Canada lOis Belgium^ 1919
Esthonia 1918 Lithuania 1!)2U
' With certain exceptions, for women over
30. ' Far widows who have not re-marriPd
and for mothers of killed soldiers and
civilians.
On many occasions after the Civil War,
a national amendment to the Constitution
for equal suffrage was presented to Con-
gress, coming to a vote for the first time
in the Senate on January 25, 1887. fbe
vote was 16 ayes (all Republicans) and :H
' nays (11 Republicans and 23 Democrats).
By March, 1914, the movement had pro-
gressed to a point where the Senate, vote
was 35 ayes (20 Republicans, 1 Progressive
and 14 Democrats) and 34 nays (12 Repub-
licans and 22 Democrats). The first vote In
the House of Representatives, in 1915,
showed 174 ayes (88 Republicans and Pro-
gressives and 86 Democrats) and 204 nays
(33 Republicans and 171 Democrats). In
the Presidential campaign of 1916, both par-
ties declared for equE^ suffrage by state
action, but the Republican candidate, Charles
E. Hughes, personally advocated the adop-
tion of the Federal Amendment.
The effect of the World War (page 8601)
and the urglngs of President Wilson (pages
8375, 8600, 8639, 8719), as well as the
success of the equal suffrage movement in
the various states mentioned above, served
still further to stimulate opinion favorable
to the suffrage movement, the chief opposi-
tion coming from the South, where there
was fear that a national amendment would
ive the vote to negro women. On January
0, 1918, the national (Susan B. Anthony)
amendment was carried In the House of
Representatives by a vote of 274 ayes (165
Republicans, 104 Democrats, 5 scattered)
and 186 nays (33 Republicans, 1 Progres-
sive, 102 Democrats). But the bill was pre-
vented from coming to a vote in the Senate
until October 1, 1918, when it was lost by
a vote of 62 ayes (32 Republicans, 30 Demo-
crats) and 34 nays (12 Republicans and 22
Democrats), a two-thirds vote being neces-
sary. The Senate again killed the amend-
ment on February 10, 1919, by a margin of
one vote. '
Finally, on May 21, 1919, the federal
amendment was passed in the House of Rep-
resentatives by a vote of 804 ayes (200 Re-
publicans, 102 Democrats, 2 scattered) and
89 nays (19 Republicans and 70 Democrats).
The Republicans polled 84 per cent of their
membership for the amendment and the
Democrats, 54 per cent of their membership.
On June 3, 1919, the amendment was passed
also by the Senate by a vote of 56 to 25.
Counting the pairs, the record In the Senate
was 40 Republican and 26 Democratic ayes
and 9 Republican and 21 Democratic nays.
The amendment thereupon was submitted to
the state legislatures for ratification. The
f
Woman Suffrage
Encyclopedic Index
Women in Industry
last (36th) state -whose ratification was
necessary for the aaoptlon of the amendment
ratified on August 18, 1920, whereupon the
Woman Suffrage Amendment to the nation-
al Gonstltution was declared to be in effect.
(See page 8870.) The amendment was in
force at the Presidential elections of 1920.
With respect to ratification by the various
states, the following defeated ratification :
Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, South (jar-
olina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Louis-
iana, North Carolina, all south of Mason's
and Dixon's line. The following states did
not tai<e action on the ratification of the
amendment : Connecticut, Florida, Ver-
mont.
Woman Suffrage;
Adoption of, urged, 8375, 8600, 8639,
8719.
Amendment to Constitution, proclama-
tion of, ratification of, 8870.
Growth of movemem; for, 8163, 8599.
World "War and, discussed, 8601.
Woman's Movement. (See Feminism.)
Women:
Employment of, discussed, 6983, 7090.
Included in provisions against alien
enemies, 8491.
Services of, in World War discussed,
8601, 8639.
Women in Zndnstry.^F r o m pre&lstorlc
down to modern times, a considerable share
of the labor of the world has been done by
women ; but until the nineteenth century,
practically all of that labor was done in-
side the home. With the invention of mod-
ern machinery, however, at the end of the
eighteenth century, and the consequent com-
ing of the Industrial Revolution in the
United States in the years surrounding 1823,
women becaine an important Industrial fac-
tor In the general industrial work of the
land. The Invention of machinery in the
first place made inevitable the production
outside the home of most of the commodities
which woman had been producing inside
the home, and thus released her for out-
side work ; and in the second place, the
division of labor attendant upon machine
operation brought into existence a number
of industrial activities which required
neither great skill nor physical power and
persistence.
The cotton Industry in the United States
was the first which women entered to a
large extent, although of recent years the
proportion of women in that industry has
decreased. In 1831. 68% of the cotton
operatives were females : in 1860, 63% ; in
1889, 57% ; and in 1910, 44%. In all
textile industries, women formed in 1850
50% of the operatives r in 1860, 53%; in
1905, 44%. At the present time, the five
chief manufacturing industries in which
women are present in great numbers are
cotton, clothing, boots and shoes, printing
and bookmaking, and tobacco. In these
industries in 1905 there were 402,557 male
and 482,173 female workers.
The census of 1910 showed that in the
United States, of females over the age of
10 gainfully employed, the number was
8.075,772. The total number of females
of that age in the country was 34,552,712,
the ratio of those employed being 23.4%.
In 1880, the number of females of the age
of ten and over who were gainfully em-
ployed was 2,647,157, or 14.7% of those
at the age. In 1880, the number of men
(employed at that age compared with the
enure number in the United States at the
same. age was 78.7%, and in 1910 the ratio
had increased only to 81.3%.
Of the women workers in 1910, 2 CO 857
TsnTn^n ?°""^'^".'' and personal service
1,8O7,Oj0 ia agricultural pursuits ; 1,772,-
snits ° i°!S,''o"|5^t"'-inf ajd mechanical pur-
suits; l,202,3o2 in trade and transuoita.
The'tvenS T'"« ih . professlonarsTrvlce.
ine tiend of women in industry is shown
^n" \\%^^i^^ ''"'* *" the first above group
n^.mw" .V'"''^ ''"■^ ^^l^ % Of the whole
44 5 J . °L W^'^"^ workers and in 18sO,
f 5/^ ^'' • ,™„„t"e second group, 22%% in
1910 and 22.1^ % in 1880 ; in th? third
group, 22% in 1910 and 24% in 1880 -In
n%880-''JS°"^' ^^1- '? ^910 and 2iA%
P J°?2' *°d in professional service RW.
in 11910 and 6y2% in 1880 ' ^''
.hiH K^^^° instructive to note that of the
rif^th }^}-, ^'^^, 1° the first group 9%
of the total number of men working ■ in
the second, '36% ; in the thir J 3(^% '■ ta
the fourth. 21% ; and in the fifth, 4I,'
were l^s^^'foffn'S^^*^ n°'=="P^*f °°s o^ '^"men
jveic as loiiows : — Dressmakers 447 v.n •
tln?=1=''r'.4 520,000; saleswomei. 207700:
typists and stenographers. 263 300 • imnt'
tr^Tfl- 18/.00P; clerks, 234,250 :mi'dwHves"
ants°'V3MS?o''''"l"'' °."^««' 185,000; sJrv^
anrs, I.d09,o50 ; teachers, 478 000 • telo
En°e?s \°|2 450^.'%P'' "P^^tors.'g'e.fso ; rail:
liners, IJ^ 4o0 ; farm laborers 1 51.n 4';>ii •
?"nnn^°!,' 8f 500 : artists. 15:430 ;act?et;es'
l-!.00O; doctors. 9.000; and 'lawyers: 560. '
,J? i?^"' "f ^" females ten years of a ire
i,,,j!' ?*^%- In reading these feures it
SlaHni^.."?'™Ji"'«'l- t"at child ffbor ieg-
mLnf.i°-'^°'''°S t'"^se years has been instru-
dusti?y 's^o'trr^tf ""^"-^ Children from iS-
above IsV^^niif''^ proportion of women
?eaJs? wonM ih.""'' ^'"P^oy^'J "Jurios those
crease. ^ ^^ ^^^° """"e marked in-
In 1900, of females between 10 and 13
8% were gainfully employedrof those \t
tween 14 and 15, 20% were eaintullv em
ployed ; of those between 16 fnd 20 ^^40%
21 Lf 4i'"i^^"'°P""'«'': -Of those between
oi/i ? tt*' ^^'^ ^ere gainfully employed •
tmpl^yed!""'" °^'' *^' "^^ ^^'« eai°t"l'y
Of all the women working in 1910 4<!«,
14''and1r'23^\%°'^ ^^ ; 5vV betwte^S
1* ana lo; 23% between 16 and 'O • a2<V„
between 21 and 44; and 15y3% over 45.
ri„I?Zf^*'*^^?^'°°f ^''"^ tliat wotnen in in-
for ^f^iw""^ ower wages than men even
w,^,.!-!?.;'^'^ ^S:}h '• ^'^^ receive less favorable
working conditions, largely becausp thev
are comparatively unorganized. These facts
have been instrumental in starting such
protective legislative measures as thf m ni-
mum wage and the eight-hour day %^,ich
are treated under their own headings:
=t,T'l? '""owing states by 1921 had no re-
AViho'™^ upon the hours of women's labor:
lfo!'west vfrgita.'"^"' '°'^''^"''' ^'^ ^«^-
For the states which set a minimum waee
for women, see Minimum Wage.
The following states forbid night worS
for women in most occupations : Connecti-
cut, Delaware, Indiana (factories only)
Kansas (for stores and factories, by admin-
istrative order of Industrial Welfare Com-
mission), Massachusetts, Nebraska, New
York (factories, stores, restaurants, eleva-
tors, messenger service), Oregon (by ad-
ministrative order of Industrial Welfare
Commission, for factories, stores and laun-
dries), Pennsylvania, South Carolina (stores
only), Utah, Wisconsin.
Women in Industry
Encyclopedic Index
Wool
The following table shows the number of
hours' work per day and per week permitted
for women In most industrial and mercan-
tile work in the several states. About one-
third of the states below permit overtime
work under abnormal conditions, but the
recent tendency is toward the ' abolition of
this restriction. . The asterisk indicates that
only six days' work per week is permitted.
Hours per
States Day Week
California*, District of Columbia*.
rorto Eico, Utah i 8 48
Colorado, Kansas', Montana, Wash-
ington 8 . .
Xorth Dakota* S% 48
Massachusetts* 9 48
Ohio |. 9 50
Oregon 8 1/3-9 50-54
Arkansas*, Maine, Missouri, Ne-
braska, New York*, Texas..... 9 54
Arizona, Nevada 8 56
Michigan, Pennsylvania*, Ehode
Island, New Hampshire' 10 54
Delaware*, Wisconsin*' 10 55
Idaho, Oklahoma 9
Minnesota 9-10 54-58
Connecticut 10 O.j-58
Wyoming 10 52-60
Vermont 10% 56
Tennessee 10^ 57
Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Maryland, Mississippi, New
•Tersey 10 60
Illinois, South Dakota, Virginia. 10
South Carolina 11-12 fiO
North Carolina . . 60
'Seven hours' work overtime permitted in
emergency. ^10% hours per day permitted.
=8 hours per day on street railway^.
The following states forbid women's work
in mines : Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas,
Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Mis-
souri, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
Utah, Virginia, Washington, West «FirgInia,
Wisconsin, Wyoming.
The following states forbid the industrial
employment of wom?n for a certain period
before and after child-birth : Connecticut,
Massachusetts, Missouri, New York, Ver-
mont.
Women, Labor of:
Discussed, 7090.
Investigation of, by Department of
Commerce and Iiabor, 6984, 7035.
In Washington, 6983.
Wood Pulp should be relieved of tarift
duty, 7099, 7346.
Wool, — The poductlon, consumption and
trade in wool in the United States from
1840 to the latest available figures are given
in the adjoining table.
The following table shows the prices of
fine, medium and coarse washed clothing
Ohio fleece wool in cents in the eastern mar-
kets in January of the years Indicated :
Yiar
1900...
1905...
1910...
1914...,
1916...,
1917...,
1918....
1919....
Fine
Medium
Coarse
35
36 J^
31 M
34
35
36
36
40
36
25
30
27
32
45
43
46
57
54
80
90
88
90
92
85
nrndnr.H^n"'?''''''',*''' ^^^ -"orld's annual
2 son nnn nn°/ wool normally averages about
n^,,n!i; ' "" pounds, of Which 570,000,000
S^™ I ~P?^\ trom Australia, 400,000,000
from Sonth America", 380,000,000 frim Rus-
sia and 300,000,000 from the United States.
tho^riUf/l'^l'i'-.''^^''' imports of wool into
as fSlowf • '^^''^^ countries were
UNMANDFACTUEED
Clothing— Pounds Value
England 14,341,341 $10,310,469
panada 12,066 657 7 875 206
^Eff"*'"" 118,854,446 54 776 604
}^,""e 11,959,417 5 685 451
Y^P'iy 49 931366 27 147910
Australia 46 034 615 9R fiSl'Rca
New Zealand . . 14 234 380 7'5402^6
British S. Africa. _5M6|l80 25:ogg:!ss
Total 334,099,538 $171,288,562
Combing, total . . . . 7,734,081 $4,583,522
Hair of Angora Goat, Alpaca, etc.
Turkey in Europe. 1,631,804 $ 810 515
Peru 1046 172 aio qi i
British S. Africa_^3;976;6'r7 2,072,247
'•'otal ■ 7,110,891 $3,994,050
Carpet —
Turkey in Europe. 2,931,914 $ 963,072
f °g'''"fl 12,396,661 4,160 610
Scotland 6,648,199 2 216 508
Argentina 14,045112 5 982;072
Chile 13,274,4.57 5 976 919
U^ngnay 7,030 790 4 002;746
China 29,813 744 q fi^fi 791
British S. Africa .^^^386|257 iMUw
Total 96,948,324 $34,898,361
MAN17PACTURED
Tops, Total 980.914 $1,207,937
Carpets, carpeting,
Total 384,807 $2,993,328
All other manufactured 78,001 $ 341,270
Worsteds 311,050 $1,101 024
558,790 sq. yards.
Woolens — "
l^°Slan'l 1,343,428 $3,282 687
f ™tland 319,635 766 420
Ireland 158,146 323;975
Total 1,842,042 $4,454,023
2,506,382 sq. yards.
« _^__^^_^
Cloth of Angora goat,
alpaca, etc. Total*. . *140,980, •$356,582
Dress Goods, women's "
& children's. Total* *310,413 *$884,886
1,056,687 sq. yards.
Camels' Hair Press ~'
Cloths ^ 22,673 •$29,823
Eags & other waste* •4,321,589 *$3,956,575
Wearing .ipparel* . . 77777777 •$2,228,135
Yarn, Total* *468,650 *$989,134
All other manufactures of wool $934,284
*Chiefly from England.
Wool
Encyclopedic Index
Wool
PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION AND EJXPORTATION OF WOOL.
[Sources: Production. 1896-1913, reports of the National Association of Wool Manufac-
turers, Boston; other years, reports -of the Department of Aericulture. ]
Period
1840
1850
1860
1862-70*.
1871-80*.
1881-90*
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
,1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916....
1917
1918
1919
1920**. . .
Produc-
tion
114
959
913
,889
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,384
,000
,708
,251
,684
,330
288,63 S,621
302,502,328
-316,341,032
287,450,000
291,783,032
295,488,438
298,915,130
298,294,750
311,138,321
328,110,749
321,362,750
318,547,900
304,043,400
296,175,300
290,192,000
288,777,000
288,490,000
281,892,000
298,870,000
307,459,000
302,207,000
Exports
of
domestic
Pounda
35,803
1,055,928
507,442
162,303
115,025
291,923
202,456
91,858
520,247
4,279,109
6,945,981
5,271,535
121,139
1,683,419
2,200,309
199,565
123,278
518,919
319,750
123,951
192,481
214,840
182,458
28,376
47.520
, 770,471
335,348
8,158,300
4,418,915
2,148,350
993,143
545,663
6,890,669
Domestic
retained for
consump-
tion
Pounda
35,802,114
62,481,061
69,208,985
142,381,447
186,122,697
280,684,976
284,708,078
203,797,644
303,061,142
297,637,137
305,463,891
265,528,727
253,881,716
266,599,646
270,507,911
286,436,312
302,302,763
310,217,754
286,931,081
291,463,282
295,364,487
298,722,649
298,079,910
310,955,863
328,082,373
321,316,230
318,547,900
304i)43,400
295;404,829
289,866,652
280,618,700
234,071,085
279,743,650
297,876,867
306,913,337
252,416,331
Imports
Pounda
9,898,740
18,696,294
26,282,955
63,138,126
68,030,280
93,194,903
129,303,648
148,670,652
172,433,838
65,162,585
206,033,900
230,911,473
360,862,026
132,795,202
76,736,209
156,928,466
103,583,505
166,576,966
177,137,796
173,742,834
249,135,746
201,688,668
203,847,645
125,980,624
266,409,304
263,928,232
137,647,641
193,400,713
196,293,266
247,648,869
308,083,429
534,828,012
372,372,218
379,129,934
422,414,983
259,617,641
Exports
ot
foreign
Pounda
85,528
167,064
918,949
3,938,616
4,294,346
2,638,123
3,007,563
4,218,637
6,977,407
2,343,081
6,026,236
3,427,834
2,604,832
12,412,916
6,702,251
3,690,602
3,104,663
2,992,996
2,863,053
2,437,697
5,450,378
3,231,908
6,684,357
3,495,599
4,007,953
8,206,699
1,719,870
4,432,404
1,204,836
7,259,934
1,803,570
1,830,374
1,046,866
605,372
13,261,441
Foreign
retained for
consump-
tion
Total con-
- sumption,
domestic
and
foreign
Pounda
9,813,212
18,695,294
26,125,891
62,219,177
64,091,664
88,900,557
126,665,525
145,663,089
168,215,201
49,175,178
203,690,826
224,885,237
347,424,192
130,290,370
64,323,293
150,226,204
99,993,003
163,472,303
174,144,801
170,879,781
246,698,049
196,238,290
200,615,637
120,296,167
262,913,705
269,920,279
129,441,942
191,680,843
190,860,851
246,444,034
300,823,495
633,024,452
370,541,844
378,083,068
421,809,611
412,316,697
Pounda
46,615,326
71,176,356
85,334,876
194,600,624
250,214,361
369,485,532
411,373,603
439,460,633
471,276,343
346,712,315
509,159,716
490,413,964
601,305,908
396,889,916
334,831,204
436,662,516
402,295,766
479,690,057
461,075,882
462,343,063
642,062,636
494,960,939
498,695,547
431,252,030
599,996,078
681,236,609
447,989,842
495,724,243
486,265,680
536,300,686
581,442,196
817,096,573
650,285,494
677,010,925
728,722,948
664,733,928
♦Average for period. ••Preliminary figures subject to revision.
The following table gives i
States as shown by the last
1 summary of the wool manufacturing business in the United
federal census of manufactures :
Total
Number Establishments
Persons Engaged 203,
Capital $497,1
Salaries and Wages 108,009
Cost of Materials 298,063,
Value of Product 464,249
979
,716
Woolen
Goods
501
51,631
Establishments Engaged Chiefly in Manufacturing
Worsted
Goads
298
113,059
,293 $107,871,742 $281,780,836
,668 27,726,892 58,772,968
,498 63,696,042 182,800,624
,813 103,815,905 275,668,474
Cartets
and Rugs
97
33,101
$85,163,828
17,589,293
42,280,223
69,128,185
Felt
Goods
53
4,553
$20,824,048
3,173,384
8,308,270
13,692,765
Wool-Felt
Goods
30
1,372
$2,608,839
747,131
978,339
1,944,484
The leading states in the industry are
Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, the former
employing 30 % % of the wage-earners and
the latter state, 17%%. Rhode Island,
New York and New Jersey rank next.
The total number of wage-earners in the
industry is about evenly divided oetween
male and female. About 24% of the wage-
earners are weavers and 10%%, spinners.
As to ownership, 66% of the establish-
ments were corporations, 18% owned by in-
dividuals and 16% by other forms. But
the corporations employed 86% of the wage-
earners and produced 85% of the total
value of the product of the industry.
There were 100 establishments with an-
nual products valued above $1,000,000, and
541 with annual products valued at between
$100,000 and $1,000,000.
There were 34 establishments employing
more than 1,000 wage-earners, 30 between
500 and 1,000; 99 between 250 and 500,
and 267 between 100 and '250.
Among the materials used In •wooT manu-
facturing in the report year were 278,000,000
lbs. of domestic wool, 225,000,000 lbs.
of Imported wool, 44,000,000 lbs. of hair,
(6,600,000 of alpaca, camel and vicuna:
and 9,375,000 of mohair), 35,000,000 lbs
of cotton, 62,000,000 lbs. of rags and clip-
pings, 30.000,000 lbs. of recovered wool fibre
50,000,000 lbs. of waste and noils, 29,000,000
lbs. of purchased tops, 215,000,000 lbs, of
purchased yarns.
Wool
Encyclopedic Index
World's Coltunbian
The following table shows the value of the various kinds of goods manufactured In
the year covered by the report :
WpoUn Wonted Carpet Felt ITool
Goods Goods and Rug Goods Hat
Total Industry Industry Industry Industry Industry
Total Value 1464,249,813 $103,815,905 1275,668,474 »69,128,185 $13,692,765 $1,944,484
Woven Goods, Personal
Wear 254,478,149 77,000,909 177,436,126 31,972 9,142
Carpets and Rugs 64,683,322 64,683,322
Blankets, Upholst, etc.. 17,743,927 14,226,703 2,057,771 1,053,125 406,328 '..'.
Felt Goods 13,372,340 277,511 13,094,829
Wool-Felt Hats 1,777,225 1,777,225
Yarns 86,705,240 9,255,625 76,616,590 811,025 22,000
Waste and Noils 10,412,780 256,399 9,883,798 225,344 44,751 2,528
All Other Products 11,583,447 2,219,608 6,816,763 2,320,236 88,270 138^570
Contract Work 3,493,383 579,210 2,857,426 3,161 27,445 26!l41
The production of wool In a recent year
was as follows ;
Weight
Each Production
State Fleeces Fleece (pounds)
Alabama 106,000 3.3 350,000
Arizona 897,000 6.5 5,831,000
Arkansas 78,000 4.5 350,000
California 1,740,000 7.0 12,180,000
Colorado 1,378,000 6.4 8,820,000
Connecticut . . 14,000 5.5 75,000
Delaware .... 5,000 5.8 31,000
Florida 127,000 2.8 355,000
Georgia 157,000 2.9 455,000
Idaho 1,980,000 7.6 15,000,000
Illinois 490,000 7.9 3,855,000
■ndiana 619,000 7.0 4,332,000
Iowa 633,000 7.7 4,875,000'
Kansas 190,000 7.6 1,450,000
Kentucky 619,000 4.8 2,969,000
Louisiana 156,000 3.6 560,000
Maine 126,000 6.6 833.000
Maryland 126,000 6.0 758,000
Massachusetts. 18,000 6.5 119,000
Micblgan 1,107,000 7.4 8,192,000
Minnesota 380,000 7.8 2,964,000
Mississippi . . . 149,000 3.3 491,000
Missouri 684,000 7.0 4,810,000
Montana 3,425,000 7.6 23,342,000
Nebraska 256,000 7.5 1,922,000
Nevada 1,438,000 7.3 10,200,000
New Hampshire 27.000 6.7 183,000
New Jersey ... 15,000 5.2 80,000
NeWiMexico . . 3,176,000 5.8 18,422,000
New York 517,000 6.8 3,514,000
North Carolina. 145,000 3.8 553,000
North Dakota.. 192,000 7.4 1,418,000
Ohio 1,886,000 7.4 13,923,000
Oklahoma 77,000 6.5 500,000
Oregon ... 1,610,000 8.2 13,200,000
Pennsylvania.. 650,000 6.5 4,225,000
Rhode Island.. 4,000 6.2 24,000
South Carolina. 24,000 4.0 95,000
South Dakota. . 512,000 7.3 3,738,000
Tennessee 423,000 4.2 1,776.000
Texas 1,435,000 7.0 10,045,000
Utah 2,053,000 7.6 15,600,000
Vermont 80,000 7.3 597,000
Virginia 450,000 4.6 1,862,000
Washington . . 594,000 8.4 4,088,000
West Virginia. 540,000 5.0 2,695,000
Wisconsin 334,000 7.9 2,636,000
Wyoming 3,705,000 8.2 30,380,000
Total 35,347,000 6.05 245,573,000
Pulled wool 40,000,000
Total product 285,573,000
Wool and Woolen Goods, tariff on, dia
eussed by President —
Grant, 4248.
Jackson, 1247.
Taft, 7402, 7618, 7623, 7677, 7680,
7745.
WUson, 8918.
Worcester vs. Georgia. — An important Su-
preme Court case Involving the right of
Individual States to make laws at variance
with treaties made b^ the Government of
the United States. Samuel A. Worcester
was a missionary among the Cherokees. In
1831 he was arrested by ofBcers of the
State of Georgia, tried, and sentenced to
four years' Imprisonment for living among
the Indians in violation of an act of the
State legislature which forbade any white
person to reside among the Indians without
a license from the governor of the State
or some one authorized to issue it. Worces-
ter pleaded authorization by the President
and by the Cherokees, also the unconsti-
tutionality of the act itself. By a writ of
error the case was brought before the
United States Supreme Court. That tribu-
nal reversed the decision of the State court
and rendered Judgment in favor of Worces-
ter on the ground that the Georgia act.
being repugnant to the Constitution, to the
treaties made by the United States with
the Cherokees, and to the laws of Con-
gress in execution thereof, was unconstitu-
tional and void. It was held that the
treaties and laws of the United States con-
template the Indian territory as completelv
separated from that of the States, and
Srovlde that all intercourse with the In-
lans shall be carried on by the Government
of the Union.
Workers' International Industrial TJn-
ion. (See Industrial Workers of the
World.)
Workmen's Compensation (See also
Employers' Liability):
Act, urged., 7810.
Conference on, appropriation asked
for, 7542,
World Court, establishment of, long the
hope of America, 8285.
World's Columbian Commission:
Eeports of, deposited in State De-
partment, 6181.
World's Columbian
Encyclopedic Index
World War
Eeports of, transmitted, 5567, 5669,
5769.
World's Columbian Exposition.— The
idea of celebrating by an exposition the
fourth centenary of the discovery of Amer-
ica by Col ambus was conceived durine the
progress of the Centennial Exposition at
Philadelphia in 1876. The project was
widely discussed and met with general
favor, New Yorlc, Washington, St. tiOUls,
and Chicago competing for the site. In
February, 1890, Congress authorized the
holding of the exposition and designated
Chicago as the place. A company had al-
ready been organized, with a capital of $5,-
000,000, for holding the fair.
President Cleveland appointed an official
board of managers, and at the close of the
fair a full report was aied in the State De-
partment.
The buildings were dedicated Oct. 21,
1892, just 400 years after the landing of
Columbus. Owing to the magnitude of the
enterprise the exposition did not open un-
til May 1 following, remaining open till
the 30th of the following October. It sur-
passed all previous world's fairs in 'every
respect except in point of attendance, in
which it fell below that of the Paris l':.';-
posltiou of 1889 only. Jackson Pari: and
the Midway Pialsance, the site of the ex-
position, covered 633 acres of land on the
shore of Lalce Michigan, and of this about
190 apres were under roof. The twenty-
eight main exposition buildings occupied
142% aci-es, the remainder being covered by
state and foreign buildings and concessions.
The building devoted to the exhibition of
manufactures and liberal arts was the lar-
?est In the world. It measured 1,687 by
87 feet and covered Z0% acres. The cen-
tral hall, 1,280 by 380 feet, was open to
the roof, a distance of 237.6 feet, without
a supporting column. There were eleven '
acres of skylight and forty car-loads of
glass in the roof, and it required 7,000.000
feet of lumber and five car-loads of nails
to lay the floor. The buildings were paint-
ed by spraying machines and covered with
a composition resembling marble, which
gave the fair the name of the "White City."
Fifty-two foreign countries officially par-
ticipated in the exposition in response
to President Harrison's proclamation of
Dec. 24, 1890, inviting "all the nations of
the earth to take part in the commemora-
tion of an event that is preeminent in hu-
man history and of lasting Interest to
mankind." (Page 5575.) The United States
Government appropriations amounted to $6,-
000,000. There were in all 65.422 ex-
hibitors, 27,529,400 admissions, and the re-
ceipts amounted to $14,117,332. exceeding
the expenditures by nearly $2,000,000.
Pee Illustration opposite 5163.
World's Columl)ian Exposition at Chi-
cago:
Board of management of Government
exhibit designated, 5833.
Chinese artisans, admission of, to,
temporarily, recommended, 5622.
Military encampment to be held dur-
ing, discussed, 5669.
Proclamation respecting opening of,
5575.
Proposition to observe four hun-
dredth anniversary of discovery of
America by opening of, discussed,
5487.
Eeferred to, 5622.
, Eeports of —
Deposited in State Department,
6181.
Discussed and recommendations re
garding, 5567, 5669, 5765, 576<J,
6184.
Eesolution of International American
Conference regarding, 5512.
World's Fair. (See World's Columbian
Exposition.)
World's Industrial and Cotton Centen-
nial Exposition at New Orleans,
4773, 4802, 4804, 4863, 4923.
Board on behalf of Executive Depart-
ments designated, 4815, 4817.
Also placed in charge of Cincinnati
and Louisville expositions, 4819.
Instructions to, 4819, 4820.
Proclamation regarding, 4746.
Eeport of board of managers of, re-
ferred to, 4953.
World War: —a quite unbiased, neutral and
and detached history of the greatest armed
conflict In the history of all civilization
must wait for calmer days than these.
Belligerent nations are naturally prejudiced
In their interpretation of events, and whe i
most mankind has been at war, even neutral
nations have their sympathies. Moreover.
many of the facts necessary to a -compleie
understanding of the developments of t' e
holocaust will not be disclosed until many
months after peace will have been signed ;
and a contemporary chronicler can merely
record events as they occurred.
Whatever be the final verdict of history
upon the causes which produced the holo-
caust, however, one fact stands Indisput-
ably clear. The war was In no sense an
isolated phenomenon, but had its roots in
the previous relations between the various
European states. Indeed, as one surveys
the diplomatic history of the latter half of
the nineteenth century, one must ask one-
self if the partition of Europe Into two
hostile camps delicately balanced on a
vague and complicated theory of the bal-
ance of power could have resulted other-
wise thati In war.
THE ROOTS OF THE WAR.
The outstanding feature of European his-
tory of the last seventy-flve years is the
remarkable growth and Increase of power
of the German empire. At the l>eginning
of the nineteenth century, Germany was but
an unlntegrated conglomeration of petty
kingdoms and principalities, most of which
were still In medieval conditions. The rise
of Prussia lunder the Fredericks, together
with their remarkable ability both to wage
war and to form national federations, was
the medium which conceived and finally
gave birth to modern Germany.
The strength of this newest and most vi-
rile of 'the European countries was Indicated
when it proceeded to annihilate Denmark
in 1864 ; and was plainly shown when it
completely defeated Austria in 1866, and
paved the way for that domination of the
Hapshurg kingdom which has continued un-
til the present day. • But even the best
informed statesmen of Europe rubbed their
eyes in astonishment at the rapidity and
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World Wai
the ease with which Prussia brought France
to her Itnees In 1870. After that time,
there was no nation which would have de-
nied that Germany was dominating all
Europe.
Bismarck foresaw that France would
never forget or forgive his annexation of
Alsace and Lorraine ; and the foundation
of his diplomacy lay in the absolute Isola-
tion of France. (It was a bitter disap-
pointment to him that France was able to
pay promptly the enormous indemnity
which he had laid upon her.) By a series
of negotiations which have probably never
been equalled for astuteness, he succeeded
in arranging alliances with every country
which might possibly unite with France
against him.
Despite the humiliation of Austria by
Germany in 1866, Bismarck played upon
her fear of Russia sufficiently to consum-
mate an otCensive and defensive alliance
with Austria. He then played upon Rus-
sia's conflicting Interests with Austria in
the Balkans and probably upon her possi-
ble rivalry with England in the Bast to
conclude a similar alliance with Russia.
Italy and Austria were at loggerheads about
the "Irredenta," and the, rising threat of
the Catholic party in France filled Italy
with uneasiness ; so that Germany was able
to conclude an alliance with Italy in re-
turn for protection against France and Aus-
tria. England had no Interests upon the
Continent ; and as Germany had not yet
challenged her commercial supremacy and
had not even thought of colonial expan-
sion, England presented no problem.
The leadership of Germany was well
shown at the Congress of Berlin, in 1878,
called to adjust the results of Russo-Turk-
ish war. The various nations there repre-
sented took the law practically as 131s-
marck laid it down to them.
When William II, the present German
emperor, came to the throne in 1888, how-
ever, he soon evinced impatience with the
aged Chancellor, and in 1890. "dropped the
pilot" altogether. Soon afterwards, the
system of protection which Bismarck had
devised for Germany began to fall apart.
Russia's interests in the Balkans and
her desire for Constantinople could hardly
be reconciled with Austria's interests ; and
Germany no longer had been able to keep
both of them on her string. William chose
to retain Austria ; and as Russia was sadly
in need of the funds which frrfgal and
therefore prosperous France could lend her
tor her internal Improvements, an offensive
and defensive alliance between France and
Russia resulted. Moreover, Italian bitter-
ness against Austria could no longer be
restrained, and as France soon disestab-
lished Church and state, and thereby re-
moved the danger of the Catholic animus
against Italy, there is every reason to be-
lieve that Italy let it be known secretly
to Germany that she could not be counted
upon in the plans of that latter country,
although publicly the "Triple Alliance" be-
tween Germany, Austria and Italy seemed
to he firm.
Moreover, with the beginning of the
twentieth century, German efficiency had
begun to undermine England's industrial
supremacy, and the commercial competi-
tion between the two countries became bit-
ter. Probably to develop new fields for her
marvelous factories, Germany also began
to lay plans for colonial expansion, and
England awoke with a start to the danger
presented by her isolation. The contem-
plated German railroad to Bagdad menaced
the road to India, and England came eager-
ly into an "entente" with prance and Rus-
sia.
Nevertheless, Germany was still all-pow-
erful in European diplomacy. In 1904, she
demanded the retirement of the French for-
eign minister, the able and anti-German
Delcassfi, and despite the utter humiliation
involved, France did not see her way clear
to resist the demand, although she defeated
Germany in the diplomatic conference fol-
lowing the Moroccan troubles in 1905.
Moreover, Russia's prestige was sadly di-
minished as a result of her defeat by
Japan. In 1908, Germany again dominated
when she supported Austria In the latter
country's absorption of Bosnia and Herze-
govina, when the Entente again felt Itself
too weak to resist.
It was In 1911, as a result of the Agadlr
dispute concerning Morocco, that Germany's
challenge was met hy France, supported by
England and Russia. Germany's demands
were refused, and for a period war hung
almost by a hair. But Germany did not
risk it, and for the first time in more than
forty years she could not dominate.
In September, 1911, Italy, despite pressure
from Germany. Opened war against Turkey
in order to annex the Turkish colony , of
Tripoli, on the south shore of the Mediter-
ranean. Italy, however, met with great,
difllcultles in her attack, until the Balkan
states seized. In October, 1912, the oppor-
tunity also to open war upon Turkey and
thus compelled Turkey to end the Turco-
Itallan War by granting Tripoli to Italy.
The Balkan states uniting to drive Tur-
key from Europe were Greece, Servia, Bul-
garia and Montenegro, Roumania remaining
aloof. In surprisingly short order, they re-
duced Turkey to her knees and prepared to
share the territorial spoils of this First
Balkan War. But the great Powers refused
to permit Albania, which had been assigned
to Servia, to become part of a greater Ser-
via, lest both Austro-Hungarian and Italian
aspirations along the Adriatic he balked.
Servia thereupon demanded, as recompense,
territory assigned to Bulgaria in Macedonia
and inhabited chiefly by Bulgars ; Bulgaria
refused to yield it ; the resulting disputes
became acrimonious ; Greece and Monte-
negro supported Servia ; whereupon, Bul-
garia declared war upon this trio of her
opponents in June, 1913. At this moment,
however, both Roumania and Turkey at-
tacked Bulgaria, in the hope of profiting hy
her downfall ; and Bulgaria, helpless against
such a combination, was forced to conclude
the Second Balkan War by Suing for peace
in July, 1913.
But Turkey was the ally of Germany, and
Austria-Hungary had long supported Bul-
garia, against the opposition of Russia, who
had longs supported Servia. Therefore the
camp led by Germany had once more Buf-
fered a sharp loss of power and prestige,
and a weakening of its hold upon the Bal-
kans.
Moreover, the Socialist party in Germany
had polled 35 per cent of the vote in the
1912 elections. It had been increasing in
numbers and influence since that year, and
within several more years might easily be
sufficiently strong to prevent the intrigues
which could he utilized as pretexts for war.
The heavy taxes made necessary by the
maintenance of Germany's military estab-
lishment and hy her naval expansion could
not be continued indefinitely at the accelera-
tion of the previous few years. Across the
western frontier. France in 191.S had passed
laws providing for three years' Instead of
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World War
two years' training in the army for her
youth ; and if Germany delayed much longer,
the French army would be almost as power-
ful as the German. Across the eastern
frontier, Russia was beginning to recover
from the effects of her military defeat by
Japan In 1904-5, and, under the anxious
tutelage of both the French and the British
War Offices, was preparing an army increase
on a hitherto unapproached scale. If Ger-
many was to dominate the world, it had be-
come by 1914 a' case of another successful
coup like those of 1905 and 1908, with En-
tente submission — or else war.
In the spring of 1918, Prince Lichnowsky,
German ambassador to Great Britain at
the outbreal£ of the war, made public
memoranda confessing that Great Britain
had steadily tried to bring about a "rap-
prochement" with Germany and to bind
the two nations in a more friendly rela-
tionship. In his statement denying many
of Prince Llchuowsky's statements, the
Foreign Minister under whom he served,
von Jagow, admitted the implication of
the diplomatic history' sketched above —
namely, that Germany recognized that she
could no longer dominate Europe in peace-
ful diplomatic negotiations, and that she
could regain or even strengthen her former
position of domination only by war, or by
threat of war.
These political and diplomatic develop-
ments, however, had their roots in almost
every phase of European activity. Particu-
larly, they were made possible by the
growth of the nationalistic impulse through-
out the nineteenth century. At the close
of the Napoleonic Wars, the partition of
Europe was arranged with scant heed to the
cultural demands of various suppressed na-
tionalities. Within Austria-Hungary were
many national elements with little in com-
mon ; the Balkan peninsula was a hotbed
of racial groups, with now one in the sad-
dle, now another, but with the powerful
always repressing the weaker; neither
France nor the inhabitants of Alsace-Lor-
raine could rest contented while those prov-
inces were a part of German culture ; Russia
might be Slavic, but some of her elements,
for instance the Ukrainians and the Lith-
uanians, had no desire to wrap up their
destinies with those of the Great Russians ;
more than one hundred years of partition
and dependence had failed to shake the
longing of the Poles for a country and a
literature of their own ; and the geograph-
ical boundaries of Italy were not broad
enough to include those lands and peoples
which Inherently were a part of Italian na-
tional life. Dominating all this smoulder-
ing volcano was the so-called Pan-German
movement — -a movement of a new and young
nation which had developed its own na-
tional life in so brilliant a fashion as
virtually to assume the leadership of the
world, but in which success had inculcated
so heedless and so unscrupulous a national
pride that Germany held itself justified in
forcing its civilization and culture upon
all other peoples, no matter what the civil-
ization and culture of the latter and no
matter how distasteful to them might be
the German idea.
Forming the frame for this feriJent of
unrestrainable forces were the industrial
needs of the last twenty-five years. The
extent to which economic competitions and
aggressions were responsible for a situation
which could make possible the outbreak of
a world war Is a matter of individual opin-
ions, varying in accordance with the amount
of influence assigned economic motives^ in
one's philosophy of life. But it is undeni-
able that the tremendously accelerated pro-
duction due to new mechanical inventions
had made national markets no longer
adequate for the great enterprises of the
great nations, and the wealth and influence
of those nations were dependent upon the
extent bf the new markets which they could
control. Preferential tariffs ; colonies and
colonial expansions ; access to the natural
wealth of the great undeveloped lands of
the earth, especially Africa and Siberia ; the
control of the Important harbors of mari-
time traflSc, with their coaling facilities, and
of international waterways and canals ; the
manipulation of international finance and
banking — all these aspirations were the
pawns pitted against each other l)y the
Great Powers of Europe on their chess-
board of the world.
On June 28, 1914, the pan-Slav agitation
in Servla came to Inevitable fruition with
the murder in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia,
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand the heir ap-
parent to the throne of Austria-Hungary.
THE FOURTEEN DAYS,
July 2S, 1914. — Austria-Hungary delivers
her expected ultimatum to Servla, making
demands of which at least two cannot be
granted without a virtual surrender of Ser-
vla to Austro-Hungarian domination. It is
the flrst sight of the war-clouds.
July 2i. — Germany supports Austria-Hun-
gary and Russia supports Servla. France
assures Russia of support. England works
for a peaceful settlement.
July 2S. — Servla replies to the ultimatum
in a most conciliatory fashion, granting all
but two of the Austrian demands. Servla
begins mobilization and Russia secretly or-
ders partial mobilization. Austria-Hungary
declares Servia's answer unsatisfactory.
* July sy. — Germany announces that Rus-
sian mobilization will be followed by Ger-
man mobilization. Russia refuses England's
-request to postpone mobilization and an-
nounces that she will not permit Servla to
be crushed. Russian mobilization begins.
The British fleet remains mobilized after
n£Lval manoeuvres.
July is. — Austria-Hungary declares war
on Servia and proceeds with general mobili-
zation. Russia announces to Germany that
Russian mobilization will take place only
against Austria-Hungary and not against
Germany.
July 29. — Hostilities between Servla and
Austria-Hungary begin. Germany holds a
war council at Potsdam, warning that she
will mobilize unless Russian mobilization
ceases. France assures Russia of support.
England declines to promise neutrality In
case of a general European war.
July SO. — Austria-Hungary, alarmed, be-
comes more conciliatory, and hints at ar-
bitration. Russia threatens general as well
as partial mobilization, and at midnight
carries out the threat.
July m. — Germany replies by an ultima-
tum, demanding from Russia an agreement
within twelve hours to countermand the
Russian general mobilization. Germany asks
Prance what France's course will he in case
of a German-Russian war. England asks
German guarantees of respect for Belgian
neutrality, but Germany, as previously, re-
fuses to commit herself. Belgium mobilizes.
August 1. — Russia makes no reply to the
German ultimatum within the time-limit set.
Germany undertakes not to attack France
in case France will remain neutral. France
informs Germany, In reply to the ultimatum
of the previous day, that in case of a Ger^
man-Russian War, France will act as her
World War
Encyclopedic Index
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own interests dictate. Prance orders general
mobilization. Austrla-Hunisary is still con-
ciliatory, but the quarrel bas passed out ot
her hands. At 7 :10 P. M., having received
no answer to her ultimatum to Russia,
Oermany declares war on Russia.
Auffust 2. — Germany demands from Bel-
glum passage-way for her troops and sends
forces into Luxemburg.
August 3. — Belgium refuses the German
demand for passage-way. England Informs
Germany that violation of Belgian neutrality
will bring England into the war. Citing
alleged hostile acts by France, Oermany de-
clares war on France.
August i. — Cferman troops enter Belgiiim,
against Belgian resistance. England delivers
an ultimatum to Germany, demanding the
withdrawal of the German troops from Bel-
gian soil. Germany refusing, the British
ambassador demands bis passports, and at
midnight England declares war on Qerm&ny.
August 5. — Austria-Hungary declares war
on Russia.
Declarations of war were made as fol-
lows :
Austria v. Belgium, August 28, 1914.
Austria v. Japan. August 27, 1914.
Austria v. Montenegro, August 9, 1914.
Austria v. Russia, August 6, 1914.
Austria v. Serbia, July 28, 1914.
Brazil v. Germany, October 26, 1917.
Bulgaria v. Serbia, October 14, 1915.
China v. Austria, August 14, 1917.
China v. Germany, August 14, 1917.
Costa Rica v. Germany, May 23. 1918.
Cuba V. Austria, December 16, 1917.
Cuba V. Germany, April 7, 1917.
France v. Austria, August 13, 1914.
Pi-ance v. Bulgaria. October 16, 1915.
France v. Germany, August 8, 1914.
France v. Turkey, November 5, 1914.
Germany v. Belgium, August 4, 1914.
Germany v. France, August 3, 1914.
Germany v. Portugal, March 9, 1916.
Germany v. Rumania, September 14, 1016.
Germany v. Russia, August 1, 1914.
Great Britain v. Austria, August 13, 1914.
Great ' Britain v. Bulgaria, October 15,
1915.
Great Britain v. Germany, August 4,
1914.
Great Britain v. Turkey, November 5,
1914.
Greece (provisional government) v. Bul-
garia, November 28, 1916.
Qreece (provisional government) v^ Ger-
many, November 28, 1916.
Greece (Government of Alexander) v.
Bulgaria, July 2, 1917.
Greece (Government of Alexander) v.
Germany, July 2, 1917.
Guatemala v. Austria, April 22, 1918.
Guatemala v. Germany, April 22, 1918.
Haiti V. Germany, July 12, 1918.
Honduras v. Germany, July 19, 1918.
Italy T. Austria. May 24, 1915.
Italy V. Bulgaria, October 19, 1914.
Italy V. Germany, August 28, 1916.
Italy V. Turkey, August 21, 1915.
Japan v. Germany, August 23, 1914.
Liberia v. Germany, August 4, 1917.
Montenegro v. Austria, August 8. 1914.
Monenegro v. Germany, August 9. 1914.
Nicaragua v. Germany and her allies, may
7, 1918.
Panama v. Austria, December 10. 1917.
Panama v. Germany, April 7, 1917.
Portugal V. Germany, November 23. 1914.
(Resolution passed authorizing military in-
tervention as ally of Great Britain;)
Portugal V. Germany, May 19, 1915.
(Military aid granted.)
Roumania v. Austria. August 27. 1916.
(Allies of Austria also consider it a decbira-
tJon.)
Russia V. Bulgaria, October 19. IBl.i.
Russia V. Turkey. November 3. 1914.
San Marino v. Austria, May 24, If 15.
Serbia v. Bulgaria. October 16, 1913.
ISerl^ia v. Germany, August 6, 1914.
Serbia v. Turkey, December 2, 1914.
Siam V. Austria, July 21, 1917.
Slam V. Germany. July 21, 1917.
Turkey v. Allies, November 23, 1914.
Turkey v. Roumania, August 29, 1916.
United States v. Austria-Hungaiy, . e-
cember 7, 1917.
United States v. Germany, April 6, 1917.
Severance of diplomatic relations has
been as follows :
, Austria against Japan, August 26, 1914.
Austria against Portugal, March 16. 1916.
Austria against Serbia, July 26, 1914.
Austria against United States. April 8,
1917.
Bolivia against Germany. April 14. 1917.
Brazil against Germany. April 11. 1917.
China against Germany. March 14. 1917.
Costa Rica against Germany. September
21, 1917.
Ecuador against Germany, December 7,
1917.
Egypt against Germany, August 13, 1914.
France against Austria, August 10. 1914.
Greece against Turkey. July 2, 1917 (gov-
ernment of Alexander).
Greece against Austria, July 2, 1917 (gov-
ernment of Alexander).
Guatemala against Germany, April 27,
1917.
Haiti against Germany, June 17, 1917.
Honduras against Germany, May 17,
1917.
Liberia v. Germany, May 8, 1917.
Nicaragua against Germany, May 18,
1017.
Peru against Germany, October 6. 1917.
Turkey against United States, April 20,
1917.
United States against Germany, February
3. 1917.
Uruguay against Germany, October 7,
1917.
At war with Germany or her allies on
June 1. 1918:
Serbia, France, Great Britain, Monte-
negro, Japan, Belgium, Italy, San Marino,
Portugal, Greece. Cuba, Panama, Siam,
Liberia, China, Brazil, Guatemala, Nica-
ragua, Costa Rica, and the United States.
The various belligerents, soon after their
respective entrances Into the war, published
their own ofBcial versions of the circum-
stances which led to their participation.
These versions were In the forms of book-
lets, and were named by the color of the
covers, as follows :
Blue Books, England and Servla ; Gray
Book, Belgium ; Green Book, Italy ; Orange,
Russia and Holland ; Red, Austria-Hun-
gary ; Red, White and Blue, United States ;
White. Germany and Portugal ; Yellow,
France.
THE GERMAN PLAN OF
CAMPAIGN.
The vastness of Russia's populailon com-
pelled Germany to assume the aggressive
Immediately upon the outbreak of the War.
For if Russia should be unblndered in gath-
ering her vast man-power, her armies alone
would be thrice the size of the German.
Moreover, Russia lay to the east of Germany
and France to the west, so that Germany
was compelled to wage two campaigns simul-
taneously.
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World War
On the other hand, the mobilizing re-
sources of Eussia were notoriously scant.
According to German calculations, it would
be six weeks or two months before the Rus-
sian army could arrive near the German
border in sufficient numbers to compel the
mversiou of a great part of Germany's
strength to the east — all the more since
Austria-Hungary was counted upon to keep
busy the first armies which Russia should
be able to mobilize.
Thus the German plan was to crush
Prance within six weeks or two months ;
then to turn her undivided strength to crush
Russia; held in check until that time by
Austria-Hungary ; after which there would
be ample time to turn attention to the
British, who had adopted no policy of uni-
versal military training and who therefore
could not present an army of more than
several hundred thousand until 1915.
Of the three roads to Paris open to Ger-
many, the road via Switzerland presented
too many material difficulties to be con-
sidered. The most practicable road would
have seemed at first blush to be that through
~ Alsace and Lorraine. But the country in
that section was hilly and therefore both
unsuited for the rapid movement of troops
and also admirably suited for defence.
Moreover, it was from this quarter that
Prance had long expected attack, and along
the Alsace-Lorraine frontier Prance had
erected and connected the four mighty for-
tresses of Toul, ^Spinal, Verdun and Belfort.
The reduction of these strongholds would
immeasurably delay the German plans. Pin-
ally, there was the probability tha't the
Alsace-Lorraine frontier was not long enough
to avoid crowding, and hence delay, in
thrusting through it the vast hordes of men
which Germany intended to use against
Prance.
Therefore the road via Belgium and Lux-
emburg was chosen. Luxemburg, although
technically neutral, had no army and could
not delay the German advance. The viola-
tion of Belgian neutrality would constitute
an act of glaring international immorality,
but Germany was under the spell of that
system of thought which yields to no scru-
ples in accomplishing the task ahead of it.
Similarly, the violation of Belgian neutrality
would ensure England's entrance into the
war ; but, as we have seen, England was
committed to France by a close defensive
alliance. Moreover, England had consum-
mated with Prance In 1912 a secret under-
standing, probably known to Germany,
whereby England was at once to go to
Prance s assistance in case France were at-
tacked by Germany, irrespective of the viola-
tion of Belgium's neutrality. Furthermore,
there was on the Belgian frontier but one
French fortress of strength on the road to
Paris. The country was level and admirably
suited for the rapid advance of huge bodies
of troops, even for the use of cavalry on a
large scale. Finally, for years Germany had
been constructing to the Belgian frontier a
great net-work of military railroads, which
would land the German armies almost in-
tact at the boundaries of King Albert's
kingdom. .
Belgium, of course, was expected to resist
to the utmost, but the Belgian army was
weak and Germany anticipated little delay
in rolling it back to the west, beyond the
area of Germany's passage-way Into Prance.
True, several of the Belgian fortresses lay
in that passage-way, but recent experiments
had convinced the German General Staff
that their high explosives and large caliber
guns could render even the strongest fort-
resses helpless in a short space of time.
B-18
As Germany's plan was Inevitably aggres-
sive, Prance's plan was Inevitably defensive.
She must attempt to stave off the first rush
of the German cohorts, always retreating
rather than ilsk surrender or encirclement,
until Russia's blows in the east could re-
lieve the pressure. If France could stave off
defeat for some months, the British man-
power also could make itself effective.
England's plan was naturally to send as
many reinforcements as possible to the as-
sistance of France and to speed the develop-
ment of an army large enough to turn the
scales of battle. In the meantime,- th&
British fleet would completely control the
seas and impose upon Germany a blockade
the strictness of which would tell upon
Germany's strength as the months rolled up.
Russia, as we have seen, was to mobilize
as quickly as possible. Her first armies
would have to be sent against the offensive
to be expected from Austria-Hungary to the
south ; and after the pressure in the south
was relieved, Russia must hasten to form
armies on the German frontier in order to
relieve the pressure on Prance.
Austria-Hungary, finally, could not alto-
f ether neglect the war she had started with
ervia, but obviously was to throw most of
her strength against Russia so that her ally
would not be interrupted while In the pro-
cess of annihilating Prance.
THE WAR, 1914
IN THE WEST
The German Advance into Belgium. — In-
stead of sending one army after another
directly toward Paris, Germany dispatched
her first forces due west across Belgium.
Thus, the first troops marching through
Belgium would reach the point farthest
west, and be ready to turn south, at the
same time that the last troops would be en-
tering Belgium, so that all the troops could
then march in practically a straight line
toward Paris. The very first troops sent
into Belgium, however, were used for the
reduction of that country. They were un-
der the command of von Emmich, and had
been mobilized within several days, whereas
the complete German mobilization was not
finished until about August 12.
The three great Belgian fortresses were
Li6ge, Namur and Antwerp, of which only
the first two barred the road toward France.
Antwerp being on the sea. Von Emmich
made all haste for the first of these, ar-
rived before its gates on August 5, and im-
mediately demanded its surrender. Mean-
while, the Belgian army of some 125,000
had been mobilized, portions of it were in
a position to assist L16ge, and when the
German demand for surrender was peremp-
torily refused, the first great battle of the
World War opened.
The Pall of Llige and Namur. — ^Vou Bm-
mich's troops were repulsed in their attacks
on the fortress on August 5, and he was
compelled to await the arrival of his ar-
tillery on the following day. On August 6,
also, new quotas of the German army ar-
rived, fianked the city, and attacked in force
while the heavy guns demolished the forts.
On the next day, two of the strongest forts
of Li6ge were rendered helpless, so that the
supporting Belgian troops retired and left
further defence solely to the garrison. On
August 7, the city was oqcupied, the bridges
across the Meuse fell intiJ the hands of the
invaders, the road south was thus opened,
and von Emmich went ahead with greater
deliberation, while the next German army
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(tile First), under von Kluck, crossed the
Meuse and proceeded on its way. Heroic re-
sistance allowed tbe garrison of Li*ge to re-
sist until August 14, wlieu the last fort fell
before the devastating Are of the German
heavy guns. Lifege Imd inspired the world
with the heroism of Belgium, but had not
delayed the German plans.
The next Belgian fortress to he overcome
was N'amur, to t!:e southwest of Lifege, and
mftre strongly fortilied and dcfendep. Von
Kluck's army had marched due west, and it
was the German Second Army, under von
Btilow, which readied the Belgian lines in
front of Namur on August IS. The entire
Belgian army was stationed before the city,
but the greater size of the German forces
enabled them to flank the Belgians, and to
compel them to retire to avoid encirclement.
By August 20, the Belgian army, almost
without striking a blow, had been forced
back into Antwerp, safe, but no longer In
the path of the Germans. Meanwhile, the
withdrawal of Albert's forces allowed the
ca-pital, Brussels, and Louvain, to fall with-
out a struggle into the hands of von Kluck's
First Army.
The Germans had learned a lesson at
Lifege, and von Billow did not attempt to
reduce Namur until his heavy guns yvere In
position. The bombardment opened on
August 20, and its ceaseless steel rain re-
duced the fortress to virtual impotence
within three days. On August 24, the Ger-
mans occupied the town, and on August 26,
the fortress. Namur had been counted upon
by the Allies for a more longer resistance,
and its fall within several days sadly dis-
arranged all the Allied plans, placing in dire
peril the British and French troops which
were being assembled near the French bor-
der to meet the Invaders. Meantime, the
last of the German forces entering Belgium,
the German Third Army, under von Hau'sen,
Iiad also crossed the frontier, and it started
south at the same time that the First and
Second Armies to the west wheeled, almost
at a right angle, and likewise started for
Paris, To tbe east of the Third Army, the
Fourth and Fifth Armies, under the Duke
of Wiirttemberg and the Crown Prince, re-
spectively, crossed through Luxemburg, and
also drove south.
The Qerman Advance through France. —
Meanwhile, France seems not to have re-
alized the seriousness of the thrust through
Belgium and Luxemburg. At all events, she
concentrated most of her forces along the
Alsace-Lorraine frontier, according to pre-
arranged schedule, and even entered upon an
advance into this German territory, where
within three weeks French troops occupied
Saarburg, Miilhausen and Altkirch, before
being driven back by the Germans. By
August 20, however, the Blench realized the
peril, hastily abandoned the eastern offen-
sive, and made all haste to withdraw all
their forces to the north.
The British Expeditionary Force, some
100,000 strong, had landed in France on
August 18, and by August 23 had marched
north to tne Belgian border at Mons, form-
ing the extreme left of the Allied forces,
opposite the German First Army. On its
east was the French Fifth Army, under
Lanrezac, Just below Namur, joined to the
British at Charleroi, and facing the German
Second Army. But further to the east, the
German Third Army was driving ahead un-
opposed, since the French Fourth Army to
the east was fully occupied with the German
Fourth Army.
When the Battle of Mons-Charleroi opened
therefore, on August 23, the right flank of
the French Fifth Army had to be extended
beyond the safety point, to prevent flanking
movements by the German Third Army. The
German Second Army thus had little diffi-
culty in driving back the French center and
left, so that the French had to retreat, leav-
ing the British right flank exposed.
The British had resisted stubbornly at
Mons, although steadily driven back by the
superior numbers of the German First
Army, until they learned that the French
had retreated and that a German corps was
swinging into position in their rpar. A pre-
cipitate retreat was therefore ordered,
which compelled a further Blench retreat,
and for ten days the British were mercilessly
driven helter-skelter back upon Paris by the
alternate hammer-blows of first the German
First and then the German Second Army.
It was a complete rout, cutting down the
British forces to about half their strength,
breaking up their formation, and resulting
in complete exhaustion but In an almost
miraculous escape from utter destruction.
The French Fifth Army likewise retreated
precipitately, although preserving a better
semblance of order, and punishing the enemy
in some rear-guard engagements, notably at
Guise and St. Quentlu. All this time, the
French commander-in-chief, Joffre, was fran-
tically rushing up reinforcements from the
Alsace-Lorraine frontier, but the withdrawal
of the British and of Lanrezac had com-
pelled the withdrawal, although in good
order, of all the French forces west of Ver-
dun, comprising the French Fourth and
Third Armies.
It seemed as though the German plan of
campaign was bearing fruit and that only
complete disaster lay ahead of the Allies.
For it was not until September 3 that the
British were able to rally sufficiently to
offer resistance once more and that the
French reinforcements were able to join the
Fifth, Fourth and Third Armies in full
strength ; and by that time the Germans had
advanced more than one hundred miles Into
French territory and were as far south as
Paris itself.
Battle of the Marne. — The retreat of the
British and of the Fi-ench Fifth Army had
left Paris exposed to capture, since there
was not sufficient time to station north of
Paris the troops diverted by Joffre from the
Alsace-Lorraine frontier, and they could be
placed only to the east of the French capital.
But the German General Staff rightly placed
the capture of the Allied army above the
capture of Paris, and von Kluck swerved In
front of the city, which he could readily
have taken, and passed southeast of it. (In
the meantime, the seat of the French Gov-
ernment had been removed to Botdeaux.)
Thus on September 4, when the Allies were
at last ready to cease retreating and to give
battle, the opposing forces were facing each
other south of the Marne Elver and north
of the Seine. It must not be forgotten that
the Battle of the Marne thus took place
along a line between Paris and Verdun, run-
ning to the south and east of Paris. For the
four great French fortresses on the Alsace-
Lorraine frontier had held, and the German
Sixth and Seventh Armies had not been able
to break through to aid the five armies
which had advanced west of Verdun.
To some extent, the reinforcements gath-
ered by Joffre had been added to the French
armies previously formed. But most of them
went into the formation of a new army, the
French Seventh Army, stationed just north
of the Seine between the French Fifth and
Fourth Armies, and placed under the com-
mand of General Ferdinand Foch. However,
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the French formed more than one new array.
By troops rushed up from their African
possessions and by members of the Paris
garrison, another army, the French Sixth
Arniy, was organized in Paris, was placed
under General Manoury, and, when JofCre at
last 'ordered a general advance on September
5, was marched out to attack the German
Fii'st Army on its western flank.
Von Kluck had anticipated something of
a move against his right wing, and, as he
swung below Paris to pursue the fast-re-
treaitmg British, he had left one army corps
along the Ourcq River, around Meaux, north-
east of Paris. But Manoury greatly out-
numbered tills single corps, completely de-
feated it, put it to rout on September 5, and
on September 6 made for von Kluck's rear.
Only one road then lay open to von Kluck.
To avoid being taken in the rear and thus
disrupting the entire German line, he clev-
erly turned in a complete circle and retraced
his steps In order to drive Manoury back.
Indeed, on September 7 and 8, von Kluck
arrived in force opposite Manoury and easily
crushed the new French army, threatening
to hurl it back Into Paris, whence It had
started. But this retirement cf von Kluck
back to the northwest compelled a shift in
• the entire German line ; for if it had re-
mained stationary, a serious gap would have
come into existence between von Kluck and
the German Second Army on his right.
Therefore, the Second Army also shifted to
the west, leaving a gap In the German lines
Iwtween the Second and the Third Armies.
And when von Kluck fell upon Manoury. the
German Third Army, Instead of also shift-
ing to the west to close the gap, attacked
in force the French Seventh Army under
Poch, in the hope of breaking the center of
the French line.
But the westward shift 'of the German
Second Army allowed the French Fifth
Army, facing it, to send some reinforcements
to Poeh, who on September 7, 8 and 9 was
being steadily driven back. And It was these
reinforcements which suddenly turned the
tide of battle and miraculously saved
France. For Foch's uncanny penetration
showed him a weak point in the east wing
of the German army which was driving him
back, and on the afternoon of September 9
he hurled his reinforcements at this
Acbjlle's heel of Germany's armor.
The fresh French troops cut through the
east wing of the German Third Army as a
knife cuts through cheese, and In several
hours the entire German Third Army was
being flanked on Its left. At the same, time,
Foch attacked it in the center, so that von
Hausen could not send reinforcements to
his bending left. Before midnight on Sep-
tember 9, the entire German Third Army,
holding the center of the German line, had
been driven back and Foch was pouring his
troops Into the hole thus opened up.
On September 10, Foch turned to the west
and threatened to flank the German Second
and First Armies. The latter had not only
to protect themselves, but also to lend as-
sistance to von Hausen, in order to enable
him to retreat in good order ; and thus they
were in no position to withstand a further
attack, especially since by this time the
British haxJ once more become effective and
were streaming through the gap left when
the German Second Army shifted to the west
and the German Third Army remained sta-
tionary to attack Foch. Von Hausen. there-
fore, was compelled overnight to call off his
drive upon Manoury, and when September
10 dawned, the German armies were In full
flight back to the Alsne, where they dug
themselves in. France had been saved by the
"Miracle of the Marne."
The Race to the Sea. — After one week's
attempt to break the German lines along the
Alsne, JofCre discovered that the trenches
were too strong to be captured by storm ; so
he Inaugurated a vast encircling movement
to the west, in order to occupy the land
between the opposing armies and the sea.
At the same time, the Germans realized the
value of this territory, both to prevent be-
ing flanked and also to gain submarine bases
along the Belgian seacoast. Hence both the
Allies and the Germans withdrew forces
from the Alsace-Lorraine frontier, adding in-
crements to their west wings, until these
successive additions occupied all the land,
to the sea, and the battle-line of trenches
reached all the way from the ocean to the
border of Switzerland. However, Lille, the
other great French fortress on the Belgian
frontier, had been invested, and it fell on
October 10.
In the meantime, Maubeuge, the one great
French fortress on the Belgian frontier,
which had been in the path of the German
Invasion, had also been invested and It had
fallen on September 7.
Battle of the Aisne. — The Aisne River is
a sluggish canalized river about 170 miles
long flowing generally westward into the Oise
through a valley from half a mile to two
miles wide between plateaus 400 feet high
on each side. While on the drive to Paris the
Germans had prepared a strong position on
the northern plateau upon which to make
a stand in case of possible retreat. Con-
crete platforms had been built for heavy
guns, and commodious trenches with over-
head protection against shrapnel had been
constructed for the infantry. The right of
the position rested on the Noyon Hills west
of the Oise, north of Its Junction with the
Aisne. From this point the line ran east
along the Aisne about forty miles and then
south by east by Reims to Verdun. Four
railways ran back from this position into
Belgium and a fifth ran east and west at a
convenient distance in the rear of the
lines. The German retreat abruptly baited
Sept. 12 at Solssons, where the river is
about sixty yards wide. Here the armies
were deadlocked from the Noyon Hills to
the Swiss frontier. The allies sent out
forces to turn the German right and strike
the railways in their rear, but each expe-
dition resulted only In a pitched battle and
the extension of the German lines north-
ward. By Oct. 7, the 25th day of the
fighting along the Aisne, the lines had been
prolonged to La Bassee, ten miles from the
Belgian frontier, and the net result of the
fighting after ten months was the exten-
sion of the lines from the confluence of the
Aisne and Oise rivers into Flanders and
as close to the English Channel coast as
operations of the British navy would per-
mit. This line was roughly marked by the
towns of Vermelles, Armentieres, Ypres,
Bixshoote and Dixmude, which became the
scenes of fierce struggles. French reserv,e
troops, detachments from the French active
army, the British expeditionary force, Brit-
ish Indians, Senegalese, and Turcos went to
make up the prolongation of the allies' front.
On the southeast end of the German line
the Crown Prince in September sent out
several army corps to cut the line south
of Verdun, but only succeeded In reaching
St. Mihiel, which during the first half of
1915 continued to be a starting point for
aggressive movements.
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Fall of AnUoerp. — All this time, the Bel-
'nian army in Antwerp had been malting
sorties, and with both sides i-aciug tor the
sea, the acquisition of Antwerp became of
prime importance to the German armies.
Antwerp was considered to be probably
the strongest fortress in all Europe. The city
had a population of more than 300,000. It
was defended by two rings of forts — an
inner one of eight forts, about two miles
from an old enceinte which encircled the
city, and an outer ring of fifteen forts, at
distances varying from six to nine miles
from the enceinte. Four special features
contributed to the strength of Antwerp :
(1) the close proximity of the neutral
Dutch frontier on the north and northwest,
which reduced the front to be defended ;
(2) the existence of a large inundated area
on the west and northwest, which served
the same purpose; (3) the position of the
River Scheldt, which protected the city on
the west and ottered a secure passage
through Holland for supplies from the sea ;
(4) the position of the River Nethe, which
runs close to the rear of the outer ring of
forts and furnishes an inundated area for
the protection of the city on the southeast.
Sept. 28 the German guns opened upon
two of the forts of the outer ring south of
the city. On the 29th one of these was
blown up and the other was destroyed the
following day. The next two forts to the
right were silenced Oct. 1, and the Belgian
infantry were compelled to withdraw across
the Nethe, where they were supported by
the British. On the 5th the Belgian army
withdrew and the Germans crossed the
Nethe and occupied Antwerp, coming Into
complete possession by the 9th. A war tax
of $7,000,000 a month was levied upon
the eity and a civil governor i placed in
charge. Many stories were told of attacks
by civilians upon the soldiers after surren-
der and of retaliatory measures by the Ger-
mans which were calculated to excite the
sympatl)ies of neutrals. Indeed, it is not
too much to say that her procedure in
Belgium was the strongest of the many
factors which condemned the Kaiser's gov-
ernment at the bar of International public
opinion.
Fighting in Flanders.— 'Bavlng taken Ant-
werp the Germans began sending large ar-
mies toward Dunkirk and Calais. The Bel-
gian army held the Germans back of the
Yser River at Nieuport, and, assisted by
British warships in the Channel, forced
them from the coast. Between Nieuport and
Ypres the German advance was cheeked by
Cutting the dykes and flooding the country.
Battle of Fpres.— About the middle of Oc-
tober, 1914, the Germans began massing
their troops in the vicinity of Ypres, and
the attacks grew fiercer each day. Their
evident Intention was to force their way
to Calais. By Nov. 5 the attacks ceased.
The allies, on the defensive, lost 100,000
men, killed, wounded and missing, and It is
supposed the German offensive cost twice
as many, so that the losses about Ypres
must have reached close to 300,000 men.
By the end of 1914, therefore, fighting in
the west had become a deadlock, a series of
monotonous trench struggles not broken un-
til the great German successes In the spring
of 1918 once more forced the fighting into
the open.
ON THE EASTERN FRONT
Battle of Lemberg. — i Austro-Hungarlan
forces invaded Russia Immediately after the
outbreak of the War, but they were in the
nature of an advance guard. They com-
prised one army under General Dankl. The
main Austro-Hungarian force under von
Aufl'enbarg was kept in Galicia, to repel the
Russian invasion into Hungary. The Rus-
sian forces mobilized in the south against
-Austria-Hungary comprised two armies, one
under Russky and the other under BrusilofiE.
On August 14. less than two weeks after the
declaration of war, they crossed the Gali-
cian frontier and on August 23 met von
Auffenburg's forces, drawn up in front of
Przemysl and Lemberg.
For several days, the Austro-Hungarians
maintained their lines, and even gained
Inlnor victories, as the two Russian armies
had converged from different points and had
not yet effected a junction. But on -August
28, the Russians captured Tarnopol, on the
Bug River, and thus consolidated into one
army which greatly outnumbered von Auffen-
burg. The Austro-Hungarians, however,
risked battle, with the result that the su-
perior numbers of the Russians let the lat-
ter flank von AufEenburg on both wings. By
September 1, the Austro-Hungarian lines had
been bent back almost into a circle and a
rapid retreat therefore became imperative.
On September 4, the Russians captured Lem-
berg, with the result that the Austro-Hun-
garians had to abandon all pretense of fur-
ther resistance and flee wildly through the
scanty space left in their rear for retire-
ment. By September 7, von Auffenburg's
great army was completely dispersed, Dankl
had to retire to avoid being surrounded, and
the Russians plunged deeply into Galicia
and into northern Hungary, laying waste
the country-side, investing Przemysl, threat-
ening to capture Cracow, and compelling
strong reinforcements from Germany to the
aid of her defeated ally.
The Battle oj Tannenliurg. — So far the
war had proceeded according to preconcep-
tions, but in the third week of August, 1914,
the Russians delivered a complete surprise
by moving in force into East Prussia. Ger-
many had not anticipated such an advance,
and had few troops available to resist it ;
BO that by August 23 the Russians had
gained some notable victories and were
threatening to penetrate even more deeply
into the center of Prussia.
But on August 23, the German command
in East Prussia was given to a retired gen-
eral with a matchless knowledge of the
topography of East Prussia, named Paul
von Hindenburg. He managed to scrape to-
gether an army of some 200,000, with which
he moved against the Russians. The latter
were in two armies, under Generals Sam-
sonof and Renuenkampf, and by the time
that Hindenburg was ready, they had made
the mistake of allowing themselves to be
separated by the Mazurlan Lakes and
Swamps.
Hindenburg moved flrst upon the southern
Russian army under Samsonof. For three
days the German leader was "occupied in
beating oD: the Russian attacks, after which
he turned the Russian flanks and drove Sam-
sonof into the Mazurlan Lake region, where
the latter's army was, literally cut In half
by death or capture. Meanwhile, Renuen-
kampf to the north had made no move to
come to the assistance of his colleague, and
Hindenburg next led bis victorious army
through the Mazurlan Lake region to fall
upon Rennenkampf's rear. The Russians had
expected an attack from their right, instead
of from their left ; and, rather than risk
being taken in the rear, hastily beat a re-
treat, so that by the middle of September
all Prussia was free of Russians.
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For the remainder of the year, the Ger-
mans In the east contented themselves with
launching several drlvSs at Warsaw, the
capital of Russian Poland, which did not
succeed in capturing the fortress, but which
did succeed in compelling Russia to rush up
forces from Galicla, thus relieving the pres-
sure upon Cracow and upon the Austro-
Huugarian armies.
ON OTHER FRONTS
The Capture of Kiao-Chau. — For some
years before 1914, Japan had been the ally
of Great Britain, and Japan naturally used
the War as an occasion for seizing the one
considerable German possession in the Far
Bast, on which she had long cast envious
eyes. On August 19, Japan demanded from
Germany the surrender of Germany's hold-
ings at Kiao-Chau and the Shantung Penin-
sula and, on failing to receive a favorable
answer, declared war on August 23. Kiao-
Chau was strongly fortified, and Japan
therefore proceeded against It with delibera-
tion, so that it was. not until November 7,
1914, that it fell.
However, JapaD»was concerned solely with
her own interests, and rendered no further
aid in the war until the Allies embarked
upon military intervention in Siberia in
1918. Indeed, Japan was well content to see
the great Powers of the West weaken them-
selves, and thus place Japan in a relatively
stronger position in international manoeu-
vres, by a long and ennervatlng struggle of
attrition.
Invasion of . Servia.—Fiom July 29 to
Aug. 12, 1914, the Austrians bombarded
Belgrade, capital of Servia, whence the
administrative offices were moved, first to
Kragujevac and later to Nlsh. Aug. 16,
50,000 Austrians crossed the Danube into
Servia and were met and defeated on the
18th and 20th by four Servian corps. The
Servians, elated with their victories, in-
vaded Austria early in September and be-
sieged Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia. They
were driven back, however, and an Aus-
trian force of some 250,000 men moved
against the northwest corner of Servia,
meeting the Servians at Vayevo Sept. 15
and defeating them Nov. 15. The Austro-
Hungarian siege of Belgrade, which had
begun July 29, ended Dec. 2, when the
Servians were driven out by assault. The
outlook for Servia was indeed gloomy
when, to the surprise of the "world, a des-
perate attack on the center divided the Aus-
trian army, crushed the right wing and
drove the Invading armies from the Ser-
vian soil. Dee. 14, 1914, King Peter re-
entered Belgrade with his victorious army
and reported the land wholly free from
the Invading Teutons.
Turkey's Entrance into the War. — The
German cruisers Ooeben and Breslau, pur-
sued by hostile war ships at the begin-
ning of the war, sought escape by passage
through the Dardanelles and safety in the
Turkish harbors beyond. Instead of be-
ing compelled to put to sea or intern
within a reasonable time, the cruisers were
alleged to have been bought by Turkey.
Thfe powers protested, but Turkey not only
retained the vessels but announced the ab-
rogation of her capitulations wherein she
had in times past restricted her sovereignty
or conferred special privileges upon for-
eign nations. The first act of hostility was
the bombardment of the Russian Black
Sea port of Theodosla, Oct. 29, 1914, by
the Ooeten, changed in name to the Miaullu.
Other hostile a^ts followed, and Nov. 5,
Great Britain and France declared war on
Turkey. The former also annexed the isl-
and of Cyprus and declared Egypt to be a
British protectorate.
Kut-el-Amara, Siege of. — The outbreak
of the war found British troops to the num-
ber of 8,000 or 10,000 in Mesopotamia, un-
der command of Gen. Townshend. After a
defeat by the Turks at Cteslpuon, Town-
shend retreated to Kut-el-Amara, a city built
on a peninsula on the left bank of the Tigris
river. The Ottoman troops settled down in
front of the place, while heavy Hanking par-
ties swept by on both banks of the river and
speedily cut off the British line of communi-
cation. The Turks then assumed Ihe simple
task of maintaining the siege until necessity
should compel the British surrender. In-
effectual attempts were made at rescue, and
unusual floods prevented aggressive opera-
tions. After a siege of 143 days the British
flag was hauled down, and the army sur-
rendered its arms to the Turks, April 29,
1916.
Capture of German Islands and Togoland.
— By December, 1914, all the German island
possessions in the Pacific had been captured.
New Zealand troops occupied German Samoa
at the end of August. In September, Austra-
lian troops acquired the Bismarck Archi-
pelago, the Solomon Islands and Kaiser-
wilhelmsland. And by the end of October,
the Caroline, Marschall and Marianne
Islands had fallen to Japanese troops.
In Africa, the Boers seized the oppor
tunity to revolt once more against British
rule, and Great Britain's efforts in Africa
were confined chiefly to putting down the
revolt. However, Togoland, containing prac-
tically no German troops, fell to England's
and France's African forces. Advances were
made also into German East Africa, Ka-
merun and German Southwest Africa, but
the Boer revolt halted the progress of these
expeditions.
On the High, Seas. — At the very outbreak
of the War, the British fleet took over the
control of the seas. However, there were a
few German battleships scattered over dif-
ferent quarters of the globe, and these be-
gan to giva accounts of themselves as com-
merce raiders before they were finally hunted
down and sunk. The most brilliant career
of any of these cruisers was that of the
Bmden, which put out from Kiao-Chau on
August 1, sinking many merchantmen as she
made her way into the Indian Ocean to
harass the Indian coasts. She then sailed
among the islands of the Malay peninsula,
sinking many craft, including a French gun-
boat and a Russian cruiser lying at rest in
the harbor of Penang. But a few days later
she was picked up by the Sydney, of the
British Australian fieet, was chased, bom-
barded and finally run ashore, a total wreck.
She had sunk or captured more than thirty
vessels.
On August 28, a division of the British
battle fleet came upon a section of the Ger-
man fleet in the North Sea and inflicted
some damage upon the enemy before he
could escape. On September 28, a German
submarine managed to sink three British
battleships In the North Sea, and there were
other similar chance encounters throughout
the remainder of the year.
The outbreak of the war found a small
German cruiser squadron in South Ameri-
can waters. On November 1, 1914, it was
met by a British squadron off Coronel, Chile,
but the five German cruisers were far
stronger In armament than the three British
cruisers and one armed merchant vessel, and
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ssmk two of the British cruisers before flarls-
nese permitted the other two British vessels
to escape.
On December 8, a stronger British squad-
ron met the Germans off the Falkland
Islands. The British now had the superior-
ity in armament, and sank three of t;ie
German vessels with little difficulty. The
fourth, the Dresden, escaped, only to be
sunk later in other waters.
1915
ON THE WEST FRONT
The year 1915 saw no military develop-
ment of any importance on the western
front. Superiority in numbers passed from
th« Germans to the Entente Allies, but
the greater skill and better management of
thi5 German war machine prevented the
Allies from making gains of any moment.
On March 10, the British opened a drive
tor Lille, and managed to capture Neuve
Chappelle and a section of trenches about
a mile deep ; but the British losses were
far too heavy to constitute the attempt
other than a failure. In the spring, the
French made an unsuccessful attempt
against the sides of the St. Mibiel salient,
just east of Verdun. On April 22, the
Germans opened a drive for Tfpres, using
chlorine gas against the French and Cana-
dians ; but in spite of this illegal and ter-
rible weapon of warfare, they were un-
able to break through the Allied lines, al-
though their gains were considerable.
In May, the British struck again around
Neuve Chappelle and the French north of
Arras. The former made little headway,
but the latter managed to capture Lorette
Ridge and the German fortiflcations (the
L'S.byrinth) near Vimy Ridge. In .Tune,
the army of <the Crown Prince made an un-
successful advance in the Argonne.
Toward the end of September, the Allies
made a ponderous attempt to break the
German lines, the British and French strik-
ing at Loos and the French in Champagne.
But after a week's severe fighting, they
had succeeded in penetrating the Ger-
man lines only to a depth of several miles.
In November and December, the Germans
made slight gains to consolidate and
straighten their lines.
In December, Sir .Tohn French was re-
placed as the British commander-in-chief
by Sir Douglas Haig.
War Zone Oprrndoits.— Early in the year
1915 a British order in council declared
that nil foodstuffs destined to Germany,
though intended for the civilian population,
subject to seizure and confiscation. This
was based on Germany's national regulation
of the food supply, which was construed to
mean confiscation for army uses. Germany
In reply to this order declared a war zone
to be in existence around the British isles
after Feb. 15, 1915, and warned neutral
vessels of the dangers of navigation. Sub-
marines were sent into the designated
waters, and reports came daily of the sink-
ing of English, French and neutral vessels.
Munitions Shipments. — Soon after the
outbreak of the war, the Entente Allies
proceeded to purchase in the United States
both munitions of war and the raw ma-
terials for manufacturing them. P.erause
of the Entente mastery of the seas, the Cen-
tral rowers were not able to use the re-
sources of the United States in a similar
fashion.
The refusal of the United States to inter-
fere in this trade in munitions caused much
bad feeling against her in the Central
Powers, coupled with charges that by per-
mitting such trade the United States had In
fact, if not in theory, joined hands with
the Entente. Indeed, on June 29, 1915,
Austria-Hungary lodged with the United
States an official protest against the trade
in munitions between this country and the
Entente. The reply of the United States
pointed out that this trade was sanctioned
by international law, that Germany had
Itself similarly indulged in^such trade with
belligerents in wars in which she had been
neutral, and that inability of a belligerent
to purchase supplies in neutral countries
would to a marked degree increase the
amount of war preparation Indulged In by
all countries in peace times.
Agents of the Central Powers in the
United States attempted to thwart the
trade in munitions between the United
States and the Entente by dynamiting fac-
tories and encouraging strikes. As a result,
recall of the Austrian ambassador, Dumba,
was requested by the United States in Sep-
tember, 1915, it havingv been proved that
he had engineered such actions, and similar
action was taken with respect to von Papen
and Boy-ed, connected with the staff of the
German ambassador to the United States,
in December of the same year. Other Ger-
man agents in the United States were im-
prisoned for offenses against the peace of
the country and for other crimes.
Lusitania Case. — The German embassy
in America called attention to the war zone
and repeated the warning to neutral and
enemy vessels. Despite the warning, which
had been personally brought to the atten-
tion of the passengers, the Lusitania sailed
from New York May 1st, and May 7th, when
off Kinsale, Ireland, was struck by a mine
or torpedo and sank within fifteen minutes
with great loss of life, including more than
one hundred Americans. (See Wilson,
Woodrow. )
The Lusitania was built in 1907, and was
one of the largest and fastest of British
.ships and was v^alued at about $10,000,000.
Besides passengers and crew to the number
of 2.159 persons aboard, she carried about
1.500 tons of cargo, valued at $735,579.
The principal items of the cargo were for
war consumption, and included sheet brass,
valued at $50.000 : copper and copper wire,
$32,000; beef, $31,000; furs, $119,000;
copper manufactures, $21,000 : military
goods, $66,000 ; ammunition, $200,000. The
latest official figures showed that 1,396 lives
were lost. The total number of survivors
was 763, including 462 passengers and 301
of crew : the number injured was 30 passen-
gers and 11 of, crew; of the survivors 45
died from exposure or injuries; the number
of Americans who died was ]07. There were
81 American survivors. 23 American identi-
fied dead and 84 Americans missing and un-
doubtedly dead.
Aerial Warfare. — Soon after the breaking
out of the war it became evident that air
craft of various designs were to play an
important part, both in scenting and offen-
sive operations. The Germans had devel-
oped the Zeppelin airship to a high state of
perfection, and in the earlv advance through
Belgium and into Prance Zeppelins flew high
in advance of the uhlans, communicating
their observations to headquarters. On Aug.
24. bombs were dronned on Antwerp. A
month later other Belgian towns, as well as
Paris and Warsaw, were bombarded from
the air Contradictory stories of the effects
of these attacks reached the outside world
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from the headquarters of the belligerents.
In October German aviators dropped bombs
In Paris, killing three persons and wound-
ing 20 ; Dee. 30 Dunkirk was shelled' from
the air and 15 persons were killed. In
January, 1915, a fleet of Zeppelins raided
the English coast, bombarding six towns
and killing five persons. Other air raids
followed, but without accomplishing any
military purpose. By February, 1915, the
Anglo-French allies had built a fleet of 30
to 40 air and seaplanes and made retalia-
tory raids on Dunkirk, Ostend, Zeebrugge
and other towns within the German lines.
On the western battle front, at least four
types of aeroplanes are In constant use. (1)
Scouting machines. They are swift, and
capable of lon^ flights. They carry a large
store of gasoline,* photographic apparatus,
machine guns and even wireless stations.
Their biplanes have a spread of 45 feet and
the motors often attain 150 horse power.
(2) Bombing planes. They are heavy
and slow, and carry great weights of bombs,
all of which must be discharged before re-
turn, as the shock of descent would explode
any bombs remaining upon the machine.
They must usually be protected by lighter
machines, and ' accordingly m^,ke night at-
tacks the rule.
(3) Artillery planes, used lor observing
the explosions of shells among the enemy.
They are light and stable.
(4) Battle planes, which are very light
and swift, and are especially adapted to
climb quickly.
In addition, there are the huge heavier-
than-air Zeppelins, used by the Germans,
which are dirigible balloons ; and the cap-
tive balloons used by all belligerents lor
observation purposes.
During 1917, especially after the summer
months, the Germans increased their night
aerial raids upon England, and especially
upon London, often killing mkny children,
women and other non-combatants. These ma-
chines used the captured sections of Belgium
as their base ; and it was difDcult for the
English to make reprisals, lor this territory
was inhabited chiefly by Belgian non-com-
batants, and the territory ol Germany itself
was too lar distant to offer much prospect
ol success lor air raids. The Germans de-
fended their bomb-throwing upon unfor-
tified cities by the Allied food blockade
and consequent attempt to starve German,
women, children and other non-combatants.
From a tactical point of view, the raids
were of service to Germany in keeping a
large number of airplanes in England to
meet the German airplanes, and hence di-
minished the number of machines utilized by
the English on the battle-front. Even neu-
tral opinion, however, unqualifiedly con-
demned such raids on unfortified places as
not only in direct violation of the Hague
regulations of war, but also as manifesta-
tions of a savage and brutal philosophy.
ON THE EASTERN FRONT
In contrast to the progress of the war
on the western front, the campaign in the
East in 1915 gave birth to one of the
most influential battles of the war. In-
deed, the Battle of the Dunajec shattered
for all time the strength of the military
machine of the Tsar, although Russia ral-
lied to a slight extent in 1916.
In the first months of 1915, the Ger-
mans and Austrians mobilized in strength
In southeastern Austria-Hungary, and by
the end ol February had driven all the.
Russians out ol Bukowina and Transyl-
vania. By this, the Germans had launched
another drive at Warsaw, only to see it
rolled back at the eleventh hour by rein-
forcements rushed up from the Russian
ranks in Galiela. On March 22, the strong
Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl,
which had been invested since the pre-
vious September, was starved Into sur-
render. •
All this time, the Germans were pre-
paring a decisive blow to cripple Russia,
painstakingly accumulating great supplies,
large guns and many army corps in the
southeast. At the end ol April, von Falk-
enheyn, who had replaced von Moltke as
head of the German General Staff, was
ready. On April 28, he drove his mighty
phalanx against the apex of the Russian
lines in Galiela along the Dunajec River.
The Russians were helpless belore the
might ol the German artillery attack, dnd
within several days, were streaming back
to the Wlsloka River, twenty miles away,
where a stand was made for a time.
But the Austro-Germans, making no at-
tempt t^t ^fianlting moves, drove ahead irre-
sistibly and without cessation, into the
Russian centre, and by May 8 the Rus-
sians, still helpless because of their in-
feriority in artillery, had broken once more
and were making all haste for the San,
seventy-five miles from the Dunajec. This
rapid retreat ol the Russian centre com-
pelled also a rapid retreat ol the Russian
army lelt in Galiela, which had to retire
rapidly back into Russia to avoid being
caught in the rear by the phalanx that was
tearing the Russian centre to pieces ; while
the Russian lelt, in Poland, was 'also forced
to retire.
On May 14, the German heavy guns ar-
rived at the San and once more shattered
all resistance. By the end of the month,
Jaroslav had fallen and Przemysl had been
re-captured, and the Austro-Germans were
making through Russian Poland for War-
saw from the south as well as Irom the
west. Throughout June, the Russian re-
treat continued, all the soil of Austria-
Hungary being now free of the enemy, the
Russian armies all disorganized, and the
battle-line entering well into Russian ter-
ritory. Throughout July, the Austro-Ger-
mans leisurely l)ut mightily beat back all
resistance on their road to Warsaw, and
the capital of Russian Poland fell on
August 5, one year and four days after
Germany had declared war upon Russia.
Even after the fall of Warsaw, and with
it the occupation of all of Russian Poland,
the Austro-Germans pressed on. In August,
a number of the strongest Russian fort-
resses east of Russian Poland were cap-
tured, and it was not until September that
a firmer stand by the Russians, the In-
crease of the distance of the battle-line
from the Austrian and German bases ol
supply, and the approach ol winter called
oft the progress ol the Austro-Germans into
Russia. Russia's strength had been com-
pletely dissipated, it would be months be-
fore her armies could be reorganized, more
than a million of the Tsar's soldiers had
been killed or captured, all ol Russian
Poland had been captured, lurther invasion
of Germany or Austria-Hungary from the
east had been rendered well-nigh impos-
sible, next year the Germans could con-
centrate their strength upon the Allies in
France with little interruption from Russia,
and no less than 65,000 square miles of
Russian territory had been occupied.
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ON OTHER FRONTS
The Dardanelles and GalUpoU. — The
greatest weakness of the Allies lay in their
lack of uninterrupted communication with
Russia. Russia had grain and man-power,
but lacked artillery ; an exchange of these
commodities between the eastern ally and
England and Stance would immeasurably
strengtlien the power of the Entente. The
occupation of the Dardanelles and the cap-
ture of Constantinople would make such
an exchange possible, as well as discourage
Bulgaria from Joining the Central Powers ;
and therefore the attempt was made, al-
though the Dardanelles were considered al-
most impregnable.
On February 19, 1915, a French and
British fleet advanced upon the fortifications
at the mouth of the Dardanelles. The
Turkish positions here were weak, and
could be bombarded by the entire fleet at
long range ; so that \7hen the bombardment
was resumed on February 25 and 26, most
of the Turkish guns at the entrance were
silenced ; and early in March the road was
open to attack the main Turkish fortifica-
tions some fifteen miles from the mouth,
at "The Narrows," where the Dardanelles
twist into an S-shape and are less than
a mile wide.
On March 18, the Allied fleet advanced
against The NIarrows. But the Dardanelles
are so narrow that only a portion of the
fleet could fire upon the forts at one time ;
torpedo tubes from the shore aimed tor-
pedoes at the huge dreadnaughts ; the Turls-
Ish batteries were manned by German gun-
ners, whose aim was most accurate ; and
the Turks sent floating mines down the
current of the Dardanelles with telling
effect. Within six hours, five of the larg-
est Entente vessels had been sunk, and the
remainder had made little effect upon the
Turkish batteries, so that the attempt to
reduce the Dardanelles by sea was aban-
doned.
The next attempt was by land, an at-
tempt to occupy the Gallipoli peninsula,
forming the north shore of the Darda-
nelles. Toward the end of April, Allied
forces, composed largely of troops from
Australia and New Zealand, landed, and
attempted to work their way toward the
neck of the peninsula. But the Turks
were numerous, and well led, and after
efforts in May, June and August had sig-
nally failed, the Allies determined to pocket
their heavy losses without further attempt
on the Dardanelles ; and the entire ex-
pedition was abandoned in December and
in the first month of 1916.
Italy Enters the War. — With the out-
break of the War, Italy proclaimed her
neutrality, asserting that her membership
in the Triple Alliance with Germany and
Austria-Hungary was binding only in the
case of defensive war waged by the other
two members. Italy then immediately en-
tered upon steps to acquire the land in the
Trentino and along the Adriatic long de-
sired by her. The Central Powers promised
to cede most of the land in those sections
inhabited chiefly by the Italian nationality,
but the Entente promised more ; and on
May 24, 1915, Italy declared war on
Austria-Hungary. The terms of the agree-
ment between Italy and the Entente, em-
bodied in the secret Pact of London, gave
Italy much territory inhabited chiefly by
German- Austrians and by South Slavs (but
not Flume), in addition to Italia Irre-
denta proper ; and these terms were respon-
sible for many disputes both during the
Peace Conference and after the ratification
of the Peace Treaty.
Italy made no attempt to assist France
and Great Britain in Prance and Belgium,
but set about to occupy the land along the
Adriatic which she desired. However,
Austria-Hungary had been awaiting such
a move ; there were strong Austro-Hun-
garian forces along the Austro-Italian fron-
tier ; that frontier was mountainous and
unsuited for the movement of troops on
a large scale ; and by the end of 1915, Italy
had penetrated but a few miles into Austri-
an territory along the Adriatic and had not
succeeded in capturing Gorizia, the strong
enemy fortress in that section.
Bulgaria Enters. — We have already seen,
in the "Roots of the War," that Bulgaria's
interests conflicted witli those of Servia.
Since Servia and Servia's ally, Russia, were
with the Entente, it was natural that an
Entente victory would benefit Servia at
the expense of Bulgaria. Similarly, the
Entente could not well promise Bulgaria
concessions at the expense of Servia, as
the Central Powers could and did promise.
Moreover, Germany had advanced to Bul-
garia a loan of considerable size, and when
Germany induced Turkey to cede certain
portions of Thraoe long desired bj' Bulgaria,
it was inevitable that Bulgaria in return
should join the Central Powers. Bulgaria
declared war on Servia on October 14, 1915,
delaying long enough to complete the mo-
bilization of her army.
The Occupation 0} Servia and Monte-
negro.— With Bulgaria in position to attack
Servia in the east, the Central Powers
were ready in the fall of 1915 to overrun
the kingdom of King Peter, and thus to
acquire direct connection with Turkey and
Constantinople, and a solid belt of territory
through Central Europe uniting the North
and the Black Seas.
The German General Staff employed
against Servia much of the equipment and
many of the troops whicli had been used in
the spring against Russia and which were
released for other service by ending the
pursuit of the Russians in September. The
Austro-Germans were in two great armies,
concentrating opposite the northwest corner
of Servia. Against them, the Serbian com-
mander placed the bulk of his army, only
, some 200,000, on his wings, being compelled
to leave Belgrade and his centre weakly
protected.
The attack opened on October 3, 1915,
and the Serbians were no less helpless
against the heavy out-ranging German guns
than the Russians had been. By October
9, the enemy had crossed the Drina, Save
and Danube Rivers into Servia and had
occupied Belgrade. Until October 12, the
Servians were steadily driven back, and
this was the day chosen by the Bulgarians
to drive at them from the east.
The Allies had been preparing reinforce-
ments to be dispatched to Servia, but such
reinforcements could be sent only through
Greece, and Greece was officially neutral.
True, there was an alliance between Servia
and Greece, and the Greek premier, Venl-
zelos, insisted that by the terms of that
alliance Greece was bound to come to Ser-
via's assistance. However, the Greek gov-
ernment and the Greek people still insisted
on neutrality and Venizelos was forced to
retire. Nevertheless, against Greece's pro-
test, the Allies seized the opportunity to
dispatch forces northward through Greece
from Saloniki, where Allied forces had been
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concentrating, in accord with an invitation
from Venlzelos.
So tliat one branch of the Bulgarian
army made for the Vardar Valley, to Inter-
cept the Allied troops marching northward,
while the other two branches moved against
the disintegrating Serbian army. On Octo-
ber 17, the Bulgarians got between the
Allied and the Serbian armies, and by Octo-
ber 20 had completely blocked the Allied
progress Into Servia. Servia thus was
doomed, and after a series of defeats on
both the east and the west throughout
October, the Serbians became a peojSle with-
out a country. On October 30, Kragujevatz
fell and on November 6, Nlsh. One rem-
nant of the Serbian army fled into Monte-
negro and another into Albania, only to be
attacked by the Albanians and severely pun-
ished before being rescued by Italy.
The Allied forces from Saloniki en-
trenched in the Vardar Valley, where they
were attacked and completely defeated by
the Bulgarians in December. The Allies
streamed back into Saloniki, where they
were safe, as Bulgaria respected Grecian
neutrality.
With Servia conquered, the Central
Powers turned to Montenegro, which was,
in all but name, a part of Servia, and
which had joined Servia in the War soon
after it opened. The Montenegrins were
even less able to withstand the Austro-
German cohorts than the Serbians, and
by the middle of January, 1916, Monte-
negro was also in the hands of the Central
Powers.
Albania bad been occupied by the Serb-
ians and Montenegrins, so that northern
Albania was also occupied by the Austro-
Germans. Southern Albania, however, had
been occupied by the Italians, who, with
the Greeks, were anxious to expand in that
direction.
The Capture of the German African Col-
onies.— In January, 1915, the Boer revolt
having been put down, an army of Boers
loyal to Great Britain seriously began the
reduction of German Southwest Africa. The
invaders made progress through the re-
mainder of the winter and the spring, and
by May had occupied the southern half of
the territory, including its capital. In
June, further advances * were made, and
German Southwest Africa officially surren-
dered on July 9, 1915.
In Kamerun, the British and French ad-
vance continued throughout 1915, captur-
ing most of the province by the summer.
It was not until March, 1916, that all de-
fence on the part of the Germans ceased.
The German resistance in German Bast
Africa was more stubborn, and in 1915 the
Allies had great difficulty in making much
headway against the ably-led defenders. But
in 1916, the command was given to Gen-
eral Smuts, who ended most of the re-
sistance before the end of 1916. However,
it was not until the winter of 1917 ,_ that
the opposition became altogether feeble, and
German Southwest Africa did not officially
surrender until November, 1917.
On the High, Seas. — On the sea, 1915 was
a year of comparative inaction, outside of
the attack on the Dardanelles. The Ger-
man fleet remained bottled up by the Brit-
ish, and the Austro-Hungariau by the
French and Italian, while the Russian fleet
retained command of the Baltic and of
the Black Seas. Several German commerce
raiders made themselves felt, notably the
Prinm Mitel Frederidk. Tlie one naval en-
gagement of Importance was the Battle of
Dogger Bank.
On January 24, 1915, a German battle
cruiser squadron, sailing to raid the coasts
of England, met off the Dogger Bank a
British cruiser squadron of greater strength,
and immediately fled. After several hours,
the British got within firing distance, and
soon managed to Jink the old and slow
BlUcher. Several other of the German
cruisers were also struck, but the leading
British vessel, the Lion, was disabled by
the German fire, and with this loss to their
strength and with the Gerfnan mine fields
approaching, the British called off the pur-
suit some five hours after the German fleet
had been sighted.
With the rout of Russia and the con-
quest of Russian Poland ; the occupation
of Servia and Montenegro ; the adherence
of Bulgaria ; the weakness of the Italian
campaign ; the failure of the attack on the
Dardanelles ; and the growing strength of
the submarine campaign, which had not
yet brought America into the War, while
tile struggle in the west remained a dead-
lock, 1915 had been most decidedly a Ger-
man year.
1916
ON THE WESTERN FRONT
Verdun. — In the beginning of 1916, Ger-
many reached the apex of her strength in
the west, not only because of success in
her internal readjustments for war, but
also because of her defeat of Russia and
Servia ; and it was no secret that in the
spring she was going to concentrate all
her strength against the Allied line in
France, in the hope of breaking through
and of achieving the victory which she had
so barely missed in September, 1914.
The blow fell upon Verdun, the strong-
est, of the French fortresses, lying in a
broad pocket of the Meuse and consisting of
thirty-six forts arranged around the city
of Verdun. But the war had taught that
the strongest fortresses were helpless
against the heaviest guns, and Germany
struck at Verdun largely to take the Allies
by surprise and largely because of the
moral value of the most famous of the
French strongholds. Through most of
February, the Germans delivered a series
of feint attacks at different points in the
line, while the "Allies kept their reserves
in readiness behind the front, until the
direction of the' main blow could be de-
finitely'learned. The Allies themselves were
preparing for a decisive blow later in 1916,
and hoped to be able to repel the German
drive without calling upon the resources
stored up for their own drive.
The Germans opened their attack upon
Verdun on February 21, 1916. At that
time, their lines were some eight miles
from the city and some four miles from
the northernmost of the forts, but within
several hours the first line of French
trenches had been literally blasted out of
existence by the terrific German bombard-
ment. For the next four days the flghttng
was of a furious hand-to-hand nature, the
French resisting with the utmost stubborn-
ness before retiring, in order to give time
for reinforcements to arrive to save Ver-
dun. And the bitterness of the French re-
sistance compelled the Germans to con-
sume five days in order to reach th^ outer
ring of the Verdun forts, and by the even-
ing of February 23 the French positions
were manned with reinforcements.
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By this time, however, the Germans were
at the gates of Forts Douaumont, Vaux
and Trouville, and on the evening of the
twenty-fltth they carried Fort Douaumont
by storm, making the entire French hold
on Verdun precarious in the extreme. How-
ever, on the following day a hrilliant
French counter-attack captured many of
the lines around Douaumont, rendering its
occupation of little value, and at the same
time the lines around Vaux and Trouville
held. On the twenty-seventh and twenty-
eighth the French still held off furious
German attacks, which represented the full
strength of the enemy, and after which he
was compelled to take a breathing-space of
soviTal days.
In March and April, much of the Ger-
man effort at Verdun was diverted to the
west hank of the Meuse, where the French
positions on hills in that section to a
great extent dominated the forts of Ver-
dun. This second phase of the fighting
was a series of slow and deliberate boring
methods, centering around Dead Man's Hill
(Le Mort Homme), with its two ridges.
Hill liOo and Hill 265 ; and Goose Hill (la
(Njto d'Ole), or Hill 304. For six weeks
the Germans struggled forward, but after
combats of the bitterest nature the French
held on to the commanding positions.
(5n the efist bank of the Meuse,' the Ger-
mans stormed Fort Vaux on March 8-11,
Mnrc'i 16, April 2 and April 18, but were
rolled back as they had been rolled back
mrobs the river; and in the latter half of
April, the Germans were inactive, stunned
by their losses.
In May, the Germans redoubled their
efforts on the west bank of the Meuse, and
after a struggle of several weeks managed
to gain both Dead Man's Hill and Hill
304, but the French had prepared lines
of great strength In the rear of these
positions, and the German energy had been
spent in the capture of the two hills.
Accordingly, the drive on the west bank of
the Meuse was abandoned, and the enemy
had failed to capture Verdun by flanking
it from the west and southwest.
On the east bank of the Meuse, the
French re-captured Fort Douaumont by a
drive on May 22-3, but on the next day
the Germans delivered counter-attacks
which managed to regain the position, now
nothing but a mass of ruins. At the end
of May, the Germans gathered themselves
together for a last desperate effort to
break the French resistance, and after a
tremendous bombardment managed to cap-
ture Fort Vaux on June 6, after a drive
lasting more than a week. The loss of
Fort Vaux once more imperilled Verdun,
for if Souville also should go, Verdun was
doomed. The drive on Souville opened on
June 11 and reached its climax on June
23. Fort Thlaumont fell and the village
of Fleury ; but beyond these gains the
Germans could not go, although they threw
themselves upon the French lines until the
end of the month saw the Crown Prince's
cohorts completely exhausted. Then the
French counter-attacked and regained
Thlaumont. After 130 days, Verdun was
safe. The casualties on each side were
between 300.000 and 400,000 and there was
no victor — the sole loser was humanity.
In the last three months of 1916, the
French regained practically all of the
ground before Verduix which the Germans
had won at so high a cost in the first
half of the year.
As one result of his defence of Verdun,
General Nivelle replaced JotCre as com-
mander-in-chief of the French armies. In
December, the Asquith Governhient in Eng-
land fell before a coalition organized by
David Lloyd George, who thereafter con-
trolled the British Government until after
the conclusion of peace.
The Battle of the Somme. — With the end
of the German drive at Verdun, the Allies
were ready with their own drive. Great
Britain had adopted conscription, and its
army had reached some 1,500,000, with
probably a million men held in reserve
for any emergency In which they might be
used. The British production of munitions
was now at its height, and huge supplies
of guns and shells had long been accumu-
lated in Picardy.
'rhe Allied attack was delivered by the
British forcfes under General Rawllnson and
hy the French Sixth Army, with some co-
operation from the French Tenth Army.
The sector chosen was that portion of the
front north and south of the Somme, in
front of the Important German centres of
Bapaume and PSronne. The bombardment
opened in the latter half of June and the
French poilus and the British Tommies
went "over the top" on July 1.
But from the very first, the British attack
struck a snag. The German^ were fully
prepared, and their heavy guns swept away
rank after rank of the British, causing
greater destruction of human beings than
had attended any other single day of the
war : and by evening, the British were
back in the trenches whence they had
started. South of the Somme, however,
the French were attended by better for-
tune, breaking into the German positions
for more than a mile ; but the German
defence here was still vigorous, and the
British had been so stunned by their losses
that the very first day of the Battle of the
Somme was sufiicient to stamp as indecisive
the entire Allied attempt to break through.
In the next several days, the British
greatly shortened their area of attack, and
managed to make a number of step-hy-step
gains into the German lines. The French
also continued to push ahead, and by July
5 were within three miles of PSronne. By
July 9, the French were two miles nearer
their objective, having driven in ten days
a wedge ten miles wide and six miles deep.
But after the middle of July, the ITrench
south of the Somme were able to make but
little headway, and the British gains were
insignificant. The enemy's defence had
proved too strong. By July 26,' the British
had gained Pozieres,. but almost the entire
month of August had to be used in con-
solidating the positions already won.
Early in September, the Allies renewed
their efforts along the Somme, making some
piece-meal advances, and by September 10
they had gained about as much ground as
they counted on gaining in the first day
of the battle. About the middle of Sep-
tember, the British drove for Combles, using
"tanks" for the first time, and gained it
by the end of the month. They had
reached what had been the last German
lines of defence at the beginning of the
drive. But the winter was at hand, and
the Germans had removed to the Somme
front some of their corps from the Ver-
dun front, and took the offensive themselves
through most of October. In the middle
of November, the Allies made some gains,
notably along the Ancre, but with these
gains the Battle of the Somme came to
an inglorious close. The Allies had a.
casualty list of more than 600,000 and the
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enemy one of almost 400,000 ; and as at
Verdun, nothing important had "been gained.
ON THE EASTERN FRONT
The Attack on Onernovitst. — In the last
days of December, 1913, and the first days
of 1916, the Russians attempted to ad-
vance to Czernovitz, at the southern end
of their battle-line ; but by the middle of
January, 1916, the Austro-Hungarian de-
fence had stiffened to a point where the
Russians had to abandon their effort.
The Russian Drive in, Mid-Summer. — By
the summer of 1916, the Russians had re-
covered to a slight extent from their
disaster of the previous year. Indeed, ear-
lier, in March, the Russians had attempted
to advance south of Dylnsk, hoping to
create a diversion against the German drive
on Verdun, but bad been unable to ad-
vance against the Are of the enemy's heavy
artillery.
In June, however, the Russian armies
opened a general advance along the whole
southern third of the eastern battle-front,
south of Pinsk and the Pripet Marshes.
Throughout the month, they won forward
ia Volhynia, capturing Lutsk, penetrating
to a depth of some forty-flve miles into the
enemy's positions, and being halted only
by the diversion of strong Austro-Hungar-
ian and German reinforcements from the
west and south. At the very end of the
battle-front, in BukowinS, even more grati-
fying success was achieved. The entire
formation of the Austro-Hungarians was
broken up, and by the middle of the month
the Russians had captured Czernovitz and
were marching through BukoWlna for Lem-
berg.
But the two salients which had been
punched out were widely separated, and
it was necessary to consolidate them be-
fore proceeding further. Most of July was
given over to this consolidation, but Ger-
man reinforcements were arriving in great
numbers and further Russian progress was
slow. In August, the Russians shoved ahead
in Bukowina once more, capturing Stanislau
and arriving before Halicz. But the Ger-
man General Staff had now realized the
gravity of the Russian threat, and the
enemy was entrenched along the Narajokva
River, prepared to resist all further at-
tacks. For weeks the Russian waves beat
in vain against the enemy lines, and finally
further attempts had to be abandoned be-
cause of sheer weakness.
Nevertheless, the services rendered by
this Russian mid-summer drive were con-
siderable. Only the great distance to which
the battle-front had been driven eastward
after the Battle of the Dunajec in 1915
prevented the Russian gains from tearing
at the enemy's vitals, Even so, there can
be no question but that the Russian di-
version relieved the pressure upgn Italy
(see below), and thus may well have as-
sisted in saving the day for Italy and the
Allies.
ON OTHER FRONTS
In the' Caucasus. — In January, 1916, the
Russians .made an unexpected advance in
the Caucasus and dispersed the Turks, who
were expecting no advance until the spring.
By the end of January, Grand Duke
Nicholas had progressed through the moun-
tains to Erzerum, the key to Asiatic Tur-
key, and the fortress fell on February 12.
A fow weeks later, Trebizond, the great
Turkish port on the Black Sea north of
Erzerum, also fell.
On the Italian Front. — Italy was prepar-
ing lier major effort to capture Gorizia In
tne summer of 1916, but the Central Powers
stole a march upon her by delivering their
offensive first. The enemy struck in the
Trentino, on the northern, instead of on
the eastern, Austro-Italian frontier, in the
hope of getting in the rear of the Italian
forces on the Gorizia front along the Isonzo
River. The Austrian drive was opened in
the middle of May, 1916, and drove the
Italians before it for a week, until almost
all the Trentino battle-front was on Italian
soil. By May 25, the Austrians were near-
ing the southern edge of the mountains
overlooking the plains of Venetla, which
opened up the road to the rear of the
Isonzo front. But by the end of May, the
Italian left held firm, notably at Coni
Zugna, Pasubio and Buole Pass, although
the centre and right were still retiring.
On May 25, Battale fell to the Austrians,
who crossed the Posino on May 28 and on
June 3 captured Asiago.
But by this time, the stand of the left
wing and the arrival of reinforcements, as
well as the opening of the Russian drive
in the' east on June 4, which sent many
troops from the Trentino to the eastern
front, weakened the Austro-Hungarian ef-
fort; and Italy was able to make a stand,
by the middle of June launching counter-
attacks which regained some of the lost
ground. Largely through the cooperation
of Russia, Italy had been saved by a hair's-
breadth from invasion and probably from
the destruction or surrender of her huge
army along the Isonzo.
Italy was thus prepared to drive for
Gorizia once more, and in the first days
of August, Cadorna, the Italian commander-
in-chief, opened a heavy bombardment along
the Isonzo. On August 6, the Italians
stormed the city, capturing the heights
of Sabotino. By August 8, the heights of
San Michele were taken, by the ninth the
river was crossed and on the tenth the
city fell. In the next few days, the Ital-
ians advanced their lines slightly beyond
Gorizia.
The Conquest of Roumania. — We have
seen how the complications of Balkan poli-
tics had inclined Roumania to the Entente
camp, although her ruling^ family was a
branch of the Hohenzollerns and her rul-
ing classes were Germanophlle. The alliance
of Bulgaria with Germany, Austria-Hungary
and Turkey increased the movement in
Roumania for alliance with the opponents
of Bulgaria. Furthermore, several million
Roumans were "unredeemed" in the sec-
tions of Austria-Hungary known as Buko-
wina and Transylvania ; and it was in those
sections that the Russians advanced in the
summer of 1916. Russia threatened to keej»
Bukowina and Transylvania for herself if
Roumania did not Join the Entente, and
on August 27, 1910, Roumania declared
war on Austria-Hungary. (In March, 1916,
Portugal had also joined the Entente, in
fulfillment of her alliance with Great Bri-
tain. )
For months before the declaration of war
the Roumanian army had been mobilized,
and it was sent at once into Transylvania
to cooperate with the Russians there. By
September 1,5, much of Transylvania was
in Roumanian hands. But von Hinden-
burg, who had replaced von Falkenheyn as
head of the German General Staff, was but
biding his time. He was gathering Bulgar-
ian, Turkish and German troops under von
Mackensen in the Dobruja, on the opposite
(eastern) border of Roumania, and by the
middle of September these forces advances
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apon Roumania. On September 20, the
main Austro-German drive was then
launched upon the Roumanian forces in
Transylvania. (By this time, the Russian
drive there had been stopped and the Rus-
sians gave little further aid to Roumania,
it being evident that the court of the Tsar
was now flirting with Germany with an
eye to a separate peace.) Against the
heavy Austro-German artillery, the poorly-"
equipped Roumanian troops were powerless,
and von Falkenheyn had no trouble in
making his way into Roumania throughout
October, while von Mackensen was moving
through the Dobruja to effect a junction
with him. On December 5, 1916, Bucharest
fell, and by February, 1917, all but the
northern tip of Roumania was occupied by
the- enemy. In December, 1917, Roumania
joined with Bolshevist Russia In obtaining
an armistice, and signed a separate peace
with the Central Powers in March, 1918,
at the time of the Brest-Litovsk peace be-
tween Bolshevist Russia and Germany.
Battle of Jutland. — ^During the spring and
summer of 1916. both the German and the
British fleets had been making long sweeps,
in divisions, through the North Sea; and it
hence was Inevitable that they should meet.
At 2 P. M. on May 31, 1916, a British
division under Sir David Beatty en-
countered, off the northwest coast of Jut-
land, a German division under Admiral
Hipper. The British division consisted of
2 sguadrons of battle cruisers, 3 squadrons
of light cruisers, and 4 torpedo boat destroy-
ers, supported by 4 super-dreadnaughts. The
German division, consisting merely of 5
squadrons of battle cruisers, supported by
light craft, was outnumbered, and atteuJbted
to fall back on the main German fleet steam-
ing up from Helgoland. Beatty, however,
pursued the Germans, with the two hostile
divisions stretched out in almost parallel
lines, although the pursuit carried him closer
to the main German fleet and farther away
from the main British fleet under Jellicoe,
which also was steaming up to join In the
conflict. At 3.48 P. M. action commenced
at a distance of about 20,000 yards. Each
side soon got busy with torpedoes, and the
English "Indefatigable" was the flrst vessel
to sink, although the Germans soon lost two
destroyers when their attack was met by
an attack from the British destroyers. The
latter, however, lost heavily when they pur-
sued their advantage to attempt an attack
upon the German light cruisers. The "Queen
Mary" also soon went to the bottom ; and
by 4.30 the conflict was raging fiercely.
At 4.45 P. M., Beatty sighted the advance
of the main German battle fleet, and fell back
to the main British fleet, which was now
also approaching, and which soon engaged
the enemy. A heavy haze, however, gave
rise to a condition of "low visibility," and
it was difficult to strike a decisive blow ; and
action practically ceased by 9 P. M. Jellicoe
attempted during the flght and later during
the night to cut ofE the German fleet from
Its base, but found in the morning that he
had not succeeded ; and the English could
not follow, because of the danger of mines.
Although the battle of Jutland remains
probably the greatest naval battle fought In
the history of the world, yet the results
were indecisive. The British seem to have
suffered the heavier losses, but the Germans
indisputably fled. The British los^ com-
prised 3 battle cruisers, 3 cruisers, and 8
destroyers, a total loss in tonnage of 114.100
tons. The Germans confessed to a loss of 1
battleship, 2 battle cruisers, 5 cruisers and
5 destroyers— a total loss in tonnage of
60,720 tons. Tlie British claimed, however.
that the Germans lost in addition tonnage
to the extent of 47,800 tons ; but the end
of the war showed that Germany had pub-
lished a true account of her losses, althov^h
many German ships not sunk were so badly
damaged as to be practically useless. Con-
sidered absolutely, then, Jutland was a
German victory ; but the British fleet was
at least twice as powerful as the German,
so that to gain a practical victory, Ger-
many would have had to inflict more than
twice as much damage upon the British
fleet as the British fleet had inflicted upon
the German. In its effects, Jutland was
thus a drawn battle ; and did not effect the
further prosecution of the war on and
from under the sea.
Peace Proposals. — Chancellor von Beth-
mann-Holhveg, December 12, 1916, handed
to the envoys of the United States, .Spain
and Switzerland — the three neutrals that
represent German interests in hostile cap-
itals— a note proposing peace negotiations.
The text of the note and the replies thereto
will be found on pages 8187 to 8194.
One week after the German proposal
President Wilson, through Secretary of State
Lansing, sent a note to each of the bellig'
erent powers, suggesting that they take
the initiatory steps to bring about peace.
The note to the Entente groups was de-
livered to Great Britain, France, Italy, Ja-
pan, Russia, Belgium, Montenegro, Portugal,
Rumania and Serbia ; that to the central
allies, to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey
and Bulgaria, and also to all neutral govern-
ments for their information. For the text
of the note and replies, see 8190, et seq.
The Entente Allies' message in reply to
President Wilson's peace note outlined terms
which would have indicated defeat for Ger-
many in the war, but which had the saving
grace of being deflnite.
Germany, in reply to the President's note,
refused to mention any deflnite terms on
which she would be willing to consider the
establishment of peace ; but asserted her
willingness to discuss peace terms with rep-
resentatives of the countries with which she
was at war.
1917
America Enters the Lists. — Early in the
war, the German Government instituted a
ruthless submarine warfare, in retaliation
for England's "starvation blockade," and
the violation of America's rights on the
high seas thereby ensuing (see pages 8055,
8057, 8062, 8121) had the effect of in-
clining the sympathy of most Americans
toward the Entente camp. The German
treatment of Belgium also flayed a lead-
ing part in creating an anti-German feel-
ing in America, as did German intrigues
in the United States to subsidize news-
papers, to foment strikes in plants pro-
ducing materials to be shipped to the En-
tente Allies, and to stir up trouble and
even war between the United States and
Mexico and between the United States and
Japan. With the sinking of the Lusitania,
it was with difficulty that America pre-
served her neutrality, and only the Ger-
man pledge to observe due care in the
further prosecution of her campaign from
under the water preserved friendly rela-
tions between the two countries. But with
the beginning of 1917, the military ele-
ment within the German (government
achieved control over the civil, and decided
upon a policy of unrestricted submarine
warfare, believing that thereby the Allies
could be brought to their knees before the
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assistance of the United States could make
Itself materially felt in the scales of war.
(See page 8204.)
On January 31, 1917, Ambassador von
BernstorfE laid before the State Department
a communication from the Imperial Ger-
man Government which retracted the assur-
ances previously given by that power regard-
ing limitations upon its submarine cam-
paigns. The defense offered by Germany
for this retraction was a statement that her
enemies had resorted to Illegal warfare until
Germany was compelled to do likewise. The
communication announced that beginning
with February 1, 1917, all ships entering a
blockade zone established around the British
Isles and France, and also a blockade zone
In the Mediterranean Sea around France
and Italy, would be sunk on sight, with no
provision for the safety of their crews and
irrespective of their purposes and cargoes.
Dne time would be given for ships sailing
before this warning was made public to
reach their destinations in safety, the Ger-
man note continued ; but thereafter no ship,
belligerent or neutral, would be safe from
unannounced attack in the blockade zones.
American ships would be allowed only this
privilege — they might sail to and from the
port of Falmouth, according to a course laid
down by Germany, provided that only one
ship a week took advantage of this oflEer,
and provided that such ship did not carry
contraband in the German interpretation of
that word.
The response of the United States to
Germany's announcement was prompt and
decisive. On February 3, President Wilson
announced to Congress that Ambassador
von BernstorfE had been given his pass-
ports, and expressed a fervent wish that this
action would convince the Imperial Ger-
man Government of the determination of
the United States to defend Its own honor,
and would induce Germany not to commit
an overt act which would lead to war.
The American Ambassador to Germany,
James W. Gerard, was instructed at the
same time to ask for his passports from the
German Empire.
For some weeks, the outcome of the situ-
ation was awaited over the entire civilized
world with breathless interest, but there
was no indication that Germany was con-
sidering receding from the position she had
taken. On February 27, one week before
the adjournment of the Sixty-fourth Con-
gress, President Wilson asked it for power
to arm American merchant vessels, in ac-
cordance with a policy of armed neutrality ;
but a small group of Senators, whom the
President cliaracterlzed as a group of "wil-
.ful men representing no opinion but their
own," was enabled to take advantage of the
Senate's rules of debate to prevent a vote
upon the bill embodying President Wilson's
request. The result of their action was the
immediate amendment of the rules of the
Senate to provide for shutting oft debate by
certain regulations (closure) ; and the policy
of armed neutrality was put Into effect. It
soon became evident, however, that, In the
President's words, "the policy proved to be
impracticable." American ships were still
befiig mercilessly sunk, and the Sixty-fifth
Congress was summoned Into special session
on April 2. 1917. On the evening of the
same day, the President addressed the Con-
gress' assembled in .1oint session, and asked
It to declare that the actions of Germany
had compelled this country to proclaim that
a state of war existed between the United
States and the Imperial German Govern-
ment. With only 6 Senators and 50 Repre-
sentatives voting in the negative, the Con-
gress followed the President's request, and
offlclal announcement of the entrance of the
United States into the conflict was made by
the President on April 0.
Preparations of the United States tor Par-
ticipation.— Immediately upon thS announce-
ment by the President and Congress of the
existence of a state of war, the country
went Into extensive preparations to prose-
cute Its share in the conflict with the utmost
of its energy and resources. Plans made
for the enlargement of the Army (q. v.)
and the Navy (q. v.) and for the Industrial
and social integration of the country for the
conflict were put Into Immediate effect ; and
new plans were made by newly-created
boards and commissions. (See Council of
National Defense ; Naval Consulting Board ;
National Food Board ; United States Ship-
ping Board.) A conscription act was
passed, providing for a first war army of
.500,000 men. In addition to the recruiting
of the Army and Navy up to their full war
strength. Ex-President Roosevelt pleaded
for permission to lead a division of volun-
teers Into France, and went ahead with
plans for the organization of such a force
while Congress and the President were con-
sidering the advisability of granting his
request. The Secret Service force was most
eflScient in rounding up and arresting Ger-
man spies and plotters In this country, and
practically none of the anticipated schemes
for blocking the progress of the country's
war plans was carried Into effect. Com-
missions from England, Italy and France, to
consult and to give advice about our partici-
pation In the war, were received with open
arms, and a commission from the United
States to her new ally, the democratic Gov-
ernment of Russia, was dispatched. With-
out a dissenting vote. Congress passed a
first war budget of $7,000,000,000 ; and $2,-
000,000,000 offered in bonds as the Liberty
Loan (q. v.) was offered generally to the
country, to be largely oversubscribed. Ex-.
tensive war credits were granted to our
new allies. State and municipal govern-
ments co-operated extensively in govern-
mental plans, specially in the elimina-
tion of waste, in the production of food,
and in the encouragement of thrift and
economy. Registration of all men between
the ages of 21 and 31 was set for June 5.
On May 19, President Wilson announced
that a division of the resular army (about
28,000 men) would be dispatched immedi-
ately to France under the command of Gen-
eral Pershing. Aviation and hospital units
from the United States also were dispatched
about the same time. President Wilson an-
nounced also on May 19 that he did not
contemplate at that time the acceptance of
Bx-Presldent Roosevelt's offer to lead an
expeditionary force into France.
From June throughout 1917, American
troops were dispatchejl to France, where
they received intensive training before be-
ing sent to the firing lines.
On July 20, 1917, the numbers were drawn
for the draft army, which had been In-
creased to 687,000, and by December all
those drawn In the lottery were in canton-
ments receiving training.
The Sixl!y-flfth Congress, by its adjourn-
ment early In October, had passed appro-
priations totalling $21,000,000,000. Seven
billions of this amount, however, was for
loans to the other Ententa Allies : and
niuch additional was for future expenditure.
The President sought and obtained legisla-
tion enabling him to mobilize and direct
the entire economic resources of the" coun-
try. For the war taxes levied, see Inter-
nal Revenue. Mr. Herbert Hoover, for-
merly head of the Belgian Relief Commis-
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sion, was made food administrator, although
his powers fell far short of those of a food
dictator. The Red Cross was re-organized ;
the problem of providing ships for trans-
portation of men and supplies to Europe
was attacked vigorously ; and the entire
business structure of the land was re-or-
ganized for food purposes.
. The First Liberty Loan of $2,000,000,000
was offered to the people In June, 1917, and
was largely oversubscribed, as was the Sec-
ond Liberty Loan, offered In October, in
which more than $4,000,000,000 was col-
lected.
A feature of the war administration of
President Wilson was tfie suppression of
papers criticising our entrance into and
prosecution of the war to the point where
the post-olBce authorities declared that
such criticism was hindering the country's
endeavors.
Domestic activities concerned with .the
prosecution of the War, such as the United
States Shipping Board, War Trade Board,
Alien Property Custodian, Shipiuilding, In-
come and Corporation Tasfes, Espionage
Law, Fuel Administration, Food Administra-
tion, Railroad Federalimation, Conscription,
are described under their respective heads.
For detailed account of the war activities
of the bureaus within the War and Navy
Department, look under those heads. Sep-
arate activities like those concerned with
ShlpniuK, Aircraft Production, Liberty-
Loaris, Conscription, Council of National
Defence. Fuel Administration, War Trade
Board. Red Cross, Alien Property Custodian,
etc., are described under those heads.
Vatican Peace Proffer, 1917. — On August
14, 1917, the Pope dispatched a proffer of
peace to all the belligerents. The Pope
proposed as the basis for negotiations the
establishment of arbitration ; the freedom
of the seas ; disarmament ; the absence of
indemnities of a punitive nature ; the evac-
uation of Belgium with guarantees for In-
dependence ; the return of northern France
and also of the German colonies ; and the
settlement of the territorial problems rep-
resented by Alsace and Lorraine, Italia
Irredenta, the Balkan problem, etc., by ne-
gotiations after the war.
The President replied to the Pope on
August 29. in a communication which spoke
also for the allies of the United States.
The President, after expressing apprecia-
tion of the Pope's motives in offerine: medi-
ation, drew up an indictment of Germanv
as a faithless menace to the orsanization ot
the world, and declared that while the Ger-
man government remained autocratic, there
could be no guarantee that a peace with
it would be lasting, secure or just. Deny-
incr that the United States wo"ld take
part in an economic league against Ger-
many after the war, President Wilson de-
clared that until Germany was ruled dem-
ocratically by Its people instead of auto-
cratically by a caste, there could be no
peace negotiations with her. The Presi-
dent did not state what definite changes
would meet the requirements of the Allies,
nor did he comment upon the other definite
proposals of the Pope.
The German and Austrian replies to the
Vatican, published soon after the Presl-
''ent's reply, after asserting that Germany
and Austria had always been peace-loving,
assented to the Pope's proposal of recipro-
cal limitation of armaments, and the es-
tablishment of international arbitration.
The text of the Pope's offer and of the
replies to it will be found in their chrono-
logical position in the text of the Mes-
sages and Papers of the Presidents, under
the administration of President Wilson.
ON THE WESTERN FRONT
Battle of Arras. — Early in Fehruar.y be-
gan the first of the great German retreats
since the Battle of the Marne. The Battle
of the Somme had allowed the British to
drive a wedge into the German lines, and
persistent attacks had 'gradually widened
that wedge until the German lines were no
longer tenable. • The Germans prepared their
new line of resistance (the Hindenburg line)
very carefully and retreated to it in mas-
terly fashion, taking up a position facing the
towns of Arras and Soissons. The Germans
pursued their policy ot frightfulness by de-
liberately wasting the country they were
forced to abandon, In such wanton fashion
as to impoverish It for years to come.
Against the new German line, the Eng-
lish launched a general attack at dawn of
Easter Monday, April 9, 1917. The offen-
sive was along a 45-mlle front, with Le^s
as the objective at one end and St Queutin
at the other end. Despite the fact that the
attack was launched in bitter weather, It
was irresistible, and day after day the Ger-
mans retreated, the English taking above
10,000 prisoners dally. Not since the be-
ginning of the war was the attack by air
so comprehensive, and the artillery bom-
bardment rivalled that around Verdun in
the previous year. From the day of the
inauguration of the offensive, when the
Canadians captured the Vlmy ridge, to the
end of ten days, the Allies gained more
ground than they had previously gain.ed in
the 6 months since the Battle of the Somme.
After the first 5 days, the French also deliv-
ered smashing blows ; and the retreat of the
Germans along their whole line covered a
considerable number of miles. By May 1,
the end of the offensive was In sight, and
by May 15. Germany was able to deliver
several successful counter-attacks.
The Second Battle of the Aisne. — In the
middle of April, the French struck at the
southern pivot of the Hindenburg Line,
around the Aisne. But they made little
progress, and in May signally failed in
their onslaught on the Chemih des Dames
position. General P^tain replaced General
Nlvelle as the French comamnder-ln-chlef.
The Battle of Flanders. — Having failed
in April, the British struck in June, to
the north, in Flanders, capturing Messlnes
Ridge, after exploding the German posi-
tions there by means of mines. In the
same month, the Germans made gains near
the sea-coast, along the Tser Canal. At
the end of July, the British again broke
through from the Lys River to Steenstraat,
but in the middle of August failed around
Ypres. Throughout September and Octo-
ber, Halg bit into the German lines in
Flanders by severe fighting, breaking
through for several miles and capturing
Passchendaele Ridge. i
The French Summer and Autumn Drives.
— In the fall, the French struck again in
front of Verdun, regaining Dead Man's
Hill, Hill 304 and other important posi-
tions. In October, they renewed their ef-
forts along the Aisne and after some days'
severe fighting captured the Cherain des
Dames and the Heights of the Aisne.
Ill France, the Briand fliinlstry was suc-
ceeded by that of Rlbot, which fell before
that of PalnlSv*, who in turn was suc-
ceeded in November by Georges Clemenceau.
World War
Encyclopedic Index
World Wax
Man Power Under Arms on Jan. 1, J91S. —
According to the most reliable figures avail-
able, there were at the beginning ol 1918
some 38,000,000 persons In the Armies and
Navies of the nations engaged in the gre^t
struggle, distributed as follows :
ENTENTE ALLIES
Kussia 9,000,000
France 6,000,000
Oreat Britain 5,000.000
Italy 3,000,000
Japan 1,400,000
United States more than 1,000,000
China 540,000
Rumania 320,000
Serbia 300,000
Belgium 300,000
Greece 300,000
Portugal 200,000
Montenegro 40,000
Total 27,400,000
CENTRAL POWERS
Germany 7,000,000
Austria-Hungary 3,000,000
Bulgaria 300,000
Turlcey 300,000
Total 10,000,000
Battle of Cambrai. — On the morning of
Monday, November 19, 1917, the British
launched a carefully-prepared and carefully-
concealed attacl: upon the German trenches
in front of the village of Cambrai. The
attacls was led by many "tanks," or trac-
tors, which had been massed before the
point of attack without the Icnowledge of
the enemy, and which succeeded In batter-
ing down the German trenches in their ad-
vance so that the British troops could pour
through. There was tremeiidous artillery
activity on a front of almost 32 miles, from
QuSant almost to St. Quentin, but the ad-
vance proper was on a front of about 12
miles. ^
The attack lasted four days before it
spent itself, and by that time the British
had advanced six miles at certain points,
averaging a flve-mile advance along a seven
mile front, and gaining altogether more
than fifty square miles of territory and some
10,000 prisoners. This gain of ground rep-
resents the greatest Allied advance since
the Battle of the Marne, and more than was
gained In four months' fighting "at the
Somme. Cambrai Itself, an Important rail-
road and highway center, was not occupied,
however.
Once recovered from their surprise, how'-
ever, the Germans launched terrific counter-
attacks against the advanced positions of
the British, winning many of them back.
These counter-attacks continued well into
December, and succeeded in retrieving prac-
tically all of the ground which the British
had captured.
Russian. MiUtary Oollapse, 1917. — For
several months after the Russian Revolu-
tion (q. v.), Germany seems to have re-
frained from any attacks upon that coun-
try because of the hope of concluding a
separate peace with her. A strong Rus-
sian offensive In July, however, was final
proof that Russia was determined to stick
by her allies, and Germany accordingly
launched a heavy attack later In the month.
Tlie inevitable re-action from the enthu-
siam of the Revolution at this time was
convulsing Russia, and she was unable to
to present any considerable resistance to
tlie German advance. Many of the radi-
cals and the pacifists were not In favor of
continuing the war, and the- consequent
disorganization In the army made Ger-
many's task easy. On September' 8, Riga
was occupied, and in October, German war-
ships penetrated into the Gulf of Riga.
In July, the Socialist Keren^ky had re-
placed Lvoft as premier, and the government
became more radical in its personnel. Ker-
ensky displayed remarkable powers of or-
ganization, and made great strides toward
resurrecting Russia's military strength.
The Bolsheviki, or uncompromising Social-
ists, nevertheless af latest reports were In-
creasing In power ; and the date on which
Russian armies could again be of great
assistance to their allies was problemati-
cal.
On September 9, 1917, General Korni-
loffi, who had succeeded Brusilotf, the suc-
cessor of Alexieff as commander-in-chief,
raised the standard of revolt In behalf of
the constitutional democrats, or moderates,
against the Socialist government, but was
unsuccessful, and saw his revolt pnt down
by Kerensky with little trouble. Shortly
afterwards, the Cabinet proclaimed Russia
a republic. Before the end of 1917, Keren-
sky had been replaced by a government ot
the Bolshevik! (q. v.), under Lenine and
Trotsky. In December, an armistice be-
tween Russia and Roumania and Germany
was announced.
Through January, 1918, "the representa^
tives of the Bolshevist government and of
Rumania discussed terms of peace with the
spokesmen of the Central Powers at Brest-
Lltovsk. Lenine asked the Allied govern-
nients to .loin the negotiations, but was told
that the Allies would not discuss peace with
a victorious and uncontrolled German gov-
ernment. On February 15. 1918, the Ger-
man government finally rejected all peace
propositions of the Bolsheviki, and three
days later resumed hostilities against Rus-
sia, which was not in a condition to oppose
even a weak resistance to the German ad-
vance. The Germans soon crossed the Dvina
River at Dvinsk and, Petro^rad being men-
aced, the seat of the Russian govei'nment
was removed to Moscow,' and the Bolsheviki
were forced to accept terms of peace as dic-
tated by Germany.
Rumanian-Central Powers Peace. — At
the same time as the peace negotiations be-
tween the Central Powers and the Socialist
Government of Russia at Brest-Litovsk, and
largely under the same conditions, Rumania
entered upon peace negotiations with the
Central Powers. Final terms of peace were
signed on May 7, 1918, constituting the
Treaty of Bucharest, and practically mak-
ing Roumania a vassal state of Germany
and Austria-Hungary.
ON OTHER FRONTS
Greece Joins the Entente. — In spite of
the efforts of Venizelos, the Greek govern-
ment persisted in trying to remain neutral
in 1917 as well as in 1916. But the Allies
used the presence of their army at Salon-
iki and or their fieet In Grecian waters to
coihpel the demobilization of the Grecian
army ; the submission of Grecian news-
papers and other forms of communication
to Allied censorship ; the appointment of
certain ministers desired by them ; the dis-
missal of the Central Powers' diplomats
in Greece ; and even the surrender of large
military stores for Allied use. The Allies
also supported Venizelos in a revolt, but
thei revolt found little favor among the
Greeks. Early in January, the Entente,
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World War
Shipping Built in United States During War. — Between April 6, 1917, and November 11,
1918, 2,985 ships were built in United States shipbuilding plants. The total tonnage rep-
resented was 3,091,695 gross, an average of 1,035 gross tons each. Of the total built,
506 were ocean-going steel vessels, aggregating 2,056,814 tons, an average of slightly
more than 4,000 gross tons each. Ocean-going wooden vessels aggregated 403, with a gross
tonnage of 753,156. For further details of our shipbuilding program during the War,
see the article in volume XX under "Shipbuilding."
Month by month the number of ships built in the United States was as follows :
Seag9ing.
Nonseagoing.
Grand total.
Steel.
Wood.
Total
Months.
Number.
Gross
Tons.
Number.
Gross
Tons.
Number.
Gross
Tons.
Number.
Gross
Tons.
Number.
Gross
Tons.
1917.
April 7
May 11
June 22
July 14
August 9
September 9
October 13
November 19
December 17
1918.
January 12
February 17
March 29
April 31
May • '. . '40
June 42
July t 37
August 49
September 46
October 57
Nov. 1 to Nov. 11. 2_5
Grand total . . 506 2,056
34,364
36,086
97,908
54,891
46,716
35,073
44,420
50,660
85,917
9
19
9
7
14
12
22
11
16
17,233 16
33,004 30
31,216 31
14,113 21
12,155 23
12,513 21
35,879 35
10,872 30
20,611 33
53,
94,
115,
130,
157,
163.
146,
191
177,
228:
112,
,748 6
242 14
040 12
637 15
,598 13
034 16
,981 38
,102 39
,765 54
,203 53
.429 24
6,468
17,874
20,776
21,017
16,453
26,985
72,727
91,997 88
123,668 100
117,165 110
50,430 49
18
31
41
46
53
58
75
51,597
69,090
129,124
69,004
58,871
47,586
80,299
61,532
106,528
60,216
112,116
135,816
151.654
174,051
190,019
219,708
283,099
301,433
345,368
162.859
123
162
196
184
152
80
87
87
52
39
53
97
119
132
130
118
89
70
91
15
9,201
22,137
22,877
20,148
27,171
28,999
10,386
15,736
16,053
4,579
5,485
11,329
11,396
20,413
11,406
tl0,223
12,750
7,037
12,164
2,235
139
192
227
205
175
101
122
117
85
57
84
138
165
185
188
193
177
170
201
64
60,798
91,227
152,001
89,152
86,042
76,585
90,685
77.268
122,581
64,795
117,601
147,145
163,050
194,464
201,425
229.931
295,849
308,470
357,532
165.094
,814 403 753,156 909 2,809,970 2,076 281,725 2,985 3,091,695
• Includes 1 cement vessel of 3,427 gross tons, t Includes 1 cement vessel of 325 gross tons.
charging that Constantlne and his Govern-
ment were engaged in pro-German intrigues,
blockaded all Grecian ports ; and In June
finally compelled him to abdicate, placing
his second Bon, Alexander, on the throne,
and giving over the management of the
country to Venizelos. Through these meas-
ures, Greece was led to declare war on
Germany on July 2, 1917.
The (Ireat Italian Defeat at Caporetto. —
The winter of 1916-7 was too severe for
the Italians to make much of an advance
after their capture of Gorlzia, but in May
they won many more of the heights on
their road to Trieste and Laibach. In the
same month, another Austro-Hungarian at-
tack in the Trentino failed, although in
the early part of June the enemy succeeded
by counter-attacks in regaining some of
the ground he had lost along the Isonzo
front. In August, the Italians drove ahead
once more beyond the Isonzo and great
efforts in September gained the Important
position of Mont San Gabriele. A strip
of land tome thirty miles in .width had
been cut from the Austro-Hungarian fron-
tier.
But the German General Staff had no
Intention of permitting the Italians to
get farther ahead. They were preparing
a heavy onslaught into the Italian posi-
tions, and they were aided by the pacifist
feeling among the Italian troops. The great
Italian Socialist party had taken a posi-
tion of utter opposition to the pt-osecu-
tion of the war, and when the great Ger-
man drive started, thousands of Italians
soldiers, in the uniform against their will
and against their convictions, refused to
fight
On November 1, German and Austro-Hun-
garian shock troops launched two attacks as
terrible as they were unexpected against
the Italian line, which had become con-
siderably extended. The attacking forces
were largely of seasoned German troops
under von Mackensen. One force advanced
through Plezzo and Tolmino while the oth-
er was making a flanking movement to the
northeast. The first attack drove the Ita-
lians southwest to the plains aroulid Udine
and Cividale, and bent the Italian line so
sharply, that Gorizia and the surrounding
land to the south had also to be aban-
doned. The German flanking force to the
northeast meanwhile was not to be denied,
and Cadorna was confronted by the threat
of being altogether surrounded. The only
escape lay in a general retreat into Italy ;
and despite the rapidity with which the
Germans moved, by skilful strategy he was
able to reach the Tagliamento River In
Italy with the loss of 180,000 prisoners and
1,500 cannon. The Teutons were thus en-
abled to occupy the northern boundary of
Italy to the extent of more ^ than thirty-
five miles.
' At the Tagliamento River a stand was
made, but the Germans continued their
flanking movements, and a general re-
treat still farther into Italy was ordered.
There seemed to be hope that Venice could
be saved from the invaders, and that a
successful winter stand conld be made
farther north than the Adige or the Eo
rivers.
The Italian disaster called forth great
re-inforcements from the Allies, especially
in supplies ; and the consciousness among
the Allied leaders that the disaster had
been made possible largely by the lack of
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World War
The Results of Submarine 'Warfare. — The following table shows the merchant tonnage
of the world on July 1, 1914, the tonnage lost through acts of war (chiefly submarine
attacks), the tonnage built during the war. and the tonnage of the world on January 1,
1919. The figures are in gross tons.
July Lost in Built in January
1, 1914 War War 1, 1919
United Kingdom 20,100,000 7,757,000 4,557,000 16,900,000
United States 1,875,000 395,000 4,239,000 5,719,000
Other Allies 7,675,000 2,592,000 1,757,000 6,840,000
Central Powers 6,325,000 3,000,000 750,000 *4,360,000
Neutral Nations 6,640,000 1,998,000 1,144,000 5,786,000
Total 42,615,000 15,742,000 12,447,000 39,605,000
* 2,400,000 tons of Central Powers' shipping were seized at the outbreak of the War
and during the War.
The net loss of merchant shipping due to the war, that is, the difference between the
tonnage lost and the tonnage constructed, may be placed at 4,250,000. But under normal
conditions it is estimated that there would have been constructed from August, 1914 to
November, 1918 some 12,000,000 tons of shipping, so that the total shortage in world
shipping as a result of the war may be placed at 16,250,000.
It is estimated tliat Germany lost 200 submarines during the War.
unified management of the war among the
Entente Allies led to the formation of a
central Allied war council, with power to
direct all military operations.
Capture of Jerusalem. — Soon after the
entrance of Turkey into the war, a Turkish
attack against Egypt and the Suez Canal
was launched across the Sinai peninsula.
In November, 1914, the Turks arrived with-
in, striking distance of the Canal at several
points, but after several months were driven
back a considerable distance.
In June, 1916, however, the Turks ad-
vanced again, and got to within fifteen miles
of the coveted water passage, only to be de-
feated again. /
In December, 1916, the British finally
succeeded in driving the Turks altogether
out of Egypt, and inaugurated an advance
of their own into Palestine. By March,
1917, they had advanced to the site of an-
cient Hebron, fifteen miles south of Jeru-
salem. The heated summer weather com-
pelled a lull in operations and a retirement
until the following Pall ; but by November,
Beersheba and Gaza were in British bands,
and by December Hebron had again been
taken, and Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem,
also was under the British flag. The city
was thus surrounded, but the invading
forces proceeded with caution, so as not to
injure the holy places of the city ; and
Jerusalem was not finally surrendered un-
til December 9, 1917.
The Capture of Bagdad. — In 1917, the
British prepared to avenge Kut-el-Amara,
and in February re-captured the city by
a strong advance under General Maude.
The victors then proceeded up the Tigris,
and, after inflicting several defeats upon
the Turks, occupied Bagdad on March 11.
The British continued to control Mesopo-
tamia after -the War, as one of the settle-
ments of the Peace Treaty.
1918
The First Great German Drive (The
Beconcl Battle of the Bomme). — If Germany
was to win the war by the might of her
army, she had to win it In 1918. The
Russian military collapse enabled her to
transfer all her legions from the eastern
to the v^estern front. At the same time,
Stance had passed the zenith of her effort,
and her might on the western front had
suffered a decline which counter-balanced
the increase in Great Britain's might. The
submaritie warfare was crippling the En-
tente, and American ship-building had not
yet struck its stride. Opposition in the
Balkans had almost ceased, and Italy was
still engaged in recovering from Caporetto.
Finally, the American army in France was
not yet in a position to exert great pres-
sure.
In 1919, on the other hand, Germany,
like France, would have passed the zenith
of her might. America would be in Europe
in full force. Austria-Hungary was break-
ing up, and there was no telling hpw long
the Bolshevlki might remain in power In
Russia. For Germany, lt*was victory in
1918 or never.
Notwithstanding the heavy casualties of
1917, the British Army was considerably
stronger on January 1, 1918. than on Jan-
uary 1, 1917. Before the collapse- of Rus-
sia in November, 1917, the German com-
batant strength was as two to the Allies'
three. The German offensive in March was
reinforced with the German troops removed
from the Eastern front, with a certain
amount of support from Austria, especially
in guns and ammunition. Nevertheless,
when the battle began, the Germans were
still slightly inferior to the Allies in in-
fantry and in artillfcry and markedly In-
ferior in aircraft.
Accordingly, the Germans reorganized
their troops in smaller divisions, so as to
get a greater number of divisions. They
had fewer men in a battalion and fewer bat-
talions in a division. The particular ad-
vantage enjoyed by the Kaiser's troops was
that of the offensive and the knowledge
where the attack would be delivered, where-
as the Allies had to strengthen their line
along practically its entire length. The
Germans concentrated in front of both the
British and the French troops, bringing
up their latter forces to the support of the
former by night. The Germans enjoyed also
remarkably advantageous weather condi-
tions. But the chief advantage which the
Germans enjoyed was that of a unified com-
mand, as opposed to the divided authority
of all the Entente forces.
In addition, the Germans had succe.ssfully
developed a new method of trench warfare,
that of infiltration, whereby groups of ma-
chine-guns would break through the enemy
lines to post themselves in secure posi-
tions, counting on suflScient strength to
make the enemy's lines virtually sieves.
The German hope was to separate the
French and the British, the latter having
taken over so much of the Entente battle-
f™?* as to thin it beyond the safety point.
If Hindenburg and Ludendorff could break
World War hncyclopcdk Index World War
GaauaUies of the War. — It Is difficult to present accurate figures as to the total casual-
ties of the war. Many solfliers originally reported as missing are later found to have
been killed or captured, many were wounded more thdn once, and many killed were
previously included in the wounded column. The following figures, however, are com-
piled from official reports of some of the belligerents, with the figures for the other bellig-
erents acquired by using the ratio of total casualties to deaths obtaining among these
official reports :
HNTENTB ALLIES
Total
Dead 'Wounded Casualties
Russia 1,700,000 3,500,000 7,500,000
France 1,366,200 3,000,000 5,000,000
British Empire 900,000 2,800,000 4,200,000
Italy 462,000 930,000 2,700,000
Servla, Montenegro 123,000 290,000 575,000
Belgium 102,000 235,000 450,000
Eoumania , 100,000 230,000 440,000
United States ■ 49,000 230,000 286,000
Greece 7,000 16,000 30,000
Portugal 2,000 4,000 7,000
Total 4,813,000 11,255,000 21,188,000
CENTBAL POWERS
Germany 1,620,000 3,700,000 6,000,000
Austria-Hungary 800,000 2,000,000 4,100,000
Turkey 250,000 575,000 800,000
Bulgaria 100,000 400,000 700,000
Total 2,770,000 6,675,000 11,600,000
Grand Total 7,583,000 17,930,000 32,788,000
Estimates of the losses In wars of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are as follows,
although the data are extremely meagre and unreliable, except in the case of the Union
forces in the Civil ^yar, where the figures may be regarded as official :
Civil Wof — Union Army : Casualties
Forces Engaged 2,320,272 War of 1812 .. 50,000
Total Deaths 339.528 Mexican War 50,000
Wounded 275,175 Napoleonic Wars 6,000.000
Confederate Armv : Crimean War 285,000
Forces Engaged 600.000 Husso-Turkish War 225.000
Total Deaths 155.000 Russo-Japanese War 550.000
Wounded 70.000 British-Boer War 175.000
the point of connection, they could roll their wedge between the two British armies
back the British toward the west, where so as to drive the Fifth to the north and
t'le ocean would limit the British retreat ; the Third to the south, as they retreated ;
and could either capture great numbers and and thus the opening between them con-
force other great numbers to re-embark stantly widened. For a time, only open
from France or else hold the British at country lay between the centre of the Ger-
bay by relatively few forces while pro- man phalanx and Paris,
ceeding without interruption to crush the -q^^ q^ March 25, a miscellaneous corps,
French. composed of any and all forces at hand,
The Germans struck on the morning of ana P',''™^ ""?™ Ge^neral Cary, was shoved
March 21, 1918, along the fifty-mile ftont into the breach ; and although it could not
1 eld by the British Fifth Army. The great stop the German centre, at least it de-
(Iprman concentration of strength and the l?'"^'^^*^'^^ enemy long enough, and plugged
new German methods of breaking through the German wedge long enough, for the
the trenches did their work well. Before fast retreating Third and Fifth Armies
noon, the British lines had been completely to join once more in back of Gary. All
pierced in at least four separate points, this time the British were making no
and with great bodies of Germans turning pretence at steady resistance, fighting only
in to get In back of the positions which enough rear-guard actions to save sections
had held, a precipitate retreat all along m danger of being flanked; and content to
the line was imperative. And the retreat "treat if only thereby they niight save
came perilously close to a rout. The Ger- their formations. By the twenty-seventh,
mans concentrated their strength upon open- finally, the first of the French reinforce-
ing a wedge between the retreating Fifth ments arrived ; and along the Ancre and
Army and the adjoining Third Army, and above Albert the British were able to
at the same time drove another wedge ™ake a stand, at the same time beginning
between the British and the French, so to narrow the chasm in their lines,
that the latter had to swing far to the On March 28, the American First Army
south and west before they could come up was shifted from the Toul sector to a
to reinforce the British. Throughout the position in reserve back of the French
days following the inauguration of the lines, thus permitting more French re-
attack, the British desperately made all serves to rush up to the succor of the
haste for the rear, abandoning miles and British ; and the Third and Fifth Armies
miles of territory to the Germans, in a finally effected a juncture. On that day,
beetle hope of establishing once more con- the Germans made a supreme effort, cap-
nections between the Third and the Fifth turing Montdidier, and driving for Amiens,
Armies and between the Fifth Army and where the possession of the Paris-Calais
t'-'e Frendi, so as to avoid the encirclemenl; Railroad would effectively cut off the Bri-
and hence the complete destruction of the tish from the French once more. They
entire Fifth Army. But the Germans drove drove deeply ahead in certain sections, 'but
World War
Encyclopedic Index
World War
in others the Allied lines remained firm,
and the worst was over. Throughout the
remainder of the month, the enemy made
serious gains, but the lines in front of
Amiens finally, held. Spending several days
in consolidating his last gains, on April 4
LudendortC again tried to hreak through
the British centre, but was c'leclced by
the following day, ahd by April 8 tbe drive
was over. The enemy had brol^en through
to a depth of some forty miles on a sixty-
mile front, had captured fifteen hundred
miles of territory, had disorganized one
British army and much of another, had
compelled the Allies to use all their re-
serves, and had carved out a most danger-
ous salient. I
One result of the Allied withdrawal was
the appointment of the French military
leader. General Ferdinand Foch, as gener-
alissimo of all the Allied forces, the first
time that the Allied armies had been placed
under one leader.
The Second German Drive (The Battlg
of the Lys). — Having failed to coop up
all tile British forces In front of the Eng-
lish Channel, the next German drive was
an effort so to coop up the upper half of
the British forces in the west. To this
end, LudendortE struck in Belgium, around
the Lys River, from La Bass^e to Dix-
mude. It is possible that this move had
been originally intended as a feint and that
only the overwhelming German success of
the first several days of the drive turned
it into a major operation.
For the British forces in this sector had
been sadly depleted in order to bolster up
the lines to the south shattered some days
before, and the Germans had little difficulty
in driving ahead when their attack opened
on April 9. Portuguese troops among the
British broke almost at once, and before
long the entire line was in full retreat be-
fore the new German infiltration methods.
For some days, there was a repetition of
the Second Battle of the Somme ; and be-
fore the enemy was finally halted on April
13, the great British centre of Ypres was
in great danger. On April 15, the drive
was renewed with success, but. from that
point to the end of the month the Ger-
man gains, though often serious — ^such as
those resulting in the occupancy of Mont
Kemmel — were chiefly local ; and Ypres, al-
though almost surrounded, finally held. The
second salient carved out by the Germans
was from ten to twenty miles deep, repre-
senting a total gain of some 400 square
miles.
The Third German Drive (The Third
Battle of the Msne). — ^The third German
drive was the decisive one. Germany was
fast wasting the resources she had stored
up, and if the third drive should fail to
gain , Paris or completely crush the Allied
resistance, Germany would be at the end
of her rope, well-nigh merciless before the
resurrected strength of the Allies, as rein-
forced by . the great American army which
was beginning to be formed In France,
ready for action. Throughout the month
of May, therefore, Germany hurried her
preparations and on May 27, with all the
desperation of a final bid for victory, struck
on the front between Rheims and the salient
carved out in the first great drive.
Once more, the German attack was Irre-
sistible and carried all before it. Before
the fury of the onslaught, the French reeled
back in dismay and for some days the
story of the Second Battle of the Somme
was repeated. In two days, the enemy
broke through to a depth of from twelve
to fifteen miles. By this time, American
troops were in the thick of the fighting,
but nothing could yet stop the German
advance, and on May 29, from ten to fif-
teen miles more were gained and the re-
treat again was but a shade from a rout,
even if no serious gap had been opened
in the French ranks comparable to that
opened in the British ranks in March. By
May 30, the Germans had again reached
the Marne, more than thirty miles from
their starting point four days before.
Vp to this time, Foch had wisely decided
to choose retfeat rather than risk destruc-
tion by extensive resistance, but at the
Marne he determined to make his stand.
His lines had begun to hold on the extreme
wings, and as thus the German gains by
this time had assumed the form of a tri-
angle, it would be dangerous for Luden-
dortC to advance further in the apex with-
out broadening his base. The German leader
therefore drove again at the wings. On
the west wing, the enemy did manage to
break through, bringing his gains in con-
nection with his great Somme salient ; but
on the east wing, around Rheims, a differ-
ent story was told. There the French lines
held.
Accordingly, the Germans were compelled
to concentrate their next efforts on the
north side of their Aisne triangle, so as
to get in the rear of the Allied troops
holding the south side of the Somme salient.
And now American troops began to give
an account of themselves, along with the /
French. The Germans were held in the
centre, notably around Chateau Thierry,
and on June 4, 5 and 6, they were com-
pelled to halt. The new drive had got
ahead faster than its two predecessors, but
it had been stopped more quickly.
In the next several days, the Germans
again broke through at the west wing of
their new Aisne salient, compelling the
French to retire from a strip of land some
thirty miles long and seven miles deep be-
tween the bases of the two salients ; but
beyond this LudendorfE could not go. Again
the French and Americans held the enemy
counter-attacks, notably at Belleau Wood,
regaining all the ground lost by the Inltidl
enemy onslaught. Down to June 18, Luden-
dortC drove at different places in the line,
' attempting to find another weak spot where
he might again break through, but to no
avail, and flesh and blood could go no
farther. Through sheer exhaustion, th«
German attack died down.
The German armies had shot their bolt,
and the threat of German victory was now
a thing of the past. True, Ludendorff
might make another drive, rather than re-
treat at once to shorten his lines against
the Allifes, who now, thanks to America,
had a decided numerical superiority, but
no one knew better than the German leader
that a fourth German drive was fore-or-
dained to failure, and that it would be fol-
lowed by a hasty retirement from all the
ground won in 1918, back to the shortest
lines he could hold.
The German Check (The Second Battle
of the Marne). — Nevertheless, Ludendorff
insisted upon one more ofCensive, driving
on July 14 for Rheims, at the eastern apex
of the Aisne salient. He drove both from
the east of Ehelms, and from the eastern
side of the Aisne salient, to the west of
the city. But in three days, he got ahead
but several miles, and could not get far
enough behind the city to compel the
French compiander. General Gouraud, to
withdraw from it.. At the apex of the
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Aisne salient, he was again stopped by the
Americans at Chilteau-Thierry and by the
French to the east of Chateau-Thierry. By
July 18, the German advance had come to
an inglorious close through sheer weak-
ness. It was Foch's turn to strilte.
Gaining six miles on the first day, Foch's
forces so irresistibly swept aside the Ger-
man defense that Hindenburg and Luden-
dor£E decided that to oppose the whole
fronting army of the Crown Prince was
to court Its complete annihilation or sur-
render, and a general German retreat from
the salient was ordered. The German
General StafE evidently hoped that rear
guard actions would give the Crown Prince's
army time to retire in good order, but so
precipitate was the American and French
advance that the Germans had to retreat
in great disorder, and enormous stores of
war materials and great numbers of pris-
oners fell into the Allies' hands. The^
Allied attack beginning at the apex of the
salient, by July 20 it spread around the
sides. By July 23, every German had
been driven across the Marne, and by
July 27, the German army abandoned all
pretense of strong resistance until It could
reach the Vesle, where the Germans es-
tablished themselves and entrenched by
August 5th. Their line was thus much
shorter, and their evident need for a
shortening of the front gave every indica-
tion that the German forces were no longer
strong enough to maintain against the
Allies' forces a battle line much lengthened
over the Hindenburg line of 1917. The
Germans accordingly gave up the entire
salient which had cost them so dear.
The Beginning of the End. — When the
Crown Prince's Army entrenched Itself on
the Vesle on August 5, 1918, it seemed
probable that another period of trench war-
fare, possibly continuing up to the fol-
lowing spring, was in order ; for it looked
OS though the Allies needed several months
to consolidate the salient which they had
regained, aild to prepare strong forces to
attack the German position.
But Foch's resources were greater than
probably any one except himself knew.
Within two days, that Is, on August 7,
he ordered an advance of the British forces
against . the army of Prince Eupprecht,
one hundred miles to the north, on the
Lys salient. The next day, August 8,
another attack was launched halfway be-
tween the Crown Prince's line and Eup-
prccht's army — on the Somme and dl-
rectPd against the lines of communication
feeding the new position of the Crown
Prince on the Vesle. The strength of the
new attack may be gauged from the fact
that on the first day the EJnglish army
under Kawlinson gained no less thjin nine
miles. By August 12. Lassigny had been
taken and 40,000 prisoners were In the
Allies' hands. Before August 18. when the
Germans attempted to make a new stand,
they had given up much around and had
surrendered at least one-fifth of the Lys
and Picardy salients.
Simultaneously, attacks on the Crown
Prince's line had made it impossible for
Mm to consolidate his resources, and by
.August 18, his army had been driven hack
about ten miles from the Vesle. By this
time, the whole line from the coast to
Switzerland was active, and contempora-
neous history becomes impossible. One can
only take up different sections in order.
On the Lys salient, the Germans were
compelled before September to withdraw
forces to prevent a rout farther south,
where Foch was hammering in Picardy ;
and the British constantly took advantage of
these withdrawals to launch attacks which
cut deeply into the German line. By Au-
gust 25, Merville was in Allied hands and
by August 30, Bailleul. On the next day
Mount Kemmel Itself was re-occupied by
the British and by September 10, Wyt-
schaete was evacuated.
In the Picardy salient, the centre of the
entire Allied thrust was taking place, and
was dominating the whole line, gains in
Picardy necessitating both withdrawals and
transferrals of German troops from other
sectors to bolster the Picardy lines. On
August 25, the Allied forces had reached
the Hindenburg Line on the north, and
there the Germans once more endeavored
to make a stand.
The Hindenburg line represented the line
held by the Germans through the winter
of 1917-8 and hence the line from which
their advances in the spring of 1918 had
been launched. It was the strongest nat-
ural line of defense for the Germans and
also the shortest, while if it were once
seriously broken, the entire German line in
Belgium and northern France would have
been threatened. The entire world there-
fore loolied to see that line held by the
Germans up to the last man and the last
ounce of resources.
Foch, however, had no Intention of al-
lowing the Germans suflBclent breathing
space to make a stand. The Allies ad-
vanced as quickly as the Germans retreated.
It was therefore significant when Haig was
able within several days to cut the Hin-
denburg line to the north near Arras, and
to carve out the first salient into the
Hindenburg line since the beginning of the
war, a salient toward Cambrai, develop-
ing considerable proportions by August
27th. By the end of the month, Mont
St. Simeon fell and Mont St. Quentin.
dominating the road up the Oise and
Peronne. By the middle of the month of
September, the Hindenburg line was l)eing
attacked along its whole length, and had
been pierced In several important sec-
tions toward Cambrai
On the Vesle front, there was little at-
tacking between the middle of August and
the first of September. The German with-
drawals to the north, however, were
threatening the Crown Prince with the
danger of being fianked, and on September
5 he ordered a wide retreat to a point
some twenty miles hack of the Vesle. His
retreat broke wliatever had been left of
the Germ,an military morale, and by Octo-
ber 1, the Hindenburg line had been cleared
of Germans and the battletront was roll-
ing far to the north and east. Meanwhile
the surrender of Bulgaria exposed Germany
and Austria on the east and Turkey on
the west.
The German Rout. — From the middle of
September, the history of the war on the
western front is an uninterrupted story
of Allied gains and German retreats. By-
September 16, there could no longer be
question of final defeat of Germany. Her
losses had been tremendous all through
the year, but by the end of the summer
she could show nothing as recompense for
them. Her condition in ' the military sense
was dynamic, not static ; on no front ex-
cept that of Lorraine was she able to
catch her breath. There was no longer pos-
sibility of making a stand — she had risked
all, and was losing all, and there was
no middle ground she could hold. She
had decided to abandon the slow trench
warfare, had won tremendous victories in
the open, but now that the Allies had
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utilized the open fighting for victories of
their own, Qermany no longer could resort
to trenches. The only problem now on
the western front was the number of men
and guns Germany could save before she
reached the Rhine and there was strong
grobablllty that the rate of her retreat
ad been so accelerated that even at the
Rhine no stand could be made. After the
middle of September, moreover, the Ameri-
can army west of the Vesle was ready with
its thrust.
American Troops Capture St. MiMel Sal-
ient.— For more than four years, from Sep-
tember, 1914, to September, 1918, the Ger-
man forces had occupied the so-called St.
Mihiel salient — stretching over the plain of
the Woevre River. Its apex toward France
was the town of St. Mihiel, on the Meuse,
and it protected as its base the great iron
fields of Briey, the most productive In the
world, while still farther in the rear it
served as a bulwark for the strongest of all
German fortresses, Metz, with its many sur-
rounding forts.
On September 12, 1918, the first American
army ever mobilized in France launched a
tremendous attack against the entire salient.
Pershing himself led the attack, and under
him was the flower of the troops sent across
the seas, trained, supplied and reserved to
break for all time the threat of German
world domination. It was no mere chance
which gave the Americans probably the most
difBcult position to attack along the whole
line — fortified as it had been for all of fbur
long years over almost every square foot of
its two hundred miles.
The operation itself was along the so-
called pincers plan. One claw of the pincers
rested on the Moselle near Pont-a-Mousson
— about ten miles thick. The other was to
the east of the river, near Haudimont —
about seven miles thick.
The artillery preparation began about
midnight, and lasted several hours. The
chief opposition was encountered on the west
front, at the northern tip of the salient,
slightly southwest of Fresnes ; but before
the end of the day the advance here had
almost equalled the advance on the southern
end of the salient. The attack was led by
a great army of tanks, reported by cor-
respondents to be between 500 and 1,000.
On the first day, the northern attacking
force had advanced from five to seven miles,
while on the second it had got about twelve
miles into the salient, reaching the Moselle
at Jaulny. On the first day alone, some
10,000 prisoners were taken, the Germans
being unable to offer much resistance to the
force of the attack.
Early in the second day, the forces at-
tacking from the south, which had had the
easier task, met the northern forces at
Haudicourt, and the junction of the two
forces gave them all the ground back of
them, in all, about 100 square miles. The
combined forces then advanced along the
entire line. By September 16. the guns of
Metz itself got into action, unit for the first
time the Germans were able to offer stiff
resistance, and some of the American ad-
vances were checked. Nevertheless by the
seventeenth, the Americans had advanced
to Ronvaux and Haumont. By the eight-
eenth, the attack slackened to consolidate
the positions won, especially near the re-
gions from which the pincers had first be-
gun to close in upon the German lines.
In five days, accordingly, probably the
most strongly-fortified German salient had
been captured, with more than 20,000 pris-
oners and 200 guns ; Verdun had for all
time been freed from danger of further at-
tack ; more than 200 square miles of terri-
tory had been gained ; the Moselle had been
reached ; and Metz was finally under fire,
while the Briey iron fields were at least
menaced.
Every military observer then realized
that the war was practically over and the
only uncertainty lay in thp length of time
before the German forces degenerated into
a rabble and Germany would admit defeat,
ask peace on the Allies' terms, and lay
prostrate before the mercies of the Allies.
Germany herself answered the question.
On September 15, 1918, Austria asked
peace. The peace negotiations are de-
scribed elsewhere, and it will suffice here
to say that from that moment until the
armistice was signed on November 11, the
defeat of Germany and her inability for
further resistance were confessed by her-
self and on the battlefronts only rear-
guard machine actions obstructed the steady
advance of the Allies toward German ter-
ritory.
Capitulation of Bttlgaria. — The check to
the German advance in the summer of
1918, and the forward progress of the
Allies beyond even the line which the
Germans had held through the winter of
191T, lowered morale among Germany's
allies as well as in Germany itself through-
out August and September, 1918. Coupled
with these military events was the ever-
increasing faith, not only among the En-
tente Allies, and not only among the neu-
trals, but even among tlie common people
of the Central Powers, in the potency and
promise of President Wilson's program of
international political idealism.
The first sign of the defection of Ger-
many's Allies was the peace overture from
Austria-Hungary, described elsewhere. The
second, and even more significant, was the
agreement by Bulgaria to an armistice on
the terms of the Allies.
On September 14, 1918, a carefully pre-
pared but carefully concealed campaign was
opened against Bulgaria. The British and
Greek forces, which had long been held
at Saloniki and other places in Greece as
protection against a possible invasion of
Greece by German, Austrian or Turkish
forces, were no longer needed in this ca-
pacity because of the inability of Ger-
many to detach any of her forces from
her hard-pressed western front. Accord-
ingly, the British-Greek forces struck the
Bulgarian line with great vehemence be-
tween the Vardar River and Lake Doiran.
Serbian forces soon afterwards made for
Charevo and the Serbian-French forces
made east of Monastir for Uskub, while
there was a general enflanking movement
of the Italians eastward through Albania.
Within ten days, progress to the extent
of one hundred miles had been made, and
in a few days more the capture of Stru-
•mitza severed the two wings of the Bulgar-
German army.
On September 27, 1918, Bulgaria asked
for an armistice, and being refused any
armistice except one on the -Miles' terms,
agreed to the latter proposal ; and on
September 29, 1918, it was announced that
Bulgaria had withdrawn from the war.
The terms she received were purely mili-
tary, containing no provisions of a politi-
cal nature, the armistice being in force
until a final general peace was declared.
Bulgaria agreed to evacuate all the ter-
ritory she occupied in Greece and Servia :
to demobilize her army at once : to sur-
render all means of transportation to the
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Allies, including her boats ; to grant con-
trol of navigation on the Danube ; to sive
the Allies free passage for military opera-
tions through her territory ; to permit the
Allies to occupy all strategic military
points, and to store her arms and ammu-
nition under the control of the Allies.
Thus in addition to losing an ally, with
the consequent loss of prestige and wealt-
ening of morale, Germany's direct route
to the Bast was brolten, the Berlin-to-
Bagdad Railroad was blocked, the solid belt
of German territory through Central Eu-
rope (Mitteleurona) was dissipated and
Turkey was practically Isolated.
Palestine Lost to Turks. — ^On September
18, 1918, General Allenby struck with all the
might of the British army in Asia Minor
against the Turkish armies in central and
northern Palestine ; and the Turks were soon
in full retreat. In connection with Arabs
under King Hussein, the British forces ad-
vanced rapidly from the Mediterranean at
Haifa on a line extending across all of Pales-
tine to the Arabian desert. On October 1,
Damascus, the capital of Syria, was taken
and occupied. By October 8, the Allied forces
1 ad captured the towns of Zaleh and Rayck,
thirty miles from Damascus. On the same
day a French naval division entered Beirut,
150 miles north of Damascus, and made for
Aleppo, the seat of the Turkish military
[lower in Asia Minor ; and it soon fell into
their hands.
Simultaneously, the British forces along
tlie Euphrates and Tigris, in Mesopotamia,
advanced toward Allenby's army.
Before the surrender of the Turlcish army,
Allenby had captured some 123,000 prison-
ers, including some Austrian and German
troops and officers.
So complete was Allenby's victory that
the road to the Aegean sea and the Dar-
danelles was opened and Turkey was in no
position to resist further. By the middle
of October, all Palestine was free of Tur-
kish forces, and with Allenby threatening
an advance to the north and east, Turkey
sued for peace. A note addressed to the
United States on October 11 asked for peace
terms and indicated willingness to yield
whatever points were demanded, but before
the Allies, busy with negotiations with Aus-
tria and Germany, could reply, Allenby's
threat had become so great that Turkey sur-
rendered to him early In November and
granted the terms of armistice demanded
by him, of a nature to make Turkey impo-
tent, to await her final fate from the world
war at the hands of the Allied representa-
tives at the final peace negotiations.
It was announced by the Allied Govern-
ments that Palestine would be administered
pending final settlement of its status by a
government represen,ting the Allies. In 1918
both Great Britain and France announced
that Palestine would be an autonomous
state, and that Jews would be protected in
th.eir organization of the long-cherished
Zionist hope, a separate and independent
.Jewish state. In a semi-ofliclal letter to
liabbi Wise, of New York (see page 8375),
President Wilson also endorsed the Zionist
program with respect to Palestine.
Intervention in Russia. — In the summer
of 1918, the Allies and the United States
embarked upon a policy of military inter-
vention in Russia (see page 8590), but with
disastrous results. The Russian people
rallied to the support of the Bolshevist
government, particularly against the Japan-
ese ; many elements within the Allied
countries resented invasion of a land whose
The Oost of the War. — The following
figures show the cost of the War to the
spring of 1919, almost six months after
the termination of hostilities. They repre-
sent most of the direct outlay for military
purposes, but naturally the cost of the War,
in items such as pensions, etc., will con-
tinue for many years after the signing of
the peace.
ENTENTE ALLIES
British Empire $ 38,000,000,000
France 26,000,000,000
United States 22.000,000,000
Russia ...■ 18.000,000,000
Italy 13,000.000,000
Other Entente Allies 6,000,000,000
Total $123,000,000,000
CENTRAL POWERS
Germany $ 39,000,000,000
Austria-Hungary 21.000,000,000
Turkey and Bulgaria. . . 3,000,000,000
Total $ 63,000,000,000
Grand Total $186,000,000,000
War Deits. — The following table shows
the pre-war and post-war debts of the bellig-
erent nations :
Pre-war Post-War
Germany .$ 1,200,000,000 $ 39,000,000.000
U. Kingdom 3,500,000,000 34.000.000.000
France . . . 6,600,000,000 27,000,000,000
United
States . , 1,300,000,000 24,000,000,000
Aust.-
Hungary 4,000.000.000 23,000,000,000
Italy 2,900.000,000 11,000.000,000
Russia ... 5,100,000,000 25,000,000,000
Total ...$24,600,000,000 $183,000,000,000
Government desired to remain neutral,
while even neutrals charged that the true
purpose of the intervention was to collect
old Tsarist debts and to provide for the
economic exploitation of Russia ; the Czecho-
slovak forces did not leave Russia until
1920 ; the Allied troops made little head-
way ; the stores and supplies saved from
falling into Bolshevist hands did not atone
for the cost of intervention and for the
diversion of strength from the western
front : the Italian Socialists and the Bri-
tish Labor Party gained great electoral
victories largely on the Russian issue ; and
the Bolshevist Government constantly be-
came more powerful. In 1919, the Allies
and the United States concentrated their
efforts on supporting native Russian leaders
warring against the Bolsheviks, but these
leaders were denounced by most Russians
as monarchist and reactionary, and received
so little support that by 1920 all of them
had been overthrown and their forces dis-
persed, while the Bolshevist Red Army was
well on the road to regain much of the
Russian territory which had been lost.
Austria's Internal Troubles and Defeat
in Italy. — During the . spring an'd summer
of 1918 evidences of racial discontent with-
in the Austrian Empire and opposition to
the government, aggravated by the des-
perate food situation, grew more and more
pronounced. A Conference* of Oppressed
Austrian nationalities met at Rome on April
10 and declared the necessity of the dis-
integration of the Empire and the estab-
lishment of a unified, independent Jugo-
slav nation. On May o Emperor Charles
dissolved the Reichsrat, In which the Ger-
mans were in the minority. Demonstra-
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tions against Germany became more and
more frequent. 'Risings in Bohemia led
to the establishment of martial law at
I'rague and the suppression of Czech news-
papers. The disintegrating forces were
fostered by organized Italian propaganda
in the Austrian army and by a statement
issued by the Allied War Council at Ver-
sailles in favor of an independent Polish
state and freedom for the Czecho-Slovaljs
and Jugo-Slavs. Numerous mutinies oc-
curred among the Slavic troops and Bohe-
mian troops began to join the Italian army.
In the summer of 1918, Austria-Hungary
endeavored to stave off the impending dis-
solution of the Dual Monarchy by win-
ning another success against the Italians.
On June 15, the Austro-Hungarlans ad-
vanced along the entire front. On -the
west, the Italians, aided by some British
and French divisions, held firm, but to the
east, along the Plave, Diaz lost much
ground. On the next day, the same story
was repeated and by June 17, the Austro-
Hungarians were well across the Plave
along most of its lower length. But on
the following day, the Italians were ready
with their counter-attack, and, aided by a
flood in the Piave, began to drive the
enemy bacls to his positions on the nortli
banls of the river. For several days, the
Italians continued their advance ; until the
enemy's left wing had been turned-, and
by the twenty-fourth the opposing forces
were bacic in the positions they had occu-
pied before the beginning of the ' offensive.
On October 25, General Diaz led his
Italian army in a powerful frontal attack
against the Austrian positions, and within
three days there was little left which
could be called an Austrian army. On the
29th, the Austro-Hijngarian government
declared its willingness to adhere to all
the conditions laid down by the American
government and aslied for an immediate
armistice on all fronts witliout waiting for
the outcome of other negotiations. By
this time, the defeat of the Anstrians In
Italy had become a complete debacle, and
Austria was menaced too vitally by the
Italian army to be able to , await the re-
sult of further peace negotiations. Accord-
ingly, she turned directly to General Diaz,
and on November 4, 1918, an armistice was
concluded on terms which amounted to
unconditional surrender.
Final . Peace Negotiations. — When the
Austrian note asking for negotiations look-
ing toward peace was handed to. President
Wilson on September 16, 1918, there was
little doubt of Germany's knowledge and
approval of the move. Accordingly, there
was no surprise when Germany herself took
up the burden of the peace move, after the
President had peremptorily told Austria
that the United States had previously stated
her peace conditions and that therefore he
mu-t refuse to re-state them or to enter
into conversations on the subject..
The direct peace overture came from
Germany on October 6, signed by Prince
Max, who had supplanted von Hertling as
the power of the military oligarcliy of
Germany waned at home under the pres-
sure of the retreat of the German armies
under Foch's blows" in the field. The
course of the negotiations and the final
terms of the armistice may be seen by con-
sulting pages 8603 to 86l7.
President Wilson, before replying to the
German overture, asked on October 8 three
questions of the German government, con-
cerned with — (1) the acceptance by Ger-
many of his terms of peace laid down on
January 8th (the 14 points) and on other
occasions; (2) the willingness of the Cen-
tral Powers to abandon all Invaded terri-
tory as an requisite to an armistice; (3)
the extent to which the German govern-
ment was still uncontrolled by the Oermau
people and the Eeichstag.
On October 12, the German government
returned answers to these queries Indicat-
ing their willingness to accept the Presi-
dent's terms of peace and to relinquish .in-
vaded territory and asserting that recent
changes in the German political structure
had given the German people control over
their Government.
On October 14, President Wilson replied,
calling the German government's atten-
tion to the fact that an armistice would
have to be left to the military leaders of
the Allies and would be of a nature cal-
culated to maintain the contemporaneous
Allied military supremacy and to render
Germany Impotent in the field ; that no
peace could he considered by the Allied
governments while Germany persisted In
her inhuman practises on sea and on land :
and that one feature of th^ only peace to
which the Allies would consent would be
the final overthrow of the autocratic and
unchecked military group in control of the
German people.
By this time, the German forces in
Prance were no longer able to maintain
even a pretense of "strong resistance to
the oncoming Allied troops, and Germany
was compelled to assent to the conditions,
or rather the ol)servations, of the note of
President Wilson of October 14. In a
reply of October 18, Germany indicated her
willingness to grant even the last points
insisted upon by the President, accompany-
ing her acceptance with a memorandum,
' not made public. Indicating the recent
changes toward complete democratization
which had taken place in Germany since
September.
Accordingly, on October 23. the President
replied, saying that he would lay the Ger-
man request before the Allies, but still in-
sisting that the terms of the armistice
would necessarily be severe, becayse of the
untrustworthy nature of the German gov-
ernment. The Interallied War Council was
immediately convened at Versailles, Colonel
House being the chief of the American del-
egates, and arranged terms of an armistice.
On November 5, 1918. President Wilson
informed the German government that the
Allies had decided upon the terms on wliich
an armistice would be granted Germany,
and that Germany could obtain them by
application to Marshal Foch. At midnight
on November 10, 1918, the armistice was
signed, and actual hostilities ceased six hours
later (eleven A. M., November 11, French
time). As will be seen by consulting the
terms of the armistice In President Wilson's
address to Congress on November 11, 1918,
they are of such a nature as to constitute
complete surrender, and to mark the end of
the war.
The story of the armistice negotiations
will be found on pages 8603-8617.
The most stupendous of all wars lasted
from August 1, 1914. to November 11, 1918,
killed more than 8,000.000 men, perma-
nently wounded and disabled almost as
many morel cost well-nigh $175,000,000,000.
and involved 28 nations. BMndamentally,
it ended for all time the hope of the Ger-
man militarists to dominate the world, un-
seated the Czar and demolished the last
vestige of royalty in Russia; broke up the
Austro-Hungarian government Into Its ra-
cial groups, ended the isolation of America
and brought her as an active member Into
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the family of the world's nations, and at
the very end not only oyerthrew the Hohen-
zoUern and all other royal dynasties within
the German empire and restored the German
people to independence, but also dissipated
for all time that creed of might and force
which, the world to its cost had come to
know as German Kultur. More Important
than any other achievement, It brought the
great nations of the world into agreement,
and gave hope that the international world
order of the future would be one perme-
ated no longer by lack of organization and
competitive negotiations supported by force,
but one of organization of the nations of
the world into a league whose foundations
lie in justice and goodwill and friendship.
Battle-line at Close of Hostilities. —
When the guns of battle ceased their roar
from both the Allied and the German lines
In northern France and Belgium at exactly
one minute before eleven o'clock (six o'clock,
French time), the line of battle was ap-
proximately as follows :
From Belgium at the boundary with Hol-
land near Selzaete (all the Belgian sea-
coast had been cleared of Germans) south
through Ghent, southeast through Gram-
mont, along the west bank of the Dandre
River* to Ath ; 4 miles east of Mons, cross-
ing the Sammbre at the boundary with
France, several miles southwest of Thuin.
Then for some distance almost exactly along
the French-Belgian froptier to Rocroi, thence
on to French soil proceeding just north of
Messieres and Sedan, along the Meuse until
the river begins to turn directly south ; then
away from the Meuse some ten miles north
and east of Verdun, through Fresnes, being
retired close to the French-German frontier
near Conflans and Mars la Tour, some twelve
miles north and east of Nancy, then again
well onto French territory straight across
to the frontier again in the Vosges moun-
tains directly east of Saint Die, where It
passed into Lorraine, extending almost due
southwest of Mulhausen until it ended near
the point where Germany, Switzerland and
France tpuch.
Position of American Forces at End of
Hostilities. — On November 11, 1918, scat-
tered 'forces of American troops were scat-
tered along the entire battle-front from the
North Sea to Switzerland ; hut the main
military strength of the United States, as
represented by its First and Second Ameri-
can Armies, lay as follows :
First American Army. — Running south
to north, from north of the Chateau D'Han-
nonville (about ten miles east by southeast
of Verdun) slightly northwest, passing easi;
of Blanzee and Grimaucort, then steadily
northwest, passing east of Bezonvaux, north
of Chaumont, north of Remolville, striking
the Meuse east and north of Stenay, then
north and east of the Meuse, passing north
and east of Sedan, ending the sector north
of Nouzon, along the Meuse. This sector
was only about seven miles from^the Belgian
frontier at its northernmost point, and fif-
teen miles at its southern end from the
German frontier along Lorraine, although
about thirty miles from the German and
Luxembourg frontier along the middle of
the sector.
Second American Army. — Running south
to north, from Nomeny (due east of St.
Mihiel and Pont S. Mousson, and just west
of the German frontier in Lorraine), west
by north through Eply, to the Moselle River
less than a mile south of Pagny, then west
slightly south of Preny ; then west through
Remberecourt to the north edge of Lake
Laucbausee, through St. Hilalre, Marche-
ville and Riaville to a point slightly south
of Ville-en-Woevre. The American front
covered 52 miles. '
Part Played hy United States Troops. —
It was on May 26, 1917, that General
Pershing with a small staff landed In
France to conduct the military operations
of the United States against the Central
Powers. At that time, the French and
British armies were at their maximum
strength, but had failed to dislodge the
enemy from his positions ; so that the
problem presented was that of organizing
an American force sufflciently strong to
turn the tide in favor of the Allies.
It was decided that an American combat
division would consist of 4 regiments of
infantry of 3,000 men each, with 3 battal-
ions to a regiment and 4 companies of
250 men each to a battalion. An artillery
brigade consisted of 3 regiments, a machine-
gun battalion, an engineer regiment, a
trench-mortar battery, a signal battalion,
wagon trains, and the headquarters staff
and military police. - These, with medical
and other units," made a total •pf about
28,000 men, practically twice as many as
In the average French and British divisions.
Bach corps consisted of 6 divisions, — 4
combat and 1 depot and 1 replacement ; and
also 2 regiments of cavalry. Each army
consisted of from, 3 to 5 corps. With 4
fully trained divisions, a corps could take
over a sector pf the battle-line with 2 in
line and 2 in reserve, with the depot and
replacement divisions ready to fill any
gaps in the line.
The plan of training in France was for
one month for acclimatization and train-
ing in small units ,from battalions down,
a second month in quiet trench sectors by
battalions and a third month after coming
out of the trenches for training in war
of movement as a complete division.
The principles of general staff work were
taught to ofiScers at Langres. The artillery
school was at Saumur. Cadets In aviation
were trained at Issouduu.
The choice of the position of the American
army was influenced chiefly by transportation
considerations. The northern ports of Fl'ance
were overcrowded by the British and the
southern ports had inadequate dock fanilltles.
Moreover, the systems of transportation in
northern France behind the front were al-
ready overtaxed. It was therefore decided
that the American army would use the
southern ports of France on the Atlantic —
Bordeaux, La Pallice, St. Nazaire and Brest
— and the railroad systems leading from
them to the northeast. The American sector
would hence be to the northeast. The great
depots of supply were centrally located.
The chief deficits in equipment were in
artillery, aviation and tanks. Jhe French
government came to our rescue in the first
case with heavy guns for thirty divisions.
In the second case, the French also came to
the rescue, with 2,775 blanes— 1,380 alto-
gether being received in addition from the
United States. In tanks also the French
were relied upon, although their own needs
did not permit them to furnish quite an ade-
quate number.
By March 21, 1918, when the great Ger-
man offensive in Pieardy began, there were
four American divisions experienced in the
trenches and equal, to any of the demands
of battle. The crisis developed by the Ger-
man offensive was so serious that on March
28 the occupation of an American sector was
abandoned and all AmeiHcan forces placed
at the disposal of Marshal Poch.
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Foeh transferred the First Division from
the Toul sector, where it had taken over a
section of the battle-line, to a position in
reserve at Chaumont en Vexin. On April 26,
the First Division went into action in the
Montdldier salient in Picardy. Its first true
opportunity to manifest Its qualities occurred
on May 28, when it captured and held the
town of Cantigny.
The second great German offensive in Bel-
gium on the British battle-front occasioned
an agreement between the American and the
Allied commanders whereby British shipping
was to transport ten American divisions to
the British battle-front.
The third great German offensive begin-
ning on the Aisne on May 27 created an-
other grave crisis for the Allies and again
every American soldier was placed at the
disposal of Foeh. The Third Division, which
had Just finished Its preliminary training in
the trenches, was hurried to the Marne. Its
machine-gun motor battalion arrived in time
to check the German advance at Chateau-
Thierry. The Second Division had been held
in reserve near Montdldier, and was thrown
on the enemy's road toward Paris. It cap-
tured Bouresches and later Belleau Wood ;
and on .July 1, Just before it was relieved,
the town of Vaux fell into its hands.
The divisions which had been brigaded
with the British Army had been held back
In training areas or assigned to second-line
defenses. In June, five of the ten divisions
were withdrawn from the British area —
three to relieve divisions in Lorraine and
two to protect Paris from any further Ger-
man advance. The great June-July move-
ment of troops from the United States al--
lowed all the divisions already in France by
that time to he utilized.
The deep Marne salient established by the
Germans was a source of danger to them no
less than to the Allies, and when their of-
fensive from the head of that salient failed
— largely as a result of resistance of ele-
ments of the American Third, Twenty-Eighth
and Forty-Second Divisions — General Per-
shing determined upon a strong counter-
attack, in which the First and Second Divi-
sions were given the place of honor along
with chosen French troops. In the reduction
of the Marne salient, the Americans took a
leading part.
Accordingly, American divisions could at
last be consolidated in and on the American
zone — the reduction of the St. Mihiel salient
being long planned as the first attempt of
the American Army. For the reasons out-
lined above, there had not been up to this
time an active American sector ; but on
August .50, the line from Port sur Seille,
east of the Moselle, west through St. Mihiel
and thence north to a point opposite Verdun
was placed in American hands. The Ameri-
can front was afterwards extended across
the Mouse to the western edge of the Ar-
gonne forest, including several sectors held
by French troops. This First American
Army was under Pershing himself.
The preparation of the attack against the
St. Mihiel salient involved the moving of al-
most 600,000 men at night with all the sup-
plies and equipment necessary to maintain
them. The French lent artillery and es-
pecially air forces and the British also lent
air forces, so that the Joint air force as-
sembled was probably the greatest and most
powerful gathered for any one operation
during the entire war.
On the very day after the capture of the
St. Mihiel salient, plans were laid to drive
back the old German line to the northwest,
between tlie Meuse River and the Argonne
Forest. The attack would be directed against
the Important railroad communications of
the Germans through Mezieres and Sedan.
The German army, although defeated, had
not suffered demoralization, and was exhibit-
ing remarkable eUciency, tactical skill and
courage.
On the night of September 25, American
troops quietly took the places of the French,
who were holding this long-quiet sector very
thinly ; and the attack began on the 25th.
13y the 28th, penetration of from three to
seven miles had been attained, 10,000 prison-
ers had been taken, and the battle had been
forced into the open. The Germans were still
unified and powerful, however, and from the
28th to October 4 launched tremendous
counter-attacks against the new American
positions, but always without success.
In the meantime, other divisions were as-
sisting the Allies as follows : On September
29 and October 1, -the 2Yth and 30th Divi-
sions were in the place of honor with
.Australian troops In breaking through the
Hindenburg Line In Belgium where the St.
Quentin Canal passes through a tunnel. In
this and later actions from October 6 to
October 19, these two divisions captured
over 6.000 prisoners and advanced about
thirteen miles. On October 2 to October 9,
the Second and Thirty-Sixth Divisions were
sent to assist the French in an important
attack around St. Etienne and Blanc Mont,
where they played an important part in the
successes achieved.
On October 4, the second phase of the Ar-
gonne-Meuse offensive was assumed. Troops
fresh from the United States 'were brigaded
with veteran units whose strength had been
exhausted. By the 10th the Argonne Forest
had been cleared of the enemy.
It was now necessary to organize the
Second American Army and the command of
the First was turned over to Lieutenant
General Liggett, the command of the Second
being reserved for Lieutenant General Bul-
lard. Constant progress was made up to
October 18, the Germans resisting firmly,
but making a firm stand only by bolstering
tlelr lines opposite the American Army with
troops drawn from other sections of the line.
Meanwhile the Thirty-Seventh and Ninety-
First Divisions were withdrawn to help the
French Army In Belgium. Organized on the
Belgian front by October 31, on that day
they attacked in force near Tpres and within
the next three days won signal victories.
On November 1, 'the Argonne-Meuse fight
entered upon its third phase. The German
line was steadily driven back, and by the
5th the advance had become impetuous and
well-nigh irresistible. On the 6th the Meuse
was crossed at a point opposite Sedan, rep-
resenting an advance of 25 miles from the
original position of the Army before the be-
ginning of its summer offensive. The enemy's
line of communications . were thus severed
and the main objective of the offensive was
accomplished.
Further American plans were directed
toward an advance of the First Army be-
tween the Meuse and the Moselle in the di-
rection of Longwy and one by the Second
toward the coal fields of Brley, and pre-
liminary attacks toward those ends had
actually got under way when hostilities
ceased on November 11.
There were altogether in Europe, including
one regiment and some sanitary units in
Italy and the forces on the Murman coast
in North Russia, approximately 2,050,000
American troops, less the losses incurred.
Of this total, there were In France some
1,340,000 combatant troops. Forty divisions
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haa arrived in France, ten being used as
replacement troops, leaving thirty divisions
in France organized into three armies of
three corps each.
Achievements of United States Marines. —
In the heart of the battles which, as de-
scribed above, stopped the German advance
at Cliateau-Thierry and inaugurated the
Allied advance from that same point were
the Marines. It was due largely to the rush
of the Marines that Belleau Wood was taken
and Bouresches occupied. In the followintt
month of July, the Marines were again
called into successful action near Soissons,
and in September they wer.6 part of the
American forces which captured the St.
Slihiel salient. In the following month, the.v
assisted valiantly in the capture of the
Blanc Mont ridge, some twenty miles east of
Rheims. Of the 8,000 Marines who were ac-
tively engaged in battles, the casualties were
60 officers and 1,531 enlisted men dead ; 78
oflScers and 2,435 enlisted men moi>e or less
seriously wounded ; and only 57 taken
prisoners by the enemy.
American Forces in Battle. — The number
of American soldiers to reach France was
2,084.000. Of these, some 1.390,000 saw
active service in the front battle-lines. The-
number of divisions dispatched overseas
was 42, and in addition some 200,000 troops
were sent in auxiliary services. Of the 42
divisions sent to France, only 29 took active
part in hostilities as such, the remainder
being utilized as replacement troops or ar-
riving in France .lust before the termination
of hostilities. Of these 29 divisions, whose
record comprises the greater part of the
battle record of the United States, 7 were
of the Regular Army, 11 were of the Na-
tional Guard and 11 were of the National
Army.
During the 200 days of battle in which
American troops were engaged, they per-
formed 13 major operations, of which 11
were performed in conjunction with French,
British and Italian troops and 2 were dis-
tinctively American undertakings.
The period of greatest activity of the
American Army was in the second week of
October, when all the 29 divisions were in
line, holding 101 miles, or 23 per cent., of
the western battle-front. A resume of the
American record is as follows :
Total Battle Advances, miles' 485
Prisoners Captured 63,000
Artillery Captured, Pieces 1,378
Trench Mortars Captured 708
Machine Guns Captured 9.650
The thirteen major operations in which
American troops were engaged were as fol-
lows, together with the number of American
troops involved :
West Front — Campaign of 1017 :
Cambrai, Nov. 20 to Dec. 4 2,200
West Front — Campaign of 1918 :
German offensive, Mar. 21 to July 18 —
Somme, Mar. 21 to Apr. 6 2,200
Lys, Apr. 9 to 27 500
Aisne, May 27 to June 5 27.500
Noyou-Montdidier, June 9 to 15 27,000
Champagne-Marne, July 15 to 18 85,000
Allied offensives, July 18 to Nov. 11 —
Aisne-Marne, July 18 to Aug. 6. 270.000
Somme, Aug. 8 to Nov. 11 ... . 54.000
Oise-Aisne, Aug. 18 to Nov. 11. . 83,000
Ypres-Lys, Aug. 19 to Nov. 11.. 108.000
St. Mihiel, Sept. 12 to 16 550,000
Meuse-Argonne. Sept. 20 to
Nov. 11 1,200,000
Italian Front — Campaign of 1918 :
Vittorio-Veneto, Oct. 24 to Nov. 4 1,200
The Strength of the American Army. — The
following table shows the strength of the
army of the United States in Europe and as
a whole during the participation of the
United States in the Great Waj.'.
1917 — In Europe As a Whole
April 2010.000
May 290.000
June 390.000
July 20,000 500.000
August 33,000 531.000
September 45.000 691.000
October 65,00-0 »48.000
November 102,000 1,100,000
December 139,000 1,189,000
1918—
January 176,000 1,, 315,000
February 225,000 1 ,423,000
March 153,000 J.ii39,000
April 320,000 3.796.000
May 424,000 l.»,".3.000
June 722.000 2,112,000
July 996,000 2,380.000
August 1,293,000 2,658.000
September 1,576,000 3.001.000
October 1.843,000 3.4.S3.000
November 1.971,000 3.034,000
Casualties. — Battle casualties in the
American Expeditionary Forces were as
follows :
Dead 48,909
Killed in Action 34,180
Died of Wounds 14,729
Wounded 230 074
Severely 80,130
Slightly 110,544
Degree Undetermined. 39.400
Missing in Action 2,913
Prisoners 4,434
■ Total 286,339
The comparative mortality in battle and
from disease in recent wars of the United
States has been as follows :
_ Battle Disease
War Rate Rate
Mexican, 1846-48 12% 88%
Civil (Union forces), 1861-5 34% 66%
Spanish, 1898 16% 84%
European (Sept, 1917-
June, 1918) 50% 50%
Expenditures.— For the 25 months from
April 1, 1917 to May 1, 1919. the Treasury
disbursements of the United States were
$23,363,000, Chargiiig $2,069,000,000 as
normal peace expenses, the direct cost of
the War to the United States for 25 months
may be placed at $21,294,000,000. In ad-
dition, there was loaned to our Allies the
sum of $8,830,000,000, Of the total war
expenditure, there was expended on the
Army $14,244,061,000, The daUv cost of
the_ War to the United States at different
periods was as follows :
May 15, 1917 $ 2,000,000
February 1, 1918 22.500,000
January 1, 1919 44,700.000
The expenditures in the Army from April
1. 1917 to May 1, 1919 were divided as
follows :
Quartermaster Corps* ..$6,242,745,000
Ordnance Department.. 4,087,347.000
Pay of the Army 1.831.273 000
Air Service 859,291.000
Engineer Corps 638.974.000
Medical Department .... 314 544 000
Signal Corps 128.920.000
Chemical Warfare Service 83.299.000
Provost Marshal General •24.301,000
Secretary of War and
Miscellaneous t33,367,000
* Exclusive of pay of the Army.
T December 31. 1918.
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The total cost of the War to the United
States averaged well above $1,000,000 an
hour for more than two years.
Unitea, States Navy Activities. — Owing to
the fact that the German naval campaifiu
after the United States entered the War
was confined to Its Submarine operations,
the United States navy played a purely de-
fensive and protective part in the conflict.
Without its protection, however, combined
with the protection of the navies of the
Allies, not only could few American troops
have been dispatched to Europe, but also
there would have been a lack of the supplies
wherewith- to support them there. The
United States, Navy assisted materially in
the transportation of more than 2,000,000
United States troops to Europe without the
loss of a single American troopship sailing
east and with ttie loss of only a few hun-
dred soldiers altogether on the high seas.
At the close ot the War, the United
States naval forces in European waters
comprised 338 vessels with a personnel of
some 75,000 — representing a f«rce larger
than the entire navy before' the entrance
of the United States into the War.
Pour naval vessels were lost in the War
as a result of submarine attaclcs — the des-
troyer Jacoi Jones; the converted yacht
Alcedo; the Coast Guard cutter Tampa; and
the cruiser San Diego (sunk by njine). The
collier Cyclops was also lost in a fashion
which made its disappearance a complete
mystery.
One definite achievement of the United
States Navy was the laying of a jnine
barrage against submarines in the North
Sea. For this purpose 100,000 mines
were manufactured and more than 85,000
shipped abroad.
On July 1. 1918, the enlisted and com-;
missioned personnel of the naval aviation
forces of the United States included 823
trained naval aviators, 2,052 student offi-
cers 400 ground officers, 7,300 trained me-
chanics, and 5.400 mechanics in training.
The total naval aircraft personnel was in
the neighborhood of 30,000.
When war was declared between the
United States and Germany the navy com-
prised '66,000 men. At the signing of the
armistice, this number had Increased to
^497,000. When the war was declared, the
navy had 197 ships in commission ; at the
signing of the armistice, this number had
Increased to more than 2,000. During the
same period the Naval Reserve increased
from 85.000 to 290.000.
At the close of the war, the regular
navy consisted of 570 ships, suppleniented
by 93 vessels from the Coast Guard, Laght-
house Service,, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
and Fish Commission. The Navy was opeiv
atlng 937 converted merchant craft, and
also the Overseas Transport Service, con-
sisting of 247 Shipping Board and other
supply vessels. At the end of the war
there were being constructed for the Navy
376 new ships of all kinds and 52 tugs.
United States Air Forces.— When the
armistice was signed on November 11, 1918,
there were 39 American aero squadrons
actually in operation on the -battlefront.
In the zone of advance, the air service
included 2,161 officers and 22,351 enlisted
men, a total of 24,512 ; and in the service
of supply there, were 4,643 officers and
•>S 353 men. There were 8 American fly-
Fng officers detached to service with the
French and 49 officers and 525 enlisted men
with the British forces. The total person-
nel in France was 6,861 officers and 51,229
enlisted men, making a grand total of
58,090 in the air strength of the United
States.
The total air victories of i the Americans
comprised 845 enemy planes, of which 491
were officially confirmed, and 82 enem>-
balloons, of which 57 were confirmed. The
American losses were 271 planes and 45
balloons ; and the American casualties were
109 killed, 103 wounded, 200 missing, 27
prisoners and 3 interned, a total of 442.
Those killed in training numbered 159.
Eight different schools were established
in France at Tours, Issoudon, Clermont-
Ferrand, St. Jean de Monte, Sougre, Coetin-
guidan, Meucou and Chatillon-sur-Seine. The
flying personnel in training on November
11, 1918, included 1,323 pilots ; observers
in training, 689 (officers), a total of 2,012
in training. The personnel awaiting in-
struction comprised 155 pilots and 59 ob-
servers. Graduations up to November 11,
1918, included 6,069 pilots and 2,045 ob-
servers.
The number of planes received by the
American air forces from all sources be-
tween September 12, 1917 and November
16, 1918, was as follows : Pursuit — for
service, 3,837 ; for schools, 90 ; Observa-
tion— for service, 3.421 ; for schools, 664 ;
Day bombing — for service, 421 ; for schools,
85 ; Night Reconnaissance, 31. Others in-
cluded 2,285 training planes, 30 experi-
mental planes, and 108 miscellaneous, a
total of 6,472.
The Peace Conference. — As has been seen,
Germany surrendered, and her surrender
was accepted by the Allies, largely upon
the basis of the principles and programs
enunciated by President Wilson in the
course of the United States' participation
in the War. President Wilson therefore
felt called upon to go In person to the de-
liberations of the peace conferences in
Paris which sealed the greatest of all wars.
The other members of the American dele-
gation were Secretary of State Robert
Lansing, Mr. Edward M. House. General
Tasker H. Bliss and Mr. Henry White. The
French delegation was headed by Premier
Clemenceau, the British by Premier Lioyd-
George, the Italian by Premier Orlando and
the Japanese by Baron Maklho. But the
^ terms of the peace were arranged almost
entirely by tlie three premiers and the
American President, although Japan was
also one of the great Powers, thus making
five In all, ,in whose hands lay ail the
decisions of the Conference.
A full summary of the peace treaty with
Germany will be found on pages 8737 to
8756. The kernel of the treaty was the
Covenant of the League pf Nations, al-
though it was much circumscribed In
power from the outlines of such a league
as those outlines had been drawn by Presi-
dent Wilson before the Conference. It was
evident that the President had been de-
feated in most of the deliberations by a
combination of the French. Japanese and
Italian votes, although he was usually sup-
ported by the British point of view. The
dominating figure of the Conference was
Clemenceau, and in order to gain a league
of nations, the American and British delega-
tions were forced to submit to a number
of settlements which were admitted to be
unjust, in the hope that they would later
be altered b.7 the action of the League of
Nations.
By the terms of the treaty, Germany lost
Alsace-Lorraine, her colonies, much terri-
tory on her eastern frontier inhabited by
Poles, two small pieces of land on her
western frontier inhabited chiefly by Flem-
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Ish and control over the Sarre basin for a
period of fifteen years at least. Her army
was reduced to 100,000. she was forbidden
to resort to conscription, and a wide sweep
of territory east of the Rhine had to re-
main unfortified and without the presence
of troops and garrisons. She was com-
pelled to pay an indemnity estimated in the
EltehborhSod of $25,000,000,000. and for
practical purposes her trade and her com-,
merce were placed m the hands of the
Allies. Her fleet was practically dismantled
and, temporarily, at least, she was excluded
from the League of Nations.
As a result of the war. the old empire
of Austria-Hungary disappeared. ine
Czechs and^ Slovaks fo^e^ *"*<??,?«! "tuvs
of Czecho-Sloval£ia, and the South hiays
formed the new nation of Jugo-Slavia. with
the old Servia and Montenegro as a basis.
The portions of the old^Austro-Hungarlan
empire inhabited chiefly by Roumania were
given to the latter country, and the por-
tions Inhabited chiefly by the Ukrainians
(Ruthenians) were given to the new Ukrai-
nia. Italy was given not only Italia Irre-
denta, but also portions of the Austrian
Tyrol and Dalmatia in which the Austrian
and the Slav nationalities, respectively.
were In the ascendancy. Austria was for-
bidden to Join Germany, although the rul-
ing race In Austria was German. The new
nations of Austria and Hungary were
penalized, by the terms of the treaties with
them, in much the same fashion as Germany
had been by the German treaty.
Another nation arising from the ashes
of the war was Poland, re-assuming the
national existence which had been termi-
nated by partition at the end of eighteenth
century.
Although the treaties with Turkey and
Bulgaria were far from completion by the
beginning of the winter of 1919-1920. It
was evident that they. too. wpudbe pena-
lized sharply. Obviously. Bulgaria would
have to surrender territory to Roumania
and Greece and It was considered axiomatic
that Turkey would be driven altogether
from Europe, with the possible exception of
the territory immediately surrounding Con-
stantinople, which, with the Dardanelles,
the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus,
would possibly be Internationalized.
Most of the colonies taken from Germany
were to be administered by the great Powers
as mandatories for the League of Nations.
Japan was given temporary occupation of
the German rights upon the Shantung pen-
insula of China. However, certain portions
of the old German colonial possessions were
acquired outright by Great Britain, who,
along with France, acquired also valuable
concessions in Syria, Mesopotamia. Persia,
etc.
The Peace Conference opened in Paris on
January 18. 1919 and the treaty with Ger-
many was signed at Versailles. France, on
the following June 28. Strong opposition
to the terms of the treaty, especially to
the provisions of the Leagua of Nations
Covenant, developed in the United States
Senate, which added a number of reserva-
tions to the text. As a result on Novem-
ber 19, 1919, the Senate refused to ratify
the treaty, by a vote of 39 ayes to 55 nays,
a two-thirds affirmative vote being neces-
sary for ratification. All the Allied bellig-
erents except the United States and China
deposited their ratifications of the peace
treaty with Germany, along with the Ger-
man ratification, at Versailles on January
10. 1920, the day then acclaimed as the
beginning of the peace.
A resolution declaring a state of peace
between the United States and Germany,
after passage by Congress, was signed by
President Harding on July 2, 1921,
World War (see also Wilson, Wood-
row):
Aeronautics, Director of Military,
duties assigned to, 8514, 8515.
Aircraft Production Bureau estab-
lished, 8515, 8516.
Alien enemies, regulations for, 8243,
8392, 8394, 8407, 8445, 8491.
Alien property in United States, dis-
position of, 8372, 8380, 8462, 8479,
8523, 8542, 8543.
Alsace-Lorraine, return of, to France,
8424, 8613, 8614, 8739.
America. (See United States.)
American Expeditionary Forces. (See
Army.)
Ancona, protest on sinking of, 8117,
8120.
"Armed neutrality, policy of, discussed,
8209, 8217, 8222, 8227, 8296.
Armenia, needs and status of, dis-
cussed, 8381, 8636, 8679, 8696, 8841,
8853, 8864, 8881, 8886, 8909.
Armistice —
Anniversary of, significance of,
8803.
Congratulatory messages between
United States and allies on, 8622-
8626.
Negotiations, 8603-8613.
With Germany, terms of, 8613-8617.
Army —
Division sent abroad, 8260.
Losses at sea, 8637.
Message to, 8352.
Eecord of, praised and discussed,
8638, 8653, 8694, 8720, 8728.
Asia, German domination in, must be
ended by, 8401.
Austria-Hungary —
Collapse of, 8703, 8706, 8836.
German domination over, discussed,
8278, 8388, 8401, 8403.
Nationalities in (see also Jugo-
slavia and Czecho-Slovakia) —
Autonomy for, 8424.
Repression of, 8788'.
Notes of, on —
American protest on sinking of
Ancona, 8118.
Mediation, 8189.
Pope's offer of mediation, 8345.
Serbian murder of Archduke of
Austria, mere step in Pan-Ger-
manism, 8278.
Notes to, on sinking of Ancona, 8117,
8120.
Peace desired by, 8388.
People of, to be helped, 8618.
Peoples of, must be granted auton-
omy, 8401, 8421. (See also Jugo-
slavs and Czecho-Slovaks.")
World War
Encyclopedic Index
World War
Prime mdnister of, reply of, to Pres-
ident Wilson's Address of Janu-
ary 8, 1918, discussed, 8448.
War with, declaration of —
Asked, 8404.
Made, 8406.
Balance of Power system denounced,
8663.
Balkan states (see also the several
countries) —
Food to be furnished, 8685.
German domination over, must end,
8401, 8483.
Internal autonomy to be granted
to. 8425.
Belgium —
Freedom and restoration of, essen-
tial, 8401, 8424, 8451.
Needs of, 8643.
Eeply of, to United States peace
proposal, 8196.
Sympathy of America for, 8287.
Berlin-to-Bagdad Railroad, purposes
of, discussed, 8388.
Blacklisting of American firms, pro-
test against and reply to, 8143,
8178.
Blockade of European waters, protest
to British and French governments
against, 8059.
Brest-Litovsk peace parleys discussed,
8421, 8595, 8863.
Bucharest, treaty of (1918), discussed,
8595.
Bulgaria —
Help to be given, 8618.
Territorial rearrangement of, 8840.
Cable lines —
Censorship over, 8254, 8593.
Government possession of, 8630,
8647.
Pacific. (See Tap.)
Censorship —
Board created, 8369.
Discussed, 8358.
Over cables, telephones, telegraph,
8254, 8593.
Central Powers. (See Germany; Aus-
tria-Hungary; Turkey; Bulgaria.)
Chateau-Thierry, American victory at,
8638, 8729.
Clemenceau, premier of France —
Italian-Jugo Slav territorial dis-
pute, attitude of, on, 8831-9.
Letter from, o\i American war
record, discussed, 8721.
Peace conference, nominated for
chairman of, 8864.
Colonies, rights of, 8424. (Sec also
Mandatory.)
Congress of Vienna discussed, 8402,
8449.
Conscientious objectors, regulations
for, 8475.
Court-Martial Bill denounced, 8493.
Gushing attacked by German airplane,
8062.
Czecho-Slov^kia —
Food to be given, 8685.
Germans, three million, included
within, 8837.
Independence of, 8607, 8696, 8731.
Eepression of, 8788. (See also Aus-
tria-Hungary and Self-determin-
ation.)
Troops of, in Eussia. (See Russia,
Intervention in.)
Danzig, status of, 8733.
Declarations of London —
Invalid during European War, 8287.
Praised and explained, 8284. j
Destruction wrought by, 8015.
Diplomacy, secret and, discussed,
8422, 8423.
Disarmament to the point of domes-
tic safety must result from, 8424.
Draft-
Boards praised, 8385.
Discussed, 8574.
Exemption of government em-
ployees from, discussed, 8320.
Inventory of registrants in, ex-
plained; 8385.
Registration for, proclaimed and
explained, 8256, 8302-4, 8510,
8524, 8567, 8570, 8586.
Rules and regulations for, 8306.
Warning against evasion of, 8269. ,
Economic Barriers clause^in Fourteen
Points discussed, 8424, 8629.
Embargoes proclaimed, 8300, 8301,
8309, 8333, 8355, 8357, 8368, 8455.
Enemy aliens. (See Alien enemies.)
Entente Allies (See also Great Britain
and France) —
Notes of (see also Wilson, Wood-
, row), 8163, 8193, 8195.
Notes to (see also Wilson, Wood-
row and Great Britain), 8059,
8190.
Secret treaties among, discussed,
8703, 8830, 8836.
Unity among, 8422.
War aims of, 8293.
European relief urged and discussed,
8174, 8273, 8381, 8636, 8684, 8690,
8900.
Exports, control of. (See Embargo.)
Falaba, sinking of, 8062.
Farmers' duties and services in,
8251, 8813.
First .years of, effect on America,
8221.
Fiume. (See Italy.)
Flags ordered at half-mast for war
dead, 8874.
Foch, Marshal, armistice terms pre-
sented to Germany by, 8612, 8613.
Foodstuffs, contraband status of, dis-
cussed, 8057, 8058.
World War
Encyclopedic Index
World War
Farce to the utmost to decide, 8484.
roreigu-born citizens, loyalty and dis-
loyalty of, discussed, 8066, 8080,
8086, 8114, 8154.
Fourteen Points of peace, 8423.
France (See also Entente Allies) —
Evacuation and restoration of, es-
sential, 8401, 8424.
Needs of, after war, 8643.
Protest to, against blockade of
European waters, 8059.
Treaty with —
Discussed, 8735, 8762.
Text of, 8764.
Wilson, President, in, 8649.
Freedom of speech and press in war-
time discussed, 8358, 8814.
Freedom of the Seas —
Discussed, 8202, 8283, 8424.
Eeservation concerning, in armistice
terms, 8612.
Violated by Germany, 8289, 8290.
Fry, sinking of, discussed, 8210.
Gardens, value of, in war program,
'8252.
German steamship lines, propertv of,
taken over, 8536, 8805, 8873.
Germany —
Achievements of, praised, 8387,
8401, »425.
Aims of, denounced, 8230, 8288,
8293, 8389, 8483, 8585.
Arbitration treaty with, absence
of, deplored, 8289.
Armistice with. See Armistice.
Autonomy of, not to be attacked,
8402, 8425.
Belgium must be restored by, 8401,
8424, 8451.
Bolshevist menace to, 8685.
Bonds of, agreement to use, for Bel-
gian war debt, 8913.
Challenge of, to force, accepted,
8484.
Chancellor of, reply of, to President
"Wilson's Address of January 8,
1918, discussed, 8448.
Colonies of, disposition of, 8673,
8690, 8793, 8841, 8878, 8915. (See
also Mandatory.)
Conquests of, 8388.
Diplomatic relations with, severed,
8206.
Domination of, over other coun-
tries must cease, 8388, '8401, 8403.
Fleet of, surrender of, 8616, 8621.
/Freedom of ■the seas violated by,
8289, 8290.
Government of —
Autocratic character of, 8230,
8606, 8609.
Crimes of, 8226, 8271, 8290, 8296,
8298, 8785.
Destroyed, 8618.
Instigator of the war, and why,
8389.
International intercourse may be
denied, 8400, 8402.
International law violated by, 8289.
Kultur aims of, denounced, 8288.
Mexican intrigues of, 8216.
Militarism in, 8400.
Notes from, 8057, 8127, 8187, 8188,
8193, 8197, 8204, 8216, 8344. (See
also Armistice and Wilson, Wood-
row.)
Notes to, 8055, 8056, 8062, 8125,
8190. (See also Armistice and
Wilson, Woodrow.)
Overt act by —
Necessary to bring America into
the war, 8209.
Temporarily avoided, 8210.
Pan-Germanism, denounced, 8278
Peace proposals of, 8187.
Analysed, 8292, 8293.
Eeplies to, 8193.
Peace treaty with. See Peace Treaty.
Peace with, resolution to declare,
vetoed, 8849.
People of —
Faith in, 8230, 8278, 8291, 8388,
8403.
Eesponsibility for acts of Govorn-
ment discussed, 8230, 8278,
8785.
Poland and, boundary between, 8791.
Eeichstag peace resolutions dis-
cussed, 8450.
Russia betrayed by, 8483, 8595.
Socialists of, used as pawns, 8280.
Spokesmen of, should show their
source of authority, 8426.
Spy system of, denounced, 8231.
Strict accountability of, for de-
struction of American ships, 8056.
Submarine warfare of, discu^ed
and denounced, 8057, 8121, 8204,
8206, 8209,' 8221, 8226, 8277, 8290,
8296.
Subsidy system of, denounced, 8387.
Victory of, evil results which would
flow from, 8280.
War practises of, cessation of, de-
manded, 8606.
War with, recognition and an-
nouncement of, 8226, 8242.
Great Britain —
Controversy with, soon after out-
break of war, discussed, 8287.
Notes from, 81178, 8193. (See also
Entente Allies.)
Notes to, 8056, 8143, 8165. (See
•also Entente Allies and Wilson,
Woodrow.)
Premier of, address of, discussed,
8422.
Greece, territorial rearrangement of,
8840.
Chdf light, loss of, 8062.
Housatonic, sinking of, discussed, 8210.
World War
Encyclopedic Index
World War
"How the War Came to America/'
(See Ked, White and Blue' Book).
Hungary, status of, 8731, 8788. (See
also Austria-Hungary.)
Illustrations of, opposite 7846, 8154,
8186, 8218, 8250, 8282, 8314, 8410,
8442, 8474, 8538, 8570, 8824, 8856,
Imports, regulation and prohibition
of, 8395, 83.96, 8453.
International law —
American support of, 8057.
"Violated by Germany, 8290.
Italy-
Territorial acquisitions of, dis-
CTissed, 8424, 8703, 8789, 8830.
Wilson, President, in, 8661.
Japan, intervention in Siberia
by, 8591, 8824. (See also Shantung
and Yap.)
Jews, relief day for, 8174.
Joffre, Marshal, remarks of, discussed,
8657.
Jugo-Slavia, independence and boun-
daries of, discusse'd, 8607, 8702,
8709, 8731, 8788, 8830. (See also
Austria-Hungary. )
Kolchak, Admiral, defeat of, in Si-
beria, 8824.
Labor 'in the war, 8349, 8389.
League of Nations. (See League of
Nations.)
Liberty Loans urged and discussed,
8365, 8481, 8490, 8588, 8627, 8702,
8884.
Lloyd-George, Premier, address of, dis-
cussed, 8422. _ -
Lusitania, sinking of, discussed, 8062,
8290.
Lyman M. Law, sinking of, discussed,
8210.
Mails, interference with by Entente
Allies, 8165. '
Mandatories, administration and dis-
position of, 8673, 8793, 8841, 8878,
8915.
Militia called into national service,
8306, 8508.
Mines, drifting, discussion on use of
8057, 8058.
Montenegro, evacuation and restora-
tion of, 8424.
Munitions, sale of, to belligerents
while neutral, discussed, 8289.
National Army, message to, 8352.
Netherlands, ships of, , possession
taken of, 8477, 8478.
Neutral flags —
Protest against use of by belliger-
ents, 8056.
Use of, mentioned, 8055.
Neiutrality in —
Appeal to citizens to observe, 7978.
Followed, 82«6.
Discussed, 7978, 8052, 8079, 8102,
8154.
Proclamations of, 7969, 7974, 7975,
7976, 7977, 8014, 8065, 8141,
8142.
Terminated, 8297.
Neutral rights, violation of. See Ger
many and Great Britain.
Notes, Diploimatie. (See the several
countries and Wilson, Woodrow.)
Objects of belligerents, as ofa.oially
stated, the same, 8191.
Overt Act. (See Germany.)
Peace —
Conference. (See Peace Conference,
helow.)
Formula, "No annexations, no con-
tributions, no punitive indemni-
ties," discussed, 8400.
German terms of. (See Germany.)
Note from President Wilson, and
replies thereto, 8190.
Analyzed, 8293.
Overtures from —
Austria-Hungary, 8189.
Germany, 8187.
Insincere, 8448.
The Pope, 8340.
Keplies thereto, 8341, 8344,
8345.
United States, 8190.
Resolution, veto of, 8849.
Terms necessary for, discussed,'
8033, 8051, 8105, 8157, 8191, 8200,
8294, 8399, 8400, 8406, 8421, 8423,
8451, 8534, 8593.
Treaty. (See Peace Treaty, 'below.)
Without Victory discussed, 8192,
8199, 8295.
Peace Conference at Paris —
President Wilson in attendance on,
8646 et seq.
Work of, discussed, 8691 et seq.,
8728.
Peace Treaty with Germany —
Discussed, 8727, 8785, 8851.
Senate's refusal to ratify, con-
demned, 8821, 8849.
Signing of, announced, 8726.
Summary of, 8737-8756.
Peace treaty with Turkey discussed,
8839, 8841, 8910, 8916.
Pershing, General, praise and per-
manent rank for, 8638, 8761, 8795.
Poland —
Boundaries of, 8791, 8837.
Independence of, urged and dis-
cussed, 8202, 8403, 8425, 8451,
8689, 8696, 8731, 8788, 8862, 8866,
8910.
Russia and, war between, 8862.
Ukrainians, three million, included
in, 8837.
Pope, mediation offer from, and re-
plies thereto, 8340.
Prayer for peace, day of, proclaimed,
8007.
World War
Encyclopedic Index
Wyoming
Prayer for victory in, day of, set
apart, 8377, 8495.
Eed Cross, American —
Children urged to enroll in, 8358.
Services of, discussed, 8501.
Support urged for, 8264, 8494, 8648.
Eed Cross, International, listing of
alien enemies for, 8274.
Eed, White and Blue Book, text of,
8282.
Belief. (See European Eelief.)
Eoosevelt, ex-President, refusal to
give command to, 8260.
Eoumania, evacuation and restora-
tion of, 8424.
Eussia —
Blockade on, lifted, 8858.
Bolshevist government of, de-
nounced, 8589, 8819, 8859, 8864,
8910.
Recognition not to be accorded,
8862, 8932.
Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. (See
Brest-Litovsk, above.)
Dismemberment of, opposed, 8862.
Evacuation of, demanded, 8424.
Intervention in, 8590, 8592, 8824.
Policy toward, 8862, 8910, 8932.
Eevolution in, sympathy for, 8230,
8299, 8862.
Sabbath observance enjoined upon
Army and Navy, 8433.
St. Mihiel, American victory at, 8638,
Sarre Valley, disposition of, 8732.
Sea areas, defensive, proclaimed and
regulated, 8234, 8236, 8240, 8338,
8531.
Secret treaties discussed, 8703, 8830,
8836.
Self-determination of nationalities
discussed, 8202, 8424, 8425, 8450,
8791, 8837, 8840.
Servia, freedom and boundaries of,
8403, 8424, 8425, 8840. (See also
Jugo-Slavia and Austria-Hungary.)
Shantung, disposition of, 8774.
Siberia, intervention in. (See Eussia.)
Signal Corps, reorganization of, 8514.
Sims, Admiral, praise and permanent
rank for, 8638, 8761.
Status quo ante, the cause of the con-
flict and must be altered, 8271.
Submarine warfare. See Germany.
Sussex, sinking of, 8127.
Territorial rearrangements following,
8679, 8690, 8702, 8707, 8789, 8793,
8830, 8837, 8840, .8854, 8864, 8878,
8909, 8916. (See also the countries
and territories concerned.)
Trade conditions must be equal for
nations after, 8424.
Treason and misprision of treason,
8247.
Turkey —
German domination over, must
end, 8401.
Internal autonomy of, not to be
hindered, 8401, 8425.
Nationalities under, to be free,
8425.
Peace Treaty with. (See Peace
Treaty with Turkey.)
United States —
Aims of, in war, 8232, 8250, 8270,
8277, 8382, 8450, 8501, 8594, 8659,
8666, 8721, 8728, 8851.
Citizens of, in Eurojw, relief for,
7961, 7962.
Dead of, flags at half-mast for,
8874.
Flag of, misused, 8055.
Eoreign policy of, as changed by
War, 8282, 8288.
Veterans of, duty toward, 8642, 8715,
8758, 8813, 8886.
War Eisk Insurance discussed, 7979,
8350.
Women's services in, 8601, 8639.
Yap, disposition of, 8915, 8950.
Worsted Goods Industry. (See Wool.)
Wtirttemberg . — ^A state of the German Re-
public, lying between Bavaria on the east
and Baden on the west, while to the south
reaches Lake Constance and the borders
of the Tyrol. Though primarily an agricul-
tural state, yielding considerable quantities
of grain, tieets, hops, flax and hemp, Wiirt.
temberg has numerous flourishing Industries.
Stuttgart is the center of the publishing
trade of southern Germany, and gold and
silverware, clocks, pianos, surgical instru-
ments, paper, beer and sparkling wine are
largely produced both in the <:apital and
other cities.
In 1805, the former Duchy and Electorate
of Wiirttemberg became a Kingdom and in
1871. a kingdom within the German Empire.
Wiirttemberg was proclaimed a People's Re-
public in November, 1918. The National
Assembly, elected to draft a Constitution,
showed a plurality of votes for the Social-
ists. The area Is 7,534 square miles and the
population, about 2,500,000. The chief town
is Stuttgart (300,000). More than half the
population is Roman Catholic.
Wiirttemberg:
Convention with, 2169.
Naturalization treaty with, 3997.
Wyandotte Constitution.— The final con-
stitution of the State of Kansas, adopted
Oct. 4, 1859. It was ratified by a vote of
10,421 to 5,530. It prohibited slavery.
The governor was to be elected for two
years, and Topeka was made the capital.
This constitution was adopted at Wyan-
dotte, now a part of Kansas City, Kans.
(See also Lecompton Constitution; Topeka
Constitution.)
Wyandotte, The, capture of the "William
by, 3126.
Wyandotte Indians. (See Indian
Tribes.)
Wyoming. — One of the western group of
Btates; motto, "Equal rights." It lies be-
tween lat. 41° and 45° north and long.
104° and 111° west. It is bounded on the
Wyoming
Encyclopedic Index
Wyoming
north by Montana, on the east by South
Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colo-
rado oud Utah, and on the west by Utah
and Idaho. Area, 97,914 square miles.
The surface being mountainous, the leading
industries are stock raising and mining.
Gold, 09al,- iron, and petroleum are the
chief minerals.
Most of the present state was inciaded
in the Louisiana Purchase. It was organ-
ized as a Territory in 1868 from areas pre-
viously in Dakota, Idaho, and Utah, but
derived more remotely from the original
Territories of Nebraska, Utah, and Oregon,
a portion having at one time also belonged
to Washington. Wyoming was admitted to
the Union in 1890. ,
For national forests, irrigation projects,
public lands and Indian reservations in
the stat^ see Forests, Irrigation, Lands and
Indians,
In 1920, the population was 194,402, as
compared with 145,965 in 1910. In the
latter year, the foreign-born numbered 29,-
020, including 2,985 English, 1,359 Irish,
1,812 Scotch, 2.497 Swedes, 962 Danes,
2,638 Gernians, 1,961 Italians, 763 Russians,
1,380 Finns, 3,966 Austrians, 1,915 Greeks,
1,431 Canadians, 1,575 .T.npanese. The urban
population was 29 V2 % of the whole.
The last annual agricultural production
was as follows :
Crop Acreage Bushels Valu.e
Hay, tame 740,000 *1,850,000 $22,200,003
Wheat 254,000 5,080,000 .6,858,000 •
Oats 300,000 11,400,000 7,068,000
Potatoes 27,000 3,375,000 4,050,001
Corn 65,000 1,560,000 874,000
Barley 28,000 1,008,000 1,109,000
*Toiis.
The latest census figures available showed
in the state 10,987 farms, with an average
of 778 acres to the farm. Only 15% of
the farm land was classified as improved.
The 1920 census ga^e the number of farms
in the state as 15,611.
The state is well adapted for stock-breed-
ing and leads all the states in the produc-
tion of wool. The latest figures for animals
showed 235,000 horses, 80,000 cows, 1,-
100,000 other cattle, 4,000,000 sheep and
70,000 swine. Between 30,000,000 and 35,-
000,000 pounds of wool is the average
annual wool clip.
The chief mineral produced is coal, the
last annual production being 7,000,000 tons,
which was below the normal.
In 1915, the number of manufacturing es-
tablishments was 337, with an average
number of wage-earners totaling 2,989, rep-
resentlne an investment of $29,275,000, and
paying annually In wages about $2,315,000.
The petroleum • output IS usually worth
above $2,000,000 annually and about 2,500,-
000 pounds • of copper are produced every
year.
The latest educational statistics estimated
that there were within the state 39,294
children between the ages of 5 and 18. The
enrollment in the public schools was 38,271,
with an average dally attendance of 30,619.
There were 1,891 teacher.s. The p,ubllc high
schools numbered 43, with 52 male and 130
female teachers, and with 1,388 male arid
1,988 female students.
Wyoming:
AdmiBsiou of, into Union, discussed,
5553.
Chinamen injured by lawless men in,
4914, 4968, 5083.
Indemnity to, recommended, 5219.
Appropriation for, 5367.
Troops sent to protect, 4933.
Lauds in, set apart for public reser-
vation by proclamation, 5577, 5590,
6221, 6225.
Unlawful combinations in, proclama-
tions against, 5725, 5932.
Wyoming Controversy. — in the original
charter granted by Charles I. to William
Penn the northern boundary of Pennsyl-
vania was fixed at lat. 43° north. How
ever, the proprietors of the colony accepted
42° as the northern boundary and extended
the southern boundary to include the Chesa-
peake and Delaware bays. Connecticut
claimed all the territory north of 41° in
Pennsylvania, and asserted her rights by
chartering the Susquehanna Company, • i -
ganized in 1753, to form settlements in
the disputed territory. In 1762 the com-
fiany sent its first party of settlers, 200
n number, into the region, but they weie
driven out by the Indians, who repudiated
a previous sale of their rights to Connecti-
cut and made a sale to Pennsylvania. In
1769 the Susquehanna Company sent more
colonists into the disputed country, and a
desultory warfare began between them aud
the Pennsylvania settlers, to whom the ter-
ritory had been leased. The former were
several times driven out of the disputed
district by the Pennsylvanlas, but they
finally obtained a permanent lodgment, as
the Pennsylvania contestants were only
lessees, while their opponents fought foi-
their property rights. Hostilities with the
mother country caused a suspension of civil
strife for a time.
In 1779 an act of the Pennsylvania legis-
lature transferred all the pioprielaiy lauds
to the state. Pennsylvania brought suit
against Connecticut to decide the jurisdic-
tion over Wyoming. The case was beard
by five judges at Trenton. In November,
1782, their unanimous decision, afterwards
confirmed by Congress, was in favor of
Pennsylvania.
Wyoming Massacre.— July 3, 1778, 'CoL
Zebulon Butler, of the Continental army,
with a force of about 300 militiamen, mostly
old men and boys, marched out of Forty
F'ort, in the Wyoming Valley, about three
i.iles above Wilkesbarre, Pa., to drive off an
iavading party of some 800 Indians and
Tories .under Chief Joseph Brant and the
British Colonel Walter Butler. The Indians
burned the forts in the upper part of the
valley and forced the American militiamen
to retreat in disorder. Of the 300 who left
the fort in the morning the names of 162
ofiicers. and men are recorded as killed in
action and the massacfe which followed.
Butler, the British officer in command, re-
ported the taking of 227 scalps and only 6
prisoners. Col. Zebulon Butler with 14 men
escaped from the valley.
B-19
X.Y.Z. Mission
Encyclopedic Index
Yazoo Ftauds
Z. Y. Z. Mission. — During the Revolution
the United States secured the valuable aid
of France by treaties, in 1778. In 1789
monarchy was overthrown In France, and
that nation soon found herself at war with
England and other European nations. She
desired the United States as an ally, and
Genet (see Citizen 6en€t) was sent to ac-
complish her purpose. His mission failed,
Washington persisted firmly in preserving
our neutrality, and Jay's Treaty (whioh
see) was concluded with England. The
course of our government angered France.
In 179T the directory, wliich then gov-
erned that country, gave permission to the
French naVy to assail our vessels. Follow-
ing a policy of conciliation. In spite of
French insults to our minister and the
threat to our commerce. President Adams
called a special session of Congress In May,
1797, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney,
John Marshall and Elbrldge Gerry were
sent to France to arrange matters. In the
spring of the next year the President sub-
mitted to Congress dispatches that had been
received from these commissioners. They
had been kept waiting by Talleyrand, the
minister of foreign affairs, and had been
approached by three unofScial persons with
what was In effect a demand for a bribe
and a loan to the directory before any ar-
rangement could be concluded with the
United States. In dispatches the names of
these three persons were Indicated merely
by the letters X., Y. and Z., and hence the
whole affair came to be termed the X. Y.
Z. Mission. To these demands our repre-
sentatives returned a decided refusal. It
is said that Pinckney made use of the
phrase, "Millions for defense, but not one
cent for tribute." The answer as recorded,
however, was, "No, no, no ; not a sixpence."
About the time when these dispatches wer^
submitted to Congress, Pinckney and Mar-
shall were ordered to leave France, and
Gerry was afterward recalled by our gov-
ernment. A warlike feeling Instantly
sprang up In the United States. The Fed-
eralists,' with Adams as leader, desired to
defend by force, if necessary, their policy
of keeping this country from entangling
foreign alliances, and desired to resent
French Insults. The Democrats (then call-
ed Republicans) had always favored an
alliance with France and had opposed the
creation of a navy for the United States.
Now, however, the popular pressure could
not be withstood. Bills ivere passed for In-
creasing the navy and separating it from
the War Department (April 30, 1798).
Provision was made for a national loan
and the imposition of a direct tax. The
President was authorized to increase the
army in case of a foreign war within three
years, and soon Was'hington was called to
be commander-in-chief of the army and
Alexander Hamilton was selected as the ac-
tive commander. On July 9, 1798, Con-
gress declared the treaties with France no
longer binding, and authorized our war
vessels and privateers to capture armed
French vessels. A few naval engagments
occurred, but no event of great importance.
The effect of our warlike feeling and prepa-
rations on France was excellent. Ameri-
can prisoners were released and the em-
bargo which had been declared was
raised on American ships. Talleyrand now
hinted to our Minister to Holland. William
Vans Murray, that he was willing to re-
ceive another American Minister. Adams
accordingly appointed Murray, in February,
1799. and soon loined with him Oliver Ells-
worth and William R. Davis. The Presi-
dent's action created much stir, politically,
as he was considered to have become sub-
servient to France and to have changed the
former attitude ot himself and the Fed-
eral party. It was some months after their
appofntment that our envoys arrived in
Paris. Napoleon was then at the head of
, the government as first consul and was fa-
vorably Inclined toward the United States
Fiendtk commissioners were appointed, and,
on Sept. 30, 1800, a friendly convention
was signed. Both countries ratified it,
and It was declared in force Dec. 21, 1801,
and for a time the safety of our commerce
was secured.
Takama Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
YaUina Besenration, Wasb., lands on,
to be used by Northern Pacific Bail-
wajr, 4864, 4954, 5178.
Vale, The, mentioned, 5318. ,
Yancton Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Yanctonl Indians. (See Indian Tribes.)
Yangtse Slver, steamers sailing under
American flag prohibited from pass
ing through Straw Shoe Channel on,
3896, 3902.
Yankee Doodle.— A popular national air of
the United States. The words are said to
have been written In derision of the ill as-
sorted Continental troops, about 1755, by
Dr. Schuckburgh, a surgeon under Gen. Am-
herst in the French and Indian War. The
original title was "The Yankee's Return
from Camp," and there are several ver.
slons. The tune has undergone various
changes.
Yankee, The, mentioned, 6317.
Yankees. — A word of uncertain origin, first
applied to the early English colonists, later
by the English to Americans generally, and
still later to Northerners by people of the
South. According to common legend,
Yankees Is a corruption of Yengees, Yaung-
bees, or Yanghles, a name said to have
been given by the Massachuset Indians to
the English colonists in their efforts to
pronounce the word "English" or the
French word "Anglais." It was first ap-
plied to the New Euglanders as a term of
reproach by British soldiers.
Yap, — A small island In the Pacific, about
8S0 miles southeast of the Philippines, and
the Junction of important submarine cables.
Before the World war, it belonged to Ger-
many; after the War, it was part of the
German islands north of the equator
assigned to Japan under a mandate of the
League of Nations, although there was some
talk of Internationalising it, or of giving
it to the United States, as a cable and coal-
ing station.
Yap, island of, disposition of, discussed,
8915, 8950.
Yards and Socks, Bureau of, Navy De-
partment. (See Bureau of Yards and
Docks, Navy Department.)
Yazoo Frauds.— A term applied to the sale
by the State of Georgia In 1795 of her
western territory, now included In Alabama
and MlsslsslpDl, to four land companies,
known generally/ as the Tazoo companies,
from the district in which they operatrrt.
The land extended from the Alabama and
Coosa rivers to the Mississippi, and from
the thirty-first to the thirty-fifth parallel,
and the price paid to the state was $500,-
Yazoo Frauds
Encyclopedic Index
Yorktown
000, or about one and two-thirds cents per
acre. It ,was liharged that many members
of toe legislature who voted for the sale
had been bribed. President Washington
made the alleged frauds the subject of a
special message (page 167). The people of
the. state were Indignant and a party was
formed to repeal the sale. In 1796 the
records of the transaction were burned
In the presence of the governor and legis-
lature In accordance with what was known
as the Rescinding act. Immediately numer-
ous claims sprang up, wbicli had to be de-
cided by Congress.
The territory was ceded to the Tlnlted
States In 1802. The next year President
Jefferson appointed a commission to In-
vestigate the claims, and James Madison,
chairman of the commission, recommended
a compromise, but Georgia refused to com-
pensate the claimants. Their claim was
sustained by the Supreme Court, however.
Chief Justice Marshall holding that allega-
tions of bribery of the legislature could
not be entertained, and that purchasers
from the land companies were innocent
holders ; that the act of the Georgia legis-
lature In 1796 repealing the sale of 1795
was an abrogation of contract, and there-
fore void. Finally an act was passed In
1814 appropriating $8,000,000 payable out
of the proceeds of the sale of Mississippi
lands to satisfy the Yazoo claimant.
Yellow Fever (see also Contagious Dis-
eases; International Sanitary Con-
ference; Quarantine Eegulations) :
Commission to investigate causes, etc.,
of, recommended, 6341.
In Southern States, discussed, 4444.
Act legalizing issue of provisions
to sufferers, recommended, 4452.
YeUow FeiH.— The so-called pevils to be
feared from the yellow races, especially the
Japanese. The phrase may mean the eco-
nomic evils feared, rightly or wrongly, from
peaceable Japanese immigration and settle-
ment in the United States; but it usually
signifies a threatened military or naval in-
vasion from Japan.
Yellowstone ITational Park. (See Parks,
National.)
Yellowstone National Park, compensa-
tion to superintendent of, referred to,
4036.
York (Canada), Capture of.— The plans
for the prosecution of the war with Great
Britain In 1813 contemplated an invasion
of Canada trom both the east and the west.
Gen. Harrison successfully carried out the
programme In tbe west, routed Proctor's
army, and was in possession of the terri-
tory. April 27, Gen. Dearborn, with about
1,700 men under the immediate command of
Gen. Zebulon Pike, crossed Lake Ontario on
Commodore Chauncey's transports and
marched upon the British garrison at York
(now Toronto), where MB.i.-Gen. SheafEe
was in command of 800 regulars and a body
of Indians. A sharp conflict ensued. The
British and Indians were routed. By the
explosion of a magazine. Gen. Pike, was
killed, together with 51 other Americans
and 40 British : 180 Americans were wound-
ed by the explosion. The American loss In
the battle was 269 on land and 17 on water.
The British lost, besides the prisoners, 60
killed and 89 wounded.
York, Canada, reduction of, by Amer-
ican forces, 524.
Yorktown, The. (See Baltimore, The.)
Yorktown, Va., monument at, completed
and recommendations regarding, 4850.
Yorktown Centennial Celebration:
British flag to be saluted by Ameri-
can army and navy forces at, 4624
Referred to, 4625.
Descendants of Baron von Steuben
present at, 4626.
Bepresentatives of French Eepublic
and descendants of Lafayette pres-
ent at, 4625.
Yorktown (Va.), Siege of. In 1781.-
After the battle of Green Springs, or James-
town, Lafayette withdrew the American
army to Malvern Hill. Cornwallls hurried
on toward Yorktown, wilch place Sir Henry
Clinton designed to be held as a British post
in the absence of sufficient force to hold the
entire State of Virginia. By Aug. 27, 1781.
n ?o?'^'"^'* ^"^""y *° Virginia, consisting of
9,433 men, was concentrated at Yorktown
and Gloucester Point, just across the York
River. Aug. 30 Count De Grasse arrived
in Chesapeake Bay with twenty-six French
ships of the line besides frigates and trans-
ports. Sept. 3 Count De St. Simon landed
at Jamestown with 3,200 French troops
and the allied armies, numbering 12,000
regular troops and 4,000 militia, under
Washington and Lafayette, occupied Will-
iamsburg, about fifteen miles from York
town. Washington had eluded Clinton by
a feint. Sept. 28 the army advanced anu
took a position about two miles from the
British works, and on the 29th a general
movement was begun to encircle the town
and close in upon its defenders
On the Gloucester side the siege was
maintained by the Duke de Lauzun with his
legion of French cavalry and 800 marines
from De Grasse's. squadron, besides a body
of Virginia militia under Gen. Weedon. Oct
6 the first parallel was opened under Gen.
Lincoln within 600 yards of the enemy, and
heavy guns were placed in position, with
the loss of 1 French officer and 16 privates
On the 11th a second parallel was estab-
lished with slight loss. On the 14th the
two advanced redoubts of the British were
taken by storm by the American light in-
fantry under direction of Lafayette, and the
French, under Baron Vlomfinll. The Ameri-
can loss was 9 killed and 32 wounded.
Three French officers were wounded. The
British lost 8 killed and 17 prisoners. On
the morning of the 16th an unsuccessful
sortie was made on the advanced American
redoubts, by about 350 British under Lleut.-
Col. Abercromble, 100 French troops being
killed or wounded, with little loss and no
advantage to the British.
An attempt made by Cornwallis's army
to escape in boats that night was frustrated
by a storm, and on the morning of Oct 17,
1781, a flag of truce was sent to Wasi&lng-
ton, making overtures for surrender. On
the 18th' articles of capitulation were signed
by Washington and Cornwallls. The land
forces became prisoners to the Americans
and the marine force to the French. The
total number of British officers and men sur-
rendered was 7,073 from the army and 900
from the navy, besides 144 guns and 6
British and 18 regimental standards. The
military chest contained £2,113. The Quad-
aloupe, Fowey, Benetta, and Yurcan, to-
gether with 30 transports, 15 galleys, and
many smaller vessels, fell Into the hands of
the French. ^The total casualties of the
siege were : British, 156 killed, 326 wound-
Yorktown
Encyclopedic Index
Y. M. C. A.
ed and 70 missing; American, 23 killed,
65 wounded ; French, 52 killed, 134 wounded.
Yorktown (Va.), Siege of, in 1862.—
Nov. 1, 1861, McClellan was appointed to
the chief cominand of the armies of the
United States. He set about improving the
organization and efficiency of the men, and
by March 1, 1862, the forces about Wash-
ington numbered 221,987. The country was
growing impatient at the inactivity of the
Army, and the cry "On to Richmond" was
almost universal in the North. Tie Presi-
dent directed that a move of some kind be
made. The knowledge that McClellan con-
templated a forward movement caused the
Confederates to evacuate Manassas, John-
ston withdrawing his forces to the defense
of Richmond March 9, 1862. March 11 the
President relieved McClellan of the com-
mand of all military departments except
that of the Potomac, which had been divided
into five ^orps, under command of Generals
McDowell, Sumner, Heintzelman, Keyes, and
Banks. It was decided that this army, ex-
cept so much as was necessary for the pro-
tection of Washington, should move upon
Richmond by way of the Virginia peninsula,
lying between the James and York rivers.
ITort Monroe occupies the extremity of the
peninsula. Heintzelman's corps embarked
March 17, and April 1 the headquarters of
the Army of the Potomac was transferred to
the vicinity of Fort Monroe. Yorktown was
defended by Gen. Magruder with less than
8,000 Confederates. April 4 occurred the
principal skirmish of the siege, in which 35
men were killed and 120 wounded on the
Union side, while the Confederates lost more
•than 100 killed. The next month was con-
sumed by McClellan in building fortifica-
tions and roads to take Magruder's army.
May 5 the last of the Confederates retired
up the peninsula.
Yosemite National Park. (See Parks,
National. )
Yoimg Men's Christian Associations, —
Organizations formed to promote the wel-
fare of young men. Although active mem-
bership is confined to those who are com-
municants of an evangelical church, associ-
ate membership, entitling to practically all
the privileges, is open to all men.
There is hardly any field of activity in
which men are engaged la which the Y. M.
C. A. does not prosecute Its activities. Espe-
cial attention is given to athletics and gynl-
nastlCB. There are libraries ; study-rooms ;
game^rooms ; gymnasia and swimming-pools ;
and often rooms for rent in the more usual
Y. M. 0. A. building. A particular feature
is the classes in all manner of subjects, both
general and professional, although the night
classes have to some extent heen superseded
in the larger cities by the evening public
schools. Religious devotion and training
are emphasized. There are usually separate
departments for the stimulation of work
among boys. Employment is found. More-
over, the associations do much field work — .
especially on the railroads and in the army
and navy.
The movement is an InteriUational one;
and there are in all countries extensive
training schools for the education of Y. M.
C. A. secretaries.
The movement was first organized in Lon-
don by George Williams In 1844. as the re-
sult of work among the dry goods shop as-
sistants. The first associations in North
America arose in Montreal and Boston In
1851 as a result of the English experiments.
The first national federation of T. M. C.
A.'s in the United States occurred in Buf-
falo In 1854. The progress of the movement
was temporarily hindered by the Civil War,
but in the following years it grew ry)idly.
In 1906, there were in the United States
1,761 associations, with 405,000 meml)ers.
In the same year, there were throughout
the world 7,794 associations, with a mem-
bership of 744,000.
The T. M. C. A. was extremely active
among the troops of the regular army and
the National Guard during the mobilization
on the Mexican border in 1916. There were
42 Y. M. C. A. buildings and 6 Y. M. C. A.
tents In constant operatimi during that
period, in which 169 Y. M. C. A. secretaries
were constantly active. The total attend-
ance in Y. M. C. A. centres and at Y. M..
C. A. activities was estimated at 7,871,468..
Stationery was furnished to more than
5,000,000 :. 2,850,000 persons attended en- /
tertainments ; there were more than 100,000
attendances at lectures and 680,000 at re-
ligious meetings ; and some 400,000 pieces
of reading matter were distributed.
Immediately upon the outbreak of the
European War In August 1, 1914, the Y.
M. C. A.s of the various belligerent coun-
tries became active. Two days later, the
Y. M. C. A.s of the Allied countries had
250 centres in France and England among
the troops ; and by 1916 there were more
than 1,000 such. By 1918, there were more
than 500 Y. M. C. A. "huts" among the
British forces in France alone.
From the entrance of the United States
into the World War to October 1, 1919, the
National War Work Council of the Y. M.
C. A., which had charge of the organization's
war activities, received from contributions
and Interest the sum of $155,769,074. This
sum included the amounts raised In the three
campaigns for funds for the Y. M. C. A.'s
war work. The expenditures totalled $124,-
058,960, including $37,895,282 in the
United States : $53,182,345 with the Amer-
ican Expeditionary Forces ; $18,252,193
with the Allies and their prisoners ; $7,187,-
538 for national headquarters expenses, in-
cluding campaigns and recruiting ; and $7,-
541,603 loss on foreign exchange. Con-
struction' and equipment for the especially
constructed buildings in the camps, training
stations and cantonments cost $8,248,148.
In the overseas activities, 3,356 huts were
operated ; including 1,800 for the A. E. F.
only ; more than 12,000 secretaries were
sent overseas, including 2,500 women work-
ers ; more than 56,000,000 feet of moving
picture films were shown monthly without
charge ; more than 600 members of the
theatrical prof ession were sent overseas, and
the free performances given by them aver-
aged more than 100 daily in number ; more
than 700 preachers were sent abroad to do
religious work and more than 5,000,000
Testaments were distributed ; more than
$21,000,000 in money orders was sent home
for the soldiers without charge, and the cost
of the stationery distributed was above
$2,500,000.
From June, 1918, to April, 1919, the Y.
M. C. A. handled in Prance alone more than
2,000,000,000 packages of cigarettes, 32,-
000,000 bars of chocolate, 18,000,000 cans
of smoking tobacco, 50,000,000 cigars, 60,-
000,000 cans of jam, 29,000,000 packages of
chewing gum, 10,000,000 packages of candy.
From June, 1918, to February, 1919, more
than 9,500 cars of freight of Y. M. C. A,
supplies were handled. In France there
were acquired and operated 20 biscuit factor-
ies, 13 chocolate factories, 8 jam factories
and 3 candy factories. Their monthly pro-
duction was more than 10,000,000 packages
of biscuits 7.500,000 tablets for drinking
chocolate, 4,500,000 bars of eating chocolate
Y. M. C. A.
Encyclopedic Index
Zinc
Ti, 300,000 fancy candy bars, 3,100,000 car-
tons of caramels, and 2,000,000 tins of jam.
The most recent statistics showed that
there are in America 2,194 local Y. M. C.
A.'s with 868,892 members, including about
200,000 boys. There are 5,173 paid officers
and 85,106 directors and volunteer worlters.
The total net property and paid-in funds
are valued at $128,019,000. The total an-
nual operating expenditures were $38,484,-
800, of which more than $8,000,000 came
from contributions. (These flgnres are ex-
clusive of the war activities, for which see
above.)
Among the activities pursued in the year
for which the above figures are given were
more than 75,000 socials and entertainments ;
117,000 situations found ; 310,000 men and
boys registered in the gymnasium classes ;
107,000 men and boys enrolled in the var-
ious educational courses ; 136,000 men and
boys in the regular Bible study courses ;
26,000 decisions for the Christian life and
8,770 unions with the church of choice.
Young Men's Christian Association:
Discussed, 7993.
European relief work of, referred to,
8901.
Panama Canal Zone, work of, on,
praised, 7322.
Rural work of, praised, 7257.
Secretaries of, to be sent to Eussia,
8592.
Young Women's Cbristiaa Association.
— Organizations formed to promote the
welfare of young women. They attempt to
enter every sphere of activities in wliich
they may be of assistance to young women,
and their worls is non-denominational. Par-
ticular attention is paid to physical train-
ing, and there are many classes, religious,
general and professional. The movement
was organized in 1855 in London, combin-
ing a Prayer Union and a Boarding Home
for young women. The world federation
dates from 1894. The first American or-
ganization of the Y. W. C. A. occurred in
Boston in 1866, although there had been
for some time organizations with different
names doing similar work. In a recent year,
there were in the United States almost
1,000 Y. W. C. A.s, with a membership of
more than 375,000.
After the entrance of the United States
into the European War, the Y. W. C. A. be-
came especially active, not only In the train-
ing camps In the United States, but also
in France, where it performed much recon-
struction worl£, and assisted the Y. M. C. A.
in the latter's canteens, etc. In the United
States, the Y. W. C. A. "hostess huts" were
especially serviceable in providing chaper-
onag'e and individual attention to women
visiting, and in the vicinity of, the camps.
With respect to war activities, from July,
1917, to January, 1920, 200 worlters sailed
for France and 65 more were appointed in
France. The Y. W. C. A. maintained as
American centers in France 19 hostess
houses, 18 centers for the Signaling Corps,
37 nurses clubs, and 7 miscellaneous cen-
ters. There were 44 French centers main-
tained. Aid was rendered to more than
3,000 "war brides," and activities were
prosecuted also in Russia, Italy and other
countries.
War activities in the United States cen-
tered around the 124 centers of hostess
works in the camps and cantonments.
Housing facilities were provided in many
cases for women employed in the camps or
in war industrial work. Twenty industrial
centers were opened near munitions plants,
provisions were made for serving meals
which otherwise would not have been avail-
able, vacation camps were maintained for
women and girl worljers engaged in neci's-
sary war work, and lectures were given on
questions of social morality and social edu-
cation.
Young Women's Christian Association,
relief work of, in Europe referred
to, 8901.
Youngstown, Ohio, act for erection of
public building at, vetoed, 5254.
Yucatan. — A peninsula of Mexico. It com-
prises the States of Yucatan and Campeche
and the territory of Quintana. It is bound-
ed on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on
the east by the Channel of Yucatan (which
separates it from Cuba) and the Caribbean
Sea, on the south by British Honduras and
Guatemala, and on the west by the Gulf
of Campeche. The surface is low. Its chief
product Is sisal hemp. Yucatan was dis-
covered in 1517 ; was conquered by Spain,
1527-1547 ; became independent 1821 ; was
annexed to Mexico 1822. In April, 1848,
President Polk reiterated the "Monroe doc-
trine" while discussing the relations of the
United States and Yucatan (2431).
Yucatan:
Acquisition of, by United States, dis-
cussed, 2431.
Aid of IJnited States asked for, by,
to suppress Indian hostilities, 2431.
Foreign powers must not take posses-
sion of, 2431.
Monroe doctrine reasserted, 2432.
Eeferred to, 2433, 2434, 2436.
Yukon, The, mineral wealth in, value of,
6063.
Zanesville, Ohio, act for erection of pub-
lic building at, vetoed, 5016.
Zanzibar, treaty with, 5195.
Zenger's Case. — One of the most impor-
tant struggles for the freedom of the press
in America. John Peter Zenger was editor ,
and publisher of the New York Weekly
Journal, which was founded by him in
1726. , His newspaper openly denounced the
administration of the colonial government.
For this he was brought to trial in 1735,
charged with the publication of "false,
scandalous, seditious libels" against the
royal government of the Colony of New
York. Strenuous efforts were made to se-
cure Zenger's conviction, but no jury could
be found to convict him. '
Zeppelins, illustration of raid by, 8250.
(See also Aeronautics and World
War, 1915 — On the Western Front.)
Zinc. — Before the outbreak of the World
War, the world's annual production of zinc
averaged slightly more than 1,000,000 short
tons. Of these, about 350,000 came from
the United States, 310,000 from Germany
and 215,000 from Belgium.
The United States, in the last calendar
year for which figures are available, im-
ported 48,437 gross tons, or more than 34,-
000,000 zinc pounds, of ore and calamine,
valued at $530,000. It came chiefly from
Mexico and Canada. The exports comprised
Zinc
Encyclopedic Index
Zuni
10,250,00t) pounds of drosa zinc, valued at
$740,000 ; 244,000,000 pounds of spelter In
pigs, slabs, etc., valued at $19,450,000 (go-
ing chiefly to the United Kingdom, France,
Japan and Italy) ; and about 39,500,000
poands of zinc rolled In sheets, strips, etc.,
valued at $5,212,000.
Recent figures for the annual production
of zinc in the United States place it at
452,272 shorts tons, valued at $66,032,000.
This figure represents a decline from the
production of war years. The chief zinc-
producing states are New Jersey, Missouri,
Montana and Oklahoma.
Zionism. — In the words of its founder, Dr.
Theodore Herzl. the movement for the "crea-
tion of a home secured by public rights for
those Jews who cannot or will not be
assimilated In the country of their adop-
tion." One branch of the Zionist move-
ment, known as the Jewish Colonization
Association, in which the leading spirit is
Israel Zangwlll, Is willing to found this
home in any suitable locality, but as a
whole the Zionist movement is concerned
with locating In Palestine.
The Old Testament is replete with proph-
ecies that some day the Jews will return
to their ancient home ; and from the days
of the Babylonian exile, devout Jews have
looked forward to the day when the Jews
would once again be an autonomous race.
Up to the close of the eighteenth century,
when Jewish life was still almost entirely
bounded by the walls of an Oriental and
unmodern Ghetto, this hope, although vague,
was never shaken. But at this time, under
the example of Moses Mendelssohn, a def-
inite cultural movement arose which
brought the Jew out of bis Ghetto and set
him down as a citizen of the land of his
adoption — a citizen with Jewish ties, it Is
true, but nonetheless a citizen bearing with
interest his share in all movements of the
national life of the country in which he
had made a home. In the latter half of the
nineteenth century, however, there occurred
a tremendous Anti-Semitic movement in Eu-
rope, and the longing for a national home
for the Jewish people took on new signi-
ficance as a result. It is therefore natural
that most orthodox or conservative Jews
are Zionists and that most reformed Jews
are anti-Zionists.
It was not until 1896, however, that
the aims of the nationalistic impulse were
put concretely. That task was performed
by a brilliant Journalist of Vienna, Theodore
Herzl, in his book "The Jewish State." The
book created a great sensation, and oc-
casioned the formation of the first Zionist
conference, held the following yesw in Basle,
Switzerland. The aims of the movement
are the acquisition of Palestine from the
Turks, the rendering of the holy places
extra-territorial, and the maintenance of
tlie country autonomous under Turkish
suzerainty and the guarantee of the Great
Powers. The Revolution of the Young
Turks in Turkey in 1908-1909 raised the
hopes of the Zionists, but it was seen that
those hopes had been raised in vain.
The European War affected the Zionist
movement in diflferent ways. The machinery
of the organization was wrecked, along with
most of its financial support ; and the Zion-
ist leadership passed from Europe to Amer-
ica, where Supreme Court Justice Louis D.
Brandeis was made head of the Provisional
Zionist Committee. The Russian Revolu-
tion freed from persecution more than half
of the 13,000,000 Jews of the world, and
hence removed one of the strongest incen-
tives, especially among non-Jews, to support
the movement. On the other hand, persist-
ent negotiations with the belligerent gov-
ernments by powerful Jewish leaders seemed
to have created among the Entente govern-
ments a strong sentiment for turning Pales-
tine over to the Jews, especially if the
British expedition against the Holy Land
should be successful in gaining the land
from the Turks and in holding it.
From the earliest days of the modern
Zionist movement, pending the material
acquisition of Palestine, the Zionist leaders
concerned themselves largely with founding
agricultural and mechanical settlements in
the country, and in carrying in other ways
the message of Western civilization to the
inhabitants. In 1915, there were 43 agri-
cultural colonies, all of them in a flourish-
ing condition. One interesting feature of
the Zionist movement has been the re-
vival in Palestine of Hebrew as the lan-
guage of every-day life.
Zionist Movement endorsed, 8575. (See
also Palestine.)
Zollverein. — A union of German states for
the maintenance of uniform rate of duty
on imports from other countres and of free
trade among themselves. It began in 1828
in an agreement between Prussia and the
Grand Duchy of Hesse, and gradually de-
veloped until now it is coextensive with the
German Empire, and also includes the
Grand Duchy of Luxemburg.
Zona Iiilire. — A narrow strip of territory
along the northern border of Mexico, so
called because certain articles imported for
consumption in it were formerly exempted
from customs duties. It was flrst estab-
lished in 1858. Imports into the zone lat-
terly paid 10 per cent of the ordinary
duties, except cattle, which paid full duty.
The zone was suppressed July 1, 1905.
Zona Lilire:
Discussed, 4055, 4100, 4295, 4806, 6334.
Eeferred to, 5195.
Zuni and Manzano national forests,
combined, 7987.
BIOGRAPHIC INDEX
to the
Messages and Papers of the Presidents
Abbott, John Jay, Chinese Consortium
signed by, for Continental and Com-
mercial Trust and Savings Bank,
8935.
Acuna, Jesus, Mexican foreign minister,
referred to, 8131.
Adams, C. F.:
Arbitrator named by United States
for Geneva Tribunal, 4139.
Correspondence regarding publica-
tions for Library of Congress trans-
mitted, 3347.
Adams, John, biography of, 217.
Adams, John Quincy, biography of, 857.
Adamson, W. 6., Bepresentative, letter
to, on war risk insurance, 8350.
Addis, C. S., representative of British
group in signing Chinese Consortium,
8935.
Adee, Alvey A.:
Acting Secretary of State, 5536, 6475.
Second Assistant Secretary of State,
Canadian canal tolls referred to,
5678. (See also 5675.)
Adet, P. A., colors of France presented
to United States by, on the occasion
of the presentation of an address,
dated October 21, 1794, by the com-
mittee of public safety, 181.
Agassiz, J. Ii. B., visit of, to Brazil, re-
ferred to, 3664.
Aguinaldo, referred to, 6408, 6414.
Agulrre, 6., Guatemalan foreign minis-
ter, messages to and from, on armis-
tice of World War, 8626.
Ainsworth, F. C, work of, in Record
and Pension Division of War Depart-
ment discussed, 5631.
Aldape, Manuel>Garza, Mexican foreign
secretary, referred to, 7889.
Alden, Roger, deputy secretary of Conti-
nental Congress, custodian of Consti-
tution and Declaration of Independ-
ence, 9033.
Aleshire, Brigadier General James B.,
mentioned, 7660.
Alexander, General E. P., settlement of
question between Costa Eica and
Nicaragua by, 6427.
Alexander, James, crimes charged
against, 405.
Alger, R. A., thanks of President ten-
dered Gen. Shafter through, 6574.
Allen, Henry A., report of, on Panama
Canal, 7269.
Allen, Ira, claims of heir of, against
Great Britain, 1268.
Allen, Walter, member of Ponca Indian
Commission, 4582.
AlUson, WiUiam B., Senator, referred
to, 7253, 7813.
Allwork, Roland, superintending engi-
neer, Panama Railroad Company, 7841.
Almodovar, Duke of, communication
from, regarding Spanish-American
peace negotiations, 6320.
Alvarez, Manuel, acting governor of
New Mexico, 2611.
Alverstone, Iiord, on Anglo-American
arbitration tribunal, 6793.
Alvord, H. J., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3460.
Amador, Juan, of Mexico, mentioned,
8135.
Amaya, General, of Colombia, men-
tioned, 6769, 6838.
Ambristie [Ambrlster] and Arbuthnot,
courts-martial of, referred to, 612.
Ames, Fisher:
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
nomination of, 250.
On committee to conduct inaugural
ceremony of President Washington,
39.
AiiiinBey
Biographic Index
Baker
Amin Bey, visit of, to United States re-
feired to, 2655. .
Anderson, Edward C, lieutenant in
Navy, resignation of, referred to, -
2610, 2612.
Anderson, John H., appoin1;ed to Civil
Service, 6855.
Anderson, Bichard C, minister to Pan-
ama, nomination of, 886.
Anderson, Bichaxd C, minister to Co-
lombia, instructions to, 6851.
Anderson, Robert!
Commander of forts in Charleston
Harbor, 3189.
Dispatches of, while in command of
Fo*t Sumter, S. C, referred to, 3213,
3232.
Empowered to receive volunteer
troops, 3219.
Flag over Fort Sumter at evacuation
of, to be raised on ruins of, by,
3484.
Andrews, T. P., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2304.
Antongiprgi, Francisco, franchise in
Porto ''ilico granted to, 7836.
Arango, Jose A., of Panama, men-
tioned, 6750 et seq., 6835.
Arbuthnot and Amhrlstie [Ambristei],
courts-martial of, referred to, 612.
Arias, Besiderio, of Santo Domingo, re-
ferred to, 8904.
Arias, Tomas, of Panama, telegrams
from, 6756 et seq.
Armistead, George, mentioned, 701.
Armstrong, John:
Communicating letter from the
French minister of foreign rela-
tions showing . disposition of the
French people toward the people
of the United States, 434, 437.
Arnold, Gerrard, reward offered for
murderer of, 943.
Arnold, Samuel, implicated in murder
of President Lincoln, proceedings of
trial and verdict of military commis-
sion, 3532, 3533, 3534, 3540, 3545,
3546.
Arosemena, Pablo, delegate from Pan-
ama, 6752.
Arredondo, Eliseo, Mexican ambassadoi
designate to the United States, re-
ferred to, 8132 H seq., 8140.
Arthur, Chester A., biography of, 4618.
Ashley, Gen., attacked by Indians, 781.
r
Ashton, J. Hubley, agent of United
States before Mexican and United
States Claims Commission, report of,
transmitted, 4379.
Atkinson, Edward, international ar-
rangement fixing rates between gold
and silver coinage, report of, on, 5177.
Atkinson, Henry:
Mentioned, 701.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
887.
Troops sent to suppress Indians, com-
manded by, 953, 1166.
Atwater, Caleb, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 1029.
Atzerodt, George A.:
Implicated in murder of President
Lincoln, proceedings of trial and
verdict of military commission,
3532, 3533, 3534, 3540, 3545, 3546.
Persons claiming reward for appre-
hension of, directed to file claims,
3551.
Augur, Christopher C, directed to as-
sume command of Department of
Missouri, 4754.
Auldjo, Thomas, vice-consul to Poole,
England, nomination of, 90.
Aury, Louis De, mentioned, 601.
Avezzana, Baron, Italian Ambassador,
note of State Department to, 8861.
Aylesworth, A. B., on Anglo-American
arbitration tribunal, 6793.
Badger, Captain C. J., referred to, 7118.
Bagley, Worth, ensign in Navy, killed
while attempting to silepce batteries
at Cardenas, Cuba, 6302, 6316.
BaUey, Edward L., reinstatement in
service vetoed, 6775.
BaUey, Theodorus, thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Baiubiidge, William:
Commander of the —
Constitution, 507.
Philadelphia, 352, 356.
Letter of, regarding —
Hostile act of vessel of Morocco
transmitted, 352.
Wreck of the Philadelphia trans-
mitted, 356.
Baker, Charles H., interests of, men-
tioned, 7162.
Baker, Eugene M., engagement with
Piegan Indians referred to, 4004.
Baker, John, imprisonment of, in New
Brunswick, 963, 969, 990.
Claims arising out of, 1687.
Baker, Joseph E., visit of, to Bamoan
Islands regarding Apian claims, dis-
cussed, 7837.
Baker
Biographic Index
Batchelder
Baker, Newton D., Secretary of War,
referred to, 8130, 8169, 8410, 8554,
8632, 8805.
Baldwin, Cbarles H., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Baldwin, IiSon, indemnity paid by Re-
public of Mexico for murder of, in
Durango, 5959.
Baldwin, W. G-., Captain, report of,
7347.
Balestier, Joseph:
Mentioned, 2688.
Mission of, to eastern Asia referred
to, 2681.
Balfour, Arthur J., British Foreign
Secretary:
Attitude of, on disposition of Yap,
8951. .
Declaration of, on Jewish homeland
in Palestine welcomed, 8575.
Delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Messages to and from, on armistice
of World War, 8622.
Secretary Hughes nominated for
chairman of Armament Limitation
Conference by, 9044.
Ballard, David W., governor of Idaho
Territory, removal of, referred to,
3794.
Ballard, Henry E., commander of the
United States, 1273.
BaUinger, Bichard A., report of, on
land reservation in Alaska, 7605 et
scq. (See also Pinchot-Ballinger con-
troversy.)
Balmaceda, JosS M., President of Chile,
mentioned, 5618.
Bancroft, George:
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 5599.
Minister to Germany, communication
from, regarding political ques-
tions in Germany, transmitted,
4017.
Eeferred to, 4114, 4140.
Bandholtz, Brigadier General H. H.,
allotment to, for Inter-Allied mission
to Hungary, 8888.
BSnfify, Count Nicholas, Hungarian min-
ister for foreign affairs, peace treaty
signed by, 8994.
Bankhead, Charles:
Correspondence regarding northeast-
ern boundary. (See Northeastern
Boundary.)
Correspondence relative to mpdiation
offered by Great Britain in con-
troversy between United States
and France, 1436.
Bankhead, James, correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Rebellion, 3152, 2155,
2157, 2158.
Banks, N. P., orders issued by, at New
Orleans transmitted, 3470.
Bannon, Henry T., Representative,
quoted, 7167.
Barnes, Julius H.:
Appointed United States Wheat
Director, 8710.
Director, Food Administration Grain
Corporation, 8325.
Resignation of, accepted, 8868.
United States Grain Corporation ,
stock to be reduced by, 8857.
Barnwell, B. W., commissioner from
South Carolina, mentioned, 3189.
Barra, Francisco L. de la, chosen pro-
visional President of Republic of
Mexico, 7663.
Barrett, 6. S., on wheat price committee,
8348.
Barron, Samuel, correspondence regard-
■ ing war with Tripoli transmitted, 379.
Barrundia, J. Martine, seizure and kill-
ing of, on the Acapulco and action
of American minister discussed,
5544.
Conduct of Commander Reiter re-
garding, referred to, 5569.
Papers regarding, transmitted, 5565.
Barry, John:
Monument to, proposed, 6946.
Wilson speech at unveiling of statue
to, 7942.
Barry, Major General Thomas H., com-
mander of army of Cuban pacifica-
tion, 7389.
Barton, Clara, president American Na-
tional Red Cross, work accomplished
by, in Spanish-American War dis-
cussed, 6284, 6308, 6320.
Barton, Thomas P., charge d'affaires to
France:
Correspondence regarding claims
against France. (See France,
claims against.)
Request of, for passports complied
with, 1416.
Barueh, Bernard, M., chairman War
Industries Board, letter to, describing
Board's functions, 8518.
Bashaw, Hamet, correspondence relat-
ing to Hamet Caramalli transmitted,
380.
Bassett, Oaptain< Eaxl, allotment to, for
Inter-Allied commission to Posen
8888.
Batchelder, J. M., mentioned as a mem-
ber of the commission for the revi-
Batchelder
Biographic Index
Bismarck
sion of the Judicial Code of the re-
form tribunal of Egypt, 4564.
Bates, Brig.-Oen. John C, transmitting
his report in connection with the
treaty effected by him with the Sul-
tan of Sulu, 6407.
Baumer, Julius, expulsion of, from Ger-
man Empire referred to, 4460.
Bawden, H. I., terminal superintendent,
- Panama Railroad Company, 7841. .
Bayard, James A., Jr., nomination of,
as director of Bank of United States
declined, 1267.
Bayard, Thomas F.:
Ambassador to Great Britain, report
relating to speeches of, transmitted,
6035.
Attitude of, on threatened attack on
Colombia, mentioned, 6813. ;
Secretary of State, 4889.
Treaty with Great Britain on subject
of fisheries concluded by, 5189.
Baylor, Thomas O., member of Gun
Foundry Board, 4748.
Beach, Iiansing H., commissioner in
marking boundary between Texas
and Mexico, 4902.
Beale, Edward F., superintendent of In-
dian affairs in California, accounts
of, referred to, 2958, 3016.
Beaumarchais, Caron de, claims of,
against United States, 406, 568, 591,
696.
Beaupre, Arthur M., minister to Colom-
bia, correspondence to and from, 6758
et seq., 6847.
Bedford, A. C, referred to, 7163.
Bediui, Gaetano, complimentary mission
of, to United States, referred to,
2761.
Beecher, Henry Ward, public address to
be delivered by, at Fort Sumter,
4237.
Behn, Sosthenes, franchise in Porto
Eico granted to, 7836.
Bell, Alexander Graham, picture of,
4450.
BeU, Henry H., thanks of Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
Benedict XV., Popei, mediation offer
from, 8341.
Benge, L. H., treaty with Indians ne-
gotiated by, 3592.
Benham, A. E. K,, action of, in protect-
ing American interests during Bra-
zilian insurrection, 5973.
Benner, Henry H., pension to widow of,
recommended by Secretary of War,
4451.
Bennett, William S., Eepresentative ;
Referred to, 7244 et seq.
Resolution of, asking for information
on disloyalty, 8120.
Benson, Egbert:
Appointed on committee —
To conduct ceremonies of adminis-
tration of oath to President
Washington, 39.
To meet President Washington, 37.
Commissioner of United States to de-
termine northeastern boundary,
191.
Benson, W. S., Admiral, permanent
rank of admiral asked for, 8781.
Berard, Mary, deputy postmaster,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
2737.
Bernstein, Bemhard, claim of, against
Russia, for illegal arrest and impris-
onment, 4162.
Bernstorff, Count Johann von, German
ambassador, referred to, 8204, 8293,
8297.
Berry, Robert M., relief expedition un-
der command of, 4726.
Bertholf, Ellsworth P., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 6352.
Betaucourt, Gaspar A., arrest and de-
tention of, by Spanish authorities in
Cuba, 6182.
Betts, Samuel R., decree of, regarding
Spanish vessels referred to, 3795.
Beurmann, C. de Z. y, Cuban Secretary
of State and Justice, 6743.
Beziers, Capt., remuneration for saving
American vessel requested by, 1647.
Bibb, William W., letter to Gen. Jack-
sou transmitted, 621.
Biddle, Charles, mentioned, 2578.
Biddle, James, treaty with Turkey con-
cluded by, 1093.
Bierd, W. G., General Manager Panama
Railway, mentioned, 7308.
Bingham, Colonel T. A., to assist in
reception of Prince Henry of Prussia,
6704.
Bingham, John A., special judge advo-
cate in trial of persons implicated in
assassination of President Lincoln,
3534. •
Bishop, Joseph B., Secretary of Panama
Canal Commission, mentioned, 7308.
Bishop, Nathan, member of Indian com-
mission, 3977.
Bisland, P. E., referred to, 7160.
Bismarck, Prince von, instructions of,
to German minister respecting Samoa
transmitted, 5391.
Bissell
Biographic Index
Brace ■
Bissell, Daniel, colonel in Army, nomi-
nation of, discussed, 910.
Black, Jeremiah S.:
Counsel for President Johnson in im-
peachment proceedings, 3924.
Secretary of State, 3203.
Black, William M., Major, referred to,
6842.
Blackburn, J. C. S., appointed on Pan-
ama Canal Commission, 7100.
Blackford, William, treaty with New
Granada concluded by, 2168.
Blaine, James Or.:
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 5820.
Member of conference to discuss
commercial relations with Canada,
5675, 5678, 5748.
On Senate committee urging seats for
cabinet in Congress, 7813.
Secretary of State, 4603, 5450, 6717.
Correspondence regarding the Bal-
timore afifair. (See Baltimare,
The.)
Blaine, Walker, Third Assistant Secre-
tary of State, mentioned, 4694.
Blair, Francis P., Jr.:
Commission of, as Major-general dis-
cussed, 3404.
Correspondence regarding assignment
of command to, 3407.
Letter and advice of President Lin-
coln as to accepting seat in Con-
gress or remaining in command,
3406.
Eesignation of, as major-general ac-
cepted, 3407.
Withdrawal of, 3409.
Blair, Frank P., Sr., negotiations for
and correspondence regarding resto-
ration of peace, 3461.
Blair, Heiiry W., refusal of China to re-
ceive, as minister, 5621, 5673, 5679.
Blair, Montgomery, correspondence re-
garding resignation of Francis P.
Blair, Jr., as major-general, 3407.
Blakeley, Johnston, British ship cap-
tured by vessel in command of, 534.
Blanco, Bamon, Captain-General of
Cuba, directed by Spain to suspend
hostilities, referred to, 6292.
Bland, Theodorlc:
Appointed on committee to meet
Washington on his embarkation,
from New Jersey upon the occasion
of his first inauguration, 37.
Blatchford, Kichard M., mentioned,
3279.
Bliss, General Tasker H., treaty with
Cuba negotiated by, 6743.
Blocksom, Major A. P., 7329, et seq.,
7337 et seq.
Blount, James H., special commissioner
to Hawaiian Islands, report of, dis-
cussed, 5873, 5892.
Blow, Henry T., dispatch from, relative
to commercial interests with South
America, transmitted, 4014.
Bodin, Joseph, mentioned, 7339.
Boggs, Charles S., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Boggs, F. C, director, Panama Rail-
road Company, 7841.
Bogy, Lewis V., mentioned, 3719.
Bolivar, Simon:
Centennial celebration of birth of, at
Caracas, referred to, 4716, 4760.
Delivered from assassins, medal of-
fered President Jackson in com-
memoration of, declined, 1029.
Bollman, Eric, crimes charged against,
405.
Bonaparte, Charles J., mentioned, 6863.
Booth, John Wilkes, persons claiming
reward for apprehension of, directed
to file claims, 3551.
Borah, William E., Senator, resolution
of, for conference on limitation of
naval armament, 9037.
Borda, Don Francisco de P., Colombian
minister, referred to, 7857.
Boudinot, Elias:
Appointed on committee to meet
President Washington, 37.
Invites President Washington to
meet committee at his home, 38.
Director of Mint, report of, transmit-
ted, 303, 305.
Boutwell, E. B., report on operations of
the John Adams, under command of,
transmitted, 2909.
Bowell, MacKenzie, member of recip-
rocal trade conference between
United States and Canada, 5675.
Bowen, Henry, correspondence regard-
ing Dorr's Bebellion, 2145.
Boyd, Frederico, of Panama, telegrams
from, 6756, et seq.
Boyden, Koland W., United States rep-
resentative on Separations Commis-
sion, 8967.
Boynton, Michael P., imprisonment of,
by authorities in Great Britain, re-
ferred to, 4602.
Boynton, Bichard M., letter of Harriet
M. Fisher and, to Secretary of Navy,
transmitted, 3669.
Brace, Charles L., imprisonment of, by
Austrian authorities referred to, 2689.
Bradley
Biographic Index
Biirchard
Bradley, IMir., commissioner to investi-
gate affairs of New York custom-
house, 2005.
Brady, A. N., referred to, 7161.
Brady, James T., investigations of, at
New Orleans referred to, 3583.
Brant, Joshua B., court of inquiry in
case of, referred to, 1777.
Brantley, William G., Representative,
quoted, 7167.
Breese, E. Randolph, thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Brent, Charles J., refusal of Great Brit-
ain to surrender other fugitives and,
discussed, 4326, 4369.
Brewer, David J., arbitrator in Ven-
ezuelan boundary dispute, 6338.
Brewer, Judge, opinion of, in Great
Falls land case, referred to, 3072.
Briand, Aristide, prime minister of
France:
Delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Note to, on French naval dqnjands at
Armament Limitation Confer-
ence, 9056.
Eeply of, 9058.
Brida, Demetro S., of Panama, telegram
from, 6756.
Brleseu, Arthur V., immigration service
investigated by, 6788.
Briggs, Isaac, surveyor-general of the
United States, voluntarily surveys
mail roid between Washington, D. C.,
and New Orleans, La., 364.
Bristow, Pierson H., member of Board
on Geographic Names, 564T.
Broadh'ead, James O,, report of, regard-
ing French spoliation claims trans-
mitted, 4956.
Broglle, Due de, correspondence regard-
ing claims of United States against
France. (See France, claims against.)
Bromherger, Max, claim of, against
Mexico, 4536.
Bronski, Count de Bronno, memorial
from, relative to introduction of silk-
worms into United States, 2584.
Brooke, George M., mentioned, 697, 894.
Brooke, John B.:
Member of military commission to
Porto Eico, 6322.
Porto Riean expedition re-enforced
by corps of, 6318.
Brooke, Lieutenant Mark, referred to,
6842.
Brooks, Alfred H., of Geological Survey:
Coal deposit report of, discussed, 7565.
Member of Alaskan transportation
commission, 7843.
Brooks,, Joseph, mentioned, 4273.
Brown, Aaron V., Postmaster-General,
death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory Of, 3082.
Brown, Ashmun N., secretary to Secre-
tary of Interior, referred to, 7615,
7616.
Brown, Jacob:
Death of, announced and tribute to
memory of, 972.
Referred to, 914.
Victories of, over British troops, 533.
Brown, John, insurrection at Harpers
Ferry, Va., discussed, 3084. (See also
Brown's Insurrection.)
Brown, John A., second lieutenant, pro-
motion of, to first lieutenant, dis-
cussed, 2437.
Brown, Josepb C, succeeded as Sur-
veyor-General of Illinois by Silas
Reed, 1957.
Brown, Lieut., report of, on the possi-
bility of restraining the Navajo In-
dians within their reservations, trans-
mitted, 5782.
Browne, Herbert J., report of, 7347.
Browning, O. H., correspondence of,
transmitted, 3805.
Brubaker, Pharos B., capture and im-
prisonment of, by Honduras, 5825.
Brunot, F. R., member of Indian Com-
mission, 3977.
Brunswick and Lunebnrg, Duke of, con-
vention with, for acquiring and in-
heriting property, 2826.
Brush, Robert, act for relief of, dis-
cussed, 1353.
Bryan, William Jennings, Secretary of
State :
Californian alien land legislation
opposed by, 7876.
Resignation of, not demanded, 8417.
Buchanan, James, biography of, 2960.
Buell, Don Carlos, second lieutenant,
proceedings in court-martial of, re-
ferred to, 2128.
Bullitt, W. C, allotment to, for mission
to Russia, 8888.
Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton, treaty be-
tween United States and Great
Britain concluded by John M. Clay-
ton and, 2580.
Bunau-Varilla, Philip, minister from
Panama to United States, 6757, 6763,
6764, 6816, 6856 et seq.
Burchard, A. W., referred to, 7159
et seq.
Burchard
Biographic Index
Cameron
Burchaid, Horatio C, Director of Mint,
removal of, and reasons therefor,
4952.
Burgess, Thomas M., correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Eebellion, 2155.
Burleson, Alljert S., Postmaster General,
control of cable systems vested in,
8631.
Burlingame, Anson, minister to Chins:
Appointment of, to mission of Em-
peror of China referred to, 3976,
3825.
Dispatch from, transmitted, 3398,
3781.
Burnet, Daniel, member of legislative
council for Mississippi Territory,
nomination of, 445.
Burnet, J., correspondence regarding
removal of remains of the late Pres-
ident W. H. Harrison, 1906.
Burnett, John D., district attorney,
nomination of, discussed, 4960.
Bumham, Hiram, brigadier - general,
nomination of, referred to, 3403,
Bumside, Ambrose E.:
Brigadier-general^ thanks of Presi-
dent tendered, 3305.
Major-general, ordered to assume
command of Army of Potomac,
3325.
Burr, Aaron:
Attempts made in Kentucky to bring
to justice, 403.
Boats of, with ammunition arrested
by militia, 405.
Conspiracy of, letters regarding, not
received by President, 437.
Military expedition against Union
planned by, 400.
Passes Port Massac with boats, 405.
Beaches Mississippi Territory, 407.
Surrenders to officers in Mississippi
Territory, 409. '
Trial of—
Acquittal of, referred to, 417.
Evidence presented at, 417, 419.
Expenses incident thereto, 421, 447.
Burroughs, Marmaduke, consul at Vera
Cruz, Mexico, charges preferred
against, by Dr. Baldwin, 1810.
Burt, Silas W., chief examiner of Civil
Service Commission, nomination of,
and reasons therefor, 4745.
Burton, Joseph R., Senator, referred to,
7241.
Busbey, L. W., newspaper article of,
referred to, 7247.
Butler, Benjamin F., Massachusetts:
Swords of Gen. Twiggs forwarded by,
to President Lincoln and his recom-
mendation that they be disposed of
in reward or compliment for military
service, 3346.
Butler, Benjamin F., of New York:
Correspondence regarding examina-
tion of affairs of New York custom-
house referred to, 2007.
Secretary of War, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1500.
Butler, Matthew C:
Member of military commission to
Cuba, 6322.
On Senate committee urging seats for
cabinet in Congress, 7813.
Statement of, regarding slaughter of
American citizens in South Caro-
lina referred to, 4329.
Butler, Fierce, mentioned, 3275.
Caballero, Lncas, of Colombia, referred
to, 6760.
Cabrillo, Juan Kodriguez, discovery of
California by, commemorated, 7900.
Caceres, Bamon, President of Domini-
can Eepublic, assassination of, 7787.
Oady, Heman, claim of, presented and
appropriation for, recommended, 1694.
Caldwell, Charles H. B., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Calhoun, J., president constitutional
convention of Kansas, mentioned as
forwarding copy of constitution
framed by that body, 3002.
Calhoun, James S., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2571.
Calhoun, John C:
Convention with Indians concluded
by, 622.
Mentioned, 2233.
Call, Richard K., commander of militia
in Seminole War, 1472, 1834.
Call, Dr. Samuel J., thanks of Congress
recommended to, 6352.
Oalvit, Thomas, member of legislative
council for Mississippi Territory,
nomination of, 445.
Cambon, Jules, French minister, repre-
sentative of Spain in peace negotia-
tions, 6320, 6487.
Cameron, Simon:
Ex-Secretary of War, arrest of, at
Cameron
Biographic Index
Catacazy
suit of Pierce Butler for false im-
prisonment, etc., 3275.
Besolution of censure of, by House
of Bepresentatives dis«Su8sed, 3278.
Campbell, Archibald, correspondence re-
garding northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Campbell, Bernard, claim of, against
Haiti/ 6100.
Settlement of, 6332.
Campbell, John, nomination of, as In-
dian agent withdrawn and reasons
therefor, 1037.
Campbell, John A.:
Justice Supreme Court, resignation
of, referred to, 3250.
Member of commission to confer with
President regarding termination of
war, 2461.
Pardon applied for by, order regard-
ing, 3550.
Campbell, Lewis C:
Ex-minister to Mexico, Correspond-
ence with, referred to, 3723.
Mentioned, 3642.
Campbell, Robert, member of Indian
commission, 3977.
Canada, Charles S., mentioned, 7339.
Candler, Oovemor Allen S., of Georgia,
quoted on lynching, 7030.
Cannon, James, Jr., Beverend, of Anti-
Saloon League, letter to, re-prohibi-
tion legislation, 8305.
Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, prime
minister of Spain, assassination of,
referred to, 6284.
Caramalli, Hamet:
Appeals to United States to place him
on the throne of Tripoli in place of
the reigning Bashaw, his younger
brother, by whom he had been dis-
placed, 380.
Referred to, 2951.
Carmichael, William:
Commissioner to Spain, nomination
of, 107.
Becall of, from Spain, 148.
Referred to, 184.
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi, President
of France, assassination of, 5910.
Resolutions of Senate and House on,
' transmitted to widow of, 5957.
Carondelet, Baron de:
Authority to dispose of lands of
Spain in Louisiana referred to, 651.
Validity of grant made by, to Mar-
quis de Maison Rouge to be tested,
2013.
Catpenter, W. S., act for relief of,
vetoed, 5299.
Carr, Don M., secretary to Secretary of
Interior, letter sent to President Taft
by, 7616, 7616.
Carranza, General, Venustiano, adminis-
tration of Mexico by, discussed, 8131
et seq.
Oarrington, Edward, district supervisor,
nomination of, 91.
Oarrington, Henry B., provision for
compensation to, for services ren-
dered in Indian matters, 5499.
Carroll, Charles, on committee to —
Conduct inaugural ceremonies of
President Washingtoh, 39.
Receive President Washington upon
his arrival from New Jersey, 36.
Carson, Christopher (Kit), treaty with
Indians concluded by, 3827.
Carter, C. !>., member of commission
concluding treaty for annexation of
Hawaiian Islands, 5783.
Carter, Major General William H., men-
tioned, 7661.
Carrajal, Doctor Henrlquez y, of Santo
Domingo, referred to, 8904.
Carver, Jonathan, claims of, to lands
near Falls of St. Anthony, 706.
Casey, Thomas L., Jr., commissioner in
marking boundary between Texas and
Mexico, 4902.
Cass, Lewis:
Compensation paid, by Government,
referred to, 2456.
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 3641.
Minister to France —
Commission of, conditional, 1449.
Nomination of, 1449.
Protest of, to treaty for suppres-
sion of slave trade, referred to,
2011.
Resignation of, mentioned, 2086.
Secretary of State, 3023.
Correspondence between President
Buchanan and, referred to, 3964.
Panama, isthmus of, attitude of,
concerning disorders on, quoted,
6807.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
590, 888, 931, 961, 988, 989, 991,
996.
Castle, W. R., member of commission
concluding treaty for annexation of
Hawaiian Islands, 5783.
Castro, Mexican bandit, depredations
of, discussed, 8133 et seq.
Catacazy, Oonstantln de, Russian minis-
ter to United States, recall of, re-
quested, 4099.
Referred to, 4110.
Catcher
Biographic Index
Clark
Catcher, White, treaty with Indians ne-
gotiated by, 3592.
Catron, Pster, murder of, in Mexico,
8762.
Catt, Carrie Chapman, letter to, on
woman suffrage campaign in New
York state, 8375.
Cavell, Edith, execution of, referred to
8196.
Chaffee, Earl Worden, readmission of,
into Naval Academy, 6937.
Chaffee, General A. E., relieved of civil
duties in Philippine Islands, 6692.
Referred to, 6735.
Chaffee, 3. B., United States Senator,
mentioned, 3573.
Chamberlain, D. H., letters of, regard-
ing slaughter of American citizens in
South Carolina transmitted to Con-
gress, 4329.
Chamhers, Edward, general freight
manager of Atchison, Topeka and
Santa FS Eailroad, referred to, 7133
et seq.
Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompdre de,
mentioned, 434, 437.
Chance, Merritt O., member of Economy
.and Efficiency Commission under
President Taft, 7835.
Chandler, Zachariah, death of, an-
nounced and honors to be paid mem-
ory of, 4509.
Chase, Charles B., mentioned, 7339.
Chase, Maj., habeas corpus, writ of, sus-
pended in ease of, 3220.
Chase, Ormond, shot by order of Mexi-
can general, 3097.
Chase, Salmon P.:
Chief Justice United States, death of,
announced and honors to be paid
memory of, 4183.
Regulations relating to trade with
ports opened by proclamation
signed by, 3291.
Chaume, Th. de la, representative of
Trench Group in signing Chinese Con-
sortium, 8935.
Channcey, Isaac, naval talents of, com-
mented on, 520.
Cheek, M. A., claim of, against Siam,
6184.
Adjustiment of, 6336.
Cheney, Brigadier General Sherwood A.,
allotment to, for Inter-Allied commis-
sion on evacuation of Baltic prov-
inces, 8888.
Chester, John, district supervisor, nom-
ination of, 91.
Childs, Thomas, gallantry of, at battle
of Monterey, Mexico, 2368.
Chinda, Count, of Japan, conversations
with, on disposition of Yap, 8951
et seq.
Chlng, Admiral, visit of, 7666.
Ching, Prince of, referred to, 6942.
Chipman, Nathaniel, district jndge,
nomination of, 91.
Choteau, Auguste, treaty with Indiana
concluded by, 589. ^
Chouteau, Charles P., bills for relief of,
vetoed, 5528, 6118.
Christie, Smith, treaty with Indians ne-
gotiated by, 3592.
Church, George E., report of, upon
Ecuador, referred to, 4744.
Church, Philip, Aid-de-Camp, announced
the death of Gen. Washington and
communication of the President about
the funeral, Dec. 21, 1799.
Churchwell, Mr. correspondence of, re-
ferred to, 3114.
Clack, John H.:
Captain in Navy, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 2032.
Master commandant, nomination of,
and reasons therefor, 1106.
Claiborne, William C. C:
Assumes government of Louisiana,
355.
Jurisdiction of, as governor of Or-
leans Territory extended, 465.
Letter from, regarding government of
Louisiana transmitted, 355.
Orleans Territory, governor of, juris-
diction extended, 465.
Receives letter from Manuel De Sal-
cedo, regarding Louisiana Prov-
ince, 336.
Letter sent to Secretary of State,
336.
Clander, Victor A., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Clark, Charles, pardon applied for by,
order regarding, 3550.
Clark, Daniel, officially connected with
investigation of Gen. Wilkinson's
conduct, 424, 427.
Clark, Edward, architect of Patent Of-
fice building, report of, on Philadel-
phia post-office, transmitted, 2912.
Clark, Frank W., member of board of
management of Government exhibit
at World's Columbian Exposition,
5833.
Clark, John B., military services and
promotion of, discussed, 2269.
Clark, John H., Texas boundary line
surveyed by, 7575.
Clark
Biographic Index
Colton
Clark, William:
Exploring expedition under. (See
Lewis and Clark Expedition.)
Treaty with Indians concluded b^i
589, 888.
Clay, Clement C, Jr.:
Imprisonment of —
Arrest of, reward for, 3505,
Keport of Attorney-General regard-
ing, transmitted, 3576.
Order exempting, from arrest during
journey to Washington, 3438.
Beward offered for arrest of, 3505.
Clay, Henry:
Addressing Senate, illustration of,
opposite 1585.
Correspondence regarding —
Northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern . Boundary.)
Pledge to Mexico, 907.
Death of, announced, 2697.
Honored in Argentina, 7060.
Secretary of State, 942.
Clay, James B., negotiations with Por-
tugal for payment of claims con-
ducted by, 2618.
Clay, John B., charge d'affaires at
Lima, Peru, mentioned, 2680.
Claypool, Abram, bill for pension to,
returned, 6864.
Clayton, John M.:
Secretary of State, 2546.
Treaty between United States and
Great Britain concluded by Sir
Henry Lytton Bulwer and, 2580.
Clayton, Joshua, president of Delaware,
65.
Cleary, William C, reward offered for
arrest of, 3505.
Bevoked, 3551.
Clemenceau, Georges, Premier of
France —
Adriatic boundary dispute attitude
of, discussed, 8831-9. ,
Letter from, on American war record
discussed, 8721.
Note from, to Belgian foreign minis-
ter, on Belgian war debt, 8914.
Proposed as permanent chairman of
Paris Peace Conference, 8664.
Statements of President Wilson to, on
disposition of Yap, 8951. (See also
Yap.)
Clements, Prancis W., assistant attorney
in Interior Department, report to,
7613.
Clendenin, David B., member of com-
mission to try assassins of President
Lincoln, etc., 3534.
Cleveland, Frederick A., on Economy
and Effieieney Commission, 7835.
Cleveland, Grover, biography of, 4882.
Clifford, Nathan, minister to Mexico,
nomination of, and reason therefor,
2427.
Instructions to, referred to, 2537.
President declines to transmit to
House instructions to, 2452.
Clin, Stephen, secretary of legation at
Court of Great Britain, nomination
of, 992.
Clinch, Duncan L., troops under, in Sem-
inole War, 1834.
Clinton, George, bronze statue of, pre-
sented by State of New York, 4214.
Clover, Blchardson, member of Board
on Geographic Names, 5647.
Clover, Seth, treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3270.
Clymer, George:
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
nomination of, 171.
District supervisor, nomination of, 91.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
202.
Cobb, Howell, interview with Col. Key,
regarding exchange of prisoners of
war, 3459.
Cochrane, Alex., order of, to British
naval forces to destroy American
coast towns and districts referred to,
536.
Coffee, John, Indians defeated by Ten-
nessee militia under command of, 521.
CofSn, C. A., referred to, 7159 et seq.
Cof&n, George W., commander of the
Alert in Lady Franklin Bay Expedi-
tion, 4835.
CofSn, William G., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3393, 3394.
Colbert, George, reservations sold to
United States by, 616.
Colbert, Levi, reservations sold to
United States, by, 616.
Colby, J. C. S., consul at Chin-Kiang,
China, appointment of, discussed,
4259.
Collins, John, governor of Rhode Island,
etc., letter of, declaring friendship
for sister States, 64.
Collins, Joseph B., act to amend act for
relief of, vetoed, 4496.
Collins, Sir Bichard, arbitrator in Ven-
ezuela boundary dispute, 6338.
Collins, Thomas F., claim of, against
Spain, 5518
Colt, Samuel, - firearms invented by
2430.
Colton, George B., Major, chairman of
board drafting Philippine tariff bill,
7380.
Columbus
Biographic Index
Cridler
Colum'bus, Christopher, services ren-
dered by, discussed, 8663.
Comanos, N. D., agreement with Egypt
signed by, 4849.
ComonfO'Tt, Ignacio, President of Mex-
ico, election of, discussed, 3094.
Comstock, Cyrus B.:
Member of commission to try assas-
sins of President Lincoln, etc.,
3534.
Believed from duty, 3534.
Mentioned, 3812.
Comstock. W. G., conviction of, re-
ferred to, 7249.
Conger, P. H., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3901.
Conkling, Alfred, mentioned, 2770.
Connell, William J., mentioned, 7249.
Connell, William L., appointed on Coal
Commission, 8856.
Conner, Lieut., court-martial of, 853.
Cooley, Dennis N., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3592.
Cooley, Lyman E., member of commis-
sion to consider construction of canal
from Great Lakes to Atlantic Ocean,
6179.
Coolidge, Joseph, Jr., desk on which
Declaration of Independence was
written presented to United States
by heirs of, 4540.
Letter of Eobert C. Winthrop, re-
, garding, 4541.
Corbin, H. C:
Delegated to entertain Prince Henry
of Prussia, 6704.
Dispatch to Gen. Otis regarding
force, etc., for Philippine Islands,
6580.
Instructions to Gen. Merritt through,
regarding joint occupancy of Phil-
ippine Islands with insurgents,
6579.
Instructions to Gen. Otis through, to
avoid conflict with Philippine in-
surgents, 6584.
Order through to send troops to Iloilo,
6583.
Corbin, Major General Henry C, repre-
sentative of War Department to re-
ceive Prince Henry of Prussia, 6704.
Cornell, A. B,, naval officer at port of
New York, suspension of, discussed,
4463.
Complanter, Seneca chief, mentioned,
103.
Cortelyou, George B., referred to, 7253.
Cortes, Sefior, of Colombia, referred to,
7858.
Corvin, Thomas, minister to Mexico:
Convention with Mexico proposed by,
3261, 3282.
Dispatches from, regarding war with
Mexico, 3264.
Treaties with Mexico concluded by,
3264.
CoBtello, Mr., convicted and sentenced
to impriionment in Great Britain,
3834.
Referred to, 3897.
Beleased, 3902.
Covode, John, mentioned, 3571.
Cowdin, Elliot 0., commissioner to Paris
Exposition, report of, transmitted,
3828.
Cowen, Mrs. , mentioned, 7340.
Cowles, Commander W. S., to assist in
reception of Prince Henry of Prussia, I
6704.
Cox, Jacob D., mentioned, 3812, 3815,
3817.
Cox, Leonard M., IT. S. N., on Alaskan
transportation commission, 7843.
Cox, Zachariah, arrest and confinement
of, 352.
Crabbe, Col., execution of, referred to,
3012, 3096.
Craig, James, alleged secret agent em-
ployed by, for fomenting disaffection
in United States, 483.
Craig, Kobert, mentioned, 4737.
Craighill, W. P., Yorktown monument
built under direction of, 4850.
Cranch, William:
Commissioner of Washington City,
304.
Oath of o£5oe administered to Presi-
dent Tyler by, 1886.
Crane, C. R., allotment to, for Inter-
Allied commission on mandates in
Turkey, 8888.
Crane, Thomas J., report of, on im-
proving irrigation of Ohio Eiver
transmitted, 2685.
Craven, Thomas T., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Crawford, T. Hartley, communication
from, regarding Indian affairs, 1797,
1838, 1842.
Crawford, William H., mentioned, 1227.
Creager, R. E., U. S. Commissioner, men-
tioned, 7338.
Creel, George, appointed head of Public
Information Committee, 8247.
Cridler, Thomas W., special commis-
sioner to Paris Exposition, report of,
transmitted, 6329.
Crittenden
Biographic Index
Dana
Crittenden, J. J., Acting Secretary of
State, 2648.
Croker, Uriel, act for relief of, allowed
to become law, 4852.
Cromwell, William Nelson, referred to,-
7349 et seq.
Creole, George:
Member, of —
Ponca Indian CommiBsion, 4582.
Sioux Indian Commission, 5480.
Report of, regarding services of
Apache Indians, 5495.
Crooks, James, claim of, against United
States for seizure of schooner, 4975,
5662.
Crosby, Fierce, thanks of Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
Crowder, Enoch, Colonel, chairman of
legal advisory commission of Cuba,
7389.
©rowell, Benedict, acting Secretary of
War, referred to, 8488.
Crowell, Frank G., director Food Admin-
istration Grain Corporation, 8325.
Crowell, John, treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 960.
Crowninshield, A. S., report of, on lives
lost by sinking of the Maine, 6295.
Crozier, Captain William, Peace Com-
missioner at The Hague, 6383.
Cruzen, A. E., referred to, 6860.
Cullom, L., referred to, 6860.
Cullom, Shelby M., member of commis-
sion to Hawaiian Islands, 6333.
Cullum, George W., bequest of, for erec-
tion of memorial hall at West Point,
recommendations regarding, 5674.
Culver, Samuel H., treaty 'with Indians
concluded by, 2762.
Cumming, Alexander:
Expedition of, among Indians, re-
ferred to, 2898.
Governor of Colorado, absence of,
from Territory referred to, 3721.
Mentioned, 3279.
Treaty with Indians, concluded by,
2895.
Cummins, Bichard W., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 2273.
Currey, B. F., agent for removal of In-
dians, charges preferred against, 1447.
Curtis, Benjamin B., counsel for Presi-
dent Johnson in impeachment pro-
ceedings, 3924.
Curtis, William E., mentioned, 5833.
Curzon of Kedleston, Lord, notes to,
8877, 8915.
Cushing, Caleb:
Attorney-General, mentioned, 4841.
Chief Justice Supreme Court, nomi
nation of, withdrawn, 4213.
Minister to —
China —
Instructions to, referred to, 2134,
2218.
Transmission of commission ap-
pointing, 2134.
Treaty with China concluded by,
2205.
Spain, payment of Tirginius claims
arranged by, 4290.
Secretary of Treasury, renomination
of, and reasons therefor, 2086.
Cushing, William B., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3457. '
Custer, George A., disaster to forces un-
der, 4327.
Cutting, A. K., imprisonment of, by
Mexican authorities, 4991, 5086, 5122.
Cutting, John B., account of, for expen-
ditures in liberating American sea-
men in British ports, transmitted, 108.
Cutts, Bichard D., report of, on mar-
ketable products of the sea, trans-
mitted, 4117.
Czernin, Count, minister of Austria-
Hungary, address of, discussed, 8448.
Dade, Francis L., massacre of command
of, by Seminole Indians, 1834.
Dahlberg, Gustav Isak, recommendation
for indemnity to, 6457.
Dahlgren, John A.:
Eear-admiral in Navy, nomination of,
3356.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3284.
Dalnese, F., claim of, for salary while
acting consul at Constantinople, 2957,
2958.
d'Alte, Viscount, Portuguese delegate to
Armament Limitation Conference,
9041.
Dalton, Tristram, on committee to con-
duct inaugural ceremony of President
Washington, 40.
Dana, E, T., arrest and maltreatment
of, at Heidelberg, Baden, 2772.
Dana
Biographic Index
Deming
Dana, Francis, minister to France, nom-
, ination of, and reasons therefor, 235.
D 'Angers, David, bust of Washington
by, 6858.
Daniel, Peter V., Supreme Court Jus-
tice, death of, referred to, 3250.
Daniels, Jared W., member of Indian
commission, 5579.
Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the
Navy, referred to, 7939.
Daniels, Williams H., collector of cus-
toms, suspension of, referred to, 4741.
Dart, Anson, official conduct of, re-
ferred to, 3015, 3016.
David, Pierre Jean, bust of Lafayette
presented to Congress by, 992.
Davidson, Francis S., bill for relief of,
returned, 6736, 6773.
Davidson, G. A., auditor of Atchison,
Topeka and Santa FS Railroad re-
'ferred to, 7133 et seq.
Davis, Arthur P., report of, on Panama
Canal, 7269.
Davis, Charles Henry:
Correspondence regarding squadron
at Rio Janeiro and the Paraguay
difficulties, 3890.
Eear-admiral in Navy, nomination
of, 3356.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3284.
Davis, Cushman Kellogg, member of
Spanish-American Peace Commission,
6322.
Davis, George W., member of board to
consider expedition to be sent for re-
lief of Lady Franklin Bay Expedi-
tion, 4813.
Davis, J. 0. Bancroft, Acting Secretary
of State, 4178.
Davis, James C, appointed director gen-
eral of railroads, 8931.
Davis, Jefferson:
Correspondence of governor of South
Carolina with President delayed by,
3195.
Declaration of, and advisability of
attempting negotiations with, dis-
cussed, 3455.
Imprisonment of, and reasons for not
placing upon trial, inquired into,
3572.
Report of Attorney-General regard-
ing, referred to, 3576.
Negotiations with, for restoration of
peace discussed and correspondence
regarding, 3461.
Official acts of, in Virginia declared
null and void, 3535.
Picture of, opposite 3504.
Reward offered for arrest of, 3505.
Persons claiming, directed to file
claims, 3551.
Davis, Norman H., Under-Secretary of
State, information conveyed to Presi-
dent Wilson by, 8954.
Davison, H. P., of American Red Cross,
referred to, 8500.
Day, William E.:
President of Spanish- American Peace
Commission, 6322.
Secretary of State, 6476.
De Camp, John, thanks of Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
de Cartier, Baron, Belgian ambassador,
delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Decatur, Stephen:
Captain in Navy, advancement of, to
grade of, referred to, 362.
Claims of, arising from recapture of
the PMladelpMa, 1025.
Commander of the United States, 506.
De Ford, Henry, referred to, 6730.
De Haven, Lieut. Edwin J., expedition
commanded by, in search of Sir John
Franklin and companions, return of,
2668.
De Ealb, Baron Johann, claims of rep-
resentatives of, for services rendered
United States in Revolutionary War,
1270.
Delafield, Richard, member of board to
examine quotas of States under call
for troops, 3476.
Delano, Commander F. H., messages
to and from, 6765 et «eg.,,6840 et seq.
Delcasse, Theophile, French foreign
minister, letter of, on Loubet award
in Costa Rican-Panama boundary dis-
pute mentioned, 8959, 8961.
De Lanoy, William C, appointed direc-
tor. War Risk Insurance Bureau, 7979.
De Lesseps, Ferdinand, referred to,
7354.
Delfosse, M. Maurice, selection of, as
commissioner on fisheries question
with Great Britain referred to, 4438.
De Iiong, George W., death of, in
Jeannette expedition, 4726.
Remains of, removed to United States,
4834.
De Martens, M. F., arbitrator, in Vene-
zuelan boundary dispute, 6338.
Deming, Sylvester, treasurer, Panama
Railroad Company, 7841.
Denby
Biographic Index
Drago
Denby, Charles:
Member of Commission to Philippine
Islands, 6584.
Minister to China, regulations for
consular courts promulgated by,
5388.
Denulston, William H., act for relief
of, vetoed, 4222.
De Poiery, Mr., captain by brevet, nom-
ination of, and reasons therefor, 67.
Derouz, Representative, of Panama, re-
ferred to, 6834.
Derrick, W. S., Acting Secretary of
State, 2613.
Devol, C. A., director, Panama Rail-
road Company, 7841.
Dewey, George:
Attack of American land forces and
capture of Manila assisted by
squadron under, 6319.
Thanks of President tendered,
6568.
Member of Philippine Commission,
6584.
Spanish fleet destroyed in Manila
Bay by American squadron un-
der, 6297, 6315.
Appointed acting rear-admiral,
6297, 6568.
Sword to be presented to, 6302.
Thanks of Congress to, 6298.
Recommended, 6297.
Reply of, 6302.
Thanks of President tendered,
6568.
Referred to, 6297.
Suggestions from, regarding force,
etc., for Philippine Islands re-
quested by President, 6580.
Dexter, John S., district supervisor,
nomination of, 91.
Diaz, A. J., arrest and imprisonment of,
by Cuban authorities, 5516.
Diaz, Forfirio:
French prisoners led to Mexico City
by, illustration, opposite 4576.
Meeting of, with President Taft, 7416.
President of Mexipo, installed as,
4419, 6333.
Revolts against rule of, discussed,
7659.
Dickson, James C, receiver of public
moneys, nomination of, withdrawn
and reasons therefor, 1040.
Dickson, Walter, outrages committed
on family of, in Palestine, 3015.
Diehl, Commander S. W. B., messages
to and from, 6765 et seq.
Diefcema, G. J., Representative, quoted,
7167.
Dingle, W. B., arrest and maltreatment
of, at Heidelberg, Baden, 2772.
Dinsmore, Silas, commissioner to treat
with Indiaus> 423.
Diz, John A.:
Applications to go south across mil
itary lines to be made to, 3302.
Authority given to, while command-
ing at Baltimore, 3313.
Commissioner to examine cases of
State prisoners, '3310.
Mentioned, 3279.
Prisoners of war released to report
to, 3303.
Doak, W. N., on wheat price committee,
8348.
Dodge, Cleveland H., mentioned, 8382.
Dodge, Henry, troops in Indian cam-
paign under command of, 1332.
Dodge, William E., member of Indian
commission, 3977.
Doherty, H. L., referred to, 7159, 7160.
Dole, Sanford B.:
Member of commission to recommend
legislation for Hawaiian Islands,
6333.
Minister of foreign affairs of provi-
sional government of Hawaii, let-
ter from, transmitted, 5906, 5907.
Sovereignty of ' Hawaiian Islands
transferred to United States by,
6332.
Dole, William P., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3393,' 3394, 3395, 3400,
3402, 3411, 3413.
Dominguez, Ygnacio, Lieutenant, attack
on, 7338, 7339.
Donaldson, Edward, thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Donaldson, Joseph, Jr., treaty with Al-
giers concluded by, 184.
Donelson, Andrew J., mitiister to Ger-
many, nomination of, 2455.
Recall of, referred to, 2549.
Dorn, Andrew J., commissioner for the
United States, treaty made by, with
the Senecas, August, 1854, 2829.
Doty, James D.:
Mentioned, 3397.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
1912.
Douglas, James, governor of Vancou-
ver Island, repayment of sum ad-
vanced by, recommended, 3067.
Douglass, Frederick, recorder of deeds,
District of Columbia, resignation of,
referred to, 5116.
Drago, Doctor, of Argentina. ' (See
Drago Doctrine.)
Drake
Biographic Index
Emerson
Drake, E. A., director, Panama Sail-
road Company, 7841.
Drake, Thomas £., District of Colum-
bia Insurance Superintendent re-
ferred to, 7290.
Dresel, Ellis Loilng, allotment to, for
mission to Germany, 8888.
Dresel, Ellis Loring, commissioner of
United States to Germany, peace
treaty signed by,- 8991, 8992.
Drezel, Joseph W., chairman of execu-
tive committee on pedestal of Statue
of Liberty Enlightening the World,
4982.
Driggs, Edmund H., Bepreaentative, re-
ferred to, 7241.
DriscoU, Daniel A., Bepresentative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq.
Drum, Richard C, Adjutant-General:
Union and Confederate flags, return
of, to respective States, recom-
mended by, 5163.
Proposition withdrawn, 5164.
Drummond, Sir James E., chosen first
secretary general of League of
Nations, 8683.
Du Bois, James T., minister to Colombia,
referred to, 7859 et seq.
Duke, B. N. referred to, 7162.
Duke, J. B., referred to, 7162.
Dullye, Eugene, expulsion of, from
Prussia, 3123.
Dunbar, William, appointed to explore
Washita Eiver, 387.
Dunham, Aaron, district supervisor,
nomination of, 91.
Dunlap, Robert P.:
Correspondence regarding imprison-
taent of Ebenezer S. Greely, 1575,
1622.
Correspondence regarding northeast-
ern boundary. (See Northeastern
Boundary.)
Dupont, Samuel F.:
Mentioned, 3279.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3265, 3271.
Duque, B. G., of Panama, quoted, 6833.
Sads, James B.:
Grants to, for construction of jetties
in Mississippi Eiver, order regard-
ing, 4282.
Improvement of South Pass of Mis-
sissippi Eiver, under, discussed,
4362, 4524.
Eastman, Max, letter to, on suppres-
sion of disloyal periodicals, 8358.
Eaton, Dorman B., chairman Civil Ser-
vice Commission, report of, discussed,
4588.
Eaton, John, publication of second edi-
tion of Second Arctic Expedition sug-
gested by, 4666.
Eaton, Joha H., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 1271.
Eaton, William:
Correspondence regarding war with
Tripoli transmitted, 379.
Eckeft, T. T., negotiations for, and cor-
respondence regarding restoration of
peace, 3461.
Edgcomb, Willard W., freaty with
Orange Free State concluded by,
4116.
Edison, Thomas A., photograph of,
Edward VII, king of Great Britain,
arbitrator in claim against Chile,
7417.
Edwards, Clarence R., director, Panama
Eailroad Company, 7841.
Edwards, Kinian:
Minister to Mexico, examination of,
by committee referred to, 808.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
589.
Edwards, W. H., report of, transmitted,
5769.
Egan, Patrick, minister to Chile. (See
Baltimore, The.)
Ehrmann, Felix, Consul General at
Panama, correspondence to and from,
6747 et seq.
Ekln, James A., member of commis-
sion to try assassins of President
Lincoln, etc., 3534.
Elder, Samuel S., member of Gun Foun-
dry Board, 4748.
Elkins, Herbert, mentioned, 7339.
Ellery, Charles, lieutenant in Navy,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
1129.
Ellicott, Andrew, United States com-
missioner for running line between
United States ^nd Spanish possec-
sions, 962.
Ellis, Albert G., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2529.
Ellis, Powhatan, Minister to Mexico:
Mentioned, 1790.
Nomination of, 1537.
Ellsworth, Oliver, minister to France,
nomination of, 274.
Emerson, John B., petition of, regard-
ing use of his invention referred to.
2528. '
Emery
Biographic Index
Field
Emery, A. H., compensation to, for
services in perfecting testing machine
recommended, 4540.
Emmons, G. T., reports on Alaskan In-
dians, 7071.
Emory, U. E., map of Texas compiled
by, 2166.
Emory, W. H., report on survey of
boundary between Mexico and Unit-
ed States transmitted, 2915.
Emory, William H., commander of the
Bear in Lady Franklin Bay Expedi-
tion, 4835.
Endicott, Hear Admiral M. T., on Pan-
ama Canal Commission and board of
directors of Panama Bailroad Com-
pany, 7020, 7841.
Endicott, William C, Secretary of War:
Union and Confederate flags, return
of, to respective states recommended,
5163.
Proposition withdrawn, 5164.
EnOi Amos F., secretary of Arkansas,
appointment of, revoked, 3377.
Ericsson, John:
Memorial of American Society of
Mechanical Engineers relating to,
transmitted, 5565.
Restoration of remains of, to Sweden,
discussed, 5547.
Ernst, Colonel Oswald H., on Panama
Canal Commission and board of direc-
tors of Panama Railroad Company,
7020, 7841.
Ervlng, George W.;
Instructions to, upon appointment as
minister to Spain, in 1814, and
during his mission to that court as
plenipotentiary from the United
States, 2210.
Esprlella, Francisco V. de la, minister
of fore^n affairs of Panama, 6756.
Espy, James P., meteorological report
of, transmitted, 2777.
Estacourt, James B. B., commissioner
of Great Britain in northeastern
boundary question, report of, 2023.
Eustis, Abraham:
Correspondence regarding Dorr's Re-
bellion. 2153. „
Troops 'under, in Seminole War, 1834.
Evans, John:
Greological survey of Oregon and
Washington by, referred to, 3016.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
3393.
United States Senator, 3573.
Evans, Bobley D., Rear Admiral:
Mentioned, 6297.
Representative of Navy Department
to receive Prince Henry of Prussia,
6704.
Evarts, William M.:
Counsel for President Johnson in
impeachment proceedings, 3924.
Secretary of State, first proclamation
as, convened Congress in extraor-
dinary session to provide for sup-
port of army, 4399.
Everett, Edward:
Attitude of, on neutrality of Isthmus
of Panama mentioned, 6813.
Mentioned, 2082, 2169, 2910.
Secretary of State, 2727.
Ewing, Thomas, Secretary of Treasury,
mentioned, 2010.
Ezeta, Carlos:
Extradition proceedings in case of,
transmitted, 5544, 5992.
Faben, J. W., Dominican minister, men-
tioned. 4017.
FairchUd, Lucius:
Letter of, and memorial relative to
Paris Exposition transmitted, 3668.
Member of Cherokee Commission,
5481.
Fairfield, John, correspondence regard-
ing northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Faris-El-Hakim, maltreatment of, in
Egypt, and indemnity for, referred
to, 3278.
Farley, J. T., on Senate committee urg-
ing seats in Congress for cabinet,
7813.
Farman, Mr., mentioned, 4564.'
Famsworth, Hiram W., treaty with In-
dians, concluded by, 3277, 3413.
Farragut, David O.:
Thanks of Congress to, recommend-
ed, 3276.
Thanks of President tendered, 3440.
Farwell, John V., member of Indian
commission, 3977.
Fauchet, Mr., attempted seizure of, by
commander of the Africa, 3344.
Faure, President, death of, 6367.
Fay, Theodore S., mentioned, 2205.
Perry, Neal J., appointed on Coal Com-
mission, 8856.
Field, CyiUB W., gold medal presented
to, 3901.
Field, Stephen J., associate justice Su-
preme Court, assault upon by David
8. Terry, 5477.
Fillmore
Biographic Index
Franklin
Fillmore, Millard, biography of, 2599.
Fish, Hamilton, Secretary of State,
3967.
Attitude of, on neutrality of Isthmus
of Panama, mentioned, 6813.
Member of commission to settle ques-
tions with Great Britain, 4075.
Keport of, on commercial relations
with Spanish- American States, 4024.
Fishboum, Benjamin, naval officer at
Savannah, Ga., reasons for nominat-
ing, 50.
Fisher, Harriet M., letter of Richard M.
Boynton and, to Secretary of Navy
transmitted, 3669.
Fisher, Walter L.:
On commission to investigate inter-
state commerce legislation, 7552.
Secretary of Interior, letter on Alas-
kan land reservation, request for
return of, 7615.
Fitzgerald, John J., Representative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq.
Pitz, Gideon, surveyor-general, removal
of, from office, discussed, 1351.
Fitzpatridk, Thomas, treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 2762.
Fitzsimons, Thomas, commissioner of
United States under treaty with
Great Britain, 188.
Fleming, Charles, lieutenant in Navy,
court of inquiry in case of, referred
to, 3275.
Flesh, Edward M., member of Purchas-
ing Commission for Russian Relief,
9033.
Fletcher, Admiral Frank F., praised,
7951.
Floyd, John B.:
Letter, of, regarding appointment of
A. W. Reynolds, 2996.
Secretary of War, appointment and
resignation of, discussed, 3190.
Foch, F., commander-in-chief Allied
forces, referred to, 8613.
Folger, Charles J., Secretary of Treas-
ury, death of, announced and honors
to be paid memory of, 4821.
Fonseca, Manuel D., President of Bra-
zil, mentioned, 5617.
Foots, Andrew H.:
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3283.
Thanks of President tendered, 3305.
Fordney, Joseph W., Representative,
letter to, on higher income surtaxes,
9014.
Forsyth, John, Secretary of State:
Correspondence regarding —
Canadian outrages, 1618.
Claims against •France. (See
France, claims against.)
Northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Letter of, regarding treaty with
France, 1345.
Outrages perpetrated by Canadians
against the United States, Corre-
spondence of, concerning, 1618.
Fort, Governor G. F. (N. J.), inaugural
address quoted, 7135.
Forward, Oliver, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 940.
Forward, Walter, Secretary of Treasury,
resignation of, mentioned, 2087.
Foster, Charles, member of Sioux Com-
mission, 5480.
Foster, C. W., member of board to ex-
amine quotas of States under call
for troops, 3476.
Foster, George E., member of reciprocal
trade conference between United
States and Canada, 5675.
Foster, John W.:
Counsel for United States in Bering
Sea question, 5748.
Member of reciprocal trade confer-
ence between United States and
Canada, 5675.
Secretary of State, 5724.
Treaty for annexation of Hawaiian
Islands signed by, 5783.
Foster, Robert S., member of court to
try assassins of President Lincoln,
etc., 3534.
Foster, Stephen C, correspondence re-
garding northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Foulke, William Dudley, referred to,
, 7352.
Fox, Henry S., correspondence regard-
ing—
Northeastern boundary. (See North-
eastern Boundary.)
Outrages committed by Canadians on
American frontiers, 1618.
Frances, John B., correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Rebellion, 2141.
Frankel, Lee K., imimigration service
investigated by, 6788.
Frankfurter, Felix, secretary, labor
mediation board, 8359.
Franklin, Benjamin:
At French court, illustration, op-
posite 134.
Letter from President and decree of
National Assembly of France on
death of, 87.
Papers of, transferred to Library of
Congress, 9031.
Referred to, 8695.
Franklin
Biographic Index
Gardoqui
Franklin, Samuel B., president of In-
ternational Marine Conference at
Washington, 5493.
Franklin, Sir John, expedition in search
of missing ships under command of:
Recommended, 2563.
Eeferred to, 2624.
Eetiirn of, under De Haven, 2668.
Token of thankfulness offered Amer-
ican oflcers in, by Great Britain,
1713.
Frazier, Arthur Hugh, treaty of peace
with Austria signed by, 8993, 8994.
Frear, Walter F., member of commis-
sion to recommend legislation for
Hawaiian Islands, 6333.
Frear, William H., claim of, against
France, 5198.
Frederick III., Emperor of Germany,
death of, referred to, 5367.
Frederick, Empress Dowager, of Ger-
many, death of, referred to, 6680.
Frederick the Great, statue of, pre-
sented to United States, 7669.
Freeman, John R., Panama Canal locks
examined by, 7101, 7280.
Freeman, Mr., exploration of Eed
River by, discussed, 396.
Frellnghuysen, Frederick T., Secretary
of State, 4710.
Fremont, 'John C:
Assigned to command of Mountain
Department, 3312.
Court-martial in case of, 2430.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 5541.
In the Rockies, illustration opposite
1713.
Mountain howitzer taken by, on Ore-
gon expedition referred to, 2127.
Public accounts of, referred to, 2918.
French, Jacob F., bill to pension, re-
turned, 6944. '
Friedmann, Dr. F. F., report on alleged
cure for tuberculosis by, 7839.
Fromentin, Eligius, misunderstanding
of, with Andrew Jackson, 682. *
Fruchier, John, impressed into military
servioe of Prance, case of, 5199.
Fryatt, Captain, execution of, referred
to, 8196.
Frye, William P., member of Spanish-
American Peace Commission, 6322.
Fuller, Melville W., arbitrator in Ven-
ezuelan boundary dispute, 6338.
Member of Court of Arbitration,
appointed, 6432.
Funk, Eugene E., on wheat price com-
mittee, 8348.
Funston, Frederick, General, conferee
respecting withdrawal of United
States troops from Mexico, 8134.
Gadsden, James:
Mentioned, 2770.
Rejection of nomination of, as colo-
nel discussed, .695, 702.
GalUard, D. D.:
Appointed on Panama Canal Com-
mission, 7100.
Culebra Cut named for, 8050.
Panama Railroad Companv Director.
, 7841.
Gaillard, John, letter of President Mon-
roe to, referred to, 573.
Gaines, Edmund P.:
Calls of, for volunteers or militia dis-
cussed, 2298, 2300.
Court of inquiry in case of, and opin-
ion of, discussed, 1511.
Inspection reports of, referred to,
995..
Mentioned, 697.
Requisition of, for volunteers in In-
dian war not sanctioned by Presi-
dent, 1453j
Settlement of accounts of, referred
to, 2130.
Victories of, over British troops, 533.
Gaines, John P., correspondence regard-
ing seat of government of Oregon,
2684.
Gale, George, district supervisor, nomi
nation of, 91.
Gallatin, Albert:
Commissioner to settle boundary
question with Georgia, 329.
Gallion, Ephra.iTia H., bill to remove
desertion charge against, vetoed,
6685.
Galloway, Bishop e. B., quoted- on lynch-
ing, 7030.
Gamboa, F., foreign secretary of
Mexico, reply of, to United States
proposals for understanding, 7889.
Gannett, Henry, member of Board on
Geographic Names, 5647.
Ganon, N., correspondence regarding un-
lawful expedition in New York, 1616.
Garcia, Manuel, act granting pension to.
vetoed, 5286.
Gardoqui, Don Diego, commercial rela-
tions with Spain, letter of, concern-
ing, 113.
Garesche
Biographic Index
Graham
Oaresche, J. P., assistant adjutant-
general, order regarding Missouri
militia, 3243.
Garfield, Harry A.:
Fuel Administrator, 8330, 8471.
On wheat price committee, 8348.
Garfield, James A., biography of, 4593.
Garfield, James E., Commissioner of
Corporations, referred to, 7292.
Garland, Jolm, gallantry of, at battle
of Monterey, Mexico, referred to,
2368.
Garlington, Brigadier General E. A.,
mentioned, 7329 et seq.
Garrett, William H., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 2775.
Gasparri, Cardinal, Papal Secretary of
State, mentioned, 8188, 8345.
Gates, William, major. United States
Army:
Nomination of, discussed, 1488.
Trial solicited by, 1489.
Gavira, General, of Mexico, referred to,
8133.
Gaylord, H. E., director New York
State Cancer laboratory, letter re-
garding study of cancer in" fishes
transmitted, 7480, 7481.
Gajmor, John F., conviction of, referred
to, 7251.
Geary, John W., referred to, 2980, 2995.
Geddes, Sir Auckland, British ambas-
sador, delegate to Armament Limita-
tion Conference, 9041.
George V of Great Britain:
Arbitrator in claim against Chile,
7657.
Coronation of, 7668.
Gerard, J. W., ambassador to Germany,
referred to, 8055, 8125 et seq., 8193,
8297.
Geronimo:
Mentioned, 5495.
Surrender of Apaches under, to Gen.
Miles, discussed, 5099.
Gerry, Commander, mentioned, 2838.
Gibson, Walter M., held in duress by
Dutch authorities at Batavia, 2828,
2831.
Gilbert, Henry C, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2829, 2884, 2954.
Gillespie, Oapt., dispatch to consul at
Monterey forwarded and destroyed
by, 2428.
Gillls, James M., mentioned, 3279.
Observations of, referred to, 2776.
Gillmore, Quincy A., ceremonies at
Fort Sumter to be conducted by, in
absence of Gen. Sherman, 3484.
Gilmer, Thomas W., Secretary of Navy,
death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory 'of, 2132, 2186.
OUpin, Henry D., director of Bank of
United States, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1260.
Glass, John, desertion charge against,
bill to remove, vetoed, 6684."
Glass, Bear-Admiral Henry, correspon-
dence to and from, 6765 et seq.
Glendy, William M., captain in Navy,
nomination for promotion withdrawn
and reasons therefor, 4000.
Goethals, (Jeorge W., chairman and
chief engineer, Panama Canal Com-
mission :
Appointment of, 7100.
Chairman, Board of Directors, Pan-
ama Railroad Co., 7841.
Chairman, committee to open Panama
Canal, 7945.
Promotion urged for, 7807.
Eeferred to, 7518.
Goldsborough, Louis M.:
Thanks of Congress to, recommended
3266.
Thanks of President tendered, 3305.
Gomez, Jose M., elected President of
Cuba, 7389.
Gompers, Samuel, president of American
Federation of Labor:
Letter to, on loyalty of Labor, 8349.
Praised, 8389.
Eeferred to, 8256.
Goodrich, James P., member Purchasing
Commission for Eussian Belief, 9033.
Oordan, George W., correspondence re-
garding slave trade referred to, 2287,
2538.
Gordon, William W., member of mili-
tary commission of Puerto Eico, 6322.
Gore,, Christopher, commissioner of
Unjted States under treaty with
Great Britain, 188.
Gorg«, W. C, XT. S. A.:
On eommittee to open Panama Canal,
7945.
Panama Canal commissioner, 7100.
Eeferred to, 7308 et seq.
Gorostiza, Manuel ES. de, pamphlet is-
sued by, regarding troops under Gen.
Gaines, 1646.
Goulds, interests of, mentioned, 7162.
Goward, Gustavus, report of, on Sa-
moan Islands transmitted, 4473.
Graham, James D., report of, as com-
missioner in northeastern boundary.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Graham, John, commissioner to South
America, 617.
Granger
Biographic Index
Hains
Granger, Gordon, thanks of President
tendered, 3440.
Grant, Julia Dent, swords and testimo-
nials of Gen. Gjrant offered Govern-
ment by, recommendations regard-
ing, 4857.
Schedule of articles, 4859.
Grant,' Lewis A., brigadier-general,
nomination of, referred to, 3403.
Grant, U. S., biography of, 3957.
Grasse, Marquis de, mentioned, 6932.
Graves, Henry S., chief forester, ,
recommendation for land elionination
in Alaska discussed, 7602 et seq.
Gray, George, member of Spanish-Amer-
ican Peace Commfssion, 6322.
Gray, William E., refusal of Great Brit-
ain to surrender other fugitives and,
discussed, 4368.
Grayson, Kear Admiral Cary T., re-
fund from, to American Peace Mis-
sion, 8889.
Greeley, Horace, Messrs. Clay, Thomp-
son, Holcomb, and Sanders accom-
panied to Washington on peace mis-
sion by, 3438.
Greely, A. W., expedition fitted out for
relief of Lady Franklin Bay Expe-
dition under, discussed, 4835.
Board to consider expedition to be
sent, 4813.
Offer of rewards for rescue of, dis-
cussed, 4795.
Eecommended, 4693, 4787.
Vessel presented by Great Britain to
United States to aid in, 4791.
Eeturn of, 4917.
Eecommended, 4855.
Greely, Ebeuezer S., arrest and impris-
onment of, by authorities of New
Brunswick, correspondence regard-
ing, 1575, 1622.
Claims arising out of, 1687.
Green, Charles Ii., passed assistant sur-
geon in Navy, court-martial of, re-
ferred to, 3998.
Green, Duff, employment of, in Europe,
2180, 2181, 2213i
Greene, Benjamin D., conviction of, re-
ferred to, 7251.
Greene, Lieutenant Colonel W., allot-
ment to, for mission to Baltic Prov-
inces, 8888, 8889.
Greenough, Horatio, statue of Washing-
ton executed by, 1910,
Greer, James A., member of board to
consider expeditions for relief of
Lady Franklin Bay Expedition, 4813.
Gregory, J. Shaw, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3263.
Greiner, John, treaty with Indians con-
eluded by, 2727.
Grenfel, George St. Leger, papers
touching case of, transmitted, 3661.
Gresham, Walter Q., Secretary of State,
5827.
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 6022, 6046.
Grey, Sir Edward, British foreign sec-
retary, note transmitted to, 8143.
Grifiiu, Robert S., Naval Academy in-
vestigated by, 7116.
Griffin, Walter T., report of, trans-
mitted, 5769.
Griswold, Stanley," conduct of, while
secretary of Michigan Territory, re-
ferred to, 430.
Griswold, William E. S., secretary com-
mission to investigate interstate com-
merce legislation, 7552.
Groesbeck, William S., counsel for Pres-
ident Johnson in impeachment pro-
ceedings, 3947.
Grogan, Mr., capture and imprisonment
of, by Canadians, 1928.
Grosvenor, Charles H., brevet briga-
dier-general, acts and proceedings of,
declared null and void, 3548.
Guerra, Jesus, demand of Mexico for
extradition of, refused, 6333.
Guerrero, Amador, delegate from Pan-
ama, 6752.
Guest, John, thanks of Congress to, rec-
ommended, 3277.
Guiteau, Charles J., assassin of Presi-
dent Garfield, 4967.
Trial of, view of, opposite 4659.
Gurley, "Bill," referred to, 7249.
Gurovits, Odon, report of, on Navajo
Indians transmitted, 5782.
Gutte, Isidore, claim of, to vessel con-
demned by Salvador and subsequent-
ly presented to United States, 4988.
Gwin, Samuel, register of land office:
Nomination of, and reasons therefor,
1137, 1170, 1198.
OfSeial conduct of, charges affecting,
1447.
Gwin, William M.:
Immigration plans of, referred to,
3571.
Mentioned, 2570.
Hadley, Arthur T., on commission to
investigate interstate commerce legis-
lation, 7552.
Hains, Brigadier General Peter C, on
Panama Canal Commission, 7020.
Hale
Biographic Index
Hartranft
Hale, 0. H., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by 3403.
Hale, W. J., claim of, against Argen-
tine Eepublic, 4806.
Hall, Charles F., publication of second
edition of Second Arctic Expedition
made by, suggested, 4666.
HaUeck, Henry W.:
Lieutenant in Engineer Corps, report
of, on means of national defense,
2213.
Major-general —
Assigned to command of Depart-
ment of Mississippi, 3312.
Assigned to command of laud
forces of United States, 3317.
Believed from command and as-
signed to duty as chief of staff,
. 3435.
Halplne, William G., Fenian prisoner,
release of, referred to, 4114.
Hamed, Mahommed, treaty between
Turkey and United States concluded
by, 1093.
Hamilton, Alezander, commissioner of
land titles in East Florida, report of,
transmitted to the House by Presi-
dent Monroe, 812.
Hamilton, Alexander, papers of, trans-
ferred to Library of Congress, 9031.
Hamilton, Andrew J., provisional gov-
ernor of Texas, appointed with au-
thority to arrange and direct a con-
vention of delegates to be chosen by
only loyal citizens of the State and
by none others, 3519.
Hamilton, Charles S., brevet second
lieutenant, promotion of, to second
lieutenant recommended, 2296.
Hamilton, James A., correspondence re-
garding northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Hamlin, Hannibal, death of, announced
and honors to be paid memory of,
5609.
Hammond, C A., mentioned, 7340.
Hammond, Samuel, colonel command-
ant, commissioned, 364.
Hancock, John, governor of Massachu-
setts, letter of, regarding eastern
boundary transmitted, 65.
Hancock, Winfield S.:
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 5077.
Department of South merged in De-
partment of East under command
of, 4754.
Ordered to execute sentence of mil-
itary court in case of assassins of
President Lincoln, 3546.
Patriotic conduct of, recognition of,
by Congress recommended, 3793.
Handy, Moses P., special commissioner
to Paris Exposition, death of, re-
ferred to, 6329.
Hanihara, Masanao, Japanese delegate
to Armament Limitation Conference,
9041.
Hannen, Sir Nicholas John, arbitrator
of Cheek claim against Siam, 6336.
Hanson, Grafton D., restoration of, to
rank in Army recommended, 2368.
Hardee, William J., major by brevet,
nomination of and reasons therefor,
2443.
Harmon, Judson, Attorney-General, or-
der to, respecting indebtedness of Pa-
cific railroads, 6233.
Harmount, E. Hertzberg, Dominican
consul-general in London, mentioned,
4017.
Harney, William S.:
Correspondence of, referred to, 3110.
Sioux Indians —
Eeport of, on, 3897.
Stipulations with, recommendations
regarding, 2912.
Visit of, to San Juan Island dis-
cussed, 3093.
Harper, Mr., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, referred to, 2692.
Harrell, Abram, thanks of Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
Harriman, David B., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 2829.
Harris, Thomas M., member of court to
try assassins of President Lincoln,
etc., 3534.
Harris, Townsend, treaty with Japan
concluded by, 3012.
Harris, William T., claim of, to prop-
erty withheld by Brazilian Govern-
ment, 3899.
Harrison, Anna, resolution of Congress
on death of husband transmitted
to, 1908.
Eeply of, 1909.
Harrison, Benjamin, biography of, 5438.
Harrison, Francis Burton, Governor
General of Philippines, message to,
8169.
Harrison, Napoleon, thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Harrison, William Henry., biography
of, 1858.
Harrod, Benjamin M., on Panama Canal
Commission, 7020.
Hart, Ed., referred to, 7250.
Hart, E. W., local auditor, Panama
Railroad Company, 7841.
Hartranft, John F.:
Member of Cherokee Commission,
death of, referred to, 5481.
Hartranft
Biographic Index
Herrera
Special provost-marshal in trial of
persons implicated in assassination
of President Lincoln, appointed,
3532.
Harvey, George, ambassador to Great
Britain, United States representative
in Allied Supreme Council, 8967.
Harvey, Jobn, correspondence regard-
ing—
Imprisonment of Ebenezer S. Greely,
1575.
Northeastern boundary. (See North-
eastern Boundary.)
Harvey, Thomas H., treaties with In-
dians concluded by, 2273, 2304.
Haskell, Colonel W. N., allotment to,
for Inter-Allied commission to Armen-
ia, 8888.
Hatch, Davis, imprisonment of, by Do-
minican Eepublic referred to, 4004,
4013.
Hatch, Edward, brigadier-general, nom-
ination of, referred to, 3403.
Haupt, Herman, chief of construction
and transportation in Department of
Bappahannock, 3314.
Havemeyer, H. O., president, American
Sugar Eefining Company, indictment
of, referred to, 7484 et seq.
Havrkins, Benjamin:
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
nomination of, 171.
Lands donated to, by Indians as
mark of gratitude, 555.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
202.
Hawkins, Edgar, captain in Army, men-
tioned, 2367.
Hay, John, Secretary of State, 6492.
Authorized to confer with Great Brit-
ain and Germany concerning Sa-
moa, 6596.
, Colombian-Pamama dispute, attitude
of, on, 7853 et seq.
Correspondence of, with Gen. Beyes,
6854.
Death of, announced, 6955.
Isthmian Canal treaty drafted by,
6816.
Eeferred to, 7352 et seq.
Signs Panama Canal Treaty, 6823.
Hayes, Doctor C. Willard, of Geologi-
cal Survey, report of, on Culebra Cut,
7518.
Hayes, Frank J., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Hayes, Rutherford B., biography of,
4391.
Hayne, Isaac W., bearer of letter from
Governor Pickens to President Bu-
chanan, 8195.
Hazen, Allen, report of, on Panama
Canal, 7269.
Hazen, William B., member of board to
consider expeditions to be sent for
relief of Lady Franklin Bay Expe-
dition, 4813.
Hazleton, C. B., referred to, 7250 et seq.
Head, Lafayette, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3393.
Heap, Samuel D., convention with Tunis
signed by, 833.
Heike, Oharles E., secretary of Ameri-
can Sugar Befiniug Company in-
dictment against, discussed, 7484 et
seq.
Heine, William, consular clerk, removal
of, and reason therefor, 411C,
Hempstead, Christopher, consul at Bel-
ize, British Honduras, mentioned,
2574. '
Hendricks, Thomas A., Vice-President,
death of announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 4904, 4905, 4909.
Heney, Francis J., XI. S. attorney, re-
ferred to, 7133. ■
Henry, B. H., report of agent to Fiji
Islands to investigate claim of, trans-
mitted, 6098,
Henry, John, alleged secret agent of
Great Britain in United States for
fomenting disaffection, 483.
Henry of Prussia, Prince, reception of,
in United States, 6703.
Henry, Patrick, minister to France,
nomination of, 274.
Hepner, George, treaty with Indiana
concluded by, 2830.
Herbert, Michael H., Canadian canal
tolls referred to, 5675, 5678.
Hering, Rudolph, member of com-
mittee to report upon sewerage sys- "
tem in District of Columbia, 5487,
5514.
Hermosa, William L., report of, on ex-
ploration of valley of the Amazon,
transmitted, 2724, 2762.
Herold, David E.:
Implicated in assassination of Presi-
dent Lincoln, proceedings of trial
and verdict of military commis-
sion, 3532, 3533, 3534, 3540, 3545,
3546.
Persons claiming reward for appre-
hension of, desired to file claims,
3551.
Herran, Doctor Thomas, minister from
Colombia, correspondence to and
from, 6760 et seq.
Herrera, General, referred to, 6832.
Herrmann
Biographic Index
House
Hernnaun, B., Eepresentative, referred
to, 7241.
Hersciell, Lord, of Great Britain, ar-
bitrator in Venezuelan boundary dis-
pute, 6338.
Hertling, Count von, chancellor of Ger-
man Empire, address of, discussed,
8448.
Hesse, ex-Corporal, referred to, 7334,
7335.
Hewitt, Abram S., commissioner to
Paris Universal Exhibition, 3798.
Higashi Fushimi, Prince, visit of, 7498.
Higginson, Francis J., expedition to
Porto Eico convoyed by fleet under,
6318.
Hill, Charles E., claim of, against China,
referred to, 4436, 4801.
Hill, David J., appointed on committee
to receive Prince Henry of Prussia,
6704.
Hill, J. J., president of the Great North-
ern Eailroad, mentioned, 7327.
Hllles, Charles D., secretary to the
President, referred to, 7848.
Hines, Walker D., Director-General of
Eailroads:
Appointed, 8686.
Eeferred to, 8829, 8830.
Eelinquishment of railroads to pri-
vate owners left to, 8805.
Hise, Elijah, treaty concluded by,
•with —
Guatemala, 2572, 2686.
Nicaragua, 2572, 2602.
Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, Secretary of
the Interior, referred to, 7250.
Hitt, Robert E., member of commission
to Hawaiian Islands, 6333.
Hoar, Ebenezer B., member of commis-
sion to settle questions with Great
Britain, 4075.
Hobby, James M., first assistant en-
gineer; advancement in grade of, rec-
ommended, 3411.
Hobson, Eichmond P., sinking of the
Merrimao in . Santiago Harbor,
Cuba, by, 6305, 6316.
Thanks of Congress to, and promo-
tion of, recommended, 6306.
Hodges, H. F., V. S. A.:
Director, Panama Eailroad Company,
7841.
On committee to open Panama Canal,
7945.
Hodgson, Daniel B., recognition of serv-
ices of, in battle of Manila Bay, Phil-
ippine Islands, recommendations re-
garding, 6305.
Hodgson, William B., conduct of, while
in Constantinople, referred to, 2011.
Holcombe, James P., order exempting,
from arrest during journey to Wash-
ington, 3438.
Holden, William W., provisional gov-
ernor of North Carolina, appointed,
3510.
Holmes, Theopbilus H.:
Gallant conduct of, in Mexican War,
2370.
Major by brevet, nomination of, and
correspondence regarding, 2369.
Holsey, Robert, act granting pension to,
vetoed, 5026.
Holt, George e., Judge, opinion of, cited,
7025.
Holt, Joseph:
Judge-advocate in trial of persons im-
plicated in assassination of Presi-
dent Lincoln, 3534.
Secretary of War, authorized to per-
form duties of, 3190.
Hood, John B., victories of Federals
over Confederate forces under, re-
ferred to, 3442.
Hooker, Joseph:
Commander of corps in Army, 3325.
Ordered to take military possession
of railroads, 3379.
Hoover, Herbert C:
Administration of European food
relief placed under, 8690.
Director, Food Administration Grain
Corporation, 8325.
Purchasing Commission for Russian
Eelief, member of, 9033.
Qualifications of, for position of food
administrator, 8263.
Bequest of, for appropriation for ad-
ministration of European food re-
lief, 8685.
Unemployment conference directed
by, 8997, 8999.
Hopkins, George W., charge d'affaires
at Lisbon, Portugal, mentioned, 2550.
Hopkinson, Joseph, commissioner ■ to
treat with Indians, nomination of,
256.
Horton, Benjamin J., charter in Porto
Eico granted to, 6732.
Houard, Jolm ,E., imprisonment of,
by Spanish authorities, referred to,
4116.
Houard, John E., imprisonment of, by
Spanish authorities referred to, 4116.
Rough, Charles M., Judge, opinion by,
in anti-trust opinion cited, 7131.
House, Edward M.:
Personal representative of President
Wilson in Europe, 8389.
Refund from.
Houston
Biographic Index
Hutchins
Houston, James, district judge, nomin-
atiou of, 390.
Houston, Sam:
Commaoiderjjf Texan army, 1493.
President of Bepublic of Texas, 2172..
Howard, E. A., agent of Ponca Indians,
4583.
Howard, Jobn E., legislative acts ol
Maryland received from, transmitted,
63.
Howard, Lieut., report of, regarding
services of Apache Indians transmit-
ted, 5495.
Howard, Oliver O., Commissioner of
Freedmen's Bureau:"
Directed to effect arrangement be-
tween freedmen and landowners,
3549.
Report of his observations of the
condition of the seceded States
and of the operations of the Freed-
men's Bureau therein, referred to,
3571.
Howe, Albion P., member of court to
try assassins of President Lincoln,
3534.
Howe, Haughwout, records of associa-
tion founded for purposes of aiding
soldiers of Civil War offered to
United States, 4798.
Howe, S. D., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3403.
Howe, Samuel G., imprisonment of, in
Prussia, 1136.
Howe, Timothy O., Postmaster-General,
death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 4747.
Howison, Henry L., member of Board
on Geographic Names, 5647.
Hsu Shihchang, President of China,
messages to and from, on armistice
of World War, 8625.
Hubbard, Commander John, correspon-
dence to and from, 6765 et seq., 6834
et seq.
Huebschmann, Francis, treaties with In-
dians concluded by, 2773, 2896.
Huerta, General Victoriano, administra-
tion of Mexico by, discussed, 7886,
7893, 7907, 7934.
Huertes, General, of Colombia, referred
to, 6832.
Huggins, Samuel, wounding and rob-
bing of, by Mexican soldiers, referred
to, 4376.
Hughes, Charles Evans:
Address of, at opening of Armament
Limitation Conference, 9044.
Chairman, Armament Limitation Con-
ference, 9041, 9044.
Member, Second-Class Mail Commis-
sion, 7733.
Notes and state papers of. (See
Harding, Warren Gamaliel.)
Hull, Isaac:
Letters of Andrew Stevenson to, re-
ferred to, 1953.
Victory of the Constitution under
command of, over tlje Ouerriire,
502.
Hull, WiUiam:
Letter of, regarding Indians referred
to, 421.
Official conduct of, referred to, 430,
Surrenders fort and town of Detroit
to the British, 500.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
422.
Hulsemann, Chevalier, charg6 d 'affaires
of Austria, withdrawal of, referred
to, 2690.
Humphrey, Captain C. B., referred to,
6834.
Humphrey, J. Otis, Judge, decision of,
denounced, 7291.
Humphreys, David, minister to Portu-
gal, nomination of, 90.
Hunt, Alexander C, treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 3663, 3827.
Hunter, David:
Command of corps formerly under
Gen. Burnside, assumed by, 3325.
Member of court to try assassins of
President Lincoln, etc., 3534.
Proclamation of, for freedom of
slaves in certain States declared
void, 3292.
Hunter, Lieut., report of, on establish-
ment of steamship lines referred to,
2173.
Hunter, Robert M. T., member of com
mission to confer with President re
garding termination of war, 3461.
Hunter, W., Acting Secretary of State,
3487, 3504.
Hunter, W. M., court-martial of, 889.
Huntington, Henry E., referred to, 7163.
Huntington, Howard E., referred ,to,
7163.
Hurlbut, Stephen A., minister to Bo-
gota, mentioned, 4011.
Hustis, J. H., President New York, New
Haven and Hartford E. E., referre'l
to, 8023.
Rutcheson, William L.:
Member War Labor Board, 8485.
Message to, condemning strike, 8456.
Butchlus, Charles, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3403.
Hymans
Biographic Index
Johnson
Hymans, Paul:
Toreign minister of Belgium, note of
Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd-
George to, regarding Belgian for-
eign debt, 8913.
President of Council of Nations, notes
to, 8881, 8889, 8909.
Hyues, Thomas W., immigration serv-
ice investigated by, 6788.
Ingalls, Jolm J., on Senate committee
urging seats for cabinet in Congress,
7813.
IngersoU, Colin M., on Alaskan trans-
portation commission, 7843.
Innls, James, commissioner appointed
by United States under treaty with
Great Britain, 188.
Irion, E. A., secretary of state of Ee-
public of Texas, convention signed
by, 1686.
Irvine, Callender, commissary-general
of purchases, nomination of, dis-
cussed, 992.
Irwin, James T., act granting pension
to, vetoed, 5044.
Irwin, John, commanding American na-
val forces at Honolulu, reports of,
referred to, 5906.
Irwin, Walter E., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3896.
Izard, Ealph, on committee to conduct
inaugural ceremonies of President
Washington, 40.
Jackson, Andrew, biography of, 998.
Jackson, Henry E., minister to Mexico,
resignation of, 5123.
Jackson, Midshipman J. P., mentioned,
6839.
JapQbs, Eichard T., lieutenant-governor
of Kentucky, arrest and imprison-
ment of, 3460.
Jacobs, Stephen, district attorney, nom-
ination of, 91.
Jacques, William H., member ■ of Gun
Foundry Board, 4748.
Jaegers, Albert, sculptor of statue of
von Steuben, 7669.
Jagow, Gottlieb von, German foreign
secretary, referred to, 8127 et seq.
Jameson, J. F., of Carnegie Institu-
tion, letter of, on housing of public
records transmitted, 7728.
Jarvis, Charles, correspondence regard-
ing northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Jaurett, A. F., claim of, 7381.
Jay, John, minister to Great Britain,
nomination of, 146.
Jefferson, Thomas, biography of, 307.
Jelks, Governor William D., of Ala-
bama, quoted on lynching, 7030.
Jenckes, Thomas A., correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Eebellion, 2149.
Jenkins, Capt. (See Baltimore, The.)
Jenkins, Jolm J., Eepresentative, quoted,
7166.
Jenkins, William O., note to Mexico on
arrest of, 8807.
Jennings, E. H., referred to, 7161.
Jennings, Fred, referred to, 7604.
Jesup, Thomas S., commander of forces
in Seminole War, 1472.
Eeport of, referred to, 1697.
Jette, Sir Louis Amable, on Anglo-
American arbitration tribunal, 6793.
Jewett, Milo A., consul of United States
at Sivas, Turkey, directed to investi-
gate Armenian atrocities, 5991.
Jiminez, President, of Santo Domingo,
referred to, 8904.
Joffre, Marshal J. J. C, remarks of, dis-
cussed, 8657.
Johnson, Andrew, biography of, 3499.
Johnson, Emory E., commissioner on
Panama Canal traffic and tolls, report
of, mentioned, 7806.
Johnson, George, claims of, against
Uruguay, 2014.
Jolinson, Hiram, Governor of California,
discusses alien land law of that state,
7874 et seq.
Johnson, James, provisional governor
of Georgia, appointed, 3516.
Johnson, John A., Governor, referred to.
, 7290.
Johnson, Eeverdy:
Address of, on presenting to Presi-
dent proceedings of Union Conven-
tion in Philadelphia filed in im-
peachment trial, 3947.
Commissioner at New Orleans, report
of, referred to, 3347.
Mentioned, 4014.
Johnson, Eichard M., military talents
of, commented on, 520.
Johnson, E. M., compensation due, for
erection of buildings for use of Choc-
taw academy, 2537.
Johnson
Biographic Index
Kimball
Johnson, Samuel, president North Caro-
lina convention, 63.
Johnson, William Samuel, appointed on
committee to receive President Wash-
ington, 36.
Johnston, Joseph E., victories of na-
tional arms over Confederate forces
under, referred to, 3442.
Johnston, William H., member War La-
bor Board, 8485.
Jones, Jacob, commander of the Watp,
506.
Jones, J. B., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3592.
Jones, John Paul, remains of:
Crypt for, urged, 7531.
Discovery of, 6945.
Jones, Roger:
Correspondence regarding Dorr's Ke-
bellion, 2157.
Mentioned, 702.
Orders respecting funeral honors to —
Adams, John, 914.
Harrison, W. H., 1880.
Jefferson, 914.
Lafayette, 1314.
Jones, Thomas, proceedings of, in tak-
ing possession of Monterey, Mexico,
discussed, 2080.
Jones, Thomas G., Judge, praised, 7337.
Jones, William, Secretary of Navy:
Duties of Secretary of Treasury dis-
charged by, during the absence of
Albert Gallatin, one of the commis-
sioned envoys to treat with Great
Britain and Bussia in 1813.
Juarez, Benito P., President of Mexico:
Demonstration by Congress of United
States of Colombia in honor of, re-
ferred to, 3575.
Government formed by, discussed,
3095.
Referred to, 3175, 3577.
Judson, Frederick N., on commission to
investigate interstate commerce legis-
lation, 7552.
Jussen, Edmund, act for relief of, ve-
toed, 4168.
Jusserand, Jules J., French ambassador,
delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Kalakaua, David, King of Hawaiian
Islands:
Coronation of, discussed, 4761.
Death of. in United States, discussed,
5623.
Visit of, to United States, 4630.
B-20
Easson, John A., report of, on conuiier-
cial relations with Cuba, 6294.
Eato, Baron, Japanese delegate to Arm-
ament Limitation Conference, 9041.
Kautz, August v., member of court to
try assassins of President Lincoln,
etc., 3534.
Kearny, Philip, major-general in Army,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
3362.
KeUey, A. M.:
Minister to Austria-Hungary, ap-
pointment of, and refusal of Gov-
ernment to receive, discussed, 4910.
Minister to Italy and Austria-Hun-
gary, appointment of, referred to,
4951.
Keim, D. B. B., report of, on consular
affairs and amount paid to, referred
to, 4123, 4160, 4161.
Keith, Charles B., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3284.
KeUey, Mr., commissioner to investigate
affairs of New York custom-house,
2005.
Kellogg, William P.:
Candidate for governor of Louisiana,
election disturbances discussed.
(See Louisiana, elections in.)
Mentioned, 4177.
Kennon, Beverly, court-martial of, re-
ferred to, 811.
Kent, Edward, correspondence regard-
ing northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Keman, John D., member of Strike
Commission, 5983.
Kerr, Joseph, commissioner for Cumber-
land road, 406.
Kerr, J. Bozman, chargg d'affaires in
Nicaragua, mentioned, 2687, 2695.
Kerr, Michael C, Speaker of House of
Representatives, death of, announced,
4352.
Key, Albert Ii., Naval Academy inves-
tigated by, 7116.
Key, Thomas M., interview with Gen.
Cobb regarding exchanging of pris-
oners of war, 3459.
Keyes, Stephen, collector of port, nomi-
nation of, 91.
Keys, Crawford, trial and conviction
of, for murder of Emory Smith, and
subsequent release of, referred to,
3659.
Kibbe, J. Hudson, bill for pension to,
returned, 6863.
Kimball, James P., Director of Mint,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
4952.
Kimberly
Biographic Index
Landreav.
Eimbeily, Lewis A., dispatched to Sa-
moa, 5390. .
King, H. C, allotment to, for Inter-
Allied eommission on mandates in
Turkey, 8888.
King, John H,, acts and proceedings
of, declared null and void, 3548. '
King, Jonas, diflSculties of, with Greece
referred to, 2773, 2828.
King, Kufus, special minister plenipo-
tentiary to negotiate treaty with
Russia, nomination of, 272.
King, Sam. W., correspondence regard-
ing Dorr's Eebellion, 2139, 2143,
2145, 2146, ■ 2147, 2151^ 2152, 2156.
King, Thomas B., special agent to Cali-
fornia, 2565.
Eeport of, referred to, 2579.
King, William E., Vice-President, death
of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 2738.
Referred to, 2758.
Knapp, Captain H. S., in charge of
military government of Santo Domin-
go, 8904.
Knox, Henry:
Commissioner appointed by United
States under treaty with Great
Britain, 188.
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
70.
^ Proceedings of Cabinet were signed
by him as attendant adviser of
President Jefferson.
Knox, Philander C, Senator and Sec-
retary of State:
Death of, announced, 9002.
Letter of, on two-eent postage to
foreign countries, 7851.
Letter of, transmitted, 7838.
Referred to, 7294, 7350 et seq.
Koch, Dr. Robert, referred to, 7839.
Kock, Bernard, agreement with, for
emigration of negroes canceled, 3368.
Kolchak, Admiral, defeated in Russia,
8824.
Koo, V. K. Wellington, Chinese dele-
gate to Armament Limitation Confer-
ence, 9041. /
Kosciusko, statue of, to be erected in
Wasliington by the Poles, 6860.
Kossuth, Louis:
Liberation of, and companions re-
ferred to, 2647, 2655. •
Misunderstanding of, with Capt.
Long referred to, 2682.
Koszta, Martin, seizure and imprison-
ment of, by Austrian brig of war
and subsequent release of, dis-
cussed, 2742.
Referred to, 2764, S770, 2771.
Kuni, Prince, visit of, to Hudson-Pul-
ton celebration, 7420.
La Blanche, Alcee:
Charge d 'Affaires to Republic of
Texas, nomination of, 1501.
Convention at Houston, Tex., signed
by, 1686.
Ladd, E. F., on wheat price committee,
8348.
Ladd, Edward H., claim of, against Co-
lombia, 4804.
Lafayette, George W.:
First copperplate of Declaration of
Independence bequeathed to Con-
gress by father of, letter of, pre-
senting, 1342.
Eesolutions of Congress on death of
father of, transmitted to, 1343.
Reply of, to, 1344.
Lafayette, Marquis de:
Bust of, presented to Congress, 992.
"Citizen of France, but friend of
United States," 1313.
Death of —
Announced, 1273.
Funeral honors to be paid memorv
of, 1314.
Eesolutions of Congress on, trans-
mitted to family of, 1343.
Reply of George W. Lafayette,
1344.
Tribute to memory of, 1314.
Declaration of Independence, first
copperplate of, bequeathed to Con-
gress by, letter of son presenting,
1342.
Mentioned, 6932.
Services of, to America discussed and
provision for, recommended, 828.
Visit of, to United States, 874.
Declines invitation to be conveyed
in United States ship of war,
827.
Writes concerning claims of —
Baron De Kalb, 1270.
French citizens, 1198.
Lafltte, Jean. (See Barrataria, Island
of.)
Lamb, Charles, quoted, 8390.
Lambert, William, astronomical obser-
vations by, 680, 688, 789.
Lander, Frederick W., activity and
enterprise manifested by, commend-
ed, 3305.
Landon, Cedric B., appointed animal
inspector, 8175.
Landreau, John C, claim of, against
Peru:
Arbitration of, 7786.
Referred to, 4463.
Lane
Biographic Index
Lincoln
Lane, Franklin K., Secretary of Inter-!
ior, letter to, on education in war
time, 8568.
Lane, Henry S., member of Indian
commission, 3977.
Lane, James H., brigadier-general,
United States Army, appointment of,
referred to, 3236.
Langdon, John:
Appointed on committee to meet
President Washington, 86
Washington 's election certified by, aa
President of Senate, 35.
Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State:
Eefund from, to American Peace Mis-
sion, 8889.
Reservations by, at Paris Peace Con-
ference, on disposition of Yap
discussed, 8950-6. , .
Lardner, James L., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3284.
Larkin, T. O., dispatch forwarded to,
and destroyed by Capt. Gillespie,
2428.
Lamed, Samuel, treaty with Peru-Bo-
livian Confederation concluded by,
1563.
Larrabee, Charles F., member of In-
dian commission, 5579.
Lascurain, Pedro, Mexican foreign min-
ister, 7894.
Lasker, Edward, death of, referred to,
4794.
Latimer, Henry, district supervisor,
nomination of, 91.
Laurason, George C, collector of cus-
toms for the district of New Or-
leans, pending a dispute over the
legality of same. The case of Mar-
bury vs. Madison (q. v.) is cited in
the discussion. Appointment of, dis-
cussed, 2684.
Lawrence, Elisha, vice-president of
New Jersey, letter of, transmitted,
70.
Lawrence, James, commander of the
Hornet, 513.
Death of. (See illustration opposite
529.)
Lawrence, John, appointed on commit-
tee to meet President Washington,
37.
Lawrence, William B., chargS d 'affaires
to Great Britain, accounts of, re-
ferred to, 1033, 1036.
Lawson, Thomas, Surgeon-General Unit-
ed States Army, directed to accom-
pany ex-President Jackson home, 1540.
Lazare, A. H., imprisonment of, in
Haiti and claims arising out of, dis-
cussed, 491S, 5120, 5123, 6099.
Lea, James, member of legislative
council for Mississippi Territory,
nomination of, 445.
Leach, D. 0., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3460.
Leahy, Mrs. Kate, mentioned, 7339.
Lear, Tobias:
Consul to Algiers, mentioned, 380,
418, 42K.
Letter of, announcing death of
Washington, 287.
Secretary to President Washington,
62.
Leavenworth, Henry:
Attack upon Indians led by, 781.
Death of, referred to, 1332.
Lecompte, Samuel D., judicial conduct
of, referred to, 2598.
Lee, Ool., commissioner. United States,
781.
Lee, Lord, of Farehan, British delegate
to Armament Limitation Conference,
9041.
Lee, Richard H., appointed on commit-
tee to conduct ceremonies of admin-
istration of oath to President Wash-
ington, 40.
Lee, Robert E.:
Company disbanded by, 7335, 7336.
Picture of, 3504.
Referred to, by President Wilson,
7949.
Lee, Samuel P., thanks of Congress to,
recommended as a naval officer com-
manding one of the vessels engage^
in the operations under Flag-Officer
Farragut at Forts Jackson and St.
Philip, at New Orleans, 1862, 3277.
Leggett, Mortimer D., Commissioner
of Patents, recommendation of, re-
ferred to, 4115.
Leib, R. J., consul at Tangier, disposi-
tion . of presents given by Emperor
of Morpcco discussed, 1256.
L'Enfant, Peter Charles, plans of, for
District of Columbia discussed, 9016.
Lennox, David, attacked while dis-
charging duties of niarshal, 151.
Letcher, John, official acts of, in Vir-
ginia declared null and void, 3535.
Liberto, Salvatore, reparation for mur-
der of, 6731.
Liliuokalanl, Queen of Hawaiian Isl-
ands:
Referred to, 5623.
Restoration of, to throne, discussed,
5783.
Surrender of sovereignty of, dis-
cussed, 5903.
Lincoln, Abraham, biography of, 3204.
Lincoln, Benjamin, commissioner to
treat with Indians, nomination of, 52.
Lincoln
Biographic Index
McClellan
Iiincoln, Levi, cummissioner to settle
boundary question with Georgia, 329.
Lind, John, sent as representatiTe to
Mexico, 7885.
Instructions to, 7886.
Proposals rejected, 7887.
Little, Joseph Dnunmond, readmission
of, into Naval Academy, 6937.
Littlefleld, Charles E., Bepresentative,
quoted, 7167.
Littlejohn, Beverend, internal revenue
collector, custodian of Constitution
>and Declaration of Independence,
9033.
Llvermore, W. B., commissioner in
marking boundary line between Tex-
as and Mexico, 4902.
Livingston, Don, member of Purchasing
Commission for Bnssian Belief, 9033.
Livingston, Edward:
Minister to France —
Correspondence regarding claims
against France. (See France,
claims against.)
Eeferred to, 1407.
Instructed to quit France if claims
are not paid, 1354.
Official conduct of, complimentary
letter concerning', 1404.
Besignation of, transmitted, 1403.
Secretary of State, 1219.
Correspondence relating to north-
eastern boundary. (See North-
eastern Boundary.)
Livingston, Joseph W., consul at San
Juan de Nicaragua, mentioned, 2573.
Livingston, Robert E., minister to nego-
tiate treaty with France, nomination
of, 339.
Lloyd-George, David, prime minister of
Great Britain:
Address of, on war aims and peace
terms, praised, 8422.
Armament Limitation Conference, not
in attendance upon, 9041.
Attitude of, on Adriatic territorial
dispute discussed, 8831-9.
Attitude on, on disposition of Yap,
8951.
Note froim, to Belgian foreign min-
ister, on Belgian war debt, 8914.
Lodge, Henry Cabot, Senator:
Delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Four-Power Pacific Treaty submitted
to Armament Limitation Confer-
ence by, 9051.
Member, Anglo-American arbitration
tribunal, 6792.
Lofland, John Henry, reinstatement of,
into Naval Academy, 6937.
Long, John C, misunderstanding with
Louis Kossuth referred to, 2682.
Long, John D.:
Beport of, on number of lives lost by
sinking of the Maine, 6296.
Thanks of President tendered Com-
modore Dewey by, 6568.
Leomis, F. B., reports of, during Pan-
ama Bevolution, 6752-6755.
Lopez, Mexican bandit, depredations
of, discussed, 8133 et seq.
Loree, L. F., member War Labor Board,
8485.
Loverlng, Ueutenant Colonel L. A.,
mentioned, 7329 et seq.
Lowell, A. Lawrence, on second class
mail commission, 7733.
Luce, J. H. D., charter in Porto Bico
granted to, 6733.
Lushlngton, Doctor Oodfrey, quoted,
8168.
Lyman, Chester, referred to, 7604.
Mablnl, Filipino, case of his oath of
allegiance to the United States, 6735.
McAdoo, William O., director general
of railroads, 8410, 8420, 8488, 8554,
8632, 8686.
McArthur, Duncan, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 590.
McOahe, George P., solicitor in Depart-
ment of Agriculture, inemorandum
of, on Alaskan land reservation, 7613.
McCalla, Bowman H., member of board
to consider expedition to be sent for
relief of Lady Franklin Bay Expedi-
tion, 4813.
McOallum, D. C, military director and
superintendent of railroads, appoint-
ed, 3302.
McClellan, Oapt., Florida volunteers un-
der command of, referred to, 2430.
McClellan, George B.:
Command of Army of United States
assumed by, 3241.
Plans of, approved, 3312.
Eeferred to, 3257.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 4904.
Believed of command of Army of Po-
tomac, and Major-General Burn-
side ordered to take command of
that Army. He in turn to be suc-
ceeded, by Major-General Hunter,
3325.
Believed of command of other depart-
ments, retaining command of De-
partment of Potomac, 3312.
McClellan
Biographic Index
Madero
Beport of, on Dominican Bepublic,
transmitted, 4071.
Besignation of, as major-general ac-
cepted, 3443.
McCook, Anson O., letter of, regarding
statue of Gen. Garfield to be erected
in Washington, transmitted, 4795.
McCook, Edward M., brigadier-general
in Army, nomination of, referred to,
3403.
McCord, Victor H., claim of, against
Peru, 5988, 6092, 6335.
McCrea, Lieut,, interpreter at trial and
investigation into the Chilean out-
rage upon the sailors of the Balti-
more, 5620, 5650, 5662, 5747, 5750.
McCnlloch, Ben, sent to Utah during
troubles with Mormons, 3036.
McCuUoch, Hugh, correspondence of,
transmitted, 3804.
McCully, Bear-Admlral Kewton A., re-
ferred to, 8864.
McDanlel, James, treaty with Indiana
concluded by, 3592.
McBonald, T. P., mentioned, 7339.
McEldery, Hugh, directer of Bank of
United States, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1260.
McElvain, John, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 1029.
McEnery, Samuel D., candidate for
governor of Louisiana, election dis-
turbances discussed, 4261.
McGarrah, Gates W., director. Food
Administration Grain Corporation,
8325.
McGarrahan, William, act to submit
title of, to lands to Court of Private
Land Claims, vetoed, 5680.
McGregor, Gen., commission to, dis-
cussed, 601.
McGrew, John P., member of legislative
council for Mississippi Territory,
nomination of, 445.
Mcintosh, Lachlan, naval officer at- Sa-
vannah, Ga., nomination of, and rea-
sons therefor, 50.
McKee, John:
Instructions to, regarding possession
of Florida, 491.
Mentioned, 473.
McKeever, Isaac, captain in navy, nom-
ination of, and reasons therefor, 1745.
McEenney, Thomas L., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 931, 960, 961,
996.
McKinley, William, bfography of, 6234.
McEinstry, Charles H., General, allot-
ment to, for peace mission duties,
8888.
McLane, Iiouis:
Minister to Great Britain, 1044, 1133.
Correspondence regarding Oregon
boundary, 2305.
Secretary of State, correspondence
regarding northeastern boundary.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Mcltane, Robert M.:
Commissioner to China, 3062, 3122.
, Minister to —
France, mentioned, 5118.
Mexico, 3095.
McLaughlin, James, Indian inspector,
mentioned, 6875, 6882.
McLean, John, Supreme Court Justice,
death of, referred to, 3250.
McLellan, George W., correspondence
of, 3809.
McLeod, Alexander, imprisonment of,
1840.
Acquittal of, referred to, 1927.
Appearance of District Attorney
Spencer as counsel for, referred to,
2303.
Referred to, 1894, 2286.
McMataon, John, arrest and trial of,
3827.
McMinn, Joseph, treaty with Indians,
589.
McNeil, John, treaty with Indians,
1029.
McBeynoldS, J. 6., Attorney General,
letter to, ordering prosecution of New
York, New Haven and Hartford R,
B., 8023.
McSweeney, Daniel, imprisonment of,
by Great Britain, 4674.
MacDonald, Allan, abduction of, from
Canada, referred to, 3826.
MacDonough, Thomas, British ships
captured on Lake Champlain by ves-
sels under, 534.
Mackenzie, Ranald S., directed to as-
sume command of Department of
Texas, 4754.
Maclauchlan, J. A., correspondence re-
farding imprisonment of Ebenezer
. Greely, 1575, 1828.
Macomb, Alexander:
Letter of, on British fortifications on
northern frontier of United States,
1815.
Mentioned, 701.
President court of inquiry, 1508.
Papers transmitted to, 1510, 1611.
Macomb, William H., commander in
Navy, advancement in grade of, rec-
ommended, 3458.
Madero, Francisco I., President of
Mexico:
Election of, 7663.
Besignation of, referred to, 7894.
Madison
Biographic Index
Mason
Madison, Dolly P.:
CoTrespondence with President Jack-
son regarding death of her husband,
1479.
Writings of her husband on Constitu-
tional Convention referred to,
1479.
Correspondence regarding publica-
tion of, 1481.
Madison, James, biography of, 450.
Madrazo, Don Juan, claims of, against
United States, 1268.
Attorney-General declines to give
opinion on, 1450.
Magoon, Charles E.:
Cuba, Governor of, provisional, 7056,
7388.
Panama Canal Commissioner, 7020.
Maison Rouge, Marquis de, validity of
grant to, by Baron de Carondelet, to
be tested, 2013.
Makino, Baron, of Japan:
Conversations with, on disposition of
Yap, 8951 et seq.
Referred to, 8683.
Malietoa, King of Samoan Islands,
5545, 5871, 5963.
Death of, 6336.
Mallet, Claude C, British consul at Pan-
ama, mentioned, 7322.
Mallory, Stephen R., imprisonment of,
report of Attorney-General regarding,
transmitted, 3576.
Malmros, Oscar, consul at Colon, corre-
spondence to and from, 6752 et seq.
6837 et seq.
Mann, A. Dudley:
Special agent to Hungary, corre
spondence of, referred to, 2579.
Treaty with Swiss Confederation
concluded by, 2634.
Mansfield, Joseph K. P., major-general
of volunteers, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 3363.
Mansfield, Samuel M., commissioner ii
marking boundary between Texas
and Mexico, 4904.
Manypenny, George W., treaty with In
dians concluded by, 2773, 2775, 2834
' 2839,. 2884.
March, Peyton C, permanent rank of
General asked for, 8761.
Marchand, Margaret D., act granting
pension to:
Reasons for applying pocket veto to,
5072.
Vetoed, 5014.
Marcy, Randolph B., report of, on ex-
ploration of Big Wichitaw and
Brazos rivers, transmitted, 2897.
Marcy, William L.:
Correspondence regarding outrages
committed by Canadians on Ameri-
can frontier, 1618.
Order signed by, suppressing an un-
lawful expedition fitted out in Cali-
fornia for the invasion of Mexico,
2805.
Secretary of State, 2805.
Marks, I. D., contract alleged to have
been made with Mexico by, referred
to, 2636.
Marquez, Leonardo, American citizens
murdered in Mexico by, 3096, 3176.
Marroctuin, Jose, President, of Colom-
bia, referred to, 6760, 6833.
Marsden, George, imprisonment of, by
Brazil, 2779.
Marsden, Joseph, member of commis-
sion concluding treaty for annexa-
tion of Hawaiian. Islands to United
States, 5783.
Marsh, E. P., on labor mediation board,
8359.
Marsh, George P., minister to Italy,
death of, referred to, 4715.
Marshall, Brigadier General W. Ii.,
Chief of Engineers, investigations
of, on:
Imperial Valley irrigation project,
7544, 7723.
Rivers and harbors improvement,
7491.
Marshall, Humphrey, correspondence of,
referred to, 2776.
Marshall, John:
Honored in South America, 7060.
Letter of Elbridge Gerry to, trans-
mitted, 256.
Minister to France, nomination of,
235.
Secretary of State, 295.
Marshall, William, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 1354.
Martin, Alexander, legislative act of
North Carolina received from, trans-
mitted, 64.
Martin, Henry W., treaty with Indians
concluded \>j, 3395.
Martin, Morgan L., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2529.
Martinez, Amado, mentioned, 7339.
Martinez, P. P., Mexican Minister, men-
tioned, 1790.
Martinez, Jose, mentioned, 7339.
Marty, Martin, member of Chippewa
Commission, 5500,
Marvin, William, provisional governor
of Florida, appointed, 3527.
Mason, C. IT., referred to, 7159.
Mason
Biographic Index
Mifflin
Mason, Otis T., member of Board on
Geographic Names, 5647.
Mataafa, insurrection in Samoan Is-
lands under, 5871, 5963.
Arrangements for return of, and
' other exiles, 6336.
Mather, Thomas, treaty -with Indians
concluded by, 889.
Matlock, Gideon C, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2304.
Maljthe-ws, Edmund O., member of Gun
Foundry Board, 4748.
Matthews, George, instructions to, re-
garding possessions of Florida, 491.
Unauthorized conduct of, discussed
and powers given, revoked, 492.
Matthews, James C, recorder of deeds.
District of Columbia, nomination of,
and reasons therefor, 5116.
Matthews, John, district supervisor,
nomination of, 91.
Matthews, Nathan, report of, to Boston
authorities, discussed, 7195.
Maury, Matthew F.:
Immigration plans of, referred to,
3571.
Improvement in' science of nautical
affairs by, 2670.
Masimilian (Ferdinand Maximilian Jo-
seph) :
Capture and execution of, referred
to, 3725.
Decrees of —
Declaring blockade of ports pro-
claimed void, 3631.
Eeestablishing slavery in Mexico
referred to, 3569.
Organization for purpose of avenging
death of, referred to, 3780.
Maxwell, Hugh, authority issued to, to
arrest unlawful expeditions, 2697.
Maybrick, Florence E., imprisonment
of, in Great Britain, 6101.
Mayo, Admiral Henry L., demand for
salute of United States flag by Mexi-
can authoritifes, 7935 et seq.
Mayson, F. G., lieutenant in Marine
Corps, appointment of, referred to,
2273.
Mead, Cowles:
Arrival of Aaron Burr in Mississippi
announced by, 407. .
Surrender of Aaron Burr announced
by, 409.
Meade, George G.:
Instructions ' to, referred to, 3826.
Order to, regarding suppression of
military expedition, 3631.
Meade, Richard W., U. S. N.:
Agreement with great chief of Tu-
tuila concluded by, 4122.
Imprisonment of, by Spain and claim
arising out of, 594.
Mentioned, 5833.
Mears. F., chief engineer, Panama Eail-
road Company, 7841.
Medill, William, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2521.
Meluned V, Sultan of Turkey, acces-
sion of, 7414, 7496.
Meigs, Montgomery C:
Act making appropriation for Gov-
ernment expenses, including work
to be superintended by, discussed,
3128.
Appointed on commission to examine
subject of reorganization of Army,
4352,
Eeport of, on —
Extension of Capitol, transmitted,
2917, 3110.
Error iuj. referred to, 2918.
Water supply for Washington City,
2725.
Meigs, Return J., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 834.
Melendez, Porfirio, of Panama, referred
to, 6755.
Menard, Pierre, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 988, 989, 991, 1029.
Meriwether, David, treaties with In-
dians concluded by, 589, 2884.
Merritt, Wesley:
Directed to aid in executing laws m
Indian Territory, 5483.
Expeditions to Philippine Islands un-
der command of, 6315.
Attack upon and surrender of Ma-
nila, 6319.
Thanks of President tendered,
6579,
Instructions of President regarding
military occupation of islands,
6569, 6571, 6572.
Joint occupancy with insurgents
not to be permitted, 6579.
Metcalf, Victor H., referred to, 7364.
Metcalfe, Richard L., on committee to
open Panama Canal, 7945.
Meyer, B. H., on cominission to inves-
tigate interstate commerce legislation,
7552.
Meyer, Frank N., investigation of, into
deforestation in China, discussed
7219.
Michael, C. E., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Michel, F., donation of buildings and
grounds to United States for mint
proposed by, 4311.
MiflElin, Tlionias, letter of, referred to,
256.
Mileo
Biographic Index
Morris
Mileo, Nicolino, impressment of, into
service of and punishment by Italy,
referred to, 5673.
Miles, Dixon S., court of inquiry in case
of, referred to, 3260.
Miles, Nelson A.:
Authorized to perform duties of Sec-
retary of War in emergency, 6604.
Member of Ponca Indian Commission,
4582.
Outbreaks among Sioux, suppressed
by, 6426.
Porto Eiean campaign under coin-
jnand of, 6318.
Surrender of Indians to, 5099.
Milledge, John, letter of President Mad-
ison to, regarding taking of oath, 451.
Miller, James, governor of Arkansas,
legalization of official acts of, recom-
mended, 801.
Miller, John S., counsel for beef-paek-
crs, referred to, 7293.
Miller, Joseph N., joint resolution an-
nexing Hawaiian Islands delivered to
President Dole by, 6332.
Miller, Washington D., secretary to
President Houston, of Texas, 2172.
Miller, William, refuge given to, by the
St. Louis, 1133.
Miller, William A., removal of, from
frovernment Printing Office discussed,
6783.
Miramon, Miguel:
President of Mexico, election of, dis-
cussed, 3095, 3175.
Property of American citizens con-
fiscated by, 3120.
Mitchell, David B., instructions to, re-
garding possession of Florida, 493,
465.
Mitchell, John, agent for American
prisoners of war at Halifax, Nova
Scotia, 507.
Mitchell, John H., Senator, chargea
against, referred to, 7241, 7250.
Mitchell, Sydney Z., referred to, 7158,
7162
Mizner, Lansing B., minister to Guate-
mala, action of, regarding seizure
of Gen. Barrundia, and subsequent
recall of, discussed, .5544.
Papers regarding, transmitted, 556.0.
Monahan, Thomas R., arrest and impris-
onment of, by Mexican authorities,
4852.
Monroe, James, biography of, 572.
Monson, Sir Edmund, award of, as ar-
bitrator in claim of Carlos Butter-
field & Co. against Denmark, 5545.
Montes, J. M. G. y, Cuban Secretary of
the Treasury, 6743".
Montgomery, Alexander, member of leg-
islative council for Mississippi Ter-
tory, nomination of, 445.
Montgomery, William, brigadier-gen-
eral, nomination of, referred to, 1094.
Montgomery, William B., court-martial
in case of, referred to, 2893.
Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, men-
tioned, 5619. (See also BaltimQre,
The.)
Moody, William H.:
Attorney General, referred to, 7292,
7293.
Justice Supreme Court, head of naval
reorganization committee, 7529.
Mooney, James, seizure of Vicenzo Re-
bello by, in New Orleans, La., 4653.
Moore, Alfred, commissioner to treat
with Indians, nomination of, 250.
Moore, John B., Acting Secretary of
State, 6481.
Moore, S. C, mentioned, 7339.
Moore, Thomas, commissioner for Cum-
berland road, 406.
Moore, Thomas P., minister to Colom-
bia, judgment and discretion of, dis-
cussed, 1030.
Mora, Antonio M., claim of, against
Spain, 5677, 5910, 5962, 5989, 5998.
Payment and distribution of, 6069.
Morales, Colonel, of Colombia, referred
to, 6769.
Morales, Don John Bonaventure, au-
thority to dispose of lands of Spai^
in Louisiana, referred to, 651.
Morales, Eusebio A., Panaman minister,
protocol re Panama Canal neutrality
signed by, 8011.
Moran, William H., Secret Service
agent, referred to, 7251.
Morgan, John T.:
Argument of, in Senate on canal con-
struction, referred to, 5524.
Member of commission to Hawaiian
Islands, 6333.
Morgenthau, Henry:
Allotment to, for mission to Poland,
8888, 8889.
Special representative in Ariupnia
8909, 8911.
Morrill, Ashley C, treaty at the Old
Crossing of Eed Lake River, Minne-
sota, with the chiefs of the Eed Lake
and Pembina bands of Chippewa
Indians (1864), concluded by, 3397.
Morris, George W., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3345.
Morris
Biographic Index
NouTse
Morris. Gouverueur:
Minister to France, recall of, request-
ed, 147.
Successor of, appointed, 148.
Treaty with Great Britain, appointed
to conclude, 88.
Morris, Henry, thanks of , Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
Morris, Lewis B., United States Mar-
shal, nomination of, 91.
Morrow, Jay J., Major, on Alaskan
transportation commission, 7843.
Morse, Freeman H., report of, on for-
eign maritime commerce of United
States, etc., transmitted, 3831.
Mortimer, J. D., referred to, 7158.
Morton, J. Sterling, death of, 6705.
Morton, Oliver P., death of, announced
and honors to be paid memory of,
5043.
Motley, John L.:
Mentioned, 4014.
Minister to —
Austria —
Conversations and opinions of,
referred to, 3664.
Eemoval of, referred to, 3780.
Eesignation of, referred to, 3661.
Great Britain, recall of, referred to
4070.
Mott, Thomas D., Jr., Porto Eico fran
chise granted to, 7835.
Mudd, Samuel A., implicated in assaa-
' sination of President Lincoln, pro-
ceedings of trial and verdict of mil-
itary commission, 3532, 3533, 3534,
3540, 3545, 3546.
Muhlberg, Doctor von, German minis
ter to the Vatican, mentioned, 8188
Mulvihill, Thomas, petition of, for re-
possession of lands conveyed to
United States by, 4739, 4778.
Murat, Joachim, commerce of United
States, depredations committed on,
by, 1269.
Murphy, Lieutenant G. M-P., referred
to, 6834.
Murray, William Vans, minister to
France, nomination of, 272, 274.
Mutsihito, Emperor of Japan, death of,
7785.
Nafarroto, General, of Mexico, men-
tioned, 8135.
liTagel, Charles, letter of, denouncing
literary test for restricting immigra-
tion, 7848.
Nairne, John, vessel under, ordered
from and forbidden to reenter waters
of United States, 391.
Nash, Thomas, was charged with mur-
der and piracy on the British frigate
Bermoine. He was surrendered to
Great Britain, 1799.
Natus, Frank, murder of, 7338 et seq.
Neighbors, Robert S., mentioned, 3249.
Nelll, Charles P., Commissioner, Bu-
reau of Labor, report of, discussed,
7296.
Nelson, Samuel, associate justice, Su-
preme Court, member of commission
to settle questions with Great Brit-
ain, 4075.
Nelson, Thomas A. B., counsel for Pres-
ident Johnson in impeachment pro-
ceedings, 3924.
Nettleton, General A. B., mentioned,
7330 et seq.
Neville, John, attacked while discharg-
ing duties as revenue inspector, 151.
Newcomb, Frank H., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 6302.
Newcomb, Simon, report of, on im-
provements in astronomical observa-
tories, etc., referred to, 4790.
Newell, F. H., to investigate public
lands, 6801.
Newlands, Francis Griffith, Senator, bill
of, referred to, 7153, 7172.
Newton, V. M., auditor, Panama Bail-
, road Company, 7841.
Nicholas, Emperor. (See Russia.)
Nichols, Edward P., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Nicks, John, removal of, from office,
explanation regarding, 1094.
Nico, Econchatta, claim of, for losses
sustained, 1683.
Nicoll, Francis H., memorial of, pre-
sented to Congress, 1037.
Nitti, Francisco S., Premier of Italv.
referred to, 8831.
Noah, M. Mordecai, surveyor of cus-
toms, renomination of, 1043.
Noble, Alfred, -Panama Canal locks ex-
amined by, 7101, 7323.
Nolan, Katie A., bill for relief of,
vetoed, 6772.
Noland, N. B., claims of, against Peru,
6099.
Norris, P. W., petition of, for compen-
sation for services rendered trans-
mitted, 4669.
Nourse, Joseph E., publication of sec-
ond edition of Second Arctic Expe-
dition recommended by, 4666.
Noyes
Biographic Index
Palma
Noyes, Pierrepont B., allotment to, for
Inter-Allied Ehineland Commission,
8888.
Noyes, Walter C, Judge, opinion of, in
Tobacco Trust case quoted, 7649.
Nye, James W., governor of Nevada
Territory, letter of, transmitted, 3405.
Oakes, D. C, treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3663.
Obaldia, Governor of Panama, men-
tioned, 6833.
Obregon, G-eneral of Mexico:
Policy of, on proposed treaty,8972.
Eeferred to, 8131, et seq.
O'Brien, Richard, letter of, regarding
bombardment of Tropoli' 363.
O'Brien, Thomas D., Minnesota Insur-
ance .Commissioner, referred to, 7290.
O'Connor, David C, superintendent of
schools. Canal Zone, mentioned, 7316.
Odin, Hale, Mr. and Mrs., assault on,
7338, 7339.
O'Donnell, Patrick, trial, conviction,
and execution of, by Great Britain,
4782.
Oehler, G. F., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 2953.
O 'Fallon, Benjamin, treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 887.
O' Fallon, James, armed force levied by,
referred to and proclamation against,
93.
OfBey, David, treaty with Turkey con-
cluded by; 1093.
Ogden, Herbert G., member of Board on
Geographic Names, 5647.
Ogden, Peter V., crimes charged against,
405.
Ogden, Thomas Ii., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 940.
O'Laughlin, Michael, implicated in as-
sassination of President Lincoln, pro-
ceedings of trial and verdict of mili-
tary commission, 3532, 3533, 3534,
3540, 3545, 3546.
Olaya, Senor, Colombian minister for
foreign affairs, referred to, 7857.
Olmstead, Gideon:
Correspondence with governor of
Pennsylvania in regard to case of,
462.
Resolutions of Pennsylvania legisla-
ture protesting against Supreme
Court decision in case of, 456.
Olney, Bichaid, Secretary of State,
6024.
duis, Louis de, letter of, to Captain-
General of Caracas transmitted, 473.
Ord, Edward O. C, negotiations of, for
and correspondence regarding resto-
ration of peace, 3461.
Orr, B. G., contract of, with Govern-
ment to furnish supplies, 598.
Orr, James L., commissioner from South
Carolina, mentioned, 3189.
Osborne, Loyall A., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway,
arbitrator of Apian claims, 7837.
Osgood, Samuel, house of, to be pre-
,pared^ for temporary accommodation
of President Washington, 35, 36.
Ospina, General, of Colombia, referred
to, 6760, 7857 et seq.
Otis, Elwell S.:
Directed to —
Avoid conflict with Philippine in-
surgents, 6584.
Send troops to Iloilo, 6583.
Member of Philippine Commission,
6584.
Suggestions from, regarding force,
etc., for Philippine Islands, re-
quested by President, 6580.
Overman, Lee S., Senator, letter to, con-
demning Court Martial Bill, 8492.
Overton, John, commissioner to treat'
with Indians, nomination of, 620.
Oxenham, E. L., British consul, testi-
monial to be presented to, by United
States referred to, 4802.
Padron, Genero, mentioned, 7339.
Paez, Jose Antonio, vessel to trans-
port remains of, to Venezuela, recom-
mended, 5193.
Page, Thomas J., claim of, against Ar-
gentina adjusted, 6324.
Page, Walter Hines, ambassador to
Great Britain, referred to, 8056, 8143,
8178.
Pageot, A., French charge d'affaires:
Announces intention to return to
France, 1420.
Correspondence regarding claims
against France. (See France,
claims against.)
Palma, Tomas E., President of Cuba,
mentioned, 6682.
Palmer
Biographic Index
Perkins
Palmer, Joel, treaty -with Indians
concluded by, 2762, 2836. 2839, 2913,
2914, 2956.
Palmer, Jonathan, inspector of revenue
nomination of, revolted, 419.
Palmerston, Lord, correspondence re
garding —
Imprisonment of Ebenezer S. Greely,
1575, 1622.
Northeastern boundary. (See North-
eastern Boundary.)
Parke, John G., negotiations for any
correspondence regarding restoration
of peace, 3461.
Parker, Brooks B., appointed assistant
to the director of the War Eisk In-
surance Bureau, 7979.
Parker, Fozhall A., commander of
Home Squadron, mantioned, 2676.
Parker, Junius, referred to, 7162.
Parker, Lord Chancellor of England,
cited, 7028.
Parker, Peter, commissioner to China,
mentioned, 3062, 3113.
Parker, Bichard W., Eepresentative,
quoted, 7166.
Parker, Willis W., inspector and col-
lector, nomination of, 390.
Parks, Gorham, correspondence regard-
ing African slave trade, 2538.
Parks, Judge, referred to, 7338.
Parsons, Herbert, Eepresentative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq.
Parsons, HlnsdiU, referred to, 7159.
Parsons, Justin W., murder of, in Tur-
key, referred to, 4627.
Parsons, Lewis E., provisional governor
of Alabama, appointed, 3521.
Patterson, Bdgar, Declaration of Inde-
pendence and Constitution stored in
grist mill of, 9033.
Patterson, Eliza W., act for relief of,
permitted to become law and reasons
therefor, 4806;
Patterson, William, associate justice,
Supreme Court, nomination of| void,
129.
Paulding, Hiram, arrest of William
Walker and associates in Nicara-
gua by, 2997.
Eeferred to, 3001, 3017.
Pauls, George, death of, referred to,
and appropriation to widow of, rec-
ommended, 5494.
Paiincefote, Lord, British Ambassador
to United States:
Agreement between United States
and Great Britain for modus Viven-
di regarding Bering Sea fisheries,
signed by, 5581.
Communications in regard to Ven-
ezuelan boundary transmitted by,
6087.
Death of, 6705.
Payne, John Barton, resignation of, as
Director General of Railroads, 8931.
Payne, John Howard, minister to Tunis,
nomination of, referred to, 2611.
Payne, Lewis:
Implicated in assassination of Presi-,
dent Lincoln, proceedings of trial
and verdict of military commis-
sion, 3532, 3533, 3534, 3540, 3545,
3546.
Persons claiming reward for appre-
hension of, directed to file claims,
3551.
Payne, Sereno B., tariff bill reporteil
by, 7395, 7401. (See also Tariff and
Taft.)
Peabody, Charles A., provisional judge
for Louisiana, appointed, 3323.
Peabody, George, medal presented to,
referred to, 3897.
Peace, Samuel, ensign in Navy, nomi-
nation of, and reasons submitted
therefor, 3357.
Peary, Bobert Edward, recognition o£^
for discovering North Pole urged,
7531.
Peck, Ferdinand W., commissioner-gen-
eral to Paris Exposition, 6330.
Peckham, Justice Bufus W., referred
to, 6796.
Federsen, Peder, Danish minister, men-
tioned, 911.
Felletier, Antonio, imprisonment of, in
Haiti, and claims arising out of, dia-
cussed, 3829, 4665, 4918, 5120.
Feudergrast, Garret J., correspondence
with, while commander of the Boston,
2302.
Pendleton, George H.:
On Senate committee urging seats in
Congress for cabinet, 7813.
Eeport of, on swine diseases in Ger-
many referred to, 5197.
Penfield, Frederick C, Ambassador to
Austria-Hungary referred to, 8117 et
seq.
Penrose, Major Gharles W., mentioned,
7331.
Peralta, Manuel Maria de, Costa Eican
minister to France, mentioned, 8959.
Perkins, Benjamin W., claim of, against
Russia, 3826.
Perkins, James B., Representative, men-
tioned, 7238.
Perry
Biographic Index
Poindexter
Perry, Benjamin F., provisioiial gov-
ernor of South Carolina, appointed,
3524.
Perry, Matthew 0.:
Directed to protect rights of Ameri-
can fishermen in British posses-
sions, 2694.
In Japan, illustration, opposite page
1893.
Report of, on light-houses of England
and France, 1819.
Perry, Oliver H.:
At Lake Erie. (-See illustration op-
posite 561.)
Death of, referred to, 631.
Victory of naval forces under, on
Lake Erie discussed, 519.
Perry, Bodger, commander in Navy,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
3354.
Pershing, John J.:
Message of greeting to, on return from
Europe, 8795.
Permanent rank of General asked
for, 8761.
Praised, 8638.
Services of, in Philippines, praised,
6805.
Phelps, John S., military governor of
Arkansas, appointment of, revoked,
3377.
Philbin, Engene A., immigration serv-
ice investigated by, 6788.
Pichon, Citizen, letter of Talleyrand
to, regarding United States ministers
to France, 273.
Pichon, Stephen, French Foreign Min-
ister:
Messages to and from, on armistice in
World War, 8622.
Peace conference meeting held in
room of, 8951.
Pickens, Andrew:
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
nomination of, 171.
Treaty with Indians concluded by
202.
Pickens, Francis W., correspondence of,
with President Buchanan referred to,
3195.
Pickering, John, district judge, com-
plaint against, 344.
Pickering, Timothy:
Commissioner of United States, nom-
ination of, 290.
Mentioned, 103, 114.
Secretary of State, 239.
Pickett, George E., major-seneral, Con-
federate army, application for par-
don of, 3657.
Pickett, J. C, chargS d'affaires at Lima,
Peru, fnentioned, 2294.
Pierce, Franklin, biography of, 2728.
Fierce, Henry A., dispatch of, relative
to annexation of Hawaiian Islands,
referred to, 4085.
Pierce, John, killed by shot from the
Leander, 390.
Plerpont, Francis H., governor, to be
aided in restoring Virginia into
Union, 3535.
Fierrepout, Edwards, commissioner to
examine cases of State prisoners,
3310.
Pike, Zebulon M., report of, on explora-
tion of Mississippi Eiver referred to,
396, 436.
Pillow, Gideon J., courts of inquiry in
case of, refer^d to, 2444, 2454.
Pillsbury, Captain George B., Army En-
gineers, report of, on Controller Bay,
Alaska, 7602.
Finchot, Gifford:
Forester-in-chief of United States,
7401, 7602. (See also Pinchot-
Ballinger Controversy).
Lands, public, to be investigated by.
6801.
Pinckney, Charles C:
Minister to France and envoy ex-
traordinary, nomination of, 235.
Minister to negotiate treaty with
Spain, nomination of, 339.
President Jefferson notified of elec-
tion by, 308.
Pinckney, Thomas, mentioned, 886, 962.
Minister to negotiate with Spain,
nomination of, 164.
Pinkney, William:
Commissioner appointed by United
States under treaty with Great
Britain, 188.
Minister to Bussia, nomination of, 557.
Minister to settle questions with
Great Britain, nomination of.
390. '
Letter received by Secretary of
State from, 456.
Firon, Fierce, claims of, against United
States, 2585.
Plscano, Ancieto, Mexican bandit, men-
tioned, 8138.
Fitcaim, Joseph, vice-consul to Paris,
nomination of, 165.
Flatt, O. H., on Senate committee urg-
ing seats for cabinet in Congress,
7813. '
Foindexter, George:
Commissioner to investigate affairs
of New Tork custom-house, 2005.
Poindexter
Biographic Index
Putnam
Notes and bills discounted at Bank
of United States for benefit of, in-
quired into, 1346.
Poinsett, Joel B.:
Correspondence regarding Canadian
outrages on American frontier,
1618.
Minister to Mexico, recall of, re-
quested,. 1010.
Letter of, to Mr. Clay, regarding
pledge to Mexico, referred to,
907.
Eeferred to, 910.
Beports regarding Canadian outrages
on American frontier, mentioned,
1618.
Polk, Frank L., Assistant Secretary of
State, mentioned, 8831.
Polk, James K., biography of, 2221.
Polk, William, district supervisor, nomi-
nation of, 91.
Polo, Marco, quoted, 7219.
Pope, Benjamin P., assistant surgeon in
Army, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 4275.
Pope, John:
Directed to assume command of Mili-
tary Division of Pacific and De-
partment of California, 4754.
Instructions to, referred to, 3826.
Mentioned, 3345.
Forras, Belisario, President of Panama,
messages to and from, on armistice
of World War, 8626.
Porter, David:
Frigate in command of, surrenders to
British, 534.
Mentioned, 845.
Naval abilities of, commented on,
782.
Porter, David D.:
Admiral of Navy, death of, an-
nounced and honors to be paid
memory of, 5569, 5600.
Captain in Navy, nomination of,
3356.
Eear-admiral in Navy, nomination of,
3393.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3277, 3284, 3352.
Porter, Fitz-Jolm:
Act for relief of, vetoed, 4808.
Appeal of, referred to, 4857.
Proceedings and report of board in
case of, referred to, 4474.
Believed from command of corps,
3325.
Sentence of court-martial in case of,
in part remitted, 4712.
Porter, Horace, member of court to try
assassins of President Lincoln, etc.,
3534.
Believed from duty, 3534.
Porter, Horace, Ambassador to France,
referred to, 6763, 6946.
Post, Begis H., governor of Porto Bico,
statement by, transmitted, 7387.
Potter, Ellsha B., correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Bebellion, 2141, 2148,
2149.
Powell, Joseph W., naval cadet, to be
made ensign for attempting to rescue
force of the Merrimac, 6306.
Powell, Ii. E., treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 2521.
Powell, Lazarus W., sent to Utah on
mission during troubles with Mor-
mons, 3036.
Powers, Hiram, American sculptor,
negotiations with, regarding work of
art for Capitol, 2910.
Pratt, F. D., referred to, 7163.
Preble, Edward:
Energy and judgment displayed by,
365.
Medal presented to, March 3, 1805,
for gallantry, mentioned, 352.
Preble, Oeoree H.:
Commander in Navy, nomination of,
and reasons therefor, 3354.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended.
3277.
Preciado, Falemo, attack on, discusse/1,
7338.
Prince of Wales, visit of, to United
States, 3171.
Prioleau, Samuel, claim of representa-
tives of, refused and reasons therefor,
2826.
Proctor, Bedfield, resignation of, as Sec-
retary of War and appointment as
United States Senator from Vermont
referred to, 5630.
Pulaski, Count Casimir, brigadier-gen-
eral in Army, service rendered by
and compensation to, referred to,
5124.
Statue of, at Washington, D. C,
6860.
Pulitzer, Joseph, statements of, re-
garding Panama Canal finances de-
nounced, 7349 et seq.
Purdy, Milton D., Assistant to the
Attorney-General, referred to, 7337
et seq.
Purvis, H. W., report of, on slaughter
of American citizens in South Caro-
lina, 4329.
Putnam, Bufus, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 127.
Putnam, William L., treaty with Great
Britain on subject of fisheries con-
eluded by, 5189.
Queen
Biographic Index
Rice
Queen, Walter W., thanks to Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Quiggle, Chloe, act granting pension to,
vetoed, 5233.
Badclifie, William, compensation to,
6866.
Bamliez, Macedonlo, mentioned, 7339.
Bamsay, David, arrest and maltreat-
ment of, at Heidelberg, Baden, 2772.
Bamsden, Fred W., British consul at
Santiago, Cuba, services of, to Unit-
ed States and subsequent death of,
referred to, 6331.
Bamsey, Alexander:
Superintendent of Indian affairs in
Minnesota, misconduct of, referred
to, 2760.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
3397.
Randall, Alex. W., correspondence of,
transmitted, 3804.
Bandolph, Edmund, Attorney-General,
proceedings of Cabinet were signed
by, Aug. 5, 1793.
Bandolph, Isham, report of, on Pan-
ama Canal, 7269.
Bandolph, John, Jr., letter of, demand-
ing that certain of the navy ofScers
who had insulted him be punished,
291.
Bansom, George M., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Eathbone, Albert, allotment to, for Eep-
arations Commission, 8889.
Bawlins, John A.:
Secretary of War, death of, an-
nounced and honors to be paid
memory of, 3978.
Statue of, recommendations regard-
ing erection of, 4124.
Bay, James B., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 931.
Bayner, Isidor, Senator, quoted on auton-
omy of states under treaty with
Japan, 7874.
Bead, John, agent of United States, re-
ferred to, 328.
Bebello Vicenzo, seizure of, at New Or-
leans, 4653.
Bector, Wharton:
Conviction of, for crimes committed
referred to, 1039.
Indian agent, renomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1045.
Beed, Levi, bill for relief of, vetoed,
6774.
Beed, Silas, surveyor of Missouri and
Illinois:
Nomination of, and reasons therefor,
1956.
Error in, corrected, 1957.
Official conduct of, 2212, 2214.
Beed, Vemer C, on labor mediation
board, 8359.
Beed, William B.:
Commissioner to China, instructions
to, referred to, 3015.
Dispatches of, regarding convention
with China, referred to, 3071.
Beeves, Benjamin H., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 889.
Beid, Samuel C, battle sword of father
offered to United States by, 5119.
Beid, Whitelaw, member of Spanish-
American Peace Commission, 6322.
Beiter, George C, conduct of, in con-
nection with arrest and killing of
Gen. Barrundia, referred to, 5569.
BendaU, George W., mentioned, 7339.
Bennels, Hiram G., receiver of public
money, nomination of, 1040.
Beno, Jesse L., major-general in Army,
nomination of and reasons therefor,
3362.
Benshaw, William B., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Benwick, James, report of, as commis-
sioner on northeastern boundary.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Beyes, General, of Colombia, referred to,
6758, 6759, 6849, 6852 et seq., 7853
et seq.
Beyes, General Bernardo, of Mexico, in-
dictment of, 7663.
Beynolds, Alexander W., assistant quar-
termaster, nomination of, and rea-
sons therefor, 2996.
Beynolds, James Bronson, reports by,
discussed, on —
District of Columbia, 7357.
Stockyards, 7296.
Beynolds, John C, directed to escort
ex-President Jackson home, 1540.
Beynolds, Thomas C, report of, on com-
merce of Nicaragua, Honduras and
Salvador, 5116.
Bhind, Charles:
Arabian horses received by, from
Turkey, referred to, 1099.
Treaty with Turkey concluded by,
1093. '
Bice, Francis W., arrest and imprison-
ment of, at Aeapulso, Mexico, 2834.
2837. ,
Rice, Henry M., member of Chippewa
Commission, 5500.
Richards
Biographic Index
Rogers
Kichards, Bartlett, conviction of, re-
ferred to, 7249.
Bicbards, W. A., to investigate public
lauds, 6801.
Richardson, Israel B., major-general in
Army, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 2697.
Richardson, James D.:
Portrait of. (See Frontispiece, Vol. .
Besolution authorizing compilation of
Messages and Papers of the Presi-
dents by. (See Prefatory Note,
Vol. 1.)
Richmond, James C, application of, for
redress of wrongs, 2772.
Rickard, Edgar, member of Purchasing
Commission for Eussian Relief, 9033.
Rickert, T. A., mftmber War Labor
Board, 8485.
Riddells, Bennett, cpnsul to Chihuahua,
Mexico, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 2587.
Riel, Louis, trial and execution of, by
authorities of British North America,
report regarding, transmitted, 5449.
Biggs, Colonel E. E., allotment to, for
missions to Russia and Austria, 8888.
Rigny, M. de, correspondence regarding
claims against France. (See France,
claims against.)
Riley, Bennett:
Correspondence regarding affairs in
California, referred to, 2584.
Mentioned, 2570.
Riley, Frank B., American sailor, al-
leged killing of, in Genoa, Italy, 5769.
Biley, Patrick, deputy United States
marshal, assaulted in Boston, 2637.
Proclamation regarding, 2645.
Ripley, Edward P., President, of Atchi-
son, Topeka and Santa F§ Railroad
mentioned, 7133 et seq.
Bipley, Joseph, engineer on Panama
Canal construction, 7308, 7323.
Rixey, Presley M., Surgeon General, re
ferred to, 7308, 7312.
Roberts, Edmund, treaty with Siam
concluded by, 1272.
Roberts, Joseph, first lieutenant, pro-
motion of captain discussed, 2437.
Robertson, James, nominated:
Brigadier-general of militia of Miro
District, Ohio, Feb. 22, 1791.
Commissioner to treat with Indians,
423.
Robertson, John, commissioner from
Virginia to confer with States in ef-
fort to prevent war, 3193.
Robertson, Thomas J.,- slaughter of
American citizens in South Carolina
referred to, 4329.
Robinson, Benjamin P., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 2953.
Robinson, Bouglas, charges against, re-
futed, 7349 et seq.
Robison, Rear Admiral S. S., military
governor of Santo Domingo, procla-
mation of, on end of military occupa-
tion, 8975.
Rochambeau, Comte de:
Compensation prayed for by descend-
ants of, 1198, 1270, 1273, 1348.
Letter of Marquise de Lafayette re-
garding, transmitted, 1198.
Mentioned, 6858.
Rochester, William B., secretary to Con-
gress of Nations, nomination of, 886.
Bockhill, William W., member of board
of management of Government ex-
hibit at World's Columbian Expo-
sition, 5833.
Mentioned, 6678.
Rodgers, James lApn, special represen-
tative of U. S. in Mexico City, men-
tioned, 8134 et seq., 8140.
Rodgers, John, I: •
American frigate under command of,
attacked by British vessel, 477.
Correspondence regarding war with
Tripoli, 379.
Frigates under command of, referred
to, 502.
Gallant enterprise of, in destroying
corvette on the coast of Tripoli,
353.
Report of, regarding docks and wharf
referred to, 769.
Rodgers, John, II:
Rear-admiral, mentioned, 4666.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3392.
Rodney, Csesar A.:
Commissioner to South America, 617.
Minister to Argentine Republic,
death of, 821.
Rodriguez, Marcus E., imprisonment of,
and others in Cuba, 6100.
Roe, Francis A., commander of Sassacus
in attack upon Albemarle, advance-
ment in grade recommended, 3411.
Rogers, i^enjamin F., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 940.
Rogers, H. W., correspondence regard-
ing Canadian outrages on American
frontier, 1618.
Rogers, R. R., counsel Panama Canal
Commission and Panama Railroad
Company, mentioned, 7308, 7327,
7841.
Romeo
Biographic Index
Salter
Borneo, Matias, Mexican minister to
United States, mentioned, 4957.
Roosevelt, Theodore, biography of, 6637.
Boot, Elihu:
Anglo-American arbitration tribunals,
member of,. 6793, 7493.
Armament Limitation Conference —
Delegate to, 9041.
Submarine warfare rules submitted
to, by, 9060.
Colombian-Panama dispute, note of,
concerning, 78S4.
Hague Conference, Second, armament
limitation discussion proposed for,
by, 9046.
Mexico visited by, 7124.
Monroe Doctrine elucidated by, in
South America, 7059.
On Anglo-American arbitration tri-
bunal, 6793.
Referred to, 7327, 7350 et seq.
South American trip of, 7059, 7362.
Treaty concluded by, with Nether-
lands, 6962.
United States representative in
Anglo-American fisheries ' dispute
arbitration, 7493.'
World court advocated by, 8285.
Rosa, de la, Mexican bandit, referred
to, 8135, 8138.
Rosecrans, Major General W. S., Civil
War veterans excused from Govern-
ment service to attend funeral of,
6706.
Rosen, Doctor Friedrlch, German min-
ister for foreign affairs, peace treatv
signed by, 8991, 8992.
Ros^, Daniel H., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3592.
Ross, William W., Indian treaty, 3262,
3356.
Complaints regarding, 3263.
Rossbottom, T. H., secretary, Panama
Railroad Company, 7841.
Rousseau, H. H.:
Director, Panama Railroad Co., 7841.
On committee to open Panama Canal,
7945.
P.'inama Canal commissioner, 7100.
Rowan, John, letter of, 1045.
Rowan, Stephen C:
Commander of Navy, nomination of,
3356.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended,
3284.
Ruggles, Samuel B., delegate to Inter-
national Monetary Conference at
Paris, report of, transmitted, 4013.
Ruiz, Bicardo, arrest, imprisonment,
and death of, in Cuba, 6184.
Bush, Richard:
Acting Secretary of State, 605. .
Correspondence of, regarding cession
of lands for light-houses referred
to, 845.
Honored in Argentina, 7060.
Bush, William Henry, imprisonment of,
in Cuba referred to, 2538.
Busk, Jeremiah McL., Secretary of Ag-
riculture, mentioned, 5763.
Bussell, John E., member of commis-
sion to consider construction of canal
from Great Lakes to Atlantic Ocean,
6179.
Bussell, John H., thanks to Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Bussell, John M., consul to St. Peters-
burg, nomination of, 165.
Bussell Jonathan:
Letter of, regarding treaty of Ghent
discussed, 707, 711.
Minister to Sweden, nomination of,
515.
Pacific advances made by United
States to Great Britain referred to,
506.
Bussell, Joseph J., referred to, 7156.
Bussell, Lord John:
Instr\ictions by, on tra^e vexing
friendlv belligerent, referred to,
8182.
Letter of, regarding Treaty of Wash-
ington referred to, 2884.
Byan, Richard S., application of, for
land elimination in Alaska, 7602 et
seq.
Byan, William A. C, indemnity paid by
Spain on account of execution of,
referred to, 4408.
Saaby, Hans Rudolph, consul to Copen-
hagen, Denmark, nomination of, 109.
Sackville, Lord, British minister, inter-
ference of, in political affairs of
United States and action of Presi-
dent Cleveland regarding, 5365, 5396.
St. Clair, Arthur, I, misfortune befall-
ing troops of, in his advance against
the hostile Indians who were attack-
ing the frontiers of Virginia and
Pennsylvania, referred to, 105.
St. Clair, Arthur, II, register of land of-
fice, nomination of, and reasons there-
for, 1270.
Salmon, D. E., chief of Bureau of Ani-
mal Industry, mentioned, 5980.
Saloman, Louis E. F., President of
Haiti, death of, referred to, 5368.
Salter, WUliam D., captain in Navy,
nomination of, withdrawn, 1745.
Sampson
Biographic Index
Schwan
Sampson, WUliam T.:
Member of military commission to
Cuba, 6322.
Sinking of the Merrimac by Lieut.
Hobson, report of, on, diseuBBsd,
6305.
Spanish fleet attempting to escape
^from Santiago Harbor destroyed
by American squadron under
command of, 6317. (See also En-
cyclopedic Article, Santiago Har-
bor, Battle of.)
Thanks of President tendered, 6461,
6573.
Sanborn, F. H. A., mentioned, 7339.
Sancedo, Manuel de, governor~general of
Louisiana, letter of, to W". C. C.
Claiborne, 336.
Sanders, Greorge N.:
Order exempting from arrest during
journey to Washington, /3438.
Eeward offered for arrest of, 3505.
Eevoked, 3551.
Sands, Joshua K., court-martial of, re-
ferred to, 889.
Sanford, Edward S., military super-
visor of telegraphic messages, ap-
pointed, 3310.
Sanford, Henry S.:
Memoir on administration changes in
France transmitted, 2773.
Eesearehes of, on condition of penal
law in continental Europe, etc.,
transmitted, 2773.
SanguUy, Jules, imprisonment of, by
Spanish authorities, in Cuba, 6181.
Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de:
Arrest and reported execution of,
3725.
Correspondence with President Jack-
son, regarding war between Texas
and Mexico, 1493.
Eeturn of, to Mexico referred to,
2415.
Santos, Julio B., imprisonment and sub-
sequent release of, in Ecuador dis-
cussed, 4856, 4915, 4990.
Treaty to settle claim of, 5369, 5957.
Sarraut, Albert, French delegate to
Armament Limitation Conference,
9041, 9059.
Sattler, Catherine, act granting pension
to, vetoed, 5132.
Sayre, Warren G., member of Cherokee
Commission, 5481.
Sayres, Edward, pardon of, referred to,
2918. I
Scandella, Felipe, claim of, against Ven-
ezuela adjusted, 6338L
Schanzer, Senator Carlo, Italian dele-
gate to Armament Limitation Con-
ference, 9041.
Schaumburg, James W., claim of, to be
restored to rank in Army, referred to,
2436, 2569.
Schenck, Kobert C:
Major-general, commission of, dis-
cussed, 3404.
Eesigns command to occupy seat in
Congress, 3406.
Minister to —
Brazil, correspondence regarding
slave trade, referred to, 2765.
Great Britain, member of commis-
sion to settle questions with lat-
ter, 4075.
Schley, Winfield S.:
Lady Franklin Bay expedition under
command of, 4835.
Member of military commission to
Porto Eico, 6322.
Sailors of the Baltimore, under com-
mand of, assaulted at Valparaiso,
Chile. (See Baltimore, The.)
Santiago Harbor shelled by American
squadron under, 6316.
Spanish fleet attempting to escape
from Santiago Harbor, destroyed
by American squadron under direc-
tion of, 6317. (See Enc. Art., San-
tiago Harbor, Battle of,)
Schmidt, Conrad, arrest and detention
of, at Bremen, 2772.
Schober, Johann, Austrian representa-
tive in signing peace treaty, 8993,
8994.
Schofield, John M.:
Directed to assume command of —
Army, 5353.
Military Division of Missouri, 4120.
Lieutenant-general, revival of grade
of, in behalf of, recommended, 5968.
Referred to, by President Roosevelt,
6776.
Retirement of, from Army, discussed,
6056. /
Secretary of War, appointment of, re-
ferred to, 3862.
Schoolcraft, Henry R., results of Indian
investigations by, referred to, 2609.
Schriver, Ed., correspondence of, trans-
mitted, 3810.
Schuetze, William H., report of, on
transmission of testimonials by, to
Russian subjects aiding survivors of
Jeannette expedition, 5120.
Schurman, Jacob O., commissioner to
Philippine Islands, 6584.
Schurz, Carl, report of, on conditions in
the South, transmitted, 3571.
Schuyler, James D., report of, on Pan-
ama Canal, 7269.
Schwan, Theodore, Porto Eican expedi-
tion reenforced by brigade of, 6318.
Scott
Biographic Index
Shakespeare
Scott, Charles, expedition against Wa-
bash Indians commanded by, 104.
Scott, Hugh, General, conferee respect-
ing withdrawal of United States
troops from Mexico, 8134.
Scott, Lieut.-Col. L. K., claim of,
against United States, 6826.
Scott, Martin, promotion of, in military
service, discussed, 2269.
Scott, Winfleld:
British fortifications on northern
frontier, letter of, on, 1804.
Commander of —
Army in war with Mexico, assign-
ment of command to, and subse-
quent recall of, discussed, 2298,
2431.
Compensation of, referred to, 2897,
2955.
Court of inquiry in case of, and opin-
ion of, discussed, 1508, 1511.
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 3586, 3640.
Forces sent to Canadian frontier,
1620.
Illustrations of, 2364.
Lieutenant-general by brevet, nom-
ination of, and reasons therefor,
2838.
Major-general, appointment of, and
orders regarding, 1926.
Minister to Mexico, mission declined
by, and nomination withdrawn,
3267.
Mission to San Juan Island, discussed,
3094.
Correspondence regarding, 3110.
Regulations for Army compiled by,
795.
Retirement of, from active service
and order of President regarding,
3241.
Discussed, 3257.
Successor of, appointed, 2578.
Referred to, 2594.
Troops under command of, sent to
suppress Indians, 1166.
Victories of, over British troops, 533.
Seaver, William, proclamation offering
reward for murderer of, 663
Seawell, Washington, major in Army,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
2367.
Seddon, James A., secretary of war of
Confederate States, mentioned, 3797.
Selfridge, Thomas O., Jr., report of, on
condition of Dominican Republic
transmitted, 4009.
Sells, Elijah, treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 3592.
Sergeant, John, nomination of, as min-
ister to Panama, 886.
Serio, Giovanni and Vicenzo, repara-
tion for murder of, 6731.
Serurier, M., correspondence regarding
claims against France. (See France,
claims against.)
Sevier, Ambrose H., commissioner of
United States to Mexico:
Illness prevents departure of, 2427.
Instructions to, referred to, 2537.
President declines to transmit in-
structions to, to House, 2452.
Sewall, Thomas, consul to Santiago,
Cuba, nomination of, withdrawn and
reasons therefor, 2584.
Seward, Frederick W., Acting Secre-
tary of State, 3906, 4400.
Seward, George F.:
Decree prohibiting steamers sailing
under American flag from using
channel on Yangtse River promul-
gated by, 3896, 3902.
Minister to China, charges against,
referred to, 4313.
Instruction to, concerning immi-
gration, referred to, 4691.
Seward, William H.:
Correspondence regarding Dorr's Re-
bellion, 2151.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 4137.
Letter of, on interference with mails,
quoted, 8168.
Letters addressed by, to governors
of certain States, referred to, 5200.
Memory of, death of, and honors to
be paid to the, 4137.
Panama, isthmus of, attitude of, con-
cerning, quoted by President
Roosevelt, 6808.
Report on wounding of, 3792.
Secretary of State, referred to, 3215,
3510.
Wounding of, by assassins announced,
3485, 3486, 3487.
Military commission to try persons
implicated in, and proceedings
of, 3532, 3533, 3534, 3540, 3545,
3546.
Report on, referred to, 3792.
Reward offered for alleged instiga-
tors of, 3505.
Shackerly, Peter, claims of orphan child
of, 1693.
Shafter, William R.:
Army under, lands near Santiago,
Cuba, 6317.
Operations of, around and subsequent
capitulation of Santiago, 6317.
Thanks of President tendered, 6574,
6577. '
Shakespeare, H. O., appointed represen-
tative to foreign countries to in-
Shakespeare
Biographic Index
Sieyds
vestigate causes, cure, etc., of
cholera, 4902.
Eeport of, referred to, 5565.
Slialer, Colonel J. E., Superintendent,
Panama E. B., referred to, 6838.
Sharkey, William L., provisional gov-
ernoi; of Mississippi, appointed, 3512.
Sharp, Solomon, authority to accept
present from British ofScers, referred
to, 3404.
Sharp, William G., ambassador to
France, mentioned, 8195, 8196.
Sharpe, George H., report of, on assas-
sination of President Lincoln and at-
tempted assassination of Secretary
Seward transmitted, 3792.
Sharrets, Thaddeus S., General Apprais
er, authority vested in, 6700.
Shattuck, Edwin P., control of United
States Grain Corporation relegated
to, 8869.
Shepley, George P., military governor
ot Louisiana, mentioned, 3378.
Sheddan, Philip H.:
Army of United States, order direct-
ing, to assume command of, 4753.
Death of, announced and honors to
he paid memory of, 5204, 5353.
Discussed, 5374.
Increase in Army recommended by,
4324.
Letter of, regarding affairs on south-
eastern frontier and violation of
neutrality by Army, 3574.
Major-general, appointment of, 3443.
Portrait of, 3600.
Sherley, Swagar, Eepresentative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq.
Sherman, James S., Vice-President,
death of, announced, 7764.
Sherman, John:
Canvass of vote for electors in Loui-
siana, referred to, 4367.
Secretary of State, 6473.
Secretary of Treasury, resignation of,
referred to, 4589.
Sherman, Thomas W., brigadier-general
in Army, seizure of Spanish vessel by,
discussed, 3795.
Sherman, William T.:
Appointed on commission to examine
subject of reorganization of Army,
4352.
Army of United States, order direct-
ing, to assume command of, 3974.
Relieved from command, 4753.
Retirement of, discussed, 4814.
Ceremonies at Fort Sumter, under
direction of, 3484.
Command of Military Division of the
Mississippi, assigned to, 3436.
Confederate States, historical state-
ment concerning public policy of
executive departments of, filed by,
4850.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 5570, 5600.
Increase in Army, recommended by,
4330.
Lands set apart by, for refugees and
freedmen, referred to, 3549.
Mentioned, 3812, 3816.
Portrait of, 3600.
Eeport of, on conditions in Southern
States, 3576.
Requested to v proceed to Mexican
frontier and communicate with
American minister, 3641.
Referred to, 3654.
Thanks of President tendered, 3439.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
3834.
Shldehara, Baron, Japanese ambassador:
Conversations with, on agenda for
Armament Limitation Conference,
9037, 9038.
Delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Shields, Thomas, arrest and imprison-
ment of, in Mexico, 4672, 4678, 4692,
4696.
Shonts, Theodore P., Chairman Panama
Canal. Commission, 7020.
Referred to, 7308, 7327, 7328.
Short, William:
Commissioner to Spain, nomination
of, 107.
Referred to, 184.
Nomination of, as minister to —
France, 50.
Russia, 449.
Spain, 148.
Shrlver, David, superintendent of Cum-
berland road, 816.
Shufeldt, Robert W.:
Consul-general at Havana, 3344.
Correspondence regarding Johanna
Island, referred to, 4536.
Cruise of, around the world, referred
to, 4693.
Sibert, William If.:
Director, Panama Railroad Company,
7841.
On committee to open Panama Canal,
7945.
Panama Canal Commissioner, 7100.
Sibley, George C, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 889.
Sierra, Juste, communication from, re-
garding suffering in Yucatan result-
ing from Indian insurrections, 2431.
Siey&s, Emmanuel Joseph, letter of, on
death of Benjamin Franklin, 87.
Simmons
Biographic Index
Snowden
Simmons, F. M., Senator, letter to, on
phrase in Fourteen Points, 8629.
Simmons, James F., correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Rebellion, 2158.
Simons, Walter, German foreign min-
ister, memorandum of, on German rep-
aration payments answered, 8935,
8957.
Simpson, Edward, member of Gun
Foundry Board, 4748.
Simpson, Slingsby, vessel under, or-
dered from and forbidden to reenter
waters of United States, 391.
Simpson, Wendell L., commissary pur-
chasing agent, Panama Bailroad Com-
pany, 7841.
Sims, Edwin Walter, Solicitor for Com-
merce and Labor Department, report
of, commended, 7065.
Sims, William S.:
Permanent rank of Admiral asked for,
8761:
Services of, praised, 8638.
Sitgreave, Samuel, commissioner of
United States, nomination of, 290.
Sitting Bull:
Disturbances caused by, discussed,
4576.
Surrender of, discussed, 4625, 4637.
Skipwith, Fulwer, consul-general to
France, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 170.
Slacum, George W., report of, relating
to African slave trade transmitted,
2268.
Slidell, John:
Confederate envoy to France, re-
moval of, from British steamer
Trent, 3262, 3263, 3264, 3267, 3268.
Mission to Mexico for adjustment of
differences discussed, 2288, 2415.
Sloan, Governor, of Arizona, correspon-
dence with, concerning disorders on
the Mexican border, 7661, 7662.
Sloat, John D., commander of the St.
Louis, 1133.
Smith, Albert, commissioner, on north-
eastern boundary, 2023.
Smith, Albert N., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Smith, Caleb B., ex-Secretary of Inte-
rior, death of, announced and honors
to be paid, memory of, 3432.
Smith, e. Elmer, referred to, 7159 et
seq.
Smith, Daniel, treaty with Indians con-
eluded by, 834.
Smith, Delavan, newspaper article by,
quoted, 7348.
Smith, Emory, trial and conviction of
Crawford Keys for murder of, 3659.
Smith, General, negotiations of, at New
Orleans referred to, 3583.
Smith, George C, referred to, 7160 et
seq.
Smith, George Otis, director of Geo-
logical Survey, referred to, 7571.
Smith, Herbert Knox, Commissioner of
Corporations, report of, 7157-7164.
Smith, Isaac, commissioner to conclude
treaty with Indians, nomination of,
203.
Smith, J. A., general superintendent,
Panama Railroad Company, 7841.
Smith, Jackson, appointed on Panani.i
Canal Commission, 7100.
Referred to, 7308, 7316.
Smith, John, alleged associate of Aaron
Burr, 420.
Smith, John Jay, imprisonment of, by
Mexican authorities referred to, 4376.
Smith, J. S., dispatches of, relative to
imprisonment of Davis Hatch, re-
ferred to, 4113.
Smith, Melancton, thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3277.
Smith, Noah, district supervisor, nom-
ina,tion of, 91.
Smith, Fersifor F., correspondence re-
garding affairs in California referred
to, 2584.
Smith, Robert, Secretary of State, 457.
Smith, S. Fahs, referred to, 7160 et seq.
Smith, Thomas A., official conduct of,
referred to, 970.
Smith, IT. Grant, commissioner to Hun-
gary, peace treaty signed by, 8994.
Smith, W. H., correspondence regarding
Dorr's Rebellion, 2147.
Smith, Walter I., Representative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq.
Smith, Watson, thanks of Congress to,
recommended, 3277.
Smith, William, ofSeial acts of, in Vir-
ginia, declared null and void, 3535.
Smith, William F., special commissioner
to investigate administration in mili-
tary division bordering on Mississippi
River, appointed, 3474.
Smith, William S., district supervisor,
nominatioh of, 91.
Smithson, James. (See Smithsonian In-
stitution.)
Snowden, Bear Admiral Thomas, end
of occupation of Santo Domingo,
promise of, proclaimed by, 8902.
Sotos
Biographic Index
Stevens
Sotos, Prez y, of Colombia, referred to,
6833.
Spanglei, Colonel J. !•., on labor media-
tion board, 8359.
Spangler, Edward, implicated in assas-
sination of President Lincoln, pro-
ceedings of trial and verdict of mili-
tary commission, 3532, 3533, 3534,
3540, 3545, 3546.
Sparrow, Thomas W., claims of,
against Peru, 6099.
Spear, Edward, lieutenant of artillery,
nomination of, and reasons there-
for, 55.
Speed, James, opinion of, on disorders
in New Granada, quoted, 6808.
Speer, Emory, Judge, praised, 7337.
Speight, J., correspondence regarding
interference in elections, 1315.
Spencer, John C:
Associate Justice Supreme Court,
nomination of, and reasons there-
for, 2181.
Correspondence regarding Dorr's Re-
bellion, 2152, 2153, 2155, 2157.
Sporthill, J. W., on wheat price com-
mittee, 8348.
Sprague, William, correspondence re-
garding Dorr's Rebellion, 2158.
Squier, E. George, treaty with Nicar-
agua and San Salvador concluded by,
2572.
Stanbery, Henry:
Counsel for President Johnson in im-
peachment proceedings, 3924.
Special commissioner to investigate
administration in military division
on Mississippi River, 3474.
Standish, William H., bill to give water
•power rights to, vetoed, 7151.
Standley, John S., delegate to the
Choctaws for treaty purposes, men-
tioned, 5668.
Stanly, Edward, military governor of
North Carolina, authority and action
of, referred to, 3281.
Stanton, Edwin M.:
Correspondence of, relative to the
restoration of peace, 3461.
Death of, announced and honors to be
paid memory of, 4047.
Discussion of, and orders concerning
the suspension of, as Secretary of
War and transfer of records to Gen.
U. S.. Grant, 3754, 3781, 3801.
Negotiations for and correspondence
regarding restoration of peace,
3461.
Secretary of War —
Removal of, discussed and orders
regarding, 3819, 3820, 3861,
Suspension of, discussed and orders
regarding, 3754, 3781, 3801.
Starck,-
-, mentioned, 7340.
Stayer, Anson, military superintendent
of telegraphs, 3310.
Steams, Frederick P., member of com-
mittee to report upon sewerage sys-
tem of District of Columbia, 5487,
5514.
Steams, Frederick P., Panama canal
locks examined by, 7101, 7280, 7323.
Steck, Itlichael, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3393.
Steele, George W., Governor of the
Territory of Oklahoma, letter of, re-
garding suffering caused by failure
of crops by drought, among the set-
tlers in Oklahoma, 5516.
Stelnberger, A. B., special agent to
Samoa, power conferred upon, re-
ferred to, 4315, 4382.
Stellwagen, Henry S., commander of
Constitution, acceptance of sword by,
for services rendered British vessel
itersey, referred to, 3460.
Stapbens, Alexander H.:
Member of commission to confer with
President regarding termination of
War between the States,* 3461.
Pardon applied for by, order regard-
ing, 3550.
Stephens, William D., governor of Cali-
fornia, messages to, re Mooney Case,
8636.
Sternberg, George M., designated to
attend Sanitary Conference at Rome,
4898.
Steuart, WUIiam M., commissioner to
investigate affairs of New York cus-
tom-house, 2005, 2014.
Steuben, Baron von:
Descendants of, at Yorktown Centen-
nial, 4626.
Statue of, replica of, presented to
Germany, 7669.
Stevens, Isaac I.:
Governor of Washington Territory —
Mentioned, 3067.
Proclamation of martial law by, re-
ferred to, 2956.
Major-general of volunteers, nomina-
tion of, submitted, and reasons
therefor, 3363.
Treaty with Indians concluded by,
2836, 2895, 2912, 2913, 2914.
Stevens, John P., chief engineer, Pan-
ama Canal:
Appointment of, 7020.
Mentioned, 7308, 7317, 7323, 7327,
7328.
Resignation of, 7100.
Stevenson
Biographic Index
Sze
Stevenson, Andrew, minister to Great
Britain :
Correspondence regarding —
Imprisonment of E. S. Greely, 1575,
1622.
Northeastern bolihdary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Nomination of, discussed, 1272.
Stewart, Alexander T., nomination and
confirmation of, as Secretary of
Treasury, discussed, 3962.
Withdrawal of message, 3963.
Stewart, Charles:
Charges against, discussed, 847.
Court-martial of, referred to, 889.
Nomination of, discussed, 3063.
Stewart, Charles T., indictment of, mem-
orandum concerning, quoted, 7249 et
seq.
Stewart, Joseph, second assistant post-
master general, letter of, 7852.
Stewart, William A., imprisonment,
conviction, and release of, at Val^
paraiso, Chile, 2772.
Stlckney, Amos, report of, on protec-
tion of levees, referred to, 4797.
Stlckney, William, member of Ponca
Indian Commission, 4582.
Stillman, J. A., Chinese Consortium
signed by,' for National Citv Bank,
8935.
Stimson, Henry L., Secretary of War,
letter of, listing franchises granted
in Porto Eico, 7836.
Stivers, Charles B., joint resolution de-
claring retirement of, from Army
legal, etc., vetoed, 5526.
Stockton, Kobert F.:
Captain in Navy, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1745.
Construction of the Princeton under
direction of, referred to, 2130.
Stone, William, report of, on slaughter
of American citizens in South Caro-
lina, transmitted, 4329.
Storer,' George W., conduct of, referred
to, 2528.
Story, Justice Joseph, seats for cabinet
officers in Congress urged by, 7812.
Strauss, Frederick, on commission to in-
vestigate interstate commerce legis-
lation, 7552.
Street, George F., correspondence re-
garding northeastern boundary. (See
Northeastern Boundary.)
Stringham, Silas H., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3284.
Stuart, Charles B., report of waterway,
referred to, 3402.
Stuart, George H., member of Indian
commission, 3977.
Suarez, Jose Maria Pino, Mexican Vice-
President, resignation of, referred to,
7894.
Sullivan, John T., director of Bank of
United States, nomination of, and
reasons therefor, 1260.
Sullivan, J. W., on wheat price com
mittee, 8348.
Summerlin, George T., charge d'affaires
at Mexico City, notes transmitted bv,
8762, 8973. ' '
Sumner, Edwin V., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2727.
Suplee, Edwin M., report of, on Nava o
Indians, transmitted, 5782.
Surratt, John H.:
Discovery and arrest of, referred to.
3657, 3659.
Reward offered for arrest of, re-
voked, 3551.
Trial of, referred to, 3799.
Surratt, Mary E., implicated in assas-
sination of President Lincoln, pro
ceedings of trial of, and verdict of
military commission, 3532. 3533,
3534, 3540, 354:., 3546.
Swan, J. R., Chinese Consortium signed
by, for Guaranty Trust Companv,
8935.
Swartwout, Samuel, crimes charged
against, 405.
Default of, referred to, 1709, 1723.
Thants of Congress to, recommended,
3277.
Swinderen, Jonkheer R. de M. van,
Dutch representative in drawing up
treaty with United States, 6962.
Sylvester, Isaac A., appropriation for
payment of claim of, recommended,
4668.
Symmes, John C:
Lands lying within patent of, re-
ferred to, 807.
Lands on Great Miami purchased by,
referred to, 105.
Trescot, William H.:
Mentioned, 4561.
Special envoy extraordinary to
• Peru, Chile, and Bolivia, referred
to, 4694.
Symons, Colonel Thomas W., report of,
transmitted, 6860
Sze, S.-K. Alfred, Chinese minister, dele-
gate to Armament Limitation Confer-
ence, 9041.
Taber
Biographic Index
Tittman
Taber, L. J., on wheat price committee,
8348.
Taft, Charles P., referred to, 7349 et
seq., 7614.
Taft, Lydia A., act granting pension
to, vetoed, 6106.
Taft, William H., biography of, 7367.
Takeuchi, K., representative of Japan-
ese Group in signing Chinese Consor-
tium, 8935.
Tappau, Samuel F., treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3834.
Tate, James H., consul at Buenos Ayres,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
2271.
Taussig, Edward D., member of board
of management of Government ex-
hibit at World's Columbian Exposi-
tion, 5833.
Taussig, F. W., on wheat price com-
mittee, 8348.
Tawney, James A., Representative, re-
ferred to, 7244 et seq., 7404.
Taylor, David, claim of, referred , to,
2678.
Taylor, John, commissioner to treat
with Indians, nomination of, 326.
Taylor, Margaret S., resolution of Con-
gress on death of husband, transmit-
ted to, 2598.
Taylor, N. P., register in land office at
St. Louis, conduct of, referred to,
2O10.
Taylor, Nathaniel G., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 3827.
Taylor, Zachary, biography of, 2541.
TecumseU, death of. (See illustration
opposite 707.)
Terrill, William E., brigadier-general in
Army, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 3362.
Terry, Alfred H., report of, on disaster
to forces under Gen. Custer trans-
mitted, 4327.
Terry, David S., assault by, upon Jus-
tice Field, discussed, 5477.
Terry, Elias S., commissioner to adjudi-
cate claim of David Taylor, 2678.
Thacher, John M., report of, on Inter-
national Patent Congress referred to,
4215.
Thackera, A. M., consul general in Ger-
many, report of, on Friedmann tuber-
culosis "cure," 7839.
Thayer, Sylvanus, brevet colonel in
Army, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 1696.
Thomas, Francis,. agreement with Peru,
signed by, 4212.
Thomas, George H., statue of, to be un-
veiled, 4509.
Thomas, Lorenzo, Secretary of War ad
interim, directed to act as, 3819, 3861.
Thompson, Clark W., treaty with In-
dians concluded by, 3411.
Thompson, Elizabeth, Carpenter 's paint-
ing of Lincoln and Cabinet at read-
ing of Emancipation Proclamation
presented to Congress by, 4435.
Thompson, Jacob:
Order exempting from arrest during
journey to Washington, 3438.
Eeward offered for arrest of, 3505.
Eevoked, 3551.
Thompson, N. F., act granting water
power privileges to, vetoed, 6778.
Thompson, Richard W., claim of, for al-
leged services to Menominee Indians,
2839.
Thompson, William O., appointed on
Coal Commission, 8857.
Thomson, Charles, informs Washington
of his election as President, 34.
Thorn, Doctor, mentioned, 7839.
Thorn, Owen, claim of, against Great
Britain referred to, 3964.
Thornton, Sir Edward, umpire of com-
mission to adjudicate differences be-
tween Mexico and United States,
4359.
Thornton, James S., lieutenant-com-
mander in Navy, advancement in
grade of, recommended, 3458.
Thornton, William, commissioner of
Washington City, 304.
Thrasher, John S.:
Imprisonment of, at Havana, 2676.
Trial and sentence of, referred to,
2677.
Thrasher, Louis 6., death of, mentioned,
8062.
Thurston, Lorin A.:
Hawaiian minister to United States,
recall of, discussed, 6065.
Member of commission concluding
treaty for annexation of Hawaiian
Islands, 5783.
Representative of provisional govern-
ment of Hawaiian Islands, referred
to, 5906.
Tlllinghast, Joseph ' L., correspondence
regarding Dorr's Rebellion, 2158.
Tipton, John, treaty with Indians con-
cluded by, 931, 964.
Tittman, Otto H., superintendent of
Coast Survey, opinion of, concerning
Controller Bay, Alaska, 7602.
Tobal
Biographic Index
Usher
Tobal, General, of Colombia, referred
to, 6753 et seq., 6769, 6837 et seq.
Tobey, E. S., member of Indian com-
mission, 3977.
Tod, David, minister to Eio de Janeiro,
mentioned, 2562.
Togo, Admiral Count, visit of, 7667.
Tokugawa, Prince, Japanese delegate to
Armament Limitation Conference,
9041.
Tokugawa, Prince, visit of, 7498.
Tompkins, 0. H., member of court to
try assassins of President Lincoln,
etc., 3534.
Tompkins, Daniel D., governor of New
York, accounts of, referred to, 789,
802, 809.
Tomson, Charles, Secretary of Conti-
nental Congress, referred to, 9033.
Torres, Colonel, of Colombia, referred
to, 6838.
Totten, Joseph G., correspondence re-
garding water supply for Washington
and Georgetown, 2698.
Touslg, Simon, claim of, to protection
of United States, 2761.
Tower, Charlemagne, ambassador to Ger
many, message from, 6762.
Townsend, E. D., Asst. Adj.-Gen., signed
order for release of Clement C. Clay,
Jr., April 17, 1866.
Towsou, Nathan, appointment of, to ar-
tillery discussed, 681.
Rejection of, discussed, 695, 702.
Tracy, Benjamin P., Secretary of Navy,
mentioned, 5759.
Trautraann, Ralph, immigration service
investigated by, 6788.
Trenholm, George A., pardon applied for
by, order regarding, 3550.
Trevino, Jacinto B., General, of Mexico,
orders to, to oppose advance of
American troops, 8140.
Trimble, Alexandria, demand of Mexico
for extradition of, 4791.
Tripp, Bartlett, United States represent^
ative on Samoan Commission, report)
of, quoted, 7838.
Trist, N. P.:
Commissioner to Mexico —
Conduct of, discussed, 2423, 2424.
Dispatches from, referred to, 2426,
2427.
Eecall of, discussed, 2423, 2424.
Terms of authority given to draw
money from Treasury referred
to, 2426.
Treaty with Mexico concluded by,
discussed and recommendations
regarding, 2423, 2424.
Consul at Havana —
Correspondence regarding slave
trade referred to, 1909.
Malpractices of, referred to, 1845.
Troup, Robert, treaty with Indians lori-
cluded by, 940.
Truman, Benjamin C, report of, on con-
dition of Southern people referred to,
3584.
Tsal-Hsun, Prince, visit of, 7498.
Tsai-tao, Prince, visit of, 7498.
Tuck, Somerville P., report of, regard-
ing French spoliation claims referred
to, 4956, 4982, 5199.
Tucker, Beverly, reward offered for ar-
rest of, 3505.
Revoked, 3551.
Tucker, Thomas, appointed on commit-
tee to meet President Washington, 37.
Tudor, William:
Correspondence of, while consul to
Peru and charg^ d 'affaires to Brazil
referred to. 1500, 1587.
Mentioned, 996.
Turner, George, on Anglo-Americin ar-
bitration tribunal, 6793.
Turreau, Gen., letter of, concerning ar-
rival of Cuban exiles in United
States, referred to, 456.
Turtle, Thomas, member of Board on
Geographic Names, 5647.
.Twiggs, David E., swords formerly
property of, placed at disposal of Con-
gress, 3346.
Tyler, John, biography of, 1888.
tJchida, Viscount, Japanese Foreign
Minister:
Messages to and fromy on armistice of
World War, 8625.
Shantung peninsula award, attitude
of, on, 8774.
UW, Edwin P., Acting Secretary of
State, 6018.
Underwood, Oscar W., Senator:
Delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Letter of President Wilson to, on
work of Congress, 8000.
Upshur, Abel P., death of, announced
and honors to be paid memory of,
2132, 2186. '
Usher, John P., treaty with Indiana
concluded by, 3394.
Vaca
Biographic Index
Wallace
Vaca, Antonio, private land claim of,
4694.
Vail, Theodore N,, on wheat price com-
mittee, 8348.
Van Bokkelene, Mr., imprisonment
and release of, by Haitian authori-
ties, discussed, 4918.
Claim arising out of, 5369, 5545.
Van Bnren, Martin, biography of, 1528.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius:
Appropriation to, for carrying ocean
mails between Atlantic and Pacific
coasts, recommended, 3184.
Ocean Steamer VanderMlt, presented
to United States by, recommen-
dations regarding, 3288.
Eeferred to, 3585.
Vanderbilt, William H., deed of trust
and correspondence of, respecting
swords of Gen. Grant offered to Gov-
ernment, 4858, 4862.
Vandershie, Daniel, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3274.
Van Dervoort, W. H., member War
Labor Board, 8485.
Van de Venter, Christopher, corre-
spondence with Gen. Jackson, re-
ferred to, 618.
van Kamebeek, Jonkheer H. A., Dutch
delegate to Armament Limitation
Conference, 9041.
Van Bensselaer, Bensselaer, command-
er-in-chief of unlawful expedition in
New York, 1616.
Van Bensselaer, Stephen, attack of
forces under, discussed, 501.
Van Valkenburg, Robert B.:
Mentioned, 3793.
Minister to Japan, correspondence
with, referred to, 8837.
Vaughan, Charles B., correspondence
regarding northeastern boundary.
(See Northeastern Boundary.)
Venizelos, Eleutherios, Premier of
I Greece, mentioned, 8841.
Vernon, , correspondent of Seattle
' ' Post-Intelligeneer ' ', statement of,
regarding land elimination in Alaska,
discussed, 7612.
Victor Emanuel II, King of Italy, mes-
sages to and from, on armistice of
World War, 8623.
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, regret
of United States at death of, 6679.
Villa, Pancho, Mexican bandit, depre-
dations of, discussed, 8133 et seq.
Vinos, Pedro, Mexican bandit, men-
tioned, 8135, 8138.
Viollier, Lewis W., consular clerk, re-
moval of, from office and reasons
therefor, 4067.
Vissering, Doctor G., urged as monetary
adviser of China, 7666.
Viviani, BenS, French delegate to
Armament Limitation Conference,
9041.
Von Scholten, Maj.-Gen., Danish min-
ister to United States, correspond-
ence with Secretary of State, re-
ferred to, 1094.
Von Steuben, presentation of replica of,
to Germany, 7669.
Vorhees, D. W., on Senate committee
urging seats for cabinet in Congress,
7813.
Wade, James >F., member of military
commission to Cuba, 6322.
Wadsworth, James S., milita;ry gover-
nor of District of Columbia, 3311.-
Executive clerks to be organized un-
der direction pf, 3323.
Wadsworth, Jeremiah, commissioner to
treat with Indians, 190, 249.
Wagner, Peter, director of Bank of
United States, nomination of, , and
reasons therefor, 1260.
Wagner, Beinhardt, arrest of, at Lodz,
Eussia, 4789, 4793.
Wainwright, Jonathan M., thanks of
Congress to, recommended, 3277.
Wainwright, Bichard, thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Wainright, Bichard, Naval Academy in-
vestigated by, 7116.
Waishkey, John, Jr., mentioned, 4665.
Waite, Morrison B., Chief Justice,
death of announced, and honors to
be paid memory of, 5349.
Walker, John G., chairman of Nicara-
gua Canal Commission, 6326.
Walker, Johri H., on labor mediation
board, 8359.
Walker, Bobert J.:
Correspondence with President re-
garding contribution to be levied
uppn Mexico, 2373.
Governor of Kansas, 3003.
Walker, Thomas XT., architect for ex-
tension of Capitol, 2680.
Walker, William, arrest of, in Nicara-
gua and complaints arising- there-
from, discussed, 2997.
Referred to, 3001, 3017.
Wallace, Hugh C., Ambassador to
France, note of inquiry addressed to,
883L
Wallace, John P., referred to, 7160,
Wallace
Biographic Index
Welsh
Wallace, Lewis, member of court to try
assassins of President Lincoln, etc.,
3534.
Waller, John L., arrest and imprison-
ment of, by military authorities of
France, discussed, 6060, 6098.
Walsh, Frank P., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Walsh, B, M,, special agent to Santo
Domingo, correspondence of, re-
ferred to, 2696.
Walter, Squire, act granting pension
to, vetoed, 5419.
Walworth, Beuben H., nomination of,
as associate justice of Supreme
Court, withdrawn, 2181.
Ward, Frederick T., death of, while in
military service of China, 3353.
Ward, John B., minister to China:
Appointment of, 3089.
Eefusal of, to submit to humiliating
ceremonies in approaching sover-
eign, 3090.
Ward, Samuel, special agent to Mexico,
mentioned, 2770.
Warner, Amos G., District of Columbia
Charities Superintendent, 7361.
Warner, William, member of Sioux
Commission, 5480.
Warren, John, arrest and trial of, in
Great Britain, 3827.
Convicted and sentenced to imprison-''
ment, 3834.
Eeferred to, 3897.
Released, 3902.
Warrington, Lewis:
British ship captured by vessel in
command of, 534.
Energy displayed by, in suppressing
piracies, 876.
Warrior, The, illegal detention of, 2051.
Warwick, Walter W., on Economy and
Efficiency Commission, 7835.
Washburn, Charles A., minister to Par-
aguay, controversy with President of
Paraguay, discussed, 3883.
Washbume, Elihu B.:
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 5165.
Minister to Prance, metric conven-
tion signed by, 4312.
Washington, Bushrod, commissioner to
treat with Indians, nominations of,
250.
Washington, George, biography of, 33.
Washington, John, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 2571.
Washington, Martha, resolution of Con-
gress on death of husband, trans-
mitted to, 290.
Eeply of, 291.
Washington, Samuel T., resolution of
Congress thanking, for sword of
Wasliington and staff of Franklin,
2126.
Waters, H. J., on wheat price committee,
8348.
Wayne, Anthony, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 181.
Weakley, Eobert, commissioner to treat
with Indians, nomination of, 620.
Weaver, William A., court-martial of,
853.
Webb, Edwin Y., Representative, re-
ferred to, 8120.
Webb, TT. S., Attorney General of Cali-
fornia, alien lamd bill drafted by,
7876.
Webber, Charles, arrest and imprison-
ment of, in Mexico, 4678, 4692.
Webster, Daniel:
Correspondence regarding Dorr's Ee-
bellion, 2153.
Illustration of, replying to Senator
Hayne, 1115.
Member of notification committee to
wait on President-elect J. Q. Ad-
ams, 858.
Mentioned, 2281.
Secretary of State, 1876, 2646.
Death of, announced and referred
to, 2698, 2699.
Instructions issued to, to treat with
Lord Ashburton, 2081.
Webster, Joseph D., report and map of
survey of Gulf coast by, transmitted,
2601, 2610.
Webster, William, sequestration of
lands of, in New Zealand and claim
of, against Great Britain, 4327, 5661.
Weeks, John W., Secretary of War, op-
position of, to Army reduction re-
ferred to, 9037.
Weil, Benjamin, claim of, against Mex-
ico, 4697, 4760, 4982, 4987, 5193.
Weizmann, Chaim, president Zionist or-
ganization, referred to, 8575.
Welles, Gideon, Secretary of Navy:
Correspondence regarding vacation
of office of Secretary of War by
Gen. Grant, 3804.
Directed to consider applications of
loyal persons to remove with Union
lines, 3360.
Letter of, regarding rank of Marine
Corps, 3236.
Letter of Seward to, on interference
with mails quoted, 8168.
WeUs, Mr., referred to, 7134.
Welsh, William, member of Indian com-
mission, 3977.
Wentworth
Biographic Index
Williams
Wentworth, Joshua, district supervisor, \
nomination of, 91.
Wescott, Hampton, lieutenant in Navy,
nomination of, and reasons, 1126.
West, James H., imprisonment of, in
Cuba, 2765.
West, Lionel Sackville. (See Sackville,
Lord.)
West, Nathaniel T., ensign in Navy,
nomination of and reasons tlierefor,
3357.
Westinghouse, H. H., referred to, 7161.
Wetherhy, Indian chief, picture of, op-
posite 1019. '
Wetmore, C W., referred to, 7159 et
seq.
Wetmore, Prosper M., naval agent, ac-
counts of, referred to, 2682.
Weyler, Valeriano, reconcentration pol-
icy of, in Cuba, discussed, 6256,
6283, 6284, 6308.
Eeferred to, 6285.
Wharton, William F., Acting Secretary
of State, 5581.
Agreement between United States
and Great Britain for modus Vi-
vendi regarding Bering Sea fisher-
ies signed by, 5581.
Wheaton, Henry:
Referred to, 2205.
Treaty concluded by, with — *
Denmark, 1044.
Zollverein, 2169.
Wheeler, Harry A., on second class mail
commission, 7733.
Wheeler, Joseph, operations of cavalry
division under, around Santiago,
Cuba, discussed, 6395.
Wheelock, John E., arrest and imprison-
ment of, in Venezuela, 4789, 4803.
Whipple, John, correspondence regard-
ing Dorr's Rebellion, 2140, 2141.
Whitacre, John J.; b. Dee. 28, 1860;
elected to the 62d Congress from
Ohio, Nov. 8, 1910.
Whitby, Henry, British officer, procla-
mation for arrest of, for murder of
American citizen, 390.
White, Alexander, commissioner of
Washington City, 302.
White, Ed-win D., Chief Justice of Su-
preme Court:
Arbitrator in Costa Rican-Panama
boundary dispute, 7657.
Award of, discussed and supported,
. 8959.
Death of, announced, 8966.
Opinion iDy, on inheritance tax dis-
cussed, 7043.
White, Joseph L., coansel of ship canal
company, -2676.
White, Joseph M., employment of, to
compile land laws in Florida, 994.
White, William, imprisonment of, in
Buenos Ayres, 632.
Whitely, Simeon, treaty with Indians
concluded by, 3393.
Whiting, Joseph B., member of Chip-
pewa Commission, 5500.
Whittlesey, Elisha, commissioner to ad-
judicate claims of David Taylor, 2678.
Wiggin, A. H., Chinese Consortium
signed by, for Chase National Bank,
8935.
Wilcox, Orlando B., negotiations for
and correspondence regarding resto-
ration of peace, 3463.
Wilder, W. C, member of commission
concluding treaty of annexation of
Hawaiian Islands, 5783.
Wilkes, Charles:
Commander of exploring expedition,
report of, on Oregon Territory re-
ferred to, 2013.
Removal of Mason and Slidell from
British vessel. (See Mason and
Slidell.)
Wilkes's Exploring Expedition, expen-
ditures of publication of, referred to,
3068.
Wilkinson, James:
Aaron Burr's insurrection, troops
sent to suppress, commanded by,
401.
Conduct and commercial transactions
of, investigated, 423.
No intimation found of corrupt re-
ceipt of money by, 427.
Expeditions against Wabash Indians
comm&nded by, 104.
Mentioned, 405.
Wilkinson, James, District Attorney,
letter of, discussed, 7334.
William I, Emperor of Germany, death
of, referred to, 5367.
Williams, Eli, commissioner for Cum-
berland road, 406.
Williams, George, founder of Y. M. C.
A., referred to, 7997.
Williams, George H., member of com-
mission to settle questions with Great
Britain, 4075.
Williams, John Sharp, quoted, 7152.
Williams, Jonathan, death of Gen.
Washington announced and honors to
be paid memory of, were signed by,
as aide-de-camp.
Williams, Robert, bureau of military
information under supervision of,
discussed, 5879.
Williams
Biographic Index
Wright
Williams, S. W., decree of, prohibiting
steamers sailing under American flag
from using channel on Yangtae Biver
discussed, 3896, 3902.
Williamson, John N., Representative,
charges against, referred to, 7241,
7250.
Willis, Albert S., minister to Hawaiian
Islands. (See Hawaiian Islands, min-
ister to.)
Willis, Jesse H., collector of customs,
nomination of, 992.
Wilson, Alfred M., member of Cherokee
Commission, 5481.
Wilson, E. T., director, Panama Bail-
road Company, 7841.
Wilson, H. B. (administrator), act for
relief of, vetoed, 5236.
Wilson, Henry, Vice-President, death of,
announced and honors to ba paid
memory of, 4285.
Wilson, Henry Lane, Ambassador to
Mexico, reports of, on. Mexican situ-
ation discussed, 7658 et seq.
Wilson, John M., Porto Bican expedi-
tion re-enforced by division of, 6318.
Wilson, William B., Secretary of Labor,
on labor mediation board, 8359.
Windom, William, Secretary of Treas-
ury, death of, announced and hon-
ors to be paid memory of, 5599.
Eeferred to, 5568.
Wines, E. C, commissioner to Interna-
tional Congress on Prevention of
Crimes, report of, referred to, 4115.
Wines, Frederick H., assistant Census
Director, quoted, 7177.
Winslow, Ezra D., refusal of Great Brit-
ain to surrender other fugitives and,
4325, 4369.
Winslow, John A., thanks of Congress
to, recommended, 3457.
Winthrop, Robert C, correspondence
respecting presentation to United
States of desk upon which Declara-
tion of Independence was written,
4540.
Wise, Henry A., minister to —
Brazil —
Correspondence of, referred to,
2426, 2428, 2538.
Dispatches from, regarding riave
trade, 2215.
France, nomination of, and reasons
therefor, 2086.
Witzel, Lieutenant Commander H. M.,
referred to, 6839.
Wolcott, Oliver, commissioner of United
States, nomination of, 290.
Wolford, Frank, Presidential elector of
Kentucky, arrest and imprisonment
of, 3460.
Wood, John E., correspondence of, re-
ferred to, 3014.
Wood, Lafayette B., brevet second lieu-
tenant, promotion of, to second lieu-
tenant, recommended, 2296.
Woodbury, Levi, Secretary of Treasury
in 1836, issued an order regarding
the circulation of small bank notes
and certain rules to reduce the num-
ber of by payment in specie.
Correspondence respecting interfer-
ence in elections and pay of sol-
diers, 1315.
Woodford, Stewart L., minister to Spaiin
mentioned, 6257, 6284, 6286.
Withdrawal of, 6312.
Woodruff, Clinton Bogers, report of,
transmitted, 6863.
Woodruff, Wilford, letter of, advising
Mormons to refrain from contracting
marriages forbidden by law, referred
to, S553.
Woodworth, Selim E., thanks of Con-
gress to, recommended, 3277.
Wool, John E.:
Correspondence regarding Depart-
ment of Pacific, 2429, 2431, 3014.
Inquiry in ease of, 1589.
Thahks of President tendered to, and
the forces under his command in
bringing about the surrender of
Norfolk, and the evacuation of bat-
teries, 3313.
Wooster, David, monument to memory
of, information regarding, 801.
Worcester, Dean C, member of commis-
sion to Philippine Islands, 6584.
Worden, B. L., member War Labor
Board, 8485.
Worden, John L.:
Captain in Navy, nomination of, 3352.
Imprisonment of, 3235.
Thanks of Congress to, recommended.
3344.
Thanks of President tendered, 3313.
Worden, L. J., act for relief of, vetoed,
5247.
Consideration and return of, dis-
cussed, 5249.
Worrell, Edward, consul at Matanzas,
correspondence regarding estates of
deceased American citizens in Cuba.
2893. '
Worthington, Nicholas E., member of
Strike Commission, 5983.
Wright, Carroll D., member of Strike
Commission, 5983.
Wright
Biographic Index
Zwiedenek
Head of Census Bureau, referred to,
7177.
Wright, Hamilton, report on opium
trafac by, 7469.
Wright, Isaac H., naval agent, appoint-
ment of, referred to, 2272.
Wright, J. C, correspondence regarding
removal of remains of the late Presi-
dent W. H. Harrison, 1906.
Wright, John V., member of Indian
' commission, 5579.
Wright, Joseph A., compensation to, for
attending International Agricultural
Exhibition at Hamburg, Germany,
recommended, 3398.
Wright, Luke, Governor of Philippine
Islands, referred to, 6738, 6929:
Wright, Ohed, arrest and prosecution of,
for murder of friendly Indians, 618.
Yard, James, consul to Santa Cruz, nom-
ination of, 90.
Yokum, WiUiam, report in case of,
transmitted. 3412.
Yoshihito, emperor of Japan, measagea
to and from, on armistice of World
War, 8624.
Young, Brigham, governor of Utah:
Alleged rebellion under leadership of,
discussed, 2986, 3034.
Referred to, 3013.
Governor Gumming appointed in
place of, 2986, 3034.
Illustrations pertaining to, 2887, 2888.
Power of, discussed, 2985.
Young, John J., captain in Navy, nom-
ination of, 3478.
Young, Jonathan, commander in Navy,
nomination of, to be restored to orig-
inal position, and reasons therefor,
4002.
Young, Samuel B. M., operations of
brigade under, around Santiago,
Cuba, discussed, ^395.
Referred to, 6834, 6835.
Yulee, David L, imprisonment of, report
on, transmitted, 3576.
Zantzinger, John P., captain in Navy,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
1745.
Zantzinger, WiUiam P., purser in N^vy,
nomination of, and reasons therefor,
6003.
Zelaya, Jose Santos, President of Nica-
ragua, administration of, discussed,
7417, 7418, 7500, 7774.
Zepeda, Senor, treaty between United
States and Nicaragua concluded by,
2572.
Zlnunennann, Alfred F. M., German For-
eign Secretary, note from, to Mexico,
urging hostile action toward United
States, 8216, 8295.
Zuloaga, Fells, supreme power in Mex-
ico assigned to, 3094, 3175.
Zwiedenek, Baron, Austro-Hungarian
•hargfi d 'affaire*, referred to, 8120.
APPENDIX
THE SIXTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS
DELEGATIONS BY STATES
[Republicans in roman ; Democrats in italics; Socialist in small caps ; Republican and
Progressive in roman with*.]
ALABAMA.
SENATORS.
Oscar W. Vndenoood. J. Thomas Heflin,
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 9; Vacancy, 1.]
1. JohnMoDuffie.
2. Joliii K. Tpson.
3. Henry B. KteagaU.
G. Wnt. B. linwling.
6. Win. B. Oliver.
7. hlllus B. Rriiucy.
S. Edw.B.Ahiioil.
9. George Huddle-
stbn.
10. Wm. B. Banl:-
head.
AEIZONA.
SENATObS.
Henry F. Aahurst. Ralph H. Cameron.
REPRESENTATIVE.
[Democrat, 1.]
At large — Carl Hayden.
AEKANSAS.
SENATORS.
Joseph T. RoUnson. T. H. Caraway.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 7.]
1. William J . Driver. 4. OtisWingo.
2. William A. Old- .1. H. M.Jacoway.
field. 6. i<amucl Mi Taylor.
,3. John N. Tillman. 7. Tilman B. Parks.
CALIFOENIA.
SENATORS.
Hiram W. Johnson'.* Sam'I M. Shortridgc.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 9; Democrats, 2.]
1. Clarence F. Lin. S. Arthur M. Free.
2. John E. Raker. 9. Walter F. Lino-
3. Charles F. Curry. berger.
4. .Tulius Kahn. 10. Henry Z. Os-
5. John I. Nolan. borne.
6. John A. Blston. 11. Philip D. Swins.
7. H. E. Barbour.
COLOEADO.
SENATORS.
Lawrence C. Phipps. Samuel D. Nicholson.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 3 ; Democrat, 1.]
1. William N. Vaile. 3. Guv U. Hardy,
2. Charles B. Tim- 4; Bdward T. Taylor.
herlake.
rONNECTIOUT.
SF-NATORS.
Frank B. Brandegee. George P. McLean,
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 5.]
1. E. Hart Penn. 3. John Q. Tilson,
2. Richard P. Free- 4. Schuyler Merrltt.
man. 5. James P. Glynn.
DELAWAEE.
SENATORS.
Jotiah O. Wolcoti. L. Heisler Ball,
REPRESENTATIVE.
[Republican. 1.]
At large — Caleb R. Layton.
FLORIDA.
SENATORS.
Duncan V. Fletcher. Park Trammell.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 4,]
1. Ilcriert J. Dranc. .3. John H. Smith-
2. Frank Clark. wick.
4. William J. Sears.
GEOEGIA.
SENATORS.
William J. Harris. Thomas E. Watson.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 12.]
1. James W. Over- 7. Gordon Lee.
street. 8. Chas. M. Brand.
2.1 Frank Park. 9. Thomas M. Bell.
3. Charles R. Crisp. 10. Carl Vinson.
4. Wm. C.Wright. 11. William C . Lank-
5. William It. Up- ford.
Shaw. 12. William W. Lar-
6. James W. Wise. sen.
IDAHO.
SENATORS.
William E. Borah. Frank E. Gooding.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 2.]
1. Burton L. French. 2. Addison T. Smith.
ILLINOIS.
SENATORS.
Medill McCormick. Wm. B. McKinley.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 24 ; Democrats, 3.]
At large — William E. Mason, Richard Yates
1. Martin B. Mad- 15. Edward J. King,
flen. 16. Clifford Ireland,
2. James R. Mann. 17. Frank H. Funk.
3. Elliott W. Sproul. 18. Jos. G. Cannon.
4. John W. Rainey. 19. Allen F. Moore.
■1. Adolph J. Hahath. 20. Guv L. Shaw.
6. John J. Gorman. 21. Loren E. Wheel-
7. M. Alfred Mich- er.
aelson. 22. Wm. A. Roden-
8. Stanley H. fCum. berg.
9. Fred A. Britten. 23. Edwin B.
10. Carl R. Chind- Brooks
, . ^ ^^S^A 24. Thomas S. Wil-
li. Ira C.Copley. liams.
12. Charles E. Fuller. 25. Edwin E. Deni-
13. John C. MoKenzie. son.
14. Wm. J. Graham.
INDIANA.
SENATORS.
James E. Watson. Harry R. New
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 13.]
1. Oscar R. Luhring. 8. Albert H. Vestal.
2. Oscar B. Bland. 9. Fred S. Purnell.
3. .Tames W.Dunbar. lo. Wm. R. Wood.
4. John S. Benham. 11. Milton Kraus.
.'). Everett Sanders. 12. Loui.s W. Falr-
6. Richard N. ElU- field
7 yur2ih^^ lii, "■ Andrew J. Hicls-
7. Merrill Moores. ey.
Appendix
IOWA.
SENATORS.
Albert B. Cummins. 'William S. Keuyon.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepubllcans, H.]
1. William F. Kopp. 7. Cassius C. Dow-
2. Harry E.Hull. ell.
3. Burton E. Sweet. 8. Horace M.Town-
4. Gilbert N. Ha ugen. er.
5. James W. Good. 9. Wm. R. Green,
fi. C. William Earn- 10. L.J.Dickinson.
seyer. 11. Wm. D. Boles.
KANSAS.
SENATORS.
Charles Curtis. Arthur Capper.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepubllcans, 8.]
1 . Daniel R. Anthony, 4. Homer Hoch.
Jr. 5. James G. Strong.
2. Edward C. Little. 6. Hays B. White.
X. Philip P. Camp- 7. J. N. Tincher.
bell. 8. Richard E. Bird.
KENTUCKY.
SENATOES.
A. Owsley Stanley. Eichard P. Ernst.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepubllcans, 3 ; Democrats, 8.].
1. Alien W. Barhley. 7. James C. Cant-
2. David H. Kinche- rill.
loc. 8. Ralph Oilbert.
3. Robert Y. Thomas, 9. Wm. J. Fields.
Jr. 10. John W. Lang-
4. Ben Johnson. ley.
5. Charles F. Ogden. 11. John M. Robslon.
6. Arthur B, Rouse,
LOUISIANA.
SENATORS.
Joseph E. Ransdell. Edwin S. Broussard.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 8.]
1. James O'Connor. 5. Riley J. Wilson.
2. H.GarlamdDuprS. S. Oeorge K. Favrot.
S. Whitmell P. Martin. 7. Ladislas Lasaro.
4. John N. SandUn. 8. James B. Aswell.
MAINE.
SENATOES.
Bert M. Fernald. Frederick Hale.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 4.]
1. Carroll L. Beedy. 3. John A. Peters.
2. Wallace H. White, 4. Ira G. Herisey.
MAEYLAND.
" SENATORS.
Joseph I. France. O. E. Weller.
, ,. REPRESENTATIVES.
[.Republicans, 4; Democrats, 2.]
1. T.AlUnOoldsbor- 4. J. Charles Linthi-
ouah. cum.
2. Albert A. Blake- 5. Sydney B.Mudd.
nev. 6. Frederick N.Zihl-
3. John Philip Hill. man.
MASSACHUSETTS.
SENATORS.
Henry Cabot Lodge. David I. Walsh.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepublicanfi, 14; Democrats, 2.]
1 Allen T. Treadway. 9. Cha.s. L. Under-
2. Frederick H. Gil- ^^ ^ MI. ^ ^^^^^
.. CaWnD.Paige. "• ^Tnfh?^^"
4. Samuel E. Win- jg. James A. Oalll-
slow. ^an.
ii. John Jacob Rogers. i3_ Eobert Luce,
f! Wilfred W. Lufkin. 14. Louis A. Froth-
7. Eobert S. Maloney Ingham.
8. Frederick W. Dal- 16. Wm^^-^^iX^
MICHIGAN.
SENATORS,
rharles E. Townsend. Truman H, New-
berry.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Kepublican, 12; Vacancy, 1.]
1. George F\ Codd. 9. James C. Mc-
2. Earl C. Micheni-r. Laughlin.
3. . 10. Eoy O. Wood-
4. John C. Ketcham. ruff.
0. Carl E. Mapes. 11. Prank D. Scott.
6. Patrick H. Kelley. 12. W. Frank James.
7. Louis C. Cramton. 13. Vincent M.
8. Joseph W. Ford- Brennan.
uoy.
MINNESOTA.
SENATOES.
Knute Nelson. Frank B. Kellogg.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepubllcans, lOJ]
1. Sydney Anderson. 7. Andrew J. Vol-
2. Frank Clague. stead.
3: Charles E. Davis. 8. Oscar J. Larson.
4. Oscar E. Keller. 9. Halvor Steener-
."). Walter H. Newton. son.
15. Harold Knutson. .10. Thos. D. Schall.
MISSISSIPPI.
SENATOES.
John Ftharp Williams. Pat Harrison.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 8.]
1. John E. Rankin. 5. Ross A. Collins.
2. B. G. Lowrey. 6. Paul B. Johnson.
3. Benjamin Q. 7. Percy E. Quin.
Humphreys^ 8. James W. Collier.
4. Thomas U.Sission,
MISSOURI.
SENATOES.
James A. Reed. Selden P. Spencer.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 14 ; Democrats, 2.]
1. Frank' C. Mills- 10. Cleveland A.
paugh. Newton.
2. Wm. W. Bucker. 11. Harry B. Hawes.
3. Henry F. Lawrence. 12. Leonidas C. Dy-
4. Charles L. Faust. er.
5. Edgar C. Ellis. 13. Marlon E.
6. Wm. O. Atkeson. Rhodes.
7. Eoscoe C. Patter- 14. Edw. D. Hays.
SDn. l.'i. Isaac V. McPhor-
8. Sidney C. Roach. son.
9. TWfeodore W. 16. Samuel A. Shel-
Hukriede. , ton.
MONTANA.
SENATOES.
Henry L. Myers. Thomas J. Walsh.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 2.]
1. Washington J. Mc- 2. Carl W. RIddick.
Cormick,
NEBEASKA. '
SENATOES.
CHliert M. Hitchcock. George W. Norrls.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 6.]
1. C. Frank Eeavis. .". William E. An-
2. Albert W. Jefferis. drews.
3. Eobert E. Evans. 6. M. P. Kinkaid.
4. Melvin O. Mc-
Laughlin.
NEVADA.
SENATORS.
Key Pittman. Tasker L. Oddle.
REPRESENTATIVE.
[Republiccn, 1.]
At large — Samuel S. Arentz.
appendix
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
SENATORS.
George H. Moses. Henry W. Keyes.
IlEPRESBNTATIVES.
JRepubllcans, 2.]
1. Sherman E. Bur- 2. Edward H. Wa-
rougbs, , son.
NEW JEESEY.
SENATORS.
Joseph S. Freling- Walter E. Edge,
huysen.
RBPHE SENTATI VE S.
[Republicans, 11 ; Democrat, 1.]
1. Tranels F. Patter- 8. Herbert W. Tay-
son, Jr. lor.
2. Isaac Bacharach. 9. Rlcharjl Wayne
'A. T. Frank Appleby. Parker.
4. Elijah C. Hutch- 10. Frederick R.
insQU. Lehlbach.
5. Ernest R. Acker- 11. Archlballd B.
man. Olpp.
6. Randolph Perkins. 12. Charles F. X.
T. .\mos 11. Radcllite. O'Brien.
NEW MEXICO.
SENATORS.
Andrieus A. Jones. Holm O. Bursum.
REPRESENTATIVE.
[Republican, 1.]
At large — Nestor Montoya.
NEW YORK.
SENATORS.
.Tames W. Wada- William M. Calder.
worth, Jr.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 33 ; Democrats, 9 ;
Socialist, 1.]
1. Fred'k C. Hicks. 24. BenJ. ,L. Fair-
2. John J. Kindred. child.
:i. John Kissel. 25. Jas. W. Husted.
4. Thos. H. Cullen. 26. Hamilton Fish,
5. Ardolph L. Kline. Jr.
6. Warren I. Lee. 27. Charles B. Ward,
7. MichaelJ. IJogan. 28. P.Q.TenEyck.
R. Charles G. Bond. 29. James S. Parker.
ri. Andrew N. Peter- 30. Prank Crowther.
sen. 31. Bertrand H.
:o. Lester D. Volk. Snell.
11. Daniel J. Rior- 32. Luther W. Mott.
dan. 33. Homer P. Sny-\
' 1. Meyer London. der.
13. Christopher D. 34. John D. Clarke.
Sullivan. 35. Walter W.Ma-
1 i. Nathan D. Perl- gee.
man. 36. Norman J.
l,"i. Thomas J. Ryan. Gould.
1 1). W. Bourke Cock- 37. Alanson B.
ran. Houghton.
'7. Ogden L. Mills. 38. Thomas B.
1 S. John F. Carew. Dunn.
1 !i. Walter M. Chand- 39. Archie D. Sand-
ler, -ers.
i!ii. Isaac Slegel. 40. S.Wall.tceDemp-
2 1 . Martin C. An- spy.
sorge. 41. Clarence Mac-
22. Anthony J. Grit- Gregor.
fin. 42. James M. Mead.
2:1. Albert B. Ross- 43. Daniel A. Reed,
dale.
NORTH CAROLINA.
SENATORS.
FurinfolA M. Sim- Lee 8. Overman,
mons,
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 10.]
1. Hallett S. Ward. 7. William O. Ham-
2. Claude Kitchin. mer.
:;. Samuel M. Brln- 8. ltol)t. L. Douf/h-
son. ton.
4. Edward W. Pou. 9. Alfred L. Bul-
n. Charles M. Ftted- winkle.
man. 10. Zehulon Weaver.
ft, IJemer L. Lyon.
NORTH DAKOTA.
SENATORS.
Porten J. McCum- Edwin F. Ladd.
ber.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 3.]
1. Olger B. Burtness. ' 3. James H. Sinclair.
2. George M. Young.
OHIO.
SENATORS.
Atlee Pomerene. Frank B. Willis.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 22.]
1. Nicholas Long- 11. Edwin D. Rick-
worth, etts.
2. A. E. B. Steph- 12. John C. Speaks.
ens. 13. James T. Begg.
3. Roy G. Pitzger- 14. Chas. L. Knight.
aid. 15. C. Ellis Moore..
4. John L. Cable. 16. Jos. 11. Himes.
5. Chas. J. Thomp- 17. Wm. M. Morgan.
son. 18. Prank Murphy.
6. Chas. C. Kearns. 19. John G. Cooper.
7. Simeon D. Fess. 20. Miner G. Norton.
8. R. Clint Cole. 21. Harry C. Gahn;
9. Wm. W. Chalm- 22. Theodore E. Bur-
ers. ton.
10. Israel M. Foster.
OKLAHOMA.
SENATORS.
Roiert h. Owen. John W. Harreld,
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 5 ; Democrats, 3.]
1. Thos. A. Chandler. 5. F. B. Swank.
2. Alice M. Robert- 6. L. M. Gensman.
son. 7. James V. Mc-
3. Charles D. Carter. OUntic.
4. J. C. Pringey. 8. Manuel Herrick.
OREGON.
SENATORS.
Charles L. McNary. Robert X. Stanlield.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 3.]
1. Willis C. Hawley. 3. Clifton N. Mc-
2. Nicholas J. Sin- Arthur.
nott.
PENNSYLVANIA.
SENATORS.
Boies Penrose. Philander C. Knox.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 34 ; Democrat, 1.]
At large — William J. Burke, Joseph
McLaughlin, Anderson H. Walters.
1. William S. Vare. 19. John M. Ro.ie.
2. Geo. S. Graham. 20. Edw. S. Brooks.
3. Harry C. Rans- 21. Evan J. Jones.
ley. 22. Adam M. Wvant.
4. Geo. W. Edmonds. 23. Samuel A. Ken-
5. Jas. J. Connolly. dall.
6. Geo. P. Darrow. 24. Henrv W. Tem-
7. Thos. S. Butler. pie.
8. Henry W. Wat- 2,o. Milton W'.
son. Shreve.
9. W. W. Griest. 26. William H. Kirk-
10. Chas. R. Connell. patrick.
11. Clarence D. 27. Nathan L.
Coughlin. Strong.
12. John Reber. 28. Harris J. Bixler.
1 3. Fred B. Gernerd. 29. Stephen G. Port-
14. Louis T. McFad- er.
den. 30. M. Clyde Kelly.
15. Edgar R. Kiess. 31. JohnM. Morin.
16. I. Clinton Kline. 32. Quij F. Camp-
17. Benj. K. Pocht. SeH.
18. Aaron S. Kreid-
er.
.fppenaix
EHODE ISLAND.
SENATOES.
tieBaron B. Colt. Peter G. Gerry.
EBPRESBNTATIVES.
[Republicans, 3.]
1. Clark Burdick. 3. Ambrose Ken-
2. Walter E. Stlness. nedy.
SOUTH CAEOLINA.
SENATORS.
Ellison D. Smith. Nathaniel B, Dial.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Democrats, 7.]
1. 1^. Turner Logan. 5. William F. 8tev-
2. James F. Byrnes. enson.
* 3. Fred H. Domi- 6. Philip H. Stall,
nick. 7. Hampton P. Ful-
4. John J. MoSwain. mer.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
SENATOES.
Thomas Sterling. Peter Norbeck.
EEPEESENTATIVES. •
[Republicans, 3.]
1. Charles A. Chris- 2. Eoyal C. Johnson,
topherson. 3. Wm. WillUimsou.
TENNESSEE.
SENATORS.
John K. Shields. Kenneth McKellar.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 5 ; Democrats, 5.]
1. B. Carroll Reeee. 7. Lemuel P. Pad-
2. J. Will Taylor. gett.
3. Joe Brown. 8. Lon A. Scott.
4. Wynne F. Clouse. 9. Finis J. Garrett.
5. Edwin L. Davis. 10. HiiT>ert F. Fisli-
6. Joseph W. Byrns. er.
TEXAS.
SENATORS.
Charles A.. Culberson. Morris Sheppard.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republican, 1; Democrats, 17.1
1. Eugene Blaols. 10. J. P. Buchanan.
2. John C. Box. li. Tom Connally.
3. Morgan G. Sanders. 12. Fritz G. Lanham.
4. Sam Raybum. 13. L. W. Parrisli.
5. Hatton W. Sumners, 14. Harry M. Wurz-
6. Rufus Hardy. bach.
7. Clay Stone Briggs. 15. John N. Garner.
8. Daniel E. Garrett. 16. 0. B. Hudspeth.
9. Joseph J. Mans- 17. T. L. Blantoii.
field. 18. Martin Jones.
UTAH.
SENATORS.
Reed Smoot. William H. King.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 2.]
1. Don B. Colton. 2. Elmer O. Leather-
wood.
VERMONT.
SENATORS.
William P. Dillingham. Carroll S. Page.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 2.]
1. Frank L. Greene. 2. Porter H. Dale.
VIEGINIA.
SENATORS.
Claude A. Swanson. . Carter Glass.
REPRESENTATIVES.
[Republican, 1; Democrats, 9.]
1 Schuyler Otis Bland. 7. Thomas W. Har-
2. Joseph T. Deal. rison.
3 Andrew J. Mon- 8. R. Walton Moore,
tague. 9. C. Bascom
4. Patrick H. Drewry. Slemp.
5. Rarer A. James. 1ft. Henry D. Flood.
6. James P. Woods.
B-21
WASHINGTON,
SENATOES.
Wesley I* Jones. Miles Polndexter.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Eepublicans, 5.]
1. John F. Miller. ; 4. John W. Sum-
2. Lindley H. Had- mers.
ley. 5. J. Stanley Web-
3. Albert Johnson. ster.
WEST VIEGINIA.
SENATOES.
Howard Sutherland. Davis Elklis.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 6.]
1. Benj. L. Eosen- 4. Harry C. Wbod-
(bloom. yard.
2. Geo. M. Bowers. 5. Wells Goody-
3. Stuart F. Eeed. koontz.
6. Leonard S. Ech-
ols.
WISCONSIN.
. SENATOES.
Eobert M. LaFoUette. • Irvine L. Lenroot.
EEPEESENTATIVES.
[Republicans, 11.1
1. Henry Allen Coop- 7. J. D. Beck.
er. ' 8. Edward E.
2. Edward Voigt. Browne.
3. John M. Nelson. 9. David G. Clas-
4. John C. Kleczka. son.
5. William H. Staf- 10. James A. Frear.
ford. 11. Adolphus P. Nel-
G. Florian Lamport. son.
WYOMING.
SENATORS.
Francis E. Warren. John B. Kendrtck.
REPRESENTATIVE.
[Republican, 1.]
At large — Prank W. Mondell.
ALASKA.
Dan A. Sutherland.
HAWAII. .
J. Kuhio Ealanianaole.
PHILIPPINES.
Jaime C. De Veyra. Isauro Gabaldon.
POETO EICO.
Felix Cordova Davlla.
CLASSIFICATION. i
SENATE.
Republicans 58
Democrats 37
Republican and Progressive 1
Total 96
HOUSE.
Republicans 300
Democrats 131
Socialist 1
Vacancies 3
Total 435