THE
AGRICULTTJKIST.
A UOKTHLT
ioanmt bPwmAM agriculturb, mineralogy, and statistics.
VOL. VIII.;} CAICUTTA MONDAY, JANUARY 1, 1B83.
BY’S COTTON BWTINO.
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR AND PATENTSD IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
FRIZES.
Haiwusoh
Bebiin
.... ... 1878- L ClSClNNATl
... ... ... 1879 TNkw York
... ... 1879 I Mslbodbiui
Ataianta.
First Premium, - Tirst Pri/e,
NATl ... ... 1880 I PlTTSBUBll ...
ORK ... ... ... 1880 1 Atahkfa
OBIIK. ... ... 1880 1 riTTMBUKli
1882 ■ I New ZEALA^'D .1882
Sydney^ 187S. . Uaiuburg,
... 18«
... 1881
... 1882
•Mi
New-York, 1880.
Berlin, 1879. McIImiuiuu, 1880.
OVER 460,000 FEET BOLD ’
Including .8,877 I'cet of nifiiii Driving B'
• 60 in., arc working in ovei- 6,000 J' "
The fullnimir) Tints (Ji;/ Kirh
E •.vp^:5^
New Zealand, 1882.
Oinciunati, Jime, 1880.
%
yom 13 ill. to
. 1 America.
th and value,
Best Doable Buather 6 in. Bolting ... ... /n
Gandy's 6 In. X S-ply Cotton .
l.ing Stniin per Sijnhro inch of .Section.
A^bs.
0,811 lbs.
Prioo per foot.
Ss. 7d. g,
8s. 6d.
GANDY BELT.
Any Lcitiilh nr WidtU
for Main Drivvng,
It i« t)ie Jn'st belt
ever niaib' tor nil jmrims-
eH. Mui'li (llie.'ijiev find
iStrougtir th.aii Bpather.
Thoriniglilv W.-iterproot,
and not affected by tem¬
perature, clings well to
the pulleys, niim true,
and can be made miy
length -wilhont joints.
Tliis Scries of Belting
(sre c'lu/rcu'iiii/) Wat.
idjHi) in Due Onler t.i
AJe.ssrs. John < deadey
and Sons,-Halibut, May
1, 1880, and tamtiuueh to
give entire satisfaction.
, THE “ G-^HID'Sr EEXaT.
'YiANDl’S Piilont Amorieaii Oottnn licllm,' e.iri el.-nm u su|a,i-i.iritv o',. u- (...ouci-lielis in every particular; its etwl
VJ being aliont. half tlmtof lo.it.hsr, while its strcnytli .ui.l griiijiini^ p.ia-or i-(il..na donhlc 11 ml of the Kirt li.athor
as shewn byrdiioalal tests lalit-n by KirkaMy, of J.ondon Those tests sre (riven nlswo. to which speaiat attention is
.iirootod. These ■' 0»ndy " helU-Are inmic of any wi.ilh up to "2 inches, and luiv length up to iHu feet ivithoni joint
» thus ob^ttinjj; tlie i>efi)s.sity of living two holts on tlio same imlley, a sj-stom of driving wl.icli is never sntisfartory,
as it isiravossiWe to have bolts oftcxiictly the sfirno tension ; .hence yno or the otlior is alwa>a|J^»mir a stojipaire. .
These alom'HgSs^i'e avoided % ufitw-Oan^'s Patent I-k-Ks in'ono width. These Handy*Balts^l^BrA.Io of the finest ‘
American Cotton fhick. simcially iirojiavod nr, Italtimoro for th.j purp.ise, and then put together (^HpSpiod ly (.iRDdy’s
pateRtsil sjieciak Idaeluaery and jiroc..iss to preveui sfrotohing. andfviuHrtiieni iniiiorvioust^TjTOtispburic iriflueuce,
, I’-HaiMsed of advapt^iges sm-h as the.se, the tiatvorsnl adoi.tiou .jf Itandv's tJelts can only Is) a ov.-itiun of time.
A StrBaTAirnAL;GUABAMTEE GIVRPr WITH EVEET MAIN DEWING SiEI*T.
mURIGE fiMOY, i LONDON. ^ aiid
2
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
January 1, 1883,
Oity Line of Steamers.
k. FOR LONDON DIRECT vid SUEZ CANAL.
„ f;
Tons.
Captain.
,-CUy of Manclnslcr ...
... 3126
A. Macdonald.
City of Carthage
... 26,M
J. McPherson.
City of Canterbury ...
... 3212
J. Marr.
City of rraiVc ...
... 3207
n, J. Moffat.
CUy of Lonelon ...
... 3212
J. Black,
City of Elinburgh ...
... 3212
\V. H. Barham.
City of Khios
... 3230
A. Thoms.
City of Aejra
... 3412
J. Gordon.
City of Calcutta
... 3836
R. McNeil,
City of Orford
... 4000
Wm. Miller.
City of Cambridge:
... 4000
D. Anderson.
Tlic Citg of OaHhage will leave about the 16th iastant, and
wil be followed by the City of Venice,
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE & Co.,
Agents.
E,^ 3 iTEiE!a-'crisra-E
mE BRICKS ]
ANll
DRAI^^ IPES.
n X
THE
SOUTH OF INDIA OBSERVER,
PCBUSHKD 'WeEKI.X AT OoTACAMlWI),
The Head-quarters of the Madras Oovenuuent fo
the greater part of the year.
TERMS OP SUBSCRIPTION.
(E.'CCLCHIVE of Po.'iTAOE.)
Per annum .,.
„ half-year...
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Advance.
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Arrears.
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Neilf/Iwny Press Co., Limited, Proprietors.
Agents in India.:
Messes. HIGGINBOTHAM & Co. ... Madras.
Agents in London:
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F. ALGAE, Esq. . S, Ckmeni's-lane, London, E
Messes. BATES, HENDY & Co. J^, Old Jewry, London.
Messes. GORDON & GOTCH ... St. Bride-street, Londm, E
Me.s.ses. RHODES & Co. ... $4, Nicholas lane, E.O,
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MO.VTIILV
10
CALCUTTA.
KttoirlctJije <tnJ Pro gress” <lo hand in- hand.
“ PROGRESS:”
A Monthly Encyclopadia of Information:
COMrlUiD ANl, COlAATEll lUllM
THE LATEST CURREHT SCIENTIFIC AND GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
OIF TJEIEI
Record of Information for Planters
COFFEE, Tea, cocoa, oinohona, sugar, paln
AMJ
OTHER PRODUCTS,
Suited for ndiiiifitiou in the Tropics.
Published oil or about tlic lat of each moiitli by A. M. i
J. Ferguson, Ceylon Ohsrrrir Office, Colombo.
Price in atlvauoo yearly, Ka. 10.
Re. 1 xicr copy.
10
Each No. is a very “Library ” of Valuable Reading.
SUBSCRIPTION:
YEARLY ... Rs. J2 I HALF A'EAKLY ... Rs. 7 -
QUARTERJ.Y ... Rs. 4.
The Press of India have spoken in nnanimous approval
of this work,
WHICH IiKSEUVES THE sri’PCIltT OE
every EDVCATET) man in is via.
A I'opy will bo sent oi, ujqib’ratioli to tho
Publu-bin ,
-YT IdL Cf O.,
10, nARK STUEKT,
CALCUTTA.
FIRE BRICKS.
R ANEKGUNGE fire bricks as supplied to Government
tlie vnviouB Uailways, Iron Works, Coal, (ios, and S
Navigation Cojupanies, Price—Rs. 9 per 100.
Extract from Gffieial Report of tosts made nt H. M.’s
Caleutl.a, by TliEoluiKE W. II. HniHEs, Esq., k.<i..s., A.R.R.M.,
eiatiiig Deputy Superintendent, (ieological .Survey', India: —
“ 'J'he Eire Uriels tested by me were Jiirnished. by the Ett
Mes.ir.'.. liURNd-Co. “ ■* * The materials from which they are
are eery refractory and. capable qf resistlny high tempera!are.
out sensibly fusing. * ♦ * That comjiared with Stourbridge
Bricks are someirhal superierr."
The specinieus were mibjcctod to n tcmpcratiii o of over
(legs. Kalir., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,780
Fahr.
Apply for tlif above, and for Raneegunge iSult-glazed Ston
and imperishable Drainage I'ipes, to
BUTIN & eo„
T, llastingH-Htreot, Calcutla,
or Itanccguuge I’oltery tt'orUs, Raiieegi.nge,
E.l.R., Bei
January 1,1883. THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST,
Wepuhluh the folloioing papers at (his Office :—
THE INDIAN AGEIOULTDEIST.
(MONTHLY.)
Rates of Subscription, iwluftinn postage.
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Single copies, Re. 1; back copies, Rs. S.
Adiie rtiseme nts/or the “Indian Agriculturist" should be sent in
not later than the ZSrd, to appear on the Ist of the following Month.
3
HEALTH, STRENGTH, AND ENERGY.
DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE.
(Trade Mark—Phosphodyne,)
TVTENTV years’ TUBLIO TEST, AND TIlOrSANUS OP TESTIMONIALS PROM
ALL TARTS OP THE WORLD KSTADLISII
^■Jrkdia {
'i' For Europe
THE PEIEND OF INDIA AND STATESMAN.
(WEEKLY.)
Rates of Subscription, including postaije.
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The reduced rate for Missionaries is Rs. 15 per annum.
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19 0
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Rs. 42 0
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PHOSPHODYNE
as the only Safn, Reliable, and Neeor failing Phosphorio Remedy
for Over-worked Brain, .'^leeplesauosH, Harasaini; Dreams, Woiry,
Anxiety, Kxeitement, Ejiile|wy, ihisinoas I’leusure, Wasting
Diseases, Nervous Pro.stration, .Stomach and Liver Coinpl.aints. Im¬
poverished Blooil, Premature Decay, and all m(jrl)id eoiiditious of
the system dependent upon the delieiuncy of the Vital Forces.
DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYHE TnUIKIKS AND
Riirlcbofl the Blood, Clears tl)e Skin, thoroughly invi^'orato.s the
Brain, NervoH and Muselos, Re-t*ner^dseH the Kailing Funotiona of
Life by supplying tho Fnosviioitie tdfiiiont ^^hich hnfl )»eeii wasted,
and thus iinparta Vhiergy a«)d l*>esh Vitality to tl)e Exiiausieil
Nervo-Klcctric Force?, and rapidly Cures every form nf Ner\’oii.s
Dehilitv, I’aralyais, Kidney, Nervous, Mind, and Heart DiaeascM,
] from w\iatever cause.
This elegant I'hospluitic ('Ondiination, the Wonder of Modern
Chemiatry, is pronounced by the most onimuit inomhors of tlin
I Medical I’rofcbsioii to be uuemiaUed for its i>ower in rcplenisliin^^
I and elaborating tl>e Vitahty ol the Body;l)yi1s s»ipplying all the
caneutial and vitalising constitnents of the lluooo, Brain, ju)d
Nerve Suiwtanok ; and for <icvcloping all the I’owers and Func¬
tions of the System to the highest degree ; by its being agreijable
to the palate, and innocent in its action. While retaining its
wonderful projKU ties, it acts as a Sjiecilie, surpassing all the known
THEKM'F.rTir AOKS'i's of the i-iHcsENT AoK, for thc .si‘hKi»\ and
I’KRMANKNTcrKK of the abovo dlSe.THe,
Die. LAIjOJFS FHOSPHODVNK in Btdtle.s at 4't, i\,l. and
1] • ‘ I **u<l Kctail Medieinu V'eiidors
InUmdimj iS’uA.srriVyer# lo'dl pliKist addrmi iht Manrujtr,
Advi'rtiscmpnt Hates for any of the ahoee papers.
Iflt Tuacrtioii, Ks. 2-8 per inch.
2ud ,, ,, 2-0 ,,
Hrd and each succeeding insertion, Kh. I J per inch.
(luiitrnct rates will he furni.slied on application to the Nfanager.
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iuteuded.
Agents in London for the above papers:
(J KOROK STKEET, Ksy. ... CornhUl.
F. ALGAU, Ksi^. ... W kVlyClenifni's-lanf,London E C
BATES, IIENDY&CO. ... 37, Walhrook, Ao/n/oa, A’. C. ' ' '
1), J. KEVMEll &• CO, .,t 1, WhUefrairi'-utreety Fieet^streety
London, E. C.
SOLE AGENTS FOR THE UNITED STATES:
THE INTERNATIONAL NEWSPAPER AOENCV
H. P. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
New Jlaven^ Connecticut, U.H.As
xiNl- NOTICE. - NONE IS OENUINK UNLESS the
.rt^ine, Dr. Lalora Phospliodym, London, England, is hloM'ii in
tlie (llasK of each Bottle, and eveiyBottlt licars the Bntisli
rjoverumeiit Stariij), with tin vonis Di.JjaL'Uis Piio.sviiodym:,
London, England, (oigoavcd Ihricon by Order of Her MajCbty’n
Kojumralde (’ominiHHioner.s ; ii' not, it J'l a l•v»uoKR\, AMiYOtl
UAVF UlvKN IMroMhJf Ul’ON liY A \M)liniLK.NS IMITATION'.
M.tNrrACTUUKD ONLY AT TIIK
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY bv
Dll KOBEUT D. L 4 L 011
BAY HOUSE, 32, QAISFOED-STREET, LONDON, N. W.
(Tiik Sole Prouwetoh and Oekiinator op Puosj-iiodv.n’k, )
THE AGRA BANK,
"LIMITED:’ ’
Capital ... ...£1000,000
Reserve Fuad ... £170,000
(lAIXlU'JTA BRANCH.
CURREN'r ACCOUNTS arc kept, aui
Interest allowed, when thc Credit Balanc
does not fall below Hs. 1,000.
DKPOSITS received available at any tim
for Remittanee to England in the Bank'
Bills, and Interest allowed thereon at th
rate of 4 piir cent, per annum.
DEPOSITS are also received for fixe
periods, ou terms which may he learnt oi
upplieation.
DRAFTS granted at the exchange of th
day on Loudon, Scotland, Ireland, and th
Bunk's Agencies in tho East.
yItCULAR NO’l’K.S issued, iiegotiahl
ii. Hr 0 principal places in Europe.
(iOVjfiRNMEN'l' and other S'l'OCKS
■ ami Shares bouglit and sold, and thc saf
custody of thc same iindcrtukcu.
1N1'ERE.ST, PAY, and PENSIONS col
"4 leoteil ; and every other description e
.,j! Banking Business and ilouey Agency trail
.rlfiaotcd.
All Remittances slnmld he made pay-
'j|iabla to thc Agra Bank, Limited, 35
OhIMren’s
LudiuN'
Goiitloinoii
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to ROBINSON and
CLBAVBR, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Price Lists (POST
FREE) of their
Uual IriHli Liiinu 8huutlii({,
2 yarda wide, 1/11 pci
_ ExtraSlo.lvy(Bui.)8t Urn- CAMBRIC
ubUf artulo) 2^ yimlM
■wldo, 3/;i por yurd
Roller T'HvclluiK, IS iinh
Wide, aid. pci yard. IIkmutitcdeu
Linen I Ins-
'SiS" LiHEHs
yftrd.
‘ThoirlriHli Linen GuUurM, i
HhirtM, 4re., have tin- merit of
IRISH LINEN
per do£.
. 2/0
. a/a
4/10
Court Circalaf.
COILARS, ;’
Lodiob’ and Chll*,
dron'H li-foM, a/M !
doz. litmlH', 1
4-fuid, 4/11 to .'./n ;
|i<o doz.
POCKET
CUFFS,
Fur Ladies, Gentle-
mull, and Chlldien,
S/ll to 10/0 per doz.
d
Fine IJneuK
and tilnen
Dlappj, I
IfW Tiui varJ. 1
per d»/z.
Litdies' . <,v
Rest Lonyolutli fT CUIRTC
Bodleo, with 4-foM OniniQ.
all linnn fnintHaml
I iiflH, tlif half
doz. (to measure, 2/ extia).
Flbli Napkin?,
:!/i5 per dur,
Dlnnei NapkiiiN,
Tai?‘n„?K DAMASKS.
ydBst|na>u, .1/11; !_ .y
j 2i Viuds hv 4 !■! I . —
I y.iid-'. LI/*! each
HAHDKERCHIEFS.
Tiio Triali i’aniliiics of Alessrs.
Kolaiison <t ( Icavoi hiivo ». world¬
wide fame.’- T/te (^u.
Ladlus' Uudoi-Ch’thlntf, Baby Lhicii, Dicss .Miat-ilalw, Flannels, IiNlt and Hwisi Lmhruldunua, llusiury
Glove.s, UuJoi-Vusts, Pimts , also Lac‘o '-iODd i of every deneriptiun, at lovvosu wholuHali; j.ueoii.
ROBINSON & CLEAVER, Manufacturers, by Special Ap¬
pointment to her Majesty the Queen and her Imperial Highness
the Crown Princess of Oetmany.
THE ROYAL IRISH LINEN WAREHOUSE, BELFAST.
THE INDIAN AqBIOUDTUEIBT. JflJMJMy I,
T. E. THOMSON & CO.
©, ICSFLA-lTADEI-IiOW,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
ALL KINDS OF IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TFA PLANTERS.
Ghiffin’s Patent Kodallios, all sizes.
Griffin’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Cast steel Digging and Border Forlis.
Potatoe Forks.
American Spades and Shovels, all steel.
Pickaxes, Double^lSu^ -
Sickles and Reaping Hooks. .. ..
Betts’s Tea Lead.
Tea Sieves.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Cast Iron.
Switching Bills and Hooks,
Assam Daws and Jmigle Cutters.
Garden Shears.
Tea Garden Pruning Saws.
Pruning and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Irons.
Chubb’s W; I. Fire and Thief-proof Safe,s.
Plain W. I. Chests for holding largo (quantities
of Silver.
Point de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoop Iron and Clout Tacks.
Portable Weighing Machines with English and
Indian Weights.
Beams and Scales fitted with Teakwood Pans
and Iron Chains.
Salter’s Spring Balance.
harden Spades, Shovels, Hoes, Rakes, and
Syringes.
Garueb Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines,
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines,^
Hand Lift and Force Pumps.
Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized Nails, Screws, Ridging and Gut¬
tering.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN’S
Patent Swift and Sure Transplanting Tools.
THE
INDIM AGEICUITUEIST,
A MONmr
JOUBNAL OF INDM AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY AND STATISTICS.
VOL VIL
CALCUTTA j
PEINTED AT THE STATMMAJf OFFICE.
1882.
mpEx
TO THE
INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
Paqe.
Paoij
CACAO.
CtelaTora
.. ... 802
Cmbo In lien of grog
.146
Caitor Planting ...
... S9t
OooM tn Trinldtd
.868
Cawnpore Experimental Farm
... 499
Condlttoni of Coltnte
.89
Coorg, Coffee and Oinohoua Crop , ...
... 482
CnlHyntton in Ceylon
... 61
Cotton Culture In India ... • ...
... 193
Note ...
... 288
Cultivation of Waete Land*...
... 198
DlvMHvl , ...
... 69
CmCHOHA.
Experimeute in the Manufaoture of Co%e
... 78
Ceylon Ledgerinnn
... 211
Carden Pests
... 72
Cinohonk from iluiiacus
297
Crast-outten
... 269
Cinobonn Trade, The ... ...
... 178
Hay-drying, ArttSoial
... 438
Cinohona In Aaitndia
... 299
Indian Kaolins ...
... a
Dovelopment and Beoopentire Power* (rf
... 298
Indian Paper Mills
... 430
Government and the Indnetry
... 211
Indian Tea in England
... no
Grafting of Cnttingi In the C^en Air ...
... 218
Indian Tea Sales at Home ...
... 87
Ilybride and Croeaei
... 298
Importation of Grain, India
... ... 893
Hybrldlty
... 218
Irish Tobacco
... 40
Now Bark
... 61
KangraToa
... 5
Note* ... ... 89, 178,
280, 297, 298, 879, 456
Madder
... 809
Out-turn in Madra*
... 102
Mbowa, The
... 270
Planting in Jamaloa’
... 612
Mowra Flower* ...
... ... 438
Prospeote of Flantationa
... 211
Muck, All about... ...
.78
Statlitioi
.417
Mustard Oil
... 433
COFFEE.
North Borneo Company
... 192
North Borneo Company, The
... 71
Adulteration of Coffee
... 177
Outturn of Cotton, The
... 69
Adulteration and Mixture* ...
... 218
Footoo Bice
.72
Bamboo DUtriot of Coorg. The
... 416
Poultry
... 87
Caeiia Tora, Subetitnte for ...
... 294
Querie*
... 113
Coffee... ... ...
... 888
Betail Auotion Sale* of Tea in Eni^and
.70
Coffee Mixture* ...
... 140
Silk Industry in Bengal ... ...
... 453
Coffee Pulp a* a Manure
... 379
Silk Moth, New Variety of ...
... 150
Coffee Trade
... 29
Silk Trade of Bengal
... 889, m, 481
Coffee in the Madrai PreaiSenoy
... 878
Spanish Chestnnt, The ...
... 229
Coffee in Queeneland
... 140
Sugar ...
... 190, 369, 809
Danjwe, Subititute for Coffee
... 296
Sugar-cane
... 109
How to make Qood Coffee „. ...
... 414
Suggestion
... ... 849
luoreaie of Coffee Produotion Mnoe 1859
... 416
Tea ...
... ... 189
lutroduotion to Southern India
140, 878
TeaBUght
.70
Moeha, Trade ... ...
... 296
Thorough Befonnatian in Agrionltute ...
... 88
New Subititute foe
... 294
Taster Sericulture
... 191
Note* ...
28, 101, 175, 257
Tree Cultivation in India ...
...270
Planting in Fiji ...
... 28
1
>1
1
... I9fr,
Preparing for tire Market ...
... 888
White Blights to Genmiumi...
... ...
Quality and Quantity
.141
Wool and Feather*
... m
Shade neoeiiary for Coffee ...
... 839
imrmpTam:
Statietie* of Coffee
28, 209
What ie Coffee made oft ...
... 227
Agrioultural Bank*
.45^.
Worid’e Coffee Trade, The ...
... 178
Agrioultural Bank* for India
.w-
Aorioolture In France ... 42, II8, 158, 198, 289, 277, SIS'
COBBESPONDENCE.
Agrionlture in the Central Provinoea ...
... 230
Agrioultural Collage*
... 70
Agrioultural Loin*
. m:
Agriouttural fianke in India...
... no
Agriculture In Msdra* ... ..>
112, m
Agrioultural Beak*
.71
Agrioultund Beform ... ...
.«
Agricultural Chemiitry ...
... 112
Agricultural Beports, Mr. Bobertson’* ...
.76
Agrioultural Department, The (New) ...
.71
Bwf and Bread... ... ...
.76'
Agrioultural Improvement ...
... 69
Botany in the NUgirfi ... ...
. m.
Agrioultural Show of Baraitoh
... 149
British North Borneo a* regard* Sago ...
.4OT*
Agrionlture in the Vemaoular*
... ... 190
Oaobar Adminiitratiou
. m
Arborioultnre, Note* on
... 592
Cawnpore Experimental Farm
160, 400
Auotion of Indian Tea
... 190
Chief Juitioe, The, on the Bent Bill, I and ll
4%; 117;
Bamboo for PapeMtodk
... 892
Corf.
... 1511
Bamboo for Paper
no. 111
Coffee and Tea lAef Diteaie
...
Bamboo in Flower
... 929
Cotton OttltivaUon for India...
... .. M, 288
Bengal Silk Trade
... 889, S90, «S1
Cotton Indnstiry, The
... 68s
INDEX TO THE INDIAN* AGEICULTURIST.
Page. Page.
XYAUM U otiou of Cofti * 11 . • <
... 103
Embankments of the Coleroon and Cauvery
... ... 162
Eiporimonts with Sorghttin ...
...
... 0
EnsUlagc
... ... 442
riax Cultivation for India ...
...
... 156
Esparto Grass
... ... 128
Forest Ecsarvalion In the Punjab
... 41
Euraeians as Agriculturists ...
... 40.3
Immigration to Aaaam
... 306
Experimental Farm, Khandosh
... ... 442
ImpTOvemont of Indian AgriouUuro
...
... 352
Experimental Station, Geneva, U. S. ...
... 444
Indian Bee InduBtry
... 3U
Exports and Imports, Indian, for 1881 ...
... m
Jemaalom Artichoke Cultivation in India
...
... 360
Fibre for Paper ...
... 162
London Tea Market
...
... 272
Flax Exhibits at Chioago
... 442
“ Manual of Geology ”
... 8
Food, Importation of,.to ^riria *
... 10
Now Method of Wheat Cultivation for India
...
... 115
Food-aupply of Europe
... 3C9
Notes on Arboriculture
274, 312
Government Farm, Khandesh, Roport on
241, 242
Oat Cultivation for India ...
... 402
Hemp, Indian
... 161
Our lidian Coal-fields
... 393
Horticultural Gardens, Lucknow
... 362
Potato Cultivation for India. ..
... 113
Immigration to Bnrmah
... 124
Povorty of the People
...
... 40
Imports, Australian
... ... 14
Protection from Fire
...
... 438
Indigo...
... 14
Bailways in Eastern Bengal ...
...
... 3.31
Irrigation in the North-West Frovinoes...
... 242, 119, 240
Hallway Freights, Our ....
... 310
Jail Manufaetures
... 403
Kailway Freights, and the Whdht Trade
...
... 74
Jute Machine, Garwood’s ...
. 77
BMlway Bates to Bombay and Calcutta
... 851
Jute aud other Fibrous Plants in Amorioa
44, 78
Bapo Cultivation for India...
... 272
Jute and Ramie Fibre, Mochino for
... 319
Revenue System and the Poverty of the People
... .395
Loo ...
160, 200
Boyol Botanical Garden
... 308
Loud Rovonuo in Bengal
... 78
Eyot’s Need, The
...
... 395
Loud Revenue, Incidence per aero of, in India
... 120
Byot’s Wants, The
... 394
Light, Effects of, on Afegetatlon
... 45
Saharunporo Botanical Gardens
... .398
Mnlzo as n Feeding Stuff
... 11
Silk Cultivation for India ...
151, 194
Milk os a Conveyer of Tuberculosis
... 443
Silk, Cotton, and Sugar
... 397
Milk of Cows, Analysis of ...
... 405
Silk Industry
... 232
Milk in Lamb-fooding
... 443
Socip
... 358
Mineral Reservation in Burma
... 445
Sugar ...
...
... 363
Mr. McMurpliy, Death of ...
... 441
Sugar in India ...
... 231
Natives of India, Poverty of
... 13
Teetawlay Lead Minos, The...
... 440
Nelson A'^alloy Railway
... 12
Thorough Reformation in Agriculture .. .
236, 239,
314, 355
Notes ... 15, 16. 80, 81, 127, 128, 164, 200,
245, 279, 320,
Warrora Colliery...
...
... 440
321, 366, 407, 408
Wealth of India ... ... ...
...
... 7
Oatmeal ... ... ...
... 122
Well Irrigation ...
...
... 350
Opium ...
... 443
EDITORIAL NOTES.
Abkari Bill for Bombay
... 440
Opium in China ...
Opium Crop in China
Opium, Mr. Caird on ... ...
Opium, Persbiu ...
80, 318
... 11
. 125
... 160
Agricultural Banks, Bombay
... 13
Opium, Persian, in China ...
... 14
Agriculture in Bengal, by Peary Chand Mittor
10, 12
Opium Trade, Memorial to Government.. ,
... 445
Agricultural Department for Madras ...
... 44g
Paper, Manufacture of
... 241
Agricultural E.vhibitioii, Mr. Robertson ou
... 161
Paper Mill, Henry VI, Part 11.
... 407
Agricultural Experiments at Bellary ...
... 46
Patelionli
.. 243
Agriculture, Bnport of Canadian Miuister of
... 406
People’s Banks, Germany ... ... ■
... 123
Agricultural Rotums
122
Peppermint Crop ...
... 46
Agrioultural Statistics
... 278
t’liosphati's in the Food of Lambs
... 79
Agricultnveiii India
... 45
Pig-fattening
... 442
Agri-Hortioultnral Society, Punjab
... 13
I’igs, Disease of . .
... 442
Agri-Horticnltural Society of AVostorn India, Prospects of ... 41
Potash as a Fertilizer ...
... 442
Agri-Hortionltural Society of Western India, Buies of
... 40
Poultry ill tlie Nilgiris
... 80
Aloe Plant
... 12
Railway Freight
... 120
American Crop Statistics
.. 14
Eiailways, India ...
... SOI
Amerioaii Progress
... 11
Railway AA^oght Calculator ...
... 80
Ataman Islands, Capacities of the
... 12
Eirinfall ill America
... 136
'SltokFai'm Animals
... 443
Rioe Export from Burmah ...
... 363
Botanical Garden, Ceylon ...
... 213
Salt iu Commerce
... 244
Borneo, British Borneo Company
... 278
Sewage
... 244
Buffalo, Extinction of
...
... 442
Sewage Farm near St. Thome
... 142
Capsicum
... 12
Sheop-fi'eding
... 405
Cardamom $eed, Oermuiatiug of
... 143
Sliip bnildiiig, Ameriem and British ...
... m
Ckttlo' iioisbuiug ..
...
... 120
Sog Beau
... 400
Cellar Fungus Eosmcifriwr Ori/ore
...
... 407
Spirits, Consumption of, in Britain
... 159
Cjjteese-makiug ...
...
... 441
.Statistics, Australian Colonics
... 364
Chenopo<Uam Album
... 441
Statistics, North-AVost Provinces and Oudh
318, 310
Cbmmorcial Speculation in United States
... 404
Stoani Plough iu the Straits ...
... 1.59
Cotton Crops in America
... 442
.Substitutes for Jute
... 14
Cotton Cultivation in the Punjab
...
... 317
.Sugar in America...
... 125
Cotton, India
... 103
Sugarcane iu Buniiali
... 446
Cotton Piece-goods
... 404
Sugareaue in Fiji.,.
... 123
Cotton-saed Oil, Manufacture of
... 121
Sugarcane iu India
... • ... 79
Cotton-spinuing Spindles
... 78
Sun Fiowers, Uses of, in China
... 442
Cfttoii ^ms for Cattle Food
... 400
Sylhet, General and Laud Administration Report ... ... 362
CpltivaMon, Ryots’mode of ...
. 4 .
... 243
Tea ...
... 444
Tfratping
...
124, 125
Tobacco
... 161
of Britain ...
...
... 123
T»y, AVhence derived
... 244
INDEX TO THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Pauk.
Vine Disease, Hemedy for ... ... ... ... 13
Vintage, France ... ... ... ... ••. 243
Waate Land*, Punjab ... ... ... 20
Water, Cliunges in, and Action of Irrigation Water ... 444
Water, i’ontcntfi of I’lanta, ^■|^riation ill ... ... 143
West African Trade ... ... ... • ..> 124
Weather, Eflccta of, on Inaeot Life ... ... ... 440
AVheat ... ... ... ... 43, 40
Wheat and Corn, liarroatiug of, in India ... ... 407
Wheat Crop ... ... ... ... ... 4(H
Wheat Crop, h'Htiniato of ... ... ... ... 13
Wheat, India as a Wheat-producing Country ... ...344
Wheat, Sra ... ... ... ... 190
Wheat Trade in India ...» ... ... ... 127
Wind I’owcT, Sir William 'I'hompaon on ... ... 43
FOKUSTKY.
American Forests... ... . . ... 2.')4
Amer'ioan Timber Supply ... ... ... 330
Arboriculture ... ... ... ... ... 210
Bengal Forests ... ... ... ... f)7
Cochineal ... ... ... ... 413
Cutch... ... .. ... .. 412
Forestry in .Scotland ... ... 211
Forest Ciinservaney ill C.iylon ... .. 2.54
Forest V’lanting in Coorg ... ... 57
Forests and Rainfall ... ... ... 37.5
Forest and Water-emrses .. ... ... ... 130
India Uiililicr in Ci)lunil)ia ... . ... ... 136
Mamifaetnre of Charcoal at IVnrliyn Castle ... ... 25
Notes , . 2.5, .57, ns, liri, HI, 170, 201), 2.53, 291,
335, 374 411, 450
Ro-aiTorcstation ... ... ... ... ... 202
Re forestation of India ... ... ... ... 98
.Sijuare Bainhoo... ... ... ... ... 172
Teaching of Forestry, Tile ... ... ... ... 17l
Trees and Rainfall ... ... ... 210
Trees, Inlluouce of, on Climate ... ... ...377
THE GARDEN.
Apples Growing at North Riding Asylum, Clifton, York ... 457
Aspanagtis and its Culture. . ... ... ... 173
Altar of Kosos ... ... ... ... ... 137
llce.kec|iing ... ... ... ... ... 254
Bee-keeping in India ... ... ... ...293
Blaokhirds in Gardens ... ... ... ... 53
Cahha,'''! Worms. Destruetiou of ... ... . . 20
Caladiuin Tubers, Howto keep them ... ... ...294
Cauiellias and their Culture ... ... ...214
Flower I’ot Ague ... ... ... .. 53
Gleanings and Notes ... ... ... ... 413
Gooaeherry ... ... ... ... . . J 37
Ilortioullnre in Lower Bengal ... ... ...457
Horticulture in Switzerland ... ... ... ... 172
Household Gardening for the Ililla ... ... ...213
Jalaps... ... ... ... ,,, ... 413
Mistlotoo ... ... ... ... ... 99
Notes ... 20, 68 , 99, 137, 172, 212, 254, 3.30, 377, 411, 457, 293
Orange Cultaro ... ... ... ... ... 59
Pansies ... ... ... .. 333
Poach in China ... ... ... ... ... 214
Plants for table decorations ... ... ...336
Planting Rosea ... ... ... ... ... 293
Primrose, The Double Crimson ... ... ...214
PropagatingCllinatlsera ... ... ... ... 264
Recipes ... ... ... ... ... 212
Rhododendrons for Conservatory Dsooration ... ...216
Strawberries ... ... ... ... ... 294
MINERALOGY,
Auriferous Sulphides and their treatment ... ... 96
CoaiinRewah ... ... ... ... 291
Copper in India ... ... ... ... ... 134
Formation of Coal, Tho ... ... ... 135
Gold Returns for 1881 ... ... ... 97
Iron Smelting in the Savantvady State ... ... ... 60
Notes ... ... 24, 50, 95, 134, 109, 290, 336, 374, 410
Peacock Copper Ore in Ceylon ... ... ... 68
Period of Suspense, Tho ... ... ... ... 95
Salt Supply of India, Xho ... ... ,.. ... 90
OFFICIAL PAPERS.
Agrlcnltural Department, The
American Agricultural Bill ... ... ... ... 106
Analysis of the Seeds of Ciumia OccichitluJiii and CatMa Tora ... 321
Analysis of tho Working of various Tea Confjmiiies ... 82.5
Carob Cultivation ... ... — ... 128
Cinchona in Darjeeling ... ... ... ... 81
Coal-fields of Assam ... ... ... ...367
Coobiiical ... ... ... ... ... 202
Cotton Cultivation in tho Bombay Presidonoy ... ...408
Experinieiital Cultivation, by Captain Buttler, Deputy Com-
uiissioner Mergukdiiring last year ... ... ...,323
Note on till' Lae Industry in tho iSuuthal I’ergunnahs, 1881 ... 82
Opium ,. ... ... ... ... ... 284
Statisties of Sugar rrodnotinn ill India . . ... 245, 322
iSugareaue Cullivatiou ill Burmah ... ... ...449
Tea ... ... ... .. ... ... 201
Trade of the Country to bo traversed by the projected line of
Railway between Seetaramporc, on the East Indian Railway,
and Nagporo, on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway ... 365
Tusser Sorienltiire ... ... ... ... 203
Wells for Irrigatiou ... ... ... ... 201
SELECTTONS.
Abode of the Honey Ants, The ... ... ... 43
Advantages of ehangiiig Seed-grain ... ... ... 129
Agricultural as a Fiuniue Preventative ... ... ... 18
Agrioiiltiinil Depression, Uemedies for ... ... ... 331
Agricultural Department ... . . ... ... 203
Agricultural Exhibitions , . ... ... ... 10,5
Agricultural K.xperimciits ... ... ... ... 330
Agrioiiltural Experiineiits, and bow to conduot them ... 88
Agriculture Experiments in the Bellary District ... ... 83
Agrioultuni.1 luiprovemeiits in India ... ... ...327
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India ...22, 54, 93,
132, 169, 208, 289, 333, 373, 409
Agricultural and Industrial Enterprise in Mysore ... ... 19
American Opinion on Manitoba ... ... ... 87
Analysis of Table Fowls ... ... ...200
Apiary ... ... ... ... ... 93
Artesian Wells in Victoria ... ... ... ... 205
Artificial Indigo ... ... ... ... ... 287
Birds and their habits ... ... ... 91
Boiliiig-Houso Mud ... ... ... ... iflg
Biickmaster, Mr., on tho Soicntilio Teaching of Agriculture ... 333
Cardamom Cultivation ... ... ... ... 19
Carolina Paddy ... ... ... ... ]29
Cattle and Manure ... ... ... ... 85
Cliulfiuch, The ... ... ... ... ... 92
Cheap Fibres ... ... ... ... ... 204
Cocoa (AVytAoxy/on 6 'ucua) ... ... ... ... 20
Cocoonut Cultivation on the Malabar Coast ... ... 18
Consumption of Wiuos, Spirits, Tea, Sugar, and Tobacco ... 63
Condition of tho Indian Peasantry ... ... ... 325
Cotton Cultivation in the Borars ... ... ...287
Cows for Milk and Butter ... ... ,.,262
Cultivation of tho Shumac Tree in Italy ... ...160
Cultivation of Liiiuorioo ... ... ... ...181
Effect of Manum on Crops ... ... ... ... 261
Emigration and Migration ... ... ... ...249
English Agricultural Statistics ... ... ... 53
Ergot on Grasses In Now Zealand ... ... ...261
Experience in the Hop Gardens, My ... ... fjfi
Extraction of Crude Turpoutiue ... ... ... 54
Farmer at Beading, The ... ... ...870
Fish Guano in Norway ... ... ... ... 131
Flax for Paper-making ... ... ... 237
Formation of Soils ... ... ... ...107
Government Plantations in Jamaica ... ...463
Grass as a Paper Material ... ... ... ...247
Grape Vine Cultivation in Cashmere ... ... ... 48
Guano ... ... ... 207
Hedgerow Timber ... ... ... 93
Hop-growing in Australia ... ... ... 288, 329
Indigo... * ... ... ... ... 462
Indnstry, Southern ... ... ... ...868
Indian Gardens ... ... ... ... ...461
India Rubber ... ... ... 92
IV
INDEX TO THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST.
Page.
Indu RabUrudOattePffivteinB^gop. . ...288
\ Irrlgatk ftCwuliiBlndjA ... ... ... ■■■ 289
JapSa Pm in ludfit, The ... ... ... ... 46S
Jute, Cultivation of, itk Egypt ... ... ... 49
KhatCnftkor AndiknTea ... ... ... ...454
Uo ... ... ' ... ... ... ... 246
Liquid Munun ... ... ... ... ... 287
Making of Tm end Coffee, llie ... ... ... S28
Milk M Pood end Medicine ... ... ... ... SI
Olive CuUivntiou iu Italy ... ... ... ... 53
Opium in China ... ... ... ... ... 48
Orange Trade fat tile Aeorat... .., ... ...208
Origin of Upinm-tmoking, The ... ... ...369
Urima Irrii^ttou Projeot, The ... ... ...249
Palms in Travanoore ... ... ... ... 84
Paper Mnlbeny Tree, The ... ... ... ... 48
Permanent Pasture ... ... ... ... 62
Plants of Mythology ... ... ... ... 130
Plants in New Countries ... ... ... ...832
Potato, History of, Noteson ... ... ... SO
Poppy, by Suohe of the Snny Dynasty ... ... ...252
Poultry Form ... ... ... ... ... 60
Poultry Yard, The ... ... ... ... 205
Prodnotlou and Loss of Nitrates in the Soil ... ... 167
Production and Preparation of Malaga Ealsins . ... ... 160
Professor Bheldon on Dairy Farming ... ... ...454
Rice Paper ... ... ... ... ... 90
Eice Cultivation iu Japan ... ... ... ...332
Boss-shire Experimental Field Club ... ... ... 91
Sensible Reformer, A ... ... ... ... 55
Sirhind Canal, The ... ... ... ... 285
Soil of Dehra Doon ... ... ... ... 129
Soluble vs. Insoluble Phespbatio Manures ... ...369
Sugar-growing in Queensland ... ... ...208
Sugar in China ... ... ... ... ...205
Sugar.plantlag in Jamaica ... ... ... ... 21
Sugar Production of Britiih India ... ... ...247
Sun-flower Tree in the Sunny Land ... — ... 50
Tanning Industry, The ... ... ... ...246
Toaroarrylng ... ... ... ... ... 455
Tea-drying ... ... ... ... ... 455
Toungya Cultivation ... ... ... ... 20
Town Sewage ... ... ... ... ... gy
Vegetable Mould and Earthworms ... ... ... 21
Vine Pest, The ... ... ... ... igg
Water Power, Our ... ... ... ... 47
White-ants ... ... ... ... ... 248
Wood... ... ... ... ... 4 g
SEEICULTURE.
Bombyces reared in 1881 ... ... ... ... 220
Conditioning ... ... ... ... ... 220
Developmant in America ...
Page,
... ... 219
History of Silk Culturs in the United Stataa
... 800
Notn ... ... ... ... 80,
14fl, 281, 839, 417
Serionltnrp in Ttiuevelly ...
... 417
Bilk ... .
141, 211
Silk, American Report
... ... 379
Silk, China Crop...
... 839
Silk Culture in Myaore
... 438
Bilk Cnltnre in Amrioa
... 160
Silk Diffiottlty in Japan
... so
811k exported from Calcutta ...
... 102
Bilk in France ...
... 300
Silk in Hungary ...
... 800
Bilk-producing and other Bombyoet reared in 1881 178, 220
Bilk Trade, The ...
... 201
Statistics
... 42
Tusser Silkworm, The
.181
TEA.
Assam Coolies ...
... 26
Auditor, The
... 415
Calootta Tea Syndicate
295, 414
Colouring Artifloially
... 215
Consumption of, In America ...
... 2J6
Contract
... 4)4
Cost of Production In China and India...
... 218
Early Use of Tea in China ...
... 61
Exports from Punjab
... 27
Exhausting of Tea Garden Soil
.. 60
Imports to Britain
.. 26
luoreased Demand for Indian Tea
... 101
Indian Tea Industry, The ...
... 337
Knldja Treaty and the Trade
... 1.39
NIjni Novgorod, Tea at
... 26
Notes... ... 26, 27, 59, 99, 1.38, 173,
255, 293. 3.37, 414
Faoking
... 1.39
Planting in Madras
... 378
Position of Indian Tea in 1862
... 100
Proposal for pushing Tea in Groat Britian
... 00
Prospects of
... 27
KuMiim Market for China Tea
... 100
Statistics
27, 1.38
Sub-Division and Bulking of Indian Tea
... 458
Tea -
... 3.38
Tea as an Investment
... 217
Tea in China: the Question of Natural Hybridixing ... 266
Tea Clearings
... 139
Tea: Effects on Physical Strength
... 296
Tea for Exportation
... 216
Ttn Qaxette on pushing Tea in Great Bi-itain
... 00
Tea Season, The...
... 174
ITO. 182 .]
THE
INDIAN AGRICULTtJBIST.
A HOKTHIT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND 8TATI8TIC8.
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTA MONDAY, JANUARY 1, 1883.
[No. 1.
NOTICE’
OUBSCRIBERS to the Btatbbuax, Fiiiend or Ikdia, and
Ikdian AoBiotTLTORisr are informed that arrangenmUs have
note been made by which thetejoumale will for the future be pub-
tithed under the general euperintendence of the undersigned.
All communications concerning ths general business of the
SiATEBStAN AND Friexd OF INDIA Office, Advertitementi, and
Subscriptions to the daily STATsaMAN and Friend of India,
weekly Friend of India and Statesman, ojKf Indian Aoeioitl-
ruRisT, should be addressed to the MANAGER.
All communications regarding literary matter should be ad¬
dressed to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM EIACH.
June 13 th, 1881,
CONTENTS:
Facie.
Acknowlbdcimbnts
CoBRESrONDENCE—
Ciiwapurn Exporimonlal Fana 5
('fwtor 6
CiiBtor I’lontiaa . 6
An Indian Tea I’lnntor on the
Tea Fntorpriae in Ceylon ... C
Ajcrionlturc in India. 7
Boo C'ultnro ... ... 7
Lk.cw.nu AimcLKs-
i Wnporo Farm Kxperiuienta,
1881-82,-1., II, ...
TIio Gorornmont of Bengal na
a I.And!ord ... ...
Potroluum In Aasam ...
The 'Worrom Colliery
liMTonuL Nows
Arborioulturo.
On the Economio Value
the Jack Tree ...
Sugar-Cane Cultivation
Upper Western India
Report on Aloe Cultivation at
the Central Jail, Haaaribagh 20
Critical hfetioeB .20
Fare.
Selections—
Economical Manuring ... 21
To inako Fowla Ijuy in Winter 23
Food not Poathors .23
Indian Gardena 23
The Cultivation and Qiuiiitios
of Bnailago.21
Agrioultural and Horticul¬
tural Society of India 21
I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
A Hand-Book of Common Salt, by James J, L. fiattoo, M.Di,
M.O., Snrgeon Major, Madras Army, sscond edMon, wvfsM
and enlarged. Madras, Higginbotham A Co.; Lnsdon, W, H
Allen 4 Co.
A Manual of the Land Revenue Systems and Land Tenures of
British India. By H H. Baden-Powell of the Beu^ Civil
Service, Calcutta. Offioe of the Superintendent of Uovem>
ment Frinting, 1882.
Report on the Experimental Farms in the Hyderabad and Xhandesh
Collectorates of the Bombay Presidency for the year 1881-2.
Elembiwi of Sylviculture ; a e^iort treatise on the soientiflo culti¬
vation of the Oak, and other hard wood trees. ^ the late Q.
Basueris, In^otor of Forests, Professor at the Forest l^hool
of Nancy, Translated from the French (i^d Edithm) by G. G.
Fernandez and A. Smythies, B.A, Indian Forest B«rvioe.
London ; William Bader 4 Son, 14, Bartbolomew-oloee, 1882.
The Mongoose on S^r Estates in the West Indies. By D. Morrit.
M.A., F.G.S., Director of Publio Gardens and Flaatationsi
Jamaica, G. Henderson 4 Co., Jamaica.
Records of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. XV, Part 4,
CORRESPONDENCE.
CAWNPOKE EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
of
in
8
, 9
10
. 11
. 13
la
18
18
Cacao—
liicrcoao of Cacao Cultivation
ill Trinidad.25
Cinchona—
Cinoliona in Madras.26
Note .26
FoKtsrnv -
Noto . og
The Garden—
Noto .26
SEHIC'CLTmiE—
Noto .27
Tea-
The Retail Prioos of Ton '... 27
Adtebtissments .28
Our C oiYespondents and Contributors will greatly oblige
us if they win take the trouble, where the returns of cultiva¬
tion are staled by them in Indian weights and' measures, to
give their English equivalents, either in the text, in j)aven-
thesis, or in a footmote. The bigah in particular varies so
much in the different q/rovinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to give the English value of it in all cases. It loould be a great
reform if the Government itee(f followed the same course in all
the (\giciol reports published by it,
All correspondence must bear the full name and addreu of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee
«t999df<m, W6$MtgJn_ fftf iMiot of emoHj/miu kturs.
TO THE EDITOR,
Sir,—W ill yon permit me to offer a few remarks on the scathing
strictures passed by Mr, 0. L, Bryce in re Mr. Fuller’s experiments
I at Gawnpore ?
1 must first state I um not an agrioultural analytical ohemist,
but an amateur, and secondly, that I have never met Mr. Fuller >
ho comes from the N.-W.P., whereas I hail from another part of
I India, so that you can acquit me of having any personal feelings in
the controversy. '
Mr. Fuller’s lips are sealed by official eUquette, but I am not
BO restricted-
“ Which is why I remark
“ And I own It with pain—
That there is nothing in Mr. Fuller’s report to show the operations
wore conducted witli waul of oare ; moreover, I fall to sec that any
analysis of either farmyard maiiur.,or the superphosphate employed,
oouhi have been productive of any real good. Any ohemist, or
in fact any man who hod any theoretical knowledge of agricultidil
muilylical ehesnistry, could, knowing the quality of the ingredients
employed, be able to calculate, withm very narrow limits, the com-
position of his superphosphate, i.e,—the quantities of oaloic sulphate,
alkaline salts, oaloic phosphate, to., contained therein. With regard
to the state of the manure (farmyard dung) used, if Mr. Fuller
did not state whether it was rotted or not, he evidently oonoludsd,
as I do, that no man in possession of his sensss would, without
very goml reason, use other than thoroughly decomposed dung.
Again, Mr. Bryce says that Mr. Fuller’s oxporlroants have not
resulted in any improvement of tbs staple. This U a sweeping
assertion unsupported by specific proof, for the very foot of the
pedigree wheat having given such a large yield, in some iostance4'..t
equal to 4 bushels per sore, shows that under Mr. Fuller’s manage^
nieut the quality of the grain has improved.
Mr. Bryoe again twits Mr. Fuller auent the abscttoe of onalytU
year by year, This Is mere hair-splitting, and it is not unrsosonaUs
to suppose that, ha-ftmg increased in productive powers. It maji.
to i slight extent have increased hi slbumeuoUU a ' *
bydEatse, aa any ottwr wheat wobM hare d(MMk M»|)y karri
6
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. Januaiy 1,1888.
=- ■ ■ ... , , ,, , , - ,T i* l i l i i ll i l »
M la agricultural aiialytloal ohemlat, must know that to Improva
a ataple of any kind U a prooeai demanding aome yeana of careful
cultWatioa. 'threa year*, Ui very Ufaittodperiali, and ahpuld the
Departmentfjof A^oidture moceed In racing appecioa of whoat to
the Esgy*h%r Burp^etB eoala of product^enaaajb everf>alx yaan, a
great deal will have been done. Nature doeo not move by “ leaps"
and boands,” American maize, Carolina rice, New Orleans cotton
w«ra not Immght up to their present standard of ezoellenco in a
decade,
Recording to Mr. 0. la, Srppe, Mr. Fuller’s great fault rests In
the Iftet of his not being an offHeultural analj/Htal chemUt, but
'VasMljr Apoor atan, an official of oensiderable abUityt who, in addition
to having reoeived a liberal education and pptsesslng a natural predi-
lictlbn fwtkgricultural pursuits, brings a mind «mlarg«d fay experi-
aa a a fai India to assist him in the discharge of his duties. It was
no doubt on these grounds that the Oovemment saw fit to transfer
him to the Oentrul Frovfntiei. Now the deld is elear for Mr. 0. L.
Bryoe. Could yon not persuade him, as an agricultural analytical
oBeffilsb to offer his valuable services to Six Alfred Lyall who, in
*addith>ii to sharing Jifr. Bryce’s views, would jump at such an offer,
htad take the ffrst hfaaaoe of supplying the Department of Agricul¬
ture with a long-foU want—viz., an agricultural anaXytieal chemist f
'’^e jffidhld' &en bS no longer shocked at having “experiments
bf#ly «oad(f'cib,di’' “notes negtlgontly made,” or the Department
of Agrioulturs brought into discredit, and what is more to the
.|)0(nt). tho** <bkta of the highest importance would bs carefully
ooUatad t
1. Dates on which seeds wars sown.
8. Thexmomstriced and barometrioal changes, direction of wind,
&«.
5. Be^MU.
.^lyssf of soil, manure, aud irrigation waters.
6, jQi^tlty of straw per plant aud buuch.
] ^ose essential i>oints would be of course imparted to the outside
world, and those whp, like myself, are not amlyticiU agri-
cuUural cAmiiie, but merely amateurs, aud as such, are so absurdly
weak-miudo'd as to call for impartial criticisms aud—
FAIlt FLAY.
P. Mr. Bryoe has tried to demolish Mr, Fuller : in fact, he
has dons so to his own satisfaction ; but Mr. Bryce may perhaps
recollect a tragic episode in the history of Constantiuople. Heraclius
Exarch of Africa demolished Fhosas, the usurper, who had some
time previously demolished Maurice, the Venerable Emperor of
the East, Before Fhujas was finally demulUhod, in the accents of
despair being, we are told, in a very uncomfortable position (in
fact by the orders of the avenger of Maurice, bung up by the heels
for the inspection of an admiring multitude) he ejaculated : “Would
thou have ruled better ? ” Mr. Fuller will, I kuow, excuse
me for mentioning him in the same breath with the ruffian
Fheeas, but very probably after this demolition he may feel
tempted to ask Mr. Bryco if he also “ would have done bettor ”
had the Oovemment of the N.-W. Frovinoes entrusted him with
the charge of tho Experimental Farm, Cawnpore,
F, P.
CASTOR SEEDS.
TO THB «DIT0£.
Sni,r-Ia. your issue of November 1, “H. T. T.,” writing from
tbs Berarai rpontipns a large white variety of castor plant, which
grows to a height of 16 or 20 feet, and lasts for several years. This
-variety is unknown to us down here, and I should be much obliged
If “H. X. X,” would kindly put me in the way of getting a small
paokstof seeds down to experiment with.
S.
Numoolt Madras.
Nor.—W e have obtained and forwarded a packet of seeds to our
omS«opontot->Ei)., /. A.
CASTOR-PLANTING.
TO 191 SPITOR.
Stt,"*-layoOr Issue of ths 1st November, “H.T.J.,” writing from
star under the heading of “ OastOr-Flanting,” mentions a
bdOkher,” should bo greatly obliged If you oould obtain for
le » dssoriptloa of the “bu^hor,” with, if possible, asfcstoh.
bsve MM to get any one tiiat I can trust to make up one,
rithont a Isffi mtplanation of it; eadeball feel vaiy grat^ to
X.” If heslriaiwlp me.
i" . Jt X)t T,
faloBO. DsaadMC ^
AN INDIAN TEA PLANTER ON THE TEA
ENTERPRISE IN CEYLON.
( To the Suitor qjfkht Otfffin Oi|ierofr ,)
Dun Sib,—I promised to write to you now and agMn on tea
in Ceylon, and ought to have done so before now, but I thought it
would be better to welt until I knew more of the climate and land
I was writing abppt, so that I sbopld not load any one astray. I
can now write' to you on theirabjeet with more eonfldenoe, having
spent a year among yon, during which time I have seen tee growing
from 70ft. above sea-level to over 6,000ft., and I am well satisfied
with the growth at all etoyrtlqiis, and I so ^gsr douht that
Ceylon will yet be a great tea-growing country, and the sooner all
who ore Interested In tea put their shoulders to ths whesl to sand
to market teas that will sell at a profit, the better. This can only
be done by giving careful attention to tho pluoking and manufac*
tnre.
Ceylon teas are now begun to be known in riie market, and ws
should give our careful attention to the mannfaoture, so that our
teas wlU get better known. Wo have all a great deal to learn
about the growth and manufacture of tea, and none of ue should
be too proud to bo taught. Wo oan all learn from saoh other, and
should be all willing to assist each pthtr, as all are striving for ths
same end—that is, to make tea a profitable investment, Xbls oan
be doue ; and why make a secret of the fact I
Now that our old love, coffee, has forsaken us, and that tea oan
bo grown in tho old fields among tho coffee, why not plant tea
among the coffee, but leave our old love to shelter tea, and should
our old love give us a good crop, cut down the tea within six inches
of the gvouud, which will only improve the new love, and make her
tlueh and blush better than over ?
I am glad to see that Ceylon teas are improving, and X hope that
they will continue to Improve, although up to tho present time
there is some awful rubbish shipped from Ceylon, from some of ths
greatest tea growers in the island—men that should ere this know
wliat good ten is and how it ought to be made, but still they will
ooutiniio to ship rubbish to the market : in some cases they are
ashamed to put tho plantation mark on the chests. If they send
tea at all to market, they surely should put the plantation marks
on the chests, and, if any of us don’t know how to make good tea,
wliy should we not acknowledge the fact, and be taught by some
one that may know more than wo do ourselves on the subject ?
Weeau never be too old to loaru. I would advise all the Ceylon
tea-plnutors to exchange samples with each other and to visit each
other j in fact, I would advise tea pi'oprietors to give their superin-
teudents 16 days’ leave each year to go round and visit other
estates. If they should see nothing to copy, they may see a lot
to avoid ; tho more fact of exchanging ideas with each other does a
lot of good.
1 have no longer any doubt about the profltoblo growth of tea in
Ceylon, and I am sure that it can be profitably grown from 20 feet
above sea-level to 7,000 feet. Tho flavour of the high-grown tea
will make up for the shorter yield that one would got at a high
elevation,
I consider with oareful management that tea could be worked up
to 400tb. per aoro in the highest elevation in Coylou, and in some
districts in tho low country I would not bo at all suiptised to sea
on average of 7001b. per acre reaohod, and what I mean la not 400
and 7001b. of rubbish, but of good tea that should average Is. M,
per lb. I oould mention several estates that will turn ont more in
three months this year than they made in twelve last year, and all
among that so-oallod poor soil of Aviaawella and Ruanwella, the
ricbost tea soil in the island which will yot be the great tea dlstrlots
of Ceylon.
I am glad to say a lot of land is now taken np for tea in the low
country, which will increase the value of the oldest pioneers of the
district’s estates, who well deserve to be rewarded for going Into a
district that was thought to be feverish and deadly, the men
that 1 am now thinking about gone in for tea In the way they went
in for coffee, how different would their banking account have been
to-day.
I understand that some eutorprising proprietors are not gobg to
content themselves with growing tea and opooa only, but they are
going to start a doily steamer, which will do ariot to open out the
districts, and ought to pay the riiarebolders well.
Wishing good luck to the Reloniganga Steam Navigation Com¬
pany—
C9A.
itoaiy!, M. THSi
AG&lCtftWBEINIllDIA, BEE citLTUEE
[ft tit E^Utor ufOt* Tirmqf India.)
Sis,‘>rhcfe Md «Mi tbo Moount, writtw iiy tlt«
OffloUl Dlr«(Aw of tbe Da|u;tm«nt of Aj^ultnw and Oom-
moroe, N.-W. P. tadOsdh, of th« variotu exp«rim«n(» wiioh ho
humads. Tboro an tome of whloh ho records the teoolto, that
might have bwQ-taken for granted, from ^e general appUeabiUt^
of the old nuudm that the more jou work land the better you nuke
It Hi* nport eeomt a* If he m^t synthetioally to oonatruot
agrlonltnre in India, Inttead of applying the poounon prinoiple*
that guide the beat agrlcultnritti in Sqgland,, tpd from them elimi¬
nating tbs inappUnabledstaila for auoh a oUmate and country a*
India. HU nport, in the equivoeal language of the oertlSeatei
granted by hty reepeoted profeaeor of Greek, doe* great credit to hU
talenta and Industry, Touching fbr neither pho one nor the other.
Winter ploughing at home U considered much mon valuable than
spring ploughing, and winter manuring the best Cbsmioally
speaking, the soli and mknnre get otidUed and disintegrated, and
therefore more ready to take part in tbos* ohemloal operations
which result in the growth of plants, Thb Is the result of his
experiment when be has invested the soil two months prior to
sowing. I notice hh inversion is limited to six inches : hb b a
safe dspth, but bt him beware of following up hb advantage too
eagerly. Many a farmer has been ruined by falling in love with
deep ploughing ; he has raised hb subsoil to the surface of tbs
soli, aud put himself in the position of tbo reclaimer of waste land,
all the while be was paying rental for the best arable. Another
old and tlme-hononrsd maxim b, “Don’t work your bnd (while)
wet,’’ When you do so, yon can easily understand that you are
more likely to produce brioks than pulverbed soil, and the return
will corcespond to tho orops that could be expected oil these
varieties of soil.
The one great element that b wanting In Indian solb, and which
is not supplied to them by manure as applied by natives, b nitrogen.
Odours are tc some degree nutrient, and in India where erory,
thing smells but tbo flowers, the dofleleut nitrogen of this soil may
be supplied by the atmosphere. But here we have another example
of misrule by the English in India s they are actually by sanitary
measares irapovorbhlng the air, and have not been able to luduoo
tho populatfon to oorrospondlngiy ontlch the soil. It strikes me
that the Offiobtlng Director, Jko., is not proceeding In tho way
most caloabted to impress them with the boneflts of nitrification.
The 77 per oOnt of nitrogen free in the air is inert and quite un¬
fitted for purposes of vegetation i only when tbo nitrogen b in a
nascent state, is It in the chemical condition, which permits of its
combining with other elemenb. I will explain it enidely thus.
For all piaotical purposes ammonm (K H 3) the ultimate result¬
ant of manures solid or liquid, b the oonditiou which wo wbh to
reduoe these to, so that by ‘Its decomposition nntritive material
may be provided for plants. Chemioally the operation proceeds
thus, oamol’s dung, when treated yields sal-ammonino; (N H, 4 Cl.),
and when to thb you add qaioklime, you produce ammonia water
aud oaleium ehloiide, thns Ca 0 2N H4Cl.<^Ca Cl 2 -l- 2
N H, 3 -t- H 2 0, aud what can be done quickly by means of heat
in the bboratory, eon be aocompluhed as effectually, tliough more
slowly, by the sun’s rays. To give another example : When you
wuh to make nitrate of potash, you expose animal’s matter (con¬
taining nitrogen) in heaps, together with wood ashes (t e. potash
salts), and lime to the action of air ; the organic matter gradually
undergoes oxidation, nitric acid being formed, which first unites
with the lime and then with the potash, to form nitrate of potash.
What will be noted in all these chemieal prooesses is that lime is
* qubk,’ * living,’ or in oherhioal sonso nasoent and ready for com¬
bination, and by It* ohemloal power it acts as the key to open all
the stores of nitrogen whiifli may he presented to It The Officiat¬
ing Dbeetor, ko., ha* evidently beard that lime b a good thing,
and that gypsum b the sulphate of Ume, and that therefore it must
be a good thing. But gypeum b a stable oompound, and os inert
for ohemloal combining purposes as clay or stone. He bimseU
shows that it inoreases hb outturn most markedly. Gypsum whsu
moderately heated loees Its water, and becomes that well known
substance, plaster of Paris, which we all know becomes, on again
being mobtened, a bard oast. If he goes on with this, the Offi¬
ciating Direotor, Jko,, may eventually be able to supply the British
puhllo with a yerf correct plaster oast of au Indian landscape, and
tho authorities at the Zoo might bo,indaaed to lend the tigers to
make it life-like,—Yours, Jtc,,
T. HUME.
(To the Editor of th* Madm Mail.)
Sflit,—With Tefennoe to the krtfub on' Bee’ CoBW* ta bdti
In ydnr bsne of the 2Tth initsdit, sdlow ms testate that tor yssm 1
have been Interested In the subieot, and several tfaaes tueaeedod
In partly domestioatlng them for months f but tbo difficulties I
I had to contend with wwe great. It b so dlffioub to get the
UaUves to attend to instTuetions without oonstont snpervUw, and
from various sautes IWM unable at the time to giro the subject
my personal attention, and they resulted fa eventual failure,.
There are three kinds of bees common to these hUb, One of (hem
b Identloal with the European ipedes, the Apis nrUt/iio. To
clear np doubts, some two or three years ago I sent spothntab to
F, Moore, Esq., of the South Kousingtou Mflsoom, and that ^tlt-
man was good enough to IdeuUfy them os the Apis nettifled,
Hot long ago a notioe was In your paper oOlUag sMontioD (o tits
•nbjeet, and stating that tome lavantt in Germany hod wrtttsa tn
the German Consul at Modru tw iofomution about bees, and .
moro espeoUlly about the Apts (brtata, Wlthina dpy or twa;«fter:
seeing thb notioe, 1 eoUeoted spesimtp) of the these hintfs. O^-ihays.
found here, end sent them to the Impetbl Germsn Consul,. Albert
Gerdae, Biq., at Uadcae, with tho roquete that he would kindly
submit these speolmen^to hb friends tn Uermsny for ideutlflestloq,
end should they oare to have any of them, I should be happy to
collect and send them, on oonditiou that they send out two oiigM,
and that I would fill one, and send it to It to them, and the Offi'er
cage I purpose keeping for myself, wfth a view to carry on further
ex]perimontB here ; and sbonld hb friends wbh t6 know anything Of
me, I referred them to Dr. Jagor, of Blumeshoff, Berlin; btit t regret
to say that Mr. Consul Gerdos has not had the courtesy it adkuow-
ledgs tho roooipt of my 1etter,or tho siieolmens as yet! I taitf further
state I have been In treaty with Messn. Htighbour and Ckk,
through my son-in-law In England, to get out a beehive, trith a .
swarm of bees, and that they had arranged io send me out their
“ JCUimi Oollaltral JVame /flw,” but unfortunately some friends
who were coming out, aud who were to have taken charge of the
hive, had to postpone their departure indefinitely on noeount of
ill-health. Thus the opportunity was lost of sendli)g out the Uve,
Advieo received the maU before last states that Helghbour and Co.
were arranging with the agents of the British 1 S. N. Coiqpany
to send it out by one of their steamers, aud I hope to receive it
before long. Honey b plentifni daring the season Up here ; the
oolleotion is contraotsd for by tho Mullialies, and seld at IS <m«««
a quart bottle, but at times we have to pay eight annas the bottle,
The honey thus brought round for sale is generally very puce j it b
liquid, viscid but translnoent, and it baa a very sweet taste. If
kept for a time the honey becomes thick, white, and granular in
texture,
JoBu Shobti.
Jitdiitit |isrii[ulturist.
CALCUTTA, JANUARY 1, 1889.
CAWNPOBE FAHM EXPERIMEirTS, 1881-S2.
No. I.
T he Cawnpore Farm experiments for 1881-82 are ofBciiiHy
held to establish that “ the main problem of practical
agriculture in India b to supply niiroffm in the form of a
cheap manure." It b nitrogen alone that b defloieut in Indian
soil. To thb declaration b added another (vide N.-W.P( Oovorii-
moiit Oatelte, 9th September 1882) that “ the great increase
in produce which results from early ploughingbalqmstaertataly
due to the amount of nitrogen in the form of ammomo, which
it enables the loosened soil to absorb from the rain, and, j»o-
bably, from the air os well." The first b an original—a very
original—postulate as respects Indb; the second is-well
the unconscious reproduction of a familiar axiom laid down
by Liebig some 30 yoars ago, and endorsed by all agricultural
authorities. But jxswibly none of these are represented
in the Cawnjrare Farm library, and the fac t in question has
doubtleai been evolved from the depths of the inner
consoiousness. It iviatisfaotory, however, to have ^ ndc^onol
tMtmonyw^thoughneedleu—to the worth of alos^o^hil^hd
Beiar, Novembw
THE INDIAN AGRIOULTtTBIST. Jaatuuy 1, 1888*
•dootton in favour of tiie atmo«ph«re and rain being the eonroes
( nitrogen.
The Cavrapore Thrm experiments are in their infancy, and
tort pass throng^ the initial stages to aduhism with the naual
rdeals of me d rie s , oonghs, and conToMona. About forty or more
eon ago there was a craee among European fartnen about
itrogmim manures. It died away when their true value vras
nown : it will disappear at Oawnpore under similar eulighten-
tent Oomparative experiments have everywhere proved that
lie use of any one fertilleer, whether nitrogen in any of its
irms, or lime, potaeh, phosphoric acid, or others, has always
rodnoed conflicting results, indicating, as a disturbing cause, the
reestue, in different propoitions in the fields experimented upon
(aani9ava{lalfieplant.«on8titueut or constituents which the fer-
illotr OMisted the plants in absorbing. It follows that the re-
eated tue of a given fertiliser (as proposed for nitrogen by the
lOnstsAt Direotor of Agriculture) must progressively impoverish
le ooU of the oo-aotive constituents sooner or later, and reduce
te ontturo of the crops to nothing. Mr. Fuller's experiments
Xvs not embraced this feature of the caee, or be would not
ive ovamated nitrogen, esMntdal though it is to plant economy,
bat m it of any value in tTie toil hy ittelf,
od tiiat several contribute to make up a plaut, is a
sidhud axiom that should never be lost sight of. The
Igwapore experiments conclusively establish this. An un-
wtwrtd soil (page S86 of the Ooveniment Gazette, already
[noted) yielded 771 ft. of whwt per acre. The same soil,
ertiUsed wiUi nitrate of potash at S40 ft. to the acre, yielded
1,606 ft. Difference in produce—834 ft. Another unmanured
toil yielded 777 ft. per acre, and when similarly nitrated,
produced 1,>49 ft.,' difference in yield 465 ft. If nitrogen
la all that Indian soils need, explanation of the disparity in
yield of the nitrated plots is necessary. The two unmamired
■oils, it is worthy of note, were in the present instance in iden¬
tical conditions for experiment There was a difference of
only S lb*, per aor* in their unmamred yield ; yet, when
nitrated, one field yielded 369 ft. per acre more than the other !
There is but one explanation of this. One field had more
assimilable plant^onatituents awaiting excitation with activity
by nitrogen than the other ; and the conclusion that follows
is, that tomtthing beeidet nitrogen is needed for Indian soil.
Th* above illustrates also the wide variations in latent
fertility over small areas. The rule holds good everywhere
It is quite to the point to suggest that the abof
noted difference in yield of 369 lb. {ssi acre, >i, tor the
benefit of those accustomed, to think in Unveriiment
bigahs, 6^ maunds per bigah is not a maximuiu difference,
poasibilities of experiment might at any time turnish two
fields that, in an numanured condition, would yield n difference,
say, of 100 ft. per acre ; but fertilised, whether by nitrate of
potash or phosphates or other constituent, tlie apparently
inferior field might yield 1,000 ft. per acre more than the
other. The explanation in this case would be just tike same
as in the Oawnpore experiments. The fertiliser would be
ossiated titrOugh more co-active plant-constituents Isiiug present
in one field. Our preeent agricultural kuowludge does not
extend so fsr as to determine what combinations take ))lace
within the soU, and we cannot tell what the effect will b<-
by the addition of fertilisers, or by combinations of them. We
can tell generally only after a crop is raised what the effect
has been, but we cannot predict from this the effect on fields
elsevriiere ; eo that, whatever the results with certain fertilisers
on oertahi fields may be, they hold good only for those fields,
and only for the occasion in question. In tlie Oawnpore
experiments nitrate of potash was found good for two fields
thm The results were true for them only, &nd for that
f ftsm rio" Nitrate of potash might have yielded superior
or inferior reenlts elsewhere, or even iii the ,two self-same
: fields on repetition of experiments. What holds good of the
nitrate of potash in these oases, is equally true of other
fertilieenh combinations of them. The question then is ;
in the abMOOe of any knowledge of combinations within the
soQ, what obnorivable purpose is served by experiments, such
as those In the dawnpore Farm, knd, for years, elsewhere 1
j^bably, expeiiuentcts hope to fluke into edine discovery that
will prove the key wiih which the untold agriohhoral wedth
under our feet is to be unlocked.
No one article could be universally used as a |brtlliser. The
supply could never meet a fraction of the demand. Two
hundred and forty pounds of nitrate per acre were used in the
Oawnpore experiments. Every 1,000 acres would, therefore,
need 240,000 ft. of nitrate annually ! IVom 'this simple illus¬
tration may be judged the feasibility of supjfiying, even
under the iwoposed freedom of aallpetre manufacture, the
requii omente of a aiugle district in the North-West Provinces
and Oudh. We may, in foot, diamiss the notion. The
country is virtually no better for Uie alleged discovery of
the efficacy of nitrate of potash as a fertiliser. Millions of
acres must remain without it. What the effect might be of
annually saturating the soil with saltpetre is a point that
requires careful consideration on behalf of the very agriculturists
whose interests are sought to be promoted.
But discussing the Oawnpore experiments on other grounds,
a radical defect in the conditions vitiates the results. The
arw of each plot—-»u., one-twelfth acre—was too limited for
reliable resulto. The most conservative Settlement officer,
afflicted with a craze about State rights, would not attempt
the computation of the out-turn per acre over a large area
from BO small a plot as one-twelfth of an acre. He would never
baee the Government demand on the produce of one-twelfth
of an acre of the most fertile field in a village in order to
“ vindicate Indian agriculture.” An insignificant twelfth of
an acre, carefully fertilised and sown with picked seed to the
utmost fraction of a square inch, solicitously tended, and
irrigated opportunely no lets thanfour timet during tbe growth of
the crops ! Are these the possible conditions of luiiian agri¬
culture, whether by wells or canals 'I If this is tlie way the
Department of Agi'iculture intendR to develop the potentialities
of the soil, it will have to wait for a teeming population, minute
sub-division of land, a aaitjietre factory in every village, and an
inexhaustiljio water-supply.
II.
rPHE poverty of a given soil is simply a question of degree.
-I It might be rich enough for the production of an abimd.aiit
crop of some sort, yet poor in comparison with other soils.
This is the position of the Oawnpore soil, which tlic f.n ui
authorities declare is “ generally jioor and nowhere of
j.rccpZtonof fertility.” Yet on an “ uimanwrecf plot which h.nl
leen watered only twice, the crop (wheat) reached the very
ugh outturn of over 44 hutiteli per acre (Y.- TF. P. OatHU
September 9, page 284,—very little justification for denouncing
such a soil. But the outturn in the given insUances and otlierx
less remarkable is attributed to the use “ of a soil-inverting
plough.” While admitting the advantages of su.'h a plough
under the supplementing conditions of a nondfiil supply of
fertilising matter, it is a reasonable assumption tliul the
Cawnjiore farm has, during various experiment's and
operations over jinst years, received manures of sorts directly
and indirectly to an extent which is impossible to ordinary
Indian agriculture. As no crop exhausts the manure specially
supplied for it, some is still left in the soih It is carried down
or diffused beyond the reach of the roots. This aspect of
the question has been often disoassed, and it is estinmted
that from about oue-third to a half only of such manure is
removed by a crop. The spaces between the roott of one
plant and those of the surrounding plants represent untouched
fertility, and the aggregate of such spaces is from one-half
to two-thirdi of the total area covered by a crop, according
to character. Part or all of the remaining manure is
doubtless removed by subsequent crops ; but considering that
every portion of manure is not immediately assimilable, a
residue of fertilisers is always more or less present in the
soil of experimental forms. Again, some crops will remove
more constituents of one sort than others. Unless, therefore,
the history of every field or plot in an experimental farm is
carefully and accurately kept, It will be difflorit to estimate
the value of experiments, with specific manures, or with un¬
manured plots, i,*., plots not manursd for experiments It
will have been seen from the previous article that of two plots
JflXKiaiy h
THE mmm ac^riciultdiot.
in vnmanvrtd fields in the Oawnpore farm, one yielded 77Ube.
and the other 7771hB,«f wheat per sore. For all practioal
pnrpoeee thedifierenoe of 61be. per acre ie nothing. Yet in these
self same K^miMal^-eoatfelienecf fields, two plots, manured each
wiA fifiOlba. of nitraie oi potash, <me yielded l'414Slb8, of wheat
and the other l,60filbe., or a dififetenee of 3631bs. per acre.
There mnat ooneeqnently have been a marked difi'erenoe in the
amount and diaraeter of the residue of previous manures
in the fields in question, and of the assimilablt constituents df
the soils themselves (by different rotation of crops) which the
nitrate of potash started into activity. As argued before,
it is not one constituent, but a combination of constituents,
that go to make up a crop (an old established fact), and there¬
fore any results obtidned by the use of nitrate of potash .aloue
would not dmnonstrato the exoeptional vjdue of the nitrate,
nor justify the deduction that " the main problem of practical
agriculture in this country is how to apply nitrogen in the
form of a cheap manure.”
The matter is susceptible of further illustration. The
total amount of niiroysii removable by a wheat crop of 80
maunds or l,6001bg. per acre is given (at pages 290 and 292 of
the Ooverimeni Oaiitte aforesaid) at 461bs. per .acre. The
amount of nitrogen in 940lba. of potash is quoted (at page 289)
at 12 per cent or 291bs. But these 2401bs. of nitrate per
acre could not all poeeilily have been directed to the roots of
the plants. Diffusion over and within the soil rendered av,ail-
abla abmit iialf. 14jlbs. of nitrogen titen were utiHzod by
each crop. But the field producing l,242lbe. of wheat or 18^
maunds per acre, removed Sfilbs. of nitrogen, and that yield¬
ing 1,6061 Ijb, or 20 maunds per acre removed 46lbs. Whence
did the excess of 20^Ibs. of nitrogen in one case, and
SOjlbs. in the other, come ? Even if we suppose the whole
2911)8 of nitrogen to have been asumilated by the
crops—an impossibility—we still have an excess of 61ba.
in one case and lOlbs. in the other to account for. Of
course it was furnished by tlie soil and the air. But why an
excess of filbs. in the one cose and 161bs. in the other, unless
we turn for an explanation to the different latent conditions
<i[ lliB two soils, induced by the unequal residues of previous
crojis and iuauureR,and by the different states in which dissimilar
roUition of crops left the soils to be acted upon by the nitrate
of iioUash.
No reason is given in the faiTu report for preferentially
•mploj'ing the nitrate in tho experin nts in question. In fact,
these experimcMits are but counterparts of all others at tlawn-
porc and elsewhere. Given a manure or fertilising agent, to
discover its v.alue is tlie probleia unintelligently sought to be
worked out, but wliicli will certainly never be, beyond the point
that a fertiliser muit cotnpreheud one or more joil-cojistitiients,
or, which is tlie same tiling, one or more piant-eonstitneuts. And
this can be done without resort to expensive and valueless experi¬
ment—namely, by comparative analyses of fertiliser, ci op, and
soil. To show how little tlie soil at Oawnpore needed nitrate
of potash, analysis at Roorkee (page 290 of Gazette afores,aid),
allowed that it posssssed to a depth of 9 inches 5,T171bs. of
nitric acid, eqvud to 1,483 lbs. of nitrogen pei acre; and
potash i6,8361bf. per acre. Nevertheless with this foreknow¬
ledge of the wealth in the soil, S401bs. of nitrate of potash
containing 291bB. of nitrogen were added to the soil. AVhy
was this done when nitrogen enough for 33 crops of 20 in,ami da
each, and potash enough for 600 such crojw, was present within
a depth of nine inches in the soil 7 No explanation of the proceed¬
ing is to be found in the official report in question, any
more than in other like recorded cases for years previous .any¬
where, whatever the fertiliser used, wheliier simple or com¬
pounded. Justification to a certain extent can, however, lie
foun^ on some snoh basis os the following. The (Jawiipore
soil was analysed to a depth of nine inches. Fertility dimuiishcs
downwards, the ratio has not been as yet even approximately
determined and systematised under soil olassification. The
maximum fertility of ^y soil is, however, known to bo within
the depth of the first three Inches. The inversion of the soil bj'
ploughing reduces this upper fertility proportionately to tlu
depth and uniformity of inversion. To get, ns far as prac¬
ticable, the average fertility to the depth of inversion, it is
•dvinU* to ttk« portUis of toil to iu«h depth, say for every ^
throe inohos of the section, and after mixi ng thoroughly to analyse
the same. This was done at Oawnpore. Tlie result obtained—
namely, l,4831ba of nitrogen, and ..10,83Albs. of jxitash per
acre—requires to be reduced by two-thjfds oar by half, aoeord^
to the root-space occupied in surface aud depth by a crop, at
before shown. This will give 497^1be. nitrogen and S,446ibs.
of potash in one case, and 74l41be. nitrogen and 8,117Jibs, of
potash in the other— teUhin rearh of Gte roofs of the crop. In
other words, in one case 11 timea as much nitrogen and
200 times as much potash as would be required by a crop of
20 maunds of wheat per acre ; iu the other 16 times aS mueh
nitrogen and 300 times as much potash for the. same cn^.
Therefore, justification still falls for the empirical addition
of 2401bs. of nitrate of jwilasli containing 2ffiba ' of
nitrogen, diom uxu nettled, if auy dependence on aualyeis is
to be placed. The fact is that iu all experiments ,the Weil
established fact of years is overlooked—that the fertility of a
toil it repneented by tlee attmilable piantfood it toferi. No
rule for determining this has as yet been found, and no
effort is made in the direction either. That by adding
fertilisers tho soil is made move than naturally fruitful
has been known for ageh in agricultural history. But how
much a given soil requires for a given crop and what the
constitution of the fertilizer, we aie nearly ns ignorant of now as
in days of yore. Tliat the assimilable cQiistituenis of a toil
will vary iu quantity and character after a crop and vlith
the crop to be raised, is manifest no less than that the quantity
of a fertilmr and the proportion aud elmractcr of its consti¬
tuents should v.ary with crop too. Tlie determination of
those points is essential, ns also the eoustituents'of a fertUiitr
that (1) are assimilable within the time needed to benefit a
crop, (2) that acting on, or acted on by others in, tho toil will
augment the nssiniilable ooiistituonts needed. It will then.
become possiUe to estimate the eompotUion mid qmniity of a
fertiliser in harmony with (1) a given crop (2) to the nsoertainod
physical condition of tho soil reserved for that crop.
Herein lies the future of agrioniture. lie who resolves these
points will unlock the long-hidden potentialities of the soil.
A. P. W.
THDl GOVHIINMENT OK BENGAL AB A LANDLOHD.
B efore unmy da3'q have pusaed, Mr. Roynolda will
introduce the Rout, Bill iiitc> tlio Legislative Council of
India. Tlie time is roost opportune to remind the Liou-
tenant-Covonior that ho is himself, on the part of Oovern-
incnt, as great a landowner as .any private individual in
these proviuee.s, even such sacred magnates as the Raja
of Biirdwau and the Raja of Dnl■I)lulllga ; and to enquire
how hi.s predeeossors have fiilfillod this great trust which
affootH property of the value of twenty lakhs a yeai'. Wo
kno.v that in England the Government docs not require
reports on the conduct of landowners, does not lecture or
reprove them, and has scarcely interfered with them by
legislature ; Init. on its own estates it ha.s shewn an example
of moderation as to rents and goiicrosity in improvements.
All Crown lands are let on easy terras, and mneli outcrjiriso
has been shewn in draining, fencing, and providing suitablo
farm buildings. In India the Govommeiit has btxm much
more free in its censure upon others, more ready to iiitcrfore
witii the strong hand of the law ; so it might be supposed
that its own conduct would be even still more above re-
jiroach. Wo might expect to find that in every district th«
Government estates formed a model of good management,
with rents moderately assessed, the liost nic.ans taken for
the seourity of tho tenant, and a provision for iniprove-
raonts so liberal that a marked difference might 'be observed
Ijetweeii Govommeiit villages and the snrroniiding traots.
Such would 1)6 the reasonable ex|a;ctation from the experi¬
ence of England, and from the language addressed by offi¬
cials to private owmers : what are the facts 1
Moderation in the exaction of rent is the iirst principle of
good management, most oi tin ■.I'.lhi ... ,i ... i..
merely tecuuse tUci h;.-! lio.i, ^ .
rack-renting. Has Goveniment -d i-.
resjioct to private owuesf! ? Wc sec ir.,,. l ii"?,,
no very recondite authority, that oDioim.-iiA.ng lenv, laies
are not expected t/f> set aa example, but to ioliow one.
10
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Jwuitazjir t, 1888 .
talcing the rent rate of privete lands in the neighbourhood
for a guide in auessment Provision is made for cases
where the private rents may appear too low« and then some
other reastm is to be s^ght for enhanoement; but nothing
is said as to rejecting the standard where the private
rents are too high. It fcdlows that, under the rules,
Government rent must always be as hi^ as that of private
land, and often higher. We notice that, taking the average
of all ,the settlements made last year, the enhancements
were about forty per cent of the original rental Gov¬
ernment settlements are for short periods, say ten years,
and if forty per cent is added at each renewal of the lease
the rate vrtll double eveiy twenty-five years, and by mathe¬
matical progression Increase sizteeh-fold in the century.
This, it will be admitted, is quick work ; the pace is rather
rapid for the ordinary ryot <k Bengal To take another
test, that of the satisfaction of the tenonta We find that
they are very generally oombining on Government estates
to resist enhancement; and even to make a demonstration,
by refusing all rents. Many of the Government ryots of
Midnapore have been seen m Oaloutta assembled in large
bodies to jurotest against enhancements, whioh it is
admitted were excessive, and in some instances absurd. In
NosdebsUy, the Civil Courts have declared some of the
enlumoementemade by Government positively illegal These
may be isolated oases, but what are we to say to the fact
that last year only three-fifths of the current demand was
ooUeoted on the whole of the Government lands ? If short
ooUeotions in a good year are a symptom of raok-ronting, its
presence in an alarming form cannot be denied. It is seldom
possible to know what proportion the rent bears to the value
of the crop, but we have this information as to the largest
Government estate recently settled, that of Khoordoh, near
the Tributary Mehols of Orissa, whioh it resembles very
closely in character. The proportion there is one-foiutL
Now one-fourth is the highest proportion which, under
the new Bill, can bo taken from ryots on the richest lands,
near the most populous towns, where oompotition is closest.
How this maximum can be exacted from a primitive people
cultivating a hxilf-reolaimed jungle in an inaooessible region,
is a puzzle for Mr. Boynolds to explain in his double eapooity
as member of the Board of Kovenue which confirmed the
settlement, and the introducer of the Bill in the Indian
Coouoil
As to the protection of tenants at the rents imposed, it is
to be noted that the s}^tem most inimical to it is that of
iutroducing middlemen, who farm, not the land, but the
ryots, taking them over in a body to make money out of
them. This is called the ticcudari system, and under that
name, has been denounced by all ofiiei^s unanimously.
It introduces, they say, men with no interest iu the estate,
oxeept to screw the last penny out of the tenants durijig
the short period of the tiocadar’s lease, men who hove made
a trade of the art of doing this, and who do not soruplo to
adopt moans suoh*B8 ruining a recalcitrant ryot by forgery
and false charges. Such being the Government view of the
ticcadari system, wo must ask wliy the system is extensively
adopted on Government estates 1 We suppose that more
than half the Government estates are thus farmed out
The rtile is to manage such estates directly, where it is
not inconvenient to do so, and it is so often inoonveuiout
that the Quddleman is quite_a Government institution.
The gr<^ reproach against the Bengal landlord is that he
does not iitiprove, or even maintain, the farms on his estatea
An English landowner builds tbo farm-buusos, digs the
drains, plants the trees ivnd hedges, makes the gates, and
hands over the land to the farmer ready for the plough.
It is objeoted to the Bengal zemindar that he does none
of these things; that he sits by while the land is converted
from primOTol jangle ihto arable fields, sees the occupier
raise the farm-houses, out the undergrowth, break the soil,
and dig the wells, and then demands nearly the whole pro¬
fit It has efen been urged that, being a more unproductive
burden on ^ land, he may properly be put aside. Now,
this deseription, it must be odmitt^, applies to Govern¬
ment, as a ^idlord, without any qualification whatever.
Private ownets claim to have improved in some places; It can
be proved that Government, os owner, never improved.
The railwayi, roads, and canals'madij have no special refer-
enoe to Cr^n ■ lands, and are executed by Government as
ruler of the wh^ npuutiy, not as landlord of eertam definite
estates. The only prorision made for tho tiyiprbvement of
these was a fund of five per cent, on the rental In
many districts this has never been drawn, and where
touobed, it was devoted to eduoation and roads, and not,
except in some inflaiteshnol degree, to in^roving the
estates. The frind has bem alxfiishod, emd in its place
there is to be an allowonoe of seven and-^half per oaut on
rental, for oolleetion expenses and improvements, the allow¬
ance to private persona, for oolleotiou only, being ten per
oent., aim often twenty. It is plain that little mr nothing
for improvements can oome firom such a fund. On the
majority of Government estates, the landlord contributes
nothing, direotly or indirectly, to sudee or maintain or
improve, and is aa much a mere drag on agriculture as the
worst private owner can be.
It will certainly be an awkward position for Mr. Reynolds
when he has to appear in the legislature as the ohampion
of the last of tenant-right, reduction of rrait, compensation
for improvements, andjso forth, ho being, as the member of
the Board of Revenue, in imm^iate charge of Government
estates, the representative of a system of management of
whioh the three oatoh-words might bo, “ high rents,
middlemen where convenient, and no improvement.’’ Hu
will remind many, of the orab in the fable oautioning its son
against walking sideways; of the tipsy preacher at the
tempersnoe meeting in Pickwich, who aooused his audience
of being drunk ; of the warning of Ophelia to her brother—
Do not, as soma angraolona pastors do,
Bhow me the steep and thorny way to heaven.
Whilst, like a pund and reckless libertine.
Himself the primrose path of dallianoe treads,
And recks not his own rede.
But we hope that he may really be rather like the father
in the story-book, who learned morality and religion in
teachiui! them to his son. The position in whioh the Bengal
Government has now placed itself, os the defender of the
ryot in the legislature against rack-renting, must, we hope,
force it to play the good landlord itself. Already, in many
ways, wo see signs of the doubts that precede repontauco
and amendment Sir Ashley Eden would probably have
denied that there was miioh amiss on Government estates,
but Ml*. Rivers Thompson seems to admit that there is,
and to bo preparing for reform.
PETROLEUM IN ASSAM.
W E read in a London trade journal that—“ Advices just
' to hand from New York inform'us that the produo-
“ tion of petroleum at present is at a figure but little greater
“ than the demand for it The rapid deoliuo in the yield
“ of the producing districts ^is causing imusual appreheu-
“ siou in the minds of those in the States who look farther
“ into the interests of the petroleum trade than the spoou-
“ lativc branch of it affords.” It would seem from this
that the enormous demand mode upon the oil deposits for
the last quarter of a century ore at length beginning to toll,
and that the American springs, vast as they have hitherto
proved themselves, are by no means inexhaustible ; no
doubt, wore extraction to cease for a time, and thus
permit natural distillation to replenish the springs, the
supply would become as bountiful as heretofore, but ohe-
mioal knowledge has not, as yet, enlightened us as to how
long the process of distillation requires; and petroleum, like
coal and other indigenous deposits, has been r^;arded
in the light of a widow’s cruise, fully equal to any de¬
mand made, or likely to be made, on it. In the face of the
possible falling off in the yield wo note that “ soles have
been enormous, and a considerable rise in prioe is antici¬
pated.” Looking to the numerous uses to which petroleum
and its derivatives ore pat to, and their probable exten¬
sion, it is time, we think, that the meroantile oommunity
should bestir themselves, in view of opening up and develop¬
ing the springs known to exist all over and beyond the
north-east districts of Burmah and Ar a k nn . It is true that
the Assam deposit remains praotioolly looked up from the
paucity of local labour and iu^equate means of carriage, but
it is roasont^le to sappose that the river steam oompanies
would moot enterprise half-way, and Ibwer their freight so
us t(j admit of the mineral being placed at the site of
export with some margin for profit. The rates ruling in
London, when the mail left, were 7d. per gallon for common
to lid. and b<i. for refined, with the prospect of an im¬
mediate advaooe; and though it lies not wiUda oar
Jtamsf 1,1B8S,
THE IimiAN A^RIOXTIOTBIST.
11
provinoe to express an opinion as to whether suoh prioei
would prove remunerative, we give the information fo;
the benefit of those who might consider the matter o:
prospeoting daring the ensuing o(^d weather. In the even
of the supply ceasing, ‘ or ‘filling off to an appreoiabh
extend nmn imsrle^ British India is praotioally thi
nearest source of supplv, and the comparative sligh
depths of the springs in tne vicinity cff our surface coal de
posits, ooupled with cheap labour, should give the Indian
mineral decided odvantagw It is not very creditable,
we take it, that we should go on importing a daily re
quisite, when its pivsence in abundant quantities lies with
in our own borders. To those who may be under the im¬
pression that the assertion of the diminished supply is bu;
a canard set afloat by an “ ile ring ” of speculators, we may
mention that the authorities haye for some years
past issued repeated warnings, at the instance of com¬
petent mineralogioal experts, that the springs in America
were being drawn upon in a manner incompatible with
prudence. Even were the prospect of a profitable export
trade not sufficiently clear to a^it of largo works being
undertaken, there can be very little doubt that oonsider-
oble gain would accrue to any enterprising individual who
would undertake to tap the springs in Assam, refining on
the spot, for the purpose of meeting the demand in the
local markets. The universal avidity with which all
olosaes have taken to the use of kerosine for light and
cooking, and the consequent enormous consumption, affords
reasonable justification for predicting success for the work¬
ing of petroleum in a properly organised manner ; and
now that what was formerly termed “ the waste,” possesses,
iindor the name of vasiline, profitable commercial value, we
have additional inducements for the launching of a new
and non-speoulative enterprise.
THE WABBORA COLLIEBY.
Bt H. T. T.
A VISIT to the Warrora Colliery will well repay any moderate
trouble and expense incurred in it. Situate centrally in the
uoiitinent of India, andj mi haps with design by the Great Dis¬
poser, where raw materudB exist in lavish abnndance, it is the
uatniul fuel-supplier to a large extent of country, and would,
under any otlier than its present and past management, have
fully developed its unrivalled advantages of supply to the per¬
fecting of existing industries and the promotion of many now
unformed, and would have yielded returns which would have
satisfied the most exacting. For had there beou any preset of
a continuous supply of fuel, the iron, richer in its ores than in
any other part of the world ; the cotton which, for its manufac¬
ture, hM to travel hundreds and even thousands of miles ; the
slate quarries, paper, wood, oil, sugar, and spirit material—
would nave each and all started for themselves local houses of
manufacture. After IS years of working, however, under the
present direction, the ooluery almost tottdly failed the other day,
and the output of coal has been beyond computation meagre—
indeed, so bad that the few cotton presses and two or three
spiuuing mills, with this coal at their very door, and desirous
of using it, have to bum dearer wood; and the G. I. P. Bailway,
its largest enstomer, is supplied spasmodically and scantily, go
much so that it had to arrenge till very lately for its local con¬
sumption IjOOO miles away, althou^ this colliery is only 46
miles from its line. The great anomaly at Warrora is that very
many tmoks of wood—grand old tamarind, mohwa, and mango
—leave the station daily for the mills in the Centi^ Provinces
and the Berars. The basin, collectively designated as the
Warrora coal measures, is hardly as insignificant as you have
been led to b^eve. It is in fact of wide extent. Known to ex¬
tend to CSuuida, SO miles south—-for over this tract small masonry
pillars mark where borings have found coal ; and miles to the
south in the Nisam’s territory on the line of the proposed Ohanda
and Hyderabad Bsllway, the seams discovered point to the pre¬
sumption tiiat the coal is continuous. Then, at Peace^n in
the Berars, SO miles in a south-west direction from Warrora,
shf^fts were sunk, machinery imported, and preparations were
made by Government to work the coal on a grand scale, but,
from some cause or ot^r, the scheme was nipped in the bud, the
machinery has bmme worthless from negle<», houses and stores
are in ss^ss, as well as the prospects aiM outlay on the under¬
taking. Between Warrora and Peacegaon coal has been foimd
at W uu and other pU^, and the riv» Wurdha flowing in a
south-easterly direction, midway through this tiMt, towards
Chanda, has coal cropping up at all places. So, leaving out the
mineral found in the Nizams territory, we have a certain area
of at least 600 square miles in the Central Provinces and Berar,
with three seams of an average thickness of IS feet each,
within a mean depth of 900 feet, the first two lying beneath
only clay and shale, and the third beyond this and a few feet
of sandstone. It would have been ahnoet impossihle, one would
have thought, to have misdireotod an undertakini' so favored
by nature, and with little ingenuity this tdheme. witii a railway
to the ]Mt's mouth, abundance of labor, aUd untold funds at dis.
posol, woifld have been Mojeoted to undoubted saoeess ; and it
IS difficult to compass the startling and almost Incredible fact
that, stares us into dismay, that the enterprise has hitherto
resulted in failure. If ever the acts of man demanded a Boyal
Commission of enquiry, they do here. For from the extent of
public funds involved and meagre results, there can be only one
tale revealed—of incompetence, gross fraud, and waste. The
administration cf the Central Prevlnces by hlr. Morris has been
by no means a snooess, and for the whirlpool of funds lost in
this oolUety spsoulation, he must be held primarily reqiOBSible.
A ruler after the type of the great Sir Biohard, he possesses all
that statesman’s antocracw ana speculative propensitieg, without
that ener^ whioh maksa pemnal rule felt to advanta^ ;
withont &t discernment—the gift of even mediocre men—
which instinctively spots the right genius and means to oairy out
the right undertaking; and without that maUsabllity which
adapts itself to the alteiing relations of tiie state with “ inter¬
lopers " and their industries. He has, therefore, centred la
himself all power, patronage, and authority, even to its widest
details, possessing a mind whose every effort has bean directed
to the discouragement and stamping out of all private enterprise,
by involving Government and aiwipating its resources in ocsil,
railway-sleeper supply, horse dawk, and even hotel speculations :
all having one issue—miserable failure. His revenue wlminis.
tration, instead of having, with inducements, opened out a fertUs
country, has left in a state of virgin forest almost tiiree parte of
the province be rules, and the revenue of his government is
nearly stationary, os in the days, unany years ago, wlien hs
assumed ofiioe. The only returns whioh show a 1mm busrtOMi
are those derived from abkari and litigation, and organWl
crime is rampant in his dominions. His sanction and rsoom-
mendation of the Chutteei^rh Bailway on the narrow gauge,
simply because the misguid^ power above him favored it, must
ever leave on him the indelible stamp of incompetence, fm- he
very well knew that it would immediately have to be palled
up, because a break of gauge could never be tolerated for a
moment on the hmhway from Calcutta to Europe. Hence, not¬
withstanding our uberal Viceroy’s praise and quoting of him as
an advanced liberal, he still remains a feesilisM autocrat, true to
the instincts and traditions of the Haileybury set, and his race,
happily fast dying out, mark, by way of contrast, what njdd
stnues a ncignlxwing provinoe, Bwar, has made under Mr.
Jones—able, hard-working, honest, and who strives to do kls
duty by all. The revenue, while Mr. Jones held sway for five
years, trebled itself, and the province—a third of the Central
Provinces—yields nearly as large a revenue. Waste places have
been peopled and opened out with roa<Is, private industries
ohorisned, and the country, a hot-bed till lately of serious crime,
quite purged of it. Men roared in the traditions of the Ck)m<
mission, with few exceptions, get so bound up iu red tape and
routine that, by the time they attain the period when they
should govern a province, their ideas are so cramped from
circling m limited spheres and appointed grooves, that they ore
altogether unfit to administer the destinies of a large territory
in these days of rapid change and liberal thought And tiiere
is no (piestion but that these rulers should come to their posts
free from the trammels of local prejudice and tradition; and the
time cannot be for distant when able statesmen at home or in
the colonies will be selected to fill posts even so low down in the
scale as Chief Commissionerships m India. Most people then
will agree with me, when I rejieat that the Iiead of this auto¬
cratic local administration is to blame for the failure at Warrora.
For nothing would have been easier at any time than for him
to have thrown off the eliackles of departmental environment,
and made over this (to the State) white elephant to a company,
whose sole business wonld have been to see that it did pay,
and not have lent himself, through a series eff years, to tbs
squandering of Government resources to the tune nearly a
crore of rupees without any appreciable return.
Warrora is situated in the Ohanda district of the Central
Provinces, 46 miles south of Wurdha, the junction of the
colliery railway with that of the G. I. P. Sandstone quarries
abound about here, and the line and the railway works look
business-like, and substantial pillars of solid stone 8 feet to 10
jeet in height, aud copings to the bridge parapets, many tons in
weight, of a pleasant, y^owish, grey color, speak of solidity in
^1 uie masonry works. The rw track is on the broad gangs,
and the colliery is a mils and-a-half from the Warrora station.
There are two pits in working, Nos. 9 and 4, and one shaft.
No. 6, is in coarse of being sunk ; but owing to insufficiency of
lumping power at the site, the work has been suspended. Mr.
'oster recommended that, instead of an outlay in machine^
_ gallery should be driven to it through the oom from the thira
seam of pit No. 2, past No. 1 pumping station, and so drain the
water, and this has saved the Government a good deal of
money. There are twea pumping stations, and a third is being
formed for the new Attook engine. This was broii^t down
firm tite I^jab, and for its cost and carriage and
tbete is an sstimate of tbroo lakhs, There is tw ntioh pumping
12
THE INDIAN ACJieiCtniTXmiST.
jx)w®r concentrated in a amaJl space ; and the Attock engine
will soon have to be retnovea at fresh cost to a place much
further .south, which wav the coal dips. The coal pits form a
triangle a quarter of a mile apart, a^d the works are on a slightly
rising hill- There is one suhstaatial .masonry building for the
Attock engine nearly ready, a few walls for Nos. 1 and 2, and
brick and stone and niortar do'not miioh predominate elsewhere.
Iron ipofing and sheeting are chiefly employed fOr the pit and
engine shsHM, and solely in the workshops. Yon have atre^y
sketohad the earlier days of this enterprise, so I need not' lie
largely retrospective. Ou the principle that a district officer is
expected to be Jack of all tr^es—^udge and revenue oflloer,
i^culturistj^couoheur, and stone-mason, so each official in
the D. P. W. is expected to be master of all branches of
engineering.. Behoe are they, because their learning and ex¬
perience extend to road-making and bridge-work, deemed
oapable of directing colliery, architectural, and .marine under¬
takings And this faith in their universal ability, and the wamt
of discretion in choosing the pr ope r man^ement, had all to do
with the failure at Warrora, When private concerns require
skilled direction, they follow the only proper method to obtain it
—Advertise. But if siioh a course were followed by the
D.P.W., it would only call in question its individual and
collective God-given attributes, and this could not be thought of
for a moment. Before proceeding, it would bo best to notice
that the charges for prospecting, boring, and testiug_^e coal
amount to something like 10 to 16 lakhs ! ! In the’^. P. W.,
lakhs are spoken of Just as you and I would talk of huudreds.
Mr, Ness, a raining engineer, with little experience of machin¬
ery, was appointed to the charge of the mines in 1873. The
engine-power was not sufficient to do the work exacted of it, so
UtUe progress was made, and. this with extreme difficulty, delay,
and expense. The head of water hod l>eeii greatly under-
caknlated, and new sets of pumps, larger and larger by degrees,
were continually indented tor and new engines and boilers were
«ian from time to time brought out. Tlie nappy mean of what
the work actually required was never hit on the head till lately.
Oonstant breaks-down, flooding of pits, and the work cora-
naenced de novo, as if nothing had been accomplished daring a
long period ; no honesty at all in the subordinate staif; excessive
charges for lat>or and material ran im in the course of years to
a fabulous sum. Coal of course was being extracted, but never
steadily. Men who could advise were never consulted, hut any
experimental machinery recommended by any one in the depart¬
ment, and principally by the Chief Engineer, Mr. Armstrong
(of road and building experience), was at once adopted.
Such is tlie doleful tale of the industry for eight long years,
when an order came in 1870 from the Q. 1. P. Bail way for 3,000
tons of coal a month. The manager, weighed down perhaps a
little liy a retrosjxiet of the sad vista of yuai-s of failure, now
Wgaii to hope that blighter ilays were in store if this order
could only be fulfilled. Machinery that was manifestly unequal
to the task both of mining such a large amount of coal and
keeping the pits dr.v, was put to great atraias to meet the
demand ouit, and as both acnievomenta were beyond its power,
the most profitable drawing coal was jmt full on. 'Wheu the
water made beadwa.y. it was sought to both wind aud immp to
the full, with tlio natural result—utter breakdown of machinery,
cousetjueut Htxaliug of pits, and aU work at a dead stand, to be
done over again ; and the stoppage continued for iiitio long
mouths. It was now decided to oiange the local management,
and a Ooojier's Hill man, Mr. Boynolds, from the Ajmere Loco¬
motive department, whose ouly^orte was lucohauicid engineer¬
ing, witliout even a knowledge of the rudiments of ju-actical
mining, was appointed in the stead of Mr. Ness. The inacbin-
ery was now renovated, replaced, and fitted up to purpose, .ami ]
the Work got under weigh just as if it was a novel undertaking.
But from the absence of muting knowledge, the work iu the pits
began to suffer, ajiecially retarded by deficient air circulation,
the assistant iu charge of the underground section lieiiig no
practiori miner. Matters pulled along at haphazard, tlie yields
at times Iteing very large and at others the reverse, when in
January 1882, fire was discovered in pit No. 2, a couple of
hundred yards from the bottom of the shaft in a nortli-oast
direction, orignating, it was discovered, in the pyrites ami excess
of sulphur In the root coal. Tlion the fire, whicli it was thought
ha<l been silenced, broke out again and again, having travelled
by the roof. During months, while the seam was on fire and
the process of stopping and isolation continued, the work of
quarrying was proceeded with, though daily many of those
working at the stoppages, masons and htldart, were carried
away insensible. This dangerous work continued till July, the
^8 assuming more and more fomidahle proportions, and
threatening disaster. _ On the 23rd, a rather larger escape of
noxious gases had laid many people low, and tJie Assistant
Mining Manager, Mr. McDonald, being informed, he proceeded
down the mam pit No. 2, while ordering one of the miderlookers,
Hartland, to go down pit No. 4, and meet him half-way. The
foul air was plentiful, having been let in through a breach iu
the “ long wall,” aud about id men lay in a state of coma, who,
if not taken away and revived at once, would certainly die.
Mx. McDonald came on the scene for a moment, asked the
nniJerlooken, Turner and Bsrtland, if he oould depend on
tb«n for carrying people away, and on their replying in
the affirmative, retraced h& Myhig that he was
“ feeling verv tad.” He had not goii»im paces, p^ifeQow,
when ha fell in the gloom sevw toriae -agidn. TBmuadsr-
lookan, Tomer luid Hs^land, seethed - many
liTSs,riU there were only left ^ latter, a' i^tive man, apd a
hoy to take away a dead .pmn* Th® undeflookem had
twice fallen down, and been hrphgnt to. The UtUe peqn boy’
now began to Aow sigm of saeoumhing, and was hemg helped
along by the native; while Hartlatid etsiMered bmeath the
deaa weight he waeearryii^. The b<qr, Jsnla by naeae, eeeiug
thie, told the man, vhne tim deeamy hmgnmr was fast over-
powsring him, “ Never ffliad me ; let me Be-; take along the
toMb; ^ life is more precioas than naiai,” end merged intp’
asphyxia. Btartland aoon followed sa(t, and these two were
carried out by the only man left, a Tiqraatsie. Tor this heroic
deed, the man did not even get a bonus, as did the others, of
half-a-month’s salary. If Ckrramm'sttt have been so wantitm
in their duty, I do pot tihhik tbe'Huma&e Bodety will be. H
they hear of the oeonmnea, 1 am oertaia th^ will not fail
to make private ei^airy. and award the^ medida where so
richly deserved. IVhen the disaster, poourred, the local Manager
was on a holiday sxcursion, shooting, while the General
Manager from Nagpore was frantically rushing about the pit’s
mouth, begging knowle^e from those he met as to the State of
affairs below, and supplioatinn all to go down and save lives, a
liUie native boy, amid appoOing scenes of death and disaster,
was plaintively craving to be saorifioed in place of his .master.
After the accident, all lost their heads; no one attempted to go
down ; the fires were allowed full hesd-flray, end the only means
that could be suggested to improve matters was to stop the
pumps, and floodthe colliery. For part of a month, this process
continue^, and the flames were not got under. In despair, the
authorities arrived at tiie conclusion that the only way of
solvii^ the diffioolty lay in pladog the matter in the hands of
Mr. Foster, a mining engineer of the E.I.B., who has also
theoretical and practi^ knowledge of machinery, Aud now
a chaime came over the scene, ana it is not too much to say
that Mr. Foster has saved this undertaking.
He at once set the pumps to work full power, blocked up,
even from the shaft’s mouth, isolated and totally abandoned
the lit seam at _No. 2_(tiU the fires should' be got under), shut off
its communication with the connecting pit No. 4, and qug down
through _ about 40 feet of sandstone to the third seam. He
also instituted the system of sir circulation now in vogue, under
the able superintendence of Mr, Barnes, mining captain—a
Newcastle man. When Mr. Foster wrived, the praotical output
was nil. In six or eight weeks, it was 2t)0 tons daily, at
which figure it stands at present. You will have but inditfureutly
carried out your programme, if your visit does not include a
look below ; for this the manager’s sanction is necessary, and
it is generally courteously granted. The pit-mouth is el'cv.ited
some 20 feet off the ground, and this admits of the little trucks
being emptied into the waggons on the rails undernoalli. As
you descend in the lift with a rush, a strange sensation creeps
upward from the soles of your feet; you feel as if you were gently
filing down, down, but before you have time to think, yeti
have traversed the apace, 180 feet, and are already standing iu
one of the passages at the Iwttem. The atmosphere i.s not,
as one would imagine, cold, but about the same os the tein|su'a-
ture above. The drip, drip of water, its murmuring flow to
the pumi>in^ dips, the walls of black, the gloom mode palpable
by the flickering lights, the damp, clammy look and fed of all
around you—are not prepossessing in your first axperieiice
cavernous depths. As you get away, however, from the aluvi
matters mend, and now whitewashed walla, pathway aud ceiling
with many bright lamps about', make yon fancy you ore going
through clean masoniy tunnels. Not far off is the cabin ; a
good door leads into it, shining white with a new coat of lime.
There are benches, and pegs to hang your cost and hat on ; a
clock is there also, and the is dimly lighted. Here
you disrobe and the stay is short, “ to get your eye-sight,”
as it is called. In this neat little box, with 200 feet of ceiling
I and thousands of miles of wail aud floor, nae ought to feel
secure. The mining captain, to whom you have been made
over,_ kindly explains, as you proceed, the' system of air cir¬
culation, and at the zinc doors, half sliut and with taiqiaulin
scroeus, puts down his lamp to gauge the current.
I may here briefly explain the ado{t^ of supplying
the workings with fresh air. The main cause of tiie current
is the furnace at the bottom of the shaft. This, sunk to
below the seam, is partitioned off down the centre. The
in-blait goes down the open part, and the return air up the
I portion screened off. The sir descends, and is conducted to
I where the miners are at work by shutting off its jiassage
I into the worked galleries whei-e no men are. From the
shaft on the four sides, galleries or passages are cut, 12 feet in
width and 46 feet blocks of coal are left to support the roof ;
then a gallery, excavated at right angles,riO feet in width; then
a Hue block left, a gallery cut, a block left, and so ou, till the
seam is at fault. All these passages, worked or not worked,
if open, would convey the fresh air through them, aud exhaust
; it; so, as these square workings are completed, the air must be
shut from them to feed the parts bung worked. Doors are
pat up and taipaulins hung to jggtflato the draught, and
;Janottry I, 1S88.
a?HE IKDIAit AGHKfULTOEIST.
13
innuinerable pasia^ are blocked up witb ebale. After the air
has fed aU tlte tteoeaaaiT parts, it beooiaes hot apd effete, and
_1_ _ » 1 ii _ i_ _<?_j. ji_lA J_1___i r_ ij..
he la able to do, and there is no question «f his abUi
the works to the most suceeaeful isaoe j and ekoi
a to oan 7
the in-
seeks a cold ootlec todiy^ itwlf of fovduess, and dissipate its tention of Government of placing him here be capped out, it
density, so it is led right round the working to the blast is to be hoped he will be directly under the Qoverfiment of
furnace. If the volume were let into the fire, it would ex- India, and pot under the harassing superintendanee of the
tingutsh it, and occasion a disaster, so it is taken above, local administration. So, in a few years, '&e aoomBUiated
over a maeonty aroh, into the hot ascending smoke and fumes burden on these promising mines will be. removed, and-this
Tushing up the parti of the shaft pmtitioued. There is a is no dream, but practically possible ; and if the apthprities
strong draw created continually, and Backed down by this have the slightest doubt on ^e matter, let diem make oi'er; their
simply means, ^ere afe no mechanical blast contrivances, property, fncUidiog die railway, to the company ‘desirous of
and the work is done in a visry efficient manner. When you taking It over, and an ODDortunitv will
, , ^ takiog it oyer, an opportunity will tbea oei^rded them
oonalder that at each 46 feet then is a gallory at right angles of carionflly eontmeting the reeulte of their d^^^irtmental
to. another, aodtheseareoantlnned in every direction in a net- direction with tliat of private mauagmucut. The. railway also
work as far as the seam exists ; and men are only at work at should be paying, as it has a large passenger and grain traffic,
the further ends, it indeed, a most complicated matter both besides the co^ ; anid Watrora stands first of the stations in
the farther ends, it indeed, a most complicated matter both besides the co^ ; anid Watrora staMs 1
to give them air, and direct correctly the return blast, and only the matter of export. The trade is i
thoBS thoroughly hroug^it up to tius work can solve this air here, instead of tlie ancient mart of H:
problem. And Mr, Barnes, in charge this intricate business, miles from ]^e, and about the middi
problem. And Mr, Barnes, in charge this intricate business,
has lately (mme out from dusseminating fra^ air in dangerous
and foul pits in the north of Bngmd, Imlf-a-milo beneath
the surface, As you make your way through the passages,
little trucks of coal are continually being shoved along little
lines down the oentr^ and on the side, water isflowuigina
miniature stream. Farther, and the air becomes denser,
because there is no draught as yet, and there is a strong
smell of powder from the blast shots lot off. The whitewashed
the matter of export. The trade Is gtndmdly oonoentrating
here, instead of tlie ancient mart of Hfngangfaut, Which is SS
niiles from here, and about the middle: of me line, Warrora
is a rapidly growing town witli 12,000 inhabitants, and it KtOe
dreams of what it is destined to be as the centre of the black
country of India, when the coal worked to. piupoee will
create manufactories for the wealth of raw raaterial
H, T. T.
f’.fi'.—Tlie block of masonry and iron bulldinas at the colliery
would now be worth about Bs. 60,000 ; the Atto« enginS a laki,
emeu of powder from the blast shots lot off. The whitewashed j It w,wu ; me eugwo a laxa
rides «n(f roof give place to polished sparkling jet, jagged here I other machinery, including pumps, another lakh,
and there, from -which the water-drops glisten like gems, and
every now and then the captain tape the roof to see where
props are required. There are no safety-liunps usefl because EDITORIAL NOTES,
there is no foul air (except when the coal is on fire underneath),
and linseed-oil is only burnt. Now the wisdom of having
iuS' sioemoot, ^ ^
ground treatment would have a beneficial effect on fever Ooveniment Farm, in submittuig the report for the year
jMU.ieiits who obstin.ately won’t sweat. They (the miuew) dig 1882, takes occasion to notice prominently Professor Pasteur’s
with pickaxes first right away under .about 10 feet, a little discoveries in relation to the spread and prevention of -
above them sitting height ; then the siiporiucumbeut mass is nnionir livestock Tli,t IimIH. nf fi.o ...» b.
blasted down, after bring notched alsive ind on the rides, bi "J? Mr, Stormont,
direct tlie break. The aeiuiift of coal range from 9 to 13 feet, tbe only diaeaae appearing being fonr jcase,
and there is only a thin belt of shale of about 0 inches running (fatal of course) of black quarter inclining to splenic apoplexy
horizontally through them. The fuel possesses no free gases, The victims were all yearlings occupying the same grazimr
purposes, but ground, and Uie four deaths ooouoed within less than a *«,k
M b. a. STOEMONT, the Superintendent of the Khanderii
Government Farm, in sulmitting the report for the year
1882, takes occasion to notice prominently Professor Pasteur’s
discoveries in relation to the spread and prevention of
among livestock. The health of tiie herd, says Mr, Stormont,
was generally goml, the only disefise appearing being fonr case.
it stands very high as a steaui-produoiug agent. No. 2 pit
is 250 feet deep j the third seam is being worked, and the out¬
put is 60 tons per day, which will be soon greatly increased.
No. 4 is 180 feet deep, and has been worked for two years ; its
average-outturn is 160 tons per day, and there are days in
the month in wliioli the wnra is perforce altogether stopped.
The yield from the latter pit (some days so much as 300 tons)
is the largest of any single one in India, alroaily with great pro¬
mise of better results. The excavating work is all let out
by contnmt, the contractors getting Bs. 1-0 for every ton
weighed in the waggoM. There is a third pit, as I stated
above, in process of bring sunk, but this will not lie ready for
another year. This colliery, with only two pits working, and
one of them only partially, is turning‘out 7,000 tons a month,
and the coal being sold at an average of Bs. 0 per ton, this
gives Es. 42,000. The working expenses at a rough guess are
Bs. 4 per ton, so this leaves a monthly profit of Bs. 1-1,000.
When pit No. 2 is at full work, and No. 6, the new one,
also, wnioli it should be a year hence, the three jiita will yield
1,000 tons daily, and with the exjienses greatly reduced, as will
be shown, say to Be. ^er ton, the annual profit will not bo
less than 11 lakhs. With three sets of pits, in a few years,
the undertaking could yield over 30 lakhs net annually. Mr.
Eoynolds, the present local manager, adds to other useful and
amiable attainments that of a first-class mechanical engineer.
His library is a perfect record and history of tlie inetaU,
and ril over his rooms, oven from the moat olwcure places,
Iron in Gold and Steel la Bronze - stare at you from the Wka
of works by Bessemer and oUier eminent metallurgists. In
•iiio victims were an yearhugs occupying the same grazing
ground, and Uie four deaths ooourred within lees than a week,
two being on the same day. As the conditioiis ..popularly
hold responsible for the generation of this terrible inalady
wore mostly absent, tliis iieouliarly Isolated cluster of. cases
must have been due to some accidental contagion, hut from
whence and how communicated it is difficult even to conjecture.
Certain it is that the severe outbreak of two years ago was the
disease’s fust visitation to this farm, and then not only wore the
carcases deeply Imriod, but the surface ground all about the
neighbourhoo<l of the graves was purified by burning thorns and
herbage j in fact, the disinfecting measures were so thorough that
no trace of active contagion could possibly have been left abava
ground. Very recent investigations of great value have shown that
oven such precautions are only temporary in their results. Pro¬
fessor Pasteur of Paris, in his recent address at the International
Medical Congress on Animal Inoculation, itatm that the
aporuleg by means of which this splenic fever is propagated had
lately been fouml by himself and otliers in a pit in which
animals dead of the disease had been buried for IS years, and
that these genus by experiment had been proved to be as
vlrnient as those from the blow! of animals recently
dead. He has also elsewhere demonstrated that these
germs are brought to the surface in the economy of
earth-worms, and that cattle, while grazing, by chance swallow-
such a steely atmesphere, it cannot be wondered at if the ing some of these, become the leaven of a fresh outbreak
r wuRh qualiUes of his But the mere clearing up of the etiology of the disease would
frequent mental food, which finds an outlet m hm expensive _ xwoum
iroquane menial rooa, wnicn nnds an outlet m hm expensive x- i - x x , . ' . .—i— -
p^ractioal hobbies of moulding, fitting, and blast furnace shops. , unimportant to agriculture, but for the cognate
The machinery imported is of the best and most costly de- discovery that oorapleto immunity from its infection is readily
scription, as are the workmen brought on excessive w.-vge from procurable by means of Vaccination. The vaedn# for this
Ajmere and the PuujMb. Bat casting on a largo ^le--18 purpose is obtained by evllimtion of the sporules found in the
ISf.'r'SdSi ‘reiSsr sJ'" »< i-s «< *•««. d.™.!,.
scription, as are the workmen brought on excessive w.-vge from
Ajmere and the Puujaub. Bat casting on a largo scale—18
blast furnaces, and fitting, appliances capable of manipulating
the most intricate macoinery-—are surely out of place in a
colliery, and those shops are now the load which is bearing
to the ground this resuscitating industry. Mr. Foster has
recomraended the entire - removal of these expensive whims,
especially as all work for-the colliery and railway could bo
done at Nagpore where labor Is oheapjHnd whero Govern¬
ment have large Necessary workshops. With the removal of
these workshops, if it is also decided to remove their creator
to some sphere where liis praotieal abilities will find legitimate
scope, I think a new era will dawn both fur the colliery and
for the manipulatiou of the metals in India. Mr. Foster com¬
bines, 08 I have said, mechanical acquirements with mining
capability, and what he has accomplishe<l in so short a time in
retrieving an almost ruined industry is a sure earnest of what
of fowl has lieen found to be a suitable nutriment for these
organisms, eaoh generation as it ripens is applied to a fresh
decoction, under certain conditions of temperature, and duration
of exposure loses at each stage something of its original
virulence. This series of siicoeasive attomwtions goes on up to,
it may be, the liimdredth or thoiiKludth operation, until the
virus at last becomes null, and hero the principle of vaccination
is touched. Animah once vaccinated with this attenuated virus
may witli impunity como in contact with that of original
virulence, or if they suffer from it, the effect will be of a passing
nature, and not enough to cause death. The practical value of
THE INDIAN AGRICJULTUBIST. Jar«»ry 1, 1888.
thia discovery luw been placed beyond doubt by searching
experimente, and even more BO by its universal adoption in the
French provinces. In the departments surrounding Paris no
less a number than 20 thousand sheepi besides cattle and
horses, were operated upon within the space of 16 days, and
iliis limit was fixed only by inadequate capabilities of the
Brofessor’s laboratory. The vaccine is supplied to the public
in bottles each, containing enough for 60 to 100 animals ; it is
injected under the skin on the thigh or other tender part with a
MpiB-ll eyringe, and no treatment is required for the puetulee.
Mr. Stormont says that he has ventnred to allude somewhat
lengthily to this subject, believing it to be one of special
importance to oonntry, where the disease is ill-understood,
but so well dreaded, fraught as it is with such terrible conao-
quenoes for the youth and cream of our flocks and herds.
Thx following letter from Dr. J. Anderson, F.B.S., Honorary
Secretory, Zoological Gardens, Calcutta, to the Secretary to the
Government of Madras, explains the maguitude of the rabbit
pest in New Zealand
The honorary committee for the management of these
Gardens has received a pressing appliwition for mongooses, with
the object of introducing them into New Zealand for the purpose
of deetroying the rabbit, which in that colony threatens the
very existence of the sheep fanper. Dogs, guns, and nets have
been tried os a means of keeping down its numbers, but they
have proved quite insnfficioiit; and even, notwithstanding that
during the year 1881, rabbit skins to the value of i;67,000
sterling were exported from New Zealand, the threatened
danger is still so serious, that it has been resolved to adopt some
other measures, and to try, in the first instance, the introduction
of mongooses.
It has bwn thought that the mongoose of the high region of
Ootacamund {Herpuiea fiucxu) would be more suitable to the
climate of New Zealand than the mongoose of tlie plains of
India ; and it has also been suggested Uerpettea mcnticollea,
which inhabits the hill forests of Sonthorn India, more eHjxiCially
those inland from the Eastern Ghats, might he acuhmatiaud
in New Zealand.
The committee have been oakwl to sujiply 100 paim of
mongoose, and they now take the liberty t' risk the Govern¬
ment of Madras to assist them in procuring as tnan> 'w possible
of the two species mentioned, foi shijinient i; Mie oiio of Octo¬
ber from Calcutta, For any assistance in this luattev, tlie com¬
mittee will feel greatly obliged.
The Madras Government has ordered assistance is
to be given for the collection and despatch oi i la iniwals.
Ths Oovemmeut Model Farm at Hyderabad, Sind, though
the site is said to be the best tliat could he got near Hyder¬
abad, as regards situation and soil, dots not appear to lie
everything that could be desired. Tlie farm is represented
as “ cut up by small kurriahs, bunds, &c.,” and studded
with brick-fields, besides being overgrow'n by “ dub ”
grass, babool trees, and brushwood. Work was begun on the
land on the 1st April'1881, and though bunds and kurrialis
have been levelled down and filled in, trees and brushwood
removed, brick pits and kilns dug uji, and their adjacent
rubbish cleared away and utilised as concrete flooring for
farm buildings, it is estimated that several years of good tillage
will be needful before the dub grass, whose roots form a
regular net-work on the surface of the soil and reach to a
depth of eight feet, is likely to be gut rid off. Tliis looks
veiy like farming under difficulties.
The amount expended on ordinary farm work during the
season under report was Bs. 1,610-0-10 ; on manuring fur the
current and following year, Bs, 78-3-4 were expend¬
ed i and on dead stock, &c., and preparing the farm fur
oul^vatlon,Bs, 8,184-11-10 have been paid, making a total of
Bs, S,d07 expended during the year. The income is about the
most untavourabie which the, su}ieriutendeut baa ever had.
The value of the season’s crops amounts tuuonly Bs. 778-1-2, and
from all souroes during the year Bs, 2,060-13-10 have been
paid into the treasury, and there ore still outstandings
•mounting on the Slat March to Bs. 8,378-8, including
the value of farm produce not sold up to Slst March, and
rent of letlaru farm land not credited to the farm before the
above date. The low return obtained during the past kharif
season is chiefly due to causes, from which all cultivators in the
neighbourhood suffered in a greater or less degree, as their
crops happened to be early or late.
very promising vernacular agrionltnral class for zemin¬
dars’ sons we briefly noticed in our previous issue.
Wakadi cotton is, in the opinion of Mr. Strachau, the
Superintendent of Cotton Experiments, a lees luxuriant variety
of compiwn indicunt closely related to the ordinary Sindi
plant. It will not, however, yield so much clear cotton per
acre as the common Sindi does. Both varieties are short
stapled, and are equally useful for spinning purpMee when mixed
wito cotton of longer staple. With regard to Bamieh cotton
I Mr. Strachan says ;—“ The few seeds of this cotton we had
I were sown along the sides of tobacco, &:c., seed beds, and got
in consequence more than ordinary attention; they were as
usual healthy during the early part of the year, but at harvest
time they behaved just the same as the ordinary Egyptian
cotton plant has always dono with me in Sind, the flowers or
pods either dropped off or wore attacked by boUworm. The
yield was only a few ounces of bad seed cotton.”
Cotton was the most extensive crop raked on the Khandesh
Government F.irni during 1881-82. In all, 162^ acres wore laid
down with the following result, which we take from the
report :—
The total outturn of clean cotton w.aa 15,9161ba., which
quantity, divided by I02i acres, the area sown (and therefore
I necessarily entered in the return,) gives IDlJlbH. as the average
per acre. This result, however, k not exactly correct, inasmuch
as field No. 42 failed from drought, but subsequently yielded .i
crop of gram. Again, Nos. 41 and 46, which were parli.al
I failures, show yields respectively of only .30jlba. and 4.''dbB., in
aihiition liowevei to the interstitial ambadi and other minor
crops sown in the v.aoiuit ground. The effect of Ihk coiTi'ctiou
is to raise the figures to 1 nibs., an excellent general average
for so .arge on area, and again an advance on that for tlie
preceding yc,ai'.
Some of the detail rctums are yet moro strikingly progressive,
cs]>ccially those of the KJi.iUdesh American, the best field of
which yielded 228Jlbs, |xsr acre, another gave 231j;lbs., and a
third 20411)8. The .average of these thi'ee equak a return of a
bale of cotton to the lj[ acre, » crop which oven a Georgi.oii
planter would h.ardly despise.
The American cotton was ail cleaned by the saw-gin, and got
into the market at an early date. The Hingunghat portion is
also sold but not yet ready for delivery. The total value of the
two kinds k Bs. 3,170 and of the seeds Bs. 630—total, Bs. 3,700,
or a net return of Ss. 26 J from the acre of ground, being one
rupee in advance of last year. The saw-ginned cotton was sold
at Bs. 6 per klmndi above the best local rate. It was known
to l)c worth more than that, but rural traders naturally ei-
perieuce some little feeling of dubiety in venturing on an un¬
tried ai-ticle, and I was particularly anxious to watch the con¬
signment passing from hand to band through the ordinary local
course on its way to the exporter, whom it reached, carrying a
value of Be. 16 per khandi higher than good Elhandesh, which
brings it considerably aljove beet saw-ginned Dharwar. The
oii>ort value then of tlik staple is no longer a matter of uncer¬
tainty. The opinion of spinners and others from time to time
quoted in these reports, and the sale at an enhonoed price of
the last year’s entire crop, together prove beyond dispute that
it is fully equal to what k known in the English markets as
mddli)\g Orleam. But thk quality even is capable of improve¬
ment ; in foot, Euroi>ean consumers are yet ignorant of the
wonderful extent to which India k oapable of meeting oven
their most fastidious wants. The best of thp, cotton was picked
and stored separately, and its seed as usual reserved for distri¬
bution, a quantity having been sent to Chandor to introduce
the crop in that part It k satisfactory to find that thk annual
supply of {Hire seed, aided by whatever of its successive produce
the people themselves may have saved, k now perceptibly affect¬
ing the staple of the neighbourhood, insomuch the term
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
15
Jaaaary 1,1883.
“ Bbadgaonfi” k not uncomiaonly used as a standard by which
to grade qualities of lower value. It is, on the other hand, the
reverse of gratifying to find that so increasingly large a portion
of the year’s crop is badly mixed witb ii^erior kinds, as the
character and price of our cotton in the Bombay market must
necessarily sn^r in consequence, and as ordinary cultivators look
forward with equal indifference to the development or extinction
of the trade in even cotton, their richest crop, things are likely
to go from bad to worse, unless stHue natural turn of the trade
itse-lf should bring about a regenerative influonoe. The intro¬
duction of the saw-gin would no doubt operate strongly in this
direction, as the machine is not edited to cleaning short-stapled
cottons, the cultivation of which would thus be necessarily
diacountged. It is, however, maintained ,by many well coni-
I)etent to judge, that the intelligent administration of a moder¬
ately stringent law is an indispensable safeguard to our gi-eat
cotton industry, and it must be admitted that in the past two
yews’ history of the tiade, they hold a most powerful argmueut
in support of their conteutiou.
The General Committee of the Agrioidtural Exhibition which
it is proposed should bo hold at Madras in the February of 1883
offer the following prizes for the under-noted essays
Prize Kg'
1. For an essay on water-lifts for use in different parts of
India, Full details must be given regarding the cost and
etfioacy of each. It ia desirable that drawings made to a
Hcale should ocoompauy the written aooount... ... 100
‘2. For nn essay on manurial substanoea —animal, vegetable
and mineral—pi'o^mablo in India. The report must
espeCally notice those substances which are as yet unutil¬
ized ill the agricultural practice of India. The probable
cc't < ' each manure when prepared for uso, and tlie uses
to which each Is especially suited, must be particularly
noticed ... ... •• ■ 100
:i. For an essay on tlio management of s.oU.s under coffee, or
tea, or cinchona in this preaid mey, b hw maintaii’-
mg their fertility ... ... 250
4, For an essay on the utilization of irrigation water, in
view to obtaining the largest returns with the least injury
to the soil, and least waste of water ... ... .500
0. For an essay on the best method of planting tiiol planta¬
tions ill India. Full particulars must bo given as to the
most suitable site for tl. plantations, tlieir altitude, soil,
climate, the varieties of trees, tc., with full dotaila and
cost of all operations .. ... ... ... 200
All essays must be legibly written on foolscap paper, and on one
side only ; they must specify tlio number and subject of tbo premium
for which they are in competition ; they must bear a distinguisliing
motto, and bo accompanied by a sealed letter, similarly marked,
containing the nome and address of the reporter ; initials must not
he used. The copyright of oil essays gaining a prize sliall belong
to Government. When an essay is not of sufficient practical ujo,
the judges ore not bound to award the whole, or any part, of a
premium.
The detailed prize-list maybe had from Mr. W. E. Ilobcrtaon,
Superintendent, Government Agricultural Farm, Mwlras.
' The Oardeiiers’ Chronicle, in noticing Mr. William Crooke’s
translation of M. Georges Ville’s work “ Ou Artificial Maiiui’es,”
Iws the following :—Fbysiologists, in tlie face of the conclusive
experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, will hardly agree
with M. Ville as to the absorption of free nitrogen by
plants, and as to the difference ho draws between wheat,
which absorbs its nitrogen in the form of ammonia ; beetroot,
which takes it as nitrates; and leguminous plants, which absorb
it in the form of free gas, the verdict will be not proven. M.
Ville advocates the use of what he terms a normal manure, com¬
prising nitrogenous matter, oaloio phosphate, potash, ami lime ;
not that these constitute all that is necessary for plant-food, but
the other ingredients are already in sufficient proportion in most
soils. For practical and comparative purposes, careful experi¬
ments with various manures on the growing plants themselves
are more serviceable than analyses of soil, or of the plant itself.
To rely exclusively on published analyses, either of manures,
of soils, or of plants, is to grope in the dark, because so little is
yet known of the changes that go on in the plant itself. Snt
by experimenting in the way indicated, if we do not throw light
on the method of operation, we yet gain resnlte that are iuteUi-
gible to all and beyond dispute,
The Government of the North-Western Provinces Itas, it
appears, consented to take fifty copies montiily for distribution
of the Meerut Agricultural paper, the Mashar-vl-ZvAyat.^
I The report on the cultivation of cotton in Ritish Burmah
for the year 1881-82 has just bean issued. The total area
under cotton during that period was lfi,130 acres, or 198
acres more than it was in the preceding yooj'. i’rom experi¬
ments made for ascertaining the true yield Of ootton-fields
in British Burmah by actually weighing the cotton harvest
ou certain selected fields, it would appear that the average
yields of fields wherever cotton is sown alone, is equal to
4821bs. of uneieonod, or Ifillbs. of cleaned ootton per acre.
In one district, Bossoin, where the testing very care¬
fully done, it was oven higher. On Umng'ifa gardens, where
other crops are also grown with cotton, the average yield
was found to the 1221b3. of unoleoned or illlw. of clean
cotton per acre. Tlio experiments made this year are not
conclusive, aud the testing of the yield of cotton per aero
is to 1)0 again tried with the cumnt year’s crop. For
the year uudor review, however, the local Agricultural
Dejjartraent appear to feel themselves justified in taking
16011)3. as the average yield cleaned cotton i)er acre for
fields grown entirely with cotton, 401bs. as the average yield
per acre of cotton grown with other crops ou toungya
gardens.
The total yield of cleiui cotton during tho year was ns
follows;—
Cotton fields ... ... 173,121 lbs.
Do. touugyaa ... ... 561,9%,,
Total ... 736,040 lbs.
or ,,, 6,663 owts.
Tho tratlo in cotton is confined chiefly to staple imported
from Upper Burmah, the imports from whence have been
as follows during thop.ast three years ;—
Year.
ISy Kiver,
By Land.
Total,
cwta.
owts.
owts.
1879-80
... 05,105
4,194
69,299
1880-81
9,400
264
9,064
1881-82
... 15,146
307
15,453
The cotton imported from Upper Burmah vid tho Irra¬
waddy during 1881-82, although considerably in excess of
the ((uantity imported in tho preceding year, is nevertheless
valued below tho imports of 1880-81. The 15,146 owta
imported during 1881-82 is valued at Es. 2,62,498, whilst
the 9,400 owts. imported during the preceding year is valued
at Us. 2,99,966. This depreciation in the value of ootton
is ascribed to the fact of the crop in Upper Btmnah not
liaving been good. It would appear that the l) 08 t quality
of tho staple WHS carried away to Western China through
Bhnnio, aud the remainder, which was brought down to
British territory, obtainod comparatively low priooa
The quantity of cotton exported from British Burmah
duriug the year under review was 20,553 cwts,, valued at
Rs. 7,36,782, against 18,684 cwts., valued at Rs. 7,38,965
in 1880-81, thus showing an increase in quantity of 1,869
cwts., and a decrease in value of Rs. 2,183. Tho deprecia¬
tion is likewise duo to tho inferior quality of tho article
brought down from Upper Bunnoh.
Very little ootton was exported to the United Kingdom
luring tho year, and tho te'ade seems to be declining year
by year. The exports during 1881-82 amounted to 1,126
cwts. only, valued at Ra 16,741. The falling off in the
demand is said to be duo to the fact of the Burmese ootton
finding no favor in the European market on aooount of
its short staple, when ootton of bettor quality is obtainable
from other countries. There has also been a falling oS in
the quantity exported to tho Straits Settlements. The
exports during tho year were 9,740 owta, valued at
Rs. 1,81,163, against 13,099 owts., valued atRs, 2,61,844 m
1880-81. The decrease has, it is believed, ooourred in
oonsequenoo of the Clhinese merchants having limited their
prrohases on aopount of tho nnsettled state of affairs in
British Burmah during the time tho monopolies were in
ezistenoo.
16
THE INDIAN AGMODLSPUMSIX
The oiperU ef cotton to the Indian ports during the
yonr were ’W fbllow i—
cwt(> Bt.
Bengal ... 4,891 vlked »t ... 84,197
B^biy ... 4,088 „ 72,207
!ltn^ ... 89 ... 760
There has been a very tnitihed inorease in the quantity
exported ,tO Bombay, cMnporcd with the exports of the
preo^ag yew. The quantity exported in 1880-81 was only
371 owtft, valued at Be, 8,803 j the exports of 1881-82
thereSwe show au increase of 3,897 owts., valued at
Bs. 63,404. The inorease in the trade witd Bombay is said
to be due to ehipmeats mode on epeoulation iu June by a few
Morwaree mermiants who hwl the opportunity of direct
at low rotea
TM someiriiat unBuniliar-lodking words, silo and ensilage,
relate to an ogriotllUural prooess whiw, oeccc^ing to its advo¬
cates, is dsroned. to effsot very oonsiderable changes and int-
provementi in some departments of the farmer's work. A silo
b "a oiite.m or vat, air and water tight on the bottom and sides,
with slu open’ top, oonstmeted of masonry or concrete, and it
is used to store in their green state forage crops, such as corn,
aorjiho, rye, oats, mlllat, Hungarian gi^, clover, and all the
gtsaMS." The fodder which b preserved iu these silos is called
enidbge. The fodder b out, and instead of being dried accord¬
ing to the time-hononred custom, and then stacked, it is at
onset in its green damped stete, cut by a machine into pieces
about an insh iu bngth, pUoed m the silo, pressed firmly down,
covered over with straw and with heavy stones or weights, and
then left to ferment and solidify until required for use. Wlien
winter comes and ordinary green food is exhausted, cattle and
o^er doneetic animals ai'e fed with the ensilage thus pre¬
pared. Tlioy take to it readily, relish it, and thrive ujion it.
Six cows which, when fed upon the ordinary winter
diet of tumipe and dry fodder, gave 30 quarts of milk daily,
when fed upon ensilage gave 3D quarts, and not only so, but
milk of better qu^y with thicker, richer cream, and yield¬
ing butter of excdleut 6avour ana wholesome colour, such
as can ordinarily only be obtained when the cows are out to
grass. There are other ndvantages which specially affect the
fanner. T^e use of the silo obviously makes him independent
of the weather, or largely so, so far os gathering in and storing
the winter supply of food for hb stock is concerned. The sys¬
tem saves time, toil, and trouble, and promotes peace, plenty,
and profit in a doaen different ways which we need not specify
here, and, in short, aeoordmg to its enthusiastic American advo¬
cate—a Mi, Bailey, who has tried it and jmblished the result*
in a book—its adoption would introduce au agricultural millen¬
nium. A well-known French agriculturist, M". Goffart, h-is,
it appears, carried on this ensilage systom w-iih great succesa ;
Mr. Bailey has achieved within the last few years not less
saitbfaotory result* iu America, and iu both countries others are
fcdloirii^ m ^eir steps.
ARBORICULTURE.
CoHMtririCATKD.
(ColUinvtd from page 447, Vol. VII.)
TjKXtl petBons wishing to raise forest artificially, and not know-
Jy ing whatrbrees to select, I subjoin a desoripdon of some of
therooet approved trees well euited for cultivation in the
ploihsof Indio.
L—CtiBS, DlCOTTLSnOKECE.
HATttOAl. OBUBR, IiXaUHIN 08 K<B,
Acneui (WiUd.); H. halml, B. DdDfd.-The babod is
wril known to every on* in India and highly prized. It is
ind^noUs to Ih^a, stretching to Arabia, whence the name,
and Central Afim. Thb tree supplies one of the
thu gwtu M eosnaeroe, extenrively need in the arts and mauu-
fiioto^ abo a* demnloent in mediofne. Babool is aHmotUa,
mad not arbor, barely ezeeeding 80 feet in height with a trunk
froe from bough «( 40 01 more feet aocnrdiug to its poeition,
and ^i^,atmittnrity of Ip to IS feet pear the gronud. It b one
of the hiurd^ of all timbw treee we have iu the plains. I have
it y«rjf )suo6ei4ffa!ily on poor laiUfy toil near the' Goointee
at liiolmow, and Juive fofipd it; growing on very high, hot, dry
of msny parts-of Ba^wbiero other timber trees would hie
in the infant itagaOhd M in ofte* growth, and in moist
lawtteaxthe tod of the Himalayan Mountains where babooi
fsnel fir'bettiffi growing very rapidly, and preeenting a healthy
appeonnoe. .EMm babool larees, .16 or 16 years old, are still
allowed to now on.'rite mpbt land near the Sorjoo which have
aitfiined the hakhti ef ^ feet and 4 feet girth in rids Iwief space
of ’tntte. I Spy " idlirtwd,* because the native! Opt down babool
at A'^lnitch eih^ag*. iMsiiy oUow^ or IS yeahi’ growth.
At Luduow two smw babool plantations of about a quorteT’Oere
each, sitnated on t&O so«3i bank of Uie GoMatoo, near the 0.
and B. BailWa-y line, are doing famously on randy smi, having
obysy lub-soU, notndthstoadmg ^ yehriy ries of the river
during the nuns, which kqeipe.tmoe or four feet of the lower
trunk Duried under water for th^ or mwe days, without any
iniurions efeot whatever on the ttnes, It b rii^wfore dear
babool will grow, beoanie it is very hardy* on dry and
high land and iu the hottest pert m IkcUm Iptt it prefers
wet 1a)h1 aud a humid dimote, whm R will grow to
the best advantage. We hsVe Of land
and in rare instances and loetdities one oOre planted
with babool, but foil to find' hundreds shd thousands of
acre* in one ulace planted with thu really valuable tree. Aud
then even these patches ore denuded of the sopUngs after
the 10th or 12th year. It b not. nnderStood why bahoof should
not receive the universal appr^ationiu India due to it, when
we |,know that it* heqrt-wood' tanks with ihttulmn, but of a
deeper colour, capable of reoeiring the highest pohsb, very
strong, tenacious, durable, free from attacks of iqseota, -with¬
standing decay under water, and not splitting under the strong-
oet Indian sun; hence, in every way snltable for beabls, rafters,
doors and door-poets, furniture, cart and carriage wheeb, well
curbs of very superior order, farm implements of all kinds
where wood is applicable, and for boat-building. This tree
recommends itself also in the habits of growth of its roots;
babool roots do not stretch sideways, but stretches straight
down into the sub-soil in the longitudinal direction, wluoh
accounts for it* being, so very hardy, and requiring no care
after the first five years' growtli. During the first 40 years
of its life babool grows very vigorously and attains its maxi¬
mum height; it lias then very little heart-wood, but mostly sap-
wood of white colour. This sap-wood is far more durable
and free from attacks of insects than many other sap-woods
I know of. For this reason, and the short duration in which it
is formed, the mitives of India cut babool down and uso tlie
iWdt eood (solid and unsolid). After the maximum
height IS attained the growth of the tree la confined in the
expansion of its trunk, ni the formation of the heart-wood—very
alow process, lieeanso solid, extending from 6 to 700 years, when
the tree attain, the maximum size and quantity of heart-wood.
The habit of the upiier axis of baljool is very branching and wide-
spreading, requiring to be checked by close planting, gradually
rooting up the ani'plus trees as the permanent rives advance
ill height, Hie bark and pods of babool contain tannin, useful
for tauiiing leather. Goats are very fond of browsiiig on the
tender branches and leaves, also the camels ; the babooi forest,
therefore, iu the infant stage, should be guarded from the
depredations of these and other animals. The seed should bo
sown in .Iiine or July.
Acacia dmmem (WiUd.)i H. ftifott ftalioof.—Baron Muellor
8 i>eaks in veiy high terms of this black-wattle acacia of South
Australia. In the forest it. is more lofty than A. Amiico in
open localities, and equal to it if the latter be also in the same
p<«ition. On account of its thick bark, this acacia has more
tannin than all its compeers, including oaks and many other
trees ; hut its timber is inferior to that of A. Arahv-a, fit only
for a few uses, but is undoubtedly one of the best woods for
fuel. For supplying tanning material, forests of this tree might
be formed to he rooted up when the bark contains the maximum
quantity of the tan principle, reserving some trees for ascertain¬
ing the qualitv of timber at mature age. Begording the large
supply of bark obtainable from one A. tfecwreiw full-grown
tree, Mr. Dickenson statSa. that lie obtained lOcwta, orl,120lbs.,
which mean* Ihe, .336 to lbs. 604'8 of tannin, the baric yiridiug,
according to analysis mode by Baron Mueller, 80 to 64^ tannio
acid, a quantity suffioient, according to some tanners, to tan
£0 hides. It is noticeiihle that this tree, in its early stages,
grows at the rate of about an inch in diameter of its trunk in
each year (Baron Mueller), Like A. ArcAka, A, decutreiu is
raised from seed sovm iu June or July.
Aoaoia dtalbcUa (Link).—This tree, called the Australian
silver-wattle, is very valuable for many uses. Its timber is
tough, very strong, and durable, therefore extensively used by
coopers and other artisans, and as fuelof great heating power
just suited to glasa-manttfactiaera The hark of this ocada is
thin, affording t^in of less volite than that of A. Arabioa and
A. decurreae. It is a pretty lofty tree* attmning the Wght of
160 to 200 feet in suitable looahries. It like* humid sml ami
climate, -will therefore grow to the best advactage in British
Bunnah, Lower Bengri, Assam. Oil along thefocst-m the Hima-
layau mpuntaios, wh^ver nm .soU, Is moist, also on the
banks of riven in all parts of India. It is raised from seed
sown in June or July.
Acaoia fitteieulif^ (Mueller).—A valasbl* tanher tree of
Booth Australia suitable for fomiture, and other things
requiring good wood which might be s^^y worked, receive
high polish, and possess good wpearonce. In go^ soil it will
attain, in me forest, a height of 100 feet. The seed is sown in
June at Jtlly.
Aoaoia hoffpaphylla (Mdeller).—Native of South Australia,
supplying hark for tannery, and exoellsRt timber of brown
colour for fancy turnery. This tree attains the height of 90 or
nihro feet. Like all acacias, it likes hUnltd soil, and suppliee
a targe quantity of gum^- Th« seed is sawn ki June or July,
Jaiittaiy 1,1888i
THE; imum ^QRIOUEHmBST.
17
A'Oaeia (BeuthaiD).'^Au excellent timber and bark-
yiddiiQf' ai'- Sontii AttitraJia, luefui for cabinet^nakeni utd
tannenx'' Ito' wood of tbia tree ie dark, brown in eoloar,^ okwe-
na^dj'flrait teoaoiosci and baa yeliowiab Umlottbted-
a d^imUa trea for tbe plaina of India. Baiaed from
aeed’fown in June’aod July.
Aoaeia tadatuayUn (Bpjwn).—This ia Uie best of. all
Sovdb Aartndimt timber-T^tding acacias. Its bark ia nsefnl
for tadwers, and tbe gnm for technical nsea It attaint the
height Of 80 or more feet, and the trunk ia correspondingly thick.
There ia hmrtUy aity work belonging to cabinet-makers m which
the timber of this toee cannot be nfm—from the hishly polished
billiwd 'tablO and pianofortes to botes, ohairs, tables, picture-
frames, railway cam, boats, &c., &o,, are all made of this wood.
This wood ranks in quality wilh the valuable walnut-wood,
A. mktnMjfhn will ®row very nicely in all parts of Upper
In^ pfotsaanng humid soil, ^>r on the banks of the rivers. It
is very dcsiiabie that Lower Bengal, Assam, Bntish Burmab,
and Oudh should be well stocked with this ro^ly valuable tree.
Boned from seed sown in June or July.
DoXburgia titmo ffioxb.) ; H. litsoo or iheenhum ; the Indian
mah(^wy.—Undoubtedly this tree is very vnlu.able. In
the foiwt it ia pretty lofty, attaining the maximum height
of 200 feet. The aap-wooa of aissoo is valuatile only for fuel,
and for no other use; but the heart-woo<l, heavy, of deep
brownish colour, strong, close-grained, tcuaciona, aiul ftiiely
laminated, is valuable for buildings, carriages, furniture,
boats, farm implements, and various other things. The
foliage of this tree is mucilaginous, mid jawscBsing
demulcent properties, is extensively drunk mixed with
water, steepw overnight with the admixture ni a kind of
sugar manufactured in 'Benares, passing by the name of Kucha
or Benarssea cAaenes, for curiug or alleviating venereal diseases
by the natives of Upper India. Large forests of sissno were
foimd in the northern part of Oudh and N.-W. J’roviiiee.s,
especially in the Barainh district, which was once famous for
sissoo wood, and has not altogether lost, it yet, aii.bough t.he
mature treesand forests are mratly gone, and used ep .vithout
the precaution of planting new ones. At tlir )>reseiit time
mature sissoo is very rare, existing in oiit-of-tho way 'ind un¬
frequented localities. Large numbei-s of young sissoo trees are
to M met with on road-sides, in all districts of Oudh, and in sonic
of the roods adjoining this province, in the N.-'W. Provinces,
planted within the lost 40 years ; but I have nowhere observed
sissoo forests formed, whether in Oudh or in the N.-'W. Pio-
vinces and other parts of India. The sissoo tree grows fast
enough in height^ but in girth and formation and concentration
of heart-wood it is very slow. Some sheesliums, at Lucknow,
planted 40 years ago when Oudh was under the mvtive rule,
have not attained the diameter in the stem of more than 1 d",
which, excluding the-sap-wo(Kl, would scarcely give heart-wood
more tliaii 0" diameter. Some sheeahum trees planted at Sitapoie,
in Oudh, in 1889, 24 year's ago, have not attained a girth of more
than 4 feet, but are sixty feet high. Sheeshiim requires humid
soil of the caloaiwus order, where it will form flourishing
forests. This treeus raised from seed sown in .Tune or July, for
which purpose seed should be gathered in its maturing season—
February to March.
Butta frondota ^Koxb.) j H. dhcik ov jKildit. Tlie dhflk tree
is very common in the plains of Upper India, especially in
Oudh and parts of the N.-W. Provinces adjoining Oudh. The
(ih&k tre« found in open localities growing on, dry arid soil, is
very difiarent from the dliAk of the forest;—in the former locality,
it is a small stunted shrub, but in the forest I have found ‘it
growing 40 feet high, with a girth iicai' the ground of
6 feet The dried flower of this tree going by the
name of teioo, is extensively used in dyeing cloths and
other atnSs requiring a yellow colour. A kind of astringent
red-coloured gum or vino exudes' from the bark of this tree,
bron^t to use by the natives of India in separating the dye
principles of indigo. The root bark is converted into strong
rope^ and formerly made Into pcUilat for lighting native
matchlocks, whan the muskets and rifles now in use were not
to he fduna with the natives. The wood is reckoned as the
best fnel, and. its diareoal is used in manufacturing gunpowder.
Lb&k kavea are sold to native shop-keepers for pacing articles,
and in. Hindoo festivities they are U8ed_ as substitute fur
dishes^ plateB, cups, and saucers. This tree is raised from seed
sown in June or July. BhAk is very slow in growth.
Aoaoici oateokn (Drury) ; ff. Mair or iaiha. A middle-sized
tree, 40 feet l^h, muuu growing on the outsldrte of the Lower
Hiimayas. Ihe Ehair tree is nowhere cultivated, but is found
em^dsi'my in the forests. With the natives of India it is one of
ttomioet. valuable trees, on account of tlie dry extract (ihair or
wlHsioa tiie native names of the tree, eaten by them with
the iMves of Ohaviea betle, in dyeing, and iii medicine as on
astringent. The extract ia obtained by boiling chips of the heart-
wood of this tree, and reducing and drying tlie e.\tract. Pui'
economic pnriKwes this acacia might be m'owti iu iiortliam
parts of tJpjier India. When mature the knair forest will yield
ahamlsome profit to the owner. Bxcept fur the extract aod-M
fuel, the wvood of this tree is not valuable for any othm: nw,
Bai^from seed sown in June or July.
Ceratonia tilu/ua (j^innej.—^he c^ob, or $t, John’s brea<l
tene. A small tree, 30 or mors feet high. It is extremely hardy,
having been iuade to groaf in, very adverse soil and climate in
India. It isia native m the Heditemuioau regions. The canp
tree is especially eligible for . eultivotiDu in our forests aldSg
the foot of the HImalnyas. The value oi tiua tree consists in
the large qmuitity of edible saaeahsrine pods it yields, resem¬
bling in value the dry dates, from wlpch I could hardly
distmguish it in taste, Baron Mueller, by analysis, has found
66 per cent of saccaharine matter and gum in the pods of this
tree. In Continental Europe the use of carob pods lor feeding
horses and all manner of agricultui'ol live-stock is assuming
immense dimensions ; and in some lucaliUea hve-etock oi'o exclu¬
sively fed on the carob jtod,
Aocoixiing to Baron Mueller the feeding value of carob
pod is dounlo of the best oil-oake having excellent fatten-
uig qualities. Forests formeil of this tree will greatly profit
tho country iu ordiuary years by the nutritious food it siippliaa
for the five-stock., and maintain them and starving people in
years of scarcity. The [laie-i’ed coloured wood of the carob tree
IS voliwble for many purposes and as fuel The carob tree
is raised oxtdusively fixnn seed, which germinates very
freely. The seedlings bear transplanting well ; but for tho
formation of forest it will bo Iwtter not to disturb the
top root, > allowing tho trees to grow where the seeds
are sown. I have grown and distributed l.trge numbeia of
carob plauts from ends obtained from Malta, some of which,
planted in the Agri-Horticultimil Gardens at Lucknow, sown
ttud transplanted IfiorlByeai's ago, are now fruiting. These
trees tire growing on poo!\ senufy soil, ^d not flourishing and
fruiting well. Carob requires rich calcareous soil and plenty of
moisture. It is very slow of growth during its first five
years ; but when once thoroughly established, it ia fast enough,
gi'owiug into a pretty large widesproadiug tree within the next
ten years, produoing abuudaiice of sweet nutritious pods, not
uiilike, in appearance, those of the Tamaritulwi Indicuf, beiuing
also the Home quantity, or, even where proi>etly taken wu’e of,
more jiods.
NaTUKAL OrDKB, EBBBACB.E.
Biom/roa mdano.cyion (Roxb.) ; U. teitdoo or ahnooa,
the ebony tree.—A small tree 36—40 feet high with the
girth nearest the ground of 4—6 feet, found growing in
Uiu forests of Gudh and N.-W. P,, and other parts of
India, iti the sanie forest with ahorta robuata and tenninalia
tumiitoaa. The ebony ia very slow-growing, hut Uvea to a gi-eat
age. Tho faoart-wixid of this tree is jet black, solid, very heavy,
strong, ami capable of receiving the higliest polish. This woo'd
is called ebony, the generic term given to tlio heart-wood of
many trees funiisfiing soliil ivooil of jx'citliar structui'e. The
sap-wood of this tree is also valuable. It is white, tenacious,
docs not split or crack under the sun, might be bent like a bow
and not break, and is cosily worked. It is much sought for
Imndlea of axes, spades, and for farm implements, wherever
avoilible. The fruit of 1). rudauoxyloH supplies, on ex]ireS8iou,
a fluid which assumes a deep brownish coiotu-, much used for
varnishing tlie exterior surface of boats under water, and for
fishing lines, to make them watorjiroof. It is a pity this valua¬
ble tree is not receiving the care and cultivation duo to it,
iiieopla near tlie forest ruthlessly cutting down small saplings
for making handles for farm or other implemonts. Raised from
seed sown in June or .July.
Natuiial Oedbb, SAnsnACKtE.
(Eicufue Hippoeaaiouum (Limio.)—The well-known horso-
chestiiut tree of tJenlral Assia. An ornaraeiital useful tree CO
or more feet high, having stem measuring 10 feet iu ciroum-
fereuco. The seed of lliis tree forms food for domesticated
animals, the hark ia good tauaing material, and the wood free
from attacks of insects is used iu making furniture. Oit nccouut
of its ornamental appearance the horse-chestnut tree is found
iu many gardens in the Indian plains. This tree ixiquires humid
soil and climate. It will succeed up to 10,000 feet in tlie Kima-
layaii mountains, aud flourish oil over Bunnah, Bengal, Oudh,
and N.-W. Provinces bordering the mountains. Hoise-chostiiut
tree is raised from seed sown iu June or July.
Natitiiai. Ouder, Meliaoike.
Cedrela toona not taona (Roxb.) ; H. Uxm .—^The Indian cedar.
It is not known how this tree came to be called Singaporo coJar.
It grows wild in the Bohraich district in Oudh within a ra¬
dius of 40—45 miles south of the Himalayan mountains, asoend-
ing up to 8,000 feet in these mountains. In open localities,
grow^ alone, the toon tree is very umbrageous and well suited
for roadsides. But it will not grow everywhere. It reqm'res a
humid climate, and moist aud friable soil, where it will grow
into a majestic tree with deeji green foliage very grateful to
the sight. Under favourable and undisturbed gromh. in the
forest, the »toon tree acquires a lofty height ami huge
girth—200 feet high, and near the grousa diametrically
measuring 6—7 feet, The slightly aroiuatte heart-wood has a
beaatitul light red colour and is finely laminated. It
is mudi in request for furniture, doors, vrindows, in¬
side of ships and boats of £uippeiKa uidte. Toon wood is
18
THE INDIAN AaRICULTTTRIST.
January 1. 188S.
light, very ornamental, bat not «o duiable, bocaase not strong
as the solid and heavr babool, sheeshum, and manj other first
clas^ woods. It sells much cheaper than the woods before
mentoned, but the large quantity of wood of a sin^e tree, in
value, excels that of woods. Like the bjdwol, toon is very
branching and wide-spreading, requiring to be dieoked by close
planting, to be gradually tMnued out. Toon grows from seed
gatlieiw in F^ruary.to March and sown in June or July.
^The flower of toon yields yellow dye used in colouring cloth,
called basante.
Natueal order, Vbrbbnaob®.
Teototm ffrandi* (Roxb.); H., taaon, B. theffoon .—The
well known teak tree of Buimah. Slow but very valuable
timber tree of loftv stature and huge girth, growing wild
in Bunnah. Strai^tas a rod, this majestic tree rises more
than 200 feet from the ground, with the girth of more
than 27 feet, growing thousands of years without show¬
ing the least sign of diminished vigour in growth. The
vidue of the teak tree, as hitherto ascerwned, lies in its timber
used in shipbuilding, beams, rafters, doors, door-posts, furniture,
railway carriagee, and where plentifully to be had, sleepers also.
Seed of teak tree has been imported into India from Burmah
and treea raised therefrom, in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta
and Saharunpore, the Am-Horticultural Gardens at Calcutta,
Lucknow, sad L^ore, the "Wingfield Park at Lucknow, and
various other gardens in India. These planted 26 years ago
are seeding, from which plants have been and can be raised ;
but the trees themselves are mere saplings, 40—00 feet high,
according to the nature of the soil and humidity of climate of
the locality where they are growing, but they rarely exceed
four feet in girth, which is mostly sap-wooil with fiai’dly an
inch of heart-wood in the diameter. Teak braves the burning
hot winds of the Indian plains, but does so at the expense of its
growth. Lower Bengal all along the foot of the Ilimalayan
mountains up to 6,000—B,000 feet above the sea are localities
where, Viesides its native habitat, Burmah, teak will flourish well.
Eaised from seed sown in June or July.
{To he Coiifinved.)
ON THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE JACK TREE.
{Communieated.)
Natural Order— driocoiyacew ,• Arlncai'pus inleffrifoHm,
Known ik Benoal as TnE~KaiUhal.
LTHOUGH this is a tree that is grown near to every ryot’s
house ill Bengal, and in fact can be grown on almost any
soil, provided the climate is not a very dry one, its value has, I
believe, never been fully tested, and these lines are written with
the view of attracting attention to it.
Belonging as the jack does to the bread fruit order, its
growth, in a climate and on soil where the bread fniit grows,
w only a natural arrangemout, and there is little doubt but that
the jack trees in Ceylon are about the finest one can sec.
The jack tree is grown merely for its fruit, which rJl resi¬
dents in India are aware is very large, very luscious, and has a
very strong smell of over-ripe fruit which very few Euroiieans
can appreciate, but which tlie natives revel in.
The wood of the jack tree is very like the mahogany in
“ grain,” and were it not for its bright yellow colour, it would be
a great favourite with cabinet-makers. As it is, jack wood is
used largely for all domestic furniture, and when put through
a process of staining, is greatly admired and always commands
a ready sale. The jack trees m Bengal do not grow lofty, but
they make up for it in girth, and plimks 20 or 24 inches across,
sawn out of jack tree bolls, are not uncommon. Some years
back, happening to see a number of jack fruit taken off a tree
while still unripe, I experimented with the milky juice that ex¬
udes from the fruit stem. I gathered the juice, and whipping
it up like one does ci'eam, I secured a viseid mass out of it that
looked uncommonly like (caoutchouc) India rubber. This
mass I put away in the shade to dry, and in due course I found
it get hard and springy. I then got several ounces of this
“ caoutchouc,” and witli it moulded a cup and a vessel like
a milk jug These mouldings were qiute firm, but at the
same time very sticky. Well, to get rid of the “ stickiuessj" if I
may so term it, I used some oil, having for result a {mlished,
smooth surface. I then placed the articles on the kitchen smoke
flucj opening to dry and brown ; unfortmiately I was called
away suddenly, and hiul to a^iit myself for two or throe days,
and as I had loft no instructions regarding my “ caoutchouc ’
vessels, I found on my return no vessels at all, but a mass of
viscid, dark brown, thick syupy fluid pot unlike varnish.
Now, from this experiment I deduce that the jack juice con¬
tains a sntistiuice like caoutchouc—elastic, leathery, water-re¬
sisting, and capable of removing pencil marks. I had not the
cheuucols to test the qualities of the aubstanoe, and to canqmre
the same with India rubber, and, therefore, 1 do not feel
juatified in egUing it India Babber.
I was careful to test the quantity I obtained, and on '
tioning it to tbe number of fruits 1 tnqsed, 1 fodud that each
fruit could yield fully two ounoes of mOx, tmd from it I got nearly
one-and-a-half drachm of rubber (I use this term tili aaotiker is
found, or the substance is proved to be other tlum.uaoutdioac.) If
this substance is oaoutenouc, and each tree yields only
the result would be four ounces of libber per tree,* 1 have, not
topped the-jack trees in order to continue uiese.experimeuts, bat
I have not the least doubt but that they could be tapped as the
rubber trees are done. i • , .
Now, if we look at the fruit of the jack, it ConsiBis ot a nnm-
ber of “ flakes,” each flake covering a seed. This soft covering,
is very juicy and sweet, and if hea^ with water and allowed to
ferment, then distilled, it yields a wine of fair strength, but
rather strong flavor. I see no reason why. with the fdtt of cer¬
tain deodorizers, this strong taste and smell pOuld not be mel¬
lowed down, ana a full-bodied mellow liquor, hot unlike some of
the Marsalas, be produced. Again, the seed, when roasted and
f round down, is a higl^ nutritious article of diet, very like the
our made out of the Irappa by the Cashmerees. I believe it
cuntoius a very large percentage of starch, and as such, could be
utilised in a variety of forms. Many of the common jack tre^
yield a greater perceutoge of seed than those that are more
carefully cultivated, and I have seen 80 to 9Q seeds come out of
one fruit. If these seeds be taken to weigh a third of an ounce
each, one fruit will give us 30 ounces of flour, and twenty
fruits, the produce of one tree, 600 ounces=37 B) of flour.
Now, if we place the matter on a working estimate, it appears
as follows ;—
Say two acres of land— Bs. A. F.
Rant at one rupee per bigha ... 25 8 0
Ploughing, cleaning, &o. ... ... 20 0 0
Seedlings ... ... ... 2 0 0
Planting 27 trees ... ... 0 8 0
Tending do for 48 months’
at Bs. 4 per month ... ... 102 0 0
Total outlay ... 240 0 0
Against this wo have a plantation of 64 trees; say the
fifth year we have eight fruits on each tree, this
represeuts au income of 8 x 27=216 fruits. The sixth
year say twice 216=432 fruits, or in two years we have
048 fruits. These at two outias caoli for the eatable part of
the fruits—lls, 84 with 19,440 ouucea or 1,216 tt) of flour at 1 anna
per ft, Ila.70, and 1,944 drachms or 121 lb of rubber =® 8 annas per
ft) Rs. 60, or 84 X 76 X 60=Rs. 220, and as the yield increases veiy
largely in a very sliort time, the plantation will repay every
expense and bo 8elf-sup])ortiug. Lastly, the 64 trees when they
cease to yield, which may be at a time when they have
readied a circumference of 9 feet, could be sold at Rs. 20
each for tlie plants they would yield, .aud may be looked upon as
Rs. 1,080.
SUGAR-CANE CULTIVATION IN UPPER WESTERN
INDIA
( Comnwnuiated.)
I N the Indian AgriruUurutjYol.yiL, No. 12, p. 449, there is an
excellent note on the sugar-cane cultivation in the Thonegwa,
Shweygyin, and Hanthawaddy districts in British Burmah,
drawn out by D. M. Smeaton, Esq., M.A, B.C.S. This note
deals very conipreUenaive.ly with all points in sugar-cane cultiva¬
tion as practised in those districts ; but the modu* operandi
found in Burmah, as contrasted with those of India, being
faulty, because the Burmese cultivation is found deteriorating
the quality of the cane, easily ascertainable by the paucity of
sarehariuB matter in tlie sap of Burmah grown cane, 1 therefore
offer the fullowing remarks, which include a few hints about
the manufacture of sugars of all kinds in the Indian method,
in the hope of their being serviceable to sugar-cane planters in
British Burmah and elsewhere. _ -
In these parts of India sugar-cane is most extensively oulti-
vated both tor chewing or sucking, and for the purpose of
manufacturing goor (unpurifled dry saccharine extract), rdb osBed
in Bengal ghoragoor (j«'8K®*'y o*" orystallieed and unorystaUized
sugar not dried), sugais of various degrees of purity on the
methods of native and European manutacturee, tr^k, molasees
{ehira H.), rums, spirit of wine, and vinegar. We have a lat«
usiue known by the name of Boea factory, a few miles from the
fibahjehanpore sudder station, in the N.-W. P., bordering the
province or Oudb, where extensive manufactures ct all Itinds
of sugar, treacle, rum, spirit of wine, and vinegar, Ac., arg made.
The cane this usinc consumes comes, principally, from the sugar-
Cmuitohouo, g)»m elastic, or Tnilia rubber is a milky juice found
in many plantti, but moat abimdiuitiy m tU^ uutiu-al oraenk Murmea
AHoentpMtce^ JHHjthdriiaeete Atci^UtAuetw and Vapttyitetit.
The jack tree belcogs to the Artocarpaefa, and it is a question which
experiment alone oau docUc whether rubber of miffloient ocqnomio value
oould be obtrined from iL—Bo., I. .1.
.J^twry 1,1883.
THE ZNDIAN AGEIOTTLTUEIST.
prodnohig .djaMots of Shahjehaapore, Sitapore, aad Shara, the
Utter tvb bei&jt Oitdii di^cte, and next neighbewn to
Sh^5ehartp<a% addition to this tuine, vo hare no end of
iogarmanalactares on the native s^Ie in tahsil Ooia, Dis-
triots ^em, SitapOre, Sara>Buaki, Lucknow, and Oawnpore.
The hut ihree distriots themselves pi^uee very little sugar, hut
draw their supplies of unpurified sugar from Sitapore and
Khnrtt, which wese districts purify for conversion into oheenoM
of various kinds, kand, and miirie. Benares also mahu&ctnres
mnch 'siu^, the ohpuniied snpplies being drawn from the ad-
ioiuing wdricts ana from its own tahaila. In these parts of
India, the sugar-caue producing districts are, at present, for
chewing or va sucking purpose, chiefly, Lucknow, Bmuires,
Cawnpore, and Allahabad. In these districts, for sucking
onU, two principal varieties of cane are raised : the one has a
yellow skin and when unripe green, and the'other red. The former
IS oalUd Madrc^et pounda (Lucknow local name for Madras
cans) ; and the Utter Bomba^ pounda (Lucknow local name for
Bomnay oane). lliese canes are thick, pretty ttdl (6’—10’
l%h), each oane, including the tope (agoia, H), weighing fi—4
seers of eighty tolas each, and are very sweet or comparatively
insipid aocoroing to the amount of care bestowed on the culti¬
vation, whidi includes, as a matter of course, pi'oper soil and
the quality and quantity of manure applied to the soil. No sap
is ever extracted from these canes for conversion into sugar.
It is, I believe, one of these two canes which is cultivated in
Burmah. It is not known how these canes came to Upper
India from Madras and Bombay, and from what length of time ;
but are in cultivation from some centuries back. The cones
raised for manufacture of sugar arc altogether different varieties.
Two of them are raised—one is called iagdi ookh, ikh, or
ookhar, and the other desee ookh, ikh, or ookhar. The kagdi ookh
is that principally raised and preferred. It is n thin slender
cane, having yellowish thin and tender skin, can be crushed
very easily with the rude appliances with tiie natives, loss sweet
than any kind of powida (Madras or Bombay), 6—8 feet high,
and weighing, on an average, C—12 cliittacks each (chittock—6
tolas) The otlier variety has a tliicker stem, having greenish
thick skin, of the same height, weighing each from 8—16 chit-
tacks, less sweet than the kajdi variety; and some of them I have
tasted, possessed alkaline ta8te,which comes, I believe, from their
being raised on soil too rich in the alkali. In India tho reason why
poundag are not used for extracting sugar is not because of the
paucity of saccharine matter in their sap—on the other hand they
are much richer than the best hagdi and dwtce canes I have
tested, but because thepowidat command a high and ready market
for chewing and sucking in the large cities in India, when each
cane sells from 3 piee to one anna six pies, also because the
canes being thick the native kolhooa are unfit foi' pressing thick
stems.
The soil preferred for sugar-cane cultivation in these iMirts
of the country is of a calcareous nature {kankrUa zamin, H.)
having less humus and more bmo. This kind of soil produces
cane of tho best quality, humus helping in augmenting woody
fibre, and lessening saocharine matter in the sap. In Lucknow,
however, the povAulat are raised on poor sandy soil on the
strength of the immense (juantities of human ordure there
available to the agriculturists at Es. 3 to 5 per 100 ass-loads.
After the proper sou is selected, mounds are nused, and fonr
ploughings are given in the winter season, when the cultivators
nave iiuiimed their rabi sowings and are comparatively at leisure
to attend to other works. Where manure is available the
land is manured in various quantities in rural places with cattle-
dung and ashes, and near the cities with human ordure. The
and manuring finished, preparation for iilanting, in
tracts embracing a large" number of districts—MoradabaJ in
the west and Jounpoi-e in_ the oast, including all of tho dis¬
tricts of Oudh—commences in March ; but in other places, such
as Allahabad, Benares, and Azirnguih, from April to the middle
of May. The seed-canes are first out into smml bits, each cut¬
ting having 3 to C nodules (leaf buds, H. ankhwaj) a foot long.
seed-cone affords 3 to_6 such cuttings, tho tons (H. agol(^,
and the lower part (H. jarila), are rojecUxl as unfit for iilanting
purposes. While the canes are being cut, if siifilcient hmids are
available, the land is partitioned, water channels pi-ovided, and
beds struck out. If tlie land be found insufficiently moist, it is
irrigated, and when of proper consistency, generally the next
day or the day after, planting commences. Women, children,
and men, kkoorpea, or any other implement akin to it, in hand,
in a sitting posture, plant the cuttings in a sleeping direction,
three feet from centre to centre of the cutting in tlie same
row, two inches deep, covered over with earth, and three
feet apart from row to row :—thus an acre 660’ X66’ having six
paxtitiotm made by five water channels, 9 feet wide and 660 feet
long, reqmres 3 x 2S0 x 63,960 cuttings obtained from 660 to 1,320
canes, simultaneously with the plating of cuttings, are sown
seeds of vegetables of the summer season, snoh as khira H., thonha
B. (eueumu lativa) ; iarboot H., iorboot B. (pitrallut mUgaria) ;
karda H., oorcheg B, (nwntordioa charanita), ^hya toroe H.,
dhoondol fi. (lufa My^iea)} am tone H., jhingey B. {lufa
aoutai^\da) ; louki H., too B. (lagenaria vulgaria :) konhra H.,
koomfo B. (ptimrbita maanvui); and in rare instances
some of the summer greens known by the general
name of tag of the uatural order amoranthacea).
When these latter have geiminated, geaeri||yin a veck's
time, a watering is given: and wa^Iy nSvy irrigation
is never withlmld tlU the rains have set in. Before the advent of
the rainy season, the appendages sown are in a fit state for ^le,
and are aooordingly rootM up, and sold in the market, leaving
the sngarcane plants standing alone, which, at this time, receive
a hoeiim with the spade, manured, if manure is availatfio, and
earthen up.
Tlidproceeds of sale of the vegetables, m all cases, pay th(
cost seed-canes, and that of cultivation up to tho time the
vegetables ore rootwl up. Nothing further is done to the caiief
after they are earthed up till the end of September, when the
under dry cane leaves are extracted and used as ropes or stringi^
for tying np tho bunches of stems, for preventing
crookM growth and falling down from heavy weight the canee
acquire at this time, and in tho coming two months. If the
rains liave not been timely and in sufficient quantities, artificial
irrigation is resorted to, not more than two or tliree times, in
September and beginning of October. This finished, the canes
are allowed to concentrate the saccharine matter up to the middle
of November, when canes are raised for sale m the markets
for sucking ; and up to the end of February, by gradually
cutting from the beginning of December, when the sap is
required to be converted into sugar, &c,
After the canes are cut the Wd is irrigated and properly
hoed to admit of the stumps fronting to supply soed-caues.
Only those fields are irrigated for this purpose which have been
harvested in November and not later than tho beginning of
December. This second crop of cones comes to the projier
age for planting purposes by the latter part of March following ;
so that in Indi.a, within 12 months, we nave two crops of cane—
first crop for sucking or for manufacturing suj^, &c., and second
crop for planting purposes. After the socoiia crop of canes has
been removed from tho field, it is broken or ploughed up for
some other crop. In India sugar-cane is never allowed to be
grown on tho same field two years suucessively, being a very
exhausting crop.
Now, the outturn of a sugar-cane plantation is very various,
no two fields producing abke owing to diversity in the cultiva¬
tion, amount of care liestowed, and tho quality and quantity
of fertilizing matters in the soiL ^oh cutting grown into a
bunch will prwlmie from 3 to lb stems of different heights and
thickness, according to circumstances, containing 10 to 15 per
cent, of woody fibro, 90 to 85 per cent, of sap, containing lO to
36 per cent, of sugar, and tho rest water. When cane-juice
has only 10 per cent, of sugar, liardly any dry saccharine extract
can lie obtained, only mohwses or vei7 hiferior dark-brown over-
burnt jaggery can be had.
There are three reasons for tho inferiority of Burmah cane—
(a.) It is harvested at a time (September or rainy weather)
when the plants are growing, and the lowest percentage of
saccharine matter exists in the stem.
(6.) The excessive humus in the soil on which sugar-cane is
f rown serves to augment the growth and quantity of woody
bro, and not the sugar.
(o.) The canes being planted on lands subjected to tho tides,
a gi’eat deal of water is absorbed by the plants which lessens the
percentage of sugar in them, and the fertilizing elements of the
soil which woiilil form sugai’ are washed away with ebb tide,
serving in still lessening the quantity of sugar.
1 will now say a few words about the methotls practised in
India in tlie preparation of sugars, dtc,, by its natives, which
I trust will prove interesting and uaefnl to persons engaged in
the sugar industry in India or m Burmah.
For manufacturing sugai's, &c., the canes, tops cut off, are
either passed between iron rollers (where Beheea mills are in
use), or cat into small bits, by moans of a chopper, ganraaca H.,
of about 6" length, and sap expressed in the ordinary native
kolhooa, which resemble, in most respects, the kolhooa of tho
telee or oil-man. Tho sap obtained is strained through a clean
cloth, and then boiled, A large choolha or oven is erected—more,
if necessary, on the top of which is placed a large native-made
deep plate-iron pan or karh&i, filled with the cane-juice and
boiled. Tho fuel used is the crushed cane l^negaa) from which
sap has been exlracteil. After a few hours’ boifing, sugar crystals
are formed, when, if nib is the object, tho boiling juice is jwured
into clean earthen ghurraa ; and it goor, the boiling is allowed
to go on till all water is dissinatea leaving the residuum of a
tliiiik curd-like consistency, wuich is evacuated into shallow
circular wooden or earthen pans, the inside of which has been
well rubbed with mustard or rapeseed oil to obviate adhesion,
to allow it to cool. When cool, in some places small lumM
are extracted, 8ha{)ed with the hand on a smooth wocxien riaiik,
pj-essed with the fingers and allowed to dry under shade. These
lumps, weighing from 2 to 4 chittacks each, are tei-mcd bhdea goor,
most exteiffliv^y manufactured in most naris of the N.-W.
Provinces. Where hhidoe is not required to be made, as in Oudh,
lai'ge deep circular wooden or earthen vessels are used, rubbed
with oil as in the foi-egoing. filled with the thick residuum
iu the karh/ti, cooled, and solidified. This is called pdri yoor ;
each huge lumji, weighing from 10 to 40 seers, is called a pdrae.
The different kinds of goor and rdb —some of which are of
beautiful golden yellow colour, while others, dirty blackish-
brown—ore owing to two main causes. The first is that the
20
TOE r»^Al?
J'aiiTMry f,‘W8.
beott reduced to nib and ffoor, in the one
ones were (Hofi in eaochartne matter, requiring little boiling and
iunl, in Home few and me instances, undorfone a little tiarifi-
os^on—oows’ ndlk, and the poum taken off ■} and soooml^, in
thVother case, asps oontaihod less sugar, therefor# mutch boffing
hadbe rhsorted to, also no puriffcanon ttw made.
' £anci and rowree of different’degreo* of purification we find,
are obtained from ,the stuff called rdb, uriiioh are mandfoctitred
thus (—Qugo baskets ate pi-ovidod, placed over ndttdH jf the
quantity to be manufactured be emalL car on mjofca^^ats. if
laige quantities are to be obtained. In these baskets- Wok
layers of river weeds (dried) called Mftdr H., are put, the
<^r cooling, » x>oured into these basketa, and the tops covered,
its is to 1)6 e)4taeted, -the liquid uucryntalliked sugar soon
triokies down me bottoms of the baskets and ooUects in the
viAndan or vate. This is molasses or sAtra, H. When the mdlasSes
is well extracted from the sugar ervStals, the baskets are opened,
and sugar extracted, This is Callea Mw, the shape, size, and
weight of the bdnd dependixiff on the adiape, sise, and hold
mg
capacity of the basket tnted. If ntiurm is required to be made,
the tkand is not allowed to dry, but boiled afreedi with water
and milk, the scorn scraped off, and the purified Hqnid poured
in earthen veuels of any deeired shape, where the sr^ar crystal¬
lizes, and gets splidifiM. iftsi^e is hugbly purified sugar, ani,
some yams a^ When’the English sn^r factories were not
established itt India,' was mush in demand for European gentle¬
men ! but now the demand it lessened. The natives, however,
like their native manufactured mitrtt, and prefer it to the best
Eimlish sugar, on account of cUste prejn^ce.
i^eee are tsie principal natiyS manufactures in sugar ; cheeneet
and tkukkars are inferior sugars manufactured by the halwaaet,
from ,yow by adding linJe as a purifier, *bioistentng the goor
with water,^ serapmg off the scum, drying and rubbing in n
large IwAai by means of IrunAool H., or large iron spoon.
CA^nsea and a/iUiUwa contain both crystallizable and unarystal-
lizable sugar, espedally those mannfacturbd at Benares, known
by the name of Benaratee kacha alieenee.
REPORT ON ALOECOLTIVATrON AT THE CENTRAL
JAI% HAZARIBAGH.
T HEOUGH the Courtesy of the Inspector-General of Jails
and the Superintendent of the Hazaribagh Jail, we are
enabled to present our readers with the following iuteresting
report
The aloe {AgoM Ammeaiue), a member of the natural order
AmarjflJidcMeai, is a native of America, and has become
thoroughly naturalized in countries bordering on tho
Mediterranean, in Africa, end in many parte of India.
Growth from wod.
It may b^gcownfrom seed collected from the tall, oandelabra-
Kke, stems thrown up by the plant after it has reached the age
of from B to 7 years. The seed should be planted in a nursery of
rows 18 indies a)>art, and the seed twelve inches from each
other. The best time to plant them in Hazaribagh is daring
the rains, they will then rarely fail to germinate and throw out
leaves 3 or -4 inches long by the end of the year. If, however,
they are put in the dry season, they require watering at least
iwioe a week. The young plants snoiila be allowed to remain
in the nursery till the {ollowiug rains, when they may be
transplanted to the hedge or plantation where they are intended
to grow. .
Growth from thoott.
This is the best methoL because there is no chance of
failure (ff gemination. The labour of sowing is saved,
and much time is gained. Young plants from one to two
years old should be procured at the commencament of the
' rainy seeaon, and put down where they are intended to grow
permanently. If for hedgerows a ditch snould be dug and the
young ptats put ou the lop of the earth thrown up, they
shpm imt bo oloeer than S feet from eadi other, The holes
in whitm timy eu# placed should be 8 inches in depth, and the
earth should be well presse<l round thenu No fui’thm care is
then required, and lu about three or four years the plants wQi
grow quite dose together and make au excellent fence. If it
IS intended to make an aloe plautatlon, the young shoots should
be planted in rows ton feet apart, and five or six feet should
be allowed between each plant in the rows.
Soil,
Ag^ye% or Uterito toil atmesrs to bs beet suited fpr the
growui plant. U the piantation is made on high
ground, itis nq^.ltiltoaeary to make ridges to plaut on, and the
plant is quUc ^ yoang shooto,tor experience has shown
&at they do oeaerimy bn the'fiat, but on low situations
and hollows it u neoessuy tp make ridges 19 to 18t inches high,
the being very partial tq a light, dry soil, trifile a damp
and watM^csggodsoil is fiegttl’to.it
No m«®Wrt i® raqulrbd^.BBd m '^ws on the must atoney
ground, whm ^paibatty tlieib is art sufficient, sml to K^ipMt
;,u we ulfiat. bt seme places it may be seen growing in the
cleft of Ae took*. We' have art l<Wrt4, it; jtpAiiiaSrf to fern or
dig up thei land aefir ^ejpbuiitih attfi :Ams, not
appear to inWrioro wim itogrohltii., ' ^
From experiments vritltdi have.b«isp z^e Ort rt
expressed juice of ’ tho leaves' a^ . ei3N)iVb|. to
acoelerate me growth of Ae plant, , ,
Orttwiy ifie toowM.
The leaves BhopiS not be wt until the lUloo is. ifi* «e qtovsn
years old, ofMlr it hUe Arown «m its toll . caadrts wawto, wm.
Some of A^‘^w to.the bright of ISorffiifert and
produce qeieds ;,.b^ore Aese are thrown up Ae ISlge li WMffi.iahd
notfitfqr'intcnttiwtoe . .
ProUation af piemIrttOK.
Itis commonly Supposed Aat <wtrie will tbe idoe
plant on account of its shmp-pdntod leiff uattd gbrifi si^t but
our experience has Aown tms to M an error. Sevenfi gtohring
plants have had their leavss oaten, aUd vwr^ /out^ pl««to ha vs
been found ormiped close to Ae gtuuud B' W dSeUfiKle Awe-
fore to keep off cattle Im means cf a oHA^ {outride} asl4 ’dose
doe bedgu round'Ae pumtation.
Frtue of cropip«r acre qfttr tho pkmUartftfrS goanM.
One aore of land may be eo^MOtod to jMd 7 maunds 'of fibre
per annum,'a« it rseptiras as mitoh ns 40 maUnds of leaves to
make one xnaund of fibre. There is no dopbt about Ais; as
repeated experitaeUto have been made A this jaU.
After Ae ground has been planted, no expenditure Is rttfuired,
and Ae cost of planting dqiends greatly on Ae distaBoe from
which the plants have to be brought.
Proparotion of fibre.
After Ae leaves are cut, they are put through a enUfhmg
moehine mvented by my jailor, Mr. Dunn,' which breaks tbs
hard bark of Ae lew and crushes out the juice. It has been
found Aat a great deal of manual labour is saved by this
mooess. Tho machine is not unlike a sugar^crushing machme.
This process should be carried on ns near water as posrible.
There the craAed leaves are pounded on a smooA stone with a
wooden mallet until all the Imrk and woody nuitter are
removed.
The fibre is then washed until Ae whole of the sap and dirt
is cleaned out of it. It is dried A Ae snn, and is then ready
for use.
R. Cobb,
SaperAtendent.
CRITICAL NOTICES.
Elomentt of Sghiculiure, a shorttreatue ontheseignt^ oultivatton
oj the Octii, artd other ^rd woodiraet. By the late G. Baquerit,
Irtspmor of Forests, Professor at the Forest School of Afantm.
Trandatedfro'.n <A« Fremk (2nd Bdiiion) by G., <?. Femandkt
and A. Stnythies, B.A., Indian Forest »3em6e, Itondon;
William Bider db Son, H, Bartholamew dost, 1882.
B AGNERIS’ Elements of Sylvicultme, Aough based-entirely
on the conditions of soil, clhziate and species peculiar to
France, is nevertheless, we agree WlA Ae transmtor A beiisving,
a -work which may be sAdied '^A advantage by forest
officers in every country in the World. The general piActples
implied in forestry are everywhert Ae same, and h remains for
observers in every country to study Ao Special Tequiwmsnts of
Ae climate and Ae species wftn whith forest'hffieers have to
deal. 'While, then. Aere is muA in Ae book upfier notice
which Is inapplioanle to India, there are vej^ few of its
chapters wAoh Will fail to AtrteSt, or from whiA ■utefuil hints
may not be derived. Professor Bi^eris* momtel was Written
mainly for the use of forest suwnrdiniites'teriiisjagia'-Forest
sohoola, and brings together a mass of Afowaitlo^ wi^A, ae we
have said, has spwial reference to France, The tri^hsAtwh have
done their work with cawi ahd contented AeAsrifA. wHh
reproducing the hrigAal atenwt withdut note or eofotaefit. As
themselves enga^ A Ae Indian Forest torricej sa di^nal
chapter or appendix, or more copious notes'wtth ijxkaai Mfetefice
to IndAn tequlremonte, would, in our-'rttiinattofi, have,'con¬
siderably erihancea'Ae value of
which is nurie betwoeu high foresffi'- 'imfi' IV,
Chapter 1, Ah following Ater^i^paesa^ octep*
It Ik beydnd dtQKite Art A 'high
'forett a IfttAvr yt^td
eonrttteus I yet H toimnowAte to
beneowterv to attoi^ A« Same towst'enSes irifi a i y to ritew two
agHa^te SHteim. 1^rt*8hssVvathnis' tend to tetebnilt Ae ABA of
which U bsilies ou aew^d ftA iktotoiffi4£i Awst-
en'wiAoutsxetoAm. . ■ . ■ ,
Moreover, Ae n^ee of righ fotMtlmS a wffiw nu^ of nsrtal-
asaa Thequaiantiyrt lar|^ timber is more' aoosmkaUe, and
volume for voAsaeu ooDteAs a saaOw prqprtAm otiWMonud
wood. Howover, As«Bteaonrtksue.o«»wnn^^Aejs^of
usetniiiess, slnoe oopptoo standards, af comparad . ,
treat, vtsld tttnber wUA A denser, .strhager, and epmpotod of
better tiisna pnoceourt of Ae mmaaneitod devriopment
21
i, im, mn .AmwvummsT.
of ttoiv otowM. >8w4tiU v«^ M^D their vood 1« to be proftrred
in faojm^ont (toi^tnustkw*. On the other hand, Urnb^r jtown
niider mioJMtOUi^ <reat demand lor numolfMi^M, It
idMiid boo, ^t Um loreate whl^ hare been thiu^
|rial4 #MH« «lme4Hnnd|naatynaelal|oralinoetaU »aa
b^. It tmutlM reaaraoered that theoomun|ittoB o| nanolaetur*
mate ooniklerable than that of bnUaing timber.
I^mthamipariodty d high Ibreet orer ooppioa i«<oomnleteir
mtahitiihed, *
Solar aa fnel li cenoented, oopplte wood U better than the old
tnpajrf a high loi!tiat. Bnt, m the other band, the nnderWood oi a
firart nadat' eovpiee la very nearW oounter'baluited by the prodnee
OMlwklMl^w tblnidu^ made in a high forett towarde the
midiw ol the rotation.
Again, einoe high foreit furniibee more ooneiderab^, aa well oa
^ more nemul, modhoe than ooppioe, it i* evident that tn* revenue
d^Vfdlrom It moat be larger. But to obtain thie larger revenue,
it neooMarv to aocomulate a reet qnautity of itandiug material,
oytng to wbloh oiroumetauoe the ratio of revouue to oapitol engaged
ifmnaU. thia la eqaivaledt to Mying ttxat thoie proprietora alone
wto do not oooalder their foreeta aa a atriotly peonoiary inveatmeut
are iiUtoreated in growing high ioroata, or in preiarviug thoaa whioh
they airaady poateea, aa aueh.
iMtiy, a l^h foreat, bv the oonataut and complete manner in
which it eheiteri the ground, euiuree the improvement of the eoil,
and hettoa improved production in a higher degree than ooppioe.
for atiU another reaeou, it can be ehown that coppice ia not ao well
adapted to improve the eoil ; it has been proved that the greater
proportion ofaan ia found in young woo<l and in the outaide layera
of Oid trees; it therefore follows that repeated cuttiuge of tbo uuder-
W(^ impoveriahee the soil more tliau would be the case in high
foreet wnrhed on along rotation.
From all tlieao dlfferont points of view, it is svidout that the pri¬
vate proprietor bee no interest in ooiiverting uoppiue iota high forest;
on the contrary, it would be to lile advantage to realise at once the
standing material of any high forest lie nray possess and turn it
into ooppioe. If ho is owner of a forest of conifers, which ie from
its nature nueuited for ooppioe, he is always induced to limit the
quantity of staudlng material to the lowest figure possible, and thus
to adopt short rotations.
The State, on the contrary, haa every interest in preserving its
high forsets, and even in converting its woodlands un'der coppice
into high forests.
The chief reason why oomiice is inferior to high forest is to
be found in the shortness of the rotetion. A single s.ot of reck¬
lessness in the oft-recurring exploitations is enough to ruin a
forest for several generations. Tlie danger increases with the area
out every year. Oertidn forests there are, whore tlie mischief ceas¬
ed by such operations oarried on during a period of fifteen or
twenty years, cannot now be repaired before the lapse of a century
and-a-half. In a regularly worked high forest, on the other hand,
when the rotation lias been judluiously cliosen and the blocks
properly laid out, the damage caused by faulty operations is neoas.
larily Itmited in area. Nothing sliort of the most careless thln-
nlngs.can destroy the future of a crop, and regeneration cuttings
must bo very badly executed indeed fur natural forces to be power-
re-stock the ground witli the valuable Indigenous spooies,
K^wtaiu amount of delay not exceeding a tluglo period iielping
tiKrde this end. But it is to be hoped that the progreu of know-
lelp will oontinually decrease the frequency of operations execut¬
ed at hoMrd or under a fixed idea.
There is am interesting supplement on the fixing of the
dunes and thb tapping of tlie cluster pine (/*. I’inaiter) for
resin. A good Inaex renders the manual handy for reference.
Tke Jfonpoote on Su^ar EitaU* in the Weit Indie*. By D. Morrit,
M.A,, F.O.S., Director of Public Oardtne and PlantatioM,
JarMuea, O. ffmdereon d Oo., Jamaica.
rriHjB substance of Mr, Morris’ little pamphlet appeared in the
X FUid some months ago, It may, however, be interesting
to note the oomplete success of the nipngoosc aa a rat-oatcher.
On angar estates in the West Indies the mongoose has fully
realiasd U>e hopes entertained of its usefulness. On estates
where the mon^^ooae wm introduced in 1378, the following
ranlts mpn obtained
" In osmpartng the expenditure on an estate where 1 lived
(or foms years, land the present yearly expenditnre forrat-oateh-
tng shows £8, as oompared with £80 spent in catching and poison-
Im. rats, and rebnildlng walls polled down to catch rate. 1 take
from averages for five years before the Inttxhlution of the
MSMgMee, as emnpared with iMt year’s expenditnre. This amonnt
doM net tnelnde tte cost of poisons, baits, end traps, which would
aiverage fully £9gn y«ar, making £100, as compared with £8.
u eomparifigtee quantity of lat-eatan canes destroyed before
tha ftttrodnotiim of the mongooae, I take the nnmber of mdlont of
mni'UMiics pound during m crop preeeding the introdnotion of
thenumgMoe, and Msnpare It with tne qnanuW gfonrid laatyear.
TtM showa lASM oalkm rum-eane gronnd before 1871, to 7,4SfS
gidlm gronnd in 1881; which, oompared at the rate of seven bade
of eanes ^ a eiphon of 450 gaiiona, shows eleven and-a-half hop-
beadaoi sugar spoilt Mora 1878, eompated with five andthree-
onarlw hogriiW ppoUt in 1881, taking 90 loads of good eanea to
^ hjqptbsad-^ a destmorion of 10 per oent. as oompartd with
Spwtmnt. under asia^ig dreumstanoaa.” Again: "Some of the
beet eime lands on the estate I have jnst mentioned had to be
ri^Mfn otit of oniUvntioo for years, owing to ths lippesribiil^ of
Mvisig’the eu^ from nts> kind is now being wtebhp again
add pat Ihfh eau eatUTattoa,”.
A corrasnondeat la. the eastern portion ol the Uland reports that
*’ On the loqr e^talee on the north shls.of ' the Flautmn Oarden
Biver, they fthe afoagobaei have made a aavtt^ of 75 per oent. in
the expense of ooki^aftnM t and It is only in j^bik plaeaa, where
the tn^ of man' and beast is about mztsen hours oqt of the
twenty-four that i%ngmof rats continue. In the seqWtered
parte of riie estates, whsM there happen tobeanyitone widlsoi"
boildingi affording favourite reildenoea for the mongoou, as tbci
did formerly for the rat, and where the ravagM of rats used to''4
K>oateat, I may say that the decrease of wat-,eaten oanes is, at Iww,
v|]i per oent.” And be adds, ” In a word, as a sugar planterfl
feel most grateful to the monj^iose and bis importer.”
Another in St Mary’s writes : “ The mmigoose hss fully
realised the objoots sought by its intreduotton, and it has saved on
this estate £60 in rat-catching expenses i and at lanst 20 hogsheads
of sugar (of the value of £16 per hogshead) per annum.” A
proprietor in St. ilames states that “ the annual aotual saving in rat-
catching expenses and in rat-eaten canes on my eeteitaa, consequent
on the introduction of the mongoose, has averaged from £50 to
£200 at least, on almost every estate und|Sr my ooarge, according
to locality.” A oorrespoodeut in 'IVeiqwny writes : “I used to
lose annaally from 20 to 26 tmuiM.sugar, tds., 600oart-loads of
oanes (rat-eaten) wore ground And sent to diriillery. Last
year, aftar the introdnetitm of the moi^oose, only one cart-load
was so used. On two estates ol mine lu St James, similar resnlta
ensued,”
A Imge proprietor in Wastmoreland writee to the same offhet,
stating ’tliat since the iutroduution of the mongoose, " rats have
almost disappeared from my estate. The annuu expenditure for
rat-catohiiig and poisouing was over £300; it is now nii. Tho rat
damage to uanes was very uonslderable : It is uow inappreciable,”
These extracts might be extended to include neariy every estate
in the islaiiil, and with similar results as regards the benefits
whioh the mougoqsa appears to have oouferred upon the cultiva¬
tion of sugar. The annual saving to sugar estates, by the introduc¬
tion of tlie mongoose, might very fairiy be put down at 00 per
oent. of the rat-oatchiiig expenses, and at 76 to 80 per cant, of
rat-eaten oants. This, according to the eetimato ^van above,
would represent a total saving to the island of nearly £46,000 per
SELECTIONS.
ECONOMICAL MANURING
iicttruE BV ns. omtiH.
A LECTURE on ths subject of Economicsl Manuring was deli¬
vered in Castle-Douglas Sootlaud lately by Or. Aiiken,
cliciuist to the Highland and Agrionlturat Booiety, to a limited but
most influential andienoe.
Dr. Aithen said he was plsassd to find so many influential
farmers Wore him. It would be his endaavoar to show them sa
clearly os he could the best and most ecouomloal way of applying
manures to the land, and ha oould not do this bettor than by
sliowing tiiefli the ohstacter of the different kinds of manurs whioh
they were in the habit of applying. Formerly, he said, the ohjset
of the farmer was to get as much as be could out of the hind,
to extract ss muM as possible out of the soil, and to
moke that process last as long as possible. In those
days the best farmer was he who was able to take most
oat of the soil. Hat the proOesi of gsttihg as qiuoh sa
possible out of the soil oould net last for ever. The manure applied
to the land was really a part of the substance grown upon It, for
the farmyard manure was iWly that part of the urope whioh
was not sold off. lu a small chart displayed open the wall was
shown the lots whteh the farm sustainea in nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid during a four-crop rotation. It would be seen
that there was on an average au annual loss of S71bs. of nitrogen,
SOlbs. of potash, and 261bi. of pbospborio acid. These were not
very maoh, and to some might seem very small. It was not nos-
sible to Mes out of the soil all they put fo, ritd. although toM
figurea mighkaeem very email, yet the oonatant d.ain of tboae
s^tanoes wtmld soon very materially affect the fertility of tiie soil.
He then printed out the hw snrtained the soil hy the expend
ation of animals. In the ohart before allnded to, it weald
be eeeu that the loss in nitrogen and phosphorie arid was high,
and tile loss of potash, lime, and msgnetinm was amali. He
showed that nitrogenous matter and pbosphoric arid wwe being
taken off the form in the carcases of animals sold, in a greater
quantity than the potash; indeed, there were in the grain 3311>s,
of nitrogen per acre taken off riie form, while in the straw there
were omy 12lbs. It was the tame with phosriMxic aiAl—lt waa
high in the grain and low in the straw, it would be seen
from these figures that forma suffered from want of nitrogen
and phosphates rather than potaoh. Straw waa rioh in
potash, and farmyard mannrs, which oriudsted larg^ of
stoaw, was also rioh in potash, while it was oomparativsly poor
in nitrogen and phmfkorio acid ; therefors the opplioatloa of
farmyard manore was not always sttonded with the roost sstisfoo-
toiy lesttlta The former very soon found that some kind of
nuuraie containing phonhorio acid and nitrogsh must bs used to
assist the manure irom the farmyard to makniip for its deficienoies.
There Brc two ways in which the defirienoiai of the farmymd
maMiee might bemade up. One was ^ stfing of minmal man-
nrsa, and ths othsr by nting linseed or o(Aton<»ikehighin,n)tr«qien
Oti^riVhwioBoid. There was u«.««r.uladdfoga«IWaotiw%
22
THE imAIf AGRICtflOTlISt
tbnoaaUv, ilthoiwh ilowly, to the faMlSty of the isU mote then
thrmfm t»o impomtion of feeding ataSi. It wm tmmentljr oem-
pleteed that the method inu e «bw one, end that it did not wo-
duoe ench briliiuit ihiulti m mineMl mansrai; fant it tnited l^t
land better than minedd mairarei, end it would be kbit totelllte
t<de by end by, if not tjuite immediately. Bat it wat important
boaii'suc/ Nivruxu imvw • i-muiu tsn ttua w>u
fumeia Qked -to have a mmnre whieh th^ wpld Oonnt npoa
tddlng fertiltty to the oroo to whioh it wla applied. There were
the mcrket, thank* tow wtergy of tlie mannre manafacturera,
anhatanoee he ought to boylu order to produoe the beet reeults.
The que^on wa* one very diffiouK to anea-er, becaueo the oppU-
cation of manure depended very nniah upon the eharaoter of the
BoU, the oharaoter of the oUmate, and many othef^tnoe, therefore
it wu of the utueot importanoe that the farmer a^ld have lome
mean* of flndbig odt for nimaelf the beat kind of manure to apply
09 hli partdonlar lotl and ollmata, the beat way to put it iu, and
the holt time. Tbeee were eooilderatlona which required vorv
great care and attention op the part of tlie farmer, and whloli
uould not be fully explained by merely reading a book or liaten-
ing to a leoture, bnt by pnmtienl experiment. Now, be would
dnitly deal with nitrogenoua iiianaree, aa the kind which wu of th'e
firit importanoe, ai that waa the eubatsnoe not only loot to the aoil
by animal and yentable export*, but also by dralnaglr Thare
wero three forma m this manure—the albuminoid*, ammonia aalta,
and the nitrate*. In farmyard mannre a large portion of the
nitrbgCn etdated iu the form of albumiuoida, and when thOM wero
allowed to ferment they gradually became converted Into ammonia
aalta, whiofa turn became oonvertod into nitrates. The albumi¬
noid mattor mk a oonaiderable time to ferment, and the nitrogen-
ou* pr allmmiuoid portion of farmyard manure did not yield itself
np ait^ly to the crops to which it wu first applied, u ite beno-
fldklramlts ware not experienced until soverat yuan aftenvarda.
Ammonia aalta wu the most concentrated form of nitrogoona man¬
ure, and Uru not ao easily wuhed ont of the land. It had to bo
sonverted into nitrates before the plant used it, and before It wu
Ushle to be wjubed ont. ' It wu oonvertod Into nitrates owing to
the aetion of a sermtor small organism which wu bnsUy engaged
k the fwtUe sml oonvertins ammonia ^ into nitric acid. This wu
vary soon tf^an up by the Hme, and in the form of nitrate of lime
It ww wdl known, but perfam ^ waa inSt #^4aQ«il: al It «ia
onght to be, khatrougb bones, boim anin elSsctlialMboh benas,
a>d enmhad bone* in bit* v*r;risg from iml|«lddndi to aa-ltikb in
bmgtfa, wmeaveiy ttiiprcStabletor«:.(^ap]^^. I^’afaktseon^y
at a farm wban a bandfnl of bonaa tbonban kub inag tnlaajdbr
up, and wbloh he waa told 1^ the farmer faadbeSa a^mtoi^.^.
good etate of preaervatloni, ahomttg that it Waapoadklaitopntnnitihat
excellent manure Inanoba fonn wto make it not an aeesMaiM
mannre. Itwuqntta evidentthen tbatthefinertbeboneawsMgroaiid,
wore now bSi
totmdorstand tfaat better, and to
ed a greasy aubStonoe on too
dtios, which kept It from ta]
into the drsint.] Nitrate of soda very soon became nitrate
of lime, and It' wu of the greateat Importance that there
should be a sufficient quantity of lime to usiat in the con-
version. If there wu no lime, there would necessarily be a
retarding of the process of nitrification. Ammonia salts were
firmly retained by the soil—Indeed, some sotla retained it so
powerfully that it could not be wuhed out. In the cue of a clay
umd, or a land s^th a large quantity of bnmns in it, there need
not beany great fear of the lou of ammonia. Hut when the ammo-
aia beoame converted into nitric add it had a great tendency to'
find its way into tho drains. In applying ammonia salts we tisd
to ooBstder how lour the ammonia reqnind to lie in the ground
before toe plant* Usra it. Nitrate of soda should never be put
into toe laud except the plants were actually there, othenvise
there wu a great danger of the aabstance munlng into the drains.
Thoie were general oouaideiattone, which might guide tliem u to
wbloh kind of nitrogenous manure to apply, and it would he
lean by a little experiment how very raarkeil wu the dlfiereucu
in ^ power of the acll to retain the nitrogen in Us various forms
Another question would present itself, namely, to wliat orop
should a form of nitrogen be applied? It would he ecuuomted
to apply to a mop with a long life a slowly noting nitrogenous
manure inch u dried blood, horn dnat, and auy other manure of
that kind whldi are of the albuminoid class, and of a slowly
decomposing nators. It required to ha a long time In the soil
before any result would be seen, or before it ww converted/into
food enHsbU for the plant*. Ammonia srits might be eully
applied to stremg land containing a large amount of bifinus
b«ore toe time ofeowing toe eeed, u it would be most disadvan-
tsgeons to apply anoh a mannre later on, beeanae it wu a pecu-
llMty of nitr^nn* mannr* that it wumott wanted dating the
y>o«to ef tofrpuwt, and U U wae late in being i^p^. it would
perpetnats tbe youth of toe pUnt .and rwiH, the time
a ttoeahig. I^h manure required to be i^pHed eo that it
toom ooma into eontaet with toe reote of the young plants,
tdwretoreliahpffidbe put in toe soil early. Nitrate* aoted lmme.
diatoly, and wtpidd Wmefore be put into the loU when toe roots
d liM piaiats ti^ apumaod r^y toseicc hold of them. It
woiddmvsr do to pni many of those stow acting mannmstoa
0 *^ crop. If it wars required to add nltrogenona manure to
brndc^itt wonldVa no use patting it in the soil In the form of
*-*1)03^/ or even'bimas, orbleed, or any other slow acting nuumra^
ai it wbaldnn^lMive ttnM to dtoompca* before tlie plant bad r^h-
ad theags at .iritiult it would be 'oenefited eueli mansiS^ oa
longsr. Hpetod?tf 'ef the unlttvatlon of grusi Dr. Aitkea zetom-
mentUd nitmte'w aBiia,as tbe root* of gras* retained-it, and made
it-topn*|i!ble toattosbonld esoapeinto the-dminh. Then uto
pbMldiatie aabnnrhe. Thetu.’wu a great varthty ofphaapbatie
nmnures,'i»d were sold in mtny dlSsient fo^ under nwny
dlfibrsnt uaahw. >: l^t^mpt the moit familiar form waa tbgbhlest
of toam namplyi 'lM^ Bones wu aplioapbaticnsmae, which
diSsred bom nnmyolMM of^ kind on ^acqocBm.od'itl having
Mtofqgen in Ita towpetition. 'It was a pbta^atic ai>d nltro-
uMkatuiK icwu uuuv 4UW • wvrj .11U0 ^.ivyuera jmtw -tf uvm twj dni^r ^
grouniT it contained a greasy ssbStanaeonaeoot^ At tbe i^ thlt'
ww in its oompoaltios, which kept It from rapid detoy; rtbandot*
bones were a form of mannre which they wmdd - aotqKt-on whim
an immediate reanlt wu reqffired, bnt It was an -exeaUe^mUMta
if they wanted an nithnate reentt It &ey wished to .fanprc'Kfnui
then they would put on the oropi preceding, or evaa the orop*
preceding that A huvy mannriug of bones ndg^ b* appllid Id
a turnip orop / then after that they ooidd have anMdsy otoi^ and
then a grow crop would greafly benefit by toe honu a^bd
to the turnip orop, Thera were two metnoda in which mm*
were manufactured for inannrkg pnrpoaea. First- too bcai*
were subjected to a steaming'process, snd there ww Inlt fact that
the process took ont a contiuerable quantity of the oHy amttm
whioh enabled the phosphoric acid to be quicker hi Ui action, wn
also enabled tbe bemea to he more quickly acted i^pOn'by tb* pU^
It pnt the iiones into a more friable oondItiaB, ao tiiat the grind-
iug bones by the steaming procesa, and the gsijtiQg of tbam into a
fine powder, wu a matter tor them atiU to'bouatder. Ths more
thoroughly they apread toe powder, the more woetd tbe root* be
benefited by the applioation. Another well-known method of
overcoming the ilownosa of bonu u a mannre was to diaaolve them,
and that applied not only to bones but to every other phospbati*
manure. There waa one disadvantage which dissolving had in
regard to bone, namely, that it destroyed the ' animal or the gSrm
life which takes poueulou of the bone. The ordinary fermenting
germs were readily destroyed, and they had no living fennentatiun
in diuolveif bone*. What wu known fay dissolved honu wu a
manure whieh did not necessarily contain absolute bone. It ww
a name for all kinds of phosphatic manure whioh Sontained some
bone or amraoniaoal aubstanoe, and resomhled the composition of
what bone dissolved should bo. They would see that there were
plenty pf ways of getting phosphates, and there were other and
chea^r sonnies of albuminoid ammonia whioh might be added
to it. It'wu quite probable that auy imitation of dissolved bones
wsi likely to he just u efficacious u tho genuine dissolved bones.
Having once put bones Into snlphnrlc aela it ww mode not an
organic substance but a ehemloal substance, and its special oluurae-
teristic ivu gone; whilst phosphoric oold dissolved in that way
would spread itself through the soil, and there ww noii the sanie
fsar of loss of phosphoric acid u of nitrates ; in fact, it precipi¬
tates .in the tent, Phospborio aoldwa* not easily washed put of
heavy soils, hut there weM soils which did not so retain it,
would be a wwte to apply dissolved bones to sandy soils, or iflts
more approaching sonny soils. It was not, however, uticomniom
to have not only bones. Which were on oxcollent application to a
sandy soil, but also other phuaphatlu manures, reduced to an ex¬
ceedingly fine powder, and applied to the soil wit^ut being dis¬
solved. There had been experiments made where k some iiutouc-
es insoluble pboapbato had beoome useful for a crop, hat those aie
few, and the general experience wu that the lUuolved phosphate
wu a better manure. There were some toils which were favour¬
able for the applioation of nndlsiolvod phosphates, and thuae were
soils rich lu organic matters. It ww extraordlnaiy to find wn*t
results might he p^ueed by perfectly Insoluble tdiaspfaatss pot upon
land rich iu organic matter. The number of pmoapnatea Ware very
nomoreus, and farmarsaboold be very careful in toe phosphatw they
___S-._ ___ _
gmiota a»Aan bcttJI
■ohaal pradtwt, and oimfstpoBdsi'
oanM off Dm lirm. BobssIwII
and ««n gsaanffiy valnsd vwy hi
had to seuidMMnnl thing*, I
I OMsUtnents, aud it waa an
that whioh had b*«n soldjand
iyiaa a-vtry {aveanitawiaawre,
r.^'iMt'ia.tsgatidtodiMBi tosy
ai to th* fineneM (d the bon*.
action. Many of the disorepaaele* that had arisen in expetimenti
with these manure* bad been due to toe different tomt fatWilito
toey had been employed. It bad been jreeomaeaoded and had
been found benelleial to employ nndissidvad -fhDs^jltot 'a* a
ooMtouent of the manqra heap. In choosing. botwton wnbls and
ooMtouant of the manqraheap. In choosing, botwton wnblsphd .
insoluble, if they need the insolUbU phoi^^ato toey din nbt.
upon toe landaWge amount of tnl^nile *eid> fot in aS dtstomU
manures they were bpnndto apply a certain amemnt iff
acid, but whetoerltdld toe land any harm or. hpt^wW a
not yet solved. ^mesMd sulphuric sold, reduwd toshsmu'M
toe soil, brindnt down tfa* equation of t|t» Ishd bkd tedBote
its etora of wsuto. PbtaiDaviwhts* Iwited to -three .
vacietle*, |nd sf^oi^Ui:.>M* uut mr
application, of toe otimt fwb'jmm*. B treqwMp^ aMsti^tofS
farmers ilenlared that pofwh'#u of ao. nss 'to' Bit
sometlmesa'dt oeeurred qnit* otherwiss, 'He JM'jiafit'iisisto
where poltoh had made a marked Iboipaas' th ISif" onj^ tJ
therefore it ww lor the farqier to' know Wheo to Me It Ihere^
ww soiuetiilng for toe tormw to learn in another respwt, and tiiat
waa the time tp apply it. Sometimes potash did ham nffiwing
the omqi, bnt that iBuat b* due to tho time at which it mw ap¬
plied, The land did notMimit potash to goatiay M^ly, « to
M lost by dnki^ ; totto was no tiasd forimtittg
potash upon toe !and*kiw.at toe time it wto tequirtd % the
orop. Dr. Aitkendon<mid*ai>y showing to* dot**'iMUiiM
lai^ and rstommanding that a oonunittM h* impOi)htM 'Ito',
pnrpoM of orgasdiihg a asriw of eitptohi|hto,~^l)rah
JtneuliuHtt, ' '
Smmry 1, ifiSd.
THE n^DUN AGmCULTUEIST.
23
10 J£AKi! FOWLS LAY m WINTER.
rffiXileSbwbw ii •& «uy and by no auuu «(»tly iMtbod
X .l»«bMadng*r«gnl4r uppty of «gg« dadag vtater, even
i^wUMWeatlHriaat it* ooldetb loannotiay tbatZiavaatedit,
b«tj£ dwaar that 1 bar* praoti«ad it lor a groat many yoara.
Aa'joMi M the odd aati la, tiiat 1« abont Novomber 15, obaervo*
M. Ottaot, in a 9randi paper, I have a qaantity of 'hot dong
oanMiMe titajpanltey honee, enoagh to cover the floor from
10 ^ to 12 la. deep. Tfal* ia beaten down flnniy and left' till
ahMtl^eoelbbtt 1 fdian every day for a month the layer of dang
liaqMdiedtritiiaflreah layer of mm tin. to 6 in, d^. At the
end of thia ttee the dnng la tamed over to mix it well by which
maea* an ^ipeteoae of heat la obtained, thanka to the aaeoeaaive
d^oaltiona and ooablbntion* of the beua whoae petcfae* are above.
And to I reach tiie middle of Janaary, whan X have all the dong
itmeVed, and begin the entire prooeaa over agdn ; and thU
oaitlie me on to the flrit fine daya. By thU meana I am able
tomafaitafat dhring the ooldgat weather a regular temperature,
and 1 have 1d>e pleaaaze of obtaining froah egga at a time when
they are exoeemnt^y aoaroe. The expense otthia method ia merely
tiie laboor ooaneeM with it, and in winter time labour is not daar.
The manure I take away ia excellent—very auperior to
that which I haare at the beginning, because the fowl*’ dung 1*
added to it 4«y by day. In thu dung, too, the fowl* And a largo
quantlto of mahn*, larvm, and Inieote, of which they are fond,
and Whioh rarely get in winter time. I leave them at
liboty tO 'go out in the ordioary way ; but they know that they
ahonln ke^ indda in nnfavontable weather, and they lUm and
ke^ their feet warm on snowy day*, when it b damp or when it
freeaei,—ilirm and £bm«.
FOOD NOT FEATHERS.
rnsE Anutficait Dairyman ha* the following excellent article upon
X poul^, in regara to the present popiuar passion for breeding
t^samor to the aaoriflee-of nseial qualities;—The ohioken question
wprjMonta an anomalous oondition in this coantry. Wherever we go,
noi^ south, or anywhere, we find formers, mcrohants, mechanics,
and sometimes even sailors, breeding poaltry, contending at fairs,
adrer^ng through the papers, ana raising a general hue and ory
in behalf m their pete, and all on aoennut of nothing on earth but
the feathers. One would think from all the fuss that those people
wore breeding ostriches instead of chickens; that featners were of
more value in the market than flesh ; that the American people
preferred to wear feathers on their bodies rather than put flesh In
their stomachs. Nothing finds favour with these chicken fanciers
except the thorough-bred fowls that are simply bred to the feather.
The slse of the Bi^ma is saoriSced to the oorrectness of the tail
and hackle markings. The Dorking has lost hU breast in the
strugglo to preserve the flash colour of the legs and the uniformi¬
ty ofthe feather markings. How far this erase has gone in Eng¬
land we are not informed, but wc know some of the best table
fowb known to the trade originated tliere. In Franco not only
are breeds of fine table fowls originated, but, according to all re¬
ports, they are still bred with an eye singly tu table qualities ; and
not only this, but methods of feeding to the end of quick maturity,
economy of flesh production, and perfectionof flesh quality are closely
practised and experimented with. The French seem to understand
this question as a practical one, and go at it in a way to make fowls
not only a pleasare to breed, hut a profit to handle. Chicken food
b wasbd by the ton in this country, as dead horses, stale
brood, Ac., b carefully husbanded and turned to the finest kind of
ohickeuflesh in France. Onr people are so fearfully sqneamish
about such things tliat, wliile they can stand aud see the hen eat
worms and carrion at her own sweet will,-and chop her head off the
next hour to put her in the pot, tliey will not hear of such a thing
as feeding W on carrion as a business. The lady who oats the oyster
raw from tiie shell is horrified at the Italian who does the same
with the snail. It is a wonder to many people why Amoricuus can
succeed so well witii fancy fowls, and yet meet witli repeated and
unvary^ failure when they attempt to raise fowb for the market.
In one they succeed, with the other there seems to be no profit.
It Iqok* a* though the American clmiaoter was built upon too large
a sws to make a profit with fowls, unless be can get from 3 to To
dob. a pb^ for hb cocks and hens. No one seems to be able to
reduoa t^ thing to a pursiy business basis. It lias been our
nleasure to examine the equipments of many farms whore it was
Inteaded to'rabe poultry on a grand scale ; and generally, from
the elaborate and costly fixtures, one would think the purpose was
to raba ehildrsu rather than ohickens. It is very much to be
doflbted if a large astablbhmsnt can ever bo made a success from
tlb atart. Just as large oaks from little acorns grow, a large
III labli|iiHunt must grow out of a amall beginning that ha*
devaloped a capacity in the owner for conducting a largo
buibe**. We hope ■one day to lee tUb, but not until the erase
abdut colour mMkmg* ha* somewhat subsided.
INDIAN GARDENS.
^_io tKa garment ttiontionel, ttiora &M tlio privaU
_ Knrtqiean* living in India. Now, it might be supposed
that in a climate and soil so favourable to horticulture, these would
lie first cUes, but such b not the fact. Angie-Indians are ever on
the move, and they don't care to go to the trouble and expense of
laying dm&^rU^ for the people who came after them; still,
la aome pbaes, tib gardens'-which are cmnmonly eallsd “ com-
poaada’’-«M fair MMOgib Despatata opadtentr, bewevat, ten
necessary to make Englbh vegetables, which are the things moa
affected, floorbh well. Thus, one will sec an amateur gardener-
colonel or coambsioaaF perhaps—gravely stiokiag littie pegs c
bamboo into hb eauUftower, stems, to prevent them emnlatini
Jack’s beanstalk, and funning up too qulok ; ora lady in htr earl,
morning d^skabiUe carefully i^tag a lamp of rouk-sadt at the root
of each asparagus plant, in we hope that so much kindness wil
induce the “ grass’'^to grow. But gardening in Indb b not nlo
work for those who like to work themselves. Hideous gnibs an
insects are turned up with each dig of the garden knife with whiol
we work, and sometimes the “ mmlee,” or* native gardener, b
wortidpper of the cobra, in which ease that serpent becomes dan
geronsiy familiar, taking up hb haunt near the well, and tumin.
up perhaps when least expected. Squirrels devour one’s peas, ani
whfte-Mits eat everything ; and, sa the mb, Snglbh vegetablee
except those grown at a great elevation on the nub, arc
and scarcely worth the tronble bestowed upon them.
With regard to fruib, thare are few of the ludigenoni kinds whici
are worth growing or can be improved. Mangoes take too lom
to grow to be worth cultivation in on Anglo-lntUwi’s garden
whatever b done to improve this fine fruit b dune fay natives ; bn
the Indian mango has still a hags and inoonvenient stone, wheroa
the "high cast” Mauritius msagoes are said to have had their stone
improved right away. One ingeniou Sn^bh gradener, indeed
atfmptod to grow very fine mangoes by buryum aU the dead pariaii
dogs that are killed once a year at the mots oThb treas, but with
what result b unknown. Mulberries, iu some places, grow it
hedges, but the fruit U poor. Ouavas are cwable of the " Ughei
oult,” but they are altogether in the hands of tne natives. Orangss,
except in some places, ore also poor, and no attempt seem to bi
ever made to introduce the finer kinds, as those of fit. Michael
Malta, or Seville, Melons are very fine, but a melmi garMn ii
Indb is a very different thing from a melon frame at homa In tin
cold weather, when the Indian rivers have run down, and Isavi
great wastes of sand, exposed, the melon gardener plsjits lib seei:
broadcast. By-and-bye the whole surface beoomes a vast meloi
bed, and in the hot weather the fruit b sold at the equivalent of Id
or less each. The melons of Cuddapot, in the Madras Fresidoncy
are famous, but as the rule, Indian melons, like all Indian fruits,
want new " blood” introduced, for thejseed b too often woru-out,
The Fersbn melons, green fleshed, are delicious, and easily grown,
but are seldom seen. Bnt It is a rule tu India that wliatcver wai
good enough fora man’s forefathers, la good enough for himself, oonse
quently there is little horticultural progress, Piue-applea growfreel]
on the west coast of Indb, sometimes under the shade of this immensi
ooooanut groves of those parts, hiit are much inferior in shu one
flavour to the pines ol the fitrults of Maboca. The pbe-appbs o<
Singapore are, perhaps, the finest in the world ; they are planter!
oil tlie hillside in mneh the same way os they plant tea on th<
Nilghiris, and are to bo purohosed at merely nominal price—oui
weighing several pounds can bo had for a cent, or the hundrcdtli
part of a dollar i and the Straits pines enjoy the reputation of beint
so wholesome that they may be eaten to almost any extent with
impunity.
There is a remarkable absence of fruits corresponding to oui
gooseberrios, currants, strawberries, Ac., in lucW 'Asre ar<
wild strawberries and respbarries, indeed, on the hills, but nothing
reseinbUng them on the pblus. The fruits of India, like the
flowers, seem to grow on large tress, and many of the commouei
kinds, although eaten by the natives, are positively nauseous
In the jungles one sometimes ooines upon trees loaded with fruil
whloh looks good to eat, but whioh it is prudent to avoid. Then
is the jnmbuTam with its damsou-like but disagreeable fruit; tin
mix vomiua, which seems to bear oranges ; the mowa, aud manj
others. In the Malayan forests, however, mangosteen trees ari
very abundant, and it is a oommou tiling to see the wild monkeyi
tlirowing this exqubite fruit down from tlie.tree tops just like sc
many suuoolboys up on apple tree. Onoe, when shooting on thi
Malayan Feninsnla, my Malay “ shikaree” gave me A paculiiu
and dellciouB fruit, of which' 1 do not know the botanical name,
and which I have never seen at any other time. It resembled s
piece of houeyoomli, but the oelb were much brger. Bach cel]
contained a sub-acid globe, of a flavour rosemblTug the grape.
Talking of grapes, tlie vines and the wines of Hmdusbn were
ouoe famous. Tavernier, Hamilton, and other travellers ol
ancient times speak of the red Indian wine on whbh, the Emperoi
Akbar used to got royally drunk. But wine b never seen now :
at least wine of local manufacture, The Indian win* s^<ms to havi
shared the fate of the Fersian wine of fihiiaz, Which ia the aarliel
days of our occupation of Indb, was thought so good that it was
drunk at the tables of the Kngibh merohwb at Caleutta, though
wine b still made in Afghanbton, and the Bmperar Baber thought
there was no better. Hb memoirs conti^ many interesting
allusioos tu it. Hut there b a prospect of India pnMuoing wine
before long, Thu Maharaja of Oaaiimers baa imported champagne
and Burgundy wines, as also French vine-dreesen, and hu ex¬
periment b said to give prombo of sucsesa. Bemembering the
ravages made by the phyfioxera in the vineyards of France, the
Maharaja ought to rea^ immense profits Should hb champagno
equal that Si Kpomay. Qrapei wUl grow well in many parts
of India, even in the hottest places, bnt tosy are mostly wute—of
the Sweetwater kind. Furple gn^es, dwarfed in the Japanese
fashion, and grown in pots, are to be seen in some pUcss, and are
exceedingly quaint and pretty, the huge bunches of purple fruit
appaaring so very much out of proportttm with the stunted vine
that bears them.
fibmethiag may bo Said hefe of Irtdbn gardeneM, Of maUees*'
as they are called, Their cheapness ia perhaps their greatest re-
OommibdAtion. Bemembering itat an ordinary gardener’s wage iu
E^y^and u sometiilng like fit a week, it b refrsshmg at first to have
to pay a mailse ” only 10*. a montfii bujk then the difference I
• nost ont e ac l ia Me psm^ M4 ]|»J* (all M owtelMt*
24
THE INDIAN A<3ilI0ULX!tTKI»T,
Jai»tU7 h I M
•nd traditiM. Wone tbw aU, b« to, w a nito^ * hatnbttg wd
thtoft K 4h«r« to Miy oboloe froto or re^oUblw Atwut hr mil mU
tots towtiMMur, saduytfaa tqoitnwtoor budysooto«tait. Om
Sit: Krnyaatirt ^' aatioo” hM amrdra wtoMs a||at^~«
LKW^n «t htoetra. Is tlito h« onitovatf*, at tbe'leMt pow&i«
l^oubto, efaOlKM, Mtourah«ra, <r«f|<rt>iU8 amntrw, tmd
.(ohrtlke (Mtty irttfir, for bisum and famllv, Hto wdnoholy amg
wul, >a* be draws tha garden water by Dnokats from the gardec
mie or erelli .to familiar to all Anglo-lMiaBS, and oan be reoalled,
hotrewtr ftritoMa India they may be, by the aUgbtest efiurtoftote
m e m o r y .
Bnt ^rgeone aa are the Indian flowers in their flaring wnwlet,
erlmsen, ami yellow ookHtts, there are no flowers in India, after all,
to be eompated, for stntnle leee U aess, with the wild flowers of thi
'* " h spring, ^e l^fc and White hnwthom, the rlolete and
_iiaof onrhedgsrowa, are worth tbeih all pnt togedier when
the lark to atnging u the eky, and Nature’# beantiee bring the re-
eollaettona of onr happy ehlldhood riridlr before us. Nor to there
anythtu hi India to sarpaee a pear or a cherry tree in full bloeaom.
Thh "u^ Mohur” and the Bongainelllea may be more daselbig,
bnt they are eertahtlynot eo loteiy or eo sweet. And let this facf
net as eonsolatloa to those stayMm.bome people who are dtocon-
tented with thbtr own modest English gardens beoause they Ima¬
gine trortb^ plants are ao mneh finer them anything they can grow
&era. n wohld be unfair faidaed to say that Indian g^ens bare
not a beantw (d titoto own, bat it to what the French call toie
hsahto dw mrtd(v«gaady, meratrloioas, fantastic. One can love
Bni^h flowers howeri^ hnmble thi? may be t but admiration
^ttobeattoidl one «an give to an Indian garden.—FI JF. If.—
Coldsner’s OkrmMe.
THE CULTIVATION AND QUALITIES OF ENSILAGE
QEVB&AL oomsmondente having recently recorded in t1 a
O oelamns of the iMding jonmal their experience and observation
of this nsw Urtiole of food for stock, as cnltfvatod in France and in
Amorioa, iaclndiM a long article from Professor Thorold Bogers,
Bir J. B, Imwes, Vooloksr, and Or. Lyon Playfair have lately
written on the tame snbjeot. From their eontributlons we make
the fdllowiiig extracts, beginning with thehon. baronet, who writes:
_< Qcanting all that has been said in favour of ensilage to be tme,
Its importance to not quite the Same to the Brittofa farmer as it to
to those who farm in France or on the other side of the Atlantic.
The main object of eniitoge to to secure a tnccnlcnt food for con¬
sumption during the winter months. In the agrioultnre of the
States and of France, snch roots os mangels and turnips do not
appew to ooenpy any important position as regards winter food
for cattle. In the States—where the statistics relating to the area
occnpled by tbs general crops are ooUeotod and published—no
msnuon ton^em elAsr ; and in answer to inquiries on tha snb-
ieot, 1 WM Informed that the acreage grown was too small to be
rellabU. Unlets, therefore, it to proposed that our farmers should
place their ro<toe in a sUo, or substitute for them some other green
eropt, their InterMt in the value of ensilage differs very materially
from that of those who live in countries less favourable for mau-
g^ or tamlps. We have a suoouleut food of the best possible
deeorlption edready, and, if anytlilng, we rath-r retjuire a dry sub-
etmiee to mix with it than aetlU larger amount of suooulont matter.
The question, ^erefore, as far as we aCo concerned, to considerably
noROWed. It does not affect those who make hav for sale, nor
those who feed their graei, clover, or tares, in the summer j it
merely affects those who eonvert a portion of their clover or mea¬
dows Into hay for tiielr own consumption ; and it is a qnestiou for
Ihem to oonetdM* whether, on tbs whole, ensilage can luporsede
haymaktog with advantage. No Information on this mint to
givantotne article on ensilage publtohed la the I'inwe. \Ve are
t^d, indeed, t^t the itook ate the food and throve upon it, but
we are not told what was tiie amonnt of lose attending the process
Itself I or, to other words, for each lOOlbs. of sonr, starch, and
other diMStiUe product put into the sUo, how muon came out ? ’
Sir j7b. Lawes to afmd of this lose in the silo, and refers to an
American writer who state# that Indian corn containing fi per cent,
of Mto, when put to theeilo, contained 6 per cent, when taken out.
This he m^ulateh to amount to a deetravtlon of 40 per vent, of
the vegetable matter, unfartumtiely, too, of the eubetmioe of the
hiriiaii toedtog vein#. Thto lose may be exaggerated, bnt Sir J, B.
LaWsatiiilikf It should be decided by experiments, as also the cost
ai oomnated Wito baymaktog : and until thto to done, recoimnends
of chopped strmr <nr eiiiillar dry geMs Jflaet4'in sSm,
acoordtog to my experienoe, derived toomfie wawmiatioa iff i»»
mens which have been sent to me by mqperimeiitid agrionttiwittB
during the laetfewyena, tomis into a seddmi xoaim cd ftpuMsi
smeB and taste, reeemWing more rotten flan^rd aMUHtoe Ilian
loading materirio. Dnriw a dtoonsotan tm eoafliM at BeMon,
Massarituastte, to 1880, Feofesior Oasnnaa stated mwt dMhtelte
that, in hto judgement, them had bean no i«i|MVwsaat owtr ijhr
old plan of making bay when the inn ehtoeo. Hr Mm & ionstu'
directed attention to the great lose *1 r-gnt. irlnifTfh: apif'itlsr'
'nutritive eubstanoas under favoumbto eironmstailoea, 1 ’ fs^
endorse hto views, but would add that under OSeienst ot s SB lI u hitlm-
loss in the elements of antrition wiU he still gosattr, Md
under such oonditione may prove a oomplete wsi^
Professor Thorold Rogers, rcqilyiag to Sir J. B. hmrm, em tui-
‘ I shonld not preenme to nrgus on praoti
, eminent an aatfaority as Sir J, B. Laws
noderstand how be has concluded that eo
. bmm, emiu.
rtouttaw wtia no
late at a I«m%»
LaWsatiiilikt it should be decided by experimeuts, as also the cost
as oompatod Wito baymaktog ; and until thto to done, recoimnends
the Brl^ fanner to wait.
Proteowf Voeloker, F.C.S., writes';—’ The objeot of ensilage
to to preoerve suoeuleat cattle food which, like maize ent green. Is
ineapablo of being preserved economioally by the ordinary processes
of dtylng. In many parts of the Continent, and more recently in
America, Whwe ordtoary English fodder crops cannot be grown
and preserved in tiie field for winter nee, recourse to had to ensilage
of crepe such si malM or lorghnm. The summer temperature of
onr rimiate renders the profitatde growtii of such eropi too uncer¬
tain for any totmer to depind npon. It must also bs borne in
mind tot emdiag# i* not pmotued even on the Continent or to
America for the emtshmltlon of grees or other equally suooulent
foods withont the admizturo of a considerable proportion Of chop¬
ped straw. Qtms of fob? average quality by itself to not put into
silos to these countries. Aoooraing to the more or less saconlunt
constitution of the greon food, sueb os maize of sorghum, from 10 to
80 per cent, ot ohupped straw has to he mixed with the sucouleni
food befoie it to pressed down to prcawrlj-construeted, walled,
noderstand how be has concluded tot eo math lose onito given
article could be reenltant from storage in * woUesssattenqiloA
properly-covered, and adequi^ty ws&btod rilo. obUitiM
silo storage to the penervation of the arnm to a stoe aa aa«>fy l&a
green forage ae poesible. Some alight fermentat^ tore to, bat'
there to Utile or no heat, and, as I was told, llttla dr no ovedntiMi
(ff carbonic acid. As to the greatly Incrcaied yie^ ojF^^ndnoa fmm'
the food given, they who give testimony are nnanioieos, 1 saw to
cattle. Inspected the dairy produce, and learned whut WM him
monthly yield of milk by cows ted mi to system.*
Dr. Playfair says' For the last throes year# I hav« tahu
mnoh Interest in the progress of ensilim to to United States.
This system of presarviDg food for oattle progreasos with groat
rapidity, and this fact alone, to a oottotry of meh pnotimd t)^
tndss, shows that it dsserves careful attention. Nodoobt exaggerat¬
ed estimates of its value prevail i but, with dne allowance for
tiiese, the resnlta are remarkable. My friend, Colonel Cannon, a
weU-known breeder of shorthorns in Vermont, luw taken up the
system with much caution in comparative trials of the new and
old system of feeding, careful records of weights being preeerved.
So far as these have gone, he obtained an advantage of aboot 8 ia‘>'
iO per cent, in tlie feeding power of to silo food. But it hat:
various incidental advantages which induce him to give a large
extension thto year to hto experiments. In fattening cattle, or In
feeding them for dairy produce, it to of importance to Indnoe to
oattle to eat ae much as they can properly assimilate. Now, U
silo food and the ordinary food be pnt into the some trough, the
cattle in oil cases in which I have seen the experiment tried, take
the former instead of the Utter. To preserve food in slloi many
precautions are necessary, and I should be sorry to sea onr farmers
rushing into the ^stem with their limited experienoe. When care¬
fully conducted, I have never aeeo a failure ; though, on the other
baud, I have seen putrid Instead of preserved food tamed out of
imperfect ellai. The greatest success has been with IndUn com,
which to put into the silo just as the care are being formed. My
only knowledge of agriculture is scientific and not practical, and
it iriU bo for practical farmers to tell ns whether, even with the
vlctoaltuiles of our climate, there are not certain parts of England
which could grow thto profitable crop up to wto stage of its
maturity,’
food before it to
MMWdfMdgW
It to preu
gtiWMlir
iressed down to :
Ktig water-Wglto pi
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA
Tht utual Monthly Otncral MetUno unu htld on Wednuday, tht
29/A November 1882.
W. H. CooswELL, Esq., PreMent, in the Chair.
The proceedings of last meeting wore read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were elected membera :—
Dr. J. B. Rnudaok, Messrs. F. Wood and J. P, SootUnd, and
Baboo Pertab Narain Sing.
The names of the following gentlemen were submitted as
desirous of joining tbo Society :—
E. Brown, Esq., Manager of the Sungma Tea Asloclationi
Limited, Darjeeling,—proposed fay the Seerktary, eecondad by
H. J. Leltch, Esq.
Manager of Woodlands, Coohar,—proposed by the Sserstary.
leoondea by W. S. Cresswoll, Esq, '
Alexander Maun, Manager of the Nonai Tea Oofflnaw, Aaeam,
—proposed by O. U. Yule, Esq,, seconded by W. sTGrearwill.
*tsq.
Manager, Otter Indigo Concern, TiihOot,—proposed by to
(eoretary, seconded by R. Blechyndeu, Esq.
Thomas B. Walton, Esq., Mauagsr, Equitable Coal Company,
Limited, Seetaranipore,—preposed by the Seoretuy, Moondidby
'I. Blechyudon, Esq. *
Major R. Bartholomew, Deputy Commluioner, Jhung.— nroDOMd
ly P. W. Tytler, Blsn., seconded by H. A. Firtt, EM.
Major Duucan O. Pitcher, Oawiipore,—proposed by H. A. nrth,
3sq., seconded by the President. ^
Sheikh Oholam Moheed-ood-deen, landed jwoprietor, Meemt,—
ironoeed Iv the Secretary, seconded by Raja auttyMOnd Ohoial.
Hto Highness the Nawab Jaoraj—propoaed by to Preeldent,
leoondedby Raja Suttyanund GhosaL
Hto Highness the Raja of Nursimghnr, Bhopal,—proipoeed bw
ho President, seconded by Colonel W. KtUoald, ee aiuemembgr.
Rejolned~ 0 . W. ShilHngford, Esq., Bagrawite PHUneHAt. rid
lilU^ree. '
CoJftBIBCttOirs.
From the Governmeut of Bengal—to Annual Report of to
3«verument Clnohoua Ploutation to Bengal, for the year 1881-82.
Al— A—_^1 a.!.. aea*. -WWW WMy
^-oonvtruoted, 3<OT«rument Ciiiohoua in Bmgftl, foir the ^
Mumt to ndatiatto | and to Annual RepMt 81 to Qutoriogtot fM 1M1'82,‘
Junuary 1, 1883.
25
THE IND^N AGRICULTURIST.
From the Government of Bonml—Eeport on the Admlnletre-
tlon of the ft^twtioa J>ep«te»nt in Bengal, for the y^-
1881*92*
From the Smithioalw Initltntlon—The Annual Report for 1880.
From fte l^tor—The Tropical Ji/ricalturiat lor Ootober ana
^of the North China Branch of the
Raval Ait<^ Society for 1882. ' . _ ,
F^^£iio ^ecretaiT—Jourhal of the Aalatic Society of Bengal,
Part t»f,,Na. It, l8&. „ , , a , , « j * »
Prooewingi of the Agri-Hortlonltural Society of Madrae of
6th September 1882. , ^ ^
From Or. George King, Superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden,
—preaentiM ton plant* of Mnaa TextUi*, for experimental culti-
vawn In we Society’i Garden.
CoUUCNIOATIOiffi.
Gabdbit.
The Superintendent of the Garden report* that the tauke now
hold a very good (upply of water which will be invaluable in the
coming dry eea*on, that the labor force is busily employed in
oiearing all jungle and generally cleaning up the grounds, now that
the pruning is nearly finishes, and that the general a\'e:we of
germination of imported seeds promises fair, all things cousidored,
but that he hopes to furnish the «»nal detailed statement in due
course.
CACAO.
INCKEASE OF CACAO CULTIVATION IN TRINIDAD.
Japan Pea.
Letter from Hie Government of India with papers regarding the
Japan Pea, and CAlna Bean, tlio Soy Bean, alluded to w the pro-
oeodings Of a meeting of this Society, held on the 2nd Sopteniber
1881, as also Resolution thereon to the effect that the Ooverunwut
think it desirable that the cultivation of this Pea should be
oxteucled in this country, end stating that a fresh supply of seed
wlil bo procured from Japan, in order that further experiments
moy be tried.
BKIt-KRKPIXa.
Letter from tho Oovornment of Bengal on tho subject of Bo»-k«op.
ing in India, and enmiiriug wliether tlie Society can afford per
mission to Mr, Douglas, wlio has brought out some hives, to keep
them in the Society’s grounds at Alipore.
A reply has been sent that the Society will bo happy to meet
this request, and to afford Mr. Donglaa every assistance in their
power.
ALOB FiBKB E.KTBAnrOR.
Letter from the Government of Bengal, dated 18th November,
iutiniating with reforonoo to a previous communication of the 25th
August 1881, that a model of the “ Mexican Aloe Fibre Extractor ’
has boon dospatolied to the Goverumont of India, and that tlie
model will he forwarded to this Society on receipt.
Letter from Mr. H. Preston, Director of the Botanic Garden
at Trinidad, dated 2Bth September, accepting the Society’s offer
for an exchange of plants and seeds. Advises the despatch of
a case of West Indian plants, ami hopes shortly to scud some root*
of tlie Arochaoa Edulis, in regard to which ho writes as
follows i— , ^
I liove to obtain thorn from some hilly district on tlie main.
It is very i-arely brought over hero as a vegotable. Indeed in
V'ouezuola where it is coTlacted it docs not receive much attention.”
SoBOHim.
Letter from Major Pitcher, Assistant Director, Deportment
Agriculture mid C'omraeroo, N.-W. Provinces and Oiidh, dated
OtTi Novcmlier, forwarding sample of i/oor manufactiirod ot tlie
Cawiipore Experimental Farm from amber-colored Sorgho, also
specimen of pulp prepared at tlie Lucknow Paper Mills from tho
refuse of the etalks, and soliciting opinion on these smnplcs.
The following report kindly prepared by Mr. W. H. Cogswell,
witli reference to the itoove, was submitted to tho meeting
“ The aamples above referred to are worthy oi couHiuoratimi,
both being prodnets of iome value, if properly ami carefully
plant is wall known, Sorgho of Sorghum, tlie seed of
which yields a hard tood-giuln, capable of being ground into good
white flour. It is also used for cattle feeding purposes, tlie green
fodder of the plant being highly nutritious and sweet,
” 'I'he sample of poor said to have lioen prepared from tho
expressed juico of this plant is very soft, iiasty, sticky, and de¬
void of all granulation. In its presont liard dry condition it
would be solvable In tho bazaar at about Rs. 2-8 to H.s, 3 a liazaar
inauiid, but it subjected to a damp atmosphere or kept during the
rainy seosoii, it would quite change its eliaraotev and become dis¬
solved in the form of molasses, in w Inch state it would be suit¬
able for distilling into spirit only, and be worth obout Re. 1 to
1-8 a baxaar maund. , , ,. • i.
“ I om however of opinion that with care and oleaulmoss in boil¬
ing the expressed juice and better manipulation generally, this
plant is capable of yielding a good marketable poor, that further
efforts should bo made to improve upon the samnlo now under
oonsidemtion, and in doing to that details should ^ given of the
cost of producing it, and that a larger sample bo fnmiebed.
'< The samples of the oaue-llke stalks after pressing, prepared in
the unbleached and bleached state for paper material, are too
small, inslgnifloantly so, to admit of a very reltable opinion beiM
given. They would be suitable as short stuff for fillmg in the
*Pulp.’ at alow price, and as such would make fair raw material
for paper manufacturing i but the main questions for consideration
are--what Would be its first cost, then the cost of transport to
the oonsiimlug market or paper mill, and whether the supply w'ould
be constant and to what extent. I submit it would U well in
all suoh references as this one that large samples should be sup¬
plied to enablb experts to give reliable opinions, and that full details
of cost, Ac., shonfd be furnished, so that witli such date at himd it
might be soon if aaiy good practical results would bo the outcome
of further invastlgatiou ana trials. The subject is one of much
interest and iBipanance in th* increasing d eman d for paper-making
materials wltfa whiob tbi* ooimtry abounds.”
I N the first half of 1882, the export* of cocao hod risen to over
ten millions of pounds against on average ot eight millions,
and the TriuUUd Chronicle, states :—
“ The laying out ot new land in cocao goes on nnoeaaingly, os it
ha* been doing over the last 12or 14 yeorsv the great majority of the
plots, small at first, owned by small people ci-devmU labourers and
contractors, and cultivated by tliemseives, but by degrees forfeited
to the merchants to whom tliey arc indebted for odvoucee, and by
amalgamation converted into gootl-sizod properties counting acres
by the hundred and (the cacao) trees by the tens of thousands,
There is no movement corresponding to this in cane ; and tlie inn¬
ing of now cauo estates on any scale—and a largo one, ah oao, is
the rarest of rara uris—goes on slowly indeed. It cannot be dons
without capital, a capital of thousands sterling, while a very small
purse of savings will give a man courage to buy and lay down, in
cacao and provisions, a little plot of ten or twenty acres. Vet it
is pleasing to note that where n new line of road outs through vir¬
gin land, as at Conupia, by the railway, bnyert start up from the
ground as it were that no one dreamt of, men in the town suoaesi.
fill in business or trade whom no one bad previously credited with
a taste for cultivation, yet who, on being tested, have been found
to be gifted with a somewhat Meohian capacity for the punmit
quite equal to, and lu sonic respects'possilily better, than old clod,
plodders to tho manner boru, carrying into the now practice the
habits of foresight and pei-severcnco that hod gained them their first
successes and yielded them the means to cater on on untried ven¬
ture.
“ Mr, Fabian’s plooe. Enterprise Fom, a piece of 300 acres, lies on
the opposite or east side of the reilway. He has a mile of frontage
on tho line, and is about a mile from the railway station. The
farm presents, for Trinidsd, a very varied scene : Liberian coffee
is represented by 5,000 trees, the St. Anna hybrid coffee by 15,000
plants, the Tonca-beans tree by 1,000 plants, at present,about five
feet liigb, and which arc expected to come into bearing in four years
from this. Of tobacco, he has 25 acres, managed by Mr. Anderson,
ivlio brings Jamaica experience to the task : 6 to 6,000 tb, have been
cured, or are new curing, of this crop, and some of it is on sale in
town. Mr. Falnen, being apiarian os well, hot imported some Italian
bees, got sunflower seed, liivcs, and books and journals on the subject,
from America ; but in this lino cannot yet speak of success, find¬
ing tho Qii’est ce ffu'il diti even fonder of his hues tlian himself,
and that the latter were attacked also by a certain species of ant.
In time, no doubt, he will find a way to neutralize these attacks
and get a profit from his hoes. He lias succeeded in making a
Queno ilr. little hand-made cheeses weighing a pound, cream
white like the big llano clmoaes of Maturiii we get from the Spanisli
Main, but much cleanlier. They have the tame peohliar sour-
nets and absence of fatty richness, thougii made from nud{dmmed
milk we are assured, but of a flukey texture that some admire. For
these olieeses, Mr. Fabien says, ho lias a demand for more than he
now makes, though he gets half a dollar a pound for them. But his
chief object in keeping a stock of milk cows was to supply the
town with pure milk, a very laudable idea, to which a great many
will wish snecess. The milk is brought to town by rail, and has
a remarkable keeping property. We arc not sure we have exhaust¬
ed the list of oxporiraents—enterprises wo should rather call them,
with those we have named. Enough has been said, however,
to show the new spirit that has been evoked by the opening of
the Southern Railway, and the certain extension of settlement
that follows the judicious constrnotion of improved communications.
Like causes, like conveniences produce like effects here as in Aus¬
tralia or America, though on a smaller scale. If our niling minds,
freed from other care, would direct their tliought seriously to the
subject, we are persuaded they could attract settlement to the
island at a mugh foster rale tlian it is now progressing at; and
would not every interest in tho oonlony bo odvatitaged thereby
Who ooa donbt it 1 ”
26
T’HE INDIAN AGEIOULTUBIST.
Januwy 1, 1&83,
CINCHONA.
CINCHONA IN MADRAS.
T he Ootaoamiuid oormpondentof ths Madras Mail dutoussea the
prospecta of oinctiona cultivatiou In the Presidency :—
That it should rain ou the Kartighi feast day is said to bo lucky,
in nativeestlnintion, but wo liavo had just a little too much of it
this year, and our ‘growers’ complain that tlioir too, ootteo, and
cinchona are coming to grief. Cinchona, of course, BHlTcn) least,
it is so adaptable a creature, willing to flourish in almost any
gronnd aud at almost any altitude, from 7,500 feet down to 3,000,
if but due regard be had to its vanethsu. Crown bark [Oon-
diminia) may be seen growing far up towanls the crests of the Do-
dabotta range ; rod bark (Suocirubi'a) succeeds best at .5,000 f<!Bt ;
yellow bark (Cafisoyn,) and the more delicate hybrids {Llanotu,
Ptihacew, Ac.), aud also the rocent varieties imported lately from
.Java, are, os distiugaUhed strangers, accustomed to greater cara
being shown in their raising and bringing up, and a lower elevutiou
to live in. They flourish well in an altitude of 5,0lt0 to 3,,500 feet,
and repay their grower for the extra anxiety bestowed upon their
education by a large yield of qaiuiue. It may be said broadly that
when the soil is good aud frosts not sovore, cinohona may bo
cultivated successfully from the crests of the hill tops to the semi-
tropical plateaux of Wynaad. A ride from Ootacamund rid the
Government plantation at Neddiwuttum, down the Uuddaliir ghat,
and so on to Dovalah aud Cherimbady, ou tho borders of ,S. E.
Wynaad, would not only convince the ino.st sceptical of the ad¬
vantages of cinchona growing, but also prove a source of purs
delight, from its constant change of lovely scenery, flora, fauna,
and ever-hospltable planters. l,x>cal causes, of course, ntfeot the
growth of the best luteutioned ciuchoua ; the aspect, soil, and
elevation may seem favourable, yet a wind round an unsuspeutod
comer, a want of cover, or an access of frost, may destroy the best
laid plantations. The unfortonate victims cannot explain their
suffettegs, so they die to allow their owners to learn by experience.
It Is Interesting at the Government plautations at Neddiwuttam,
at Deva ilhola, aud other places where crowu and red barks grow
side by side, to uotloo tho points whore one deteriorates and the
other improves, the deterioration aud iinprovuinuut following upon
eloVation, prevailing winds, and other climatic causes. Cinchona
growing is oertaiuly our most paying industry', ami unless some
wonderfully effective febrifuge be shortly discovered, even those
who now begin to plant ought to make a fortune from this tree of
knowledge. The quantity of bark now going to market must In
some measure affect prices, but allowing for a fall of 50 per cunt
within tho next ten years (which is scarcely likely to occur), still
an ample margin of profit would be left to any ouo with suffioieut
capital to pay out, and not expect to bring in for six years. The
want of capital is ths root of all evil in all our hill iudustries.
Cinchona, gold, tea, aud coffee alike, suffer from want of funds ;
men believe they can make their fortuucs by laying bold of the
rope, and forget that they must go on pulling. And things arc not
quite evenly balanood too : the moucyed men probably havi no ap¬
plication, tho porsovoriiig men no money. But to cease moraliz¬
ing and give some statistios will best please ynnr readers, and I
can speak from most reliable data. Boughly speaking, to purchase
and bring under cultivation oue hundred acres of cinohoiui would
cost from oue lakb to a lakh and quarter of rupees to the end of the |
sixth year ; the removal of bark cau commence in the fifth year,
and exteneivo barking during the sixth. All expenses, iuoluding
Interest at six per cent ou outlay, should ordinarily have been
paid, and half a lakh profit or more remain in addition. At the
end of the sixth year of famine, comes the plenty following tho
famine, the loan planter will now become ths fat planter, for he
will have an estate to show worth from ten to twelve thousand
pounds, aud his five thounand pounds gained by sale of bark whei-f-
with to enlarge his border. Is it surprising that I place ciuchoua
foremost among mountain money-making '.—Madras Mail,
CraoHONA Sales. —The change made in the conditions of sale
of East India Bark,'under which the deductions for draft, tret,
dust, aud discount were alxiliahed, and payment to be made
upon the net ro-weight, c:imc into ojocratiou at the poriodicitl
auction on Tuesday, the 7tli Nov., and producers ai’e to be con¬
gratulated upon tke result so far. Tho old allowances amounted
to fully 10 per cent., and it was only natural to expect that buyers
would make something like this difference in their bids, but
such was not the case, It is the unanimous teatitaony of selling
brokers that the prices paid ou this occasion were quite as high,
niid in some instances even higher, than at the previous sale,
when the former conditions were in force, so that, practically,
importers realised an advance of fully 10 per cent., and yet tho
market for cinchona bark generally is by no means animated
just now, ae quinine has fallen to Ss. Bd., and stocks show a
tendency to accumulate. No one will be surprised to hear that
the importers of South American Bark have demanded that
the new conditions of s-ale shall be extended to it, and this has
been conceded by the trade.
(lijfcno.'tA Soins.—Mr. John Hughes, F.C.S., has lately sub¬
jected to analyses a numbar of samples of soil from tho Gov¬
ernment Cinchona Plautotious on the Neilghorry Hills, and ho
is preparing for the ])ros.s a paper on the subject. He is of
opinion that the wide range of <iuality in bark of the 8.ame
species is luainly duo to the differonco of soil ; that is to say,
to the presence or absence in its com))osition of tho nitrates
and carbon wbic.li form the food of tho plant, and go to pro¬
duce the alkaloids in its bark. Hitherto, scarcely anything has
been known ;i8 to the chemical compo-sitiou of soil beat suited
b> the growth of cinchona ; for even Mr. Clomoiits Markham,
who is I'ecognised as t/ic authority on the habits of the plant,
only tells ns that in its own home, he found it growing
in forest laud—which is (Icc.ideilly vague .and unscientific. The
result of Mr. linglies' researches will therefore be most opportune
and valuable, and may bo the means of jiroventiug much usele.ss
outlay of time and money in planting cinchona on unsnibible
soil.
FORESTRY.
Root AUT) UnANCti.—I had a f.tnoy some years ago that ,11116.
thing might be done in the forestry of conifers by restricting
growth to the terminal bud alone. For this cud all the side
buds of some Beoteb tirs were removed ye.M'ly os soon as they
were well developed. My largest spocimen is now a finely grown
tree Home '10 feet high. l'’oi' eleven ycar.s successive!^ 1, oas
operated upon os 1 have described—in fact, os long a- ! ,• nil
get the leailiiig shoot without the aid of a ladder. \v nm this
tree is put into the saw-pil. it should, barriog iiierls, afford
11 loot boards of utterly f.mltleas tiinl. ■, <.n comse, if l.iie
laterals hail been allowed to grow the ]ilaut Wurihl h:U’c been
weight for weight larger at the end of tig'eltncii ycacs, but I
think that in some fifty or sixty years hence the differeneu will
be found ina[)prcciablo. — U, Treimr C/.aric.
THE GARDEN.
Notes from the Qnrduncrs' C/tronide. — Totamos. —Tomatos
should be grown in a light soil not too highly manured, ns the
plants will otherwise go too much to top, and they do not fruit
until they have made a certain amount of growth, and have
iiecome well established. Another point is that when tomatos
are grown in the open air trained to stakes, a yard in height will
be found sullicieiitly tall for the plants to develope and mature
their fruit, aud while it is neccssarv 0 disbud freely and thin
out the laterals, the tops of the pi,ants sao'.ld not be moved until
the crop of fruit is set, aud when this has hapiwned, the plants
need to bo thoroughly thinned tli.at sun and air may bo admitted
to assist in the ripening of the fruit.
A x'evy large amount of tomato seed is rcipiircd for sale ; a
gre.rt dc il is obtained from America, but very targe ijuautitic*
of tomatos are grown in Italy to supply seeds for this country,
The crop, it is thought, will this season be cumjjaratively light
owing to the prevalnuce of floods in the tounjfo-growiug
disD icts, which have destroyed many of the planta. A great
quantity of tomato seed is sent to India, not so much in varieties
as in mixtures of all sorts. Indian growers appear to give
preference to a variety of sorta over individual quality._ JS, D.
27
January 1, 1883. TJIE AGRICULTUBIST.
Tomatos AS PioKLBfl.—Anyona having (uiy ripe fi'uitB of
tomatos will find they make a delicious picklu by merely placing
them in a jar, covering with the l)cst vinegar, mul tying clown
securely for a fortnight ; the addition of two or three i-apsicums i
improves them in some people's opinion ; others prefer them cut ,
open when fit firr use, and a little of Lea aud Perrin’s Worcester
sauce added. The small kinds, ranging iu size from lhat of
marbles to walnuts, are the best for tlie pur]Kisc. The small
green fruits are also much relished by some, but they require to
remain longer in the vinegar before using.—TT. II. Divert,
Burghley.
Thr Sroanro or Tree LsAms.—There can be no doubt but
that decayed vegetable matter, which m.ay be considered the
most natural fertiliser provided for plants iu a wild state, is
also the best fertiliser wo can provide for them in what may be
called an artificial state, wliere, whatever help they would get
under natural conditions, through the natur.al decay of debris,
wo, through the operations on which a higli state of keeping de¬
pends, de])rive them of a e.hauce of assiniilating, and it thus
becomes imjwrative to provide the bewt substitute we can. As
the trees are now commencing to shed their leaves in earnest,
those which were stored last year should be at once turned over
into the filace previously occupied by tliat which has l)een shift¬
ed to the soil-gi'onud iu rearline.ss for use, and the S])ace (which
should 1)0 ample) filled with a fre.sh supply as they are ac.cutnu-
hited. To carry out this matter a largo space should lie set
apart in a sheltered out-of-the-w.ay corner, one-half of which
shmdd 1 ) 0 , filled with fresh leaves every ye.ar, to be turned over
to undergo another year's decomposition, after which it will bo
surticienlly fri.ablc for use.
(hiABRRn llUDm.sn.—Another very useful fertiliser ia formed
from the dthrii collected during the season from lawus, (lower-
beds, aud borders. Wherever there is a jiiucticabiUty of sub¬
jecting the whole of il to the action of fire from time to time,
aud thrown into a heap, it becomes a valuable materia! for
leuovating eAlmustod beds aud borders.
DseuMrosEi) Mavures.—I t is oftentimes nccessjiry to ajijily
mure stimulating material than the aliove, for which a
duo pi'oviaiuJi shimld be made. Thoroughly decayed tuauui'e
from the cow-ya,nl will he found the best slimulaiit to ajiply
to hot and dry suits, but well-fed horso-maiiuie is beat suited to
I he gcuerallty of soils, aud for the purposes of the flower
, . .del. tloi"'she’111 be an ample store )mt by every year, ll
' i, ..d I be fi I'nueully turned over for aer.ition and decoiuposi-
t.ion, n.s it ia be.st foi' use after at least two years’ subniissiun to
the action of the atmosphere.
Loam.—T his m.aloriid is such .an oloious lu-ccssiiy ui the
flower g.ardeii, that I scarcely need noiiind the operator to take
advantage of any leisure opportimity to secure a good supph'.
t prefer a good loam from off the chalk.— John Co.r, liedleaf.
SERICULTURE.
once begun In ,I rearing shed, it s]ireads by contagion. It, ap¬
pears from ,1 recent article in tlio Jndian Ayrkuhuritl that
more than once silkworm-rearers iu Italy have lost the whole
of their stock from disease, and liavo tmd to depend for fresh
rearing on ova imported from other countries. The J’iuanuial
Commissioner agrees with Colonel McIHahon in considering that
there is serious risk of the extinction of a very promising
industry, lie thinks, therefore, that the Commissioner of
Umritsur should be asked to submit, after consultation with the
agents of Messrs. Lister and Co., a sjwcial report as to the
measures he deems necessary, aud as to the cost which the
destruction of the diseased, and the siqiply of healthy, seed
woukl involve. At present we are quite in the dark on the
latter point. Messrs, laatei’ and Co. might, in tlioir own
interests, l.iear a considerable jiiirt of the expense, and the rest
might be met by the district committees, aided, if necessary,
by help from Government. Tlio Financial Commissioner has
cidloil for a sjipcial report on the feasibility of the plan of
bringing iqi and destroyiiig all diseased worms. The extract
fiom the Annual Itiwcmie Report of Kangra, given below,
will show that a good deal is being done m that district to
encourage sericulture. It would be a good thing if some of the
tea-planters in the Kangra, Valley would take up the industry,
for their example might teach the natives better methods.
Hericulture is likely to make great strides in this district if it is
jiroperly fostered. A. separate report lias been sent to the
Commissioner in connection with this subject, and the Madho-
porc fair. I need say nothing more now, except that the
amalgamation of the Nurpore, and Gurdaspore fairs at Modhopore
was a most unlucky step, .and that to insure any eucoese ia
sericulture iu Kangra, the fair must again bo made local.
Roaring sheds mi jiroper prluoiplus must be built, if the worms
are to 1)0 ])i'otected from suffocation and death. These should
m the ttixt place be built by the district and municipal com¬
mittees. People shoulil be taught to manage their worms on a
ju'oper principle, .ami shouk! lie tauglit the simple problem that,
if r is the. .selling price of any article, the m.an who can prodnoe
it for .)’—1 iiiiiia is making a profit, while he who iirodiioes it
for .(■ + I .anna will in the end be ruined, It is only a diflferenoe
of 2 aiinas, but it is the iliffetainoe botwoeu prosperity and ruin.
It is a differe.iioe eauseil by one sericulturist working on scientific
principles ami another by rule of thumb. Mulberries of the China
aud Phillipiue v.u'irty .should be planted iiilmge quautitie*, uor
sliould phiiiting of country mull)orrieH be neglected.
VVe have hitherU) been phiyiiig with sericulture, but if we
now exert oni-selves there is no reason why it should not in
time rival tea in its capacity for bringing wealth into the
district. If we. had only four or five acres of tea iu the district
liiniiug out 1,0001b. of tea, the result W'ould lie inajtjireciablo.
Now that we turn out a few mauiids of ewoons aiinuallv, th*
result ia also inaj)prcciablc. If we turned out several thou.sands
ainiually, and there would bti no difficulty in this, we might
evusii, . that a fre.sh source of vvcidth waa open to the people.
In t'. .'culture 1 consider wc liave as yet done nothing ; we
might do a great deal.
A t the exhibition of silk cocoons held .at Modhopore in the
mouth of May, the number of exhibitors w.as 720 as coui-
with 447 last ye.ar. There was a large iiuTcase both of agri¬
culturist and nou-agricnlUirist exhibitors, aiiil, but for disease
among the worms which h.as now spre.'ul to the foreign stock,
the prospects of the new industry would be veiy bright, Liist
year only silkworm-rearers from Gnivl.a.sjKue and Kangra were
present but this year a few c.amf idso from Scalkote, TTmritsni,
and Moshiarpore. The report submitted to the Government
goes on to say :—
Tho result of the prevalence of diso.a8c among the silkwonn.s
has been a greatly diminished ouUnru in the coci^ons. The
falling off has been so serious that Messrs. Lister .and Go. have
had to obtain some part of the rcqnircmonl.s of their filature
from BtngnI, and the Commissioner of Umiitsnr fears that,
unless jirompt me.'isnrcs are taken to replace the diseased by
lie,alLhy stock, sericultui’c in his ilivistou will suffer “ irreps
Table injury.” The main original cause of the disease ui
Elaugi'a and Gui'Jaspore is probably the nucleanliuesu of tlie hats
in wbkb tb« wonas are reared^ aud apjrarently when dieeaee hiu
TEA.
THE RETAIL PRICES OF TEA,
n OME corro.spt)ndeiice has boon going on iu the ilaily papcii on
this subject, and suggestions more or loss practical havo booa
made. It is ius'isted on that the grower literally outlays his capital
to enable the retailer to make enormous profits,
\Vu have before ns the price list of a so-called “Agency,” which
has been recently opened (and which affects to introduce the quite
new eleniout of ohoapness), where the folhnving rates are quoted
for,—
CIioioeJ''loworv Pekoe, per lb.
Flowery do.
Urauge do. ...
Pekoe ut IU
Rs. A, P.
...4 0 0
...8 0 0
...2 0 0
rw 1 4 0
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST.
January 1, 1883-
These piiees are, it is true, below the ruling retail rates, but
oven supposing the teas to bo what they are rcprosoatod, the
margin of profit ou auction cost would be at least 100 pet
cent.
'^e suppose the public would not bu fools enough to pay high
prices U they knew where to get low ones ; and surely it is worth
the while of owners to assist thorn to this end. The bulk of the
Kangra and Ku moon'teas are consumed in the district, aud very
largely through direct retail orders—that is, pnrtlos send to the
gardens for parcels of 21bs. aud Slhs. at a time, and teas so ordered
are sent free by post. Why ooutd not the same thing lie done
between owners’ represontativoa in Calcutta and the residents of the
lower part of Bengal! For distant places one or two agents might
be appointed to supply circles otherwise too far separated. Then
there are the railway rofresbment-rooma tUrougbont India, whore
special brands on a moderate commlpsion might be the guarantee
of stated qualities given hy owners, together with the reduction
of present retail rates which would be feasible, could not but at¬
tract the public, who would desert the present retoil shops and
basaars, to their own considerable advantage, and to the profit of
owners. The cheapness of the tea, further, might attract the
middle class of natives, especially if their convenience was consult¬
ed by pookats offered of suffioiontly sinall weight. A certain
amount of capital would neoessarily have to remain locked up, but
where there are so many public Tea Companies as arc found repre¬
sented in Caloutta, the strain upon cacli would bo uliglit indeed.
To induce tea drinking among the untives must manifestly lie a
work of some time, but we do not see why it sliould not gra<liially
toko place : only in tliis case native agency must be resoi'tcd to.
Surely one trustworthy sliop-keeper could be found in each prin¬
cipal native town who would bo glad to exert himself for a liberal
commission. To arrange this portion of the business a native
traveller would have to be employed ; but this would not cost
much.
Of course combination, primarily, among tiie reprssentativea pf
tea owners aud companies would be neoessafy,-HMnrtwlult in the
way of a syndloato ; but there should bo no difSouIty abont this.
One paid assistant oould do all the actual work. The teas
oontribniod oould, if desired, be bulked under the Syndicate’s mark,
and payment could be made for them in the ratio of quantities
supplied.
There seems no reason no doubt that nearly the whole of the ex¬
isting retail trade oould be diverted from shop-keepers to owners,
I which latter would receive, oven at sale pricoi greatly below those
I at present charged, double the rate they now get. True, the oon-
I sumption of tea in this country is' not gigantic, but it is several
mUliou pounds yearly, aud China supplies, alone, 5 millions, which
by proper organized effort on our parts, ought not to be the
case.
The Bohouie wo roughly indicate could of course be oarried out by
an individual or private company with sufficient means, but the
desideratum of low prices to the public (yet handsome return to the
owners) would not then he ohtaiiiod. It may not matter to Mr.
: Tomkins, C.S., what price he pays for the tea he drinks (though it
i ought to matter to him whether hs gets what quality he pays for) ;
! but there arc u good many of the subordinate Europeuu and Kura-
! siaii cl:iss to whom price matters agood deal, and who perhaps have
I to go without the wholesome beverage because they cannot afford
, to pay the absurd prices now asked for it.—Imliaii Ten
: Oiaeltc.
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
"‘I know what it is,’ he answered; ‘this honey is made from
euphorbia flowers, which arc very poisonous.’ This explanation umdc
me feel exceedingly uiioomfovtahli!; but I clioitod from him that there was
not much danger, as tlic ‘niaass’ taken with it would neutralise the effect
of the poison. Directly he meiitioiie.d poison I dived into the packs, an<l
pulled out a bottle of KNC’S KRUIT SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pannikins, filled them up with water, and several times
vejicnting tlic dose, in a few liours wc were cousidembly better.” —
" Xnliiloiic/ ntiil (,'itrirnyo,’' {/I. /.-T), hi/ Captniu IT. It. Lndloii', Ut Jinll,
It.V. Jtii/inl Waneiehliii'e Itri/hm ut.
“ ‘ WImt on earth shall 1 take to Ziilulaud ?' asked ray friend Jim
Law one day at Aldershot, when he hail just received orders for South
Africa, to start at forty I'iglit hours’ ncticii. I replied, ‘ If you take
my advice—aud it's that of nil old travcller--you’ll not budge without
a few liotUes of KNO, even if you leave half your kit hehiiul, X
never am without these Salts, ami, please the pig.s, never intend to he.’
On Ills return I inquired, ‘ ^Yell, liow ahoiit KNO’.S KRUn' SALT?’
‘ My dear fellow, it was the best advioe yon over gave ; tliey saved
me many an illmiss ; and wlieti 1 left Tuoghi, 1 sold the remaining bottles
for ten times the original price !' ”— Lkut.-Col.
w
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DAKGER OF DELAY.
You can change the trickling stream, hut not the raging torrent.
HAT EVKRY110]-)Y SHOULD KKiVl).—How important il in toovin-y iudiviihuil to bavu at haml uomo Mimple, efloctive, mni palat
ablu romt’tly, biieli 08 KNU’S FKUIT SAl/r, to clicok iliacasu at tho outHot! Fur this is the time. With verv little trouble yon
c/ui'ohange tho courao of the trickling mouiituin Htreain, hut not the rolling river. It will <lefy all your tiny efforts. I feel I cannot Hufii-
cieiitly iuipreaa thU iinportuiit iiifonnation upon all ilonHehohlcrx, or Ship Oaj)tains, or Enropitaua gunerally, w’lio arc visiting or rosidiug in
any hot or foreign cliniaW. Whenever a change is contemplati'd, likely to distiuh the condition of hcaltli, let KNO’S FHUIT SALT be
your coinpaniou ; ibr, under any ciroiimstanccs, itn use in liencUciai aiul never can «ln hiinii. When you feel out of aorta, yot unable to say
why, frcqui'-iitly witliout any warning you arc suddenly seized with laaaitude, diriincUnatiou for Itodily or mental exortion, loss of appetite,
Biokness, pain in the forehead, dull aching of back and liinbd, eoldno.s.s of tho aiirface, and often Khivering, See,,, &c. ; then your whole body
is out of order, the spirit of danger has been kindled, but yon do not know where it may end : it is a real necessity to have a simple remedy
at hand that will answer the very best cn<l, ■with a positive assurance of doing goinl in every case and in no case any harm, 'i’he pilot can
BO Bteor and direct us to bring the ship into safety, out lie e.annot ([ludl the r.iging storm. Tno onnitun idea when not fooling well is, ** I
will wait and boo, perhaps I hTiuII bo l>etter to-morrow ; ” whereas, hml a supply ot EN(FS FK.Ul'l' 8ALT been at hand, and uao made of it
at the onset, all calamitous results might have been uvoiilcd. ^V)lat dashes to Dm earth so many hopos, breaks so many sweet alliauces,
biftsts so many ausnicioua enterprises, as imtiinely dciath ?
SAl/r.— “ Afk‘r suffering for ueju’iv twi) and a half vear.'^ fpilK ALT UF < 'ONQFEST IS LOST WITHOUT TJIK ART OP EAT-
l INU. -idNNKU ICN(;aOEMKNTS SriMULANl'S.-TOO RICH
;^Nu‘S FHUIT HAl
...
lb from Hovore hemUehv iiiid di«ordoro<l ^ttmiach, anti aftBr iryiri” almtiKt
ny IfonelU, i w.'w
id I
ovorythmg and spoinUng much memt'v without Ihiding t
ivcommentlod by afriomi to try KNO’S FHUIT nnd Inifon* I liad
finiahod one bottle I found it doing me a groat thixil of good, ikiai now 1
lUn ix'storvd to my utAUXLl hoahh ; ami otiici’n I know liiat have frietl it liavo
not oujuyoil such good hotdtU for yeain -Yours most truly,
ilUAii'HKBirt, J’oHt OHit'O, Ihirnufoid.”
Rout,
FOOL). -IzATELIoUHS. -I SSL'FFU!IEN’l’EXEIHTSE. - EXCITEMENT,
At* A g'lHtit'iiian wnUiH : *‘\N'hi’n J foci out of moHh, I take a dofHi of
KNo'S FHUIT S.‘\LT one iamr bffore dinner or firsit thing in the morning
Tho eilei't i,s all 1 eouUI wish,” How to enjoy good food that M’oujti
othon^is^.‘ enusL* hiUousnoss, lio.idiujho, or disordorod stomach—use ENO’S
; FRUIT SALT
O UCCKSS^ IN LIFE. —“ A now invontion i.y brought hoforc tho public, ami commands snocees. A score of abominable imftationa are
immtidiatcly introduced by the miflcrupulona who, in copying the miginal closely enough to ducolvo the public, and yet not bo exactly
as to ujfringo upon legal rigiiU, exoroieo an ijjgenuily that, employed in an original channel, could not fail to secure reputation and
prolit,'— Ai)AMf<. ^
C AUTIOK.— j'hfhtH arc profcnlnl in crery chulUrt} cufnhyf. me/*/io/zL,/twd jtY/’//,<’fs “ENO’S FRUIT
SALT.'* If ilhoui if you hove, hci'nhtipom.itou hy worthUb-y itnUufiony, Sold hy nil CUvmibtfi, prU'c Js. iZd. and Od.
DtREOTIONS IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE.
PMpMred oaly ai E 1109 7 RU 2 T BJLLT WOBS^ LOHDOH, S.E, 7 . 0 . ENOV BatmK
Janaary 1, 1883.
THi: 1NDU.N AGRICULTURIST.
CIREJLT RBBKSDT
FOR PRICKLY HEAT, INDICESTIOW, HEADACHE, BILIOUSNESS, AMO FEVERS,
ThD leatimonjr ot i&MioAl ^ttotaen tiM bom unQuAUflod lu pmtM ot
UMPLOUGH’S PYRETIC SiUHE
I
Afl pottMslitff fiiameati tnoaf essential for tbo raetomtlon and uiniuUMuiYiue up hoallh with peiioot vignnr of txxty and mind.
It l8 Bflbrvesoinic and Tasteless { forming a most lorlgorating^ VitallBing, and Befresblng Beverage.
--- ' - --- INPIliHHTION. LASSi'lTDE, HRAiVr»UUS\ ami KKVKRjSH ^>U«; pravonta and
___MliASXiEB. will ISltl.'VTIVlS ov hKlU (.‘OUPLAINTS. oud vurtoiw othot
altered ooudlilnna Ilf !h(.'bkK\i. „ ^
I Dr. SPAntca fUnTorniiicni Mfvlir’nl lnHpo<!t.or ol-Rratifpaiitalrom the Port of Londoul
. __ ________j writes:—'' I hine kwai pJ«a*iiP<i hi hi^orhiK roy cordlaulcstltnYAn/ to It* effloooy.
OOYISaVlKZXnr orrzCXALS AHS PLOSTSSS caring for the welfare of their emplorw should note
ite value as a specific in Fever cases.
J. W, IX)W8IKO.-‘'Iinadltllilhofr«>nnwirol forlj-twnnaMiof ivilow Fwrr, | BAWtrr, PINDM!, PtflTJATTB, INDIA,-" To Armljr talieve th»t the »M of loyr
Olid am haBTiyto itatf 1 never lost a alnale cmo.” ! J’yisjlio SiiHne will do moro lu pwvout fetor than all tho QTimlno ever imported oan cmpo.
pT. W. aTSVlllfi.-''SloeeIts introductiou tbe Phial Vest InriU Fevers are ilepvtved l>r. Ttria.Ey.-" I knmd rt« a-.js.'fHloJn my oxporicnoe and family, U»llmwural
«f their lerrora.**_ foi-ms of .som let Fever, u« other rm-ditumi h*!iHR require-'’
--- -- ItiUONB, 1 lyr. 8 OIBBON (tommi'iy iM»y«leltMi to 1 ho Loiuioti Hospital).—“ Ita asefiUnCM la llio
f j iroatmeiii of iit»oj«*o itas ioujf Iwon oouflvuU'At hy mcUloal exporimoe/
OlTM Instant relief in llBAUACHPi. 8EA or HlLlOlia SlCKNEsa, CONSTlVAtlOK. ..-
tulckly curea the wortt funai of TYPUIJB, SCAELKT, JUKOLE. und ot^r ^VKIW. 8'tt,5U.FOX. MKASLEB. wid
CnfoldlnK germs of Immense iMneht to mankind.”
Dr mOB&AV.—’'Ufumlsheii tbe blood with its lustSHliiio coustUimuts.’'
To be obtained of any Ohojniet or Drug Store, in Patent Glo»s-stoppered Bottlee, 2s. Od., 4b. Od,. lls„ and 21 b. eaoh.
Please note in connection with the recently observed effects of the nse of Citrate and other preparations
of Uagnesia ttot XiAUFXiOtTCFH’S PTBFTIC SALISTF is warranted not to contain any substaaoe
which wonld cause ooiculous or other earthy deposi ts.
n. ij.A.:i^i='£o^c3^iirii3,lEa;oL:Boi?.::SriikiEij,lEj6:^iDOisr, e.o.
GOVERNMENT
0IIT0E[:03Sr,A. ir-ElBiaiSri-crGI-E.
A n effeienfr niibsfitntfi/or Quiniiu*. Sold hy the ‘principal Eni'opcan
ami Naiice DragyUtA of Calcntta. 0(>tninuhh‘ from the
Suj^rinlcndtniit Botanical Oardemt^ Gidr.iUta. Pont free ^ at 4 os.,
J\n, 0 ; Soz,t ; 10 on.t 1U» llO'lm. CVw/i xoUh order,
I
PLANTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
XiUwriTEID,
MEROHAJTTB AKD CRKUBAL AORNTS,
Calcutta, -30. STKAM).
Ocncml Manmjer —W. K, ,S, .Tkffekson,
Manager-
Agencies for Tea Kstatua undertaken on the most
advantageous terms.
Coolies rooruitod hf our own staff of exiioriouced Agents, ivitii
Depots throughout Oliota Nagpur and at iJhubri.
indentors and Consignees of all mcrclumilizo.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, and IMe ato Agents.
Asaam.—“ THE EXCHANGE,” DIBKUUARH.
W. J. TVhkatley, Manager.
A. D. SttTAHT, Agency Hngie.r'McnilenL,
DDoot Importers of every re(iui8lto for Tea Estates and European
Besidonts.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India General Steam Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agents for
Commercial Union Assurance Co., Fire and Life;
Agonta for “ Star" Lino Oooan Steamers,
Calcutta to lA)ndon ; Agents for
Router’s Telegram Co.,
Limited.
London.— CHEAT WINCHE.STER-STREET, E.C.
E. G. Rock, Secretary.
Agencies at Biminghaiu, Bordeaux, and Oharente,
FRANCE.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AOENCF
(LICMNSED),
14, RUE OE CHABROL, PARIS.
Ti'ansaots every doseription of Commission, Merchant, and
General Agency Business.
All Indents exooutod at ilanufaoturere’ most favourable terms.
Onudilionn.—T-wo and-a-half per oeut. Commission when Banker’s
Draft on London or Paris accumpauios order. S23ooial terms to
regular yorrespondents. All Diseouuta conceded to puruhiuers,
Origiiml Iuvoiec.s sent when required.
Proiliioo taken charge of ami realised to l>eat advanhtge. Cosh
advauecd on Cousigmiients.
Tlu! Agency B.i!23ri>BeiitH, JJuy.s, and Sells for Firms.
I’liblie .Seoiu'itios, E.statesand Properties,bought and sold. Loons,
Mortgages, Mines, and Imlustrial Investments, &e., ncgoolated.
Miinnfuetiircrs and I’roiliicers can have suitable articles Introdncud
to the markets on advantageouB oonditit.ns.
PtKOK I.1.ST -l■o^n■lll•^^elll‘il<c ami reUahle —oti appUealinn.
BANKKU.S. — I’snfs ; George NVators, Esq., 20, Bonlov'ard dcs
Italieus, Losiio.v . 'The London and County Bank
3, Vieloria-slreot, Westminster.
Addrese: ll'ho Manager, doiihmiiUai amt Ooionial Agency, 14, Rue
do Chabrol, Paris, France. 447
NOTICE
TO nVE^ISrTJT'^CTTJREES,
AND
OTHER USERS OF POWER IN BULK.
ATKR rUWEE, nuking from 100 to 1,000 H.P,, is avttUiJ>lo at
38 aitea ou the liftii lloab and Weatorii Juiniitt CaiwJa in tha
Runjah.
The tracts in wliich the Water Power is situated are—
(ft) Jiftwoen the rivers Peas and Kavi, to the north of the
.Sciiulo, Piuiiah ami IMIu Kailway, 26 sites, closo to the
UniritHiir ana Pathankoto Kailway now under coiwtruotion.
(fd To the west of, ami about 16 mih\H from the river Jumna,
12 sites, on a navi^ahlu eanal running from Ktirnal to UoUii,
and within easy distance of the Grand Trunk Road.
Leaso will he granted for 20 yoanijOU the following approximate
rato.'j per 11,P. per annum :—
For the first S yoaiu ...
...
... Rb. Nil.
,, ,, Eccond5 ,1 .a.
... 60
„ „ thii'd 6 „
...
... „ 100
,, „ fourth 6 ,,
. IBO
Full particulars can ho obtained from the Office of the Joint-Secre¬
tary to Govenimcnt, Punjab, Irrigation Branch, Lahore, and iuforma-
tifui, iT.garding the NVater Power available at the various situs and
thcii' local aavantages, can be obtained from the officos of the
Superintending Kugiuocr, Bfu-i iloab Cuual, Umritsur, and Superin-
tending Engineer, Wosteru Jumua Canal, Delhi.
By order,
R HOME, Lt.-C'ul., R.E.,
Offg. .loiut Secy., Oovt., Punjab,
i*. AV, D., Irrigation Branch.
47
14 ^910, JMiuAry 24| 1^,
Januaiy 1883 .
THE INDIAN AGRICUJ.TURIST.
PHCENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
Civil and M^lianical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants,
Forged and Cart Iron Worle, Boilers, Machinery for Jute, Cotton and Rice Mills, Collieries, Indigo Concerns, Tea Gardens, dtc.,
Contractors’ and Brick-making Plant, and every class of Iron and Brass Work made to order.
SOLE .A-O-EITTS EOE
Eobey & Co’h celebrated Portable and Fixed Engines and Machinery, (twynne & Oo's “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Piimjw, Gould's
Rotary Pumps, and Robinson’s Patent Steam Traps.
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
Robey & Co’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Robey” Semi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines and Boilers, liiiud
and Marine Boilers, Gonld’s Rotary Power Pumjjs, Hand, Lift and Force Pumps, 'I'angye’s “ Special” Steam Pumps, “ Vauxhall”
Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Soorkee MilL, Pug Mills, Brick-making Macliiues, Rotui Ibdicrs, Saw Benches,
Slide Surfacing and Sci’ew Cutting Lathes, Drilling Macliiues, Punching and Sheaidug, Slotting and
Screwing Machines, Emery Grinding Machines, Spencer’s Hand Drilling Machines,
Chaff Cutting Machines, Kennedy’s Patent Baa’ Slieare, Selkirk’s Boiler
Tube Beadoi-s, Steam Pi-ossnre Recorders, Electric Pens,
Richtinl’s Engine Indicator, Gifford’s In¬
jectors, Cooking Stoves, Fire-
Proof Safes,
The following are the principal atlvant-
agee of the “ Invincible” Pump :—
1st .—It is arranwd to swivel on tbo
bed plate, and may Tie plooeil at any angle
simpV by slackening a few mit-s, with¬
out iiiterforilig in any w.sy with the bod
plate or the joints of either tlie suction or
discharge pipes.
Slid ,—It does not rcrpiire a foot valve,
lieing fitted with small air exhauster
and chick on discharge which always
keep the jiump charged ready for
work.
Srd .—The bearings are made on an
entirely new princijile, and one Iwaving
will last out four of the old an-ange-
meuts.
J. & H. OWYNNE’S
“Invincible” Centrifugal Pump.
4th .—The fomi of the pump ejising is
so arranged tliat one side can bti taken off'
in a few mimites for the ins])ec,tion of
the whole of the disc and interior of tlie
pump.
nth .—Hand lioles are made on eacii
side of the suction pipes to cmihle any
foreign matter which may get into the
pump or disc to be easily renioveii, 'The
covers are titled witli a bayonet joint so
that they can lie. removeil and re])liined in
leas than a minute.
0th .—The “Invincible ” is 2!i per cent,
lighter than .sny other Centrifugal Puni))
in the market, ami disoliarges at least 10
per cent, more water for the power
applied.
These Ploughs have boon exprossly dcsignoil and inanufaatuvetl for tho use of the Ryots of India, whose speoUl needs have been
carefully studied iu their cnnstriictiou. They cinhody all the <iufillfication8 for wliich the native-made implements have hitherto boon
preferred, whilst being incomparably superior iu strength, duiability, amd offieioucy.
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to throe times tho depth of a native plough, and leaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the dirtiest land
without getting choked with weeds. Price, Rs. 15,
IROIGO Am) TEA PLAHTEBS’ rUPLEUENTS AlH) STOKES.
TOOLS -AJsTP STORES OE .A.LL EZIlSriDS.
Alwats ok hasd a laros stock ox Plate, Bab, Ancle, Tee and Corruoated Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper, Pio Iron,
Foukoiit Coke, StjiTny Coal, Fire Bricks, and Fire Clav,
CaUhlogiMS on Application,
Jaauary 1, 1883.
THE INETtAN AGRICULTURIST.
THIS ILLUSTRATION IS A FAG-SIMILE OF THE LID OF
MESSRS. SUnONS’ SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BEWARE OF IMITATIONS.
OOODALL’S
Honsehold Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TORkSHXRE REI-ISK.
The Most Vellcioim f^auce lu the World.
Thin (^ap and exoellent Banco makpu tho pluInoBt vianilB pnlat.
able, and tho daintiest dishes more delicions. Witli ('hops. Steaks,
Fish, Ac., it is incomparable. lodjotiles, at Gil., Is., and 2s, each.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
' The Beet in the TForld.
Makes delicions podding -without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light bread without yeast. In Id. pockets, Gd., Is., 2s.,
and 5s. tlus.
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Beet and most AgreeuUe Tonic yet introduced.
The best remedy known for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
General Debility, Sto. Itestores delicate indirlduals to health. At
Is. lid. and 2s. 8d, each bottle.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
For mahing Delicious Cttslorde crithout Fgge, in less time
and at half the price,
The rropriotora can recommend it to Tlonsnkoopera generally as
a useful agent in the i.reparatiun of a good custard. Give it a
Tbul. Bold in boxes, (id. and Is. uach.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
in»kCN Tlircn Galluiiw nf th<> Ueftt, (irinK«>r
Bcrr ill the World for Tiiree|ieiire.
The most ralnablo preparation for tho jjroduci ion of « delicious
and invigorating beverage. It is cosily made, and is by far the
cheapest and host Gingor Beer over offered to tlio public. Sold in
packets, 3d. and Gd. each.
COODALL’S ECC POWDER,
Its action in Cakes, Buddings, &c., &c., resembles that of tho egg
in every particnlar. One penny packet will go as far o.s four eggs !
and one sixpenny tin as far as twonty-eiglit. Sold everywhere, in
Id. packets ; Cd. and 1», tins.
COODALL'S BLANCMANGE POWDER
Mokes delioious Blancmange in a few minutes. In boxes at Od.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations may be had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Froiarletors; 600DALL, BiCKEODSE & CO, Leeds, England.
FREEMAN'S SYRUP OF PHOSPHORUS.
Nature’s Great Brain and Norve Tonic and tho most wondorfni
Blood PnriHor. Tho higbest Medical Authorities say Hint it is the
only Cure for Wasting Diseases, Mental Depression, Loss of Buergy,
and Stomach Complaints.
It is pleasant to the taste, and might bo taken by tho most
delicately constitutnd. In the most enfeebled it builds up a NEW
AND UEAliTHT CONSTITUTION. One dose of this Remedy is
equal to Twenty Doses of Cod-Livor Oil.
Thousands have been snatched from tho brink of tho grave by tho
timely use of Fbrkkan’s Svbup or Phosphobcs. May bo had of all
Ohomists and Talent Medicine Vendors, in bottles at 2 k. Od., 4s. 6d.,
11 s,, and 88?. __ __
SPBCIAL AGENTS:
600D1LL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
Wlilte Horse Street, Iseeds, England.
NOTICE.
SUTTON’S SEEDS & CATALOGUES
MAY BE HAD OF DULY AUTHORISED AGENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
rxcLUDiNa—
The I’roprictors, Indlthi Agrionlturist, Chowringhoc-road, Cal¬
cutta ; tlio Great Kustorn Hotel, Company, Limited, Colontta :
Messr.,. W’ilson, .Mackenzie A Co., 13, Old Court Itonso-strcet,
and 1, Mangoe-hiiie, Caleiittn. Orders received by Messrs.
King, Haiiiiltuu &. Co., Caleiilta.
ISTOTIOE.
In ordering through London Shippers, pnrehasers
should be particular to stipulate for
SUTTON’S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
F.-ont .S, JtiiiHiUj.i, Mug., taic Viir./h'csideJtt of the Atjri.
JJorti sSticiftif oj' Jhdia.
VVHli roforenpo to 3 our mode of pockinjir Koods for
export, I Tinmt nny 1 m*vv much J wam jjrratified with tho
KyKtum you woro ho fw to hUow mo. Durin^f tho
whole of iny Ions: IndiHU oxTOrioncf', it wan my constiinf.
roRTot that En{.jliHh pachtMi hocJh were almort invanably
lower in perminatinj^ power Umn the AinoHoan. After
8ooin)j: the elaborate procautionw you take in oxooutinf^
KUt’h ortlorft as that of tho Agri-Horti Society of
India, 1 am by no meimH Hurprlwcfl to hear that you havo
I'KSon gratified by the rceeijit of m much toKtimony from
tho tropica aa to tho condition of your fcJoodaupon niTival.”
THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
AN’Il BV HPKdlAL WARRANT TO
H.E.H. THE PEINOE OP WALES, |
READING, LONDON,
ENCrXzALlJ^TX r H n I o
All communlt .lions from tho Trade should he address¬
ed direct to Beading.
THE INDIAN AGRIC5TJLfTTBIST.
Januuy t, 18^$,
S. OWENS & CO.,
‘WECIT®:F'm-Au 3 a’S-©TKS 3 B 3 T, XiOlSriDOlSr,
HYOnAUUO ENQINEKR 8 AND MANUFAOTUftCRS OF
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERY DESCRIPTIOlJ
• FOR RTMAM, WATER, WIFE, CATTLE,. AND FANEAL POWER.
Hydraulic and Screw Fressee, Oil Mill Machinery, Hydraulic Lifta, ^
SOLE MAKERS FOR GREAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE’S PATENT DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMP-MORE THAN 10,000 IN BSE.
THE fOLLOWlSO ARE SOME OE THE PBOMINEKT ADVAKTASES OP THE B3;A.KE PUMP:—
It will »t«rt at atiy point
of stroke.
It has no dead point.
It work* fast or slow
with the some certainty of
action.
It is ecouomloal. Has a
load on the Slide Volvo.
It is oompoot and dur¬
able.
Hand Power Lertt
Detaohid.
It is intorohaineeable In
ail its working pans.
It will deliver more water
than any other Pump.
It is made of best mote*
rials in the most workman¬
like manner.
Con be worked at 200
strokes per hour, or 20
strokes per minute.
Impnrred Btaam Boring
AppsTotaa, slso
^Boniaa tools
Boring Tools of ctoit dosoilpUon, for Artesian'ffolls
totting (or Minorsls, Fonndationa, Sic.
Fonndationa, Sic
Oast-Iron Hoase
or Oa.\10u,Piiinp.
FoiMrto Inlgatani fmr Borse
or Btsam Powsr.
BLAKE’S PATENT DlRECT-AETfiCiTEAM PUMP AND. VERTICAL BOILIE
. 30’’ODR m3E?.XGh-A.11ilOI>r X»X7'H,!E‘OSIE3S,
- FILLlKQ .TANitb, ’WATBR’-^iCmV TO PlaANTATLON.'S, SMALL TOWNS OR VHAAOEa,
WMteJIia^* Iwnworke,'WMtofriar'a-^eelv ;P?ee^itr«»t, Loi^
^ Catalo^^t^esmd'.Eiitimaie* Frte
:9^igMkairo.;^|
TH!te
A monthly
I - OF iWtM AQRIGULTURE, MiNEftALOQY. AMO 8TATI8V0B.
. . _L___» -
VOL. VIII,3 CALCUTTA :—THURSDAY, FEBRUARY i, 1888. g-
\ ANDY’S P® COTTON BELTING.
WmOtMAY 6UITE6 PDR AND PATWiTED AM tMDIA AND ABROAD.
PRIZES.
IST“ ::; :: ;:: ll?i! ■:■ SI iSC :.' :
.1879 1 MstBOTONE . ... 1880 1 PrmBTTBo ...
* At at.aw ta .,. ... ,., ,., 1882 I New Zeaxand ... ... ... 1882
First Pretmiun, ' First Prize, Sydney, ISTa H;amburK,
... 1881
... 1881
... 1882
Dijilomii,
New York, 1880.
■ ''Sl;'
Berlin, 1879.
12 :i^c5n: , ' ' %•>
New Zealand; 1882.
....r;/-,
' s\rrY‘'
Meltounie, 1880. 1878. Cincinnati, June, J6S0.
OVfiR 460,000 FEET SOLD DURING 1881,
Inoluding 3,877 feet of main Driving Belts, of widths ranging frt)ni 13 in. to
60 in., are working in over 6,000 Mills and Works in Kurope and America.
The fullomtuj Te»is {hy Kirhddy, of London) ahm iU relative strength and value,
compared with Leather,
Best Double Leather 6 in. Belting
Gandy’s 6 in. X B'ply Cotton
Breaking Strain per Square inch of Section, |
Frioe per foot,
3.m lb«. 1
6«, 7d.
6,811 lbs, 1
28. 6d.
THE
OANDY BELT.
Any t-fiiiflk or Width
/or Jdain Ihrunuy.
It is the best Udt
ever riuuie for nil iiiirjxw-
or. Milch < ho ijier and
Stronger tl an fjoather.
I’horoHgbly vCateiproof,
and not utfeeted by tein-
jxTature, clings well to
die pulleys, runs true,
and can lie inailo any
leugt.Ii without joints.
This Series of Belting
(sec enyrairim/) was sup¬
plied in One Order to
Messi's. .Tohii t-'rossley
aiiil Sons, Halifax, May
1, 1880, and continues to
give entire siitisfaetiun.
MAURICE GANDY,
THE “ Gh-A-lSriD'y ” BESXjT-, . ,
( 1 ANDY’S Patent American Cotton Beltiug can claun a Kuporiority over ioiitlieiMvoitH m every pArtienlur; its eoMt
I ^ing about half tliatof loather, whilo it« ati'on^tli atui gripping power irt about dnuble that of the hest loathor,
m riiown by rej^Gatod toHte t*kon by Kirknldy, of London. ThoBe tenl-w are given above, to wliich Bpet-iul ntt-ontion is
dix^ot^. Thoad “Gandy ” belts arc inarlo of any wi<hh up to 72 iuchoa, and any length up li» 1)40 foot without joint,
j thus obviating the nocoaatty of having two on the aamc pullry, a aysteui of driving which in never Siiti.ifttotoiy.
iw it i« inipCMwiblo to have bolts of exiuJtly the Hamo tension ; honoo on© or the uthor is idways cauKiui,^ u Htopptj^-v,
TliMe 8tt>piiago« are avoidod by utung Gandy’w Patent Bolts iu one width. ThofAO Chuidy Bolu arc luadc of thn flnoat
• American fiottou Duck. KpooinUy prepared at JJalbimoro for tho purjKWe, and then put togotliur and tirilahe<j f> 3 ' (Jandy’s
uatoniod gpocinl Machinorv" and prouo8« to prevent stretching, and render thoui inipervioim to atmoHj.huru* iurtuenoe
Pr-ffiiefinfrd of advanta^fos Hueli or theiw, tJjo univorAol udopUou of Gundy^n Bolts can only bo a question oi Line.
A BUBStANXIAL GUAEANTEE GIVEN WITH'EVERY MAIN DETVINO BELT.
OtIinV Pfttentse *nd Mauufaoturer, I nUQnii WCIRKS : Liverpool, England ; HO*
Unllilfi lao. Qaeea Yl^rO-stwt, MlRttUR* wd W wiawie . U»w»ll*
190, Queen Yietorift-street,
u
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Pebraaiy 1, 1883.
City Line of Steamers.
THE
FOE LONDON DIEECT vid SUEZ CANAL.
SOUTH OF INDIA OBSEEVER,
Tone.
Captain.
City of Manrhester ...
... ,8126
A. Macdonald.
City of Carthage
... 2051
J. MuPhoraon.
City of Canterbury ...
... 3212
.1, Marr.
CUy of i'enice
... 8207
H. J. Moffiit,
City of Londosi
... 3212
J. Black.
City of Elhdiurgh ...
... 3212
VY. II. Barham.
City of Khios
... 32.80
A. Thoma.
City tf Agra
... 3412
,T. Gordon.
City (f Calcutta
... am
R. MeNeil.
City of fixford
... 4000
Wni. Miller,
City of Cambridge
... 4000
D. Auderaon.
The Gil;/ of Oxford wilJ leave about 2nct February, and will be
followed about a fortnight later by the Oily of Cavihridye.
GLADSTONE, Tt^LLIE A Co.,
7 Agents.
PcTBUSHED WeKKBT AT OoTACAUCNb,
The Head-quarters of the Madras Oovenunent for
the greater part of the year.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
(ExoLCSIVE OJf POSTAOE.)
Per annum ...
,, half-year...
,, (juartor
,, mensem ...
Advance.
Eb. 20 0 0
„ 10 0 0
„ S 0 0
„ 2 0 0
Arrears.
Es. 28 0 0
„ 14 0 0
„ 7 0 0
,,280
NrUyherry Pvtss Co., Limited, Proprietors.
Agents in India;
Messrs. HIOGINBOTHAM & Co. ... Madras.
FIRE BRICKS
ANO
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niii sendhlji fusiiii/. ' * * That compared with Stourbridge Fire
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0
February 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
.35
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No.
THE
A MONTHLT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AORIGULTURS, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTA THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 1, 1883. [l^o. 2.
FOTICE.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
QUBSCSISBJiS io the Btatmhas, Friikd pF Ikdia, and
^ India* AGaiCBtTDEisT an informed that arrangetnenU have
now been made by vhioh theseJovmale ‘will for the fittwe be pnb-
lithed under the general euperiniendence of the undertigned.
All eommunicatione concerning the general hueinees of the
Statesman and Friend of India Ofhcc, Adoertmmenti, and
Sabscriptiont to the daily Statesman and Friend of India,
weekly Fripjjd of India and Statesman,owuI Indian Aorioul-
TDBiST, should be addressed to the MANAGER.
All communications regarding literary matter should he ad.
dressed to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM EIACH.
Report on the Administration of the Bombay Presidency for the
year 1881 -82.
Report on the Administration of the Madras Presidency daring
the year 1881-82.
Report on the Progress and Condition of tho Royal Gardens at Kew
during the year 1881.
Tlie “ Indian Forester."
Field and Garden Crops of tho North-West Proviuooe and Oudh,
Part I.
CORRESPONDENCE.
June 13th, 1881,
BOOKS ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
CONTENTS:
Page.
Paoe.
Acknuwlkdoments .
37
Bivi-Divi .
...
62
C.'ORREBPOSDBNCE—
The liime and Lime.jtiico
...
63
IJooks on Agricultural Chem-
Cinchona—
istry ,M .
87
Analysis of Nilgiri-grnvm
Cin.
Wvi.Divi .
37 1 cliona Bark .
. .
64
Vino I.)it4oah«) ..
38
Cinchona Bark.
...
64
Lkadino Aiitilles —
J''l)riE.STHY--
jNotos on tlic t'awnporo Farm
NotoM
...
64
Expoi'innuit ... ... . .
.38
Tlio Toacliiiig' of UoroHtr}' at
,A!f>e riiltivation
39
tho Contra] Eoivst School,
'riio Southoru EuKOHian Colonv
39
Dobra Boon. .
65
Agriculture in British XiuruiaU 41
Dooiiar in Kulu
65
Ap:rk’alturftl Baiika ... ...
4l
The Garden —
Kditokj.vl Notes .
44
Notes .. .
65
Arborii’uRuro.
SO
Notice of JJtioIiK
66
'J'lio Maiji Exhibition ami
MlNKHAinuv —
Hoi'.*»o Show, 3883 ...
fd
Noto
m
OiriviAL I’ai-kr —
Lignite iu South Arcoi
66
HoO'kecpin^ In Judia.
.S3
HfiUlUUt.TUilK —
66
Atrriculturul and flortioultural
Note ..
Society of India .
Oo
Hurioultvuv in Cej Ion , .
67
Seukctions—
Tka ~
67
Mr. Robortfton on “Tillage
Noto .
and Plongha" ...
57
Tea and (Jlimato in Indi.i
iiml
67
1 mlijin Tea .
59
Ceylon .
A Toultry Form .
60
Tdbaci.'o--
A Liijuid-Ambcr, or Sweet
Tobacoo Cnltivatiou in
lilO
tlinn.
61
West Indies.
The IVoHpoctH of Indian Tea 61
ADVKUTIBEMK.v i'.--.
68
Our Correspondents and Contributors vnll grenihj oblige
us if they will take the. trouble, where the returns of rvltira-
luin arc stated by them in Indian weights and measure.', la
•line tki.ir English eguivalents, cithia' in the. lejl, In jiaiin-
ine^is, or in a foot-note. The bijrah in 2><(i'fieular varies so
Mueh in the. different /O'ovinees, that it is absolutely Hieessary
to give the English value of it in all cases. It wnuhl tie a great,
reform if the Cavernment itself followed the sana course m id!
the official reports jiublished by it.
All correspondence must bear the fidl name and address of
the. writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee
of good faith. We shall take no notice of anonymous letters.
TO THE editor.
Sir,—W ill you kindly toll mo whoso Is tlia best book on agricul¬
tural analytical chemistry, where oan it bo had, and for what
price ?
EASIK BEHARl BISWAS,
Bissenpore, Bankoota, January 18, 1883.
NoTK.-Johnaton and Cameron’s Chem-Uini aiui Oeolcpi,, St. 6rf.; Blaok.
wood, 1872.
ailwon’s Ai/i'ievHuret f'liosiitti'i/, with Preface,'by Vonleker, 2*. 0<f. ;
lloutlodgo, lfe67.
Auierson's JCIrmesfs rif .•ifli'O'i'ltUf'iil t'lasiith'ii. 6j. 6<f.; Tjongmans, 1880.
Phiinjli’s lAihimaiirii Gailir, .ipainlltj orangai Joy Agrk'shunil 8liuten.ls.
John Van Vonml.
tfnti Piants Gviue.
TIio thini and fifUj are out of print.
MarmitJan liaa also juiblished a tew hhort. toxt.books. )>ut so far us wa
knew ilicro is no speeiai book on Ar'ricultund Analytical Ohcniistrv.—
Ku., 1. A.
DIVI-DIVI.
TO THE EDITOR.
,Siu,—Some seven months ago, the Slat, sman published a few
observations—reproduced in the ludinu Agriculturist of the let July
last- -regarding Divi-dici, Seedlings were recommended to be
planted 1C feet .apart each way, giving therefore 170 trees to an
neji;. After somoi years an average prodnetion of 4 tons per aerc
of a piobublc nilt va’ue of Rs. .V)0 was eonfidontly promised, and
even an outtmai of 10 tons was likely not to be uncomniou.
As previously to the appearance of those observations, 1 had
Been instructions from a very high authority, ilirccthig that Diei-
ilici trees be planted G feet apart eoeb way, so as to give 1,210
trees to an acic, wliieli themselves would probably yield from 1
to tons, I eut out tho observ.ations in the and sent
them, throng'll an ofKeial obaimol, to the gontlenian who bad issued
tiic iustructiuns just meiitioiiod. He courteously answered os
follows :—
“ Without better certified information in connection with
the plantations to which tho Slatcmnan article refers, it would be
useless attempting to reconcile tho discrepancies between this and
tiio notes I sent to you. They arc, as you observe, very eousiderahle,
but the article conflicts even more severely with many iwlural faels,
tiom which it appears certain tliat tho writer has not had the
advantage of a practical acquaintance with tlic subject.
“ Taking the article os it comes, wc sec that the WTiter iu
1 the first place finds fault with the * Madras e.onfcmpuiary ' for
speuldiig of t'lo Tamarind and Diei-dfri as being somewhat like
each ntlicr, lie says they bear no resemblance wImtevei ‘except
iu the form of the leaf,’ but that the Eivi-divi aud the oommou
babuol are barely distin^iUhaUo.
“In all thii the Madrw enthor li right, and hie oritio WTOilg.
from the eample of Divi-divi sent under separate oover yon
will see tha^ taoadnd U not at all ttnUkn it, while the above prbti^^
show the lehTss to be altogeAier dialnilnr.
“The Diivi-dii>i leaf is large Modbipinnate, while
that of the tamarind is only pintuUe or onee divided. The bahool,
like the Divi-divi, has a bipinnate leaf, bat is t([uaUy or abruptly J
pinnated, the leailete having very little blade. The three trees
nnder comparison are no more like eaoh other in.geaetal ,)sppearanoe
than are most other meteibers of the tame family and tribe, and
could never be oonfoandcd on careful examination. I
“ The article states Idust cattle do not rat the JDivi-diCT ;
but, as a fact, they are partleulariy fond ef it, so also Ore sheep,
ami 1 notice that tny shepherds systematically carry all the suckers
and other pvunings into the folds as fodder for the flocks.
“ The tree is described as very small when young, but
nnder cultivation it grows into a fine big tree. One in the Colleo-
tor’s garden at Dharwar measures about 4 feet round the trunk
and covers a considerable area.
“ Haring bad a good deal to do with the propagation and
distribution of this plant, I think it is oertalu I should have beard
before of the extensive and systematiaally worked plantations
spoken of in this artlcio had they existed, and if ‘ ten tons is not
an nneommon oattnm * the article neceaaarily oooui>ios a position
either in the export or local market, whioh is not the case so far as
1 am aware.
“ Ou the whole I am inclined to believe that the writer is
confusing the Divi-dM with some other kind of tree. If, however,
his facts are as genuine as they pretend to be, his statements are
entitled to much respect^ for my own part I should hesitate quot¬
ing Bush figures as an inducement to planters ; much misehief and
disappointment is continually being caused in oounection with
almost every new industry by the rash representations of enthusiasts
that it Iwoomos a duty of experimental institutions in summing up
the results of tentative trials, to miler rather than orer-estlmate
wherOTer actual ones oannot be obtained.’’
Divi-divi plants being naturally somi-procumbent for a number
of years,the same'high authority recommended that they should bo
planted In Ihreee, to admit of their being plaited together to
form one suitable trunk. 1,210 groups of 3 plants each would
therefore give 8,630 trees to an acre. Supposing that grouping
served only to keep trees straight, and that the yield of a group
ultimately be not more than that of a fully grown isolated tree, still,
the ohsorvation in the Slalcmian really referred to Divi-divi. I'he
exact number of seedlings to ho planted on an acre romaius uii-
sottlcil. A flistaiioo of 6 feet each way hetween them soeins
hardly suffioient for trees said to attain a height of 30 feet and a
some other oause i also what ramadiai have been tried for the
dlsafum, if any, and w^^t affect
In orikr t%<Baaist yoar enquiries, I esdoae a wine circular of
Means. Cojiln * Oo. pf JhiWin, wjSloh oontaias an Interestmg
artl^ On tite jijylloxera, vriSiilluswiiUojMi.
CScpy of letter from G. G. MwiriKis, Bsq., Deputy Conservator of
Forests, Punjab, to W. Coldstrbam, Ksq., Deputy Oommis-
stoaer, ftlspila,—Ko. 75G., datad. 3?t>abalir, the 6th September
ifisiz.
Sib,—I n reply to your letter No. flOO, dated filst July 1882,1
hare much.pleaaure tn s^idiag ytta Mk’ notes on ths vine and its
disease in Ksnawar.
2. On enquiry Ileam that the dUease first mode itoappearanoe ill
1860. At that time every village to the east of Wangtoe, as far
as Spoo, had its vineyards : they were from one to three acres In
extent, situated on terraces immediately above the river, and closr
under the oUffh ■which form the walls of the Satlej glen. The soil
in snob plaOM is loose and fairly rich, being composed chiefly of the
detritus brought down by stMams whioh 'Water them, and of the
adjacent gneiss oliffs. In these localities thirteen varieties of
grapes flourished, and boro abundant crops of good quality, which
were for the most part taken to Hindoostan and China, and
exchanged for other prodnoe.
3. Tlie people, on seeing that the diseaeo was spreading, seem to
have lost heart, and many have converted their vineyards into
grain lands, but no remedy has been tried. The disease has not
abated from ths first, hud the thirteen varieties, which are
named, ate aa follows
(OMogun, (2) Chodakhung, (3)Leogoon, (4) Chiligoon, (5) Rulba,
(6) Ruglasoped, (7) Porogula, (8) Sopedelakhung, (9) Rispnise, (10)
Rungsproy, (11) Urutkung, (12) Poodakhuag, and (13) Kurmalay
Safed I only two varieties, Ruglasoped and Rnngsprey, have
partially withstood tlio disease pthese however are becoming more
and more afleeted, and their total failure Is a question of time,
unless a remedy is disoovsred and applied. In many abaudoued
or iiegloeted vineyards the vino may bo etill seen twining among
the debris of the wooden frames on whioli tliey were formerly
supported or oUtnbtng up tnees. This tenacity of life induces me to
think that the disease i* not duo to the Phylloxera vcuLalrix, ond
I see from the hook you sent me that plants attacked by the
phylloxera die nut in foirr years j nor, on on examination of t!\o
roots, stem, and leaf, have I found any traces such as are deaorilind
as belonging to this insect. The fruit appears only to suffer. As
soon as the process of ripening sets in, some insect, unknown to me,
must puncture the grape nud deposit eggs, whioh hucomo griih.s,
and cause the grape to split. On looking at the split fruit, I s.aw
tniiik diametcr of about ]G inches. On the other hand, if 3 tons be
a pvobahlo average yield per aero, it looks easier for 1,210 trees
than for 170 to give G,720th weight of dry pods. With the first
number, the yield of each ti-ee would require to ho GJtb only ; with
the second, as much as .30},
Which IS it ? The question is an imporhvnt one. A very few
who had emharkod in such a kind of cultivation, and found out after
seven years they had gone the wrong way to it, would be able to
begin again. BRITISH BURMAH.
Motk.— It is perlmiw best to say frankly that the paragnqili about the
7 >ii /-(IVi was wiitton (or imsdedfor putilicatioiO tiy the then Kditor of
the hidiiin .i-jririilUtrUl, since deceased, and the i>re,wnt Kilitnr Is not
proiiarod to settle the points in dispute. 'I'lio subject is of some import¬
ance, and any contribution to our knowledge of it, addressed to the
Indian Aijncidti'.riit, will bo gratefully roocivod. -Eo., 1. A.
many of these, which arc not readily seen With the naked eye •, tliey
are aliout a tenth of on inoli, long, whito transparent colour, with a
gray spot on top and hack of lie.ul, and finer tliun a silk tlireail.
Tlicso may be well known ; hue in the ah.scnce of any information
aliout them, I have an idea they may have originated in tlie
rotten wood of the frames. However, they begin to destroy tha
grape in August, and 1 shall earefuUy watch for thorn next year,
and hope to be able to give you further information on the subject.
I have now in my garden at Kilba, a vine brought from the Agri-
Hoiticultural Garden, Lahore, which bears a large fine-flavoured
red grape, whioh fruited for the first time tills year, and was not
ottackod. I have heard that a very hardy species which is free
from tlio ravages of the Phylloxera vaetalrix has been Introduced
into Franco with success, and 1 should like very much to get a few
cuttings or plants for trial hero.
VINE DISEASE.
TO THK EWTOB.
gjn_1 l,eg to enclose, for pubitoation in your valuable journal, if
you see fit, some correspondence between myself and Mr. Miimiken,
Assistant Superintendent of Hill States, Kauawar, on the subject
of the vine disease of that tract. COLDSTRKAM.
Deputy Commr. and Supdt., Hiil States,
Simla, Deoember 31, 1882.
From w, Ck)i.i>sTRKAM, Esq., Deputy Commissioner, Simla,
to G. MisnuusS, Ksq., AssUtaut Superintendent, Kill
States, Bushahr Division, Kanawar,—No. 600, dated Simla*
the 81st July 1882.
|.eq«est you will lie so good as to oaoortaiu whcitier
the vino disease, which has so seriously of recent years affected the
grape crops of Kanawar, is due to the ravages of Hie phylloxera, or to
CALCUTTA, FEBRUARY 1, 1883.
NOTES ON THE CAWNPORE FARM EXPERIMENT.
(10,0fl6lb OF SALTrETRK CIOKTAIN 4,878llb or PoTASU AKD
6,710itt» or Nitric Acid.)
fl'^HE Cawupore soil is stated to ootit-’iii, down to the depth
X of nine inches, 6,717ft) of nitric acid per acre, and as
tills acid is in comhinatlon with potash, we obtain 10,696fti
of that nitrate, which, divided by 3, gives 3,666ft> to every
three inches of depth over the acre’s sarfaco.
It k feitther stated this acJw to the depth of 9 inches only by Government in some of tlie vast tiacU of waste hxuch
santain^ 16^35tb of p(^tadi, and if from tbia tiie qaantity in wbicii are at preaant of no value whatevar for other oultivation,
combination with nitric aoid be dhdooted, thera remaioa of hut by private iudividunle who may wiah to euihark their
potash ll,3S^1b, whieh is equal to 3,78{)ih to 8 inohes capital iu a new enterprise, and whp iKwid,u9 doubt, U able tu
in depth of the acre's lurfaos. nitrate of potash, 3,S66fo, obtain grants of land at Ipw ratt* tof tbii purpose. Not
addsd to 8,7S6lb of fiw potash, givM, 7,3&0& of saline only dose the aotual manipulation of the fibre sesm to be
matters to the acre, or 1^ (S4oe.} to the eqnare yard, 3 Inches extremely simple as appears from the report of the Superinteu*
iu depth, or 6oa. (3,fl00 grains) one inch in depth, and this, dent of the Oentral ,Tail at Haeareebagh, published in a leoeut
divided' by 9, gives 888| grains to the square foot, ojw inch in issue of the Indian, Affrioulturiit, but the cost of oultivation
depth.
Any soil, so highly impregnated with nitre and free potash,
is a nitroHi toil, and quite incapable of producing a wheat or
any other gwino op. But we hre told that this soil on being
manured with saltpetre to the extent of 240ft per acre gave
a remarkable gradn-orop, yielding 16,808ft of wheat to the acre
and a second plot l)24S9b to the acre.
If this asaertion is to be credited, then the other one, as to
the richness of the soil in nitre and potash, must be discredited.
10,698ft of nitre equal 130 mounds, 18 seers, to every 9 inches
of soil in depth, and this, at Bs. 2 per mound, gives Bs. 280 as
the value of the saltpetre per acre, against Bs. 68-11-8, the
value of l,806tb. (19 maunds 82| seers) the value of the wheat
crop at Bs. 3 per mound.
It the facta are to be believed, the proper crop to have been
obtained from this soil was the nitrate of potash.
It is evident, however, that a mistake has been made some¬
where, and it is quite possible that the soil sent for analysis,
was artificially* enriched with nitre and wood ashes before
trausmission to Roorkee. But if this was not done, then the
Roorkee chemist hiw made an erroneous analysis, which,
however, seems improbable, iw potash and nitre being perfectly
soluble in water, one boil would have removed both from the
soil, and being held in aqueous solution, evaporation would
have given a saline solution, whose crystals would have yielded
saltpetre and the residue p<;taah.
lOOlb of wheat will yield 2ft of ashes, hence 1,60BU> will give
32ft. 1 6/10 ounces of ash.
100ft of wheat ash contain of potash and soda 31ft
and of phosphoric acid 46ft. Thus the jvrinoipal mineral
matter needed by wheat is phosphoric acid, to 28ft of potash,
and IBft of lime and magnesia.
Doss the analysis mention what quantity of phosphoric acid
wa.s present iu the Cawnpore soil, as on this component would
dt‘](eud its prodiioliveuess in grain !
“ The craze among European farmers about nitrogenous
manures” hod reference In Chilian saltpetre or nitrate of soiia,
I’liis nitrate contains of soda 31 '3 and nitric aoid 64-l.'5, whilst
saltpetre or nitrate of potash oontains of potash 47’15 and of nitrie
acid r)4’16. Hence it follows that nitric acid has a greater
chemical affinity for potash, than for soda, and if potash be
present iu the soil and farmyard manure (which it is), the
soda would give up its nitric aoid to the potasli, and it is to
this combination that the increase of produce was due when
soda nitrate was used as a manure. An acre of uumanureJ
and gave 2,004ft of wheat, and an acre manured with
cwt,, or 168ft. of nitrate of soda, gave 2,000lb. or an
increase of 602ft. (see Johnson’s Oatedim of Agrk'vlhiml
Chmittry and Otology, p. 63.) 1,000 i)art8 of a rich English
soil contain only 2 parte of potash and 4J of phosphoric acid ;
1,000 parte of a rich French garden soil contained 4'8 of potash
salts, and of phosphate of lime and magnesia 6-60 parts i
of soda salts 6'70.
J. P. P.
ALOE CULTIVATION.
‘l^OW that the recent experiments iu the culture of the Agavt
iN Ammoaiw made in the Hozareebagh district, have proved
satUfivetory, it will be a matter of surprise if its cultivation on
account of its fibre is not extended in many parte of India, not
IS a umm tnoe when oompam with that of hemp, jute, and
other fibrous plauts, the aloe rejoleing in tlie poorest soil aud
thriving where no other vegetation could subsist. The young
plants having been set out in rows six feet apart, no further
care is necessary, such as weeding, breaking up the soil, &c. ;
and it would even appear that watering the youug plants is
superfluous, as the fact of its flourishing iu dry aud sandy soil aud
on bare rocks would tend to show that it is capable of subsisting
on moisture chiefly absorbed from the air ; in fact, it is possible
that with great care lavished on its cultivation, manuring,
weeding, watering, &o,, there would bo an inorsasa of
sap aud pulp, aud a consequent loss in quantity and strength of
fibre. It has been ascertained that the full-grown leaves of the
aloe yield about one pound of clean fibre and half-a-pomid of
tow for every forty pounds of leaves, and that one acre would
yield about 1,613 pounds of clean fibre at a gathering, “ which,”
according to T)r. Roxburgh, “ may be reckoned on twice yearly
after the plants are of a proper age.” The pre.sent price of the
clean fibre in the European markets, we understand, is about
.£22 ])er ton, and there can be no doubt wlmtever that this
price, uotwithstaudiug the competition, well remunerates the
cultivator after paying all freight and other expenses. There
are now no less than eight aloe-fibre cultivating aud extract¬
ing companies in Mauritius, who, we believe, ai’c working a
uew process of extracting the fibre, and whose finances are
in a very flourishing condition.
It is much to be i-ogretted that a machine has not yet
been invented for the economic and rapid extraction of
these fibres, which would combine in one operation all
the processes of macerating, scraping, washing, and heckling,
01 must probably the qualify and strength of the fibres
would be greatly improved, the primitive process of heating
and steeping detracting considerably fiom its value, while
there would .at the same time Isj an important saving in
labour. Such n machine, wo believe, wjis recently made by
Messrs. Price ami Lac/ey of Bombay, but after making satis-
faoPiry exfierimentR with a quantity of the wild plant,
A. Vivipam, they stopped their works through a savreity of raw
material, having based their calculations on a belief that the
supply of the wild plant was practically inexhaustible.
Should, however, the culture of the aloe for its valuable fibre
receive the attention it deserves, we have no doubt that its
extremely profitable nature will lead to a machine being
ultimately brought to the required perfection ; and at it would
in all likelihood be capable of treating all indigenous fibrous
plants, such ns the muta, Sansiiiera zylanwa, &c., which, like the
agave, require maceration and scraping, there is no reason why
the industry should not eventually become a large one in India,
where fibrous plants of all descriptions abound.
A. A. L.
THE SOUTHERN EURASIAN COLONY.
T he EuroBian land scheme in Mysore is an effort of
considerable pretensions. We propose giving a brief
outline of the objects and aims of the Eurasian and Anglo-
Indian Association in regard to this scheme, which looks
very well on paper, although it still remains to be seen
how it will work practically.
Within the two and-a-half years of its existence, the
Eurasian aud Anglo-Indian Association of Southern India
claims to have accomplished much. It claims to have, to
some extent, extinguished pauperism and false pride, modified
the tendency towards reckless borrowing, provid^ work
stimulated education, promoted sobriety and economy
in short, to have improved the condition of the Eurasians’
of Southern India generally, and it is now about to enter
.ittlST.
Febraary 1, 1883,
upon the chief work it, haH act itself to accompli^li—
namely, that of settling Eurasians and Anglo-Indians on
the land. It will try to lead them to undertake agriculture
and industrial pursuit.?, and to remove for ever the feeling
of anxiety us regards their own future and that of their j
children. The Aj^oiation recognises timt this jirograminc j
is a bold one, but it thinks it is not visionary ; for I
It says that under its tuition Eurasians and Anglo-Indians I
will see that they are Imt a seotion of the people of India, j
and that they must live like the people, not hy artificial |
HUpport, sucli a.s they liave reetuved from a aynipatbisiug ‘
Oovenmicnt, hut by general indiishy, and in harmony with
the cireum.stancos around them. To suit the various tastes
or means of the comraunify, a variety of pursuits are
moutioued as likely to prove remunerative to an iniolligcnt j
class of people. Since as is stated ly' the Association, an |
extensive grant of fertile land lias tioeu secured at a nominal
uasessnioul, and a.s capital lo forthconimg, it is thought that
almost all the eloineule of successful colonisation are
present
Some time ago, a memorial w^as forwarded to tho Maha¬
raja of Mysore by riio As-sociation, asking, on behalf of
tho eommoiiity ol mixed Kuropeuu and Indian descent, for
(V grant of land to eunlde it to carry out its suhemos, which
were briefly as follows ;—To induce and help tho cominuuity
to till the soil, to acquire a knowledge of varimih trades,
to promote education, to foster intellectual i.inlity, and
to further honest and healthy auihitioii,—in fac.t, lo raise
the status of the peoplo, both materially nndn>^ lleetu.ally,
Impressing upon their minds the dignity of labimr. To
promote these objects, it was prnpo,sed to form small
ngrionltnral settlements, and bhiuII plaut-ations for the
oultivation of coffee, cinthonn, tea, and other products for
which the olimato and soil of Mysore fui' I'avouruhle. In
reply to this inomorinl, the Mahimqa issued an order
aauotioning the grant of throe different blocks of laud,
amounting in all to 3,900 aoves, bearing an assessment of
R.S. 2,764. Those blocks Avere selected by the Secretary of
the Yssociation, and they linve been reported upon hy the
Deputy Commissioner, who states tliat they are nnoccupioJ
and available to tho Assoeinfion. The conditions upon
which these lands are sunetiuned are . - live of assessment
for the first two years : a quarter assessment for the third
and fourth years ; half assessrueut foi- the two following
years, and from tho seventh year tlic full assessment. The
grant will ho liable to resumption in tiie event of (he
Association failing to carry out tlie object of the eonee.ssioii,
wliich is to enootirage agricultural settleiiienls of EiiriiHians
and Anglo-Indians. A further uinlerstaiiding is, that
althougli some eiicouragouiont may he nei'ded at tho first
start, the jivoject, as a permanent institution, must rest
upon strictly commercial priiieiples without any sjieeiiil
iulvnutages or favours.
Whatever sneoess may be acbieved 1 , the Eurasian
and Auglo.Indi.an Association of Southern lixtia, it must be
confessed that tlte movement now se-’olit to be initiated is
—provided it is instituted in good faitii, and ly men win
understand not only the requirements of the Eiirnsiims
but also their capabilities- • an importiuit one, and fuUj'
doserving of support, A-s to wlmther the ,4Hsoeiiitiou lias
over-estimated its o\\ 11 cupaliilit y we eau oiler no opimou,
as wo have no other knowledge of its aH'airs than that wo
glean fi'oin its recently-published guide. I’erlnqis the view
taken by the Association UR to the amoimt of good about
to be accomplished is ratlier too sanguine ; a number of
roasoua combine to make it so, but tlnit., if the selieme eau
be worked, even on a less extensive scale than is con
templatod by the Association, much good will ciisiic. no
one who has paid attention to the depravity and degrad¬
ation existing among certain classes of East Indians will
doubt. This induces another consideration We presmne
that it is just <his class that it m intemlod to benefit,
but wo would ask—are they, either physically or morally,
a class of nifui who might be expected to snecced iu a
calling where unremitting labour, hard and often un¬
thankful, is, and will be for souk- time to come, rcipiircd
before even a bare pittance can be cxpcctcil I We trust
that tlie Uommittoe have taken these proliabilities into
consideration, and fully weighed tho possiliilities of failure
ns well us those of success.
As regards the work now about to bo oiiterod upon, the
Assoeiatiou is of opinion that, idthough the ryot succeeds,
the idea that he is the supreme genius of Indian agricultm-t
is a mistake, for bis success is identified w'ith the error of
being content with ns little as possible. It is believed tliat,
the field of agricultural pursuits is still open, and only
needs oapltol, energy, and the in' r^uotion of now indnstrien
and improved methods to make it 'l^ve a substantial return.
New, all this is very fine, and the intentions of the Associa¬
tion, as they are put on paper, are doubtless very attraotivc.
Hut it is not safe to accept, as gospel, everything that m
said by the Association in its own behalf. The followinp
passage, for instance, which is published in a Madras papi'i,
and written by a oorrespondent who has lately visited
the Whitefield Colony, is not very flattering evidence of
wliat is really being done. This oorrespondent says:—
“Very little is being done out at tho colonies, and, thong],
“ all the laud has been allotted, only three individuals have
' eonunenoed work. There ore in all five men settled
“ down on the spot; from what I oould asoortniu none of
“ those had co{nntonoed work, as they had no huts to lay
“ their heads iu, and tho Assooiation refuses all of them
“ a jialtry sum to erect cottages. By the kindness of
“ Mr. Mariam, they hod all been allow'ed to live in the liut
“ he lied erected. If the Assooiation does not afibrd tlicse
“ men tho little help uocosaary to erect huts, what is it
“ going to do with the money obtained from tho
“ lottery?’
It may bo remembered that our Bangalore correspondent,
in a letter published on the 13th December, gave ovideueo
to much the same eflect He said that iio had been much
amused at some of the “ laudatory uotioes of the doings of
“ the Assooiation in some of tho up-country papers—notices
“ which have amused mo very much, seeing that they
“ apiiear to liavo been based on the Asaoeiation’s published
“ reports, which, as a matter of course, give an altogetlier
“ cuultiur (h rose acoount of tho work and pro.speots of the
“ institution. Wo, who are nearer the sooue of operations,
“ see things going all ‘.aglee,’ and find niuoh more pro-
“ mised on jiaper than is actually earned ont in praotiei',
“ Those who have contributed the Bs. 47,000 and odd,
“ wliioh forms tbe present capital of tho Association, are
“ net at all satisfied with the manner in wliich the funds
“ are being managed; ami few will be surprised to leani iu
“ the end tliat tlie money has been frittei’ed away on n
“ number of utterly profitless undertakings.”
He furtluTiuore .said tlmt the land which liad tioen
oblained from tlie Maharaja of Alysore, for ])ur]>oHes of
seltlomont, was not so fertile, nor likely to be so ]iroductive,
as tliC Association would have the public believe. He
dosigiiatcd the grant as “ not even lands, but bari'cn
wastes.” This is somewhat at variance with the Associa¬
tion’s jmblished report. Befen'ing to “Glen Gordon,” one
of the contemplated settlements, the report says:—“It
e.ousists of hill and dale, is well wooded, and lias the
I’eiiiiar running at its base. The land is mostly a rich
mould, and )>ortioii8 of it have been under the plough.
Iron ore of a very superior quality is found iu largo
quantities, and there are distinct traces of the mauiifaettiro
of iron here in former days. ’Pin; laud is well
Muited for the following puirsuits—riscionlture, Sericulture,
I’^auilla-piaiiting, Slieep-farmitig, Stock-raising, Apiculture,,
Gofibe growing, Grtqie Vine-growing, Fuel-planting, Dato-
])idm cub lire. Orange and Fruit-tree-growing.” The other
settlements are alluded to in like terms. Our correspondent
says on the other hand :—
In the aketch-niiiji of the colony piihlislied iu the manual, one
sei'H a diagram lepre.seiiting a uniuher of coueentrie—and 1 may
say ei.-ceiitrie—eircle.s which purport to hound in sites of cott.sges
for tlie proposed settlers, and |irovision is made for the acheol-
huuse, church, and sundry other structures of the kind, but up
to date the only fonmlatiuu whiuh has been Laid is that of a
jii'ojiiwcd Hchoiil-hoiiMe, To peojile of your side of the Vindhya
MounUins, the Eura.si.'in Golouy of Southern India is apt to
ajijiear an esLahlished institution, tliere Ivoing the Association’s
sketch-map ami letter-press description to give outsiders at a
distance a general notion of wh.at the colony is to be like, it
hi-iiig easy to allow one’s imagination to fill in the details ; but’
to ns on the spot, there is nothing save so many plots of bare
land kepi waiting for intending tenants who do not evince the
slightest disposition to come forwani. Those who Lave applied
for lands complain that they have no shelter to go to if they'
were prepared to lake up their settlements, while there is also
the fact that the Lottery Committee’s promises as to the
plougliiug, sowing, and building of cottages, &c., iu the first
ulstauee, have net as yet been fnlliUed.
41
Fetjruaiy 1, 1883. TfiE INDIATf A0Rl<mTTJBTST.
We nre not in a poaition to judge as to tbe probability
of the work the Association proving a success or other¬
wise, but considering the gigantic promises and prospects
held out to intending settlers in the manual aixjve referred
to, we think that the Association owes it to itself to answer
its critics. In the preface to the manual, the following
passage occurs: “Oafonlatod as wo arc, therefore, to take a
leading part in the destinies of this country, the sooner we
make a settlement on the land, the better. There is every
hope of our succeeding. If we make a beginning, wo
depend upon it wo have seen the end of our troubles. We
may increase and multiply after tliat, but all the Ijetter.
Mother Earth will never play us false.”
As we write other oonsideratious occur to us, but we have
not the space to devote ftirther notioefto the scheme at pre¬
sent, althongh we may perhaps recur to It on some future
occasion. We must say, however, that unless the Associa¬
tion which is “ oaloulated to take a loading part in tho
destinies of this country ” can answer tho very serious
charges brought against it, tho whole institution runs a
serious danger of collapse.
AGRICULTUEE IN BRITISH BURMAH.
H owever much public opinion condemns tho local
Govornmout of Burmah for replacing British officers in
the Commission by Burmese, who are not at present so fitted
for the porformauco of tlie responsible public duties with
which they are entrusted, and to tho favour shown to
Burmese over other classes in minor police and other
Government appointments, there can be no question but
that tho present Chief Commissioner ofllie province has his
lioart in his work, and is doing woudei-s in stimulating tho
lethargic Barman, so that lie mny not be altogether
replaced in his own country by more ueiive and ouort,otlo
races. The new Department, of Agriculture under Mr.
fcsmoaton is awakening Uio jiooplo to tlie advantages to bo
derived from having a dry-weather crop on their fields,
from which Burmans have hitherto been only accustomed
to got their annual crop of paddy. Tho fertility of these
paddy-lields Las made Burmah the great rice granary of
the world ; but with a little extra labour, and irrigation,
and manure, in some ])laoes, the Burmese agriculturists
might olitain ulioui double their [iresent iueome from their
lands. The wheat of Bimnali is said to yield more flour
than Indian wheat, and a bushel of it soils for about two
.aud a-half times tho ordinary price of unhusked rice.
Yet wheat for British Birrmali is mostly imported from
Upper Burmah and India, although large parts of the
I’romo and Thayotmyo districts are as fit for its cultivation
na any part of Upper Burmah. Its cultivation in British
Bunhah would largcl)' develope tho rcsoimcos of tho pro¬
vince, and might bo carried ou in tho dry weather when
the paddy-fields are left follow. Tobacco, again, is grown
in 12 out of 17 districts yet little over 13,000 acres is
the whole cultivated tobacco area, of which nearly one-
fowth is in Thayetmyo alone. In Burmah almost every
man, woman, and child smokes, so it is hardly surprising
to find that nearly 16 millions of pounds of tobacco have tn
be imported annually into this British province, whore
climate and soil seem admiralily adapted for tobacco
cultivation and manufacture. Mr. Bernard wishes to start
a tobacco factory whore a Virginian tobacco plamor will
purchase all leaf brought for sale, just as paddy is bought
by the merchants now, for casli on delivery, and where the
curing, in which the Burmese ore not adepts, would bo
conducted on proper scientific jirinciples. The establish¬
ment of Buoh a factory would, it is thought, induce
numbers of tho people to eugogo in tobacco cultivation ;
^wasto laud would be brought under the jdough, a new
industry would be started which would not only supply
the looal demand, but create a new export staple for Britisli
Burmah. Sugar-cane thrives luxuriously in all parts of
the province, anck iii some parts the land is not even
ploughed beforo planting. In many oases, no artificial
irrigation takes place, and the only manure applied is tlie
ash of the griUis and jungle bmnt over tho laud in the
month of April just before the rains. Little care is
bestowed in weeding, the plants being loft pretty much
to themselves. In twelve months a crop of cano is pro
duced with a sugar-bearing quality supeinor to moat Indian
I oane. The local demand is so Ugb that, although in the
past five years there has been a yeariy moreaiss of culti¬
vation of from 3 to 22 per cent., over 11,000 tons of sugar
have to be imported by sea for tho Burman market The
high prices obtained by the people for their rice during the
past ten or twelve years have no doubt enabled them to
purchase imported tobacco and sugar without (liffioulty,
but now that the rice market has fallen to normal rates,
and the Agricultural Department is showing Burmese
agrioulturists what sources of wealth they are neglecting,
it is to be hoped the Burmese people will soon be in
a position not only to supply all local demands with sugar
and tobacco, but to export their surplus crops to countries
not blessed with such favorable soil or climate for the pro¬
duction of those sjrtioles, Jute, again, is found growing
wild all over the province, yet no nttomptis made to cultivate
it by the people, and although the fibre is said to be soft,
glossy, and strong, Burm^ imported last year from
Calcutta jute bags to tho extent of £325,351. Supplies of
seed were obtained from Bengal lost year, and small areas
liavo been selected for experimental cultivation, Mr.
Bernard thinks that tho labour necessary for separation of
the fibre will bo a stumbling block to tlia Burman culti¬
vator, but ho hopes this difficulty will be surmounted; and
that looking to the enormously developed rioo trade of tho
province, and the oonsoquont demand for jute gunny bags
in Burmah where both soil and climate are suitable for the
successful growth of tho raw material, it is of tlie highest
imjjortance to give the people every induoemeut to grow
the p'ant as a field crop, as in Bengal, in addition to their
paddy.
Although tho recent ahu'ming increase in dacoity and
violent crime in Rangoon and tho Hanthawaddy district
is not creditable to the administration, and, according to
looal opinion, may be directly traced to tho reduction in
tho wf'itv u.id, tKo promotion ol* Burmana not
properly qualified in their plooes, tho exertions made to
point out to improvident agidoultiirists the opportunities
they arc iiegleetiiig, and the sources of wealth and indepen¬
dence which are lying open to them, if they will only exert
themselves and utilize this magnificent soil and climate
all the year round, is worthy of all praise. Wo trust, before
another couple of years are over, to find that the exertions
of tiie Chief Commissioner and his Secretary in tho Agri¬
cultural Dcpai-tmout are crowned with success. Wlien
education, wealth, and their attendant, civilisation, have
increased to the extent tlicy .are likely to do in another
decade, the Burmo.so race will tw more fit for the appoint¬
ments and promotions reooiitly made tlian they seem to
be at pre.sent, and no Englisliman who knows anything of
tlie provdnee would wish that they should be denied their
share of tiio official “ loaves and fishes,” when they havo
proved their capabilities for tho higher grades of the public
service.
AGRICULTURAL BANKS.
T n the N,- W. P. Gazette of tho 2ud Ueoembor 1882 appears an
Official Foper ou tho ‘'Agricultural Loans Bill” of Uth November
ptecodiug. This paper contains the Council spcochoa of the Hon'bla
Major JUring and Sir Stewart Bayloy on the subjuot. The Agricul¬
tural Loaus Bill is meant to supersede the Land Improvement Acts
of the past, liy promoting tlie establishment of prioale Agricul¬
tural Banks, I'lioso Banks are to advance Dans to the agrionltarist
at rates to lie officially fixed (according to local conditions and
individual cases apparently) and not to exceed 12 per cent, per
annum. Tho Banka arc to keep their aooounte in a form qfflctalty
proscribed, and subject to official audit. Loans are to be granted
under ufficial eauction for—
(1) the construction, maintenance, and repair of Welle, tanke,
and other iiTigation works •
(2) the drainage, and reclamation of land from riven, awampt,
Ac,
(3) tliu conversion of waste into culturablo land,
Tho Oovurumont undertake to recover for tho Banka from the
p-incipal and aurotios all sucii loons as if they wore “ arrears of
li 111 - revenue,” and whore collateral security exists in tho shape of
imrituia!''e property, hyHhe sale of the latter also, os when “arrears
of revenue ’’ are realised; prior rights and iiitorcsts in tho land
mortgaged not being prejudicially affected.
Sir B. Uayley shows that the agriculturist borrows from the
village usurer for other purposes than "agricultural improvements,”
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTtTBIST. Febraary 1, 1883.
to vrhieb the of the propoeed Banke are to be restricted,
Kotably for zDWriageii. Bat details of Ills mUoellaneous (and to
him by far the more urgent and constant, if not the more import¬
ant) renalremonts, ore nooosaary here, namely, advances for—
(1) the Govaimiiient half-yearly demand ; land or water, or
both I
(2) popobaae of cattle, milch and draught;
(3) agrlcnltitral Implements ;
(<) gold or silvov ornaments for the family ;
(.'■>) marriago, birth, and mortuary expenses in variety j
(6) pUgrimageSf bathings, brahmin feasts, aiid propitiatory and
tin-oSeiings to local deities ;
(7) mUcellanooQS expenses, down to the iiewta or reciprocal
marriage contribution.
The proposed Agricultural Bill ignores all these, and provides
strictly for “land Improvement” only. Sir S. Bayloy correctly
holds that the agrlonlturist who mortgages his property to an
Agrioultural Bank for this solitary purpose, will certainly he
repelled by the village usurer when subsequently applying to him
(as he must) for his other requirements, because he will have no
security to offer. The agriculturist must, therefore, discard the
Bank with sdl its temptations of low rates of interest and strict
honesty in accounts. He will find farther, in the non-rigorous
demand of the village usurer, an additiouBl reason for preferentially
dealing Vlth him. Still more (and thieis overlooked by the able
Member] the agriculturist need not mortgage anything to the village
usdrer. Acute Indebteduees is not chronic everywhere, although
through the adverse circumstances of Indian agriculture (which is
not fartutug, but tilling the soil) the agriculturist must fm^ueutly
and often continuously borrow for his professional and private
needs. Thousands of loans are granted without mortgage of im¬
moveable property. Thousands and thousands of transactions
ooonr annually in the N.-W. P. (and elsewhere, too, I sliould
presume), in which loans are advanced to the village proprietwnj
of all grades, and to the equally uumoroits fcnnihry too, withotU
any sccuruy ft is wliuu ilvUin,, sou
faleifioatlou of accounts, are not paid, or not attempted to be paid,
that the village usurer closes his money-bags, aud refuses to grant
nay further loans unluss laud or house, ornaments or cattle, are
mortgaged. The impunity for fraud which the illiteracy of the
agriculturist affords makes the latter, however, a helpless viutlin
more or less always, In time, of course, iu tlio case of the
thoughtless, Imprudent, unwary or unfortunate, dcurecs with tliolr
lamentable oouscqaonoos follow. Is it likely, however, even iu
view of all this, that, when an agriculturist, solvent nr insolvent,
can borrow on a running account, wpiarod or consolidated half-
yearly or yearly, without deed or mortgage or Iloii or pledge, and
satisfy all his requirenionts locally and speedily, that ho will
trouble himself with deeds, tc., aud with delay and liarassmont
under journeylngs to and fro to a distance, his trouble all likely
wasted and his position roudered the worse, through the discover}'
and consequent widespread pnhiioity of possible insolvency, in order
to get a loon from an Agricultural Bank, simply for Indtl improve,
meut ? It cannot fail to precipitate the usurer’s uctiou agai
him, and probably against all others suspected of similar elfort,
It is true that Major Baring proposes, infercntially, to meet th<
contingcuoy by putting the Agricultural Bank in the position c
/!rtt mortgagee. But this would not meet the derangement of the
inter-relations between agriculturist and village usurer whether
mortgagee or not, and it is not by any means certain that
agrieultuaist would be a consenting party to the transfer ot the
position of a Jlril mortgagee Whence, after all, is he to got
advances tor his multifarious needs t Not from the Bonk, clearly.
BtlU loss from the local Shylook. The soourities are all looked
up by the Bank. In fact, the much-abused village usurer, iufainous
as be frequently is, constitutes a most important aud essential
faotor iu the social and political economy of the country.
It It is Mrioiulg sought to assist the agrioullurist at all, it should
be thoroughly anti in absoliUe supersession gf the village usurer.
That the agrioulturist needs State aid, is becoming an uncomfort¬
able political fact. The Oovemmoiit exhibit uneasiness on the
subject. That some counterpoise to the exactions of the village
usurer should bo establishod, is, in the condition to which matters
are everywhere assuredly gravitating, a growing social uooessily.
The Govammout appear solicitous to devise some measure to that
end. But that Agricultural Banks, with restrictions on their
operations in terms of tUo Bill at present before the Council, will
afford any relief to the mass of the e.esr-ittcriasiitq village proprietary
who constitute the back-bone of the country, is palpably unlikely.
As proprietor of hundreds or thousands of acres will doubtless
banafit, but hii benefit wUi rarely bf any benefit to the country.
To be a oounterpolse to the village usurer, the propoaad Bonks
should keep a niMiiiiij; accotmf wifA the village pfvprietas^, just as
the village usurer does. It might be objected that the proposal is
beyond the scope of official iuteatlons and iMvial posstbiUtiea. I
am not quite sure of impossibilities. As respects the former, the
relief of large land-owners by speoifio measures like the proposed
Agricultnral Banks Is a mistake, when any Bank anywhere will
advance loans on their substantial property. Extravagance and
incompetence cannot be permanently relieved by the reduction of
interest on loans by fi, 12, or oven 24 per cent. But any such
reduction to the mass of the village proprietary will be appreoiable,
coupled as it wUl be with emanoipatioa from the frauds of the
village usurer. Against the latter the large landholder is tolerably
secure. He has those about him who guard his interests,—at any
rate, when they do not combine to plunder him. In such ease,
however, the proposed relief to him is usoleas, for the State offers
him in tho projected Bunks protection from the local usurer, not
from his advisers and eiivirounients.
The following sehomc of Agricnltural Banks for the mass of the
agrioultm-al community, rich and poor, comprising substantially
tho operations of the village usurer (divested, however, of all his
forms of exaction) with the features of the Banks contemplated
by Government, will likely possess some points of attraction to
official consideration,
Homo 12 years ago, as administrator, I had to release an estate
from suretyship for a mercantile firm to a bank. I had reason to
demand and obtain from the Bank a full statement of the firm’s
account from date of suretyship. The loan for which the dooeaaed
had stood security was, what is termed a “Floating Cash Credit ”—
by which is meant a running atjr.ounl with a stipulated maximum
of indebtedness. Suppose Ks. 10,000 is the credit arranged for.
The borrower draws it out at once or what he needs, repaying sums
to account at intervals, anil drawing out others, the liank not
liermifting the Rs. 10,000 (iuoludiug interest) to be ever exceeded.
When no paymoiils in roilHctiou of debt for six mouths, such as
wouirt comprise iutoreat due and some of tho prindipnl, are made,
the Bank addresses the borrower aud his sureties. These might
le with or without collateral security. Failing to ensure an
appropriate instalment, tho Bank exeroisos tho right of closing
tho transaction and recovering the debt by action at law against
sureties or principal. This is seldom a nooossity. It is neither
to tho advantage of tho Bank, nor to tho oonatitueut, to close
an account. What is tho purpose of bauklng but to have umuey
out at secure interesl; 7 As long then as interest and a fair portion
of the principal arc restored at duo intervals, tho sce-sawiug
“ give and take ” of the “ Floating Cash Account ” goes ou, to
the satisfaction, couvcnieuco, aud profit of aXi couoomed. Interesl
is calculated nominally at 12 pu'cent, per annum, but manipu¬
lated by mutual (!) cousent in a particular way, amounts to
somethiug appreciably more, ’fhe surety or suretiee toith or without
colltUe.ral se.cnrilg are necessarily fixtures, while the. account mina on
probably for imUjinite years. Tho aocouut is terminable only by
the borrower (lischarging the debt.
I propose to apply tide “Floating Credit” system with its
iudoUnite periods and its, to all iutents, permanently-fixed sureties
to Agricultural Banks, as pro-oiuinently adapted to the exigencies
of tho Indian agriculturist—but of course without the form and
extent ot interest. That should never exceed .9 per cent,, because
of the, ample security furnished. It should bo calculated on each
fractional sum witlidrawii and debited at tho end of the half-
yearly burvests or fasls, ’I’hosc will of course vaiy with locality,
Thu rate of iutorest should bo graduated to a scale of property.
The owner of 100 acres and below should be charged 8 per cent, j
100 to .'<00 acres, 7 per cent j .lOO to 1,000 acres, 8 per cent. ; 1,000
and upwards, 0 per cout. The borrower should mortgage
Immovable property, stock notes, ourreucy notes, promissory
notes, whatever ho prefers, or whichever he posiesaes j or where
already mortgaged, the Bank should, if praotioable, boeome first
mortgagee by ptirohaso. The exemptions from mortgage should
bo the agrioultnrists’ cattle (milch and draught), his implemente,
household goods, and metal ornaments. 'The mortgage should
eutail iio charges or costs whatever—os stamps, fees, Ac. It
should bo uomiual iu form but substantial in effect. It will be
sufficient to devise a form of applloation fur a “ Floating Cash
Credit,” to which should be attaoliod (or by endorsement on back
by tho village putwario and 2 himberdars or headmen) a detail of
the property owned and offered by the applicant—inoome or rental,
prior mortgage on aby of the effects or not, who the mortgagee,
what the amount, &c,, Ac. These details are sure to be locally
known, A mortgage is not concualablo, because registered at the
February 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN JCGBIOULTUEIST.
43
Tnhall—and the detail of Selda and houiee part of t'^e village
rocorde, eoplei of trhioh are anonally fonvardod to tho Sadder
Station. With the oneh debts of the appUeant, the Bank should
not tronble itself. Those would Iks dlfficnlt to discover and would
serve no praotioal purpose. They aliould not he hold to Interfere
with the Bank’s operations, or affect thorn in any way.
The application and its annescure being forwarded by tho Bank
to tho Collector of the distriot, he will transmit the same to the
Tehelldar for verifloation. On return to him, the Collector will
sanction the amonnt of the ‘'Floating Cash Credit” to tho extent of
\erlfloatlon. He will also fix tho interest, nn<l tho Bank will
advance acoordingly. This will complete the transaotion. If the
applicant oan ^ve a surety or two with or without collateral
Boeurity, it will perhaps be often aooeptable—but with his immove¬
able property mortgaged, ihould not bo any absolute necessity
for rifforoui conditions. When the sureMea, however, are as
substantial as the property mortgaged, the amonnt of the credit
might be enhanced. The other oonditions that will regulate the
amount of credit will of course be the marketable value of the
property mortgaged; or the actuarial value of its rental, or of the
income from it. How much below the valuation should bo
advanced, must be determined according to the possible deprecia¬
tion of the property pledged, 16 per cent, will likely be found
sufiBciont or more than suffloiont in many eases where house
property is oonoemed. Of course, whore the position of first
mortgagee has to be purchased, such outlay will form part of the
odvonoe or “Floating Cash Credit.” Tho borrower will then bo free
to draw up to the amount of his credit, for whatever purpose
needed by him, and in whatever sum he decides ou. Ho will be
charged interest on each sums/row the date of its wilMrnwal, not
on tho entire sum placed at his disposal ; and he can repay from
time to time or half-yearly tho sums stipulated ou, still with¬
drawing amounts all over the year as needed by him. In fact, just
o« he would with the viUmje usurer-, barring the provident limitation
of Indebtedness, which is entirely in his own interests.
The transition to the now condition of things will therefore be
generally in eonsmtawe with the nyricuHurisl’s feelinys and hit
hahUuai mode of doing hasiness—and ho would find compensation
for restriction in debt, in tho lower rate of interest and perfect
honesty iu accounts. In the event of the credit being exceeded by
aocming interest (it should not be allowed to do so by ovordrawals
except at tho Bank’s own risk) or when stipulated half-yearly
amounts arc not paid, the Government, it failing by notioo (if
action to the debtor to ensure ouy reduction of debt to an oxtent,
say one-third below tho credit, can proceed to recover from principal
and surety as if for “ arrears of land revenue” ; leaving however
tho debtor free to meet tho said limited demand plus costa at
ony stage of the proceedings against him and heep his aecounl
mnning. Frovidod that once the debtor paid up in full, the trans¬
action should terminate. A frosli aooount could however ho started
in the proscribed form.
It inigbt bn urged that the debtor would sell ids movable
possessions to the village usurer on exhausting his floating cash
credit at tho Bank. Ho might do many things. If a man
determines to drown he will certainly do so. But that Is neither
hero nor there. The anggostion, however, is legitimate that what he
is likely to do in a spell of improvident infatuation, or misfortune
with his movable goods, he certainly should not bo permitted to
do with his immovable property pledged to the Bank. In short,
no one. shonUl he. allowed, to assume, the. position cf second morlongee
by ndrauciiig money on sneh property. Ho should have no remedy
at law, nor any c.-ish credit, against the property mortgaged. This
might be hold very oxcoptlonal procedure, and wo might be troatsd
to lengthy sermons on what Carlyle nilstormed “ that most dismal
science,” political economy, but the case too is exceptional ; aud
if the agriculturist is to be saved from ruin at all, legislation must
take the oourso indicated.
And what is there peculiar after all In this ? Tho borrower
must be a consenting party to the arraugomoat before it can be
carried out. It is not compulsory on him to borrow at 6 to 9
p-!r cent at the Bank, if he prefers to borrow at 18 to 30 and
per cent elsewhere. Ho is simply told at the outset
that he cannot be accommodated up to 0 per cent, unless be
agrees to certain conditions strikingly in their incidence to any¬
thing of the sort elsewhere, because thoughtfully and conscientiously
framed entirely in his%wn interests. He Is a free agent. Acceptanoe
by him of the oonditions offered cannot bo construed helplessness,
unless a new and novel signlfleatiou be given to the term. A few
years’ apprentloeshfp to the art and practice of economy will do
him appreciable good—and the succeeding generation will pre¬
sumedly (f(mpaie favourably in thrift with the present,
The objection that the agHonlturiit would by the “ Floating
Cash Credit” system remain permanently entangled with the Bank,
as many arc and he once was with the village nsnrer,wonld hold
good only if he wore Improvident or had suffered agrloultnml and
j other losses ; and if he at tlie swne time wished to be free of the
Bank, But a reduotion of interest up to SA per oent and the
oouviotion of honestly kept accounts would make even the proHdetU
and solvent Agrioulturist desire to keep his “ Floating Cash
Credit” always open, if oven at a reduced figure, so that be might
satisfy his requirements over the year without trouble.
Honestly-kept accounts should of course distiuguish the transao-
tious of an agriositural Bank under private manogomont. But what
if the impunity whioh has vreated the village usurer riiould affect
tba Bank ton t Bafeamards feasible on paper might prove huoiful.
More aoeessibillty of books to otSoial examination a^ audit would
yield no proteotiou to the agriculturist. Is efficient offiolal
knowledge iu respeot to tho payment of sums, or the sums repaid,
possible ? Sanction for the vrithdrawal of every sum would not
suit tho borrower’s oouvenienoe. It would involve endless towble
ail round. What is the testimony beyond a receipt for the aotaal
amounts paid in by an illiterate man, If the receipt proved doubtful f
The transfer of tho Bank to a Suddor Station for tho pmpoee of
efficient offloial snperviiion would, by reaeoa of distanoe from tbe
outlying sub-districts, make the agriculturist resort to the vill^pi
usurer as of old. The suggestion is that Banks should be local to
every sub-district, and shouid be. officially initiated and
managed, but not'by the agency of the sub-district executive.
If a private Bank is held able to do a profitable business,
whioh it would, ou the terms offioially provided, so an official Bank
with a paid agency. Tho already burtheued dietriot executive
should bo spared banker’s work. Can the State afford so much
capital 7 Certainly not, if Banks are to be started at once in every
sub-district throughout the country. Bnt a oommenoemant aan be
made in some Sudcler Stations, and in some outlying sub-dietrloto,
wherever people of capital aud property, who are alto local residenie,
con be found to take up offloial agencies under the qulalifioation of
suitable security. As time would bo requh'ed to extend the Bauke
over tho country, tho village usurer would have leisure to ro-eoniidor
his position, reform his distorted A'iews of honesty, and abate his
exactions, if he wished to retain his hold ou his constitueute. Ha
would certainly so wish ; and, so wishing, would act acoordingly
—probably nut to the extent of loose anticipation, but there would
bo sensible refurm to the lienefit of the agriculturist. An indirect
result of establishing Agrioultural Banks, it would be a welcome
prenursor of the Banks themselves.
To prevent tlie execution oi decrees, let the Government at once
step in and buy up decrees by notification, and at a fair valuation.
These would furnish in every district the nuclei of the proposed
Banks, and would servo pre-eminently as advertisements of the
Oirkar's project for beuofitiug the agricidturist, not to be misunder¬
stood, or distrusted by, or misrepresented to, him. Tho Govern¬
ment might indeed for a time confine itself to buying up decrees
until its object and purposes were placed beyond misunderstanding
by the “ Floating Cash Credit ” it would introduce througli them.
Banks unuld then be dovsloped from the basis thus established,
Iu time the Government would feel ite way to the transfer of
these Banks iu tho rotation of initiafaou, or ae ciroumetanoee
rendered advisable, to private agonoy, with the necessary safe¬
guards in the agrieullurists’ iiitorosts. Not the least among them
would be the ptrsonuel of the Bank employes. These should be
always local re.sUlenls of properly and capital as employed by
Government in initiating the Bonks. These very employis might
take over tho Banks, instead of their falling into the hands of mare
speculators from a distance little in unison or sympathy, if at all,
with the agriculturist. The case is not one of ordinary dealing
between oapitalist and constituent, but vast and important
interests are involved. The agrioulturist is the financial backbone
and mainstay of the country, and it cannot assuredly over be tba
purpose to call in capitalists and speouiatora from a dUtenos, even
if bound down with largo penalties for mlsconduot, to make over
to them an F.l Dorado exploited offioially with anxious thought
and caro. There are no parallel conditions anywhere. India ie an
agricultural country, and Statu protection of the interests of the
agriculturist is a paramount, and to all likelihood, a permanent
necessity.
If an Agricultural Bank when transferred to (local) capitalists
may grant ordinary loans bearing interest, i. other than
“ Floating Cash Credits,” the Government should iu no way be
responsible for them. The transaction should not be ianotioMd«
and tho Bank should bo warned that any rate of interest beyemd
that whioh would bo olurged in the same case on a '* Floating
44
TOT
CMt Ondit,” viu sot iw reoov«nbl« ftt law. Ttcii rul« faild
be. part «t legUatlaii ht tbe matter. For It U olear that any
tmitney biati Affriaiftural Bant to yraidtote to tit poticion and
detek>pinffpnMk)«» (ff iitpreiMi viUagt.utumr b to be oorefnlly
oheeked, 'nie Agrloultuial Bonk b for tbe purpeie of eaperseding
the village ttioter, affonlii^; tbe agrioultarbt a cheap runwng
eretfK to a certain amonnt, and emanoipatln^ him from the
uanrtrli esaotkmi. Tbli pnrpoie, not that of ffetling hold of the
affriadltnritt't property, b to be kept In view. A lump sum U eoon
apent, nanally mbepent) and the aliiinate ooueequenoo of following
embarraMment, b a decree. Indeed it might prove on oonsidera-
tlon an important neoeaelty, timt Scmii thonU not travel oat of
thefimethtu and nope o^cdly tuelgned to ii»m-oih„ to afford
*' F1eaUa|(OM>b Credit ** tn the egidiwltnrtat
Itndfht be urged that tiie tenant unfortnnately cannot in
the above toheme ahare with the proprietor the advantagoa and
beneSb of aneh credit. He haa no immovable property to
mortgage except aome wretched rond and straw tenomenta.
Hb orope are hypothembed to the p’vprtetor reeponiible for the
Gorerament demand. Xt cannot, however, be charged aa a demerit
to a aohema that endeavonra to effect ao mnoh, that it b not ao
aa to raaoh the tenant. No measure can be framed enob
M win euper ee d e iihe principle of tiia oommeroiai formula, “ No
■eciaity, no credit," Nevertheloia, the field of suggeetion b
not cloaed here. It does not follow that eeourity b not valuable
unitM in the form of mortgage, lien, or pereon. Tho borrowr’e
good failk and induetry ore abundant eeourity ; are, and have
been aoheld for untold years by the vUlage ueurer dealing with
tonantry throughout the country hero, Can it be otberwbe
alaewhere T If ao, how are rente paid to the proprietary ? Tenanb,
as a matter of oourio, posiese no land onlees they are inferior
proprbtoTS oultivating the land of richer cnee. They have only
theuiual mud tenement, mileb and dnia^t cattle, and (the
better ecrt) aome metal ornamente. Not always are these pawned
or eold. The tenant borrows from the nsurer, tbe latter satisfying
himaelf as to the extent of orodit he should give : tbe standing
hypothecated crops, a buffalo or two, and a pair of bullocks are
viewed and approved. When the crops are garnered, tbe usurer
oomes round and receives the whole or euoh part aa the tenant
decides to pay to account. With an abundant harvest and high
prices, the usurer b cleared off, or If bis claim Is not satisfied to
a certain extent, a heifer or the old buffalo itoolf, or the pair of
bullocks (to bo replaced by etronger and younger ones) ore ulti¬
mately made over to him, most likely at a reduced valuation.
But satlsfootion of claim partially or wholly is rarely not followed
by the usarer'e readlneis to lend again. As pithily expressed in
Bunneab ^ase—
Jo manga eo deea,
Jo deea so leea ;
or litarally—
Gave what was wanted.
Recovered what was duo.
At tlmee the tenant, like the email proprietor, gets vei^ mnoh
Involved. A eeriee of bad harvests, or low pricoe, or both, are
poeiible calamities. Illness at critical agricultural periods
prevents opportune plcnghing, irrigation or sowing, and appre-
obbly affeob outturn. In euoh osaes the nsurer’e claim is post-
pooad, Like the tenant be hopes for a better ensuing harvest.
If disappointed, or the tenant proves dishonest (the dislionesty
of misery) the nearer proceeds to sit in dhurna on the tenant.
A oompoeition b eventually arrived at, unless the tenant has
previottriy dbposed of hb assets. A law-suit b objectionable, for
ib ontby, deby, and unoerbinty. The poverty of the tenant,
rimnbbd or real, and the facility with which discovered movable
•Bsota vanbh, lumbh little to proceed against. Threats followed
by the flourish of stamp paper do not always end in a bw-snit.
The collective eeneo of the oommnnlty, proprietary and all, b
against Shylock, and witnesses will likely ho wanting. The
general feeling b that he has been served rightly and does not
deserve any more payments. He oousolee himself by piling on
oompoUnd Interest, and duns the tenant indefinitely. All oon-
eidefed, he b no loser, bnt he b happy in the misery of a fancied
grievance. He nurses it and hands it down to hb children,
and they hopelessly dun the oultivator’s children. How then
does a tenant with lost credit find accommodation t In truth
he haa no diffionlty in ropbobg hb eah or banker. He te always
a fat oonstitnent. Loans at 24 per cent and upwards, and a few
frauds, leave an ample margin to the usurer for loseee, so called.
At first eight no Agrlonltural Bank could compete with the
vilbge nearer for the ouitom of the tenant. The rbk appears too
greal, Noroonldtho OoTwnwent reoover dobbas U they were
“artoareof b^d roTenne.” RUe crops are hypotlieoatiod to the
landlord, and hb movable effeob vanisb rapl^ in prospect of
danger. The dlffipultiee appear {nsurtnoontaUe. But with 4gri-
cultnral Banks aooomplbhed fapts, a ty i- n of stnoii '* Floating
Oaeh Crtdiie ” on tAe security of *b 0 or more offhe proprietary,
would be feasible, and prove a bxm to a h(it^-worklng body
meroilessly fleeced by the vilbge uearer. Iblirte could be ofiSiobily
recovered from the sureties as if “arrears of land revenue,”
To oonclade. If an experimental Agrbuitnisi Bonk of any sort
b a neoessity in the Deooau for the hopelessly Indebted agricul¬
turist there, even more oogent reasons requim the eitahlbhment
of snob banka in localities in which like agricaltusal,hwplvonoy has
not been reached, It b far better to step in and prevent osbmity
than te grapple with the impoesihb as (by all acoonnts) In the
Poomndur tslook in the Deccan. Bad for the interests and prin¬
ciples at stake, if the Igeocan experiment b a test case for the
extension of aotlou elsewhere, for it assuredly means failure.
There b a world of potency in initbl enooees, I would there¬
fore strongly recommend the trial of Agricultural Ranks on tbe
lines bid down in these poges, among the Jat ogricnlturisti of the
Ganges and the two Jumna oanab, and in other provinces under
like conditions of sneoese.
A. P. W.
Bsjioot, Hberot District; \
SOth December, 1882, j
EDITORIAL NOTES.
A RESOLUTION in tho last Gazette of India deals with
the question of issuing duty-free salt for use in tho
tnanufaoturo of soap. There is no difference of opinion as to
the desirability of relieving the industry of this burden. The
question is how this cau bo done without danger to tho
revenue. The various provincial Governmouts have been
consulted on tho subject, and they are all more or less
favourable to tho attempt being made under certain sug¬
gested restrictions. As there is some difference of opinion
among them as to these restrictions, the Govommeut of
India, instead of laying down any general rules, has
determined to leave each Local Government to make its
oHTi arrangements, subject to the final decision of tho
Supremo Government, to whom tlioy must bo reported, “ It
must be understood that tho manufacturer is to booi’ any
extra cost for proventivo establishments, &c., which tlio
grant of tho concession may necessitate, and that the
privilege is liable to be withdrawn if exporienoo shows
that it is being abused, or that the revenue is suffering.”
Wb learn from the report on the cotton production and
trade of tlie North-Western Provinces and Oudh for the
year 1881-82 that the season was, on the whole, a very
favourable one, and that the outturn was greater than that
of the preceding year. The total area under cotton
during the year under report was 16,37,364 acres, as against
12,70,121 in 1879-80, and 14,19,042 in 1880-81. Of the
total of 16,37,364 acres, 3,88,650 acres was land richly
manured, 6,27,667 land ordinarily manured, and 6,21,847
was poor laud. The average ruling prices of cotton retained
for local consumption was lower than in tho preceding year,
as wUl be soon from the following table :—
PRICES PXR MAUND (OP Sfilbs.) (XPTTOir.
1881-82.
First
quality.
Second |
quality. |
Third
quality.
R. A. P.
R. A. P.
n. A.P.
For North-Weatspn Pro-vlnoe* districts ..
Fot Oudh districts ..
15 15 4
1C 14 0
15 8 0
15 U 9
1
13 11 7
U 13 0
1880-Sl.
B. A. l\
• E. A. P.
R. A. P.
For North-Western Provinces districts ..
For Oudh districts ..
17 14 C
18 10 11
17 0 10
j 17 4 7 ’
14 8 6
15 8 7
The average ruling prices realised for cotton exported
were also lower than in the year previoua
JPebrnary 1,1883.
THE IKBIAN SiaBIGUETtJBIST.
45
The total estimated valae of the cottou crop for th
North-Westero Provinoes and Oudh is put down a
Ra 2,19,48,463-3-5, made up os follows :—North-Western
Provinces, Rs. 2,15,69,826-14-8 j Oudh, Rs. 3,78,635-4-9.
The gross exports of 1881-82 wore 13,46,249 maunds,
valued at Ra 2,01,02,798, as against 11,97,920 maunds,
valued at Ra 1,82,97,980 in 1880-81. Of the total exports,
9,02,562 maunds were consigned to Calcutta. Of thi
amount Agra contributed 3,08,967 mounds, and Cownpor.
4,20,783 mounds, the balance being contributed by other
districts.
From experiments made at the Oawnpore Experimental
Farm in the cultivation of Hingunghat cotton and of the
varieties of American cotton known ns New Orleans and
Uplami Georgian, on two classes of soil, light loam nud a
heavier loam, against two varieties of country cottou, it
would appear that for light poor soils the indigenous eottor
is by far the most profitable, and that on better ehws soils
and with careful cultivation New Orleans cottou can bo
grown with success and profit.
Thb resolution on the forthcoming International Ex¬
hibition to be held in Calcutta has been published.
The Lieutenaut-Oovoruor of Bengal considers that the pro¬
ject, launched by Mr. Jules Jouberh is likely to have a very
important effect in developing and promoting the commer¬
cial prosperity of India, and he has therefore accorded his
sanction and support to the imdertaking. The recent Ex-
liibitions in Australia and other Colonies succeeded in
giving oommeroo an impetus, and a like result is anticipat¬
ed for Indian trade, when the attention of foreign countries
is drawn to the groat natural wealth of this country ; and
as the oo-operation of Local Governments and Adrainistra-
tious has been invited by the Oovernraeut of India, there
is every reason to believe that the collection of Indian
articles will bo as complete as possible. Mr. .T ules Jouberi.
IB an experionood man in such uudertakiugs, and no doubt |
exists as to his ability to bring the undertaking in India to
a auooessful issue. The 4th of December next is the date
fixed for the opening of the Exhibition, and both a gonci'iil
and an executive committee for Bengal have boon
nominated.
The exhibits will bo divided into ten sections, as
follows :—(I) Fine Arts ; (2) Education ami application of |
liberal .arts ; (3) Ifealtli ; (4) Furuiture, and other objects
fur the use and decoration of dwellijig-house.s and other
buildings ; (5) Fabrics, iucludiug apparel, toilet reqiiisitu.s,
and other objects of personal warn- or use; (0) Jbiw pro¬
ducts, aud manufactures from products not included in
other sections ; (7) Maeliyiery and implements ; means of
transport; appliances and processes used in the common
arts and industries, including models and designs ; (8)
Food products; (9) Agriculture and horticulture; (10)
Ethnology, arciiujolngy, aud uatui-al histuiy. Every facility
will be affijrded to exhibitors aud tlieir agents, in couiinc-
tion with the transport, display, sale, aud care of their
exhibits, and the utmost precautions will be taken to
preserve exhibits from injury, aud to guard the iuiildings ;
but no responsibility will be undertaken for d:unagc or loss ;
and exhibitors must make their own arrangement, for eft'cef-
ing assurancea Arrangements, with reference fomachitiery
in motion, will form thesubject of special regulation. Con¬
cerning the arraugemonts with regard to Bjiacc, it is
announced that the ordinary charge will be two shilliugs
for each of tbo first 20 square feet, and one shilling for each
additional square foot Exhibitors desiring a frontage to
any main avenue for their oivsos, can obtain it on payment
of an additional five shilliugs pur foot of such frontage,
in'Bspeotivo of depth. The general reception of ai tides
will commence on or before Ist October, and will cc.isi! one
week before tbe opening. A special jury is to be u|)puint(>d
for the award of gold, silver, or brouzo medals or certi¬
ficates. The Exhibition will be kept o])cu until about tlm
Ist of March 1884. it will be. hold, as we uiiuoiinccd
sometime ago, partly in the liidiau Museum, of which a
portion will bo sot free for the ])urpose, and jiartly in build¬
ings annexed to the Museum. Those annexes will bo coni-
menoed immediately by the Public Works Department.
Thb honorary secretary of the Calcutta Tea Syndicate
has issued a oiroular, reminding those members who pro-
g se to send samples of tea to the forthcoming Amsterdam
ternationnl Exhibition, that tho latest date now fixed for
the reception of samples of the new season’s teas is tho 4th
of February, after which date none can 1)C received. The
Committee-are now able to state that Mr. Luther Hart, of
the firna of Messrs. Hart ai»d Sibthorp, tea brokers of
this city, has been appointed to represent the Syndicate
at tho Exhibition, and also to travel for the purpose of
investigating the Rnssiaii, French, and other European
markets, with a view to oncouroging trade in Indian tea,
and obtaining the fullest particulars with regard to these
markets for the information of the Syndicate.
Attention is called to tho notification made in the
memorandum recently issued by tho Revenue aud
Agricultural Department, in conjunction witli the Tea
Syndicate. It is there slated that samples of new' sea-son
tea may ho do.spatched by ptu'cel post, addressed to the
agent of the Tea Syndicate, Amsterdam Exhibition, by any
exhibitor who has sent an original eousigomont Those
teas will be substituted, at the exhibitor’s request, for those
in the bottles previously despatched, but it must bo clearly
understood that those who have not origin,ally sent samples
through tho Tea Syndicate cannot be allowed this cou-
oessioii. Samples of new teas must reach Amsterdam not
later than 30tli June, and measures wull be taken by tho
Government to postpojie, if possible, tlio adjudication of
awards for tea tmtil after that date.
Tlic committee will be very glad if a few half-chests
of tea can lio presented to tlio Syndicate for distribution
in small packets at the Exhibition, aud for consumption
ill tho Syndicate allotment of tho Indian Court.
The annual returns of cotton production and trade in
the Central Provinoes for tho year 1881-82, show that there
bos been a gradual decrease in cotton cultivation in those
provinces during the lust three years. The total area under
oultivutiou during tho year underreport was 666,031 acres,
■IS against 766,136 in 1879-80, and 682,902 in 1880-81.
riie season was very uiifaiounilile for cotton production,
in the Uhanda, Saugoi, Damoh, Ciiindwara, and Nimar
listricts, tho crop is reported to have been good and well
ip to tho average ; but in the di.striots of the Nerbudda
/alley aud in tho Nagporc, and Chiittisghur plains, it is
said to have suITered very great, damage from tho heavy
aud continuous rains.
The coiiclu.siou which it appcHi's to tho local Administra-
011 may be derived from the fact of the yearly decrease in
cotton cultivation, i.s that cottou would seem to be giving
place to cereals in the agriculture of these provinoes. It is
.said that, with t.he exccjttioii of ihe Wurdha, Chaudn, aud
Nag])()re di.striots, no other ))ait of these provinces is
peculiarly fitted for the production of cotton, and it has
been reiiortcd from some districts that cotton cultivation
is giving place to that of wheat aud other food grains, now
tliat cotton can ho iinportod at a lower price than formerly
ruled for it.
The total onttuT'ii of cleaned cotton during the year
midcr iinticc was 17.3,.‘128 cwts., and the average outturn
]ier acre was .'"ilflis. Those figures are higher than those of
1879-80, when the total outturn was 166,760 cwts., and
the average per acre 241hs., hut much lower than those of
the year iinmediatL'ly jircccding, when the outturn amount¬
ed to 262,180 cwts., with an average of .bOlbs. per acre. Tho
highest outturn obt.oincd was in the Wurdha di.strict, where
it amounted to 41,847 cwts., and tho Saugor district came
next with an outturn of .30,141 cwt-i. In the Nagjwre,
Jiibbulporo, Ciiindwara, Niirsingpor'', and Nimar districts,
the outturn .aggregated 69,096 cwts. Elsewhere in tho
provinces the outtiirii was more or less insignificant.
'J’ho average ruling pjrices of coffon retained for local
consumption ranged from lls. 16 per ewt.. in the Sanger
di.strict to lls. 32 per cwt. in tiic Sumlnilpure district,
while tlic average }>rioes realised for cottou cxporti'd was
from Ks, I,') per cwt. in the .Saugor district to Us. 28 per
I'wt. in the Stimbulporr .and UilasiKire districts.
The total estimated value of the outtiiru of crop was U.s.
•39,8-1,20.3 ns against Us. 42,81,710 in 1879-80, and lbs.
63,44,.300 ill 1880-81. As the season was a very nnfav’or-
iiblc. one for cultivation, the great decrease in tiic value of
the crop may bo caaily accounted for. 'riicro baa also, wo
obseive, been a large decrease in tho total (piiinfity of
cotton exported from the provinces during the your 1881-82,
46
THK INDIAN AtJEIODEfTmiST. t; 188 f 8 .
whan compared with the exporta of the two jprooeding yearfi.
During the ymre 1879-80 and 1880-81, the exports amount¬
ed to 104,842 owta. and 174,639 cwte., rMpeetlvely, while
during the year under report the qnanUty exported whs
only ^161 cwta Of this, 79,W)6 cwts. went to Bombay
and the Berars; 12,444 owta. to the North-Westetn Pro-
tincae and Bengal1,936 tswta. to Cnttaok and the Baatem
Coast, and 467 owts. to the Central India States. The
aWes per cent in the total exports of the last three years
t^en by each of these plaees were as foliow ;
Share per cent.
Bombay
K,-W. P. and Bengal
Oentnl India
Oattaok aud East Coast
W9-$0. mo-81, 1881-88.
. 61 16 84-5
. 46-6 85 13
0-S H 0-6
. 2 1 2
Th* Planlera' OauHt says :—" Amongst the articles of export
enumerated In a recent report from Siung-chow is one under
the of ZIuch’a. This is dMcribed as a preparation for
adulterating tea. The name BSuch’a, meaning root-tea, is an
abbreviation of lA-te-shfiug-rSu, or Bt^ophgUvM oalimnum, the
Chinese term, which implies that the leaf when it falls develops
a root, being intended seemingly as descriptive of the charac-
tertistio manner in which this plant can be propagated. It
grows abundantly on roadsides and waste places in the neigh¬
bourhood of Kiung-chow, and its thick and fleshy leaves are
gathered all the year round. These are cut into strips, and the
pieeel exposed to the sun for several days, wheu, being still
slightly moist, they are rolled up by hand so ns to resemble
tea, and after being completely dried, ai-e ready for export¬
ation. It is satisfactory to know that the export of this spuri¬
ous tea, which is said to go mostly to Macao, is but a small
one, the total in 1880 having been 180,939 piculs, valued at
1,143 tack.
A tniit has, it seems, been made of a new machine, patented
by Messrs. Death and Ellwood, for extracting fibres, and we
undei-stand that it has proved thoroughly successful. The
novel feature in it is thatthc dirt is washed and winnowed
fi-ora the fibre as it passes through the machine liy a jet of
water aud a fan, and so, by a single process, the fibre comes
out clean and ready for use. It has been tried upon aloe loaves,
plaintain stems, aud liemp, and has, we are told, succeeded
with all, but especially with the two former. We may mention
that it is of small compass, aud costs less than ;£40.
From statistics which have just Iwen compiled, it appears
that tiie production an<i export of wiirat on a great scale is a
comparatively new business in the United States. About
forty years ago, a considerable quantity was imported from
Europe, ami in tlie five fist-al years ending June 1R40, the ex¬
ports were only 1,842,841 bushels. By 1880, however, the
aggregate exports had risen to 16.3,252,725 busliek ; tlie exports
of flour for the five fiscal years ending in 1825 amounted
to 4,461,,364 barrels, or 09-61 per cent of the total of wheat
and flour exported. The percentage of flour steadily decreased
from that per-iod till 1880, When it was only 15-2 of the whole.
Last year it once more rose. Mr. Edmonds, who compiled
these statistics, is of opinion that the proportion of flour ex¬
ported will steadily increase in the future, owing to the
popularity of the American article, and the necessity of finding
a foreign market fexr the growing output of the mills. The
history of corn in the United States dates from the year 1611,
whan 30 acres were planted by 'the James Eiver settlers. Now
the fields amount to 62,000,000 acres, yielding 1,600,000,000
bushels and upwauls annually. The exports of com, compared
with the whole crop, are small, but a great deal goes out in
tlie form of meals. The export# for the seven years, 1876 to
1882 both inclusive, were 624,680,620 hnshek of corn, which
Was 168,000,000 bushels more than the combined exports during
the preceding 66 years. The total of the six principal grains
raiseil in 1880 was 2,718,193,601 bushels on 120,i>26,280 acres.
In 1881, though the acreage rose to 123,387,770, the yield was
650,000/)00 bushels less. "
Tbs iafenBaMMi given as to tite sodMit gtfttH<p«ri)ha,
and the iibportanoe df protoeting and hf diilkslng ^-
docing it in oppitiprikte IdcdlitiH, fills a noteworthy pitrt of the
report on the pn>gi^ and condftloh of the ftby&l Gardens at Blew.
The time cannot t» far distant, the report tells Os, when the
natural soUro* of gutta-percha wiU be definitely ua^ up. Dn-
like caoutchouc, which is derived from milky-juioed nlanta of
many natural famdiaa, gutta-fercln iq>psani to be only yielded
by ipeoies of Sapetcuit, the prhunpal soqree ia Midaya being
the plant now known as IHehopai* gvtta. Much requires to
be oaoertained wHk reference to the tree* yielding Bornean
gutta-percha, wid mvmh, in visw of the foot ttot tke mnning
out of existent natural sanreMOf gattSE-pstPhatsan errant within
measurable distance,” remains to be done in protecting the
forest* aud in developiag the culturt of the trees in appropriate
localities elseediere. Fint of all, however, it is neoeoury to
know for certain what are the trees which yield the preaoua
juice, and to do this suitable specimens iu a flt state ^or
botanical analysis and determination should be procured. It
is obvious, or ought to be, to practical men Intent on develop¬
ing such sources of industry, that the accurate determination
of the plant is the fli-st thing to be done, and nowhere can this
be better done (if proper material be forthcoming) than
at Kew.
Mz;. Lewis P. MninaEAn, iKiloreggan, writes as follows
on the subject of the origin and practice ot Ensilage :—
“ Sauerkraut 1 Sauerkraut! Yes, thatis it; what is good
for man is surely good for beast. FH try it anyhow.” So thought
an old Qermau farmer one wet season upwards of eighty years
ago, Only in carrying out his idea for cabbage he substituted
cut grass, clover, and vetches, omitted the pepjier-corne, and
used a pit in the ground iuste.-wi of the family barrel or crock
{irdmu hagen),
“ Some yeoi-s after such words as ‘ Salzfutter* (sate<l fodder).
‘ San erf utter’ (pickled fodder), and ‘Vieheolst’ (cattle-salad),
might be hmu-d among the farmers of Germany and East
Prueein, where the practice first obtained a hold, thereafter
being carried by emigrants as far .as America, and gradually
finding its way among the Dutch and French nearer home.
Mr. Thomas Christv, F.L.S., of Fenclim-ch-slroot, London,
whose work in connection with new commercial plants
is well known, has issued a note regarding the kok-nut
tree, in which ho says :—“ I introduced the kok-nut
{Stvrculia (H'uminata) into England about eight years since,
and it has lately been subjected to European analysis,
and the result obtained make it exceedingly likely that
a large European <lemau(l will soon exist. It has been
found to contain the same active princijik, vi:., caffeine, and
more of it than the best coffee, and to contain also the same
active principle os cocoa, but less f.ltty matter. Possess¬
ing the same qualities os these favourite Insverages, it only needs
proper treatment to develop a special flavour, and it would
then probiibly be able to compete euaaesefolly with thoee
beverages. The nuts are used to form a refreshing and invi¬
gorating drink throughout a krge portion of tropical Africa,
their uso l^eiiig said to support the ati-ength, alky inordinate
appetite, assuage thirst, and promote digestion, and to render
those using them capable of prolonged faligtte. The Negroe
prefer them to tea or coffee, and when they can obtain
kok-nuts will not touch coffee. Dr. Daniell says of them “ It
would be difificult to find any product Which 'donsttirtles such
an important article of commerce in Sotidau as the kola-
nut.” Wherever the Negro has been transplanted to a foreign
country he has taken the kok-nut with him.
As a medium of exchange for the products of CentrsLl
Africa, no article could bo more advantageous, and on this
account alone the tree will well repay cultivation. Moreover,
if once introduced as a beverage iu civilised oountries, the
demand for it would soon become enormous. '
I tiavo recently been informed by Mr. Espeut, a vfell-known
sugar-planter of Jamaica, that the Negros use the kola-nut
as a remedy for drunkenness j that swallowing a single nut,
|’♦^)in^!fy 1, ISM.
SHE INDIAH iflSHlIOXJLTURIST.
47
ground up utd pwd« into a «ream or parte with water or
spirits, no jigu ier iuto^iestion remains half-an-houc afterwards.
Conflnnatwsy ft tW» property in the kola-nut is given
hy a su^eoSf Mr. ^ aleobolic drinks do
not produoe iutQxiaatiBg efEaote when the koia-nut is eaten at the
.nma time. It ^ppesrSjtkerefoff!, that theoraving for drink, whioh
ie sunk a itroi^ lueeuiive to drunkenness, may be subdued by
the use of this valuable stimulant and tonic, as after chewing
kola-nut great disinolination is felt to aU forms of aloohoL It
lias also been found to poesess a beneficial action on the liver,
its continual use preventing attacks of despondency, to whioh
negroes am peculiarly liable. Dr. Danicll records a case of
this kind in whioh the kola-nut put a stop to an epidemic
of suicidal which threatened at one time to depopulate
the estate on Which it occurred.
It is also used by the natives when in a low state of
health, and suffering from the skin cracking and peeling on the
hands and feet.
Merchants on the West Coast of Afx-ica always have a stock
of these nuts, which can be kept perfectly fresh in moss, and
when they have a hard day’s work to do, they nibble at a
nut during the day ; this enables them to go through their
work without fatigue, and prevents sleepiness.
I have just received from a native gentleman on the West
Coast of Africa a fair quantity of fruit in splendid order, ns
fresh as if just gathered from the tree.
PLantors will be able to send them off for seed at once to
their cstatea
Some have been sent to the leading medical men in Loudon
for further experiment, and I am endeavouring to ascertain
the beat plan of preserving their medicinal properties.
In the December number of the AgricuUvritt for 1882, we pub¬
lished a letter of a correspondent regarding the crushing of
mustard seed and the extracting of the oil. We have made
enquiries regarding the presses in use, and Dr. Hugh W. Mc¬
Cann, the officiating Secretary of the Bengal Economic Museum,
has been kind enough to favour us with a note, in whioh lie
bays
There is no Information to be had in the Museum flies. An
elaborate desorlption of oil presses, os employed in Europe, will he
fouud in Ure's Dictionary uuder the article OU», but X fancy nuns
of tliesc Xluropean presses have been introduced into India. I m^
refer you to rowoll’s Punjab Products I, p. 4.31, and to Dr. M. C.
Cooke’s report on tlie oil, seeds and oils in the India Museum, nages
3 and 4,for remarks on the possibility uf introduciugthe simpler kinds
of Eurujieun oil presses, or some modification of them, into India. I
beard on enquiry that Messrs. Kliotter Mohun by suck and .Sons,
of 3, Prosonno Coomar Tagoro’s-rtreot, hod patented an improve¬
ment on the native oil prose worked by eteam, and I applied to
them for particulan. They nave sent the reply, of which 1
euolosu a copy. Your eorrespuudeiit states that the outturn of
oil by a native press is about 3 uiaunds a day. Messrs. Bysack
aud Sons state that the urdiuary native oil mills crushes mas. 1 -f>
of oil-seeds In 16 hours, whilst their patent press cruslios
Bazaar mds. 2-10 iu 24 hours, or nearly twice as muoh. Tlie
oil extracted would, of course, be considerably less in weight than
the oil-seed pressed : so that the figures supplied by Messrs. Bysuuk
and Sons ore very considerably less than those of your corre¬
spondent.
The following is Messrs. Khetter Mohun Bysack and Sons’
description of their patent oil mill: —
A pair of our oil mills takes up a space of 6' x 10'. The mortar
is made of wood, and the frame on whieii it works is made of
cast-iron, having a step and a bevel wheel fitted on to it. On the
bevel wheel the wooden mortar is attaohed, aud on the side of the
frame tiiere is a block, in which the pinion pulley shaft works, and
whioh works the wooden mprtar. Thei-e are also attached to the
frame two tie rods which hold the upright wooden souaro stand of 4"
on which the frietioo roller box with rollers is attached.
The two friction rollers press against the side of the mortar, and
on the other side of the square stand of wood is a lever of iron, to
-,. .biah is attaohed a chain with a cap which holds the head of the
pestle and presses the oil from the seeds by means of weights
hung at the end of the lever.
The mortap Is a block of wood hollowed out In a special form and
bound with Wrought-lron bands.
The pestle is of hard wood. In this there is a considerable
advauoe on ^e ordh&ry primitive native oil mills worked by
bullocks, whieb crush In 16 hours mds. 1-6 oU-seed, and which
require three bullocks and a man for the working.
Our patent oil mills are driven by an engine at ton revolutions per
minute, and the power required is a quarter horse-power.
The mills oan crush mnstard, poppy, til, linseed and ooooannt
kernel, and will omsb ia eaoh mill in 24 hours mds. 2-10.
The dnntbiUty of our mills Is tkvsS times greater Idian the primi¬
tive nalivs njills. The oonstrui^on is sfanpls and rsqultas no founda¬
tion. ,
The mortar requires to be renewed in 6 or 8 months according
to the qnali^ of the wood ■ the pestle about every month.
Ordinary and not skilled latiour is raqulndt s&d one man can
took after the working of six mills.
Tax estabUshment of an agrioultural class in the ven^cular,
for semiudars’ sons at the model farm, Hyderabad, Sind, is, we
think, an effort of ooosiderable moment, which is likely, we
bo{>e, in the future to make its influenoe felt on Indian agri-
ottlturists. There is no royal road to learning, neither is there
a royal road to tlic improvement uf indigenous mochods
iu sgrievdture. This end may be approaclied from many
sides and worked at in innumerable ways, all tending towards
the same result. Of all the means used hitherto iu
India to make some sensible impression on native agri¬
culturists, the establishment of a olass for zemindars, such as the
one noticed aliove, is in our estimation tbs most promising.
Colonel Slxuen, the Commissioner of Arrakan, found the
pejiper vine growing wild in the Sandoway district, and a farm
under Government auspices was started at Sandoway hmt year, to
see if it was possible to introduce a new article of exixirt for the
Arrakan division. The cuttings of the pepper vine grow readily,
but it takes three years for them to. bear fruit, when they usual¬
ly last for seven or eight years. The Sandoway farm consists of
623 aci'ea, and by 1885 it will be possible to judge of tlie commer¬
cial success of the undertaking, which, as but little labour is re
quired after the first year, should suit the Burmese admirably.
Probably the pepper vine would thrive equally well in other parts
of the province, and it would be easy for an acre or two of cuttings
to be planted in places where Government already possess experi¬
mental gai-deus, such as at Magargee on the railway line to
Prome, at Pahpoon, where the Deputy Commissioner has already
successfully grown sugai’cone, coffee, aud, we believe, tobacco, aud
at Tounghoo, where Mr. Petloy, a private gentleman, has a plan¬
tation of coffee, tea, cinchona aud potatoes, situate on the eleva¬
tion of about 2,500 feet aVjove the sea. It is on such hills—and
there are many like them iu Bnrinah—that tlie Eurasian Associa¬
tion of Madras might profitably assist some of tlio race to make
a new start in life. The cliuuate is good, and for the tropics
fairly cool for nine months out of the twelve, while almost every
description of crop could be profitably raised, or farm produce
which would be easily brought to a good market. Will the
project of sending butchoi-s' meat from Mysore to Madras, where
it is cheap and abundant, ever succeed i Iu this province, where
good meat, milk, butter, eggs are much more expensive, there
are good openings for industrious East Indians in this line.
We dosire to call the attention of our readers to the letter on
Divi-Divi which appears iu our columns, aud to tlie extract on
the same subject which wo reproduce under “ selections". Notes
an<l letters on the s.oine topic appeared in our colunms on the
following dates—July 1881, page 191; December 1881, page 348;
July 1882, page 242 ; and March 1882, page 68. Actual
experiment seems to have placed beyond dispute the very
substantial returns which may be obtauied from carefully
planted tracts of land sown with Divi-Divi. What, however,
seems to be wanting is a variety of experiments under different
conditions of soil, general treatment, &&, in ui-der to establish
conclusively the best methods to be adopted in perfecting and
extending this very promising product.
IlBPoaTiNQ on the trade and commerce of Rio Grande del
Norte, &c,. Consul Bolsham says that India rubber does not
appear to progress as it proro''sed, the ultimate extraction show¬
ing tliat the ttxan^abura (BaneomAa »peeiosa) has became
exhausted, the reason probably being that the land where they
grow is very dry, and different from the land in the provinces of
Para and Amazon.
Ah interesting paper Km the food value of cotton-seed was
recently read by Professor Gulley before the Society for the Pro-
mutitm of Agrioultural Science at Montreal Eatimating the
48 THE INDIAN AGBIOULTUBIST. Febrawy 1 , 1888 .
cotton seed at 10 c«nt« per bushel, and oat straw and coarse hey
at 10 dollars par ton, the average cost of food consumed per
head per day of cows experimented upon during the past winter
was 7 3-lOth cents, cows averaging one aad-a-half gallons of
milk per day. ‘ One steer, fed for beef, weighing 7001b, when
shut up gained 2001b live weight, or an aveinge of over 4jlb
per day, consuming an awerage of 14 4-lOft) of seed per day,
wad lllb of straw and hay. Average cost of food jier
day not quite ten cents. Other experiments, pursued at
the State Agricultural College of Aiiseiseippi, showed that boiled
cotton-seed, with any kind of straw or hay, would cause cattle
to fatten rapidly, no matter how poor in condition. It also
makes very rich milk, the oil of the seed seemingly appearing
in the milk in the form of cream. The quality of the butter,
however, when the cows are fed largely on oottou-seud, is
lK)or.
Tub International Agricultural Cattle Show, which will take
place in Hamburg ill July 1B83, promises to be a very ex¬
tensive one. The board of management, in framing the pro¬
gramme of the exhibition, has taken into consideration the
different suggestions which have been supjilied from agricultural
societies in Germany and other countries, as well a-s from
private breeders, and having in this way given general satisfac¬
tion, has received support from all parts of Germany. Some
doubts which have been exjwessed by German lialf-blood horse-
breeders, have been removed through an alteration in the pro¬
gramme. Very favourably has that part of the programme been
received by the breeders of hoises and cattle, whicli enables the
jury to award prizes, which were originally intended for one
kind of cattle, to another of which there may be a greater num¬
ber. At a meeting of the East Prussian horse-breeders, which
took place in Inaterburg on the 28th October, it was resolved to
send East Prussian horses to the exhibition. The breeders
from all parts of Germany, north ns well ns south, have signi¬
fied their intention to send their cattle to the exhibition. But
not only in Germany, but also in other countries the exhibition
is receiving particular attention. Committees have been formed
in England, Austria-Hungary, Bolgium, Holland and ,Sweden,
fiw., to promote the interests of the exhibition. The breeders of
Switzerland are going to send their jiroduce collectedly, and the
goveriimont of the couuti’y Inns expressed it willingness to pay
their expenses.
The Council of the Royal Agricultural,“Society of England have I
at their meeting of the 1st. November chosen six of their mem¬
bers to represent England at (he Harabmg oxhiliition, ciul to
promote the interests of the English tireeders, .As regjirds Emnee,
the Ministre d’Agriculture has taken in hand himself to iinliiee
the Erench farmers to take jiart, and tiie Consul Gem-ral in
Hamburg, Count do Pitm do iSniiit Didier, takes great interest
in the exhibition. Itussian farmers have alre.idy signified tlieir
intention to send horses to the show, and American ])a]icrH are
warmly recommending it to the farmers of that cminlrv. From
all these considerations, it seems certain that the work which
has been taken in hand by a number of citizens of the old Haiiso
town is likely to be a succosa. Whether breeders of Indian catfle
may be induced to exhibit is a matter for speculation ; so far ;n
we are aware, there is not much likelihood iinle.s.s the Govern¬
ment should take the matter up.
The Ceylon Ofiserw.r has the following ; —“ The notice of Father
Palla's benevolent attempts to establish the silk industry in
Ceylon, led us to peruse with fresh interest some notices fif
Sericulture in Beng.al and Mysore, which we found in the
Indian AgrioHlturitt. For the greater portion of half-a-cciitury
now, we have followed the history of experiments to revive
what was once an important industry in India. I'ailure in
every case, or at any rate, the slight im[)rovement which
has resulted from Large expenditure of time, attention,
and money, seem due to one cause—the inahijity of the
Indian jieasanl.ry, from want of intelligence, or want of
care, or both, to spin the silk into decently even tljread.
It is clear, therefore, that it Europea}ia do not take up the
enterprise of introducing and keeping up a stock of superior
vonus, and unless the Indian poasjuxtry can be induced to spin
the aocoozm into thread more carefully, the enterprise must
come to be an end. It seems to be at present kspt alive only by
the demand for floss silk. The great question as regards Oeylon
is—Are our labouring classes, who are likely to bo employed
in breeding the worms and spinning the filatures of such a
superior stamp, physically and Intellectually, to the wretched
Bengalees, that real and steady good work can be expected
from them ? We should like to hear the experience of Father
Falla and others in this respect.
The latest use to which the kola-nut has been applied is the
manufacture of kola-nut beer. The maker claims for this beer
that whilst it is warranted to be non-intoxicant, it contains far
more sustaining and stimulating power than an equal quantity
of Bass or AllsoppV brew. It is certainly a very palatable
drink, and if the temperance party should take it up, there
need bo no doubt of its success. S. aouminata grows
aliout forty feet high, and bears pale yellow flowers spot¬
ted with purple ; its leaves are about six or eight inches
long and pointed at both ends. Under the name of
Ma, or holla,, or goora-nuts, the seeds of this tree are
extensively used an a sort of condiment by the natives of
Western and Central Tropical Africa, and likewise by the
Negroes in the West Indies and Brazil, by whom the tree has
been introduced into those countries. In Western Africa the
trees grow mostly in the vicinity of the coast, and an extensive
trade is earned on in kola-nuts with the natives of the interior ;
the practice of eating kola extending as far as Fezzan and
Tripoli. A small piece of one of these seeds is chewed
before each meal as a ])romoter of digestion ; it is also supposed
to improve the flavour of anything eaten after it, and even to
render half-putrid water drinkable. There are several varieties
of kola-nuts ; the common kind has an astringent taste.
Powdered kola is applied to cuts.
The t^amarang Vaiuhrland reports that “ the company of
Butch capitalisls, who have undertaken to open up tor trade
and industry the 32 islands in the Malaccas known as the
Bakian grou]), has a promising future before it. This nnmjiany
began operations on the 1st January 1881. Since then, a
fishing village there, fixed upon as head-quarlers, has been
transformed into a town, with hospital, warehouses, &c., and
6,000 piculs of dammar have been collected for export this year
to Europe, valued at 160,000 guilders. This gum will for the
jireseut be the pTuieip.al export article therefrom, the quantity
available being so great that the ' comjiauy (;onnt« ujxm being
able to export from the hoginuiiig of this year 2,000 jiiculs of
dammar jier month at the price of 30 guilders each, thus re-
])resenting a value of 720,000 guilders a year. Even at this
rate, it is said that years will elajise before the old stock can be
cleared away ; nature meanwhile accumulating fresh supidies.
The second product of im]>ortance is sago, which can bo had
for the mere taking, the trees yielding tliis article forming
extensive forests. Next year the company intend to lay out
-'ofi'ec, cocoa, and clove jilantations, with coolies from Java,
the islaiiders, from their fewness and l.azine.ss, being unavailable
for labour.”
Sin .T. B. Lawe.s, Bart,, writes as follows on ensil.age
I li.ivc recently received from the Uuiteil States a pamphlet
containing an account of experiments with ensilage, carried out
at the Agricultural Gollege at Lansing, Michigan. Although
these experiments have been conducted with much care and at
considerable expense, it has not been thought necessary either
to weigh or analyse the maize as it was placed in the silo. We
are, therefore, comjielled to draw our conclusions ns regards
these fKiiuta from the general analyses of maize in flower, and
compare them with the composition of ensilage as given in the
pamphlet.
The ensilage used in the feeding experiments, as analysed by
Professor Neal, gives the following constituents :—
Water ... ... ... ... 82-27
Ash ... ... ... ... 1-04
Carbo-hydrates ... ... fl'W
THE INDIAN AGRIOULTUBIST.
49
Pebmary 1, 1883.
The analysis of the green maise, as given by Dr. E. Wolflf,
are as foUoTra ;—
Water ... ... ... ... 82*0
Ash ... ... ... ... 1‘1
Carbo-hydrates ... ... ... 10‘9
We see, therefore, that while the ash has greatly Inoreased,
the carbo-hydrates have very much diminished.
In the Journal of the Cliemioal Societi/ for the present year,
there is an article by 0. Leohartier on the modification which
green fodder undergoes when preserved in pita. The analyses
were made upon maize and clover. In the unfermented maize,
100 parts dry contain 25 parts of starch and sugar ; after
fermentation, 16 parts. In 100 parts of clover before fermenta¬
tion he found 19 parte of sugar and starch ; after fermentation,
7}. Alcohol and carbonic acid are found in considerable
amounts in the fermented material j there appears also to be a
small increase in the fatty matter of the fermented material,
but whether this is a food product is not known.
In the experiments upon the feeding properties of ensilage
carried out at the New Jersey experimental station, four cows
were selected from a herd for experiment. For a period of
twenty-eight days all received exactly the same amounts of food,
consisting of clover hay, wheat straw, brewers’ grains, cotton
seed meal, and turnips. During this time No. 1 gave an
average of $341bs. of milk daily; No. 2 gave 26’llbs. ; No. 3,
26'61ba. ; No. 4, 24Tlbs.
In a second period of twenty-eight days the cows Nos. 1 and
2 were fed with exactly the same food as before / while Nos. 3
and 4 received the siimo, with the exception that lOOlbs. of
ensilage was substituted for 401b. of turnips.
Under the same diet as before, the cows Nos. 1 and 2 in-
oreasetl their daily product of milk IJlb. and 11b. respectively ;
but those which received the ensilage showed a trifling decline.
It will be observed that the only change in the diet of the
cows Nos. 3 and 4 in the second period, was the substitution of
‘lOOlbs. of ensilage for 401bs. of turnips. The description of
turnips used is not stated, but the dry matter in the 40lbs.
would not amount to more than from 3 to 6lbs. ; while lOOlbS'
of ensilage would contain ISlbs. of dry matter ; and this large
increase in food we find wsis followed by a slight decline in milk,
.md yet ensilage is said to be above all things suitable to the
production of milk.
It is stated further that the total oo.st of gi’owing an acre of
Indian-eorn, including cutting it up and putting it into the silo,
amounted to 41'81 dols., or about £8 14.<. ; and th.at the weight
of the product from the silo was 40,0001bs. Awuming that
lOOlbs. of ensilage was equal in its milk-prodncing power to
401bs. of turnips, about 7 tons of turnips would be equiv.aiont
to 40,00011)8. of maize. But surely 7 tons of turnips can be
grown for a less cost than £9 I
I am quite prepared to believe that ensilage is a success in the
United States, but, for some reason, which it is not in niy
power to explain, the evidence brought forward at present, as
derived from experiments, is not so much in its favour os we
might expect, mid we Kave certainly no crop in this coimtry
which could be compared with Indian corn !us aelapted for the
process.
I submit, therefore, that the evidence at our command at the
present time does not hold out much inducement for those
engaged in agriculture in this country to enter ujion the con¬
struction of silos. I
From a recent report on the trade of Peisia it seems
that silk, once the staple produce of the country, is not
likely to maintain its position much longer. Owing to
the silkworm disease, which destroyed crop .after crop,
the peasantry of Ohilan have turned their attention to the
cultivation of rice, which, as a ci'op, seems to suit them better,
as it requires less trouble to cultivate, and is, moreover, iu itself
an article of food upon which they principally subsist; it is also
extensively exported to Russia. Another article which has
' replaoed silk is opium. In germanshah until ten years ago the
oultivation of opium was very limited, not exceeding 6761be. a
year, required for local consumption. Lost year's crop yielded
about 13,5001bs., and it was expected that this yeaFs would
realise doable that quantity, but it was affected by cold, and
consequently did not realise more than 9,460lba From Ispahan
it is reported that this year’s crop has been partially Injured by
cold, but that it is richer iu juice than that of the preceding
I year. No change or improvement, it is stated, has taken place
in the preparation of the drug, beyond a large admixtoe at oil
introduced to suit the taste of the Ohineae, the proportion being
about fllbs. or 7Ibs. to each chest of 1411bs. Very low prices
were obtained in foreign markets fca Persian opium last year,
in consequence of which it is said by some that unless prices rise
in China the poppy cultivatiou will not be further extended.
The drug is prepared at Ispahan, Shiraz, and YeZa. After
being dried in the sun it is manipulated. That destined for
China is mixed with oil; that sent to Loudon is exported In
its pure state. Persian opium is reported to have lost in the
estimation of the Chinese ; from this it may be inferred that
adulteration must have considerably increased. In ghoraasan
the cultivation of the poppy Ivas increased tenfold within the
last ten years. It grows everywhere in cold as well as in hot
districts ; every landed proprietor cultivates it, and it may be
said that one-eighth of the entire produce of Khorassan is
poppy. In Veza it seems that this year’s crop suffered much
from cold, resulting in the produce of about half last year’s
crop. The oQ used for mixing with the drug destined for China
is linseed oU.
At the instance of the Government of India, the SnperintesdeatS
of Government Farms, Sydapott, and of the Central Jail,
Coimbatore, were called upon by the local Government to ooneider
and report upon certain papers regarding the cultivation of cotton
of the natural khaki colour. Mr. Robertson, the enperintendent of
the Farms, in replying, ha« forwarded samples of Nankin cotton
in the seed, and the clean lint, and states that the cotton has
been grown in this Presidency as a botanical curiosity for upward*
of fifty years. It was orignally imported from China, where the
fabrics made from it are In great demand for their oheapnees and
durability. At one time large quantities of Nankin cloth ware
exported from Chino, but its export has now almost oeased. Mr,
Robertson does not think the orop is grown anywhere in this
Presidency except on a very small scale, but ho Is putting an acre
of land under the crop, and this should in fonr or five months give
enough seed for 20 or 2.5 acres of land, which will probably suffloe
for experimental trials. Mr. Orlmos, Superintendent of the
Coimbatore Central Jail, reports that from two seeds he was enabled
to plant at different times twelve acres of land. It is a hardy
doseription of cotton grows, in any jail, Is perennial, and gives
morn than one picking a year. The plant in the field grows to
a height of about eighteen inolies, but in favourable l~«vlt ti fl s it
grows into a large bush, quite four feet in height. He has submitted
for inspection some of the cotton in the pod, some banks of thread
spun by the convicts from it, and samples of cloth made therefrom
in the jail. Brigadier-General Clerk was supplied with some of
this “ Nankin ” cloth to try its suitability for the summer clothing
of troops. Owing to recent orders of Government putting a stop
to miscellancons manufactures in jails, Mr. Grimes rooted up the
last field of this oottou, which was planted in 1879, os he thought
there would bo no further use in cultivating it. He has, however,
means of obtaining seed and oan reoommeuos Its enlMvatfon If
necessary. Ho believes it is not cultivated by the ryot* Iii the
Coimbatore district, but is told that it is so in the Tlnnevelly
district. Its great drawback is Its shortness of fibre, and Mr.
Grimes is anxious to obtain fresh seed from Chunar or elsewhere to
ascertain whether it is suiwrior to what he has grown. It will be
thus seen that the cuUimtion of this cotton has passed beyond the
experimental stage in this Presidency, and the Government of
India have now au opportunity of pronouncing on the merits of a
sample of the cloth made from It at Coimbatore. A snpply of
Cbnnar seed is to bo procured in order that its identity with this
oottou may be established. Meanwhile the local (.ovemment, we
hoar, does not think there is any need for extended cultivation
here, but that a supply of seed should be maintained for distribution
to cultivators In the event of a demand being eventoally eitiblisfa-
ed,—Afoiiros Times,
50 THE INPIAN AQHiqULTUR^BT. February 1,1483,
ARBOKICULTURE.
(Oaniinued fi-om page 18, Vol. VIII.)
S AL Wood U nsed for cart wheels, and in most Iftcnlities,
'ih 44 ditiou lo the wheels and aslea,t}ts frame-worlc of carts
and shijtranu), and rough work, is wade of sdlwood, Sfllwood
is not quite free from attacks of white-ante, and eHI planks,
the thickest of its kind, will split under the sun, and if thin, will
warff; but it resists decay under water remarkably well, for which
quality it is extensively used for bridges made wholly of wood.
SAlwood is not valuable for furniture, because it is not close
grained, is not elastic, has no beauty in it, no laminations, and
cannot receive high or any polish at all. It is a strong, durable,
and rou(^ wood. A century ago we had extensive forests of
mature sill in India, at the foot of the Iliiualayan mountains,
ascending up to 4,000 feet both in the territories of the British
Government and those of tlie Mnhanija of Nepal ; but they
have now been mostly used up, ajxl replaced by saplings of 30
or 25 years old ; even these are coustaully out down, where the
British Government reserved forests do not exist, to supply the
wonts m house-building. Twenty-five years ago mature sill
logs, 100 feet long with a maximum girth of 15 foot, were
very common, l 3 dng in heaps on the banks of the Gogra and
Raptee, now altogether scarce owing to heavy indents by the
railways for their buildings, and sleepers. I do not kuow
what these railways will do when tho old timber is worked
out j because the forests are exhau.sted of mature trees and
the saplings will take 600 to 1,000 years in coming to ma¬
turity. S41 saplings grow fast enough in three year’s time
under favourable conditions, and in the forest, acquiring a
height of 30 to 40 feet, having very thick bark, no heart-wood,
but mostly soft sap-wood. In the Coosmi forest in the 0 oruck-
poro district, and some of the Oudh forests iu the Kheid dis¬
trict, I have found aid growing along-sidc with Terminnlia
(nmaiUota, 150 feet in height without a bough up to 140 feel.
This tree grows from seed sown in June or July, can bear
transplanting, but it grows better it the tap-root be not disturb¬
ed or mutilated.
NATtjaAL Onnisn, C'oifi)nTT.ACi!iAE.
Tei-rainaiia tomoutosa (Uoxb.); H. dsunu.—A lofty, f;ust-
growiiig tree, very common in tho forests of Gudli and
Provinces, at tho foot of tho Hinialay/m moun¬
tains. It generally grows in tlie same fm-eat with Hhorea
rohuHta, jmefeiTing the same soil, climate, and elevation. Tho
pith of tho bark of this tree is beautifully red, containing tannic
acid, much used by the C/iamitfs residing in or near tlie foi est,
ill tanning leather. Asimn timlier rnsemblos in colour Ihe
thiehum, is somewhat blackish, but is iiuudi lighter anil w.niting
in the streaks found in shinhum. It is iieitlier strong nor
tenficloua, but can lie worked easily enough : lit for pannels of
doors and windows. It cannot bear weiglit, and therefore is not
sought after for beams and rivfters. -Kkow logs are pretty long
and Uuck. I have soon trees 100 feet high furnishing good
mature logs, mostly heart-wood, fiO feet long with a maximum
diameter of 4 feet. The sapplings and branches are inferior to
tunihoo, weak, and soon destroyed by insects. This tree grows
fi-om eeed sown in June or July.
Natural Order, Sai'otaceae.
Bo^tia laiifolia (Roxb.) ; H. wwAkw.—T he mahuwa tree is
plentifully - found in many parts of India. In former years
Oudh was well stocked witli this tree. Mahuwa is generally 80
feet high with a girth of 12 feet near the ground. Spirit is
manufMtured flfitn the fleshy corola, also forming fowl for
cattle and man ; the seed is oleaginous, from which excellent oil
can be expressed for the manufacture of soap, and the timber,
though not suitable for fnniituro-makiug and other nice works,
is good for well cnrlw, door-posts, and pannels for doors ; it may
also be converted into Iwams for buildings : no rafters, however,
can be made, because mahuwa wood of small girth is very weak
and not able to bear much weight. Tliis tree is raised from seed
sown iu June or July. Goats feed on mahuwa leaves.
Natural Ordkr, fJ. uiarekv.
CMUariiia equUUfolia (Porater).—Tliis tree is a native of
India, Bast Africa, and Various other parts of tho world.
The height is lofty and the girth pretty thick, but the
wood is not valuable for any other than purposes
of fuel, ulFording great heat and little ash, well adapted
for glass manufacture. C. eqiiutfifolia is content with
humid sandy soil, where it will grow fast enough and afford
abundant supply of fuel in 12 or 16 years. I have raised this
tree from seed sown in July, which have attained lofty heights
in 20 years' time. They are growing in poor sandy soil at
Lucknow.
Natural Order, AMKNTACEdt,
Alnuce i/ltUiiiota (Gaertner).—The ordinary alder tree of
Europe and parts of Asia. It is 70 feet high, with corre¬
sponding thick stem. The wood is strong, durable, and
wateri>roof, excellent for under-ground works. Cbarcoal obtained
from the wood of this tree is considered one of the best for
gunpowder. Grown from seed sown iu September or October.
(Jaetanca satica (Miller).—This tree, of prodigious size, is very
eligible for intrcKluotion into India. It is a native of South Europe
and the temperate parts of Asia, and therefore will grow well in
the lower Himalayas, and tracts at the foot of these mountains,
Such as Assam, parts of Bengal Proper, Oudh, and the N.-W.
Provinces. Its eommoii English name is “ sweet chestnut tree,”
so named on account of its sweet edible fruit. Baron MUeller
states that a sweet chestnut tree growing on Mount Etna
has acquired the great size of 204 feet in circumference of the
lower stem, and in other localities diameter of 10 feet of tho
stem is very common. The timber of this tree is finely
laminated, is elastic, strong and ilurable, and capable of receiv¬
ing a high polish ; heiico desirable for furnitures and other nice
work.s. Forests formed of this tree are capable of affording
material help in maiiitaiuiug live-stock with the edible fruit
in yeara of scarcity. The wood also forms oboioo fuel where
it cannot find any other use. Raised from seeil sown in
September or October.
Natural Order, Santalacrie.
Saiitalum alhmn ct S. ritbnim (Linnc) j H. chaiulan, B,
nhondon .—Tlie while and red aandalwood trees, so named from
the colour of the wood. Small trees 30 to 40feet high, very slow
in gi'owth, and onmraoutal in appearance. Tho wliite sandal¬
wood ti'en is more comuinii than tlio red. I iiavo found small
trees of both the species growing in large forests in Oudh
and tho N.-W. Provinces, 20 feet high, with a gii-th only 4 feet.
Young trees do not yield tb<‘ liiglily prized aromatic wood,
only mature trees having it. Hamlalwood is considered sacred
by the Hindoos of Iiuliii, and much sought for ; but the wood
is .scarce and very co.stly. Forests of sandal trees might 1 ri
formed in any part of Gmlh, N.-W. Provinces, Piinjah, Bengal,
and Burma. The&.i trees prefer high gi-ounil, having lime in
the Bitiisoil. Besides tho uses the wood is put to by the
natives of India, iu imikiug marks ou their bodies and fore¬
heads ill lioiioiir of tho gods they worship, and aromatic com¬
position of native smoking tobacco, it can be used for furniture.?,
choice carved bo.ses, plates, and many otlior things, tlie wood
always retaining its aroma. These trees are grown from seed
I sown in June or .July.
Natural OaoKR, RoniAqycE.
CuvJwm officuudii (hiime),—This modioiiLTl alkaloid-yielding
tree is the type of the tiighly-prized and much appreciated
0. Icd/iriann, native of tho moimtainB of Now Granada and
Peru found growing at. altitude.s varying from 6,000 to 10,000 feet,
Tho bark is known by tho name of ‘crown bark’ of 'brown
Ihiru Ixirk.’ It is comparatively rich in tho alkaloids cinchonidin
ami quiniii. Much moisLiire is ]>crnioious to this Bpecies,
and llouriahing to tiie best advantage at high elevation.
C. offioimlin is more delicate than C. aaceiruhm. Propagation
from seed, cutting, and grafts. Can also be hybridized.
Cinchona snccirii.hrn (Pavon).—This sjiecies is extensively
grown iu the mount.iin.i of India. It is a native of Peru and
Ecuador mountains, requiring the same olevationiis C. officinalit;
but Isilli of them liave been grown successfully at lower
elevations iu India, Java, and Geylon. C. maciruhra being
found uiore hardy and quick-growing, is used as stock for
grafting C. Udgeriana on. This ciuohoua is poor in the alka-
loithi compared with C. officinalis.
February 1, 1888.
THE INDIAN ^GBICXTLTUHIST.
51
NATtnwx OaDKR, Laureje,
Cinnamornum cmiphom (Nwti).—'l.'he well-known cjiinplior
tree of China and Japan. Small tree, 40 or more feet high,
mentioned here as eligible for eelecl plantation in suitable
localities, This tree will sueoeeJ best on the mountains of
lower elevation of Burraah, Beng.al, N.-W. Vrovinoes, and the
Punjab, and in select localities in Oudh neai- the HiniaUiyas,
free from hot winds of tho plains. The product, camphor, is
extracted by boiling chips of wood and purifying the reduced
matter. Mature trees furnish the Largest quantity and best
quality of camphor. The wooel is valuable for many uses,
emitting the fragrant smell of camiihor. It is also free from all
attacks of insects.
Cfinncmotnwn cataia (Blume).—This cinnamon tree of South
China, like the foregoing, w'dll succeed in the same localities.
The bark of tho twigs supplies the cinnamon of commerce, which
is inferior to C. eilanirum.
Cinnaniomum zeilanicitni (Breyan).—Tiio true cinnamon tree
native of Ceylon, growing uj) to 8,000 feet above tlie sea in I
that island, at which height the bark contains less aroma, nt
lower elevations tho aroma being much stronger Tho loaves
of this, and those of the foregoing tree, yield aromatic oil,
and their roots camphor. 1
The cinchonas and cinnamonimus are very choice and highly
prized trees, requiring the utmost cave and the best localities as
to soil and climate for tlieii’ propagation, honco rc({niriug tho
special attention of jieople engaged in the enterprise of supplying I
India and other countries with their highly valuable products.
The cinnamomiims are rai 80 <l from soed sown in June or
July. Seed might be procurod from China, J.ajian, and
Ceylon.
Natukal Order, IIrticacece.
Moriii mhra (Linnc).—Nortli Aanei'ican red mulberry ti-oe, 70
or more feet high. It is mentioned here for the sake of its
timber, wonilerfully strong, compact, and lasting, Crown from
seed or cuttings in February, or Juno and July.
Natural Order, Mvktacus.
Eitcab/ptua armgdaiitw. (Qabillardiere).—A very lofty true,
whose colosaal structure roar-s itself up to 500 feel high, with
correspoiidiug thick girth. The timber of this tree is slrong,
elastic, <lurable, and can Ciisily be worke<l into any kind of
work. Uouse-buihliug, ship-building, railway sleeiiers,
railings, fences, skives, and many other things too ninnerons
to detail, are and can be made of the timlier of tlii--
tree. It is an Anstraliali treq, being one of tho large nuinbej-
of species of tho genus EHcaly])tus, which for tlie most
part fill the Australi.'in forests, and liave lieon found
usoful in their timber, gum, .and tannic aci<l containeil in
bark and leaves. These majestic giants of tho foj-est grow
very fast and acquire girth anil maturity for thousamls
of years. Some sj^ecies of the Eucalvjdi have lx‘ 0 n tried
ill many parts of India—in Calcutta, JiUckiiow, Haliarun-
pore, Lahore, and Southern India ; and from all personal obser¬
vations and published accounts, I find them well suited to India,
and doing wolL They were originally raised from seed, but
euttiiigs obtained from them h.avo also been found to sneoeed.
In exiHised localities in the hot plains of India, Luoalyptus tree,
grown singly lit long intervals, do not fare well owing to its
quick growth and weak slender stem, liable to bo broken down
by storms and hurricanes. A fine eucalyptus tree in the
Lucknow Agri-Horticultural Qiai-dens met this fate. Wlieii
a regular forest is formed of these noble treos, there is no fear
of storms and hurricanes injuring them on account of the
support of tho neighbouring trees. Tho Knailypti will grow
remarkably well within a belt of 200 miles from the foot of the
'llinnalayas, stretching from the Eastern frontier of Beiig.al to
1,500 miles westward to tho Afghan frontier. Tliose trees will
grow on poor »a)idy soil, as I have found them growing on such
a soil at Lucknow. Seeds of tlie Eucalj'pti can e.asily be jjro-
curod from Australia, from Bai’on Mileller.
II, Class Mosoootvledonkos.
Natural Order, Oeaminkce.
To every one in India the name of bamboo is familiar ; Imt
every one knows such bamboos only which arc found in places
I where he is located. For instanoe, in Oudh, there is one
j variety of bamboo called hit hansi, on nooount of the long
' spines, known to botanists by the name of BamOum spinasu of
j Roxburgh. This bamboo takes uj) great deal of space, does not
grow sti-aight, but from a cerUiii height obliquely and crookedly,
crossing other Htora,s, throwing out dense sjiiny branches, forming
imiieiietrablo and formid.able lm.sh, which would retard and
rejiol cannon balls (for which quality it used to be* planted
outside the ywr/i*—forts-—to bafUe and repel the attacks of
enemies), by which extraction of the stems becomes very
difficult and expensive, and therefore not profitalile. Judging
from this bamboo, the people of Oudh woakl shrug their shoulders
on hearing of bamboo eultimtion, being no doubt ignorant
of the large number of species free from thorns, perfectly
straight, in growth, easy of extraction, strong and durable,
and useful in multifarious ways. Jiamboo in its humble way
is as useful, nay, in some instances more, but far choajier thaii
timber. In China, Japan, and Bunuah, houses are built of
bamboos, fancy trays and boskets, riL'hly lacquered Work-bOat
masts, fishing, rods, sticks, mor/uis and vonohes, serioultural ap¬
paratus of all kinds,and many other things are made Lu these ydaces
anil in India (where available, but in leas ingonions fashion).
A chief recommendation for the cultivation of bamboo is, th.at it
grows very fast, coming to maturity in 3 to 6 yearn. In
most parts of India tho bnng.alows are made of sun-dried bricks,
whitow.Lshed, dooraud door-posts and windows maJo of wood,
and the rest having li.amboo work. When b.amboo is not to bo
found, .saplings of A'/iow/, roiitsto, or th.at of Acar.ia arahica (if
available) are used. Tho bamboo vngion stretches frmn tho
Lower Ilimalnyas to Lower Bengal, tho whole of Biirmah
(British aud native), all Siam, China, and Japrm, in the conti¬
nent of Asia. These ]iLaoes h.avc tho best bamboo wliethor for
inilustriiil or for decorating purposes : in addition to these, some
geiier.a and species highly viiluablo are also found in South
An)cric.i, parts of Afrieji siuinleil near tho sea, Ceylon and
Java, the rhillippiiie Islands ainl Mnd.-igasoar. The bfimboo
genera, are veiy numerous, and have many apefiies and
varieties. J will mention Home of tliBDi which will grow in tho
]il.ains of India, where this very usoful plant is not to be
found, forming artificial bamboo foreNt.
Uamhnm inprn/. (I'ojrel).—N.ilivo of the Indian Archi|iola-
goos. A lofty bamboo, 12f) feet high. Thu stem is thick and
very strong : it is str.iight in habit of growth, and has no spine.
Projiagiited from oll'-shoots- oi- from cut lings.
B'HhIumu I'ld’/nivs (Wendlaml). -Thu common spiiilduss
bamboo of Hcngal. IL grows \ or) fast, acquiring the height of
■10 feet in one growing season (ramy we.ither). Tho maximum
heigljt hitherto, niider no care whatever, olvservod, is 70 foot.
The stem of thi.s b.amboo is oxUmsively used in Bengal (or building
purposes a.ii(l is the on» known to tho people of Western Bengali
K.-W. Provinces, and Oudh by the name of C/iaboo bans.
Bmilnma huloooA (Roxb.)—Another b.amboo of Bengal, 70
fivet high, spineless, strong, durable, easily split and worked into
fine slices for maiuifactnring Isaskets, mats, &c.
Dambiisa Bmiidtsii (Muuro).—Native of the Tenosserim
division in British Burmah. The stem is 120 feet high, two feet
ia circumference, hollow, but pretty thick in tho pith, strong
and durable. It is syiineless.
Chxuqu'ia lorentziana (Griselxicli).—Sub-tropio Argentina ia
South America is the native Inabikit of this bamboo. It is not
lofty, only 30 foot high, but is solid, very strong and durable,
and affords much maternal for manufuoturo of many bamboo
things ; is also excellent for buildings.
THE MAUI EXHIBITION AND HORSE SHOW,
1883.
T he Maiji Exhibition and Horse Show for 1883 will open on
Monday, the 6th February’, and prizes will be issued about
eight or ten days after, the intervening days being occupied by
the judges in examining and awarding prizes. The date of dU-
tribution of prizes can tie ascertained on application to themun-
leilar. All exhibits should be consigned to tho mamledar, and
should bo accompanied by the certificates required by the terms
S 2
1, 1888 .
•ad oaBdl4lauo(auMat*d«lth «tdi .a^ IbtbiMtswill ndk^e
«Mii^ altar taM of pariaha,!)}*
artialaa, ttMA t* nodvad 19 todi* ^ axaminh^ the
paatimime dui boaMtaaed. fhe total, rtliu id the prim
oBwatahi to Ba. 0^6.
AKO HoUBir-tOBfum, AQOiMwum Ba. $jm.
Oobm Ba,
I. 1teaali])«% iA, im to B paafa, five ortaea,
Ba.aCBB,»,B0,ABdl8 ... IS#
S. fMta 8 to B yeanit dvo ptiiM,
Ba.40,8S, B0,80,uidlA ... 160
8 . IXno. 8 a. to 4 yeaaa, five prleea,
Ba. 46^ 40,86,80, 01^86 ... H#
IHtto 4 to 6 yaara, five ptiue, 1
Ba. K), 46,40,86, and 80 ... BOO
Total
660
lUtm.
6 . YaarUaga, iLa, np to S yeaie, five priaea, Ba.
Ba. 86,8(^ 86, SO, and 16 ... 185
& IIBtaa S to 8 yeua, five ptiaaa,
Ba. 40, 86,80, S6, and SO ... 160
7. Bltto 8 to 4 yean, five priaea,
Ba 46,40, 86, 80, and 86 ... 176
0, Ditto 4 to 6 yean, five j^ea,
Ba 60,46,40,86, and 30 ... SOO
Total.
660
Ba
8. Oouatry-bndunder IS^S, aixprizea,Ba 80,
70. 60. 60, 40, and 80 ... 380
10. Ditto 18-S and over, aix prizea,Ba 90,
80,70, OOJX), ana 40 ... 390
11. Stod'brad, aix prlaee, Ba 100,90,80,70,60,
and 60 ... ... 460
Total ... UTO
18, BQaoellanaona dan for anlmala deaerving
of notioe, bat vrhiob are ineligible for
variona leaaona for competing under
otoer daaaea, Ba fi60, to be divided in
amall priaea at diaoretion ... S60
18. Mnlaa, Ba S60, to be divided in email ro¬
am^ at dieoretion to tboee that have
bad their mam covered by toe Govern¬
ment donkey etallione, and a doable re¬
ward if the mam are in foal or have
loalnatfoQt ... ... seo
Grand total ... S,970
Tma AXD Ooxsirioxa
Battaat the rate of 4 annua a day for a mare and 2 annaa
a day for a gmn-eattng odt, fitly, or mule, will be allowed for
uneaooeHfnfanimale. iTOm the morning of toe day of entry
on the ej^bition rolie to toe evening of toe day prizea are
awarded, ahd in the caee of animala gelt, to date of discharge by
gelder. Where an animal is regiitem after IS o’clock in the
_ y, oaly hidf that day’s batta will be allowed. On toe special
yeaominendation <4 the committee, batta will be given for the
Joamqr from and to their home to nnsuccessful exhibits. A
trained gelder wfil be provided - Government, and all ex-
penaee will be defrayed out of toe Exhibition Fund.
Kopdaae ore allowed for ootmtry-bred colts or fillies, or for
mameevared oonntry-bred horses (no matter how good), as
the ebjeet is to encourage breeding from Government stalUons
a^. The usnal oartificatea from officers in charge of stallions
wffl have to be'toodtuied to prove the breed of young stock, or
toe ooveitog id w»lr daws.
Atomalaleaa or bat of condition will not be allowed to com¬
pete. Ifisne toat have received prices at previous Government
tooWB are dtoibla ^ prliee again, toe object being to en-
cottiage fle# aniniala Siam must be'either covered, in foal,
to, or with foal at foot, by Govemm«it stallions, or the ownere
mfwhave toem covered at Maiji; withont this, they cannot com¬
pete, The order tmilsting npm gelding an an indispensable
gealifieerioa for a pri» is osnoelled this year, but where an
•nwefidlt tad A griding are equal in merit, the Committee will
g^va-toa prWMCnoe to the latter, and a gelding price winner will
reojika'in a bonus eqou to toe amount of his price.
Fwes musit wjriud-bred or they oonnot compete.
A 4tnroleitt4o.«tai is opened under Ko. 18 .
^ prohibition ttosiait prim winners e( previous yean com-
peto^j^atodemnwi^y to ^ wingstoek,whiriiota of Qotine
BMlATTbS,
Balia, U priMO, fiVA (ft Bi Bta ci Ba dve
1 .
8,'
8 .
4,
6 .
6 .
7.
&
9.
10 .
11 .
(d Be. 16 wto, .
OowB do, dd- ■ ...
Ball oalvae do. do. , ...
Cow crivee do. do. - . . *•*
Field btdloolm in pairs, 16 pctois, Be. 6 ri!
10, five of 16, tad fire of SO eabh
He-bnfEiddee, 16 prime as for bnlle ,
Bhe-bu&loss do. do^ ...
Bufiirioe oslves Otolll do.
Do. toow) do.
Shmp, Be. 60 to be divided In imall )Avlme
at discretion, ranging Ircm Be. 1 to
Be. 6 e a ch ... ... ...
Goata do. do.
Total ...
160
160
160
160
286
160
160
160
160
60
60
IfiM
Txkkb ahz> Ooimmoira.
Batta will be allowed for tmenceeaefal animala from the morn¬
ing of toe day of entry on the exhibition rolls till the evening
of toe day prizec are awarded, at toe rate of 4 annas a day for
each bull, cow, bullock, and bu&loe, and half thia rate for
graas-eatiag oalvea. No hatta will be' allowed for nnweaued
calves, or for sheep and goata In toe oaae of animals registered
after 12 o’clock in toe day, only half toat day’s -batta will be
allowed. Animals lean or out of condition are inriigible for
competing, also those that have received pricea in previous years
t.«., grown up live-stock, toe object h^g to enoourogo new
aninialB ; but where young stook are diviota into agea, at the
discretion of toe jadgee, A prise winner of a previous year, may
compete in a class of a higher age this year.
C.->-Aaazoui.iuRai. Paonuon.—<86 raieu, aasnsoaTiKa
Be. 960).
Bs,
1. Cotton of any variety (except Waradi or
old Khandeahi) cleaned or nncleaned IS
prices, one of Ba 6^ one of Ba. 80, one
of Be. SO, five of iu. 6, five of Ba 10,
and five of Be. 16 each, total ... 260
2. Food-grains, 16 prices, five of Bs. 6, five
of Be. 10, and five of Bs, 16 ... 160
3. Oil-seeds do. do. 160
4. Fibres, 10 prizes, five of Bs. 6, and five of
Bs. 10 each ... ... ... 76
6. Tobacco do. do. ... '76
6. Dyes do. do. ... 76
7. Sugarcane and jagri do. ... 76
8. Tsgetables, fruits, flowers, plants, and
medicinri drugs, &c., Bs. 100, to be dl-
-vided in small prizes at diacretion, rang¬
ing from Be, 1 to Ba. 6 each ... 100
I
Total
960
Tnaics axn CoKStiioira.
The quantitiea exhibited should not be leas toan toe follow¬
ing in the cases given below
Cotton ...
Food-grains and oil-seeds
Fibres, tobacco, and dyes
Sugar-oanee
Jagri
86 seers.
18 do.
10 do.
60 In number.
1 Wieli,
and aboold be certified by the mamledar or mabalkori of the
district, to be the produce of fields or gardens belonging to the
exhibitor.
D,—■Misoxu.AiraoTn—(PauM, vantm BtrFxas 260).
Prize fur encouraging indigenous art tad manulAoture (textile
fabrics, carta, brass ana iron-work, pottery, leather-work, agri¬
cultural implemente, &&,). Ba 260 will m divided in email
pricee ranging from Be, 1 to Ba. 10 at discretion, care being
token that the market value of the exhibit is not ordinarily
exceeded,
Bupees eee esf 860
Tsems Aim Ooirnmain.
Theaa pricea are intended for bond fidt manafaetarera, who
must produce certificates from toe mamledart or mahriaris of
their district, that they, or the members of toelf tomilies, manu-
factured the articles oonoemed, and toat they are for sale at
reaeonable pricea
No prizes will be given unless the exhibito show aome real
improvemant on toe general make of aimilar artieiea naually
nnm and sold In the bacaan, and are desopring of notioe,
owing-to special merit, and me of real utBity to the public, the
objeri bAing to enoonrage progrea, improvement, and oconomy.
mmcikh PAPER.
" ' ■■'' ■ 'BES-KESPINQ tir INDIA.
mm mmim AGRiocriiTURisT.
53
OoriKnaim or EsTXKxri JDxrABnKniT.
ooBtfawuiitfeo Bowd’i ProoeedtagB, Ko, t883, dated 27th
^atte }982i n4 the (wtreipondeaea relating to the qaeetion
h^iceej^ag and like mtherlng of wild honey in the Jdadrae
‘TnildeBOf. the Board ntomit the fcdlowing nnunary :—
2. ItepUea hare been reeaived from ellildleeton.
8, The CoUeoton of Idontii Aroot, Chtngieput, Colmhatore,
Khdha> Madrae, and Salem state that they oao add nothing to
the tnteriaaitlim ahrsady pnbllehad. In the Anantapore dhtriot, in
aix otft of the aeren tidookt, id>ont 800 maundi of hcmey are
iprodneed, the jprkie ■nryixM from an anna to an anna and eight plee
-pet aeer of 81 was. In Madras honsy sells at 4 annas a pound.
4, The following extraets from reports are appended.
i. The OoUeotor of Onddiqiah, Mr. L. R. Borrows, writes—
I have received reports from Sldhoot, Onddapah, Froddntor, and
Bayatdiatt tohsUdan. From these it is gathered that bee-keeping
b not praotbed in thb distriet. The following partioulars are
gatherM from the several reports above mentionea:—
1. iSldib^.—Honey is oolleoted in the hills by people of the
’ Mtttaraobu oaste and the Yanadles. The annual produce of the
talook may be about 118 mounds, equivalent to about tons, worth
about Bs. 228, Ztb used prinoteaUy for medioinal purxwsea, and,
to some extent, .as an articfe of food. There are sMd to be four
Idnds of bees s (1) peddapera, (2) e/Unnapera, <3) tahlenf, (4)
mtfsora. The first kind alone ooUeot honey in oonsideiable
g uantity, theli eombs yielding on the average about 2 seers of
oney (lilb). These bees store their honey in mefts of Inaooessible
roolu. The taking of the honey is described as follows:—
•• In order to extract honey from peddapera beos on rooky slopes,
eight or ten men, who know all about them, proceed to the spot and
draw honey during the day if there is only one hive there, or at
night if there be two or three hives at one place. The mode of
extracting is as follows A chain of bamboo sticks, strongly tied
to one another, is fastened by three or four largo ro^ to a tree or
peg on the summit of the hUl, and let down Into the oavo. A few
men at the summit oatoh hold of a rope tied to the waist of the
man drawing honey, and also a leather basket and a stick (to pross
honey to fall into tho bag) by means of two other ropes. Thu man
drawing honey then ties a oloth to his head and body, and gets
down the chain of bamboo itioks. In order to press the honey mto
the basket by means of the stiok above referred to, when the mon
at the top bum a bundle of green leaves, grass, and firewood and
sling It down by a rope to drive the beos by the smoko. The man
in the oave then drags the honey into tho baskets and is pulled out
by the men at the top. If there be no trees on the top or a peg
eannot be pitched into tho ground, no endeavours are made to
draw honey.”
The season for taking honey is June and July,
II, Owidapali .—The Cuddapah tehsildar reports the annual
take la tho Laukamalai and Faloonda Hills to be about 3S0
maouds.
The names of the four kinds of bees as given by him ore as
follow :—
Toonti-teni or hoes in trees and shrubs ; m^tsara-teni, bees in
hollow trees ; loli-feni, boos in holes ; pera-leni, bees in rock caves.
HI. Proddulor ,—This tehsildar says the local supply is only
about 15 maunds. The best sort of honey procurable in Froddutor
bazaar oomes from Bellary, and is worth ite. 2-8 to Ks. 2-12 per
tnaund. The looal honey and that obtained from Bumool is worth
about Ks. 1.4 or Bs. 1-8 per mannd. There are only two sorts of
bees called Peddaptra and Toontu, The former store honey in
rook oaves, and the latter In walls, hollow trees, &c. In taking
honey the bees are driven out by smoko. The hives of tU^iarge
sort are taken by moonlight.
IV. Rayachoti ,—The tehsildar says that the Yanadles are the
only oaste who take honey, Hu gives tho same olassifioation of
bees as that given by the Sldhout tehsildar. The annual take is
about 20 maunds for the whole talook. The honey season U July
and August, with a subsidiary one iu November and Beoembor.
Extract of report from tho Collector of South Canara, Mr.
Sturrook
Tho marginal figures show the quantity and value of the honey
exported from and
Value imported into the
Ba. ‘ tevenil ports of this
distriot during the
i»7 official year lOH-SZ
The seUing price of
honey in the looal
luroan. . market U about Bs. 10
E er owt. There Is a
irge demand lor it,
os it is valued for its
medicinal qualities.
In conneotion with
the remark in Board’s Prooeediugs dated 10th February 1882,
Up. SM, tkhat there are periods when honey is reported to be
unwholesome on the Nilgiru, I may mention that two deaths from
•tmMni r h m^a y havo boeu reooutly reported from the Cooi'dapure
teiow. I have called for further particulars.
Extract from report from Mr. C. H, Mounsey, Acting Special
Axsteiant OoUeotor, to the Collector of Qaoiam :—
The tnlorau^on I give is aimoet wholly derived from the report
of th« UdayxgM anb-imiit^toate. and from it you will mo UMt
vary little, U fgiytUiif, U dotw u trading in hooey.
Bxpobt.
Fpr otbw Hum dtstiist ports
Xbdlstilst]
t ports
Quantity,
Owts. on,
1» S
za 1
hmUiMmt..
Qua
dlititot ports
lU
"o
1,0S3
4
0
40
S
0
10
so
8
17«
2
la the dlvbdMB (par sorts of hoohy am Obtained, called
respeoHvely bhiiffe hcMy, mthapuria honey, hiiteAaata honey, and
HiktU boaiy, I ham mio given the foUowlag particulars about
them'
BAogo i7imiey.—Xhhi is ihada by a large and flerpe daeoiiptioo of
bee (hoaoe the name), whose neats are omy found on lofte trees and
steep oliSii of rock. The lad^itente of Ohinnakimsdl dare not
try to take this honey. In tiw Qoomaur M al i a h s it is obtained by
t]Wg dried palm loaves to very losg bamboM, and in the night
applying these leaves Ughtod to ^ nest, ^he bees are thereby
driven away, the trees are olimbed, the opmb transferred to pots
and brought down. If the trees are too difficult to climb, the
nest is knocked down pisoe by piece by long bamboos. This is
avoided, if possible, as the fall to the earth breaks the eells and
the honey gets damaged. The honey is extracted by first catting the
comb to small pieces, and then squeealng tho honm out. It is
thick Mid veiy sweet, and is used lor food, but it u no use as a
medicine. The comb is very large and very full of honey. This
kind and the next sort I shall mention are comparatively rare in
theee biUs,
Satitapuria -Henw.—Bees make this sort in hoUow trees or old
white-ant heaps. The bees ace a smaiiar and leas fieroe kind than
those which make the hh«go honey. To obtain their honey, they
are driven off with branches, and it their nost is in a tree, it is cut
down ; if In an ant-heap, dug out. The honey is exteaotM ss the
bAoffo honey is. It is not so thick ss that but very sweet and use¬
ful for medicine. The cells alsQ have a large proportion of honey
iu them, and tho oombs are large. They are nuilt up In seven layers
(but what each layer consist of X cannot find out); hence the name
dath-apuria.
The third and fourth sorts, though not very oommon, are by no
means rare iu this division.
Binchania Ilonty .—The bees that make this generally build
their nests where smallish branches intertwine, A very large
nest will not be more than a foot or so wide and long, and from
such a nest only a qnartor seer of honey Can be obtained. It Is a
thin honey, not very sweet, bat palatable. Its name is said to be
derived from the fancied resemblance to the motion of a fan
(binchania) in the nest as the branches it is built on sway In the
winds. The beos not being fierce, the honey is taken in the day¬
time by lighting a fire underneath the nest, or beating the bees off
with branches.
Nikiti Honey .—The fourth sort is found in cracks in walls and
piate, between timber, or in boles in the ground. The bees are
very small (hence the name 1 am told) and quiet, so much so that
children oolleot the honey. Very little is obtained from one nest,
and the eggs of the bee, they say, being bitter, fAvM the honey a
naturally acid taste. The-houey Is good for eatinii.
The honey nowhere appears to be puroosely ooOeoted for sale or
barter j but if the Khouds have a good find, having put aside what
they want for their own mediolue or domestic consumption (it is
largely used to quiet children instead of jaggery), the remainder
will bo sold or exchanged for salt or other oominodlties at the
markets.
Extract of letter from the Rev. E. Bonaronture, Roman CatboUo
Priest at Surada, to the Collector of Qanjam
From my arrival iu India I have a{ppUed myself to find out
some means for the Introduotion of domustio bees, considering this
to be a great iinprovamout in the general domestic economy of the
great ludiau family. Unfortnnately, the few discoveries 1 succeed¬
ed In arriving at on the aubjeot are more theoretical than practical.
1 don’t know of any native or European having snooooded iu introduc¬
ing domeetic beos iu this forest region. But with the view to a small
profit, the Khouds do not neglect tho gathering of wild honey—
abundant iu their forests—to sell it iu the baiaars, where it is
cousumed by natives, who seem very fond of It.
in this plaoe people distiugalsh six sorts of wild bees. They are
called Ooriah m (1) BagiM hfohu Matchi, (2) Salopori Matchi, (3)
Bitchinna, (4) Hatci Kanno, (5) Tankna, (o) Nikti, Here are a few
particulars about each one of these six species :—
(1.) Bagha Moka Matchi (metaphorically or oncmatopbieioally so
called, because, say the Indians, It is tarriole as a tiger) Is atont
the size of our domestic European bee, a little looger, brown, and
builds its oombs on boughs of largest trees ; is approa^ed at with
difficulty, and gives but little hopes of being ever d^estioated.
(•2.) filoMopori fifoAu UfajcAi (beoause it builds no more aud no
ess than seven oombs) makes its home In the earth, in the eaves of
bouses, or in tranks of trees ) is of a small 8ize->-uot tho impest—
aud of a dark browu colour ; it dues not isem annoyed at the vici¬
nity of human beings, aud could therefore be easily domMticated,
Some native people hkvo made the fcllowlng experiment,
which proved, they say, to be suoosstful ;—Having discovered a
swarm of “ SattoperF’bees, they oatefnlfy remove the combs of the
young nymphs, place them in an earthen pot, and after a few days,
see the new boM working in this bouse os U it wero their birth-
place.
(3.) Bilekiivm{aiAe one red comb of a ■emi-ciroalar form like a
fan); (4) HauTkanno (beoanse of their one comb having the shape
of an elephaut B cor) ; (3) Tankna (one small oomb having the form
of the stone of a mosqae)—Are three sorts of small bees of a very
wild nature, bnild their booses on the boughs of trees, fear the
vioinity of animated beings, and give bnt little hope of domestica¬
tion.
(6.) Ntiti (which means a small pair of scales), probably on ac¬
count of the size of the boo and of the little quantity iff honey
f iven, is, iu my opinion, tho emallest beo observed in the oountry,
t works fti the trunks of trees or iu the craoks of Old walls, I
now follow the work of a swarm of these intoesating little oreatures
settled in an old wail near tho Mission House In Surada. My In¬
tention is to prepare for 'them sm a ll hlveX and tiy (by still, I don’t
know what means) to domestloate tiMtn, If suooew auwwi my
triet,-{l) itert-a <WA, ’(St wiNiKMiK^'
y<mitiH!*oWi. , : ,' : nitmf inuk, {S) hiiut^ rij^‘ '{ifa,iSii
Sstlibtof rtiMtiftlim tte Aiditast CoUtrtpc, 1|1<. A.'^.C. »(it. 1 Md S m ^
"■ ■■ "“ WtrfQiaiim!— rwstatie* li*l»o good i the
Ooilabt tb«t infa«t)H the iMwded tb«l«tt*rii hole* in tiUtMakil <lf Am ^
tMoth, ^hqt, DorgttirMaid, Qtmaugfa, Oldi- *c»rc». Tbecontbtof Iwthtre Tan>ov« 8 d (7 the
', At the foot of the i^ti, w ifeft ta the more etiog, K«v S k fonnd ki bq% iq thee*, Ao,;
hltdfaturMod and Kurohsly, nehgnUe ejztdlD^ 8 ii found In hole) in tlte'groutad| whdW^t'l
dCatiaguiihed Bi :ti ' good. Ko. S.-r-ThS<i«thehaa«T(rf At*lMg«k«
wtttdui of
giUiJB, nhdSt^
remcAejicb^ d*jl
o{ bepi, erhioh Are
f bepi, vhkh Am idnidiy daidaguiihed Bi :>H '
(1;) Bodidb^ Mmu Staie^ (2) Smin^^k' AfoKu Afahkti (8)
Jfote ■«»(«!!>(, (4) flinwEotw ifahBbtateSi, (J) linioX^
MeM, (6) i/U^ Ifod* muKH-,
Tiaie|iMAfieAthiBl»eel4enti)r.b*B»d «& the TeB{>t(rtdT« dimen-
oni ibd twooMitfltie* trf thote ptMed tuaeie ^'jpBKht)
13^01 Ko. 1, b^tiMiAMMii AMtnatt foMnidAble, k daiortp-
tbrelj eaUed the
Ko. S, the^ek Abtu
»«i«n- tow4, iS) iKi^Pe jfiMArr^ TKitga UMpp
honey). HM. 1 And e AM the tpoBt maih th* er»' pi- -tott
vAdetieA k Ahw good 1 the former n |bwUa mhe<«td«whMAi,'
the Utter ii hoM in the tMaU df Am Imm b
ACArce. Tbeoombtof both Are removed (7 the hAiad ; Ate beeh do sat
S«f«; 2 bfonnd bhq%btrtj., io!ttBvmlf jnhd. Ho,
8 b found In hole) in tlte groubd, wbdto-Ant h^,'At,; vnwb
good. Ho. S.-r-Thb b the hoaeTirf Ate loigehee t itb‘'bnpd!BawMd-
ed in Urge combe from lofty beet end roebi 1 the hee b
if dbturbed. Honey b notezpoim, but the trap fp oobSmT Iv
G ottehi Aud £oyu, And eold or WteMd to bAdeaa, fto, SUrtaem
U eometimei need to give a ytUov ooloor to the tma."
Mr. H. A. Sbt wrbin from<Kuneool,
The only VArbty of baetbatb'kBoiim«B!bid«hibt)aA''dUbtbii b
[Ageishoaey.fiy "fSedaiaglid MoAu MtUthU; the Urge one tbot bnilde be eombe to gtept tampii pp. ittArlbbtipf
«imy dAngeroue, b eomewAt imARer, And or in orevioei Among Aie rtokk. Tiw . HdBaMUb^ am
bedu the “little tigw-hOney-fly" (SaUfU- lb oWef bAbiteVAnd the honey b ArmgAttnrnd^^lii»£lAiAMatA
Ho, 3, though leee offeaein, talArger than *°d by titemeoldto the npmot OOmAttei lapbmbSh.iwinitii
tbo dUTere in the fact that vrhiUt be combe of other aeoeaeariee, at tbe rate of 4^ nr dgplee A^MtOi, ab
cUto) Mtsohed to ib ea’ygiort in the form of a lia (bitudim) t Ho. dt b a
fi owee Ui tame to tb peonlU^ long wing oeverleb gatherera
vrfthln vrhioh, aa’lt mere,‘it haa tta abode (teafe) j “ No. d b belonging
the moat inoffibabe and fflaiinntlve of alt (HihiA “ the Uat 13be hoi
of A leHea X regret tiutt the tnmt of booke of refsrenoa of oloar and
entMmOoKf peemtt aiy aHemjiitng to identiify theie beee Ueaidto
wilA ereU-hnoem «|^ei diowhere. It may be remarked, {^ngb
however, that the Khonda oiore ghait do not appear to dboriminate ^0 7 *et 1
eo oatAfnlly'between tbeie different kinda, aa I believe all beee are I can gl
I profeabiomdfcenej^
and Wadder oattaa,
The honey haa a ellghtly bitter nevonr, hut b dSMcwbe verfedtly
car uid gioA, vriiilo the Wax ia white and firm > the hot-weAthet
eaid to be (he time for taking it, but I have hadao dlffioaUgr in
itting it b the oold weather aa weU, and it b nrobably taken all
e year ronad.
I cm give no lofonnaAon aa to the quaptity prodooed : it oan
caU^ one tiame In the HiUa “ (puH iet ongit,"—i.t„ “the honey hardly be very mn<m ; bnt anob aa it b, b finda a ready aab, and
fjEtanlfiy (htemai " and their hlvea “ pukigara,” there would probably be a Urge demand for Imported honey If It
^ehabib of tMae alz aorb of beee, aa far aa they have been eonld be aold at a reuonabU pHoe.
obaerved, aretimt deioribed Hop lands make their combe on The mode of barveitlng diftera ilightly in the two p^eoea. The
Alt A V t nil il ■! Kmw««atli jAm m/ mViA J __t_ ^ _ 1 J_ .!.■ OKaanAmiv BavlL^t lu, _ J __l a.L.____1- e. • I * ■ •-
. .„ _ ___^ JW® oontinnout Hue of bambooi* tiftd togrther with itript of fcish
produce aometm or twelve (Ganjam) aeera of honey. Madap bark, and with a long atlok in hfi hand aweapa the oomboff
Hoa. S and'0 frequent hollow trunke of treee and orevloet of rooki elm into a cloth that b hauled up by hb oomradea 1 above,
and waiU, which tne^ Inhabit for periods of about two years. A These men are of oourte excellent climbera and aeem to diiregard the
eeoaon’t outtnm of honey averagea twelve (Qanjam) eeers, and being beo-stings. The Panlem Boja, on the other hand, has only to work
of Superior quifitb, fa Ughly prized. omong the low cliffs of the YerramalUls j, he, thecefore, oilmbs nu
Hoa, 4 and 5 build on boughs of small trees and bushes, and aru °elow, and, first taking the pNcantion to smoketbe beee off he
freonently found in giugelly crops. They appear to bo of the roost ekehos the combs right and left with his knife and oatolwe the liquid
reetleie dispoeltion, seldom remaining for more than forty days In “ 0 “oy It falls in the large sack-like leather oap that he wears,
one place, and eoneeqnetltty seldom yield more than two (Oanjam) Es'-raot oi itport from Mr. F. JE. Kobinsou, in charge of the
uuuuy as 11 laus in tue large sacK-axe leatiior cap that he wears.
, . _,_, Es'-raot or itport from Mr. F. JE. Kobinsou, in charge of the
seers of honey. Madura Forests, to the Conservator
The quaKty of the honey Of these wild bees U decidedly Inferior lo thia district aboo. 0,000 meas-irei of honey are ooosumed
tothatof the domestioAted bees-of Knrop, and at times oven yewlyi of which 8 , 0 yo are ...ouuoed in the dktrlct, both from
pobooone owing to the beee having resorted to noxious flowers, Government and private forests. The rema;..der is imported from
No syetematic belhed of bee-keeping has over been attempted Tipovelly, Ooimbatore, StiJein, and Bmrgalore distrioto. About
by the natives of my division, whloh, as far as I am aware, does ^be consumption is in the Hindoo temples. The honey ia sr'd
not contain a single domesticated bee. I can tee no retuen, however, merket between As. 14 and Ks. 1 -4 pr measure,
why on experimental bee-farm should prove unsueoeisful. Melii- , domesticated in this division. Wild bees make
ferouspUnts and trees, saoh as the manwah (Kasaia laUfolia) and oombs on rocks, boughs, and sometimes in the eaves of lioirses
kino (Kuteo/ronrfosa), of whose flowers wild bees appear exoeodiag- and honey U pthered therefrom by wild tribes and by I'alaycis,’
ly fond, grow abundantly ( and that honey and wax would be “y of smoke aud ladders made 0 / uroopurs, &c.
duly appreciated is beyond question, having regard to the fact that The foUowlng kinds of bees are found in this district
the demand in the market Is even now suffloiontly strong to induce , Penmihawe or Maln.iih(UK.f, n large boo with body of a
hill and low-oonntry Khonds to bring, from time to time, to Rue- ‘"'''ons hue, segments blackish, and wings dusky; body iO
snlkonda, BeUngunda, Bodokodunta, and Siirada, their nnoertaln kch long. Makes thick hirncj', whloh b dark white streaked with
supply. '■ed or bmok. The comb is tv'o feet by one foot, and is found
The honey thus obtained b, after ooniideiable adulteration, local- ’*"‘kr cliffs at high altitudes, and yields about two measures of
Iv consumed, the total value of the sales being estimated at “oney. It stings severely.
Rs. 2,000 per annum. (2.) ServlKante or FtUht ’awe or KovfiinUlutnee ■, body O'T inch
Though it Is doubtless true, la remarked by the Board, that }°“ 8 * Found iu holes of trees on plains and low bllla. The comb
“ much of the fertUiaatlon of flowers that is done In England by “ small, yielding scarcely more than one-sixteenth measure of
bees b in India done by ante, *’ 1 venture to suggest that It is
equally trne tiiat maeh of tbs aTOei-fertilisatlon of plants in India , (^-l^ntuAuthanes or TkodiUbantt ; Isngth 0'6 inch, Found In
as dsewheie cannot be effected by ants, bnt only by permanently- I>l»fu», often in olueters. Yield about h^
winged ioseote, such aa beee.
Spiengel waAkbeflint to point ont that the true funotlon of hone;
measure of honey and half solium wax.
[ 4) ATosuvanfAofies
bait pollu:
; body 0
opewges was voeone so poms ous snas soe srue lunetson or nonoy , '' i uoujr v '8 Inoh long, very tiny. Seen ntesr
wae to eecnN nfoee-fertilleatlon by the attraotion of ioseots; and icaroely one-elxteonth meaauro of honey,
Mr. Denrin baa proved that to ^eot this desirable object. It b not and-a-Uaif pollum of wax.
onlyneoeetarythatMUenihould he carried/ram a cl^ermt/hwer, , “t-J. A. Brodie writea aefollowa to theConaervator of Fc.'eite
only neoeaaary that MUen should he oarrled from a cliffertmt fiower,
fantabo/nm a d^reiti plsat. Such tranafere can geoatally only
be made ^ winged baaeb aa beet, whloh readily flit from plant to
Mr. y. A. Brodie writea aa follows to theCkmaervator of Fc.eite
from Malabar—
be made winged imsMb aa beet, whi^ readUy from plant to 1 hauonr to report that the practice of bee.keming b
slut, and not by oreeping ineeote, u anb, that of nooeeaity crawl unknown to the natlvee of Mabbar,
Irttt flower la flinr^ _ ,, ,. The wild beee oonatruot their neete on or In treat or rocks liiiH
lforwv«.Sfa i^Luhbook’a bveatlgatUma 'have shown that cult of access In the months of February and Mwnh which b S»
aer^Bo'^N^erm-^M by h^ey-eaeklng ^ngti inieote, wriod when tee treea of aU deaoripIdoM flower in this dlvtaton.
aaqll not be aO larttlbefl at^ loAsmuchaa thwbavo been epeolally the Mnloers (hillmen) take the honey In April and May before tlw
i,„ «•*„», rmm ante that would mere^ steal their _ houov relny eeaeon Hte in. It b ronghly estlmat^ that notlSa than
,— —‘ lertll- paras of honey are oolleotsd from the (Jovemmentand orlvata toraate
ssj,—_ -- , winged in- eltuatod In my divbion. '
ssj,—» -w-- - . winged in¬
sect Aa the bee.
Thus, thevaMyinnna eXaPnitar (b/-Iss of spines abd dowuward-
toadlhgdeVMte bain that mob flowenoa the mriina and hmfum
besr, the .^oAimnssxndAtlona ’ from the llmneta, and fflie sUspery
gmrh..,.! . Tbe» »M two kinds of beet, one Urge and the Other aaaU, The
j; ^ A ' *“'“8“' ^kd prodneee a large quantity of honey, locally' pS.
WAausand aleo wax. ftU hooey b not oteSSlw^m ^
EZEjnS
nafuret preteisHoii tor themrpetuatlon of those ^etes,
Aa resreiaiteAtivetaf^tbcse and many other aimllAr speciee
exist In Indb, it b nsAntfest that the part played lo their oroee-f^
tiUsation by imdi haaty<a«flciag, penuanently-wlnged Insects as best
b fat from InaoDsUbrAbia. - 1
The whole qneblon cf bee-keeping in India tfani acqnlrei not only
oomnetnlal, bnt a aolentiflo, -iaMMib ^
KxbAot M report from Mr. W. V, Fbeter, Colleetor of tke Oode.
smalt, and is omiidei^ to poAsess me^olnal pniq^eribA
fiPb ItiiiM Mfb 0 f kbuyTifltiiMtl
bt I'Abs.-aTMw. AM
jtiAgbA ei lUt db<
an
From some places, such oe Abthnor. VadMuBiiawrt Wi»._
and wax are oarrled by Moplah inercbaate to
placet for mb. ^
In a further btter he .wrltet-.-.,
J9sWM.->.I4a not know whAberthey toberb^ darittW
soon Of not, but will eadeavenrle Bad, ttlit, Mb itwiSs to -m
mmtiu do the yonarbemnittrai t the lliS^ib ^
56
laMt Uiul niontiily rsDsrt Itwttt ifw 8in«iviBteiril<«li ‘Vf'st'alw
nlnBIliiiijl, of whi(&lEh«'](6&m^%tt^ is^-;
**1%« {p»d«tt kat mA iiii^R’ doMoA el ttHwlMir shaH, fmt
&we li a eood dew j^itoMdeme iA that «Wf; ’sCtteWona*
fSntalphmtWMofAtu ^wpti^ed. Wid niUl be iaiMd ia
dtie ooiuM ;!& I%« WantumH ntembeta dWirtef a fear, bat ohol'oe
plaate in th^ niajr ha^ ^ Wm bjr; vfeWag
garden aadtMuim|i"titeir ovn toieetfoa.
" wWwfora bee taken Very IrhDd^ to Bee^, an_ - . . , .. .
being «weeta]f toente'd dun 4foy*ta cttrledern, ' tweet aaeattd alio to proteot it from being robbed at sight, it
yerbBIU^’ betidea growing to a good aiie, Mgbt to malia it- a Terr lenoed ronnd alao, to keep aaiina}i and oiMu oati.aad
popslar plant, and one that no honae ahoold be wltiunt. the land planted oat wai from | to an aore tn ennt.
^IhepotWoaldndljaBpiiUed the ------ . - . . - -—^ ..
tome treated’at' «ba aisa& 1 « 3 wMr«wW|iiWikl'M #l'al^
T««etable garden.’ nelandadaelei hidAOt baa* oa tMebt ad »r
aOfiieitz yean Mat, arl^ ltd 10ofc|ng aiQ, dot Idia 'jwi!||&
lint and Wtowed to in, titan fired it iw ,tba Aidb cbqKWM dt
oaoe, and then qpdafcungtreB tiitit'aiM,nniilddt at^'tWmtf
all root!, atonei; do., aiM pWreritlng tnewfiat 'faun M poaania,
putting tile potatoa on ddfis aa di tile natfia euMtt t# w
dietriiit. aartraunpaa wWlaadnot*weadWtoteed to^jKnr»far
one oooUe waa kept oonatantljr on the field for 'tida .p nrpwd, Mid
have bMptiuted am look very nrotnlaing; by nast meeting
hope to be able to rwpwt fatly on ihem.
The Iron Float Honaa, now la eontae of ereotloa, will he fonnd
very naehid ftr m»a>bhta find othett eeleotlng plante, ae being
mMMdittiOti, a gtaaoe wlU tiiOw what la avallule.
''^Xahall ihtha oonraa nt bUw dayaaend np to Seoretary’e Office
JlwNM kmtriaiu and JBulmia OoUon aeed; a fair aupply of th<
former haa been oollaoted, and the latter la being gathered.
’‘I^ ehade thrown by Orwehza regia haa 1 ^ a 3 peDaliar effeoi
on a bad bl Baaie planta, all within ita range baring taffered, and
to'all ^ppeuanoe died down. Onremoralof tho Oratdoxa regia
the Boee^lante reoeVered their yitality, and I have every reaaon
to beliOTe will do well | this may be worth enquiry, aa Ortodoaa
rrgln doaa notaj^aar to hare a banaftil efieot on other planti.'’
Bhcui Of SxffuiuRifAi. CnvnvATioK or Kmaow FofAToa
tt TBS BABAnUWO DtlTBIOC,
--- --r---V - - ^ ^
garden by Mt. W. Stelkartt dag np in Beptember, many tnbere Ware fonnd to be hhlf-rottea.
and many more bad thrown ont new Tinea fonr to flya' Uohaa
long ; thii, I am Inclined to think, ihowe that the eianmgn there
la not inlted t<xc potato growing, and taema that ft la eWthar <me
thing or the other. Boot npon root waa dag to, withont • aifif^
fonnation of a tnber, and any number of athen with mkly Ma
tnber, in whloh caae, it invariably waa a fairly large ona, with a
red aktnj eome of the white ikln roote gave Ava. and els tabetf,
but only one oould be oallad medinm eUe) rteiilt of prodnae
abont twenty>aeren mannda, or about tiiree maanda fOr waf one
maand planted, which ie a very powr yMd indeed, and TOdhly
oonvlnoes me that potatoe will not ^w wdl nnleai la a aw that
retain! moiiture, and in a medinm tempeiatare, and at an eteva-
tlon of about 6,000 feet or eo when planted in Febrnory or Hiureh,
or on tiie plains In September or Ootober, when thtiri b a ve^
good amount of forolng heat and a good amount of molitare in the
loll retained after the closing in of the rai^ eeaioa to aaiiat the
development of the tabera after forming. 1 have experimmtted
op here now for the hut lix eesioni with potatoe, and stanally
Bead a letter, dated 8 th September, from the Seoretaiy, Govern. ~ —-— - r--• -—
meht of India, Bevaiuo and Agrlonltoral Department, requeiting f«Aed each year. In all other ordinary earden prodnoe r have
to be fundtiied with a report on the above poUtoi, of whloh a been most auoceeefnl, whloh oonvlnoea me that I am not Wtogeiher
- ‘ ~ ‘ ' to blame for the failure, but that the elevation and soil u not
suited, and would never pay to cultivate the potato, no matter tf
the very 6 eef seed pottibk could be procured and planted.
■U
Ipply was given In Febrhwy lait.
the following letter, dated 2od December, from Mr. H. J.
Leitob (Meiere. Uoyd ft Co.) in respeot to the above
•< Witii reference to your letter of ISth September last, eneloi
ing one from the Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
regarding the lamide potatoe banded to me for diitribution In the
Du’ieeling dlitrlot, I have now the honour to forward the reporta
I have received from the different planters In the Darjeeling
distriot, to whom I entrusted the samples for experiment. I can
only eTOtess my regret personally that the reeults have not been
more latisfaotm."
PVom Mr. W, Belpt, Sitigbala, lilh Mowmber, to Mr. H. J.
" Your favour of 7tb Instant to hand, have written to the
following gentlemen for their reports on the potatoe I sent them,
and li^adlatsly on reoelpt wUl forward on to you
Mr. H. B, Irwin
A. B. AUlW
A. C. Onrtie
c. a Beta
J. C. Horn
S. Smith
H. W.Oralgle
B. %hgrav 6
,, G< F. Fmouteed
., F. A. ’Wearing
, Funkabaree
, Bing Tong
Ting Ling
Murmah
Nahore
Teesta Valley
Ololle
Selimbong
, Amhrotia
1 bag.
2 bags.
2 ba^,
8 hags.
2 bags.
2 bags.
2 ba^.
2 bogs.
20 seers.
20 seers.
“The remainder WMput down by me on land belonging to the
new Fallodbl TwCo., U., at an elevation of about I,OW feet,
with exception of about 20 seers, which I planted in my vegetable
garden at an elevation of about 3,360 feet.
“ Owing to the lateness of the season for planting potatos in the
Terai, and the reoelpt of your private note without date, the
Instmotions contained in Messrs. Lloyd ft Co.’s letter of 0th
February last for the dUtribution could not be carried out, so that.
In ooheloilon, I con most oonsoientloatly say tiiat 1 devoted a
great deal of time and attention to the preparing of the land wd
we planting of these tubers, but regret exceedingly the thing hiw
turned ont so miserable a failure.
From Mr. H. M. Ltomrd, Ooomkt TtaOo, Ld„ Kwieong, 14lit
September 1882.—Yours of the 0th February, anent oultlTatlon of
potatoe, to which I replied on tiie 14th February 1883. I dlstrt-
buted the potato se^ amongst some of my people, and also
planted a quantity under my own supervision, but found nearly
in every oaee that the seed rotted and in other oases yielded but a
poor crop, Of small waxy potatga, the size of bullets. The
aocoinpanjdng fibres will show the peroentage of some of the seed
planted, vis., 20 seers seed 80 seers pmtos aU verr small,
and from 16 seers eeed 40 seers potato! also small, and folly half
were rotten and not St for use.
From Mr, F. Uph^rave, dated SeUmhov^ Betate, Nagriipoft,
14th November 1882.—Your post-card to hand. The two bags of
potato! yon sent to me were in very bad condition, many of them
rotten, evidently through being oouSned in tho ba^ too long, con¬
sequently only Mlb. were St to sow, which produced, as near as I
am able to ascertain, about 4701b, Soon after they were sown I left
for England, and the party I left in charge did not take any account
or trouble With them. I nave been given to understand tney were
greatly eaten by insects, but I did not see the potatos myself.
From Mr. O. F. Flamsteed, dated NaboTe, J9th November 1882.
—Here is the Rev. Wilson’s report on the potato aeed I gave him.
The of seed was in a very advanced stage for sowing, and
yielded 27 seers for sowing only; prodnoe close npon 8 } mounds,
not very Urge or small j quality good ; these I have saved for seed,
as the first time is no criterion.
From Ml. A. 0. Oartis, dated Ting Ling, Ittk November 1882,—
jrSorvUbry u«iv iW Vt*8» MiaviiutAWvaa wsaava laww ww vMtaavva VWW) mj wuMb* _ , . • .s iaxo. t. x. .Ti. V x * x
in imitation with tho Ute Mr. Forbes Hall, the within mentioned f? reply to y ours of the 10th about the potatos, I am sorry to sw
lUtwas agrssd to instead. Several wealthy natlvee of tho dUtrlct *^!y,!r®re “ f^urt^A roe :_moetof them wen destroyed by rod-
were asked to plant some of the potatos --
_ _ _ well, but 1 regret to
eay,'not one of ^em oared to do it^ or seemed to take the sUghtest
■ b in the matter at sU."
Lloyd it Oo.,
int^t in the matter at all."
Report on Potato tmd ree^ved from Meters,
OaieuUa, as per tkeh' letter of 9th February 1882.
“ ZniManh 18^—PUntod In my vegetable garden at about an
elevation of ^850 feet, ten eeere of nnaU tubers In tranches well
n^pared with lahes, lime, and manure, each trench idioat 2j) feet
imart, audpotatos sown about eight Inches apart, the tubers were
v^ sUall wltii all eyes but one pioked out, nearly every one
sent TO which grew exceedingly well, and formed good
enbftimttal lOM^lag jriaats, neoeseary earthing up was done, and
whm the wiuAe of the vines had completely dried, were dug np in
the month of dnly, result being only 20 seers of very poor.
ante before they came to maturity.
From Mr. F. A, Wearing, dated AnUtrotia, Hth Noveteiber 188S,
—I duly reoeived your poet-eard and here is the answer. *
I gave eome to a eirdar, who planted them at about AOOO feet
elevation at the time you gave tliem, and they came np fairly well.
I really cannot tell you the exact kind of sell, though I eu^poee It
might be called a light oUy.
Others I planted down near the Jorah that mas through oor
garden in first class soil, but It b too wet for them to snooeed eo
low In the rains, end though eome same, tbs majority rotted.
I have planted another crop juat at tha elosa of the labta, and
I think they should do weU.
From Mr, 8, Smith, dated Teeeta FaUey Tea- Oompmty, Xeartftff,
Darjteiing, list November 1882,—In rom to youra of the lOtii
np. wltii mit the la test sign of a tuber having been formed; i w to state that I planted out some of both kinds on^W
Bad anu very destraotive,
“ Flantod la my vegetable garden at the above elevation ten
aeers of the largest m tubers cut Into four and firs pleeas, put
into wril-dug dasp trwtohai, mannred last ysar with oowdung,
and itt wM^ nothing had been grown since It waa numnred,' soli
was beautifully prepared, pnlveriSM, and forked deep to abont one
anda-hi^ ) dug up In July, result abont thirty seen, not one
of the tttbeni being eqnid In sfse to What wen planted, aa with the
smsli ones ; any BUmoer of the vine roots not having the slightest
sign of a tomstloa «B them whether from having been In every
young state, destroyed by red ants, or nos, I am unable to say,
bat land them <iea ants) vetY destructive mp at thb elevation,
and do Ml I oan, I oatmot rid tite place of them, fml have burnt
the used ash« wid.lliiid to 8 AMM extent and still of no very
great bwaafiotal avsdl. 'Miroh 4fl^ filii, 7fh, 8 th, Sth, azul 10th,
ptsntri idhenainiidionaseer*at«n of about 4,000 feet,
_ beg to state that I planted ont some of both kinds on 'Iwtiay
after titelr arrival (the28rd February); thb seams to have bMft'too
late in tile season for thb plaoe 1 the weathw by the time the
potatoes showed above ground, had beoeme p ret t y not, eanstng too
epid growth. Tha stems pr^Ueed wets snormous tn Mas, and
>be tubsrs wars both large and abuadan'k but tire > liffis WeAs
in ns before they were ripe, so that on digging up a Maa% only
^bont one.thlrd of the tubers were fit ita nse, me larger ones
were rotten, and the smaller unripe. I have no doubt hadtiiv betit
ilanted from six to eight weeks earlier titsy would have MM 4 a
mormons crop.
On one plant (the white kind) I oouated no fewer than 88 tabeNi
he average return waa about ten times,but had they keen ready
Mfore the rafau eat hi, U would have been newer twen^,' -
The quality of those fit for Use was exosOnlt.
Aiofeed—That tihe bset thanks ot tiw he ghfan io Mf,
PUIBWa DU&V BWIUIU* VaW WjVwfifMavaa aweaweaw a^WVV ftWMftj -^aronw wa w w swvmw wae w isaem VA a«4SV W Mtye
.patting 4qms down Whole, MM mt late toff Ifid five pueea, and. ter tee tnmUs ee kladly given tevwda tha
i im.
kfimwmmnm.
57
!l$i|itiIkMkf from Jottn K Zbvatoai, |niL
OdSup^twSiM ISA Ootebar, wwkxuoft^ ^
" r|i#i4i| atwiiotriMg* ii4th iiuu>j> thwiu Am Mo«b>t. of y«m
with « omo of nugow £3
MomnolMtlaii would h«To roost rod swUor rsgdy hat for
lk««IMBiid wniKico of ay offiofol bnalnsti, ooBsoqoont upaa ths
Mao^^ l£a Mt«( floronmsnt from the Uoad .of Oralaa to
, **^^1 srith thot Inew am obloto laform you m to too
iwn^ ^yoar Rtod OBdrory rtoublo d<motom.
- *‘ x1»» t i db>e» , with two exoapttoea, were *U sjlve, iW hm
litoatoMU, and ore la «fslr woy of
^itowlkshoso had boea ptovlonsly introdnood by pIoat«s r«*
ttMb^ to too QcdonyoidC^lon, but I am not awaro that they
'***• besaldm
“ Yontw probMly aware that a ohn^er of the Uehee, vit„
Sinhtftoin Itbuttam, b indioenoiu to It is a very fine tree,
atuT^mea very agreeable fruit. But you have it, I believe, in
maarueeti of India, Wot in the Sooiety'e OardenJ
*'W the mangoea, a fairjproportlon were aUve, Tboee dead were
at notod. in toe margin. The plants had ecperienoed tome very
obld Weather, and had, I thinjc, suffered a Utne from the not un-
oommon mistake of being topnlied with too mnoh water. Upon the
whole, however, Mr. Comellni landed his charge in very fair
eonditloii, and bae well eansed my thanks.
'** The names in the margin are moat likely Improperly spelt,
toeie being mnoh dtffloulty in reading eome of the labw, but may
serve to ladtoate the varieties lost.
In eonseqnenee of the early departure of Mr. Cornelius to
Us post at a somewhat distant part of the oolony, I was unable
to oensult him as to what plants in this oolony would be
aooe^bls to your Society.
“ But until he has bMn here eome little time, it is not likely
that he would have, upon such a point, much advice to offer.
“ I shall therefore nil your case for return per 1st .lanaary, and
ship in May next, exercising my own discretion os to its oontauts,
toongh in toe meantime if yon can give me any suggsetions your*
aelf, It will give me pleasure to aot upon them.
•• This oolony appears to present conditions of soil and oUmatc
favourable to the growth of a number of troploal productions, and
With the assistanoe of the older oolonies and dependencies of the
Crown might soon posses* them.
“ Dr. King has vary kindly sent me from time to time a number
of trees and seeds of economic value, and they arc doing very well.
" With the present rapidity of steam oommunioaSon, I find,
however, that the poet is a most useful agent, as by the tranemle,
Sion of fresh seeds the probabilities of a uieful introdaction are
increased, and the risks to Individual plants avoided.
“ If, therefore, it Is within the power of your Society to send me
■eeds of any useful fruit or timber trees, or of any omamsntal
plants, it will confer a benefit on this young colony.
" 1 have suooMdsd in obtaining a grant of land, or rather a
reservation, for the purpoce of forming uurseriee and gardens for
the propagation and culture of useful and ornamental plants and
trees, the management and control of which I have undertaken
myself until such time as the. finances of the oolony will permit of
a professional officer being appointed. |
“ Sir Joseph Hooker and Mr. T, Dyer have both taken great '
Interest in the task I have set myself, and will learn with pleasure
of the valuable and quite unexpected assistanoe you have been so
good at to give me.”
Sttolvtd —That the aoknowledgments of the Society be tendered
to Mr. Thurston for hit interesting oommunluation, that a supply
of seeds be forwarded to him, ana that his offer of reciprocation
be thankfully aooepted,
Javav Pxa.
Bisad a note from the Snperintendeut of tlie Botanic Qardan,
Sahamnpore, forwarding a small paper of the Japan pea (8oja
Ahgsida), and promising a larger quantity on rsceipt of a supply
shortly expeoted from Japan.
The Ssimtary stated that this pea has been brought to the notice
of the Soetety some 88 years ago, as the following extract from
its proaeedlnga for Angnst 1844 will show. A correspondent
(Capi^ Blme,) presenting an assortment of seeds from China,
makes toe f^u^ remarks in regard to one kind, whioh is doubt¬
less toe 8eja hUpiM
•* Of toe eeoulenta the large white pea it deserving of this
notoriety, that it forms the staple of the trade of Changbair, or
nearly eo, to toe astonishing amount of 10 millions of ^llars, or
24 T«»l»|nt»s starling. This I give (a the authority of the itov,
Mr, Meltontst of Changhidr, and Mr, Thom, H. M.'t Consul at
KiogMk The psoa are ground in a mill and than pressed, in a
•omewbai oomplioatad, though as usual in China, a most effioieut
press, by msant of wedges driven under the outer part of tlie
&tne-wotk wito mMlets. No description would suffloe without
a drawing. The oil is nted both for aating and burning, mors
for the purpose, however, and the coke packed like large
Olonoester oheetes, or small grindstones in circular shape, it
distributed throughout Chins in every direction both as food for
pigi an4bn^oea, araiao for manure.’’
Bu-K>sriHo.
Hiad'the foUoiringsote from Mr, John Douglas in oimttiication
of tos intManaad at the last meeting t—
"Xammioeedii^ obiigsd by your letter of the 21it i^mo,
mbe^'^ laotUty for oiutlTating bees at toe Sootsty’s
'* * ’ i», and 1 hope to be i^e to avail rnysw of
I so otstgiagiy offtrsd at ah sarly data.
whioh a^ Sooi^
'*1 am sadsawMofof to bbtota
partlottlariy ot4«i<,daf]toto*< ItoOntd
mwwdm towiucvi'
In Sito>p» to»‘ SMsadiimly
anxlcwa to obtain MM, and I have asttowsd to SMd
a tanan to toe British Bea4«meni’ AtsocUtom tor trU.
” It amy Intsreat yon to iwt* tost of two aneans aad threo
tw^s of Italian bees. 1 hava noetedod ia sa'^two swanis,
whioh now hreodiag,.AiDd *
Fiw I)r. John Anderson, Suvoiiatoitdoiit, ladUa iCnssnm,
i^^b^fw^ormation rtoarding tbs hMiifag «< boos by natives
Tho Sjtma^ry motioned he had atfMMi Shah iiiloftDatiba ss
was possmisd by too Boolety.
i^BOSBoittnt non Wsm-aiM,
Mr, Marshall Woodrow, Suportotaadont, Botanical
Gunesh Kbind, Poona, glvos the following to an antidote for white-
ante !—
•' FerehlMde of msrsaty, as its name implies, Isa oomponnd of
ohionns and macotiry. It is a heavy white «fastenoe
solnble to water, and very pofsonous. It ,1s ]^o<totobls town
jwy ohemJst to a large way of buttoess. This sttbsti^ has been
to use during many years among botaniste and otoer nafaiiwl.w.
to proteot their ipeoimeni from innete, and rsMntiv has
tried with anooes* sgainst Whiteante. ammaay. nas neon
'' ^ use the petohlotlde of mercury it should be dlssohrsdin water
and the p^^rs to be preserved dip|^ to tos sointibn. Olas* or
glsssd-ware veuels only should boused to kem the sMntion As
some officers meet with a diffioulty in gsUing toU sabstanoe a
small quantity has been prsparsd at tids ofloe for distribution. It
is paoked in imall paokete, eaoh.suffioient for one quart bottle of
water, and these t^kats are enclosed to a paper bearing directions
for use and oontamtog one dosen paoksts. ”
CoiurmoATioin ow vaniors sracstm.
1, Fwm Osptoto Pogson, furnishing soms information In rm-
peot to Pyrrihrum as anInaeotloids
1 see by the pro<^ings of the Soolety for September hut, that
iuformotlon U desired on the snbieot of toe Byrrtimm, and I trust
that given on too oth« page wlU suffloe. The pyretorum 1* mnoh
i”'*follsg» plant, and does not grow nreoh M et,.,.
toenia to 20 toohm at Ko^rh, Ths Cdry^temumisfiom
2ito4fMtin height at Simla mid Kotegurh, The native name
for the plant and flower, is •• Gooldaood*e,’’^or Davidk rase
There are five yarletlee of pyr«ttru»-one, 2 feet hlghl two Of
3 inches each, and two of 8 inches each. These four an l^nahlo
for beddtog : all four are called “ Golden fsathsr,” the old uuns
being “ Fever Pew.”
I should say a solution of osrbolio arid, applied toronah an
“atomixer" or spray-prodnosr, would destroy toe red-spider,
and anything else in the inseot line. It does so to AOMrioa
Tobacco water may be similarly used.
No. 1, PyrrtArum pnrtAeninm (linn). “ Common Fever Few,*’—
Flower of disk yellow, of the ray white. July, Perennial.
“ The whole plant is bitter and etrongly soentod, reckoned
tonic, stimulant, and anti-hysterio. It was onoe a popular remedy
in ague : its odour ii said to be particularly dlsagreeabla to beea
and that these insecU may be eaeily kept at a dlslanoe by oarrvlna
a handful of tho flower heade." ^ *
No. 2, Pyrtihrum T’anocstum.—“Leave* stmBsriiio, eordlsl
ca^aUo, uterine ; laeds vermifuge,” Flower* not described, (South
of Europe).
No. 1 growe perfectly ia Simla and Kotegurh, The leaves ar*
pale yellow with a greenish tinge. Flower* in Juiy, August,
head* freely. Won’t answer in the plains. A foliage plant m troll,
OhryimUhtmum eorotutriim (Linn.), Garden oluyiaatosmuffl.
South of Europe. Flowers used to disenss iteatomatoni tumours.'
No. 2, Ohrytanthemttm legeium, (Linn). Com obryeanthemum.
Flowers yellow. Jans to August. Annual, Comfield*. Disons-
sive and atteuuant when used externally ; and given against the
jaundice, asthma, and shortness of breath.
2. From Under-Secretary, Government of India, Bevanne and
Agricultural Department, snquirlug for toformatloil to reapeot to
land-binding plants. Complied with,
8. From toe same, forwarding a model at the “ Mextoan alo*
fibre.extraotor,”,referred to In the prooeadings of the last meeting
A From Messrs. Bslmer, Lawrf* A Co., reqnanting full lirfo^-
tion to rsspeot to th* cultivation of th* ato* plant. fi/<» >p ((td
with.
S. From J. Clarke, Bsq,, Mulbonme, aoknowlsdging reeelpt, to
fair condition, of a case of Oichlds to sxohaage for ferns.
SELECTIONS.
MB. EOBEBTSON ON “TILLAGE AND PLOUQHa”
O N ^ oventog of Wednesday, Deosmber 18th, a lectnre was ds-
U?«Md in.B«llftry fcy Mr. W. B. Robertion, A^^oultaral lU*
portm to toe Govommenc of Msdras, on “ Tillage and Plonghs.”
Mr, H, F. Gordon, th* CoUeotor, was in the omtir. The leoture
was dritvered In tbs large room of the Warlow Institution,
Thm WM 2 large attendance of the gsnerai pnblio, inrinding many
landowsei* and ryot* from toe sunojudlhg asighbwriioood.
Mr, Gordon, mi taking the ohair, pointed ouTtoiA the pmsenoe
ol Mr, .Bobwteon at BsUaiy was day M a^tiin ,<» Us^te
58
TSB INDIAjr A^BJOuSwRISJ'. Vtbrwty Uim.
hvn jKniMthSxg, d«finitely, MwdiM t)ia leialtoof tic. SMwfkMiy
Mo 4 »U«r’( «at«i«ri»« 111 ui^aaaoiBg no eili^n^yety
SwopMik ptosgh* into t)i« dtetHol. Allor aotioiag gcnwally the
very creditable manner in wniob thia near entciyrae had been
•tatiad.Mr. Owdoa.iatrodtteed the lecturer,
Mr. Bobertfoo. •!«)» ae fellowc—My viett tq Bellary on thl«
ocoMlon ie, m Mr. Qordcm hae etatedi iditefly in cennectlou with
the agriciiltDial tefonca Inetituted by Mr. ^bi^athjr Madaliar. I
have oome l« Mr. SabaMthy Mndaliar hae ejected, and
to loam how iar hie eaampla la being IsUtated ly oldLen. It waa
tlxMght'thatX ndghl with advantage give a ahort lecture in thla
toeta on Ullage and Plough* j theae ent^ecta hateg of epocial Inter*
oitat nreeent here. Before proceeding to refer to plonghs in de-
tailr 1 ehatl fitat bring under yonr notice eome general laots refer¬
ring to tillage. And first. I would remark that you may till a soil
without muing uee of a plough; indeed, strictly speaking, the
soile of ^ntherh India are not ploughed. The implement
genera^ wd by Onr (yots, which Is caUed a plough, is really
what is t«no^ a onmvator, being without a mould-board for rc-
coiytng and tnmtng over the soli. Most persons are aware that
the prodnctlvenest of land is greatly stimnlatecl by the soil being
stirred, looeened, end turned by tillage implemeutn. Land that ta
left untflled produees only vegetation of a very low order. It is
tme that, on such land, trees are produced witliout the soil being
tilled; imt trees, generally, require sevorat years, and some kinds
Many years, ro reabu maturity ; while, as yon know, most of our
cultivated crops must be sown, grown and harvested within a
period of less than hali a year; It stands to reason that if the
S lant you desire to cnltivate has a very short life, it is expedient
sat H should be maintained In the fullest possible vigor during its
period of growth, In order that it may lie fully deveiopeu and
matured ; this development will depend very largely on the
amount of available plant food within the reach of the roots of
the plant. I must remind you that plants, like animals, need food,
and that it is no more possible for the plnnt to live without food
than it is fur an animal to do so, Again, you must reuienibur that
animals Bosses* th* power of moving about to search for their
food ; while plants are fixed In the ground, aud though, to a certain
extent, they do spread their root* in searoh of food, this power is
bnt limited. It is therefore highly necessary that you sliould
place the food of plants in olose contaot with their roots. In re¬
ferring to the food of plants, I should point out of what this oon-
suts, Boils are composed of various mineral and organic matters;
tfie former are sand, clay, lime, potash, soda and several other sub¬
stance*. A good soil oohtalns a fair proportion 6f all these, whloh
are called the mineral oonstltuents of the soil; tiie organic sub-
stsnoet art composed cliiofly of the remains of plants which have
bqqome partly decomposed. It has been ascertained by examiuiug,
by analysis, great numbers of samples of eaeli variety of field pi-o-
duce, tut oropq dlffet in their demands on the food yishied l>y the
soil. One vanety of orop feeds largely on potash, and will not
thrive in a soil in which there is a deficiency of tliis miueral; an¬
other variety of orop feeds largely on lime, and oauuot thrivn
without lime in the soil; while anollior must have soda, and so ou.
You will readily understand that if a crop which feeds on the lime
la grown continuously on a pleco of land to which no lime manure
is added, that crop must in time find less and less limo in the soil,
aud therefore the power of the crop to become fully dovolopeil is
lUBSoned year by year, until, eventually, if the cropping U cuuli-
uned, the soil vrtfi be unable to yield un outturn of the orop suffici¬
ent to repay the expenses of cultivation. When a soil has thus
been reducetl in the scsle of fertility, it is said to bn exiiaustod.
Of course, it is not absolutely exhatistud, for it may contain appre¬
ciable quantities of lime, aud other mineral matters, bnt yet nut
In iuificient quantities to admit of a paying crop being produued.
When laud Is in this state, it is usually abandoned by the ryot,
and, after remalaing uncultivated for a number of years, it is pro¬
bably agained resumed for cultivation, and, not unlikely, will, for
some yean again, yield such crops as will satisfy the ryot. Tiie
explanation of this restored fertility is, simpdy, that tlie suil has
again replenished its store of available plant food ; wliich was near¬
ly all used up, when it became necessary to aitondou the land.
This new store of available plant food would Itave been derived
from tho store of inert, inactive, plant food, of which moat soils
contain a large quantity. You may exiiaust a soli speedily of its
rewlily prepared plant food; but the inert plant food is stored up
■arely agaiiist undue wastage, and only beuon;cs available for use,
either ny the land being left for some yours to tiie iuiluences of
_-.i.f.-u_J--1I_j e __ _-A _i.
thieur, wliluh gradually unlocks and sets free a sufficiency of plant
food for the requirements of a further succession of crops. It is
the special oluect of all tillage operations tp open up tliese stores
of plant food: the more deeply aud thoroughly the soil being
tilled, the greater the quantity of the plant fowl sat free for the
use of the orope to follow. It is very true that the more deeply
and thoroughly you till your soil, the better you are aide to toke
out of ttie BoU, by means of your crops, the plant food the soil
snppliet; but in go^ forming tire larger are the crops you produue,
the greater must pe your appUoatiuns of manure, Kememberbig
that you apply to the soil refuse matters which pnaseu but a low
money value, and which for wuitary reaBons should be buried in
the soil, and you gather, in your crops, produce which pPsseseos
a high money value. There are eome suds so rich tliat they will
grow good crops for a long scries of yeurs without iiaving any aid
from manure; blit Bveu with such soils,It is very unwise to erop
them without manuring them: for, deterioration must take placs
when you are oonetaotly taking from the soil and add ucthiug to
it. Eeniember that so Mr I have been speaking cliiefly of deep
tiUoft, not deep ploughing. In deep plougliing you bring up to
the surface of the land a portion cif the undereoil, aud if tills has
not previotuly been stltred by tUlags implemeuts, It may not
immsdiatedy be fitted for the use M plauts, or it may contain
matttntvliwhainaexiouto plants, Ja olthei case the snrioM
soil will, fqr a tlm*, suSeri
than the imrfaoe soil, and by deeip yeit bring tiie
to the surface, you mast IwthsodMifciaSrMne* the feSHly tf
the surfsee sofl. It is, however, bdf astdra’ Aiat Iftd euMcdt la
poorer than the surfSM soli In meat eoseethe sab-soU^^
rioher than the toll, itoiA the latter having been detOrtorated under
the eSeots of continuons cropping without tite use of maovr
while, owteg to* ^shallow tillage sraioh precis Obnost nnl"
tbronghont Sbnthem Indio, the aub-soilTsjgenen^ almost .......
soil; reqnlring only to be deenly tlBed^to be mode an^Me at
once for the mwth of crops. Whsn a soil hot beeui Iniatod hgr
Injudiciolu deep plooghing, in most case* the hduriott* 'etnoia' last
only for a year or two, a* the toll nnder tiie inwtenbe of ^ Otanoi-
sphere and the snn rapidly recovers from tnch lulnir, anflthe raw
unprepared food thus prematnrely brought top hi Oodt«d,iii
It wero, and rendered fit for consumption by ]^antt. diMhri
once botwesn deep tillage, or cultivation, and di^ plongblnfi,
consists In th* former, in the soil being left in the tome poMtim
and merely stirred and moved; whereas, in deepplon(^&,WI
have bofore noticed, the fresh underneath soli ill orougnt^ the
top. You may deeply till any soil without Injury; Indeed, wltb
every advantage ; but you can only deep plough With odi^toge
under certain oonditione; unless the deep piougiiing is Ottalnsd
gradually, that is, say, one Inch greater depth each yeer. There
ar* soila that may be deeply plonghed at once with every advan¬
tage reeultiug. Much of your cotton soil may bo deeply plonghed
at once, because the sub-soils have beeu opened up, and have oew
aSrated, through the agency of the long tap roots of yonr cotton
plants. Theso, by penetrating the snb-soiT deeply, have Opened it
up, and given access to air aud water. Beep tillage, and deep
plcugbiug, are beneficial, not only bocanse these operattcns give
the roots of your crops access to a much larger volume of soil. In
which to feed, but the roots, by going deeper in the soil, are pro¬
tected from the scorching influences of a not sun; the plants grow¬
ing ou such a soil are during a draught much more luxuriant and
robust than those growing ou sliallow-tllled or shaHow-plonglied
land. Besides, tho plants on the deeply worked soil, having access
to greater stores of plant food, are far more healthy, and better
able to witlistand tlie effecte of disease. On well-worked deep
soils, a larger porportion of the rain sinks into tho soil than on
shallow soils, aud the deeply stirred soils becomes a reservoir for
tho storage of water. Again, in deeply worked soils, the watety
vapour which, in tho form of dews, aud fogs, frequently rests over
the land, fiude access in the soil, and is stored there. An acre of
well stirred soil will always iu the dry seasons contain many tons
more of water than shallow badly tilled soils, and this, of course. Id
your climate, is a matter of cousiderable Importance. Shallow
tillage is to he coudemuod from every point of view in a climate
such os this. It is perhaps fortunate for you, and those who are
to come after, that sliallow tillage bus hitherto been the rule here,
for it has preserved to you a large quantity of plant food in the
subsoil, which, under other oiroamstances, might have beou used
up. J'rom what I have said, you will understand tliat the soil is
cot ou an inert mass, but is subjected to great physical and oliemi-
cul changes, tho gronlor and more efficacious these are tlie lietter
you till your soil. But I must now pass ou to notice the Second
subject of my lecture—^ploughs.
As 1 have already noticed, tiie so-called country plough is no
plough at all, but a more cultivator. Bat, for oonveiiTonoe and
simplicity, I shall refer to it as the country plough. It is not con¬
fined to India, for a plough very similar is yet mot with in several
other qouutiiea ; indeed, judging from the evidence afforded by
JSgyptittu monumental tablets, and similar ovldeuoe in ottier uoun-
trios It wonld appear that the so-called oonntry plough was tiie
plough used in every oonntry at one period of Its history, but,
whereas qOier ooiiiitries have abandoned tne primitive plough, and
adopted improved forms, you liavo, in this country, made no pro¬
gress in this direction. Tho so-called European plough is, oom-
[laratii oly speaking, but a recent invention. In its Tow cost, at
first sight, the so-called country plough seems to piossees a oon-
sLderablo advantage over the various forms of improved plouglis.
Hut let ns cousidec whether this is so. You know that tho country
plough cuts a V-shaped furrow, and thus there is between each
furrow made by tho plough a rih of unploughod land. Under fa¬
vourable conditions, a country plough will form a furrow 6 inohea
wids at the tup and 2 iuchee wide at the bottom, the section ^
the furrow thus measuring 15 square ineiies. Ploughing such a far¬
row the plough must travel 20 miles to go over 1 acre (« land ; but.
you must remember that one-hatf of the land to a depth of 6 iuohss
IS yet unploughed, and that to move this remainder, the plough
must oroas the whole of the laud again, thus the plough must tra¬
vel 40 miles, to plough 1 acre of land, aud the soil, it must be re¬
membered, la not even then efficiently turned. But, even suppoe-
lag that, In two operations the oonntry ploU(^ could stir the
whole of tho sell to a depth of S Inohes, we have this foot that only
672 cubic yards of earth would be moved. Now, I have s^ thM
the distance to be travelled must be 40 miles, which is eqnlvidant
to three days’ work of a oonntry plough, In other words, to move
on acre of soil to a depth of 0 luehes In a day, would give
full employment to three country ptoughs, throe pairs of cattle,
and three drivers, and the soil would foe moved at a cost of 1 rupee
per 400 cubic yards. An improved mould-board plough would,
under average conditions, cut a farrow 9 inohes wide and 7 inohea
deep, in a perfectly rectangular fonn, the whede of the soil being
cleanly cut, raised, and turned over. The section of the furrow
would thus measure 6.1 square inches, against 15 square lifthes,
the area of the section of the uountry ploqgh furrow. A fair day’s
work for such an Improved plough would be J of an acre ploughed,
aud to effect this the uattio must travel eight miles, exolndtkg tnrn-
ing* et the headlands, and the volume of eartii Itited and turned
ovm wonlfi be 705 onnlc yards against 672 oublc yards moved by
three country plongim iu a day. In othot Womt, the Improv^
'■i; 198 «.
ME INbrA#
59
INbUN TEA.
pIottKii tot one rupee, ratio and turn over efficdentiy SSI |
oaHa }^»da.o{ earth; vrhile, vritb a country ploitgh far the
iMoe e^iyoa «S*ld tnove, and tW» very liieffiden%, only 880 ^ .
btdria jlilrdjl o{ earth, hut t need not pieu thii soiut. fer mn In TT hi rentatfuble that wMlat Tea is so universaliy used In Sb|'-
M __. _«**.• I IamiS 8,1* a 4*4i 1*Ua arWiant j t a was aMa Mf» 14 Ml A 14: A ea/C taea
yea praOiSoal proof of your uppreciaMoa __
tMts. J IHS^t ocswpyrfour attention for a lone time In daporfhing
the'dtjMrent Idpds of ploughs that are now made ; hut you would
lMl*» ma^MiOte ifyou would pay a visit to Mr. Sabapafiiy htada-
fiar'e ee^h&hraentlji this tov^, where to-d»y I saw oro ofttus
fmwtoonehnom of large ploughs that 1 venture to believe has ever
bepngot tiagBi^Br in India. You must remember that the form of
a ^ottgh hat nmch to do with the force required to draw it thivush
the ground. Many country ploughs, weighing only abo^
60?5, require much .force to be exerted by the cattle in drawinn
Ihtm, thM similar cattle would need to exert in dru.wing improvS
ulougM of twice the weight. If you will examine the model I uow
htddoi acunn^ plou^, you will see how imperfect is its con-
structlw, and _yet it reeemWes hundreds of ploughs iu constant
use In this district and elsewhere. You see there is a large block,
with a broad flat eurfooo in front. Kow Of course you know that
it tahes more foroe to d»w through the ground such a block than
a wedge-shaped one, when a narrow edge ie iu front. Yon never
see boat# with square bows ; the IwWs of the boat are more or less
pointed In view to out the water iu the passage of the boat, and
your plough should out the soil like a wedge, ft yon would get the
work performed with the least expenditure of the labour of your
oatUe. A sort of weighing maoliino is used for determining the
oxact force exerted by cattle in drawing ploughs, and othsr imple-
menta, through the soil. By moans of this implement, which is
called a dynamometer, we can tell exactly liow much force the
plough cattle must employ in pulling through the soil different
khnls of ploughs. I have made many exporimeuts with this little
tustrumeut, and it hag shown me that many oonntry ploughs are
much more oppressive on the cattle drawing them than would be
Some kinds of improved mould-board ploughs. I liavn found coun¬
try Pjoughs that showed that the cattle exorcised a force as much
08 4001b ; while the same cattle, in doing bettor work with some
kinds of improved ploughs, would not need to employ more than
half this force. Many Improved ploughs are made of iron with
iron working parts, but 1 prefer ploughs made entirely of iron ;
as those partly of wood and partly of iron in this country do not
l^t long. As a rulQ,Im^eablo iion is to be preferred for making a
plough to cast iron ; but you must romomher that cast iron is
cheaper and tliat you can readily got in oast Iron duplicate of the
parts of your ploughs liable to wear out, at a small expense,
hteel IS prrforable, ospeciaUy malleable steel, to either cast iron or
malleable iron, for the working parts of a plough-steel offers less
resistance in the soil ; being stronger than oast iron, or malleable
X htnd the pubHo should k&otr so Uttle about it, aad ba, there*
fore, such iadtSerentjndg^ as to'Wkattffaoy should lock for as tbo
signs t>f a good article. There Is a mistwan notion still tibroad
ttut "flowery Pekoe” is made of the White, oameUla-Uke blossom
from the bush, and that several imeaies ve opltlvatod to produco
the various qaalitlos of Teas. Many of ymir readers may feel an
interest in leiiiiing somethiug oonoeniiag tiae Kaugra VaHey Tea
district and the method of cuUiveittou, pidting, and maiiclng of the
Tea there grown. The exhausted leai-es from their t«a{iots -wlU
then guide them in their future purchases ; when tiicy have learned
that m carefully made and honestlT jiacked Tea these are no stioks
or other incongruous matter, but slmpiy tlie leaf of the eurliMl, dciad
Tea, which has opened and expanded iu the water to senn^ing liiM
its pristine state.
AU the kiuiis of Tea, whioh ore doscrilied as Pekoe,, (Iratige
Pekoe, Pekoe Souchong, Ae., are picked at the same momeot, froa
the same stsm, from tlm same bush. The barely deveiimd little
leaf, oovered with a dsUoate down, whioh is ^t. unfediwg on the
top of the spray, is to prodnoe the finest Tea ; the first pmioei,
but still tender leaves, the next; smd the brawler ones, lower
down, the Bohea, or coarse Tea. These leaves are aU iMMtufae-
tnred together into Tea, as w-e shall see presently smd the best
Tea to dnnk is, perhaps, the liquor derived front the .mass as it
stands. But the different sixod leaves are all Ubosloutly sorted
hy band, after manufacture, before they are exported to lUng-
lish market, to meet the requirements of the trade and in acoom-
aiico with the China mode. These oarefuUy sorted leaves liave to
bo mixed again to make a Tea fur actual use. suoli, for example, as
Pekoe Souuhoim, whioh is, perhaps, the bust mixture ; and some
of the fliieet Tea goes to make oaarse China Teas linkable and fit
for the market. The coarse Teas from the Kaugra V^lsy ors sold
iu India and arc not exported to Kngland, where we get the mass
of our Tea conoantrated, as it were, by thisremovaTof aU leaves
of scanty strength aod flavour.
Ths Kskuba Txa Pmktationi.
These Ue along the slopes of the North-West Himalayas, nestling
at the feet of grand mountains of from 10,000 to 16,000 feet high,
and oompristug, buts'ceu the l^vee and the ButleJ, 8,000 square
miles of country. The district of Kaugra proper, leaving out the
sub-division of Kulu, and the highly picturesque uative states of
Mundi, Socket, and Cbuinba, extends from the Beas, where jtho
natural watershed divides it from the Hooshiaxpors dialtdct, to the
bouudary of the hhtadi State,-near Byinatli, on the one aide, and
iron, tlie weight of the plough can ho reduced without sacrificing to Nnorporc ou tbo ether. It is in this lovely valley that'most
suggested that tliis district offers peculiar the European Tes-pUntors have scttloij, and made around them
facilities for the introduction of stoam-plonghiiig ; and there cannot comfortable homos .and homesteads, whioh remind tho suo-scorched
be a doubt but that the laud, generally, la wolf circumstaiicoil for visitor from the plains of Indiaof far-off English farms.
Btaaui-ploughing ; that ie, yon Imve vast plains of land composed At the upper part of tiiu valley, and lying opposite to a bugs
of soils that ought to bo deeply ploughed ; land without the oh- gorge in the niouutaiiia, from which the pianlciv obtain their daily
Stacies mot with in other eoautricB, in the form of feiicos, trees, supply of ice in tho summer, lice Baliiinporo, tho head-quarter
rocks, &c. Until recently, the cost of fuel proliibitod any possi¬
bility of steam-ploughing being attciilptcd liore ; hut the recent
improvouienta in onginos whioli have enabled steam to ho raised
by the use of refuse vegetable matters, such as iudigo refuse, stalks
of cotton plauts, Ac., lias lesiouod greatly tho fuel difficulty. The
one great drawback that yet remains is the alisonue of goo(i roads
when you remembet that a steam-ploughing engine weighs about
eighteen tons, with its water and fuel, when ready for work, you
will quito undei-stand how impossible it would he at certain sea¬
sons to got such a ponderous macliino moved about over your
black cotton soils. As you will see fi'om tlicsc diagram.s, there arc
two great systems of stonin-plougliing--the one called tlio-romid-
alioul system, in which only one engine is used ; and, the other
the double ougiue systoin. You will notice that in the, former, hy
an arrangoineut of ropes the plough is moved hackward.s and for¬
wards^ across the fiola betwocu the ciigiue, and a windlass placed
opposite each other. In the double-engine system, as you will
see, the plough is pulled across tho field l)y one engine, and pulled
back by tho other. This system is cousitleroil the host, as the
eugines are locomotive, and need no help from cattle, in getting
with their apparatus, from field to field ; whereas, iu the first
incntiouod system, a great number of cattle are necessary to move
tho enrino aud anparatus from field to field. But both those sys¬
tems of steam-ploughing will, I think, have to give place to the
new itoam-digger—a new implement which is now being experi-
mented with In England. The steam-digger is rapidly coming into
favor ; it has been found to perform work even more otUciently
than the stuam-plougli, and at the rate of as much os one acre per
hour. This new apparatus needs no complicated rope system, for
the digging apparatus is attached diroot to the ongiao. Tiio inven¬
tion la yet of too recent a date to admit of one speaking with any
degree of confidence as to its future. All that oau, at present, he
said Is that the machine promises to bo a success. At present
howoTcr, it is offered at much too higli a price—£1,000. I would
advise great caution iu introducing steam machinery ; with the
rapid progress we have seen of late, in adapting electricity as a
motive power, we may reasonably hope ere loug to have this new
motive power competing closely with steam even in the tillage of
the'soil.
On MnsBobertsoS resuming his scat, Mr, Sabamthy Iyer, bar-
rlster-at-Iaw, rose and addressed the meeting in Couareso, repeat¬
ing ths substanoo of the lecture in that language, for the benefic
of the ryots in attenduiee who wore not acquainted with English.
Ho was listened to with great attention by a lilghly appreciativo
auuisnoe who, by their expressions, appeared fully to understand
ths.sqMoUl phiats of interest to Which Mr. Sabapathy Iyer oallod
their attennon.— Jtladrao Unit,
station of the Tea distriet, with its Oovcriiment offices, rest-houso,
ilispeiisai'y, planters' club, and beautiful httlo church. I’aluiiiporo,
which is 4,0(X) feet above the sea-level, oujuys an excellent olimats
fov eight or nine months in the year ; during the otiior months
tho heat and raiue are somewhat disagroealdc, although admiraliiy
adapted to tbo growth of 'J'oa. Tho beautiful little station is
situatod on a Berios of gently sloping knolls of green turf, thickly
studded with Clioel trees (I’inus loiigifolia), and has the uuivorial
Kaugra background of miglity mountains. The place is greatly
indebted to the exorlioiis of .Sir Douglas Eorsytli, wlio did a great
deal for it aud its immediate neighbourhood whilst ho was the
CommiRsioner of tliu rlistricl. His attempt to establish an annual
fair at Palumpore, to induce traders from Yarkand ami other dis¬
tant proviuco.s of Central Asia to open np tmde with British India,
is a matter of history ; and tho causes t»f its failure are written in
the records of tlie diplotnatiu offices of England and itnssia.
Wluiii land lias boon selected aud purobosed (no easy task in a
district where by a mistake in the aettlamuut a great portion of the
waste, or uncultivated lauds suitable to Tea were given to the
uativoB, aud whore the bargains have for the most part to bo mads
with tho wily intiiguiug Hindoo), ami whilst it is being cleared of
jungle aud preparoil for a Tea garden, tile seed for tho future plant¬
ations must be sown. The original seed whioh was used in the
district was introduced by Dr. Jameson, ths offioial filoveriimeut
pioneer of Tea cultivation, wlio seleoted Hotta, Bawaruali, aud
Nogreta as gardens, and sowed that seed which he had brought
from the Dehmli Dooii, and.which became so rcprodiiotivo in th*
sod of the Kangra V'alloy that it uow suwlies the planters of ito
native Doon, and many of the younger Tea districts. H. H, the
Maharaja of Ca.Rlnner« has of late been a large purchaser of seod,
(or, not content witli euorgoticnlly pushing on the growth of vines
aud hops, his Highness seems bent at tho same time on producing
somothing with whioh his people may cheer tiiemselves and escape
inebriation.
The seed is oat cfully removed from all Tea bushes in the garden
during October and November by boys, girls, and women. A largo
yield of seod is an iudioation of somotliiiig wrong in cultivation,
or season, or soil. The planter’s objeot is to grow as much now,
vigorous leaf as possible, and cultivation suited to leaf production
is not productive of on abundance of seed or fruit: and, thersfore,
all that advertising dealers and brokers tell tlie publio about ffowar
and seed is simpls nonsense to those who unduixtaud the bualneia,
and have ever seen Tea grown and niado.
The ripe sdlid, which is picked in the autumn, liaa not shed It*
outoT husk, and is sown outire as it oomss from the bush in neatly
made nursery drills a loot apart and 4 inohea deep, a shaded sp
being selectM for tho seed bed that it may be ^pteeted from
60
THE INDIAN AGHIOTTLTUEIST. Febrtaayl, ma.
sold of wlnt«r «nd the ptroUag liwt U th* foil •oonner'i tan. A«
the neoaoMry decay of the aaed tokee place in mnnination, tiw outer
hsek deoaya Mid teeda tfaa yoong; plant, ^though tUt eare ia
neoaifary in railing oeedliaga in the oompomtir^^ tempemte
oUmote of Kongta, the hot etearaing climate of Aaaam, whanre
U Indigenona, ptodooea all vwetetion In aoch luxnrloBoe that the
eeed hoe but to he dibbled into the Imtd vhioh it ia permanently
tooootrpylikeatOirof beam.
• CotTIVAtlOK.
The pwlodioal roina oommenoe in the Eongn diatrlot on or aboot
Jane lo, and, If they be not too heavy, the eeedlloga te»j be
troBiplanted to their plocei in the garden at the beginnlna of July.
For tnia planting out, omnaemente will have been mode Hotltig the
winter mootha. In rich eolU, where the growth of the bnahea will
be quiek and luxurioat, tiie aeedlinga ore nnt in at greater diatonee
from each other than in poorer aoila, where the bnahea will be
longer in approaching each other, According to aoU, theae pita, 24
feat deep by 14 foot wide, Ore dug in rowa vaiying from 6 feet by 6
feet In good toU, to 8 feet by 4 feet In poor aoif, and into eooh of theie
pita from tan to twelve leedlingi are planted. The oooliee who
put them in ore drilled by a Jemadar^ or headman ; who teket
nil place and ordera from the planter hlmielf; and lo well ii the
worn done in thla way that the nlanta are rarely on inch out of the
direct line, or of the proper depth in the eoU. Under the magic
wand of B^Ueh eneiior, what woe hut now virgdn aoll of the foreat
or the Tillage oommon, or the arable land of the nativea, ia a
yottim Taa jdontation, not yat ready to be plucked, but growing
wonwously test, needing to be carefully terraced co keep the
■oil up, if it Iw on a elope, and to be aometimee irrigated in hot,
dry weather. In three yemri the plonte in good aoil begin to be
profltad>le, and need no farther watenngi, although they ore not
in full bearing for, perhape, eeven or eight yeara.
During th& minority each plant requires careful cultivation,
oonetont hoeing, fairly liberal manuring, and judlcioui pruning. In
November the winter oultlvation of tke mature buehea begins.
Divliions of man— theatrongeat and possibly the least intelUeent—
ore told off to hoe the garden throughout 1 foot deep ; and this
hoeing work should go on all the year round with variations at
different aeoeons of the depth of hoeing.
Pntmiso.
Simalteaeonely with the hoeing, so that all that is out off the
bushes may go wk and be buried in the toll, the pruning com-
menoea. As pruning ia one of the moat important works on a
plontetian, ao la it one on which there ia the greatest dlffurenee
of opinion. A great many exparimenta have been made in the art,
and probably plMters have not yet learned all the acUnce of the
aubiaot. Ten years ago on mdlacrlminate sloshing off of the top
of the bush and ouiting three or four large boles into the body cil
the plant, to let in light and air, woe the style of pruning most in
vogne, chiefly on account of its fancied economy. By this method
of pruning nnmberlees ahoota no doubt sprung up in the spring,
but from we very foot of their being so numerous the bush was
oboked up oa to all after-growth, and became a moes of unproduc¬
tive orowa’-feet.
Thorn pruning was next tried, and it may answer admirably in
a cold oUmate, bnt certainly it is not the proper method for shrubs
in high temperature, suoh os Tea requires, for they need protection
from the sun and from eleotrio and winter hail, without which the
wood branches and the sap dries. .
Coppicing, oa a lost remedy for old woody plants, woe then tried;
but we remedy ia a moat acvere one ; the plant loses much strength '
by the inevitable bleeding which takes place, and consequently the I
new ahoota it makes are weak and feeble.
A new method of pruning which hot been introduced into the
valley ia at present the approved one. The old, white, gnarled
woM, and all the “ whlp-oord,” Is out off entirely an Inch or two
below the surlaoe of the soil in such a way as shall oauso the bush
to bleed as little oa poeaible. Then all the long, straggling shoots
are out beok, no matter how good their material may be; and laetly,
all the shooto ore cat book olose to the finest bud growing from the
axilla of the leaf, whlob is left to act os shelter.
Buahee of about 4 feet in height are the most convenient for boys
and girls to pick from, and acme of tho finest bushes in the Kangra
Volley gardens are of this height, and 6 or 7 feet in diameter.
Prtmmg operattona are ^ng on from November to the end of
the first weaK in March. Mya in India ore almost always sharper
and more active and willing than men. Strong, picked men out
oat the thick, tough wood from beneath the soil, and the lighter
pruning ia dona by the boys. The beat pruner cannot average
more than twwty full-grown bnahea In a day.
{To be eonlinuetit)
A POULTRY FARM.
T HS following oeeonnt of a poultry farm forma a port of the re¬
port on Huntlngdonabire, which, ea an Assistant Commission¬
er, wi written by Mr. Drnoe for the Boyal Cmnmission on Agri¬
culture. The paper, with a note appended, appeared in the Jour-
tuU of the BoyM Agrimiltunkl Society of Bnglaod.
Hie farmers in Huntingdonshire have endeavoured to meet the
bod times as well oa they oonld ; and among other attempts that
havt been mode, one of them hae tried poultry fanning on a some¬
what Urge soole. The farmer who has tried thu Uvea at
Kimbolton, and np to a year or so ago he formed a good-sued
form of between 600 and 600 acres ; bnt finding things were
going badly, he gave np tiie larger farm and retained one of about
100 ooiea cmiy, and it U upon tnia that he la trying ‘ poultry form¬
ing. The aoU of the fom u a tolerable stiff oley. and meat of it
ie kbeady,orwQI very aoon be, dnehtod. It is formed pretty
much on the foor-ootutto syitom, gad tiieponl^ lithe oUMMm-
stock k^t npmi ft.
The farmer had kept poultry in some mmihaM lor
past five or six years, whllat he held hta lotgor eoonpotlaa;
but he hod not kept « eapatate god dbidnet noocobit niatdng
to them tiU the year I860, and ainoe he b«d givln ap l^ua
oeenpation. Ha stated that he wal trytto the gyatote Seoem
of the very large importatlona of poaltry and eggs into
this oeontry, and becanae he thoqi^ that pooitry, if fin-
perly attended to and treated in a bBaiiMea*lMa wiy^opld
pay. He kept fowls only, not dnofca, geese, or tnrkaye. He &d
trM variona breads of fowls, bnt prifarred the light Hahteal to
oU others, because from ex^rianoa ha hod fonna that breed to
be the hoidieet and moet prolific. His stock at the time my
viait (October 1881) oonsiated of about 1,800 head, WhitikhitM
winter would be reduced by eome 900 or 400, so that at that
petiod of tbs year be would nave about 1,400 or 1.800. He keeps ao
old stock, but Bella all his birds before or whan they are two years
old. He la careful to have fresh blood in hia itMk every year,
and for that putpoae periodically introdnoea three pr four mole
birds of some other aimn than Ua own of the light Brahma breed.
Hia stock boa always been healthy, and absolutely free from ouy
epidemic during the six yeoxe that he hoe kept it, and thoUgh he
hoa oooaaionolly loat a few birda, hia losses from dUeose havebeen
very trifling. He keeM the poultry ^rtly in yards at the fmm
homestead and wrtly in the fields. There are nine ya»la at the
homestead of different alaea for oonvenlenoe sake, and aepanted
from each other by wire netting ; and attached to or near them
ore houses for the fowls, such houses being ports of the farm
buildings adapted for that purpose. The fowlc In the fielde are
divided Into different lots, each lot containing about 160 birds, usd
having a aeparate fowl-house : these hoaaee are about 16 feet
long by 8 feet wide, and 6 feat high up to the eavee of the root,
and contain from 750 to 800 cubic feet each, or rather more than
6 cubic feet to a bird. They ore built of wood, ossd ore moved
from one part of a field to another very easily by one horse. The
field houaea, when I saw them, were on a pieoe of land that hui
been laid down to grass about two or three years ago ; and just
previously they had been on some young seeds sown its a barley
crop which had not long been harvested. As soon 08 the gronnd
near the house has become much trodden, the house is removed to
some other spot. These removals take place about every fortnight.
The yards at the homesteads are changed once a year, and the
ground which has been used os a yard is left for a year without
any fowls being put upon it. In order that It may bwome sweet,
and freed from the taint of the birds. All the houses are scru¬
pulously clean, and ore constantly lime-washed. The birda, ex¬
cept the young chickens, are fed three times a day ; in the morn¬
ing with salt Food, consisting of boiled potatoes, mangels, carrots,
or parsnips, mixeil with barley fionr, whioh mixture is givsn warm
in the winter ; in the middle of the day they are ted with inferior
corn ; and at night with a fnll feed of sound maize—the best
description of that corn only being used, and It is given to tho
fowls whole, and out split. No particular quantity of food is given
at either meal, but notice is taken whether any of that which
is given is not picked np, and if such is the cose, loss is
given. Occasionally the fowls have green food, and in the winter
meat. The moat is boiled hortenash or beef, and care is
taken that the meat is that of a sound animal, and of on animal
that has l>oen killed, and not of one that has died of natural
death. Tile ohiokens are fed os often as six times a day. With all
sorts of food, and are most carefully looked after by the man in
charge and hia boy, who are the only labouror* employed for the
poultry. The mamire mode by tho fowls Is used on the farm os
a top-dressing fur corn, and is mixed with malt dust or kiln dust,
which is spread over the floors of the houses, and absorbs the
manure when it is dropped, lu this way tee houses are more
effectively cleaned out, and the manure so mixed is found to be
vory efficacious. The poultry and eggs are for the most part sold
for consumption in London, bnt occasionally a few of eooh are sold
locally. The following is a statement of the rsoeipts from, and
expenditure upon, the poultry for the yeor 1880 :—
EaoxirTB.
For eggs and poultry sold in London
to house
For manure
,, feathers
to Dowden
to others
Expkhsitubx.
Piud for food
„ labour
>. agga
„ rent
Depreciation and renewal
Interest
Badonoe (profit)...
£.
d.
433 10 10
16
1
0
2 10
0
C 10
0
27
0
0
3
0
0
1481 n
To
£.
s.
Z
330
0
0
65
0
0
10
0
0
38
0
0
18 10
0
16
0
0
26
1 10
£481 11 10
The oapitsl employed in the poultry farm wu token eat £800,
and was considered as being tbs earns at the begioning and at the
end of the y$ar, and interest at 6 per cent on that Mnount ia
allowed in the foregoing account ; there waa, howsvar, in foot,
rather a larger head of poultry at the end than at tee begin-
ning of the year, the ootaol nambere being cm Jonaory 1,
1^^1,483; on January 1, 1881^1,482; bnt thi diffineBM
THE inbun AGBICULTURIBT,
61
Fetoliy 1,1885.
in bbo^mc ym Wit ■BfiWwt *0 maiw poy ,BM4*riaa diffwwo*
£200 wiii ^en m the value
of wultiT, £l00 4* tfie value of the fovrl-hooMe aq4 o^er
dei4**«^ ( Wt f|te ion)iisr sum seemed to be ver^ inadequate,
a eotul^enibion, iihe farmer added this note te the almve
have, chwi^ 6 per cent iaterest on via,
_ 1 ,fw p^tQp and f^lCjO for houses—though I consider ms fowls,
be^ Sh** ^^ 1 ^* 5rahmiw of noted strains, are worth £M0. If,
then, .we.take the whde oi^tal In the oonoem at £400 (the mean
betwoea the oa$l^. of £d00, on which Interest is oalsolated in tiw
above aoqOU{it, .add £5f)0, ^ imount at which, upon further oon>
siden^OBt.tbe fs^er eatlmated fth which would, as far as I oould
make ouhifidrly represent actual oapital invested in the oonosra,
we £hid that.a retusp of some £40, or 10 par cent was made, the
£40 being dl'Hded In the account into £19 for interest and £25 for
profit I but if we take the capital at £^, and allow Interest at 5
per cent on that sum, we have only £20, or 6 per oant, left for
profit.
This latm seems to be a fair example of what can be done by
poolb 7 farsdng, for there are no special or adventitious olrosm-
stances M regards soQ. position, or otherwise connected with it,
but the farmer thoroughly understands the busineas i be is learned
in poultry, and devotes much of his time to them. Ho is not only
fond of poultry, but of other animals, as Is shown by the fact that
he keeps a l^e number of boos on tbg moat approved modem
and smentific principles, from which he endeavours to make a
profit. I cannot, however, state whether bis bee-keeping has
Men profitable, for he has only kept them in large numbers
during the past year, and has not kept separate accounts for
them. I need hardly add that this poultry and bee farmer
does not depend upon his poultry and bees, and his small farm
aloae for a livelihood. In reply to my question whether he
thought that poultry farming on a very large scale would pay,
he i^d he thought not: hut that the b^t and meet paying
way to keep poultry was for the cottagers to keep a few each for
thrir farmers, the oottagers’ wives being paid so much per bead for
every chicken reared.
Before sending the foregoing description to the Society, for pnb-
lioation iu its JounuU, I wrote to the farmer whose poultry farm
I have described, to ask him far a copy of his Manoe sheet for the
year 1881, in order that the description might be brought down
to as late a date as possible. In reply to my letter the farmer wrote
as follows :—
“ 1 have been trying to got out a balanoo shoot of my poultry
farm for the year 1881, but find I oauuot get at all the details,
owing to their being mixed with the other businesa trauiactions ;
but lam satisfied, were I able to do so, they would not be found
more satisfactory than those I gave you, in a fiuauoial point of
view ; in fact, my impression is such that 1 intend much reducing
my stock and breeding for fancy sale only, feeling assured that
breading for the market cannot bo made to pay on a large scale.
1 much regret being unable to comply with your request,”
This letter wouldappear to show that tho longer experiment hod
coDviuood the farmer of the oorreotuess of the opinion he expressed
to me,—namely, that poultry fermiug on a very large scale would
not pay. ____________
THE LIQUID-AMBAfi, Oil SWEET GUM.
T HEBJEC seems to have been groat diversity of opinion amongst
the older botanists os to the natural affinities of this genus.
Some included it in a large and iuoougruous order, including all
those trees with catkins as oaks, boeciies, willows, and planes.
Some made it an order by itself, called Balsamacois; more rooent
authorities, however, class it with the witch liazels of North
America. The catkins of tho female flowers are globose, and
resemble tliose of the Plane externally. Tiie trees themselves that
ore hardy in this country ore much like Maples. Apparently only
three speoles are known, inhabiting tlie warmer parts of North
America, Asia Minor, and the South of Asia, especially Java.
Li quid-ambar styraciflua is the best known species iu tliis country
and we most ornamental. It inhabits tlie United States, extend¬
ing southwards into Mexico, where it attains its maximum
dimenaims iu swampy or wet places near rivers. Thirty or forty feet
is the average height of tiie tree in this country, but if planted in a
sheltered, moist place, it attains the height of GO or 80 feet. It
grows slowly, and with a little attention can be kept in pyramidal
shape, formw at ones a highly ornamental and iuterustiug tree for
the lawn or^easure-ground ; or if planted near the margin of
large clumps, or on islets on ornamental water, It oould not fail to
be productive of tho meet pleasing efiects. The leaves are aontoly
five-lobed, and serrated with wooUy tufts at the conjunction of the
veins beneath. They have a dark g^n leathery appearance, and
when ripening in autumn become a nloze of deep purjpllali-rod and
orange. The bark is corky and fissured, but at a little distance is
hidden by the dense leafage. Beneath the liark all parts of the
tree are pervaded by a resin of a sweat balsamic fragrance. This
inbetanoe is most highly developed in warm countries, and exudes
spontaneously from any wound in the bark. It is of a clear or
amlMr transparent odour, whence the generic name of tho tree
from “ llqnldum,” fluid, and “ ambar,” amber.
The best is obtained by purposely making incisions in the bark,
and a second-rate quality by boiling the bark and branches, whan
the oily niatorlaf floats on the surface and is skimmed off.
Anotheiemode of obtaining it is by putting tlie inner bark in a
bag and submitting it to pressure. This substanoe is used
medicinally In several oonntries, and to a small extent in this.
It It suppooed to possess healing and balsamio properties, and In
some degree to m stimulating and expectorant, while an oU
sxtradtsd from the same inbs^oe is nsed in pmfftttnery. The
beirtuM ^ tit« tm is dwk| with a beostifal oompact gailn, and
furnltore nude of It hasA bandoomeappsaranoe. The produ -t of
this, as well as the foUovritig tree, has superseded the stoiax of the
^ients, which wasobMned from Styrax offidoals, a low tree
inhabiting South Bon^
h, imberbe, othorwiMi hnOBH as L. orieptale, a low tree inhabit¬
ing Asia Minor, seldom sxosads fl. feet in height in Bngland. It
bears considerable resemblaiuio to Acer Ckunpestre, the. ocwimon
small-leaved Maple. The leaves sm mneb smaller than those of L.
styraciflua, with riiorter, blunter lobes, and glabrous benestb j
hence tho specific name *'imberbe,” beaMtlMs, Aeon ornamental
tree It is much Inferior to the North Amerloan piM, but Interesting
on account of its relationship, Altbou|^ prewnting the appear¬
ance only of a bnsb iu tree form it is worthy of a plaes amougst
other deoidiwus snbjoots, or as an isolated specimen an grass
whets a large tree would be inadmissible. Its eoonomio uses are
the same es that of the former tree.
L. altlngia is a noble tree, inhabiting the forests of tbs Wsat of
Java, yriisre it attains the height of 800 feet, and is found at
elevations of 2,000 or 8,000 feet. The wood U reddlsb, and after¬
wards browu, of a beautiful compact grain, and, like its cougeoers,
redolent of a grateful balsamic odour. The leaves are ovato^long,
acuminate and senate, quite a different tyqw from the other
sperios. As might be expected, it is not hardy in this cmintry,
L obinensis, sometimes seen planted against a wail hi ths open
air, appears to be lynocymous inth this tyieaies. In severe winten
it gets silled to tho ground.
The hardy epecies are propagated by layers, or importsd sssds—
preferably the latter, because trees produced from layers seldom
or never make such handsome specimens w those from seed,
—Oissri'er.
THE PROSPECTS OF INDIAN TEA.
T HBSE are bad times for people w'ho are personally interested
in the well-being of tea estates in India, and there is no
prospect at present of a' change for the better. Cultivators oan-
nut reasonably count upou an uninterrupted succession either of
good crops, or of good prices ; they must have their “ downs ”
as well as their “ups"; they must have their bad os well as
their good years. But the drop in nrices of 26 per oeut and
upwards, that is shown by a comparison of present quotations
with those ruling in London a year ago, is a disaster that the
shrewdest planter may bo oxciucd for not foreseeing. Such a
drop may mean something near to ruin to planters with small
capitals or with many d^ta. By such as those money was
wanted to open out ground, and the money was obtained from
bankers at rates of interest regulated by the_ knowledge of the
riskiucss of the venture. The prices now realised for crop will
probably not leave a surplus to meet tho periodical fiayment of
interest. Hetronchmeut iu expenditure on the preparatleu of tads
will be forced on the planters whose financial position is precarious,
and such rotrouchmont means a lowering of quality. Already is
tho conipiaiut made iu Loudon that the Indian teas are not as
good os they used to be. In a falling and depressed market
dealers arc inclined to bo hypercritical, or to discover, and make
much of defects that they say nothing about when the market
is firm. Tiie Loudou market is glutted with Indian tea, and is
consequently iu an irritable, bilious mood. “ The supply of low-
class Indian toa," says one Loudon oiroular, “ has largely
increased of late, recent invoices ooutalniug a heavy proportioa of
Pekoe Souchong and Broken tea, with a general lalting off in
quality compared with cad'Uer shipmonta, especially in Aiwam
teas.” It is also said that “ last season owing to the general
excellence of the crop tho low grades had very superior liquors,
while this season, although attractive in leaf, they are somewhat
deficient iu strength and flavour, tiie natural result perhaps of
larger crops, and consequent lower standard of quality,” We
doubt, however, whether the planters have been so bliua to their
own interest as to bo seriously inattentive to quality, while they have
striven to iuoreaso quantity ; and wo doubt also whether tho leaf
of 1882 is markedly different from the leaf of 1881. While the
latter went to a good, the former has gone to a bad, market, and
does not perhaps have full justloe done to it.
The London market cauiiut easily absorb the quantity of tea
that now reaches it from India and China. In 1871 the exports
of tea from India to all porta wore 13^ millions of ponnds, valued
st £1,1.39,703; In 1881 they were 38'2/6th miUiona of pounds, valued
at £3,072,244. The consumption of Indian tea hna inoreaaod
necessarily in the ton years ; but during that thne China has
largely Increased her export, and it is oommonly said In London
that the supply of tea of one sort or another is in excess of the
world’s demand. From January to November, both inclusive, in
1880 tho imports of Indian tea in Loudon were 38 millions of
pounds ; in the same months of 1882 they were 48'2/6th millions of
pounds. The imports of China tea were 188i millions of pounds
In 18W, and in 1882 they amounted to 148^ millions of pounds.
So the total imports of Indian and China tea were 19fl'3/5th miUlons
of pounds hi tho first eleven months of 1882, as compared with 177i
millions of pounds during tho corresponding montiis of ISW.
Taking the twelve months, January to Cocsmlier, and we find
tliat the imports of tea from all ports into tho United Kingdom
amounted to 128 miUiona of pounds in 1867 ; to 141 millions of
pounds in 1871 ; to 185 tniUioas of ponnds in ]870 ; and to close
upon 210 miUiona of ponnds in 1871, thus showing the enormous
increase of 82 millions of pounds in fifteen years. The quantity
retained for Home consumption in the United Kingdom was 111
raUlions of pounds in 1867, and 160 millions of pounds iu 1881,
showing an increase of nearly SO per cent. In the flfleen years,-
during whtoh the population inoreased from 851 *0 89‘2/6th mUlions,
or by about IM per cent. The stock of tea In London on tho
lat iSoembar 18» was 22 millions of potmdt heitvier than on the
62
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
FelsTUiry 1, 1883.
«ame date ia 18S0. The preiiara of tble nadeiired sddltlba to a
atoek that waa anppoied to be ample la 1880 haa naturally eent
down piioea, and to aoma estent ttimulated ooaaamptloa i bat not
to the extent naturally deetred by plaatere and ahlppera. The
Brttlah public ia atiil but IHtle acquainted with Indian tea. 7hero
are a few ahopa in liOndon which make a boaat of aetling their
own *' blende ” of Indian and China tea, and at two or three
plaoea nmie but Indian tea ia aold. But, genorallv apeaklog, the
fact that more than a fourtli of the tea oonsutned In Eu^lana wu
grown in India ia not known. The China teaa have fallen off ao
muoh in quality ol >»te yeart, or auoh large quantltiea of com¬
paratively apeaMng rubbiab have been shipped from China,
^at the chief nae to which Indian teaa are put ia that of aupply-
Ittg the defioienoiea of the China produoa. A low quality and
large quantity of China tea mixed with a high quality and amall
quantity of Indian tea reaulta in a merchantable article, that la
ooeaumed by peraona who do not dream that India has given the
flavour that they find palatable in “ the cup that cheers but not
Inehriatea ” them.
In the following table showing the prices current In London on
the 7^ DsMmber of Indian teas (for which wa are Indebted to
Mettn. W., 3., and H. Tfaompaon’s olroular,) it will be obeervsd
that high prioea in 1879 were followed by very low prices in 1880,
and that high prioea in 1881 were anooeeded by low prioea in 1882.
Foatlbly, then. It will ha the turn of 1883 to sec prioea that will
gratify the planter, and recoup him for the dlaappointment he ia
now enduring i—
1879. j
^ pH
1880. 1
aoSo'®««ooroo^jje<^mo
^0 OOO-n-^OIOOOOOphO-hm
4 pO OOOOO'^OOOOOOO'Hs-h
SM
38
, ^ sHn >431 SHM
PH (-4
SSSS'SSSSSSSSSSSS
’'foe ojOow'VOJoS'lS'osNweeiS'i-.
38
*. d. t, d,
0 5 to 0 8
0 6i to 0 7i
0 8 to 0 8i
0 8i to 0 91
0 10 to 1 2
0 11 to 1 2
1 4 to 1 10
0 81 to 0 0
0 9 to 0 91
0 81 to 0 91
0 10 to 0 11
0 9 to 0 10
0 11 to 1 3
0 11 to 0 111
1 01 to 1 3
1 4 to 1 10
Pale brown to black
Pale chaffy to bi^wnisb
Darkish, leafy
Darkish mixed broken Soochong leaf
Black and more even leaf, strong and fine ...
Small blackish leaf with tips
Even leaf, with tips, strong and fall
Bonndisfa twisted leaf
Even leaf, wito quality
Coarse open leaf to good medium
Well made leaf, strong and full
Even well made leaf, bnt weak...
Well twisted leaf, good strength and flavour .
Common coarse leaf, and low quality
Well made leaf, ivith tips, fair quality
Even wiry leaf, full and strong
. g 1
; I 0 0
'a « ^ ^ 1 1 ^
J 9 i § I s
1 S 1 1 1 ^
OfK « PQ 0 65 Ol
Though we decline to endorse the Implied Itoputationa of Lon¬
don dealers on tea-plautera in India, wc do not target, nor should
the planters themielvee forget, that two years ago the Govern-
Qient of Sir Athley Eden went out of their way to inculcate In a
paternal manner upon the planters of Aaaam the extreme Import¬
ance of oonsarvlng, by conaolentioua manipulation a^r o^ful
onltiVatlon, the hi^ prestige of India tea. There are at the pre¬
sent time 171il98.Mn* nnosi te* Is Bengal, 10,17i acres La As
Punjab, 170 in Barinah, and 40,000 sores in Madras, or }80.037
sores In all British India. Given good ]^0M and a'steady manet,
and India, with a oulrivatod am of stdlUees d aotet,' may
easily spare at least 400,000 sores, or an area equivalent to thaa
oooupied by tobacco, for the produoriem ^tea- l^he si|»rt‘0l'tea
from China inoreosea Ovary year i but ^e Pr0a<u41on of z«Slly good
to nnqaetUonabiy inferior twth^ rite sbms Is Skeadtiy dsuUilng.
Were the mandarins wise they would sxsrolss a pr«sstt>«, .gsarie or
otherwise, npon their eonntrymeft in tea distrioti, in iwder to
bring home to them the fact that " lie” tea mnst In the tong run be
ruinous to those who to make it, and that apart from all merai een-
sldorationa '* honesty is the best poUoy,” India la staroog to high-
close teas, and her planters should spare no pains to midntaia tbs
repute of those teas in Enropean, Amerioso, and Colonial marimts.
DIVI-DIYL
T he osltivatlon of oasnarinas haa been of great peonsiary benafit
to many peraona in Madras, but it ii only for timber mt tb^
are grown. Oar attention has recently been oaUed to tiie foot that
there Is a very good opening in this Prealdenoy for the ealtivatlon
of the Divi-DivI tree, known in Amerioa ae the Sumaoh, and
botanloally as the Giesaipinto coriaria, which prodnoea not only
timber, bnt what la more valuable, seed-pode, umioh reaUae a high
price. It may be grown, too, as an ornamental tree, Some oorre-
apondence hM appeared in our oolumne dntlng the past few daya,
from which it appears that, though known to a few agrloultarista
in the Presidency, the aavantogea of growing it are not generally
known, nor dooa ft appear to have been cultivated to any groat
extent. It was introduced into India about the year 1830, and
has been thoroughly acclimatised in South India, whloh, in soil
and climate, resembles its original home. The largeat piantation
of Oivi-Divl we have seen la timt on tho premises of Mr. J. B.
Cardozo at Perambore, and before dealing with the subject gener¬
ally, we will relate Mr. Cordozo’a experience. Some twen%-five
years ago two trees were planted in front of Mr, Cardozo’s house,
and flourished. A few years ago the value of the seed-pods for
making ink was discovered, anrf Mr. Cardozo made enquiriee which
resulted in his sending seven bags of seed-pods to the London market
in 1878, oa a sample parcel. The brokers wrote with regard to it
that “ it is good and bold, and this quality will always command a
ready sale at 13s. to 14s. per owt. in Iwge quantities, as far as
can oe judged at present.” The parcel rouised 13s. Od. per owt.,
and after paying ail expenses, Mr. Cardozo realised a clear profit
of about Hs. 0 per tree, Finding that the seed-pods were useful for
dyeing and tanning, as well as making Ink, Mr. Cudozo planted
out a large number of trees, and he has now a plantation of
about 600 trees. The manufacture of ink from Mr. Cardozo’s seed-
pods was extended, and a native of Madras has suocooded in
obtaining a contract to supply tho Government of India with ink
powder tor all the local Goverumonts, the principal ingredient being
obtained from Mr, Cardozo’s soed-pods. Tho trees wo specially
refer to grow in what appears to bo a clay loam of alluvial origin.
The Divi-lJivi generally gi'ows well in a sandy loam. A sample of
Divi-Divi pods grown on such a soil was recently analysed in Mad¬
ras, and contained, in tho marketable form, 27 per cent of tonuin,
l3r. Balfour states that the experiments made by Mr. Kootsey, of
Bristol, showed tho pods to contain 60 per cent of tannin, and that
it is largely used by ourriors. Ho also mentions that “ the seod-
pods on this tree being known to contain a largo percentage of
astringent matter, induced Hr. Cornish to uee them in fever.” The
tree growB where the babool will, but does not like etandlng water,
Mr. Cardozo believes that some of his trees which are shaded have
grown bettor than those which have been exposed to the sun, but
we do not think the tree really needs shade. In a Govemmout
uu'cular published some time ago, we notice that it is recommended
that the tree should be put down six feet apart, so that on acre of
land will contain 1,210 trees, but this Is Burely a mistake, os the
older trees at Perambore are 22 feet Wart, and aro already interlac¬
ed to the extent of six or seven foot. This would be prevented, of
course, by pruning. The tree soon bears seed-pods, those at four
years old bearing a large number ; some branohes producing so
many indeed os to be unable to support them In a breeze. We
should he Inclined to plant it In lines in the same way as the
Corkapillsy— Inga duleh —is planted for forming hedges, but at
wider intervals ; to be pruned bnt not ollppod. Irrigation Is
necessary as long as tho trees are not sufficiently grown up to
dtspenso with It, 'The pods, and seeds oontained, sre usually sold
together, and not the seed alone, as some writers seem to Imagine.
There has hitherto been very little trade in Divi-Divi pods in Mad¬
ras, the exports during the past lustrum being as follows :—
1877-78 ... 166 owt, valued at ... Es. 680
1878-79 ... 16 „ „ ... 73
1879-80 ... 169 „ ... 680
1880-81 ... 160 „ „ „ ... „ 633
1881-82 ... 133 ... 821
We have notioed a few trees in some of the pnblio plaoes la
Madras, snob os the Napier Park, but doubt whether the produce
has been gathered and sola. The Government have the sublet under
consideration, and we may soon bear of steps being taken to en-
conrags the growth of the tree in tliis Presidency. We should
certainly recommend a thorough euquii'y into the matter, as the
cultivation of Divi-Divi involves but little expense and trouble,
and many an acre of land now producing nothing, or hut very
little, could probably be converted hito a flourishing plimtamn. At
any rate, the experiment Is well worthy of a trial, Tmo trees which
have been planted on the site of an old manure heap at Perambors
appear to have grown much better than the rest, and those who
can afford to apply manure will probably find it profitable to do
to, Diri-Dlvi it attracting attention in other courdries we see.
In tb« report on the PnoUc and Botanical Gtfdeiu, Junaloai
THE ITOIAN AGRICULTUBIST.
63
Febimry 1,1888.
for 1881. tre xtotiae neittiion li made of “ a nieoe of good land of
aboift 2 aoTM in hat been enoloaed with a hedge of
UoMB and lald ont fo beds for raking the moot important eooiumio
pUnte. fhe ntiin^r of theee plank ready for diatrlbotion amonst
to 82,<XKh -and among them are Liberian Coffee, Nutmeg, Beat
Indian NMgoe,JPimeato, Oranget, French UmeiL Chanarina,
Jailor Cedar, B'0la>nutt, Tetdc, Boi» mmortelft, Madtat
Thom," iso. Tlie tree is detcribed in the Treaswy afSbtaiw
" O, Ootiaria it a emidl tree twenty or thirty feet high, natiro
of Mtaral of the Weat Indian lalanu, Mexico, Veneattela, and
North itokdli 'The primary diTitioni of its leaves vary from nine to
fifteen, eaoh bearing from sixteen to twenty-four narrow oblong
blunt leaflets, marked with black dots on the under surface. It
hat branohea racomet of white flowers, which produce ourioutly
flattened podi, abont two inohet long by three-iourthe broad, and
curved to as to bear tome retemblanoo to the letter 8. The largo
peroMttage of tannin in theee pods renders them exceedingly
valuable ior tanning purposes. They are known in commerce under
the namee of Sivt-dlvi, Idbi-dlvl, or Livi-dibi, and are chiefly
imported ftcsn Mamoribo, Paraiba, and St Domingo.”
In Day** Oardmer't ZHctUmcrry vol. II., p. 432, the 4th section
of Oessaqiiida Is given at Libidibia, from Libidibi, the name of the
pod of tbit plant in Cura^, the Ccasalpinla ooarlrla of Will-
denOw, wldchit a native of Cnra 9 oa, Carthagena, and St. Domingo,
in talt marthas by the tea-tide. The legumet of thit plant are
eallcd Llbt-Dibl and are used In tanning leather when lipo by
the Spaniards and natives. The tree grows 15 to 20 feet
In we Bombay Flora of Donxell and Gibson published in 1861,
this plant is noticed as follows :—
Ocuaipinia eoriaria, Llbl-Divi Native of South America.—A
■preading, umbrageous tree ; not high; leaflets minute; legumes very
numerous, varioumy contorted; has l^en raised extensively at Hewra
and Dapwrie from seed received through the late Dr. WalUoh.
This tree is likely to bo of great importanse on account of the
exoellent tanning material which it afiords.
The seeds of the plant were Introduced Into Ceylon some years
ago, uid the result was that several of them genninated but died
immediately afterwards, probably owing to the climate being too
damp. On the other hand, this is what Dr. Trimen writes to the
Tropical AffricuUurisl :
" Royal Botanical Garden, Peradoniya, 3rd Aug. 1881.
SiB,—It may perhaps be instanced os a good example of the
habit of passing by what is close to us without notice, that neither
you nor your morning oontomporory, in your remarks on
‘ Divi-Dlvi,’ have seemingly been aware that the seeds of
OcualpitM eoriaria are regularly advertised In your columns,
along with other useful plants on sale at these gardens. The fine
old tree of this E]Mcie8 near the entrance to Peradentya affords an
abundant crop of pods every year, and there can be no doubt that
the plant would fiourish generally at the lower elevations in
Ceylon.”
Dr. Cleghorn, in his “ Porosts and Garden of South India,” says
that small plantations of V, eoriaria exist at Bangalore, Ountoor,
Huusoor, Masulipatam, &c,, and that the tree grows well in most
uf those situations.
lu November 1881, the Divi-Divl tree was thus alluded to in our
coluirms !—
“ A correspondent writes :—This plant, which grows in many of
the outlying villages of Madras, and has been up to date nneared
for, is now founJ to be a valuable article fur tanning purposes.
Large quantities ef the pods these plants yield are being shipped
to Kurope, and in fact many persons nave begun to pay some atten¬
tion to the cultivation of this plant. A consignment of 88 bags of
dried pods from this plant WM shipped to England by the JJule of
Buchiwjham." 173 trees of the Divt-Divi in full bearing, which
would take an acre of land, is supposed to yield 50 cwt. of
pods, which are valued hi London at £37 10s. ; and as the culti¬
vation and care cost literally uothiug after the trees are once in
bearing, it is found to be a most profitable crop.
And a fow months afterwards a correspondent of a local paper
wrote as follows :—
“ The Divi-DIvi pods ore employed for tanning purposes, as they
contain 50 per cent of pure tannin. 1 have been told that in
Bangalore there is a largo plantation of this troo, and that its pods
are largely used for giving the skins that superior smoothness
remarkable in the Madras and Bangalore skins. I have also used
Divi-Divi4n dyeing, and I have employed a solution of aootate of
iron after tho bath in Divi-Divi tincture. The ink used in most of
the Government Offioes in Fort St. George is made with this plant.
The cultivation of this elegant shrub Is very cosy. Tho soeils should
be sown In March, and the young plants can be removed from the
nursery during tho following r^y season. Thoy roqnlre some
watering till they have att^ed tho height of three feet, after
which no more oore is necessary. This plant grows luxuriantly in
a olayish oaloareous soil, but very slowly in red soil, as I have
observed at the Red Hills near Madras. I think the difference in
tbs growth in the two soils results from tlie olayish soil retain¬
ing moisture for a very long time in the summer, while in the latter
the young ^ut is exhausted by tlie strong dry winds blowing
then. But 1 think it still possible to cultivate this shrub in red soil
with some success by adding dry mud from tanks to tho soil before
replanting the young tree from tho nursery. Cow-dung ashes will
rove i^Mul round tho plant. The great diffioulty to conteud with,
owever, in such soil is tho want of water. The cultivation I have
made for the last few years is quite a success, and 1 have made
experiments in both soils, clayey as well as red. 1 shall feel uhliged
if any of your readers will give mo somo information regarding the
market current nrieo of this dye in Loudon or elsewhere. 1 uluk
that th« bi^ rate of freight from India to Europe will not allow
a margin of profit in the shipment of Divi-Divi busks.”
Toward the middle of last year the following appeared in a
CMoutta paper
The Superintendent of the Government Farm, ELhandeish,
recently tbipped a eonslgnmant of Divi-Divi to the London numkot.
Divi-Divi is the fruit at a tree which has some resemblailOe to the
tamarind. It is used for tanning purposes, and meets with a ready
sale. The oonsigument oousistedof 14 owts. and raalixed £10 7s- Id.,
or close upon £15 the ton. From thte sum, however, must be
deducted the charge for freight, insurance, brokerage, &o., a deduc¬
tion which brought down the balaaee to 7d,t whioh, at
the rate pi exchange at the time of tho transaotion, waa equal to
Bs, 83-1-1. The expenses of production in India had amounted
to Bs. 20-7 ; acoordiugly the superintendent oIeu«d a balanoe
of Bs. SS-lO-i. At these rates, for every ton of Divi-Divi sold in
London the exporter might oonnt upon a p^t of Bs. SO. The
advantages of the cultivation of the Divi-Divi tree are that it
will grow in soil whioh is sandy and contains littlo nourishment,
and Is thus useless for average agricultural purposes, and that
consequently, as may be imagined, the tree needs littlo attention
and core. The domaud in England oan bo reckoned upon as a fixed
element.”
In Chamber’s Eneyelapadia we find the following reforeaoe :—
" Divi-Divi or Libi-Dibi, the curved pods of Oeualpinia eoriaria,
a troo whioli grows on the coasts of Curapoa, Carthagena, and
other parts of tropical America. They have been long used there
for tanning, but have recently aoqnired importance os an article of
commerce. A oo^derablo quantity is now annmdly brought to
Britain. Divi-Ifivi is one of the most astringent substauoes
known."
“A,” writing from Nollore a few days ago, says;—
“ Adverting to the enquiries of your correspondent Pi-aktbs,
I have the pleasure to intimate that Divi-Divi is the common name of
the pod of tho Oeaalpiitta eoriaria, a leguminous plant found in low
marshy situations in the northern parts of South Amorioa. It is
used both for dyeing and tanning, but chiefly for tho latter purpose.
The pod is from 2 to 3 inches in length by 3^ inch In breoihh, and
when in perfection, is of a riob brown colour. It contains a few
small seeds, but the only valuable portion is tho matter of a bright
yellow oolour, easily pulverised, which lies betwixt the outer skin
and tho hnsk that encloses tho seed, and contains a large quantity
of tannin. Divi-Divi is used not for the colouring prfnoiple but
for its strong astringent quality os a^iordont, and is used instead of
sumach, which is scarce. In tanning it acoeloratos the process,
and imparts to the leather a clean and healthy appearance. Mr.
T. Ward at Madnapully is tho owner of soma trert there, and may
probably be able to dve more infolrinatlou, and also fumisn
seeds, if applied to ,”—Madreu Mail.
THE LIME AND LIME-JUICE.
CE\ LON resident now lu England, having noticed a query put
by a corre-snomiont in a recent issue regarding the limo and
tho prodtability of Its cnltlvatiou, has sent us a littlo pamphlet,
entitled “ The Island of Montserrat, West Indies, its History ood
Development, chiefly as regards its Limo 'l^eo Plantations ; with a
short desoription of Lime-Fruit .Inice and its nse as a Medicinal
Agent and a Beverage..’’ The pamphlet opens with a desoription
of the island, as follows ;—
“ The littlo Island of Montserrat, considered the most healthy of
tlift Antilles, situated in 16’ 45' north latitude, and fil* west longi¬
tude, and about eight itdles in length from north to south, by a
breadth uf flvo miles from oast to west, is composed of a small
cluster of voloanic mountain tops, rising out of the Carribean Sea
to tho height of uf 3,000 feet, the summits being more often conceal¬
ed by floating clouds. These high mountuns seem to protect
Montserrat from the hurricanes whkh desolate the negbbouring
islands as the forests ensure a rainfall when those Islands are suffer¬
ing from still more disastrous drought. Tho slopes from the hills
to tho sea are covered with emerald cane fields, or with the darker
verdure of tho lime orchards.”
After a short summary of the history of tho Island from its dla-
oovoty in 1493 down to tho present century, tho writer says :—
" The first limo tree orchards were planted in isfe, by Mr.
Burke, an euterprizlng planter then living in tho lilamd, but tho
speculation was at first by no means profit^lo, as this is on enter-
prize that involves a large outlay of oapital, whioh is for a numbor
of years unproductive, and even then only remunerative on a large
seals ; althongh the low rate of wages and extent of unoultivated
laud on a salnbrious climate renders the Island of Montserrat par-
tionlarly snitablo for the purpose.
“ The lime tree (Oilrus lamella) is a member of tho orange tribe,
whioh grows wild in many troploal eountries, but does not fioarish
oven so far north os tho Azores. It is a thorny, bushy, evergreen
tree, with bondsoni* dsrk-groen loaves. These are so fragrant that
they aro universally used In tho West Indies to perfume the water
in the finger-glasses at dessert. The small white flowers resemble
orango blossom, and the scent is equalty delioioos.
"The plant Mom of the MonUerral Oompanyalready cover more
than 600 acres, and contain 1SO,000 trees. These are gener^y
planted fifteen foot apart, and the high road passes through them
for a distance of more than two milea No more boautiful sight
can bo seen than these orobards, when the trees are laden with
thoir bright fruit, and at the samo timo tho air is pervaded by tho
luscious fragrance of the blossom, Tho fruit is gathered by tho
negro women, and thoy carry it down iii boskets on thsir hoods,
“ The impoitont antisoorbutio properties of Umo-juioo have bocii
well knolon for many years, and tho refreshing lemonade which
is made by mixing it with wah'r and sugar is universally used in
oonntries whore the tree grows. The bulk of tho Umo-Jnioo that is
offered in tho English market (and from whioh most lime-juice
64
TOE miHAN A0RICtTiTtTRiSt.
EebhBu^ li iS88.
ooriiblitluw DutniifM^rtd) h iii*d« from tha frnlt of thb treet tb«>
aow grow wild lo abondaotly la Janoj^oa, Tahiti, aail aUawhtre.
Ib parti of Jaoa^oa'^a a^roea go about the oo.ant<j agoeez-
. ii^ the fniit ^ey flad uaner loattarad traaa into a pul with a
woodm bttchan lamoa-i^Qtasaf. Thli jaiae 1« boagat by the
Baerebanta'to a fetr peace a gallon. Al Une-Jaioe deoompoaei
very la^dlywhan exposed to tho atmoephuv la a troaioal climate,
and aoqnirea a disagreeable taste in a few hoars, anloai the air ii
exolndM from It,'it ipay easily be iaughiad tibat the fuioe eoob-
talaed does taOt ]^eaie We Engliib oo&samer, even if it had not, a«
la aMMthaee the ease, been adttlterated wlW salt water by the
tiegroei to iporeaae its balk. In fact, aptll the introdootlon of the
Montosrrat juice, llme-jaloe waa not ^polar as a beverage, on
aeooont of the raawklih taste whlbh, as expired above, it so ofton
carried with It.
*> Is order to ensure a tegoiar snpply of iaioe of reliable guilty,
extensive lime plantations were astabUsUed mote than Wrenty
years ago, by Messrs. Sturge, of Binnittgbam, in tbe Island of
Mop ts sH a t; where alons ie the lime systematloidly ooltivated on
a la^ eoale for the pnrpoae of lupplylng joloe as a beverage to
tbe English market,
‘'This jnlOo la bronght over in large casks to this country, when,
after being allowed to sett]ls, it la clarified and bottled.^
The wtner sdso states tirat—
‘'Biuos the Introduotlon of Montserrat Ume-fruit jnioe, lime-juioe
or cmpdials: ^pmd therefrom tove undonbtedly become most
pOphUr beveta^ and the hot that over 80,000 gallons are im¬
posed yearly worn Montserrat shows the estimation they are now
held is, and tbe important trade that has been developed,”
CINCHONA.
ANALYSIS OF NILGrtEI-OROWN CINCHONA BARK.
T he Madras Govamment some time mo forwarded to the be-
oratary of state oom^ments of oinebona barl^ from their
estates at NaddewatbUti Pbdabetta and Pykara, from which
Qnlnine and other alkaloids were to be mauufiMtnred on their
nebMf, These barks were made over to Mr. Whifien, the well-
known pharmaoeniical ohemUt in Xondon, and the ahalysia yielded
the following cs«alts t—
Sescrlytloti ot birk.
Qulnina tulpbato
per et.
Clnchonldlne
aul^dutop.ct.
CiuehoDo »1-
ludoidp.ct.
Benewed crown bark
6-67 to 5'71
0-41 to 0-48
0-12 to 0 -31
Mowed
4-06 to 4- 3
1- 4 to 4- 6
0- 2 to 0-24
Natural
3- 6to8-42
l-02to 1-21
0-16 to 0-23
Benewed red bark
8tH
2-32
1-84
Mowed bark
l'71to2'09
2-16 to 2-32
1-08 to 2-39
Natural „
1-28 to !• 2
2- 8 to 8-67
1-14 to 1-63
BrOOt ,1
1' 3 to 2-09
2- 1 to 2-15
2-89 to 2-67
Branofa ,, 0’ 8 to 0'60
Renewed scraped crown
1- 6 to 1-36
0-47 to 0-51
bark
4-34
0-37
0-21
Natu^ tcraped bark
1-81
0-75
O'Ofl
Branbh erbwn bark
0- 7
0-16
0-04
The total of product obtained by mannfacture wm as follows :—
Quinine sulphate 1,467 lbs.
Cinohofddine sulphate 346
Qulnidine ,, 40
Ghiohonine alkaloid 208
Febiifuge 2,236
Total obarges on account of tbebark sent amounted to £3,352-0-0,
dlsMbnted as follows :—
j£. ». d.
Freight, agdlfoy, Ao. ... ... ... 721 9 3
Manufaotnring Warges ... ... 2,604 11 0
Fire Insarance oi bark at factory,,. ... 26 0 0
CINCHONA BARK.
IkdrESS.RS* RCffilNSOK and Dunlop have received for sale
a number of imaUlbta of Hakgall* Oovenunent bark—
sucoirubra from tress 18 yean old, officinslls 10 to 12 yean old
ledgeriana 8 yean old, and oalleayn S.years olA Tbe. results of
apuyses ars very, poor, and ous may thereby be. coavlaoed that
after 6 and 8 yean tbe alkaloids do not iBcreass with age. They
are«—•
^(pdrubra thick stem ijuiH from S yean old trees—enlph.'
qatalne,... ... ... ... ... 2’.41
Total alkaloids ... 6-62
Do, stem and branch obfoa—enlph. quinino 1*72
OffioinaUs broken bold'qulU < from 10 to 18 yean old
trees—inlph, q^fau ... ... ... 2-00
Total Mkaloi^ ... 8'21
Do. stems and branch chips—lulph. quinine 8'22
Galieaya stem and branohebips from 6 years old trees—
sql^.quinme ... ... ... ... 1*86
Ifedgeriiuia stem and branch chips from - 8 -years old
trees-^ulpb. quinine ... ,,, ... 2*63
Total alkaloids ... 4-53
This is certainly a very ohrious result, but wo think part of the
osplauation in the case of tbe sucoimbra bark ie found in the
unfavoorabla altitudB and climate of HokgaUa 0^000 feea.) for red
bark, lor trsaa 18 yean old grown in the Wynasd gave much
betto lesults, At the ptme time, Broughton ustabUsbod on the
Nilgiris the deqreose.of quinine after .the 6th year of sucoirubra
trees, although the total alkaloids increased up to the 6th year
when they auo positively deoifned, Mr, Broughton’s oonolusion
waa fiiat the triicatp qusNitioa kxd |pf spadMiaM^ ^ maxisnum yield,
and he aoeounted to It by tile geoisdA of Hu* boilt at tUs age ««iag
mainly ae inorsased develMnept of Ubar Bbii^ and Act oMlniar
tliina. Be also oonudeta it a« puohable .ftket a mgtg of the
alkaloids oommeaoe from the fimt yoar, bat ie -wqntcrManoad by
the rapid abnoHaneoua toioi^bm pf awaleid ht foe auiler yeen
up to the ^ whan We femnatlea bMomae leasta^'Mi jwd de>
terimWm bi the resnlt.—The grMt ..value of l«dg«r bud: is
strihioj^y shewn In the above table. Wo ehail' be It piaatyn
-with experience of. old trees will make the awdytioai neuHs
known.—Cbyfon Otssrvsr, '
I 'vi i ew i i i
FCRBSTRY.
I N the number of the Forstliekt JBUjU^, of LtipMo, apptafeS an
article entitled, “Retation between the ^rebiMiney •» tbn^er-
etorms and the mineral constitution of the soil,” frira whiim are
taken the following obeervaBona, intereeting to the student of
Forest Science
“ The Frinoipality of Upp^DetWold has an arsa of A},000
square miles, and is dividea into nine forest cantonments.
“ Mr, Feye, Fomst Inspector, made 1874 to 1880
observations in regard to thunderbolts strEtog trees of the
forest during that time, the results of vriiich ars embodied in
the following table :—
Year. Bnmher of Mmnderbolts, Number of trees lisrack.
• •• A« «»*
...
... AM
1678 ...
... 13...
...
... 17
1876 ...
... 38...
... 87
1877 ...
... 37 ...
...
... 42
1878 ...
... 21 ...
...
... 21
1879 ...
... 20...
...
... 40
1880 ...
... 66...
... 67
_ During the last three years the observers gave attention to tbe
different kinds of trees which were stricken. These were—oaks
77 ; beeches 14 ; other broad-leaved trees 4 j resinous trees 44 ;
oftener than once it happened that an oak and a beech have
been struck at once by the same thunderbolt. From these data
may be deduced with precision the danger to which each kind
is exposed of being so struck if the nui]^r of trees belongliug
to each group were known. If we substitute for this the area
occupied by each kind of tree we find i—
Area.
Oak woodlands
Beech woodlands
Other woodlands
Coniferous woods
Pwportlon
1
1
per mat
eform.
p«r Mat
of thundar.
BeoUaet.
bolt.
1880
10-6
60
11,840
70-
11
280
1-6
3
3,230
18-
28
100 100
From whiuh. it follows that the risk of being struck by a
thunderbolt is, for the oak 60 by 10'6ia6'7, while it is only O'16
for the beech, 2' for other broad-leaved trees, and 1'6 for
resinous trees. In other words, representing the risk for the
lieech as 1, it is 34 for the oak, 12 for other broad-leaved trees,
aud 9 for resinous trees.
“ There is, then, a foundation of truth for the old saying that
the l>eeoh is never struck by lightning j and if the ancient
Germans honoured the oak as tbe dwellmg-platm of the God of
Thunder, may it not have been that, living always in the open
air, they may have remarked the preference of the lightning for
this kind of tree 1
“ The observations made from 1874 to 1880, in the 18,000
hectares of extensive forest in tho Principality have been
ippuped thus according to the nature of the ground, with the
following results :—
Ter cent, ol
PoreeniSaeof
tibuudOTs
Riik for kind
am.
bolt.
^ land.
Caloareoua lands
... 4,736
26-
3
0-11
Bnmr marli
... 8,640
31*
10
0‘82
Ar^ooeoui lands
... 3,160
17-4
13
0-76
SilToious land
... 2,868
18'
21
1-61
Hard clay
... 2,280
12«
63
4-20
ioo~
wo’
The numbers in the last column have been obtained by
dividing those of the third column, by those of i^ seeond ( eiys
they show in re^d to different kinds of lands anakwous to
those which we nave found to be the case in regard to mfibt«nt
kinds of tress. For once that the lightning struck cMoareous
land it struck on. a corresponding area four times marl land,
seven times argilaceous land, 14'6 times silicious land, and 38
times the JiartTclay (£«4«»). Countries, then, in which cMcare-
ous lauds predomimite are less exposed to damage by lightning
than are those which consist of hard clay (Lehm) ; and the
editor of the ForiUic/te Blatter remarks that on calcareous land,
the oak is in general much less abundant, while it is the speoies
of tree predominating oil the argilacaone Lehm, or mud land,
and Umt it is in this fact we must look for the. cause, of Hie
difference ob«env*d, rather than in the mineral compomtion of
the soil. The deductions made would doubtless require to bo
confirmed by new observations, but they indicate at least in
1,1883, THE fNP^ AOBieUI^T^HIST.
65
tiliw f«mtcktm mtut \» prMecutod, tad tk««e
otpeoiallT to obwcvew In (ocect mtcxvo-
A OOFJiJ, Fokhst.—T he Britixh CodbuI rI Modumbique haa
Hieently tvpwted the diacorery of a considexahle tTMlt <v oopal
forest. The f(jT«et it fully SO0 miles long. Itia * belt which
]*«n« mndlel with l^e ooast, aud is midway between the voaat
and the dm range of mountaim. From Inbambane it ie
nearly 100 milei to get right into it. This distahoe ig a little
^«at, and may retara its being opened up, but its diecovery
adds to the known wealth of the dietrict. “ The natire name
of this gum," says the Consol, “ is ' Stakate* and ‘ Staka.’
The Zula name fer gum is ‘ Inthhtka’. The name ' Staote,'
naentiogied in Exodoe xax, 34 (this ie believed to be the gam of
theBtonia tm, a^inal), would be nrononuced as the
above'mentioned native name. The tree domineers over all,
and, standing in any place overlooking the forest, yon see here
and there t^OM gi-owing as it were in a hnyfiald. The gum has
a beautiful odour if pounded and burned, also if boiled in- a tiot
of water.” The ordinary gum copal tree of the mawland of
Zanaibar and Moxambiqtie, though ns a role lofty, is by no
means of the striking character here indicated.
THE TEACHING OF FORESTRY AT THE CENTRAL
FOREST SCHOOL, HEHRA DOON.
TjtORESTRY being an art founded entirely on the observation of
^ natural phenomena and the correct application of principles
deduced therefrom, one of the most certain tests of a forester’s apti¬
tude for his profession is evidently the oompoaitiou of a paper on
some sylvicultural subject, to which ho has devoted special
attention. Accordingly, at the Central Forest .School at Dehra
Doon, it was decided to require the students, who were just com¬
pleting their probation during the past session, to write on origin¬
al essay on some subject selected by tlienuielves, the essay to
form an integral part of the final examination in forestry.
This decision, for reasons which could not he helped, was ouly
communicated to the students a fortnight before the examina¬
tion, BO that they had not the advantage, almost indis¬
pensable it must be admitted, of having previously followed
out a connected series of observations all bearing on the one subject
selected. Nevertheless, the essays are, 1 think, a fairly satisfaetory
proof of the progress made by tile men, and us they will net only
serve to give to the general publio some idea of what we have been
teaching at the Central Forest iScbool, but at -,he same time also
help to show to Indian foresters, the class of men we are preparing
for the subordinate grades of our department, I scud you selections
from them for publloation.
Critical readers will please to remember that these men form the
first batch, who have gone through the entire course of instruc¬
tion followed at the scliool ; and that it is not from among the
alumni of our Universities, men possessed of a high degree of gene¬
ral culture, that we can draw our recruits,
Tho men are oil natives, and It w'ould hence be superfluous for
mo to add that English is a foreign tongue for them.
The matter concerns ns iiiucTi more than the style and phro ,
seology. I have, tliareforo, corrected the language of the extracts
in BO tar as to make it intelligible EugUsh ; the substance remaius |
DEODAR IN KULU.
Bv Mian Moti Sinoii.
F orests tu which deodar is the prevailing tree are generally
found on moist loamy soils. The deodar affects northerly and
westerly aspects most, although it is nut seblom met with ou other
aspects. Indeed, tho aspect it selects varies, us a rulo, with the
altitude at which it grows. For instance, between 4,000 and
6,000 feet above the sea the tree grows gregariously ou northerly
and westerly slopes, and less commonly on easterly slopes, while
Pinua txerhta vary often forma purd forests on southoriy aspects.
Above 6,000 feet, on the other band, it is on easterly and southerly
aspects that deodar flourishes, growing there frequently almost
S ure, northerly and westerly slopes being occupied by the Hima-
.yan spruce and silver flrs.
The needles of conifer in the Himalayas form, when not burnt
by Are, or triturated under tho feet of cattle, a thick loose covering
of uudeeayed vegetable matter over the soil, Ucodar seeds that
fall on such a covering, although they germinate freely enough,
generally fall to exteud their tap root through it into the soil
Below, the result being that they are cither washed away with the
dead leaves by the apiing rains, or arc killed by drought. On the
other hand, joung seedungs of Pinua exettia develop a tap root
capable of pieroing this loose mass of undeoomposed leaves, and
forcing it> way Into the soil, where they thus fix themselves
firmly.
The Himalayan spruce generally prodnoes fi-om two to three
croM of seed during the interval between one seed year of deodar
and another. And hence, when these two species grow together,
this oircurastanco alone, irrespeotive of some others, gives tho
former spiles a decido<l advantoge over the other.
The ^vantages of having oaks growing with deodar are many.
I ma;^ mention some of the pnnoipa):—First, the deodar by itself, or
associated with other conifers, cannot form a complete leaf canopy.
When oaks enter the crop, these broad-leaved trees fill up all the
lutetvaU between the crowns of the cedars, without, however, di-
miiu i hlng the mwnhet et the latter, They thus force and barten
the natural waning of the cedar holes, and they iomMe the pre-
duction of i£b |oil.. ^eoondly, ndne of onr oaks attain anything like
the height of d^ar, so that the former oonstitnte a true undororop,
making growth on wehr own account, and pashtng op the latter.
Thirdly, and lastly, the mixed crop so ohvionsly forms a much more
complete cover ovarthe groun^ thS soil being thOs oonttoually pro¬
tected and improved.
The people in the Himalayas profsr the leaves of oaks as fod¬
der to those of any other trees, ana even to the various grasses them¬
selves. Oaks are also efit for fool heifoA any other species, Oake
are, therefore, very heavily lopped, and are hence xeM down or
destroyed, so that where they might grow usefnlly with the deodar,
pines and small broad-leaved trees remain the only elective, but
comparatively ineificient, allies of that valuable tree.
It is a well known fact that young deodar is greedily eaten by
sheep and goats ; and that, althouMi the stem of young seedlings is
reuiar kably elastic, the heavy bunalo tramples down and crushes
tltHisauds of them under his broad cloven foot. I would, there¬
fore, exclude gracing from every area timt is completely under our
control But when tho undocayeil layer of d<»d needles is so
think as to impede reproduction, I would admit cows in Older to
triturate the whole mass, facilitate its dooompofttion, and render
it more compact.
Firep are not an annual oocurrenoc In deodar forests, owing to the
great attitude at which they often occur, and which preserves the
moisture of the soil all the year round. But as the needles of
conifers decompose very slowly, and are very resinous, they form
a thick layer or highly combustible material, which, when once
ignited, bums ileroely. Hence forest fires, when they do occur,
are difficult tu put out and do groat damage. The only way to
check or keep out fire is to trace fire lines, which should be kept
clear of all combustible matter, and especially of ooues. Unfortu.
uatoly we have uo deod^ forests in the Punjab, which are thus
protected.— Indian FartHS',
THE GARDEN.
Tht A ctian of Manurta on FVutfs.—Cultivated plants are the
inheritors of whatever benefits or disadvantages they may have
derived from their predeoeseori. The thing Ts obvions enough to
those who look on plants from an evolutionist's point of view ; and
the practical outcome is that, except under special oironmituoes,
or for somcapeoiul purpose, it is best, in our attempts to improve
upon what we have got, to deal with a plant that has been lu eal-
tivatioa for a long time, and so avail ourselves of its stored-up
inheritance. It would be 51 long uphill work to start afresh with
the crab or wild pear, for iustaiioe, although for the lake of
a new “ break ” or more robustness of constitution It may be de.
sii-able sometimes to begin again at tho beginning, or at least to
infuse some less convontionarised blood into our plants, if we may
sc speak. A curious Illustration of the contrast between the wild
and the civilised condition is afforded in Professor Ooessman's
paper on “ Mineral Constituents in Plant Growth," in tho 3’rauMc-
ihrta of iht- Maaaachnattta Society. The Professor has
been experimenting ou the difl'ercnce in chemical composition, be¬
tween vines unman uml and vines manured, lo the course of his
exporimeute ho analysed the juice of a wild vine fvilia litbrHaca)
grown without manure. And tlie juice of the same vine when
treated witli luauure. At one hound the sugar rose from S'K
i per cent in tlie wilding without manure, to 13w per cent in
same wilding appropriately fed. This shows the advantage oi_
manure. But now, looking to the analysis of the onltiTat^ variety
( Cunconl), vie find that in its juice, oven when unmanurod,tbe sugar
aiuounted to 13 •86 per cent, so that tho cultivated variety, wltliout
manure at all, yielded a larger percentage of sugar than did the
wild form with ample manure. The increase of sugar is coinoident
witli a larga increase of potash, and a largely diminished proportion
of lime. In the case of strawberries tlie wild unnmniirod variety
contains much less potash, much more lime, much less magnesia,
muult mure iron, ami about tiiu some percoutage of phosphcnc acid
as tiie cultivated and manured v-oriety. The wild strawbony,
itioreovcr, contains one part of acid to two of sugar, while in the
cultivated varieties the proportion of acid is one to four or more
of sugar.
Inhiak Pbuiboses.— In the last uumber of the JounuU qf (he
lAnneiin Society is an interesting paper on some uudesoribed and
little known Indian species of Pnmulu and Atuiroaaee by Dr,
tleorgo Watt, who has pMd great attention to the order both in
Sikkim and at the herbarium at Kew, The number of species of
Pnmuia enumerated is twenty.four, and of Androaitce six, and the
euu meration is aocompanied by some notes by Sir J. D. Hooker.
Several of those plants will doubtless soon be ui the bands of our
cultivators, 011 which account we think it well to call their atten¬
tion to the publication of this paper with its numerous illustrations.
Xus Flauts or Madaoasoab.—A t the last meeting of tbeLlnnean
Society a paper was oommuuicatod by Mr. .1. G. Baker, containing
descriptions of a large number of new species of dicoiyhdona of the
jiamopetaloita series uf natural orders, gathered in Mad^ascar by
recent English eolleotors, especially the Rev. E. Baron, RJL.S., of
the London Missionary Society. The most interesting of these
novelties is SchiamatoclaUa, a new genus of Pubiaco', allied to
cinchona. Tho other now genera are Tetraapidam, of tho group of
semi-parasitic Scrophularioeew, such as Pediculuria and MeUmpy-
runt, which turn oouniletely black in drying, remarkable for its four
shield-shaped one-oelled anthers ; Foraythiopaia, an erect shruby
Acanthaceona mnus, with Sowers like Foraylhin, and leaves not
fully developed till after the flowcm fmh! : ami Monarhoehlamya,
another genua of Acanihctcea, allied to AJendoncin and Thunbenjia,
with numerous small flowers, caeh contained In a j^rsistont
spathaeeous bnot like the hood of a Franoiioan monk, Qf ropre-
66 TBE INDIAN AaUICULTmW:
iaotkti^^^ virc^ Uotm getM* tliA preient ool|»e@<m
of 4^iitS* nitfiy «tli«a to Ttntm ) 1!#o
Ajttgiasi of 5Sf««^, A»fr
^IMCiai, ibiw« Oyncghmmt, «n<l a ILj/titwhiti. I'b* msem ts-
proHAtaHl «Mt l«i^. MM Damit, rumo^tOi
ifiteHni’‘a, CterodMania, aad ifypotittm. Xhero 1« • IpeoiMi '
of.'ttw boMtlf*! 4eav(Aa<wiu jminM,-~SlrobiiaHihni, wJsmIi
r«f trictod to rropioAl AtU. Toni'a is a now t'-noa n«i«iy a^ed to
Sotea. Of atfdomkAOoora.'kiiowii previously ia th« there
•fe iwr epeofM of AtpilUi, Hpnllt^e, And Onc^tMuin. Of Cape
typee thepriwlpalaroa Zf^A^ootia, a tCalleria, aa Ahetrn, »,nd
two heaths of the geans Phtlippla.—The ChrdtMr'e CArthniclt,
notkje of book.
2%s Field and Garden Cropt of the Forth- Western Pronhttk'
‘ amd OmSi, with Illnstratiou by J. F. Duke, fl. A., F.L.S., and Mr.
J, B, Fuller, Aaiistattt Director of Agriculture and Commerce,
North-Western Provinces and OndJi, purports to be the first
Of a short series in which it is pnipoeed to describe the cultivat¬
ed products of these provinces, and to furnish, in a convenient
form, all the information on the subject that is likely to be
wanted by the student of Indian agriculture, or by the adminis¬
trative oAoeia (d Ooventment,
It was soareely to be expected that all that might be said
on the field and gari^ crops of the North-Western Provinces
could be said in aoont one hundred pages, it is needless there¬
fore to say that several of the topics are must inadequately
treated, from an agricultural and coniinercial point of
view, notably that of hemp. The botanical part of the work so
far as it goes leaves little to be desired. The student of Indian
agriculture and the admiuistrative officers of Uovernmeiit could,
we imagine, easily obtain access to the various Gaieltes of the
several Indian provinoes where much valuable information,
sKrieuituTal and eommerdal, is stored up. In the Field and
(farden Crops references to authorities or sources of informa¬
tion aw confined to the botanical part of the book, and uo
use hns been made of volume X of the North-West Provinces
U'aeetteer ; it has not even been referred to as a possible source
of knowledge. The illustratione, while fairly well executed, on
the whole are either defective or obecure in almost every plate,
and the want of colouring detracts considerably from the popu¬
lar usefulness and value of the drawings.
These two hSdnS eaah forin a fwrtoef M»dar|»
between M««snnm and Point Ca^msst!e,«nd i^ich is
to the tertlaryiormationoatoroppingat^’^Ud l'''ienearFon^
cherry snd at hlcuiit ICcpper, near Cnd^i^ie^ 4ippi»g.AgttiQ.aw
Terdachelinm to reapp^ hearl^j^ iet^Kf iomidm
has below the allnvimn fwtr prinetpal d ei n'e M itol U t w^h hovA''!^
filled up by the disintegra^on of the tertiary fWaihtiM itl^ and of,
the gneiss westwards, «>d have thue fumed the aUnvial bacins of
Oeogeo, of the Sonosr, of the VellaT, and of tire Ctuvary rtvers.
The strata which have filled up the tertiaw baeins aw genf^y
composed of the same matortats as proved the hornn'
already made in a line parallel to the eoaet.' They cotaMt <^toe
bJaok clay deposited by the sea, of sandt, |iebbwii' anf^litoMa
mixtures and clays of iweteut oolottr; from pyiilee,'fiipsltsa
sometimes In large quaetitles. In every bot^ whieh baa been
made Ifgnite wae found in a more or less odveacM state of toaaef-
tton and of variable thickness, the most remarkable deporit being
that fonnd at Vargour. From the above it A»y be stmidieeil '^U
if lignites are found in so many placet and {a tamt qhaitmiee, they
can be found somewhere is those alluvial eoUe in important dmoriial
To return to the Vergjmr boring, a gentleman, (Mr. Delenobih who
was passing through Paadlcfaerry at the time tos lijmito was t^.
ped, and who hod occasion to examine this produot, Sotalned a lease
for mining the deposit, and started a Gempany for the purpose.
After havmg the epeedmens sent to Sutepe and analyaed,- the
Company has despatched to India two mining engineen, with their
staff* and boring apparatuses, tor aicertalmng toe extent of the
deposit, and the advisabiUty or not of working out the Vargour
liguite. These gentlemen are expected by the next French
steamer.
If mining operations are undertaken, they will be executed with¬
out much difliouHy, as it will be only neoeseary to pau the surface
water sheet; from this to the lied of Ugahe below there ie no
other water-bearing stratum. Whether the 33 feet of lignite
extends over a large area or not it is impossible at present to say,
and as nothing is yet known of the future market
prioo of this oombustible, the future proepeots of the enter¬
prise cannot be aaeertained until the report of toe survey by tlie
mining engineers bas been pnblislied. If the combustible found at
Vargour proves worth mining, this will encourage others to search
for liguite beds, which may pi'obably exist underground in the
alluvium mentionsd above. P,
SERICULTURE.
MINERALOGY.
r OM Per^ the Penang Gasetu learns that recent prospecting
has proved that the alluvial deposits of Perak are very rich
and sxteusive ; the several districts in which tin oxide is being
mined are being opened gradually, each proiluoiug the mineral
in high percentage and of good quality, tlic development of
whieh \sf primitive methods affords large profits to the mine
owners, which may bo increased by the application of improved
appliances. A great number of sqii.are miles of rich tin land are
available for tin mining; several of the ilifferant valleys have
been opened and are being mined for their produce of tin ore
which varies from 1’5 to 00 per cent. The deposits in the Kiuta
district at Tapan are very rich ; and also at CUauduriong, where
efiormons lumps of tin oxide are produced.
LIGNITE IN SOUTH ARGOT.
QjpME months ago, when boring for an artesian well In the
^ vUlags of Vargour (Bahonr), eight miles south of Pondicherry,
toe auger, at 2S8 tost below the snrtoe* of the ground, oame in
ooUtaot With some lignite, the thiokness of which was found to be
33 tost. The Ilgtilta was of a dark brown oolour, passing into book,
and showing At lOms places, small thin auil bright particles ; it
wsaiotoratixadwitolran pyrites of greyish oolour, and ws hear
that the eoiapesttioa of it was as follow i—
Carbon ... ... - 0-49
Hydrogen oxygen and axot ... ... 0'40
Ashes, &o. ... ... fi'll
Total ... 1-00
and its oalorifio power about one-half of that of cools. The artesian
wcU in Which the lignite was found is situated two miles north of
the Pmmaar river, and tiroe and-a half miles from tbs sea coast in-
in tbs allurial basin of the Ponnear river, vmidit is separated
from that of the Ctongea river by a rise, under ground, of the ter-
rinty fonaaitian, the rWge baviog a^footinn from West to east
pwaJMtotfforiveti.
I T may not be generally known that in the valley of the
Brahmaputra the respectable Hindoo is accustomed to walk in
silk attire. This is no product of French or Chinese looms, but
strictly of home growth and manufacture. Assam is happy in
the possession of two indigenous varieties of silk worm, which
prefer a simpler and more inexpensive diet than the traditional
mulbeiry. One kind thrive.s upon a common forest tree ; the
other selecte, out of the large i-ange of vegetable life at itw
choice in Assam, the castor-oil plant as the fond in which it
luxuriates. The former species yields a silk With a beautiful
yellow gloss, while the aistor-oil worm spins a thread which
can be woven into one of the most durable materials hitherto
discovered. If neither sort of silk is of the very fiuest quality,
both are admirably adapted for working into silk plashes and
similar compound fabrics. When we add that the supply can be
increased to almost any extent, it would appear that there is
nothing more to say except that the silk industry in Assam is
bidding fair to rival tea in importance. But the facts, unfor¬
tunately, are far otherwise.^ Both the production and the
manufacture of silk have for years been steadily declining. The
loom used to be an indispensable article of furniture in the old-
fashioned Assamese houselmld, and no girl liad a chance of
getting married unless she was able to weave garraenta for her¬
self and her husband. But this laudable domesti'c custom is
gradually dying out ; Maaohester piece-goods have almost
hushed tlie household music of the loom by the banks of the
Brahmaputra, as in the shires of England ; and with the decay
of the local market the breeding of silkworms, has simulta¬
neously decreased, while the price of silk has nearly doubted.
The only hope for the trade now seems to be the creation of a
market in Fraitee or Engtend, and this must depend to a great
extent ux>on the action of European capitalists, some of whom
are alre^y interested in the silks of India. At present the
silk question in Assam-^nd indeed, it is believed i|i Bengal
generally—presents this extraordinary aspect, tiiat though the
cost of feeding the silk worms is really insignificant, and the
faoilitiee fortbe extenskm of serioultaie auwpraotioaUy limitleH,
. yet the opcoons of one of the beet speoiei oanitot be got. In tire
I, MM. aim. AaRjootwiasT.
C7
sowicct while Ijhoae M Another dl^ot hn^jrQ'^
mce 'i|^eii.#«i«pena xaaaufsotanre. m |ir^w;^ Jfo, paf. ,thi(
ie*.#KieK.effAin whioh .cannot he eitttfd .witkoat pntienoe
«nnii icnpiM^ihot wybody leaesed jn i!ij^,;wt4 qneli-
i§»A % Dvo^ rec^te, (KU'ht to miube a fftvd thing «ttt of
' ‘<|ii»ta. eillr hiMiDwa after'.a jetr jeare:' '
aSKlCULTUJlE IN CEKI*ON.
4 0 dRSMn' 0 Kn«!rT Msdi ne two very niee-looking ooeooni,
toehew what ie heitiB^ done in Oalle, and he writea i—
eareindeede^rjrgladT&heli^ahletoeay that father feilla
hat-eapertoBaed eoniiaerabto iti<ioe«8>iii the oatture ot ellkwomia
hi'thte ooutitry. The eaoeeMfdl roaults which haye attended hu
ettote la j^-lndush^ for the Iwt three yean coattince na, deapita.
the advetee viewa of aome aa to it» euuaeae, that the culture of the
atlbworm can be carried out, l>eyoi'd a doubt, to inch a great
adv’aatoge In thtaoountry, B8 to be made a very rcmmierative and
profitable Induatry, if oonduobod with due attentlou and care,
nther Falla’s object in attempting tUia eiiterpriac was, as we see,
for no other rooeon than that of proving to the colony that silk
production can be carried to umioubtoa success in this country ;
and his auocessful expnrienoe for upwards of three yean in tliis
enterprise, we dare say, warrants him lu saying that he has realized
the object he aimed at. AUhougli it was said by some, whose
experience in this industry falb short of the mark, that the
mulberry plant, the chief aliment of the silkworm, does not grow
freely In Ceylon, yet we have no hesitation in saying that Father
Folia’s successful experience in the oultivatiou of the plant, places
us beyond the shadow of a doubt that the mn1l>erry plant grows
very freely in any place in Ceylon, Mr. Geddes alto concurs iu
tide opinluu, but it must be conceded that it does not thrive so
Inxurinntly ae it otherwise would in somewhat colder climates
than Ceylon ; but however this may be, it thrives so luxuriantly
in Ceylon, as to ensure success in the culture of the silkworm,
and Father Folia’s mulberry plantation iu Oalle is a proof of
this. It was also said that the silkworm eg« of the saoonil
production become spoilt and, useless, and that a fi-esh
supply of eggs is reiiuirod to bo imported from iTopan or else¬
where. But wo liavo seen the eggs of the fifth production, and
from our own personal observation, wo can say that they appear to
bo of superior quality to tlioso of the primary proilnotiou, and
moreover we learn from letters received by Father J’alla from
(Jormany, Italy, jflugloud, Ac., that the cocoons sent by him from
Ceylon were so much appreciated and admired, as to render it
desirable fur them to apply to him for eggs.
First, it is essentially necessary, before the rearing of silkw-orms
in sufficient quantity for commercial purposes oaii be aueeesshdty
attempted, to have a good plaiitution of mulberry. Tliis is (if
paramount importance to ensure success in tlio onterprizc.
Secondly, an apartment or room as in India is much needed to
keen the worms safe from being exposed to the danger of easily
falling victims to lijuirds, suorpioiis, ants, and such otiier plagues.
This, U’e say, as It lias been said to us from Fathur Falla, who has
experienced such destruction.
Thirdly, it must bo also one of the niiiin oouaiderations witli the
serioulturist to secure the services of an expert in the rearing of the
silkworm, i. '.t one who has especial knowledge in tlic onlture of
the worm—“ cdueation” ns it is oallod of the worm; for pr.nctical
knowledge is more needed than tlieory for currying on tlie husiiiess
successfully. Tt is therefore no w'oiuicr that those who have over¬
looked those precautions have mot with ill-suooess iu the
entorprize.
Wo are glad to hear that several persons, following in the wake
of Father Falla, are devoting mucli time and oaro to this pursuit.
We wish them every sueoess in their endeavours, os with a little
experieiioe it cun bo made a very profitable industry for the natives
of this country. It will also give great pleasure and satisfaction
to Father Falla, to hear of their success, and to know that his
eiideavoora to give the natives of this country the benefits of an
induatry so long overlooked have not been fruitless.
There can be no doubt that the mulln-rry flourishes In Ceylon,
and Father Falla’s experiments prove that the silkworm (um ho
propagated kere to the fifth generation. The oommcrcial question
then hinges on an abundance of cheap leliour. In the great silk-
producing eountrios, Italy, Japan, China, fcc., mucit of the work
is done by the women and children of families. It would he a
groat step in advance if women and children in native families here
would devote themselves to the pursuit .—Otyfon Obaemr,
TEA.
T he following is a description of Mi\ C. Shaud’s I’alout Tea
dryer ;—
The barbacne-ehaped steani-beatod tea-dryer is the chcnjicat,
most economical, and eafest drying inaohhio. As this
machine can be made any length and width, the quantity
of leaf which can bo manufactured is only limited by the
extent of drying sorfaoe. One, five foet wide, and fifteen
feat Inng, will acunit of about forty pounds of tea being spread
as tlifnly as on sirocco trays, and. if heated to one huntured and
fifty degrees Fahrenheit, would ary a niaund per honr. The
steam for heating thin galvanized iron drying surfai-c is
generated in the simce (.3 indies) lietweeu it and the thin boiler
plate bottom. The machine, which is made steam-tight, is
partially filled with wator, and placed on a fire stove. It is
evident that a comp.oiutively small quantity of fuel will
generate to hea^ n 4ng» .surface, eroecially if the
smoke the 'whole les|m pf.;the machine.
As |t iaitnpdsidtila to .fir^lbnra the teic dried w the steam-
heated dryer, ^ eno|B»Mt edvgntege of beifig:l*^ 0 pendent of
toeeareand jadgawtttof oo<^,'»n3 of the neoeisity of un-
totmimpted ilurofKMitt .ei^ttm^sion, is too evidmit to requir.c
comment,
Mr. Rhand saj^ It is aot .^dnteudod to sustain any
pressure of steam, the drying surfeoe cannot eotaly be heated
over 160 degrees (?)
As a matter of course, the tea takes a longer lime to dry than
when made by siroccos, in which tbe temperature is mointainod
at 276 degrees, but Uie extent of drying surface available makes
this a matter of secondary importance.
, Mr. Shand does not mean that no care or attention is wquired
to keep np fire and supply boiling water fieriodicidly from a
cistern placed over the flue ; but it can be unde^xid that the
some cai-e, judgment, and observation fa not roquirwl to dry tea
nt a comparatively low temperature as at ft very high one ; for
instanee, it doos not injure coffee to allow it to remain on tlio
barbacuo after it is thoroughly dry ;,but put it in ft roRster, «ftd
what care and judgment is not required to perfect the roiiating !
No doubt, by tlie use of siroccos and other modern appliance,
the risk of nre-buruing is now greatly tiituinished, but these
still require great care in shifting ttie traye and watching
the thermometer. This constant watching is obviated by
the use of Mr. Shand's maohiue, and all the superinteudeiit has
to do is to feel when the tea becomes crisp and dry ; ho
lifts the security that, if this is neglected to be done at tins
moment it is sufileiently diy, no injury takes place by its
remaining on the heated surface.
The machine is especially adapted for redrying tea before
packing, this being an operation carried on at a low tempera¬
ture, and requiring a good deal of oaro.
There are, it is well known, two difiicultiea coiuiected with
the proper manufacture of tea, requiring at present the constant
supervision of the superintendmt : these are fermentation
and firing. If the necessity of closely watching the latter can
be dispensed with, it gives the suporintendonts more time to
direct the feruientetiou, on which the colour of the iafused leaf,
and cousoqueiitly the value so greatly depends.
TExV AND CLIMATE IN INDIA AND CM.m
rt'^HE Intlmn Tm Oiattu in notiolng the dlscunW en tbe-pm-
X bfthla rate of bearing per acre of tea in Ceylon, very notaltvlly
cluuounues “ Clift’s” eatiinatea of 7001b. for low ostetos and efiolb.
for high, as exaggerated. Time will shew j hut no time is nesded
to olapso in order to shew the iuonrrectiiess of the preulieea on
wliiuh the Iiidiau editor argues. Ho status i '* pothajis fSorjealing
The niBfti'iug of the passage wo have itaUclsed la, of course, that
the climate- of thu Douars is identical with that of the low oouotry
of Ceylon in which tuu is cultivated, and that tile climate of
Durjoaliug is thu counterpart of that of our hill country. To shew
how bost-resa this atate-meiit is, we need merely meutioii, that at this
moiiieiit and always in the season between November and March,
the heavily pruned tea of the Eastei-n Himalayas, is eujoyiiig the rest
of a very pronounced winter, while it is iu those very mouths that
tea in Ceylon yields its most luxuriant flushes. The diflfereiioo of
climate is uU that is implied iu the facts that wtillo Darjesllug and
the Hooars are in thu interior of a vast continent and on or at the
foot of the most gigantic inuuiitain system in the world (its very name
signifying “ The Abode of Snow,’) ond 27- north of the equator :
Ceylon is an island, twenty degrees nearer the equatortlionDarjeeling
and the Douars and iu tlie trauk of both monsoons, 'f'he Wmatic
oomlitious, therefore, so far from being idoutieol are about at
opposite as well can be. Warmth and moisture are the prevoleut
chavauteristios of our Ceylon climate. Frost is so rare a pheno¬
menon, even on the most elevated foi-est-laud on which tea is
cultivated in Ceylon—OUpbant estate, above Nuwara Eliys, to
wit—as to be not worth tekiut, into account, while devastating
Iiailstorms, such as frequently play havoc with tea in Northeni
India and Assam, are utterly unknown in Ceylon. Suuh cold as
we experionoe at this season of the year is iiowerless to ohoek tbe
m-owth of tea, and our winter, as far as tea is ooueerned, is in tbe
heavy rains ami strong winds of the south-west moonsoou mouths,
June—August, when tbe bushes are pinuod. Wliilein most of the
tea districts of India the vast bulk of their rainfall ocenrs in from
four to six mouths, ours is fairly distributed over the year.
Dideod the obiectiou offered iu the experimental era of the tea
enterprise iu Ceylon was our ohronlcalty wot (siiniate, and there
can be no doubt that In a good many plaooi, on Uio bills, the pro-
oeis of “ withering” is rendered difficult by the prevsjoneo of i-aiii
and mist. This is a cUfideulty not nukuoivn in Darjeeling iu tlm
mouths, June -September. Had the editor of the Tm Oaxeltt
claimed for Dai-jeeling and usitecially for the Dooars, a more fertile
soil than Ceylon can generally shew, wo could bettor uudoretond
the argumout. But wo have good tea soil in a healthy climate.
Into the I'orrai at the foot of tlie Darjeeling hills the dthrit of the
Himalayas have been pouring, poi lmps for thoasands of oenturiet,
so that the rich black soil is, in piaoos, forty feet deep. The
Dooars have much the same conditions of soil and, unhappily of
olimate. All plavcs at the base of mountains in laaia are
insanitary, and even up to .3,000 feet, fever Is the frequent result of
68
THE INDIAN A(iRICDLTDItISl?. SPebwjr U la8&.
a cItmHts iMe vpothtit thasw* ^ and <<» **»
next ball praoticaily Hoot, We are ttbw at tne eotttnenaemw «
onr dry wawn la dsvloii, uid our bill dimate ii •imply ^•Ueioue,
being kept healtby bv genial efaoaren of rain at iaterrui rbrel; or
never ona Month MMTt. Inwil alone, thereiora,. if b^>‘eB id tOa
aott, ie CepUm infeilor to India. Sxperienoed Indian piadtora.
liko “ Ohm,” baye after enttolent comiMrlion. gtyett Wa {{dto, of
anperiorttjrto Oq^kn,' and Mir. Saadleoa, aftw batlM, enli^vated
teft snd ' 0 (uitrMt 6 d f^v^r In AamhI) ftud TulMd
and all tbe other great tea dietrlote of Zadih atatea deoidedly
that be eaw no^M ^tter than what exiata ittv^lmitor anooeadnl
tea prodaotion, ~CSplon Obterver.
TOBACCO.
TOBACCO CULTIVATION IN THE WEST INDIES.
F ob aonie yeata paat tbe superior ^nallty of the tobaooo grown
in Jamaioa baa be«i steatUly forcing itaelf on public recogni¬
tion, and Jamaica oigaia seam likely to taka rank alongside those
produoed in Cuba, which, taking thok name from the oapital of
that island, haye come to be recognised as the type of excellence
in this particnlar form of tire " fragrant weed.” Tbe cultivation
of iobaeoo waa an industry of some importance in the liesser as
well as the Greater Antilles, but It has died out in the former,
tfaough is no ft|>pA 7 ttnt rsMon why tho oultivfttion of tho plftnt
should not be revived there. The pl&nt has been Introduced from
Cuba Into the Bahamas, whore it promised oxoeHent results—'al¬
though It would appear that, probably owing to the expense of
initiating the industry, the wvemment has not oontmaed the
«rterimettia--«d GoTbWWIBohtoMi.
the tdinilite,aril, and ndnfaa bf «nd
tamim, has induced 4e LegtikSye Oonadl «f the Kkter Uihd to
vbte a snm of money with ^e fddect rf bMgodacmg lte,** k**
ijrtodoot” Into tbe polmi^. A J
painted to enquire into thd std^Md, and tba pa^t #io
gatlon-is embodied in a .rMSrt' trbibb' baa jnat liwa
Berne seed of the “ best Hatana t^aaoa ’'—pjroosmiA
etUng to note, from the Betantoal Gardens of Jiuiudaa<~waa,att>
trostM to four gentlemen, who undertook to give it a fair trial ;
and idthongh it ia too early yet to judge of the eyentnal maulte
of the expMiment, the aeed u reported to have gensiaated and
to be progreesiag favonrably, ana there acems ara^ vttmoa to
anticipate a snoMadiul rosmt. There is in St. Lnoia. ab .abnadaaoe
of soil of a suitable nature, with ample shade and rain, and many
fWermit “ aapects,” while tho whole olimate and physical features
of the island approximate very closely to those of Cuba. The piiaoipal
difficulty, indeed, In tbe way, teems to lie in the propw .ottnng
of tho le^. Sir Joseph Hooker endorses Qoyemor mobiasosa
statement, that tbe ffiiest tobacco in the world may bo spmled by
improper or indolent oaring ) and he quotes an instance in which
ten Ixues of Ceylon tobacco, sent recently to the London market
as an expwiment, fetched a low price la consequence of tbe centres
having been decompoeed daring the voyage, throi^b some defect
of ourTug or packing. With the care with which Gloyeruor Robin¬
son and the authorities of St. Lucia have gone into the matter,
there ia little fear of such a mistake being made there, aod their
experiment wiU be watched with interest m the colonies. Tobaooo
requires a soil rich in potash, and while c^oareons and clayey
soils are to be avoided, ailuvlal lands on the banks of streams, not
too wet, are most favourable. Plenty of manure is required, as
the plant rapidly exhausts the soil; but chlorides must be scrupulous¬
ly avoid^. Slow desiccation, without exposure to eun or wind,
and sound fermentation, arc the two main points to be observed in
the preparation of tbe leaf for tho market.
ZULULAND AND OETEWAYO.
'* ' 1 know what it la,’ he answered; ' this honey is made frdm
euphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.’ This explanation made
me feel exceedingly unoomfortable j but I elicited from him that there was
not much danger, as tho ‘ maass’ taken with It would neutralise the effect
of the poison. Dkeotly he mentioned poison I dived into the packs, and
pulled out a bottle of ENO’S FRUIT SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pannikins, filled them up with water, aud several times
repeating the dose, in a few hours we wore considerably better.”—
“ Zuinland (Mid Oflneayo,” (p. ISS), by Vaplain IF. H. Ludlotp, hi Bait.
B, V. Bnynl Wanmekahirt Rf,i)iment.
“ ‘ What on earth shall I take to Zululand ?’ asked my friend .Tim
Law one day at Aldershot, when he had just received ordeis for South
Africa, to start at forty-eight hours' notice. I replied, ‘ If yon take
niy advice—and it’s that ot on old traveller—you'lJ not budge without
a few bottles of KKO, even if you leave half your kit liehlnd. 1
never am without these Salts, and, please the pigs, never intend to be.’
On his return I iuqukod, ‘Well, how about ENO’S FRUIT SALT?'
‘ My dear fellow, it was the beet advice you ever gave; they saved
me many an illness ; and when I loft I'uegla, I sold tho rem^ing bottles
for ten times the original price ! ’ ”— LUut.-Ool,
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANCER OF DELAY.
Yon can change the trickling stream, but not the raging torrent.
W HAT EVERYBODY SHOULD READ.—How important it is toevory individual to have at hand some simple, effective, and palat¬
able remedy, such as ENO’S FRUIT SALT, to clieck diseuso at the outset ! For this is tho time. With veiy little tronble you
can change tbe eoarae of the trickling mountain stream, but not the roUiug river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I feel I cannot snffi-
rieotly impress this important information upon all Householders, or Ship Captains, or Europeans generally, who are visiting or residing la
any hot or foreign bUmate. Whenever a change is contemplated, likely to disturb the ooudition of health, let END'S FRUIT SALT bo
your oompoulon t for, under any olroamstances, iu use Is beneficial and never can do harm. Wlieii you feel out of sorts, yet unable to say
why, frequently without any warning you are suddenly seized with lassitude, disinclination for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
sickness, pain in the forehead, dull siting of back and limbs, ooidiiess of tho surface, aud often sliivoriiig, Ac., Ac. ; then your whole body
is oat of order, tbe spirit of danger has been kindled, but you do not know where it may cud ; it is a real necessity to have a simple remedy
at band that v^ answer the very best end, with a positive assurance of doing gooil in every oaee and in no case any harm. The pilot oan
so steer aud direct as to bring the ship into safety, out he cannot quell tbe raging storm. Tne ommoii idea when not feeling well is, “I
will wait and see, perhaps I ^11 be better to-morrow ; ” whereas, hod a supply of ENO’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all oalamitous results might have been avoided. What dashes to tbe earth so many hopes, breaks so many sweet allianoes,
blasts so many auspicious enterprises, as untimely death ?
E NO'8 FRUIT salt.—“ After suffering for nearly two and a half voars rpHE ART OF CONQUEfHT IS LOST WITHOUT THE ART OP BAT-
from sevoTo Uaadaohe and disordered stomabh, and after try ing aimosl 1 IN(t. —DINNER ENGAGEMENTS.—STIMULANTS.—TOO RICH
ovorytbing and spending much money without ftniliug any benotit, I was POOD.-LATE HiJUILS.—INSUPPICIENT KXBRCISB,—EXOITSMENT,
recommended by a friend to try ENO'8 FRUIT HALT, and lioforo I had l Ac.—A gontleman writes: ‘‘Wlien I fool out of sorts; I take a dnee of
iiniidted ope bottie 1 found ft doing mo a groat deal of good, and nuw I j ENO’S FKLTIT .SALT one hour before dinner or first tbhtnn the morning,
am restored to my usual health ; and others I know that have tried it have Tho effect ia all I oould wiab.” How to enjoy goodJoOd that would
not’enjoyed such good health for year*, — Yom's moat truly, Host, ' otherwiae (anise bilioumieaa, headache, or diaordered stomaoh—use ENO'8
MumpBbiyb, PostOlfloe, Darroaford.” | PBUIT HALT.
S uccess in life.—** a new invention is brought before the public, aud commands sitouess. A score of aliomiiiable imitations art
immediately introduced by the unscrupulous who, in copying the original closely enough to deceive thepublio, and yet not so exactly
os to (niriuge upon legal rights, exercise on ingenuity timt, employed in an original ohamioL could not fail to secure r^^mtation ana
profit.”— Adams. ” *
C AUTION. —JjfffcU rv/Ate are prolecteii in r.vrry eivilinefl cminlry. Examine raeh Botilr, autl nee the capmle it mailed “VKOIT
SALT.” Vithout U you have beenimj>oeedon by tvoalUets imitationv. Sold by alt Ohemisli, price h. 9d. and Js, $d.
btReoridNl in RIXTBEN lanouades how to prevent OIEEAEB.
i^epatei tmlY at fiNd'S &kVS WdttA SAlTGfiAU, LGmMH, S-H. by X C. £HO‘S Patant;
PebsrtiMy 1 , 188 S.
THE AORICtJtl!tTBIST.
69
V 9 ED 3 ’ IfHif gf fi y jbl
FOR PRKlKlY WOteSflOR.'READACHE.
ANO FfVERS.
PLog
«ii prvwa w>
H! i
AM poMttti&t titmeot* iTUMt eaatmtial tor thiB rMtorstlou kdA Kratnt«iiMtc« of tMOUi witb p«rteo( vifotir of feody wd mbMi. ^
___ Mid 7<uit6lM»; fotmkxxg % moat i:nrlSroir»tiiaj|, and Bcr£reahizi,ff Berarago,
'or. iyAMB (Onroninwnt lladioal iMwtor oj;Smlitnuit»trflm Lanloo)
■H'*™ * **Ui»w«gwi thn«J<)«t m JIiw iio mtHjmit t.'* I wrtiMi-" rtovonmtiiladtuMtaliiKirtu*mjeomttCwiJminij'Hl»»^!*w-
Wfaaamwnt OVrioUQUI MXS jSlinnttMl' tn IOm' ^bridjUM loar fh:«ir"aiiil|iBiyw --MMold not*
its taIm m s^m^o In F6T«r ocuim.
»orty.twoo«»MoMf»aowrW. f aiWor, KK»»». FOWJAITB, IinSlA---''»'B armly th»l th* fl«» Ofronr
TO be oTrtoInod of any CSiemlgt or Drn* Store, In Patent OlMa-stoppered Bottle*, Ss. 0d., 4a. 0d., Ua.. and Sl«. eaob.
• ^Bwrts of «&• MIS of Citrnta and othor premjratisBS
of Xi^siMsia that LAXPljtWOK S PTBSTIC SALIlffi is wamtanted not to contain any snhirmoo
_ which wonld canso calonl onB or otho r oarthy deposits.
JET. LA. 3 ^^>IjOXJC 3 -:a, 113 , iSOfjBOK/ir H.O.
"It* uidMlneH ta U»
OOVERNMCNT
oiiToso 3 sr-a. ifebriftto-ei.
A n fffleient mbstitutefm- Quinine. Sold hy the principal European
■ and JS'alive ErmjijiKit. of Calcutta. Ohtaindhln from the
Superintendent, Hotanical Oardenn, Calcutta. Pont free,, at 4 oz,,
Ra, ti ; 3o:.., Ua. 11 ; 10 ox,, Ua, SO-ll, Cash with order.
PLANTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
LZns^LITEB,
MEBOHAITFS AND GENERAL AGENTS,
Calcutta, “30, STRAND,
General Manwjer- \\\ K. S. Jjskfbiison.
M anmjer -
Agencies for Tea Estates uutlortaken on the most
advantageous torms.
•
Coolies recruited by our own staff of experienced Agents, with
Dois>t8 tliroughout Chota Nagpur and at Dluibii.
Indentors and Consignees of all merclumdise.
Army, Navy, Civil .Service, and Private Agents.
Assam.—" THE EXCHANGE,” DIBRUGARH. i
W. J. \Vhka«,sy, Manager.
A D, Stuart, Agency Supen-intendent.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and European
Residents,
Price Liste on application,
Agents lor India Qonetal Steam Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agents for
Commeroial Union AMoranoe Co., Fire and Life;
Agents for “ Star ” Line Ocean Steamers,
Calcutta to London; Agents for
Reuter’s Telegram Co.,
Limited.
Loadoa.-srQRKAT WINCHESTER-STREET, E.C.
B. G. Rook, Secretairy,
Agendas at Btontogjuun, Bordeaux, and Ohamite.
FRANCK.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIIL AGENOY
(LTCEMSED),
14, RUE DE CHABROL, PARIS.
Transacts every description of Commission, Meroliant, and
General Agency Business.
All Indents executed at Manufacturers’ most favourable terms.
CondUiona .—Two and-a-halfpar cent. Commission when Banker’s
Oiuft on Londou or Paris aocorapanios order. Special terms to
regular oorrospondents. All Dlsoouuts oonceded to purchasers.
Original Invoices sent when required.
Produce taken charge of and realised to best advantage. Cash
advanced on Consignments.
'The Agency Represents, Buys, and SelU for Pirras,
Pnbllo Securities, Estates MiU Properties,bought and sold. Loans,
Mortgages, Miues, and Industrial Investments, Ap., negoeiated.
Manufacturers and Producers can have suitable artioles Introduced
to the markets on advoutageous conditions.
Priob hHr- eomprehemive ami reiJrtWe—-on appllealion.
BANKERS.— Paris : George Waters, Esq., 86, Boulevard des
Italiens. Lonuos ; The Londou and County Bank
.8, Viotorin-street, tVeatminster.
Addrraai The Manager, Ootiliuental and Colonial Agency, 14, Rue
de Chabrol, Paris, France. 447
NOTICE
a?0 3WE-A.ZTTJF'-A-OT-CrZiE3RS,
OTHER USERS OF POWER IN BULK.
W ATER POWER, vaiylngfrom 100 to 1,000 H.P., U ax'oilfhle at
3S sites on Die Bari Doab and Western Jmnua Coualam the
Punjab.
The tracts In which the Water Power is situated are-
la) Between the rivers Beas and Ravi, to the north of the
Solnde, Punjab and Delhi Railway, 26 sites, close to the
Umiitsnr and Pathankote Railway now under oonstruotiou.
(h) To the west of, and about 16 miles from the river Jumna,
12 sites, on a navigable eaiuU running from Kumal to Delhi,
and within easy dhtanoe of the Grand Trunk Rood,
Lease will be granted for 20 yean, on the follou’ing approximate
rates per H.P. per annum :—
For the drat 8 years
„ „ seoond6 „
„ „ third 6 „
„ „ fourth 6 „
Rs. NU.
„ ep
„ 100
» 160
Full partloulan can bo obtedned from the Office of the Joint-Secre¬
tary to Government, Punjab, Irrigation Branoh, Lahore, and informa¬
tion, reiptfding the VVater Power available at the various sites and
theii- local advantages, can be obtained from the offices of the
Superintending Engmaer, Bari Doab Canal, Umritsur, and Superin¬
tending Bngffieer, Weetern Jumna Canal, Delhi.
By order,
B. HOME, Lx.-Col, E.K,
“ Offg. Joint Secy., Govt, Punjab,
P, W, D,, Irrigation Branoh,
lAhoxei SwaS7 U, 1982. 47
70
THE INDIAN A<3miOTJLimiST.
Feferoary 1,1^8.
’> ," .••■' , ' ’ . .' ' . . ' ■ 1 I' '■• - <1 j,
THE OttlST INGINIERING ESTABLISHMENT IfllfMA,
JESSOP & CO.,
CM «ad Mooiiiiiioal lugkeers, Oontraeton, Brass and Iron Foni^ors,
Metal Merchants, &c.
Forged tmd Coal Iron Work, toilers, Machinery for Jute, Cotton and Bice Mill*, CoBierie/-, Indigo Concerm, TeaGwrdena, die.,
Contractorif and B ick-making Plcmt, and every clou of Iron and Brace Work jiiade to order,
SOUS ^G»-E1ITTS B'OR
Eobey & Co’a oelebmted Portable and Piled Engines and Mochineiy, G^wynne & Oo's “ Invincible " Centrifugal Pumps, Gould’s
Eotary Pumps, and Eobinsou’s Patent Steam TrnjM,
HHP0RTER8 AND MANDFAGTURERS OF EVERY DESCRiPTiON OF STEAM ENGINES AND MAGHiNERY.
Robey & Co’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Robey ” Semi-fixed Engines, ConiDined Vortical Engines and Boilers, Land
and Marine Boilers, Gould's Rotary Power Pumps, Hand, Lift and Force .Pumps, Tangye’a “ Special ’ Steam Putnjis, “ Vanxhall”
Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Soorkeo Mills, Pug Mills, Brick-making Machines, Road Rollein, Shw Benches,
Slide Surfacing and Sa'ew CSitting Ijathos, Drilling Machines, Punching and Shearing, Slotting and
Screwing Machines, Emery Grinding Machines, Spencer's Hand Drilling Machines,
Cliaff Cutting Macliiues, Kennedy’s Patent Bar Shciuu, Selkirk's Boiler
Tube Beadera, Steam Pressure Recorders, Electric Pens.
Richard’s Engine Indicator, GifToid's In¬
jectors, Cooking Stoves, Firo-
Pi'oof Safes.
The following are the principal advant-
ogee of tlie “ Invincible" Pump
lit. —It ia arranged to swivel on the
bed plate, and may be placed at any aimle
simply by slackening a few nuts, with¬
out interfering in any way with the bed
ph^ or Bie joints of eitlier the suction or
discharge pipes.
S)uf.—It does not require a foot valve,
being fitted with smaU air exhauster
and clack on discharge which always
keep the pump cliarged ready for
work.
Srd .—^The bearings are made on an
entirely new principle, and one bearing
will last out four of the old an-aiige-
meuts.
d. & H. GWYNNE’S
“ IHTlacible ” Centrifugal Pump.
)ih .—The form of me pumji casing is
so arranged that one side can lx- taken off
ill a few minutes for tht' inspection uf
the wliole of tlie disc and inti.riur of tlie
pump.
tdh .—Hand lioies me made on eiieh
side of the suction jiipes to enalile any
foreign niatWr which may get into the
pump or disc to Is? easily lenioved. The
eov-r.s .are fitted with a bayonet joint so
that they (Min bo vonun’od and rojilaced in
leas th..ii a minute,
titU .—Tlie “ Invincible ” is per cent,
lighter than any other (Vntrifugal Piuiifi
in the market, .md discharges .at least 10
per cent, more water for the power
ajiplied.
These Ploughs have been exproaly designed and manufactured for the use of the Ryots of India, whose special needs have been
oorelnUy studied in their Construction. They embody all the quallffoations for which the native-made Implements have hitherto been
preferred, whilst being incompambly superior in strength, durability, and efficiency.
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to three times the depth of a native plough, and leaves the good mould on the top, Goes through the dirtieet land
without getting o^ked with weeds. Price, Rs. 13.
IKDIOO AKD TEA PLAHTES8’ IMPLEMENTS AND 8T0BE8. *
312!Ta-I3SrEJEJIlS’ OTOOriS ^IfTlD BTORE3S JCEITIDS.
AlwaW ok hakd a laBOX 8TOCK OF Platb, Bar, Anqlb, Tkb asd Courtoatbd Irok, Stbbl, Brass, Copper, Pio Ibok,
FoOTDRr Coios, Smith? Coal, Fire Bricks, ahh Fire Clay.
Cataloguea on Application,
fehrntiy 1,1883.
THE liGIlICULTtrEIST.
'ertijii;
iiciSmI
A Slh^ Trial soUeited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TORKraiuUB RBUSB.
Tbe WLoBt l>ollolouM Saure In tlic World*
Thtf ofaeb-p ttud excellent Sanco nmkos tho plninoet viands pala<>
able* and the daintiost dishes more deheioas. With Chops, Steaks.
Fiah, Ac., it is incomporobio lu Imttlos, *\d., la., and 26. each.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
The Bent t'a the World,
Makes delicious pudding? without ogga, )>astrv williout butter, and
bonutifnl light broad without yeast. In IJ, paokets, Od., la., 26.,
and Da. tins.
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
Tito He,I aiul inM Anrf.rbJ To/iir
infroAueed.
Tto bosi ii'nifily tiiD-.VTi for bid 1^0611on, Lons of Ajipotito,
(Joneral Bobility, *r Iti.a+oreB dciioate indiriduals to hfjillli. At
Id. li<<. ajitl 2d. .W. t'u f'otllc.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
ihr viakinn VeUciofis Conturds 'iritJu^ui m tinio
nml ni half the prtri^.
Tho Propr otorfl ran rocommoud it to Tlouflokocpers generally as
a useful agent in the preps’^Htion of a good ounrurd GlVK IT a
T&xal. Sold in buses, dd. aim J.^. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
IWiikeN Tliror (Salioii), <»f' ibe Roki Criii^ei*
Roi'f ill Ibo World for Tliruciieticc.
Tbi‘ most triliiiililo proparmion for U 10 jiroduction of a dolioioiia
and iiiv'ifroriitiiii' IxTora!??. Jt is oasily made, ami ie Iiy far tho
(‘lii’npost and l)ps< (Jiimor liocr oror otferod lo tlio pablio. Bold in
packf * 3d. and Od. oarlu
COODALL’S ECC POWDER.
Hb notion in Cukos, IHiddings, &c , <to., rosemhles that of tho egg
i» every particular <.)ue penny jKK'kel will go ub for as four ogga I
and one sixponuy tin as far us t>vcnfy-eight. Hold everyvvhoro, in
1 <?. packets ; Od. and i.'f. tins.
COODALL’S BLANCMANGE POWDER
Makes delicious filanamtuigo In a few iniuatos. In boxes at Gd.
and l6. oath.
All the above-named Preparations may be had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Proprietors: COODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO, Leeds, EDglaid.
FCEEilTsyiP OF iSPHOROS.
Naturo’s Great Brain aiu 3 Nerve Tonie and tho moat wonderfnl
Illood Purlfior. The hlRhoai. Mnriical Anthoritioa aay that it is the
only Tore for Waatnig Diaeaaos, iloutal Uoprosaion, Loea of Buei^,
and Stomaoh OomiiUiutS.
Jt ia pleasant to the taste, and might bo tahen by tho most
delicately consGtutod. In the most enfeebled it builds up a NEW
AND HEALTHY CONSTTTDTION. One dose of this Eetnedy is
o<tnal to Twenty Doses of Cod-Liver Oil.
Thousands have been snatched from the brink of the grove by the
timely use of PaaKHAN’s Svbup ob I’liosPiioRva, May be had of all
Choiriista and Patent Jlodieino Vendors, in bottles at 23. Od., 4 s. Od.,
Ile.,and 3 *(. _ _ ____
BPBOIAL AGENTS i
GOODILL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
Wlilte llor«e Btreet, lieeds, England.
MESSRS. SUnOHS* SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BEWARE OF IIUTATIONS.
NOTICE.
SUTTON’S SEEDS & CATALOGUES
MAY BE HAD OP DULY AUTHORISED AGENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
ly^CLUDma—
The Proprietors, Itidino AeirienUnrUl, Chotyringliee-road, Cal¬
cutta ; the Great Eastem Hotel, Compauy, Limited, Calemtta j
Messrs, Wilson. Mackenzie k Co., 13, Old Court House-stroot,
and 1, Mangoe lane, Calcutta. Orders received by Messrs,
ICiug, Hamilton k Co., Calcutta.
ISTOTIOEJ-
La ordering through London Shippers, purchasers
should bo particular to stipulate for
SUTTON'S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
N, JeituttO/,. /'.’..y,, /ifX’ Vnt-Hi'r.tident of thr
Jlutil 0/ IlLtilH.
“With refovencu to yu\n* morlo of jiacking fioofTH for
<‘XporL, 1 nniKt nay how nnich j w«m gmtilinl with the
sy.sU-m you woro sii guml iik to nTkiw ino, Ihiring the
whojo of 1113' )<iu£f Indian oxnopienoc, it wfw my constant
reirrol. tlmt iOnyrIirih packou saedn wore ulmoGt invariably
hiwor in gormiimting i>ower t.han tho Amoricao. After
rtooing tho wlaUiraui ]irccautionH you take in executing
Kucli orders hh that of tho Agrl*Rorti Society of
India, 1 am hy no inoarw fturj>rwofl to hear that ytm lisve
Iwsn gratiHoil by the receipt of no much teRiimony from
tho tropioH itH to tho condition of your Seeds ti])on aiTivnl.”
• I
£ilitrfu/dm
THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
AN'U BY 3BKCIAL WAEKAKT TO
THE PBINOE OF WALES,
READING, LONDON,0^°,.
EIvai.AND, r H n I 9
All communications from the Trade should he address¬
ed direct to Reading.
TSS iNBIAN
FeteBBf l
. JO. ■'V^ Wf %3U ■
■" ■w^ITK3B'B^IJL»’^h#T^a)OTT«i' X^Q0N’3OO^»- ...
''\V''':''V'' . HVOfWUMO'EMHNSSIM 4^NB IM#IU»A«B9%an^
PUMPING MACHINERY or EVEMY UESCBIPIION
FOB STSAJf, WIJfJ), i;!4TTLi;, Ajr3 MjUTUAL powm
Sydr&idieAnd Bertw Presses, Oil MiU llselim« 7 , Hfdriild^ liilisti ,
BCa,B MAKEBfi rOR GREAT BRlTArS OR m .
BUKi’8 mm mm-mm 8TEAii-?uiiP.--^ioRE tkab wnt
THB FOLLOwrao Am bomb or thb raoMiras* AuvAstAOBB or thb blakb ptikp:— ;
It wm •»«*»* *ny point
o!«tr*iV
Itli*i ^Ae*d point.
It yroSM !a»t at <dow
wHh the M«e oirtrinty 6f
ftottoil*
It Is eocmomic»t S** n
lud ea SUtU VAIva
It U eontpAot and dur¬
able.
Bw 4 Feini Ixtw
It i« int^OllMiMtble in
all ttB vorkittS pa^
It will drimfraors water
than any other Pomp.
It U made o{ beat mate*
rials in the most Wotkiaan*
like manner.
Can be worked at 20S
strokes per hour, or 20
strokes psr m^nto.
m mmn AQRmiTm, mutmm, AMO swwm
. HL/^II.] C^OUTTA ^THUBSDAY, 3|teCH 1, 1883.
ifKo, 8.
GiOTS’S P® COTTON
SnOUUX^NlUITB) RN? AND PATINTEOIM imlA AND ABROAOk
PRIZES.
HAUBTTBdm
BXFOdS ,
Stbuot
ATAI.AlftA
KretPrewituB)
18S9,
1878
1879
.. 1879
TShsw Zealaso
«t Pric»,
OohalfisrAn . ... ... 1880
New York ... ... ... 1880
MEUtOUBEE ... ... .t. 18 M
1883, I PalVoutH
Sydney, 1879.
PinmuEo ...
ATAIdOTA
PERMlIBa '
1883, 1 TYHJiotJTn
Hwabarg,
New Tarlc, 1880.
Berlin, 1879.
Melbourne, 1880. 187A CSnointet i, Jiine, 1880
OVER 460,000 FEET SOLD DURma 1881,
Including 3,877 feet of main Driving Belts, of wldtlifi lAnglng from 13 in. tft,>
60 in., are working in over 6,000 Mills and Works in Europe and Amorioa.
New Zealandi 1883,
The following TetU (by Kirkddy, of Londm) thaw tfte relative strenf^e ani valve,
cmnpared with Lenthei'. ^
Best Doable IiMtiher 6 In. Belting
Chmdjr'B 6 in. X 8-ply Optton
Breaking Strain per Square ineh of Section.
Frioo per foot.
Se. ,7d,
"k. 6 d.
THE
G^AHDY BKLY.
Any Lf.n0h or Width
for Main Driving,
It is the best belt
ever made for all purpos¬
es. Much Cheaper and
Stronger than Leather.
Thoroughly Waterproof,
and not afi’eoted by tem¬
perature, clings well to
the pulleys, mins tmej
and can bo made any
len^h without joints.
Ibis SeriM of Bolting
(«» engraving) was sup¬
plied in One Order to
Messrs. John Oo^ey
and Sons, Sali&x, May
Ij 1880, and oontinaes to
give entire aatiafaotion.
/'fl4NWS?S ftrteat Aonti^ Cotton BaldogToan ttalm aTmioirio.ity In every par«oular • its coat
VI bfring about half that of leather, wliila its strsftgth and ^pplngpoww is about double teat of tee best leather
eeshownny repeated tests taken by Ktrfcaldy, of Loudon. Thoee teste lure given above, to which special attention ia
fflreotqd. Theao •' Oani^ belts are mada, of any white up to 73 inclK and any length up to 849 feet wtthout joint
[•Ttetaebwawag the neoew^of having two bells on tea srine pulley, a system of driving wWoh te never satisfaAirv’
’ ’as it to hnpOBsibla to have bolts of exactly the same teisioa; hoooe one cr the otecTfa always eauatog a stonoAce'
ra»«#;at0lip^ are avoided by using Gand/s Patent Belte in oao widfe. These Goody Bolts are ma>le of tho finbet
WnWE CUI07,
A fflTBBTAimAL OXJAJBAinMX aiTM W|^ BTm7 HAIH XmZVZSa BELT.
. Patentee and Manufacturer,
130, Queen Vlctoria-stroct,
WOfUSB : Liverpool, England ;
and Balamore,
UsSsA.
n
City IiiBe of Stoai&oKi.
; fOB fBlp! OAKAl.
I TmiM, Captain,
hilf/ (if XatKhMef 8126 Ii{(usd<njald.
Oii^ Oortliagc ... ... fiWl J. MoPliSMcn.
Oit^ ttf Oanierbury ... 8812 J> Mtur,
iUtl (if VtHke ... 8207 H. J. MofEat,
Clip of London ... ... 3212 J, Biaeki
CUg (/ Sdinbt^h ■ ... 3212 W, H. Barham.
City <if Khh» ... ... 8230 A. Thoms.
Oitj/ '(if Aara ... ... 8412 J. Gordon,
Olty <if m<iam . 3836 B.McNeU,
OUy nf Otfofd . 4000 Wm. MiUer,
City (if Oamhridgt ... ... 4000 D. Anderson.
The City tif KMo» will leave about 8th March, and will be
followed aboQt a fortnight later by the Oily qf London.
GLADSTONE, WYUIE k Co.,
7 Agents.
A W B H <3-XT IT a-B
mx BBICEB
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BUEN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
16
Knoioledge and “ Progress ” go hand in hand.
“PROGRESS;”
A Uonthly Encydopadia of Information:
OOUPILED ASP COLLATKP FBOM
Tli£ LATEST CURHENT SCIENTIFn! AND GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
OB TKB
THE
SOUTH (ff INDIA OBSERVER,
PcuKaap WfBKLT AX OoTMilIvtmp,
TBs aead*(i[narte» of tBs Ibdnui Oovemment for
tBe greater part of tBe year,
1 TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
(ExcLretTB or Fostao*.)
Advaad, Arrears.
Per annum ... ... Bs, 20 0 0 Bo. 28 0 0
„ half-year,.. „. „ 10 0 0 „ 14 0 0
,, quarter ... ‘ „ 8 0 0 „ 7 0 0
„ mensem ... . 2 0 0 „ 2 8 0
Noilglierry Ttm Co., Limttd, Proprietors.
Agaita in India:
Messbs, HIGGINBOTHAM k Co. ... Modroi.
Agenta In London:
Mjsssss. OBO. STt^ET k Co. ... Oornkill.
F. ALGAfi, Esq. . 8, Olmenl'edme, JDontkm, S.C.
Ms8bb8. bates, HKNDY A Co. 4, Old Jewry, London,
Messrs. GORDON k GOICH ... Si. Bride-street, London, E.C.
Messrs, RHODES A Co. ... $Ji, Nkikolat-Ume, E.C.
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MomnLY
Record of Information for Planters
OOXTEi; TEA, COCOA 0IN030NA SUOAH, PALMS,
AXD
OTHER PRODUCTS,
Suited for (ndtivixlion in the Tropks.
Publlshod on or about the let of oooh month by A. M. and
J, Ferguson, Ciylon Observer Offloo, Colombo.
Price in aclvanco yearly, Be, 10.
Ee. 1 per copy.
10
£ttoh No. ie a very ‘‘Library " of Valuable Reading.
SUBSORiPriONi
YEARLY ... Rs. 12 ! HALF-YEARLY... Es. 7
QUARTERLY ... Be, 4;
the Press of India havs spoken In nasalaons approval
of tills work,
WHICH DESERVES IHE SCPrORT 0?
SVERr EDUCATED MAN IN INDIA.
A specimen copy will be sent gratis on application to the
ablisheni,
ms BBIOK8.
R ANEEGUNGE fire BRICES oi supplied to Government and
the various Railways. Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Steam
Navigation Companies. Prioe—Re. 8 ,par 100.
Extract from Official Se^rt of tests made at H, M.’s Mint,
Calcutta, by Theodore W. B. Hcrbes, ES«.feV.Q.s., A,a.8,it,) Offi¬
ciating Deputy Superintendent, GeologioM ^my, India:—
“ The Frre Brieh tested by me were fumished by the Firm of
Messrs, BURN A Ob. * * * The mtUerim/rom wA4ca they are made
are very refractory and eapeide of r(^ling high temperature toilA-
oui.scnMly fusing, * * * That compared with Stourbridge Fire
Britks are sommhal superior."
Tie specimens wore subjected to a toaqieeataro oi over 3,000
d^s, Fiw., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,786 degs.
Apply ior the above, and for Baneegunge Ssit-^ased Btonev w
and Imperishable Drohiage Pipes, to
BUEN & CX).,
7, Hastings-street, ^Salbntta,
ur Ranceguugo Pottery Works, Bwisegnnge,
EII.B., Bengal.
& oo.,
10, HARE-STREET,
OALOUTTA.'
March 1, 1S83.
THE INDIAN AGBIOtTLTUBIST.
75
WtptiMith ihe j/Moipiitff papers at this Qflee
---
Saie* iTidu^ina poitage.
iWKOiair IK jivvAxcs,
or ladle.
WBarop*
Ba. IS
7
IS 8
7 8
r India
Sitlffle eopiet, Se. 1; hack copies, Us. g.
i»ew<-»m«nt»/or the “ Indian Agriculturist ” should be sent in
Ibe gSrd, u> appear on t7ie 1st of ihtfolloicing month
TEE EBISHD OT j p|P|^ ^AirP BTAVBBUAK.
Jtatei of StAscfiption, inducing pottage,
aiBtCSIir IK AOViKOB.
Toum, Mofutil.
fYwly ... ... E«. 20 0 Ea, S2 0
JHaMjrearly ... . 11 0 „ 12 0
(.Quarterly ... ... „ 8 0 „ 7 0
The reduced rate for Miaaionarlea ia Ba. 16 per annum.
rltnroM /Youly ... ... ... Ra. 26 8
rHurope ■( Half-yearly ... ... ... „ 14 0
bingle copies, At, 8 ; hack eopiet. Re. 1.
I diiert iaewanta for the “Priaiid of India” thodd be tent in
•ot later them^riday, to appear on the foUowing Tuesday,
TEE STATESHAK AKD FBIEKD OF INDIA
' (DAILY.)
Raleo of Subscription, including postage,
BiaiOrtT IN ABVANOE.
3t India
or Europe
(Yearly
Toten,
... Rs. 30
0
Mofnssil,
Rs. 42 0
... .. 19
0
22 0
... M 10
0
„ 11 8
. 3
8
„ 4 0
,,
„ 68 0
„ 34 0
' u
„ 18 0
..7 0
J Half-yearly ...
1 Quarterly
( Monthly
( Yearly
Half-yearly ...
Quarterly
Monthly
Single copies. At. 8 ; back copies, A«, 4 and 8.
ddwrijsMMents for the “Statesman" should be sent in tio( late r
an 5 p,m., to appear on thefoUovnng morning.
Intending Subscribers will please address the Manager.
Advertisement Rales for any of Ih' above }iapcrs,
lat Insortiou, Re. 2-8 per inch.
2nd ,1 ,, 2-0 ,,
8rd and euoli euoooeding Insertion, Ra. 1-4 per inch.
Contract ratee will bo furnished ou application to the Manager.
Subscribers should stale distinctly for which pAI-ek remittances are
tended.
Agents in London for the above papers •*
GEOROE STREET, Esq. ... Oornhill.
F. ALQAR, Esq. ... ll St li, Clcment's-lann,London,E.O.
BATES, HENDY & CO. ... 37, IV^albrook, London, E. O.
D, J. KEYMEK&CO. ... 1, Whilcfriar,!'-street. Fleet-street,
, London, E, O.
SOLE AGENTS FOB THE UNITED STATES :
THE INTERNATIONAL NEWSFAPER AGENCY, i
H. P. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
Mew Haven, Oouneclkut, U.S.A.
HEALTH, STBENQTH, AND ENEBGY.
mo ULOfi’8
(Trade Marh^hoaftindyne,)
TWEKIT TEABS’ PPSUO TBST. AKD THOITSAK»9 Of IMBtHOKUtS KROM
ALL i*ABTS or THE WORUO SSTABUSH '
PH08PH0DYNC
u only Safe^^Rellable, and Novor-faillag Phoaphorlo Remedv
for Over-worked BrMn, Sl^eaanoa^ Haraa^ Dreama, Worry,
^xlety, Hxoitaiaent, Ej^opay, Bueineaa Freaaure, WaatiM
Dtaeaaea, Nervoaa Proatration, Stomc * and Liver Complalnta, Im-
poverlahed Blood, Rremature Deoay, mid all morbid oondlttona of
the ayatem dependent upon the dedoiouoy of the Vital Foroea,
DB. ItLOR'S PROSPHODYBE PTOIFIftS
AKD
Enrlohea the Blood, Clears the Skin, thorou^ly Invigotatea tba
Brain, Neivea and Muaclea, .Re-oner^ea the Falling Ftumtioaa of
Life by aupplyiug the PRospaoxto element which haa been wasted
and thuB Imparta Energy and Fresh Vitality to the Exhausted
Nervo-Bleotrio Foroe, and rapidly Cures every form of Nervous
Debility, Paralysis, Kidnoy, Nervous, Mind, and Heart Dlseaaea
from whatever cause, ’
This elegant Phosphatio combination, the Wonder of Modem
Chemistry, Is pronounced by the most eminent membm of the
Medical Profession to be unequalled for Ita power in roplonlshing
and elaborating the Vitality of the Body} by Its suppjyfiig all the
essential and vitalising constituents of the Blood, &utk and
Nebvb Scdstano* ; and for developing all tho Powers and 'Func¬
tions of tho System to the highest degree j by its being agreeable
to the palate, and innooent in its action. WiiUe retaining its
wonderful properties, it acts os a Spooifio, surpassing all the known
THEBAPEDTIO AOENTS of tho PRESENT AOK, for the 9PBBDV and
pebmakent lUTRE of the abovo disease.
Dm. LABOR’S PHOSPHODYNE ia sohl in Bottles at 4*. Bd. and
lls. by all Export, Wliolesola, and Retail Medloino Vendors
throughout tho World.
IMFOBTANT NOTIOa-NONE IS GENUINE UNLESS the
name. Dr. Lalor’a Phoaphodyne, London, Engiwid, is blown in
tho Glaas of eaoh Bottle, and every Bottle bsara tho BrltUh
Gomrument StAmp, with the words Dr, Lalob’s Phosphodykh
L oudon, 'Eugland, ouyraved thereon by Order of her Majestv’s
Ho-ourable Oom/nissioners j rv not, it ls a eoboebt, and von
HAVE llEEN 1MP0,SEU UPON (IV A WOBTHLES.S IMITAHOK.
MANOTACTtTBED ONLY AT THE
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY bt
DR ROBERT D. LALOR.
BAY HOUSE, 32, OAISFOBD-STRBET, LONDON, N. W.
(The Sole Propbietob and Orioinatob op Phosphodynb,'
THE AQRA BANK,
“ LIMITED." ’
Capital ... ... £1000,000
Beaenre Fund ... £170,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNT.S are kept, and
uterost allowed, when the Credit Balance
oes not fall below Ra. 1,000.
DEPOSITS received available at any time
at Remittance to England in tho Bank’s
lilla, and Interest almwed thereon at tho
ate of 4 per cent, per annum,
DEPOSITS are also received for fixed
eriods, on terms which be learnt ou
ppUoatioii.
DRAFTS granted at the exchange of the
lay on London, Sootland, Ireland, mid tho
tank’s Agenoiea in the Bast.
Ci ECUL8B NOTES iaanad, negotiable
n ttBMinoipal places in Europe.
^^f'i'BRNMNT and otber^TOCKS,
>Uu Shares bou|dit and sold, and the safe
'.uatody of the same undoiak^.
INTEREST, PAY, and PENSIONS ool-
leot^} and every Mher deaoription of
tanking Business andVonoy Agency tran-
^ted.
^ Remittanoea should be made pay¬
able to the Agra Bank, Llmitod, 86
The Public axe Invited to send, from any port of the world, to BOBINSOir and
OLBAYBB, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Mce Ll^(POST
FBBX!) of their
Boat Irish Linen Shooting,
IRISH p*'
r £xtm Hoavf (amort dnr»
able ortiole) !}| yards
wldo, 8/8 per yard. '
Boiler TowoUliig, 18 inoh
wldo, 8irf. por yard. j Hbmbtitcbm)
Lluon Dufl«
LINENS
* Tholr Irish Llnon Collars, Cuffn,
Shirts, &o., have tliu morlt ui
IRISH LINEN
. Court (Hrcular,
Ladles' and Ohll-
r n 1 I A 0 Q drou’n 8*(old, S/ll
llU ll An 0, por doE. Gon^’,
, I II— 4-fold, ii\l to 5A1
por dos.
C ll r r A For Lfidios.Oentlo-
U r r Vt motj, ftji'l Chlldron,
rsssSZ!!!!S!lZ
Boat Longoloth ft fiUlRTS
Bodies, with 4-fold SLSSlllii-
all Unon fronts and mwmmmmmhb
cuffs, 86/6 tho half
doB. (to measure, 2/ extra).
Children's
CAMBRIC
per dox.
.. 2/tf
..8/3
Geutlemsn's .. 4/10
SurpUoo
Llnon,
8}d. por
yard.
Fish Napkins,
8/0 per di>8.
Dliinur Nankins,
6/0 per doz.
Table Olothn, 2
r i squAie, 8/11;
yo;^ by 4
yorv, 18/4 each.
n,m
dot.; Gl ass
^ Cloths, 4/Opor
■> doz.
" Fino Linens
and linou
Diaper,
lOd. per yard. <
& DAMASKS.
ALL
POCKET
.. 4/0
Oeats* ., 8/4
FUBB
FLSX.
HANOXEfiCNIEFS.
>TBa Iitiih Cambrto* oI Hum
a qoavor bava a world)
wldo fame. —TA. Ousts. “
Ladloo’ Uiidor-CloUduff, Baby Unon, DroM Matorh!*, Flannels, Irloh and 8 w1m KmbrolderiM
Olovea, Uuder-VeaU, Panta; also Laoe Goods pf ovoty desorqitlon, at lowest wbolosalo ptioss. ‘
ROBINSON & CLEAVER, Maan&etnrers. by Special Ap.
poiatinent to her Majesty the Qneen and her ImpenaJ mvbni.i»
the (fcown Prineesa « Oermany.
THE BOTAL IBI8H UNSN WABEHOUSE, BELFAST.
76 THE INDIAN ^GRIGULTtJBlST. 1,1888.
PHCEINIX IRON WOBK^,
OALOUTTA.
I HE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & GO.,
^giseers, Gontractorfl, &ms ^led Iioi^GUiidin,
Metal Merchants, &c.
forgti tmi CaiA Iren Weri, BoUm, Ma<Mmryfw Jute, Cotton and Bice MUlt, CcUieriee, Indigo Co^emt, Tea Cardens, d-c.,
Gontraxiws aad BrvdumMng Plant, and every dass of Iron and Brass Worh made to order,
SOXiS ^Q-S33SrTS B’OIl
Bobey & Co'i celelarated Portable and Fixed Enginee and Machines, Owynne & Go’s “ Invincible ” Ceatriftigal Pmnps, Gonld’e
notary Pmnpe, and Bobinoon’e Patent Steam Traps.
MNItragiUlB MAMIFACWIIEIIS OF EVERY DESGRimON OF STEAM ENCOIES MO MACHINERY.
Bobey & Co’fl Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Robey ” Semi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines Mid Boilers, Land
and Marine Boilers, Gould’s Botary Power Pumps, Hand, Lift and Force Pumps, Tangye'a “ Special" Steam Pumps, “Vauxball”
Donkey Pumps, Flour MXUa, Soorkee Mills, Pug Mills, Brick-making Matiines, Road Rollers, Saw Benches,
Slide Studaoingand Screw Cutting Lathes, Drilling Maclunes, Punching and Shearing, Slotting and
Screwing Machines, Emery Grinding Machines, Spencer’s Hand Drilling Machines,
Chofi' Cutting Machines, Kennedy’s Patent Bar Shears, Selkirk’s Boiler
Tube Beadors, Steam Pressure Recorders, Electric Pons, ,
Richard’s Engine Indicator, Gifford’s In¬
jectors, Cooking Stoves, Fire-
Pi-oof Safes.
The following are the principal advant¬
ages of ^e " InvinoiUe" Ihnnp
Is/.*—It is anaanrad to swivel on the
bed ^te, and may be placed at any angle
aimpy slackening a few nuts, with¬
out interfering in any way with the bed
plate or the jmts of either the auction or
discharge pi{m
Snd ,—It does not require a foot valve,
being fitted with small air exhauster
and clMk on discharge which always
keep the pump oharged ready for
woA.
Srd .—^The bearings are made on an
entirriy new principle, and one bearing
will li^ out four of the old arrange¬
ments.
J. & H. QWYNNE'8
“ Invincible ” Oentrifogal Pump,
4tk—The form of the pump casing is
so arranged that one side can be taken off
in a few minutes for the inspection of
the whole of the disc and interior of the
pump.
M .—Hand holes iiro maiio on each
side of the suction pipes to enable any
foreign matter which may get into the
pump or disc to lio easily removed. The
CO .’ers are fitted with a bayonet joint so
that they can bo removed and replaced in
Irss than a minute.
Gth .—Tbo “ Invincible ” is 26 per cent
ighter th.vn any other Centiifugal Pump
in the market, and discharges at least 10
per cent, more water for the power
applied.
Xhsss Flonghs have been expressly designed and manufactured for the use of the Ryots of India, whoso special needs have been
oareMtb^ studied in their oonstruotion. ^ey embody all the qualifioatious for which the native-made implements have hitherto been
prrierred, whilst being inoomparabiy superior in strength, durability, and efEoionoy.
MORALS PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Mtin up the soU to three times the depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top, Goes through the dirtiest land
without getting onoked with weeds. I’noe, Rs. IS.
QfDXOO AlTD TEA PLANTEBS’ IMPLEMENTS AND STOBEE.
a33STGI-Il!TEIEmS’ TOOXiS -AJSTID BTOEBIS OB’ -A.XiX4 mZISTIDS.
ikLT^XR (»i BAKU A liABOX STOCK OF PPATK, BaB, Axoia, ’Txa AHD OOBKPOATSD IboK, STKKt, BbASS, CottUB,, Piti IbOK,
FoTODBy CoKJs, Smithy Coal, Fibe Bbicks, and Fins Clay. ‘
Catfdoguea on Application,
THE
A MONTaiT
JOUBNAL OF INDIAN AQWCULTURE, MINERALOOY, /IND STATISTICS.
...
VOL. VIII.] , CALCUTTA THURSDAY, MARCH 1, 1883. [No. 3.
JNOTICE.
SUBSCRIBERS to the Statbsmak, Fbibxd of India, and
^ Indian AomcuLTDarsT are informed that arraiujenicnls ha »<
o\e been made ly wkicJi these jownale will for the future he pub
shed wider the general superintendence of the undersigned.
All communications concerning the general business of the
fATBSSMAN AND FaiBKD OF INDIA Office, AdvertUements, and
ubscriptions to the daily Statbskan and Feibnd of India,
eokly Fbibnd or Indu and STATBSiiAN,<x«<f Indian Agbiodl-
jTRisT, should be ctddressed to the ^AHAOER.
All oommunioations regarding literary matter should he ad-
rested to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM RIACn,
June 13th, 1381 .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Sug(;e«tioiu rcjjardiug Foract AdtniDiitration in th« Madrai
PniidMoy. By I). Biasdis, F.R.S,, C.I.E., Lnpector-GuenI
of Foreats to the Govonunent of India.
Suburban VlUaa and Koeidoittal Fams in Kattyavrar, By Major
H. L. Nutt, Bombay PoUtioal Department. Printed at th«
Educational SooletyS) Freaa, Byculla, Bombay.
Agricultural Banks and Supplemental of LegUIatlon for Agrl*
cultural Belief. By A. P. W>, Medical Hall Preu, Meerut.
The Indian Foroeter (Supplement).
Indian Metcrologioal Memoirs Vol. II., Fart I.
Report of the Director of Public Lurtruction, Bombay Presidency.
CORRESPONDENCE.
CONTENTS:
CAWNPORE FARM EXPERIMENTS.
Paqb.
Acknnwlodgmonte .
JoilRBSPONDKNOB--
f'awnpore Furm ExporUnont'i
ilrtokH on A g r 1 0 u 1 111 r a 1 j
Chomifltry. j
Castor-Oil Seed •••
.Into
.EADINO AUTXCLKS —
Forest Administration in the j
Punjab .
'Idio Cotton Crop in the
Madras Presidency ... 70 j
The Colonisation o( tho I
Tovoy . 30 I
Mr. Brandis’ SuggosUons |
llogarding Forest Adminis
tration in Madras. PO |
liNTOBiAL Notes . ,
Barley Cultivation for India 80
Notices of Books—
'J'ho Quinn Barks see ... 01
(iulmrban Villas . 1)0
Agricultural Banks, ka. 02
'I’lio 1 'atttlpa; a Valuable Tree 03
imciAL Paper—
Bco-Keeping in India .» 01
I’AQE.
Selbctions—
Indian Tea ... *•1 ISC 08
Tho bngar Industry in tho
Far lilost .09
Nilgiri Botanical C’jrdcns ... 00
Cultivation of Divi-Divi 100
Kknian's Patent Process fbr
Treating Wood and Filiroui
Plants . 100
Tlic Waste Substances used
in Paper-Making.102
The ilanufacturo of Paper
^ I’ulp by moans of Hul-
pliurous Acid combincil
with a base, or othonviso... 103
Cl.VCHONA
Tho Cinchona Trado.1 1
Forestry
Troo I’l.'iutiiig in Boucoolen .. 10(i
Tho ProtocUoil of Foicsts lUO
Tka-
Noto .107
Cocoa—
Hlmnd's Patoiit 'J’oa Dryer
ttUil Cocoa CiU'OP ... 107
TobaiCo -
ToUtcco in Borneo .. ... ]u7
ADVKUTlSEJUi.NTS .lO.S
Our Corrcs)x>ndcnls and Cuniributors will gnallg uUige
IS if they will take the trouble, where the returns <>f rnllivn..
ion are elated by them m Indian lorights and nuasurcs, to
live, their English equivalents, either in the tert, in jutren-
h((Jl'/, or in a foot-note. The liiguJi in particular varus so
nveh in the diffierent qn'ovinees, that it is absolutely necessary
o give the English indue of it in all eases. It would he a gr'ut
■eforni if the Govemi§en( itself followed the saint: course in all
'he oficial reports jntblished by it.
All correspondence must hear the full name awl address of
he writer, not netessarily for publiaftiun, but as a guarantee
if good faith. We shatt take no notice of anonynwus tellers.
TO THE EDITOR.
8 m,—In the February number of your paper a eontrlbnlor,
J.P.P., gives somestartUng deductions from the figures In Mr.
Fuller’s recent report on the Cawnporo Farm experiments) and
arrives at tho oonclilsion thatths soil sample, of ivhioi) Mr. Fuller
publishes an analysis, must either have been artificially enriched
with nitre and wood ashes before transmission to lloorkee, or the
Roorkeo cbomist must have made an orrnneous analysis. In
justice to “ tho Boorkee chemist,” Dr. Mui-ray Thomson, allow me
to point out that he had nothing to do with tlis analysis. The
sample of soil wasoollsctcd by Mr. Fuller himself, and sent direct to
me 5 consequently wc aloue arc rospotisiblc for any error that may
lie discovered iu the results.
To support tho wood-aslios theory, your contributor makes a
curious calculation, from which it appears that, according to the
inalysls, thoro must have been nearly 4,000 jiounds of free potasli
n the upper tlireo inches of evei-y acre of soil. In the published
inaly.9is there is nothing whatever to suggest the presonoo of any
ree alkali in the soil, and If J.P.P. will take tho trouble to look
a the figures again, he will see that ths potash, on which his
calcnlatiou is founded, was eontoliiod in tho hydrochloric acid
xtraot, and was thersf ire probably derived (except so much of it
as was contained in nitre) from the soolitic constituents of the soli,
which are decomposed at onoe by hydroohlorlo acid, but yield very
ilowly to the action of the acids in the soil, At onoo, therefore,
more than half the total of saline oonstitiienta made out by J.P.P.
s shown to have no sxistenee, and the total would not look so great
as it does if tho results were shown all thivmgh in pomuU instead of
grains. If J.P.P. will take the trouble to go iver his oalciilation
again, he will find that iu the portion a foot square and an inch deep,
wliioli he takes, there is only 0'027Ib. of nitre (supposed In bo
otussium nitrate), since tho soil contains all parts of anhydrous
itro acid in 10,000, and its specific gravity is ai>out2','>4. IVhether
fvhoat would germinate hi such a soil, or not, I do not know ;
here is no apparent reason why it should not, but at all events,
nobody expects it to do so. Tho soil sample was oollsoted in ths
ot weather after the reaping of the rail crop, when, for upwards of
lix months, oapiUary attraction and evaporation had been oon-
leiitrating soluble salts In the surface layei-S. At tho rnti of ths
‘ains, when wheat is sown, those salts have been washed down,
md disseminated through a depth of perhaps ton or fifteen feet,
nd if this sample hod lieon coUeeted at that season, it would pro¬
bably not have shown a tiAuticth part of the proportion of solnbU
salts found iu it in the hob weather.
78
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
L IfiSS.
The perooatage of (mbytlrotui nitrla wid found in tkli soil it
dou^leH lupoh gnater met ^rlth ta ooid oowiMet,
where Mm* li^gmo^hO toil es^dh^yW orgdAie comUnMofl
andia IholOnqi di ubinouia. ^nt'^ ]^r. Robert WAlnj^toai
(JMnttH qf tht OhedUiA Swetefy for Aii^tt, 1082) finds tbnt'tbi
upper nine inches of the air-drlod toil of Sir J. B. Lawet’ experi
mental farm at Botiiemsted eootalnt on the average only 8*77 parte
of oxidised nitrogen per hdlllon—a quantity wliloli looks exoceding-
^ ly inlnnte in oomparitps With tbs f^'piai^ found In the'- enrfoee.
layers of the Cawupore soli after six months’ coueentmtion by
evaporation. But then the drainage water at Bothamsted actually
oarriesoff in the course of a year more nitrates than are everpreeent
in the! upper sitne inches of toll at any given tbne. On the mean of
the'idx years, 1877.82, tlie teas of oxidised nitrogen in the dndnage
water amounted to 20*17 kilo|^mnMs per aero, or 7*14 grains for
avery square loot of surface. Taking the specillo giavlty of the
soil at 2*5, the weight of a tdo<d( a foot sqnare and nine inches
deep n-quld 1)0 Malnmt . 820,800 graina Hsnoe, slnoe nitrlfioatiou
^x>s.ov oliiefiyat the snrfaco, 8*7 parts of exUUsed nitrogen are
removed from every million of surfaee soil while the soil contains
only 8 *77 parte at any instant of time.
. . It is evident, therefore^ that tfaenteates of Indian soils, in wldoh
there is no subsoil drainage, should not bo compared with the
sulpidefmdfitgltive propmdiion of nitrates found in lihiglaud, but
wWi vrbqk of the nltrogenoue oonstituents pf tite Kuglisii soil,
since Iiidtan soils like that at Cawupore ^contain ptaotically no
ammonia and no organia nitrogen. C ’nqniired inthis way with dny
average wiieat soil of Europe tliat of the Cawnpore forms shows to
gi.eat disadvantage.
These who know most about ngricultnral oliemiatry put tlio least
trust in theTesttlts of angiysis, however earefully porformotl, as a
measure of fertility of li soil. To begin witli, much depends
on tile conditions under wliioh the sample is taken, the (junritity of
soluble salts near the snrfaee, after a prolonged drought, differing
enormously,’ for example, from that found after lioavy rain. Tlivii
the choinlst is quite unable to roproduoe in his laboratoiy tlie con¬
ditions of the field or anything aiiproximatiiig to tiiem, time alone
lasing a ptost Important condition which has to be disregarded.
. The.quantiUcs (d potosli, Ifmc, &c., found in a hydrochloric acid
extract probably represent fairly ouongh the total ultimate fertility
of the soil if) these constituents ; but while tlie ciiemist gets them
into solution in an hour, they may require oenturies for solution In
tiie field, and wliilu tlioy remain in insoluiale miunrnls they ere
useless to plants. Again, tliis very dstcrmiiiatiou of nitrates,which
J.IM’. treats so lightly, is sodifitcult (proportion being so minute)
tliat in a soil aualysis it used never to lao, ami is now hardly ever,
attempted. The beat clieniiats liinl it very dilHoult to agree nlaoiit
the process whicl* gives tlao most exact results, while ilifforoiit
mothoilB iu the same liamb, iiml those the moat skilful, give results
which often differ lay 50 or 1,00 per omit. An analysis, in short,
may be appended as this lias laeeti by Mr. 7‘'nllei', to confirm the
results of field experiments, but by itself it means very
CSSTO^
Jl . ; ,,
Sib,—C an you or any of yonr readers kindly inform me wher
I could get a small or large quantity of really good and productiv,
eaetor-oU tree seed f 1 shall be glad to pay for the same,
I Wpnld aUo be glad tp know whore good silkworm-eggs an,
ifwlberry oiftthqia cOntd laeglot.'
0U1('^' %TOK.
Moolydhar, T. Q„ 30th January, 1888.
JUTE
I TO TRB XDITOS.
Sib,—A s a contributor to tlie Fameri' Seoiew on flax onltui'
and free trade questions oonneotod with the fibre Industry In th
Western States of the Union, 1 herewith take the liberty q
requesting you will kindly procure and send mo the coat c
production and preparation of jute, including all expenses uuti
placed on board-ship.
For some years book attempts have been made in the Oulf an.
Southern S'tdtet, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida and others, t
cultivate jute, which appears to be perfectly well adapted to tin
soil and climate of those States. It Is asserted, however, by tin
protcctioniste of tliis country, that the cultivation of jute cau oulj
be made remunerative to the Ameriesn planter, if the uatii'o pro
duotioii is “protected" by a higti duty, on account of the so-callo,
pauper labour in India, wliieh they assert is, nooordlng to tliti
various statements, 20, 15, and even 10 oeuts a day. lu order
therefore, to enable me to judge in how far those statements ar,
correct, and their claiifi for a high protective duty justified, ye
would greatly olalige mo by sending mo a ilHaiUd statement i
tlio coKf of cnltirMioii of say 50 or 100 acres of jute, so that
correct comparison may be made with what it costs iu this uouiitr
to produce jute. It would of course bo interesting to know al»
wliat is tile price of the seed, and the quantity sown per aero, th
cost of rutting, bi*eakiug, &c., also the quantity produced per acre
iu fact, all the details necessary in order to go to the root of tli
matter.
H. KOELKKNBECK,
Chicago, 15th Deuemher 188*2.
Ntars,—I’erluipa some of our re.vdors may he kind enough to faviw
us witli the details askod for lay our correspondent.—Eo,, i, A.
©Ii? Jiidiuir gl|[rii[ultiirif)t
little.
Mr. Fuller lia» committed tlio mistake iu inductive logic of
laaiing a wi'io generalivaihan upon a very limited lareodth of ex¬
perience. His remarks may be iiuderstood to imply tliat in ail Indian
soils, and for all crops, nitrogenous manures are the most valuable ;
wlisrens, all tliat may bo logitimately inferred from bis admirably
coudiictad experiments, is that on the (xpei-imentiil rlolt of thr
(Jaiavjmru form, in tlair present condition, the manure most required
/i>r n wheat crop is a nitrogenous one—tlie manure most required
, fora fiifiterentoi'upou the same ground, nr for wheat iu another
part of India, miglit be a very different one.
G. A. HILL, B. Sc., F.C.S.,
Associate of tile iloyal School of Mines.
Noik.- See Biditorial Note.—E d., J. A,
BOOKS ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
TO TOF RDlTOR.
Bia,—Resides the hooks on Agricultural Chemistry, ihcntloned
in yonr IskUe Of Februory 1883, I would recommend the following
ones to your correspondent, Baboo Rasik Boliari Biswas
AgriesRhtil'Chenristry, lay Davis.
‘ FamiHkr Isittors on Chemistry, by Liebig.
Son, Manure, and Plant, by Sclirottkey.
' 'Rolls and Manures, by John Dmialdson.
.' t^uiBiCtry of Agricaltnre, by Artour Henry,
iMig'i Letters on AgriouUnro.
Afgrioaltunfl Cbemistiy, by Boudogault,
J. 'R. R.
Cbpoadanga, EL R, BoUway, Ctli Febtnary 1883.
CALCUTTA, MARCH 1, 1883.
FOREST ADMINISTRATION IN THE PUNJAB.
fjlHE report on Forest Administration in the Punjab fo
**- the year 1881-82 shows that a good deal of useful rvorl
was done during that period. The changes in the arci
under tlio mauageineiit of the Forest Dopartmeiit, whicl
took place during the year under report, were os follows
BgUAAK Milrs.
Ro8«rv9d
Forufftii,
Area on the Ist
Protected Unrowr^rod
FoTMts. ' FomtN.
Total.
April 1881 ...
Excluded during
043
311
8,660
4.814v^
the year
Added dnrlug the
...
288
238
year
217
...
1
218
Area on the Slst
t
Maroh 18^ ...
1,160
811
8,799
0,270
Tbo additiou of 217 squaro miles
to the
area undoi
reserved forests ooourred in tbs Jholum snd Mooltau divi¬
sion, wHb tbs exosptioo of 9 square ndles in tbo Chnmb^
fch 1, lfS3, TSE. INDIAN ADRICULTUE.b.;.
1 . The olewlfiostiou of tho rMerves, as it stood a'
i of the yeaf, waaos follows !•—
Siituire MUoi.
’HlUFM-e*hHdiod«V*fl.i ' ’ > •• MC
rHUllfomtifoUh to.) ... 110
■ Forests, fhand, fto.) ... 600
Total ... 1,100
>6 has been so obange in the area uader protected
1 ^Aring the year under notice j but we obsenro that
|i^\ssd to declare the Kulu forests and the Lahore
as protected areas. The 311 square miles which are
lent declared “ Protectafi Forests” are—
Sqiun Hila.
The Esla Chitts, in Bawal Hadse, area ... 171
Iks Qujrsnwala ralAs „ ... 140
oi^traotors.were able ip arrange with private persons for
the supply of fuel oh favorable tfflros.
We see that the duauciat results the working of the
Depentmcnt are conMdcred to have been ^tiqfiiiotonv The
revenue realised was Ks. 16,6$9 morh ^an in 1630-31,
but as the eipeuditure increased by Rsf 20,90^ tlic )iet
income was Ks. 4,273 lesstluui iu the previous yenx, aud
amouUtwl to lls. 1,32,038.
We observe that, iu nccordauco with the wishes of tlie
Govorumeut of India, an espwinieut is being tried iu
utilising the services of well-recommended uon-Commisaioned
officers of the native army, and during the year two men
were appointed to the subordinate staff of the Forest
Department, and a third is about to be offered the appoint¬
ment of foi’ostcr in the Department.
I local Government notioes with satisfaction that
has been a considerable decrease during the year of
mtions for brooobos of the forest rules. The number
res for trial amounted to 846; of those, 136 oases
'od to the year preceding, so that the now proseoutious
3 year 1861-82 wore 710. Of the total of 846 oases
disposed of, 716 were concluded during the year,
f which resulted in convictions, and 201 in acquittals,
ifoseoutlons were chiefly on aooouut of the following
;esi—injury to forests by fire, unauthorised felling, or
priation of wood, or minor produce, and grazing
ut permission. There were 92 fires reported in
)reatB under the control of the department; the area
; was 15,633 acres, against 142,699 acres iu 1879-80,
i2,073 acres in 1880-81.
regards cultural operations, the following were the
important of the year :— I
wing of 20 acres at Sathu with cb)l {pinvi ImgifoUa),
-sowing of 200 acres in the public reserve,
anting of 6,425 deodar seedlings at Kolatop on the
side (Chumba division).
wing and planting out of 90 acres in Kulu with deodar,
wing of 206 acres in Boshobr with deodar,
rese operations are all reported as having been success-
Tlio experiments in the cultivation of European and
gu trees have given satisfactory results. Spanish
tnnts at Kilba and Naohan ; cork, oaks, and olive trees
ulu; limes, maples, elms, larches, the Lombardy poplar,
nauian blue gum in Kulu—are all reported to bo doing
je timber operations of these departments during tlio
under report were conducted on a larger scale than
lie year preceding, as will be seen from the following
•es : —
18R0-Bf. 18fil*83. Incrcaflo.
Cxdhii: fe«t. Cubic foet. Cubic foot.
THE COTTON CROP IN THE MADRAS
PliESIDENCY.
F rom the report on the cultivation of and trade in
cotton in the Madras presidency for the year 1881-82
(Fusli 1291), it appears that the season was generally more
favorable than in the jireceding year in most of the dis¬
tricts in which cotton is oxtousively grown.
The area undet cotton cultivation daring the year
amounted to 1,663,895 acres, against 1,608,226 in 1880-81,
or an increase of 146,369 acres over the area of the year
preceding. The increase took place chiefly in Bellary and
'J'iimovclly, and to some extent, also, in Cuddapoh and
Coimbatore. From a comparison of the figures for the
last six years, wo observe that since 1877-78—the year
of the Madras famine—the cultivation of cotton has been
steadily increasing, and that the area now reached stands
on a level with that of the year immediately preceding the
famine, when it amoimtecl to 1,645,389 acres.
The cotton grown was of tlie indigenous kind, of which
there are two species in tlm presidency, called the white
and the red from the color of the floweia. One is a ^six-
mouths’crop, and the other twelve months. .We olwerve
tliat the acclimatised Bourbon cotton was cultivated in
Coimbatore on an area covering 64,731 acres or a little
over one-fourth of the total extonl. under cotton in the
district, aud yielded 28,898 owts. of cleaned cotton, or
about 601t), jior aero against 269)., the estimated yield
of the iudigcuous species. Experiments were also made in
tlic Bcllaiy district during the year witli Hinguughat,
Dhollcra, Broach anil Bourbon seeds. Btoaoh aud DhoUcra
proved a success, but the results of tlio attempts made
with tlio Hinguughat and Bourbon seeds is not given.
The total outturn of cleaned cotton during tlie year
amounted to 493,043 ewts., valued at Us. 1,05,76,044, as
Timbers received
during the year 490,676 .543,405 46,729
Timber sold during
the year ... 476,208 678,940 102,7.32
ho quantity of timber imported into British ten’itory,
pared with the results of the previous year, is as
)W8
18S0-81.
1881-82.
No.
No.
Deodar logs
46,946
20,434
Fhie logs
7,336
2,955
Bleepots
... 270,021
307,929
i’he deodar logs ■ were all imported from Ciishmerc,
1 by for the greater portion of the pine logs wore also
ained from Cashmere. The 307,929 sleejiors were
wrted from Cashmere, ,Mandi, Kapurthullo, and other
'.ivo statea
fhe balance of timber in the depots at the etoso of the
X oonsisted of 24,986 logs and pieces, containing 110,034
Die tcoi Wo sec that the scoroity of firewood ot Rawul
yfitie has been brought to an end by the opening of the
xway, whioh tapped the fuel supply of Attook, aud tiie
esfrom the Government depOt have thereby fallen below
Dse of the preceding year by 50,000 maunds. The Punjab
)vorBment oousiders this satisfactory, inosmucli as the
sources of the raiha iu the neighbourhood of Rawul
ndee wore iu soma iJangcr of exhaustion uiidqr the
essure of groat demand. It Is also stated that there was
large falliug off also iu the amount of fire-wood removed
f purchasers in tie Mooltan raiih, as the railway
against 431,071 owts., valued at Us. 97,29,575, iu the year
preceding. The average yield per acre ranges from 19tb.
u Aumitapore to 549). in Vizagapatam. For the whole
presidency the average yield was 371b, pur district, against
369). iu 1880-81. 'i'hc largest outturns of ootten were
ibtained iu the 'riuiiovelly, Kistua, Coimbatore, Kuruool,
..ladura, Cuddapah, Bcllary, aud Auoutaporo distriota
Tlie cost of cultivation per aero varied from Rs. 2-14-0
n Kuruool to Us. 11-14-11 iu Vizagapatam. Comparing
,he cost of cultivation per acre with the voluo of the
vverago yield j)or acre of cleaned cotton, ooleiilated at annas
3-6 per 9), it would appear that iu several districts the
iultivators must have lost heavily. The districts iu which
he average cost per acre exceeded the value of the average
,’icld per acre ore as follow :—
Avuroge cost
Vfthie of averafii
yield {wr noro
IH)p acre.
at sjenniM
District.
pwfts.
A, P ^
""aTATpr^
South Aroot
... 10 9 1
6 n 0
Colmkatoru
... 11 11 0
7 7 0
Madura
... H 16 8
8 19 6
Salem
... 10 14 0
10 8 0
Tanjore
... 10 7 9
e 10 0
Tiimvelly
... 9 7 10
7 10 6
Ti'ichiaopoly
... 9 7 9
0 4 0
The Madras Board of Uevenue, however, do not appear
io place much trust in those figures, and again impress
,ipon collectors the neogssity of testing the nccurucy of the
aformatiou furnished by telisildars, Tlie several items
THE INDIAN AGBICULTDRIST. Haroh 1,188S.
which make up the oost of cultivation in each district
are—(1) value of secfl, (2) coat of ploufirWug, (3) coetof
fen«ng, (4) nittiiure. (5) oost of soaring, (<5) cost ofweoding,
(7) hiro for gathering, (8) nsseasaaont'per acre. The oosFof
plonking appcoi-s to have been the heaviest item in sevoral
of tdio districts, and ranged flmiu Ra 1-1 0 in Vimrapatara
to Es, 4-12-8 in Taojofo, though in the latter it included
also the cost of fenciug.
The average retad prices of cotton retained for local con-
fi^iption during the year Varied fkom Rs; 85 iicr oandv of
^ ^ '^30 in Salem. Compared with
1880-81 the prices obtained wore on the whole more
fatorablo.
The total quantity of raw cotton exported from the presi¬
dency during the year under report was 459,351 owts
against 509,889 cwts. ini879-80i and 365,887 in 1880-81'!
(JornporoA with the past year, therefore, the exports show
an increase of 90,404 ewts., and this is said to bo chiefly
due to heavy shipments made to the United Kingdom from
Wiulras during tiie mouths of April nud June
1882, owing to the very active demand that prevailed in
the English market at this time and to the rise in tlie price
of the artielea Of the total exports of the year, 422,346
owts. was taken by foreign countries, the largest shipments
^ing to the United Kingdom, Italy, France, Austria and
Spain j of the balance, 27,894 owts. wont tp lioinbay, and
9,111 owts. was o.xported to Bengal The total value W the
exports was Rs. 1,11,61,394, as against Rs. 92,19,371 in
1880-81.
It would appear ttiat the condition of the weaving classes
in the presidency has been ^adually deteriorating from the
combing effects of the famine and increased imjwrtation
of English piece-goods. During the year under report the
total number of weavers is stated to have been 345,818,
against 307,702 in the year preceding. Although iu a few
localities cloths of very superior quality are still made,
ivlitch arc purchased chiefly by the richer claBsos iu pve-
ferenoe to English piece-goods on account of their great
durabuityf the jutuiufaoturo is stated to be now principally
couffned to inferior cloths, country twist hoing used for the
coarser kinds, and English twist for tlie bettor sorts.
The three cotton mills in tlie presidency—the Sonthom
India Spinning and Weaving Comiiany, the Madras United
Weaving Companv', and tlie Buckingham
Mills Company—are stated to liavo coutiuuod working
tliroughout the year. The quantity of cotton taken by
them was 59,818 cwta, which was cliiofly obtained from
the Ckiimbatore, Trichiiiopoly, Cuddapah, and Bellary dis¬
tricts, at prices vmying from 3 annas to .3 annas 7 pics per
tt). The Southeni India and the Madras United turn out
only twists, and the Buckingham Mills produce only yarns.
THE COLONIZATION OF THE TAVOY.
I T has iMen urged, from different points of view, that the
requirement of the times, in an aoknowlodgod period
of agriouJtural depression, is the establisluneut of agricul¬
tural banks by private enterprise for money advances to
the peasantry ; and iu these ooliimus necessity for an
improved condition in the lyots’ relations with the zemin¬
dar has been treated of lenglliily. But the circumstances
of the European planting oommnnity afford equal occasion
for anxious cousideration. AVliatevor the divergence
iu the commercial aspects of the two gi-eat industries in
ludia proper, i.e., of tea and indigo, it is certain that
the price paid by the oonsumer of tlie first is extravagantly
out of proportion to the profits derived by the produoor^
and it is questionable whether the remedy for this is onlj'
to be contrived by an extended imle in now markets ; and,
with regard to the latter, the greatly increased oost of
manuCsoture within the last few years, and the difficulties
concerned with the land and rates for labour, largely
take from the remunerative return of indigo; while it mav
beroundly asserted that Initli industries have the oommoh
xniefortane 'of being overcrowded. Every indigo concern
hasonexoew of European empdoyiis, and the excess in the tea
gardmu notjgeably leavens the number .of unemployed men
who are to be Ibqud in the streets of Calcutta. These
men am difttiaotivelj a class withoht the reproach of
improvidence, for their portion has been cast in poorly
salaried appointments, and the too imdy suemiM of intern
porate habits is an undeserved libel on the mqjority.
Every onnop ot tea, every cake of indigo finds disposal in
die market, and the question whether the tea-planter cni.-
not participate to a greater degree in the high prices paid
Iw the oousunier wiU demand attention os the opening up
of new matkets is effected, the result of which will bo to
maintain the high I’etnil prices without appreciable gain to
the prodneer. But tbougb^ of course, tbe intermediary
agency is the ooeosioii of this, - that ogonoy is the imok-
tone of the planter; it provides working advances,. * ^ihs in
bml seasons, and is concerned with the entire realization.
It is not therefore tliat in this-§ettei|dita'tion of the oiroum-
stauccs of tea onterprize any aspersion is levelled at tlie
agencies wiiioli, in the eminent firtns ofMossrs. Moran and
Tliomas, find distinguished icpute. It is ti» general want
of iudepeudent capital which oharacterizes the outerprise
that has to make a return on - borrowed money. This
rauRt oontimie until tlie concerns :grow wealthy by
eoonomio management, good seasons, and large sales. But
the unemployed excess of planters,—what is to be done by
themi .Fiini^patc. Where to i With what means ? That
pioneer spirit of enterprise which has built up the vast
fabric of the ludiou Empire has made no response to the
invitation of the Government of British Burmah, to
colonise the district of Tavoy. That Government has
profi:crcd rent-free grants of land on the most liberal tennq.
The country itself is primeval forest and virgin soil, with
a uiouiitnin range of 6,000 feet altitude. The oliniato
is pleasant, aud the two hottest ninths of the year,
February and March, ore cooled by iShe sea breezes. It
has been described liy Dr. Heifer, an Amerioau missionary,
in 1838, ns an Eden of fertility, and tbe “ Imperial
Gazetteer of India” givqp an authoritative oorroboration of
its untried capabilities. Sparsity of inhabitants has pre¬
sented a laliouf difficulty ; but this may be said to have
existed iu the past, aud the present time affords the
opportunity of attracting Chinese labour with peculiar
facility. Shut out from America aud Australia, Chinese
emigrants are making their way to North Borneo. The
Ciugaloso inoursiou into Qiioeeuslnud lias praved aliortive.
There are masses of labourers to I>o had when the stream
is once directed. But the requirement is capital. I’lantera
out at elbow may proffer tlieir servioes, in preference
to attempting the (kflonies ; and such as have au insigni¬
ficant trifle may well hesitate liefore embarking their bttle
all in a venture to Tavoy, whore tlie first reverse would
prove ruin. But the avidity w'ith which shares iu the
North Buinoo Company havo been taken up shows that
tbe dubious nature of foreign investments has led tlie
public to seize upon any other outlet for speculation that
gives fairer promise. Money oanuot be tied up, and
English eajiital may bo ns confidently dire|g|pd to the
colonisation of Tavoy os to possibilities iu North Borneo.
A project is, we understand, under the consideration of
Mr. Hudson, the Secretary of the Behar Planters’ Associa¬
tion, which has not yet proceeded beyond a preliminary
euipiiry, ns to its general merits, and the Government oi
British Burmah favours the formation of a company,
which would have for its objects the ooquisitiou of the
entire available land, and planting operations on a large
scale. Here is a soheme which, if practicable, should
receive, and there is no doubt will receive, the euoourage-
ment of the Goverumeut ef India. Not less politically,
than commercially, will advautage be derived frqm the
opening out of a tract which is the. high road to Ihuogkok
and Siam.
MR. BRANDIS’ SUGGESTIONS REGARDING FOREST
ADMINISTRATION IN IfADRAS.
I T is scarcely possible within tbe limits of k eiaide arSo^
to do anything like justice to the |dU and aUt
“ Suggestions regarding Forest Adi«inbtratii!iit%''^'* MaAwm
I’residency,'’ by Mr. D. Brandis, F.R.S., C.jtE., ^e Iai^>ector-
Ociieral of Forests to the Government cf In’dia. We bav^ no
hesitation in statuig that Mr. Brandis’ ^Sitggestions,” as he
modestly calls them, form the most comphfwW^rt on Indian
Forestry that has, up to the prMegt, Wen jeen^ by the Gov¬
ernment Press of any Presidency. T!te weik Wnsiste of 8S7
JMarch 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTURIST.
81
pAgea folio, cuod deaU with the whole anbject of fore«t adniijiu-
tration in auch an exhauBtive fashion, that it will probably
for many yaors to come remain the highest anthority on the
subject with which it deals. Mr. Brandis is, after a long career
in India, about to retire from the service, so that the present
volume may be regarded as the last official contribution to
Indian roxestry he la likely to make. The opinions of A
st^ffioer of such wide and varied expexieixce and attainments
^rry with them a weight of authority which is on the whole
likely to shape, for BqK>6 considerable time at least, the policy
of the great dej&rtment over which ho so ably presided. A
work of this nature, so varied iu its contents, so .multitudinous
in detail, so carefully thoxight out in oil its parts, and so
fruitful in suggestions, is not easily dealt with when any
attempt is made to present in anything Ijke adequate detail
the topics with which it deals. Mr. Brandis’ “ Suggestions ”
are full of material from which not only forest oflicera and the
official classes generally may gather useful information and
suggestions, but the wealth of subsidiary collateial topics dealt
with are such, that nearly every educated man in India may
read with pleasure end profit what Mr. Brandis modestly
says, was mainly “ intended to he read hy the forest officers
employed in the districts to which the remarks relate.”
All we shall on the present occasion venture to do, is to
present to our remlers some of Mr. Braudis’ conclusions, ro-
serving for a futnre occasion a more detailed examination
of ■ the “ Suggoslious.” With regard to the supply of railway
fuel, he says that—
“ The railway should be encouraged to draw as nmcli wood as
possible from private forests * the supplies from this source
in the iulaml districts will probably diniinisb, and »«
they diminish, the, requirements must be met to a greatoi'
extent from the Govommoiit forests. In order to make my
(neauing clear, I have, in the preceding pariigraphs, pul. for¬
ward some figures, which may be summarised as follows
Private,
iGovornmcnt.
Total,
Tons.
Tons. 1
Tons.
Supply in 1881
rffi.TGO
12,660 1
68,420
Kuliiro supply
30,000
4-2,000
81,000
“ Should the efforts fail, which must lie made to induce
private landholders to preserve and plant with the view of
sui)pl,ving the railway, tho*.supplies from private sources would
probably diminish fuifiber; hut os they decrease, the condition
of the Government forests will improve, and con3e<iuenUy
their productive poweis will increase. This relates Uj the
inland districts. On the east coiist the private casuariana
plantations are so extensive, chiefly in Cliinglcqmt, that the
price of this wood must fall, and it may eventually pay the
Madras Bailway to buim it.
“ Should the extensions here suggested be found to bo insuffi¬
cient to supply the requirements of the railway, the further
experience which will then have been gained will dotxbtless
show the way to the measures required to meet the owe. The
Kumool-Cudclapah canal is navigable from August to January,
and the question should bo studied in detail, whether wood
.from the Nollamais in Kurnool and the Lankamnlais in Cud-
dapah can be brought down the canal to Krishnapuram on the
railway at remunerative rates. The floating of wood down the
Cauvery has been tried and been found to fail, but plantations
near the line in the vicinity of the Cauvery or other rivers
might be made ; the former reserves near Mettapollium might
(f' be re-MitabUshed, or suitable tracts on the Nilgiri slopes, near
the Mettapollium terminus, might be placed under strict pro¬
tection. Jf a railway la constructed to Ootacamund, the
plantatiiins of Australian ewalj/pius and acacia on the
plateau shoulifbe extended largely and might furuisli a large
supply. So mudx has been established by the researches
recently mode by Mr. Hutahins, that these plantations can be
mode to furttiiffi a tneftn annual yield of 6 tons per acre, good
and bad included, Under these cuuumstanccs, it is not at all
impoasibW tlmt, if these plantations can bo made and main¬
tained at a responsible outlay, and tiie needful land can be
obtained, tbe blue gum grown on tiieKSgiria may someday
contribute to the fuel-supply of the Madna i^lway. li
suitable land can be made available on the plateau of the
Shevaroys, an experimental plantation of Australian trees
should bo made. Acacia adanoxyUm aa well as some species
of iucalypUii seem to thrive at Yercaud. At present it
would be premature to enter further into thm schemes. It
will bo time enough to consider them when- necessity arises
for doing so. It has been recommended to encourage the use of
coal in the place of wood on the Madras Railway, in order to
guard against the destruction of the forests. Such recom¬
mendations are not based upon a correct appreciation of the
case. In the interests of forest conservancy, it is most desirable
to encourage the consumption of wood hy the railway. Forests
ai-c useful in many ways, besides producing a supply of wood
and timber. But forests cannot be mainWned vrithout some
return of revenue from thorn. Thus, if the Madras iRailway
finds it profitable to burn wood in preference to cool, tills will
cause an increased demand for wood, which will enable Qot-
oriiraent to maintain, under efficient protection, a larger area
of State foKsts than would be possible if the produce could not
be sold,
“ In the preceding remarks T have not adverted to Indian
coal os a possible rival of wood-fuel. It is not impossible that
when the system of coast canals has been completed from
the Hooghly to Madras, or perhaps even sooner, Bengal coal
may compete at Madras with English and Australian coal
And when the coal-fields in tho Nizam’s territory have lieep
connected by tramway with Bczvaila on the Kistna river, it is
probable tlmt Singareni cool m.ay lie delivered at less coat at
Miulra.s than sea-borne coal. But considering the quality of
the Singareni coal, and the large quantity of ash which it
conUins, it seems doubtful whether, under existing circum-
slanccs, it can be landed at Madras at rates sufficiently low
to enable the railways to dispense with wood-fuel In the inland
districts of the Presidency.”
Tho wealth of tho Madras Presidency in workable iron
ores is well-known, and there still exists at all evants the
remains of the old ii oii industry of the province. Unlike Bengal,
Madras has no coal, so that tho %itnre of iron smelting
in Madras is entirely a forest question. The cost of sea-lwma
coal, it seems, ranges from Us. 16 to Ha. 18 a ton at the eastern
ports, and is consequently prohibitive j nor does it seem likely
tiiat Indian coal from Reng.al, the Nizam's dominions, or
Central India could l)e deliverod at rates sufficiently low aa
would make it available for iron-smelting in inland districts.
It is, therefore, to tlie forests of tho Presidency that Govern¬
ment must look fox- whatever local iron industries it may be
possiblo to build up, and foster. On this point Mr, Brandis
says ;—
“ Under proper management, the extensiou of iron-smelting
in the Madras Presidency will iu no way incroaao ths denuda¬
tion of tho country. On the contrary it will facilitate the
formation, protection, and improvement of the forests.
“In moat forests the more valuable species, the timber or other
produce of which finds a ready sale even when brought from
remote localities, is associated with a large proportion of tho
less valuable kinds, for the produce of which there is no
demand in such places. Ths less valuable species profit equally
with and in some cases more than the valuable kinds, by
efficient protection, and particularly by protection against fire.
In fire-protected blocks, the forest becomes dense and thick,
tbe grassy glades and other blank spaces fill up rapidly, but a
large proportion of tbe material which grows up in so satis¬
factory a manner cannot be utilized. On the contrary, ita
existence in tho forest prevents the free prodnotlon of the more
valuable kind, which therefore cannot be cut as freely as would
otherwise be desimble. The abundance of inferior classea of
wood will, therefore, be felt aa a burden and a source of difficulty
hereafter, when a rational plan of working is set on foot. The
native xron-smel&m give preference to certain kinds of wood,
such as aemsM catceht and albima amara, but the charcoal of
most species, both of the deciduous and the evergreen foreati,
82 THE INDIAN AGEIOULTUEIST. Wach. 1,1883,
cau.'bc otiJwe<l for iron-«meUjiiig, I may here meution tha^
■Oolsmd Keatinffe, when PoliUoal Ajfont of Nimar, before 1807,
fonnd that tlie light and eoft wood of hotvacUia thur\iera (saler)
made excellent charcoal for iron-emolting lu the works estab-
Ihdiod by him in Nimar, and successfully worked during a
series of years with t1» aid of a Swedish iron-master.
“ The extension of iron-making by mtans of charcoal will be a
great help towards the development of rational forest manage¬
ment in the Madras Presidency. But the native methods of
Iron-smelting with- charcoal are exceedingly wasteful, and an
attempt should therefore be made to introduce .an improved
method. It is at present generally supposed that the direct
system of producing wrought iron from the ore is not capable
of considerable improvement. This is a point upon which I am
not competent to form any definite opinion. I know, however,
that some persons in England comjwteut to speak on the 8ul)ject
hold that the diieet process is capable of considerable improve¬
ment, and that iron-smcltiug by moans of charcoal in India has
a great future Iwfore it
“ Moreover, it may not be impossible to carry out a suggestion
made some time ago by Dr. 11 Warth, Professor of Natural
Sciences at tlie Deliia Doon Forest School, and to construct
blast furnaces of a Somewhat smaller size than those used in
Europe, so that they can be managed by natives. The object
wonld be to teach them the system of making pig-iron
first, and converting this by a separate process into finished iron.
Such exf)erimenl8 can only bo made by Government agency,
and I am of opinion that it will be well worth while to attach
a competent metallurgist, who has had a practical experience in
iron-smelling with charoo.a!, to tlie Madras Forest Department
for a series of years—first, in order to )p«ist the Forest OlHcers
in the selection of reserves in the iron districts ; and after¬
wards to nndortoka iron-making in suitable lounlitios on an
improved plan, with the view of gradually introducing im¬
provements in the native methods. Efforts should at the same
time be m.vlc to ostablish a better and less wastofnl system
of charcoal burning. The development and imiirovemcut of
tlje native iron industry is as much within the sooiio of the
legitimate duties of (joveniraont as the attempts made, by tlie
ostablishroent of model farms and otherwise, to imjirove
native ngi-ieuUare. The experimental oper.alious hero suggest¬
ed must not las expected to yield revenue. If their cost is
covered by the sale of the iron proilucod, that is all that can be
hoped for! The object is not revenue, but to show the native
iron-smelters tho way towards improved and more economical
methods, and to pave the way for the esUvblishment of huge
iron w'ovks by private enterprise.
“ Tlicse suggestions 1 submit with he.sitation, as a late
Resolution by the Government of India in the Department of
Finance ami Commerce, which was published in the Qazetii of
India of the 6th August lust, lays it down tliat the establish¬
ment of iron works to be owned and worked by the State is
open to grave objections, both economic and practical. Th.at
Resolution, however, priraarfly refers to the Bengal iron works,
which are worked with coal, and wberre, therefore, a private
firm or company can base its calculations upon certain data
regarding the quantity and cost of the fuel available ; and in the
second place, it relates to tho iron works projwsed to be estab¬
lished in the Chanda District, where the greater part of the
fuel will be furnished by the Warora coal-mines.
“ Di the Madras Presidency, the question is much more
dilBonlt The ahecnce of coal and the uncertainty i-agarding the
annual yield of charcoal per acre in the areas which may be
constituted reserved forests, make it impossible at present to
turnish any safe data upon the ground of which private
capital might be invited to embark in this industry on a
large scale. This must wait until a suffleieqt extent of ressi'ved
forests have actually been established, and have by continued
proteotlori and sternly Imijrovmnent been converted into dense
forest,"
With regard tn the effect on climate W forest protection, Mr.
Brandis speaks vary decidedly. • Mo has, iw hope that forest
couservancy can either materially alter the climate, or guard
against the racurrance of excessive drought. No data, he says,
have been esUiblished which would justify the hope that by
the creation of new forests or the imptovemout of those existing.
we shall be able to modify theUmlts of the regions of moisture,
or otherwise materially to alter th4 ctimato of any district in the
Peninsula. The'great features of climate depend upon cosmic
causes which are independent ofldoal circamstanoes.
“ It 1ms been established by confined experiments made by
L. Fautrat In tho forests of Halatte and Ennenonville in
France that a guage placed above the crowns of the tf^’Z/iin a
forest, collects more rain than an'otlier placed ifi its ■vicinity at
the same height from the grounif^ biit^ btttslde tlw fOrest, A
brief abstract of these observations will bo found recorded in
jiaragraph 66 of my Report on Ajraere and Merwara, page 17.
Observations of this kind will, It is Hoped, some day be made
in tho Indian forests. Large extents of forest or large areas
of irrigated laud may have some effect in increasing the r.ainfall
at coi Piin seasons, and there is no doubt that in tho vicinity of
dense forests, and on irrigated lauds, the air near the ground is
generally moiator during tho dry season and the dew heavier.
Nor is there any doubt that forests, if well stocked, afford
effective shelter against scorching winds, and that in tho hot
weather tlie shade and shelter affordeil by trees is a great boon,
and is beneficial alike to crojw, to man, and to cattle.
“ Those are, however, advantages which, though exceedingly
important, only affect the immediate vicinity of the forest. The
idea that forest conservancy can in any way materially alter the
climate of tho peninsula, or can guard against the recurrence of
Be.asoua of excessive drought must, I fear, be put aside, and our
plans regarding forest administration in tho peninsula must,
at present at least, Ijj franual without reference to such
expectations.”
With regard to tho effects of forests in protecting the soil, ,aud
rogiilntiug surface and snb-soil drainage, tho following remarks
are made ;—
It is different in regard to the inftnenoo of forests in other
rcapeots. They protect the soil on slojws and hiUs, an 1 there is
good ground for believing that tliey regulate the lUstribution of
tile rain.w.atBr whicli falls upon the ground, and tho surface
and undergrouud draimige. In tliis respect tho action of
forests is, we liolicvc, moat beneficial in a tropical climate. The
notion is this : FiVsi, tiie foliage breaks the force of tho rain,
wliicii therefore fulls upon the ground more gradually and
gently ; necoiul, tlie loss by evaporation is loss ; third, decayed
leaves, moss, twigs, and other matter on the ground in the
forest act as a sponge, and prevent the rapid down-flow of the
water j fourth, the soil wiiicft is permeated by tho roots and is
mixed with vegetable mouM, is loose and facilitates the per¬
colation of tho water, wiiich comes out at a lower elevation in
tlie shape of springs.
“ A fni'tlier and most important re.sult is, that less soil is
washed away from the hill-aides and that less sand arid silt are
carried down by the rivera Regarding this point, no doubt it
possible. , Wherever clearances are made on tho hills in those
districts of India which have a heavy rainfall, the loose soil is
wiislied down into tho streams and rivers, unless retained by
terraces, lines of trees, shrubs, or other vegetatiou. There is
not a district in tho moister regions of India Where the evil
effects of denudation in this respect are not visible. The sand
which is washed down from the denuded hills ih tho Hoshiarporc
distiact of tho Punjab, lias destroyed the fertility of large areas
liaviiies and torrents are numeroUe in the more thickly inhabit
ed portions of the Nortli-West Himalaya and in the Darjeelinj
district in Bengal. And yet in those districts the oUmate is s(
favourable, and vegetatiou so luxuriant, that hill-sides, whici
have been cut up by laudslips and torrents, if left akme, oftei
re-clothe themselves rapidly with grass, h*rbB, and 'iothei
vegetation. Even ou the Nilgiris the evil will be felt soone)
or later, although these hills are favored bs}«nd any hill range
in India by gentle slopes, deep soil, and a moderate rainfall,
which is distributed over nine months o? the year, and most of
which comee down in gentle showers. Every year masses of
fine silt, which, if retained, might be a source of wealth to the
planter, as well os to the Badag^, are waisfasd down into the
Bhavani and Moyar rivers, and unless the riopes arc terraced,
or ooffee, tea, and cinchona are plants efibse in horizontal
contour tines, tho annual loss of rich loose soil will eventually
make itself felt.
83
March 1, 1888/ THE INDIAN AGEICULTUBIST.
“ TJie Ratnaglri district, in Bombay, is almost baro up to th«
crast of tbegbaU. Hew the efccM of denudation have shown
themselv^ In t^swajr*Biewi aw femr principal itreams in
the district, whl A, rising in the ^hat mountains, mn a short
course to the sea, all of which irere formerly navigable and
important for the trade of the country. For small boats they
are still navigable, but they are gradually silting up, because
the hills on their head-rwaters have become denuded of
forest.
“ikiwOgards evaporation, it may be useful to draw attention to
tbe rlemm of the experiment made at six stations in Bavaria,
iu the forest and in its immecliiste vicinity ontside, which are
rocoided in the work ■'by E. Ebormayor, entitled ‘Die
physikalischen Ein'wirkungen des Waldos auf Luft und Bodon,
1873.’ On author states, as the result of these
experiments, that the quantity evaporated in one year (T8fl8-69)
from a free surface of water, measuring one square foot (Paris),
WiW as follows I—
In the open 8,180 cubic luohw (Paris)) eorrespondinff to a J 5M mlllimotors dcoji.
In tUc foreet 1,1W / ftratum of water ( 210 „ „
“ Ebermayer also states that the moon annual evaporation in
the open, at different places, had been found to be as
follows :—
Millimeters.
Millimeti
Vienna
... 729
Paris ...
... 783
Ij.auaanno
... 756
I.ondon
... 780
Bar-le-Due
... 531
I.iveriiool
... 902
Au.xorre
... 5.57
Maiictiestor
... 780
‘ The great difference in the results, Ebermayer asoi-ibes to the
ilill'urent construction of the instrumouts used, and to the
(litroront modes of placing them. In Lisjxlou it was found by
Halley that, while in a risim 208 millimeters evaporated during
(,l,e year, the evaporation amounted to 1,248 millimotors if the
surface of the water was freely exposed to sun and wind. In
dry di-striols of India evaporation is naturally much more rapid
than in nortliern Europe. Thus at Nagpore, the quantity
evaporated from the Amixijhari tank (luring the dry season
(8 months) was 7 feet, equal to 135 millimeters; and Mr. Oulcheth
came to a similar result in regard to evaporation frmvi tanks in
Ajmei-e and Merwani. It may be assumed that in India the
effect of forest in diminishing evaporation is much greater than
in northern Europe.
The effect of forest upon the moisture in the soil is however
of a most complicated nature. For while on the one hand the
ev.apora.tion of the rain water is diminished, there is on the
other no doubt that, under cortaii^ circumstances, trees and
forests tend to dry up the soil, the roots drawing up moisture
often from great depths, which is evaporated by the leaves. It
i.s a common practice in Europe, to dry np swamps and wet
jilacea by planting fast-growing trees. Mr. 1). E. Hutchins,
Deputy Conservator of Forests, Mysore, informs me that the
effect of plantations of casuarina and other tress, so siiccassfiilly
iiculo at Bangalore and elsewhei-o on the Mysore jilateaii, has
been, in some cases, to diminish the water-supply ip wells in
those plantations and in the station of Bangalore. His views
on this subject will be found set forth iu a paper regarding the
inllueuce of forests on moisture, aijpeiidod to this report.
( Appendix VT.)
“ It will now be well to examine tbe probable effect of forests
uiKui the water-supply iu tanks, stream,s, springs, and
wells.
“ Speaking broadly, the result os regards the supply of springs,
streams and ri-vers is believed to bo this, that springs are better
supplied and tbat streams and rivers ai'o less subject to sudden
floods, and have a more even end longer continued flow of wabn-
if tb^T oatcbmmit area ie stocked with forest than if it is bare.
Tbo effect is tbe eame upon tanks which are fed from springs
andstreame. But upon tanks with a email catchment ai-ea,
whirii'are fed bnly by the lurfafte drainage coming direct from
that area, the effect ' ieidifferent. Tanks of that description
would store the largest 'proportion possible of the water coming
from Uie catduntot area if tbat siea wereemoothed and plaater-
ed over, and mode impenheahle to the ram which falls upon it.
In snob oases a hard-bakrtl Aufase of the catchment area,
vithoat axty vegetattm, wbaEl be tnoet effective.”
EDITORIAL NOTES.
A KESCUjUTION published in the Cdtovtta Giuettf. deads
with the proposed eataidishment of a Veterinary School
in ^engaL lloports of severe outbreaks of oattle-dmease have,
from time to time, for many years post, readied the Bengal
Government, and the uo^ of a trained agency for tjie
treatment of cattle ie greatly folt. Tiie establishment of a
school for the special object of imparting iustruotiou in
veterinary science, and the training of a olnus of natives for
servioe among the people, has long been under considera¬
tion. His Honor the Lieutenant-Governor is now of opinion
tliat, os the eflforts made in past years to convoy inati-uotion
to tlio people in those matters have been attended ■with no
lasting success, tlie question of oiieniiiga Veterinary .School
in Calcutta should at ouco be definitely taken up by the
Government, and ho bos decided k> refer it to.a committee
of gentlemen specially qualified to report upon tJie scheme.
Of this committoo, Surgeon-Major K. McLeod, M.D., has
boon appointed president, and Inspecting Votoriuary
Surgeon J. H. B. Hallen and Dr. T.. <iroonlul], memborB.
This committee will roport on tlio cost of such au institu¬
tion, tbo staff to bo employed, tbo best site for tlio school,
and the instruction to bo givoii. 'J'be report is called for
before, tbo end of tbo present cold season.
In Messrs. .Steuning, Inskipp and (Vs Indian tea market
review for 1882, tbe following advice is given to Iiulinn
tea-})lautors :—
liust year at this time we warned produeers iigiuiwt coarse
plucking and the reuuIU which would follow ; wc venture
to point out that our anticipation of low in-iees is uuimppily
confirmed, for notwithstanding tlie good enquiry that lias ex¬
isted all the season for teas for pi ice, values for common and
medium are now pxsitivcly at the lowest point over touched,
and good medium to fine are selling several pence below their
nitrinsio value. In 18.H1 fine pirkiug was carried too fur, and
this season coarse plucking has beeu to., muoli in vogue. It
scents to us that the only safe plan is to jtiok juwlurately fine
throughout, and without sorting loo fine generally, to make
nioderuto proijortion of fine jiekoe und broken pekoe, more
p.articularly the latter, tj tioll here at, say, from 1/10 to 2/4;
this would prevent n au[)orabutiilance of medium kinds, alrd
the depreciation iu value wliicli natin-iilly follows.
Bulking.—The progre.ss of this in India is slow, owing pro¬
bably to (lillicultios atteuclant on want of room at the factory,
and also to the danger of climate, but on several estate.s these
dilHoultics appear to have been surmounted, and the teas turn
out very satisfactorily ; it is evident that the condition of tlie
tea should be bettor by not having to l)c turned out of tlie cheat
hero, and exposed on the warehouse floor to the atmosphere,
and afterwards trodden liack into the packages ; such treatment
is a risk to the appearance of the leaf and to the flavom- of the
te.a. Besides these difladvantagos, the jxiokages themselves with
their lead linings are iu a better oonditioa than when they
have to be opened and afterwards closed np ; and Biero is also
less delay in bringing to aitcbion and in delivering to buyers. If
tares run evenly iu a break of Indian bulked teas, or are
within 61be. of e.ach other, a certain proportion, vit., one-sixth
to ohe-tontli, is turned out to obtain an average tnre. The
advantages of bulking iu India whetv it can be properly ilo7ie,
ai-o very manifest.
Tint following letter from Mr, W. R. Robertson, M.R.A,C.,
Agricultural Reporter to the (rtivernmant of tModras, was
recently sent to Government:—“ With reference toG.O., No. 123S,
of the 11th Instant, I have the honor to enclose two samples of
Nankin cotton prcdnced on the Saidapot Farm, Samtfle No. 1—
in the teed ; sample No. 2—clean Unt. It will be obeerved that
there ore several sliadea of color in the uaginned sample, and that
those diSsreuees disappear to a considerable extent when the cotton
is ginned, due to tbo thorough admixture of the fibre in the pro>
oees of ginuiiig ; and during the aplauuig aud weaving processes,
I thhfle a still greater nntforuiity in color will be Booured, The
Naakla cotton has been grown in this presidency on a botonloid
84
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
March 1, 1888.
corloBity for ywc* or more. It WM or^(ltu4ly imported from
Chin*, where the fabrios made from tbii ootton are in great demand
for their oheapneea and great dnraUUt^, At one time, large qaan-
tltlee of Kaaklnoloth were exported from China, bnti understand
that ite export hae now almost ceased. 1 do not think the crop is
grown anywhere in the Preaidenoy, exoept on a vm'y small scale.
I remmnhor seeing iU growing at the Coimbatore Jail Farm about
ten years ago; but Mr. Crimes, who, I observe, has been addressed,
will probably submit the results of bis experience there. I am now
putting an acre of land vnder the crop, and this should in four or
five months give enough seed for SO or 25 acres of land which will
probably suffioe lor experiment^ trials.'*
Mr. H. R. OrbnM, Superintendent, Central Jail, Coimbatore,
also wrota on the same subject as follow
" In rsply to the Order of Government, dated 11th November 1882,
No. 1298, Revenue, I have tha honor to report that I have grown
Nankin ootton on the Jail grounds stnoe the year 1808, in which
year two aeeds were given me by the Hon. J. D. Sim, which both
germinated t and from those two seeds, I have been enabled to
plant at different times about 12 aores of land. It is a hardy
description of ootton, grows in any description of soil, is perenuial,
and glvea mote than one keeping a year. I regret now I have not
kept on aoeonnt of how many times a year I have picked one field,
or what quantity of ootton I obtained at each picking. The plant
in the field grows to a height of about eighteen inches, but in favour¬
able looaUtles I have had it grow into a largo bush, quite four
feet in height, I have the honor to submit for the inspection of
Government some of this cotton iu the pod, some banks of thread
spun by the convicts from it, and two samples of cloth made from it
in the Jail.
“ Owing to the recent order of Government putting a stop to
mlsoellanoous jail manufacture, I have just rooted up tho last field
of this ootton, which wss planted in 1879, as I thought there would
be no further nse in onltivatlng. 1 have, however, a small quantity
of it in my own garden, from which I can obtain sood and uan r ecom-
menoe its cultivation if necessary. I believe it is not cultivated by
the ryots In this district, but I am told it is so in the Tinnevclly
IJIstriot. The great drawback to it is its shortness in fibre. I should
much like to obtain fresh seed from Chunar or elsewhere, to asoer-
tain whether it is snpeiior to what I have grown, Brigadier-General
Clerk, who aooompaiued his Excellency the Commauder-in-Chief in
his recent visit to this Jail took twenty yards of this • Naukin ’
oloth, with a view of trying its suitability for the summer clothing
of troops.”
A oORassPOKDBNT, writing to the Ceylon Ohiervei', saysOf the
several varieties of rubber, tho Ceara seems most suited for the
Kalutara district, chiefly owing to its rapid and easy growth and
its adaptability to dry toil though the district is a wot one.
Swampe, if deeply drained and raised and above flood level,
seem to answer. Of course on any land submerged by annual
floods the rubber trees sicken and many die. Of the other-
varieties, Para, Castilloa, Landolphia, &c., little can bo said, as
they are of very slow growth, and for tliis reason it is not ad¬
visable for those who look for quick returirs to attempt the
cultivation of them, even though the soil suitable for them can
be found and selected. A period of 12 to 10 years is rather a
long time to wait, for it is pi-obablo, at the comparative rate
they grow, that this period must elapse before the trees can
yield a return of any value. Tho Ceara grows very rapidly in
twelve months, and then begins at an average height at ten feet
to throw out branches. Trees of even eight months’ growth
have a few closters of fruit. At the end of tho 3rd year, they
attain a height of 13 feet or more with numerous branches
spreading out 10 or 12 feet. The trunk lias a girth of about
20 Inches, a foot above ground. In its second year it commences
to bear profusely, so that the price fur rubber sood will soon go
down. The inner branohes are rather numerous and spindly.
They ought properly to be thinned out with the object of
growing tbioker and stout lower branches, that would also,
besides the trunk, be fit to be tapped in a few years. Strong
winds occasionally play havoc with the branches when the
tree is top-heavy. The branches snap off easily, and as they lie
on the ground begin in a few days to throw out healthy shoots
of a foot in length and before there is a^ign of a root, the seed
falling from the bursting capsules germ under the trees easily.
It has already been pronounced a big weed, the gi-owth of
which will have to be checked and regulated iu the
vicinity of delicate products. Ibe rpots spread on and a little
above the surface, throwing out carrot-shaped tubers. These
are relished by the pigs, but two coolies, il seems, experiment¬
ing on them as edibles, were poisoned to death. The rubber
thrives best where the soil is rich and penetrable with an ala-
vanga to some depth. It is not therefore advisable to plant out
a field of them above a 100 feel or so above the bottom or base
of a hill, but along ravines, flats, and gentle slopes, &c, ; in fact .
wherever there is a fair depth of soil, it can bo safely put
Those plants high up and ueoi- ridges l^ve not their leaves of a
healthy bluish-green tinge, but have' rather pale and sickly
leaves and seem small in growth. Once a year after the crop,
the rubbers drop their leaves entirely and look very bare, but
throw out a fresh flush in three weeks or so. In all pi-obability a
tree grown under favourable conditions will not be sufficiently
developed and fit tiU its 4th or 6th year to be operated on.
Though tho sap can be drawn from a throe-year-old tree, the
yield cannot be much or of much value, while the lacerating
process in drawing the sap will rata)-d its growth and make it
a poorer tree at a desirable age. If the milk or juice is
dropped into water it coagulates, and tho rubber is ready iu
few momenta. As neither cardamom nor cocoa growing
amongst the rubber seems to suffer from the rootlets or fallen
leaves, they might answer a double purpose, and be used ns
shade trees.
Tub following is the order of tho Madras Govommeut on the
Conservator’s Report for 1881-82 :—Tho report of tho Conserva¬
tor compares favourably with Ihi-vt of the previous year, and the
Board's exhaustive i-eview l-'aves hut little for tho Government
to remark ou. The receipts and charges of tho year tmder re¬
port were Rs. .6,06,dfiO and Rs. 3,89,892, respectively, leaving.a
surjdusof Rs. 1,16,604 as against a sm-plus of Rs. 1,34,716 iu
tho year 1880-81, aud an average surplus of Rs, 4,038 iu the five
years ending with 1879-80. Tliis result is siitisfnotory. The
Government observe that, while the removal of Rs. 1,83,677
worth of timber by the Department last yeai- was effected at a
cost of Rs. 43,100, the removal of timber valued at Rs. 1,36,972
iu tho ye.ar under report cost Rs. 67,014. Similarly, while the
removal of sandalwood, valued at Bs, 35,719, cost Rs, 9,861 in
1881-82, it cost only Rs. 8,689 iu 1880-81 to remove a larger
(juantity valued at Es. 38,266. These and other variations of
tho same character are explained iu part by the increase iu
stock at the end of the year, and the fact that the establishment
aud up-keep expenses do not vary in proportion to the increase
or decrease in sales. The amount e.xpended on timber oper¬
ations during one single year gives no practically useful result.
In his next annual report the Conservator should endeavour to
give tlie quantity of timber brought to dopOt for two or three
years, aud tho amount expended thereon. The figures, as they
stand, need re-arrangemoiit or explanation. The investigation
proposed by the (Conservator in paragraph 80 of his report
should be of a searching character. It is probable, as suggest¬
ed, that the disparity evidenced by the statement of apportion¬
ment of fixed establishment charges between the results of the
deimrtmontal anil the license and vouchor systems is greater
than what really exists. Tho figures should be well scrutinised,
and the results noted iu the report for 1882-83. The Board’s
observations ou tho subject are approved.
Reterved Forvtlt .—Tho Ck)nservator submits a statement, com¬
piled from detoiled information, carefully collected for the
Inspector-General, exhibiting the extent of the reserves hitdierto
officially recognized as such. The estimated area, excluding
those tracts for the reservation of which no nuthoi-itative sanc¬
tion can bu traced, is given at 1,182 square miles. The arew
for each district will, as the work of selection proceeds, aud ns
the tracts are formally taken up umlar the Act, be subject to
modification. In this connection Major Wicker reports on tho
operations of Mr. Cherry, the officer enferu^sd with the duty of
selecting reserves in the Salem district during the year under
review. The result is that the Committee have agreed iu select¬
ing 36 reserves conveniently distributed and containing 306
square milee, which is aooepted M aatisfaotory. The people oon-
cemed have been served with notices di the intended reserva¬
tions and their claims are being recorded. Those will hereafter
March 1, 1883.
THE INBIAN AGRICULTUBIST.
85
lave to be invettigftied (U)d diqpoeed of macoordasee with the
irocedure laid down in the Forest Act. With reference to para¬
graph 10, order* have been passed on the Ganjam reserves. As
observed by the Board of Avenue, orders on the reserves men¬
tioned in paragraphs Id and 10 must await action under the
Forest Act. Adverting to paragraph 19, the Conservator should,
in communication with the Bevenu* authorities, take steps for
extc’b^'^ng the area of sandalwood reserves in the Coimbatore
district.' The receipts from fuel reserves were Es. 23,604, or
Es. 6,246 in excess of those oWast year:—
* Acres.
Total area reserved ... ... 160,260
Equal to fully stocked ... ... 60,476
Be.
{ “‘‘VIS'
{ ?pt.LtU
... 23,604
... 78,383
... 6,849
... 1,64,947
The Conservator should report on what data the elaborate
.and detailed statement of fuel reserves is based, and liow far
Government are justified in accepting it as accurate. The Con¬
servator wilt pay particular attention to the remarks made by
the Board in paragraph 9 of their Proceedings. Paragraph 87
of the report will be referred to the Public Works Department
for report as to the delay which has occurred in utilizing the
allotment made for Forest Officer’s quarters in Kumool. The
interesting details famished by Mr. Ferguson in his report
.show that the mahogany and India-rubber trees are on the
whole doing well. The Conservator will adopt the Board’s
suggestion in view to the ideutification of the insect which has
attacked the mahogany trees. It is Hot staled in the report
whether any further experiments have been made for testing
the tanning pro})erties of wattle-bavk. The Cunserv.ator’s
rcxumil of the work, accomplished by the Department since its
organization in 18.'j(5, Inas been perused with interest.
Os given amounts of footl, the sheep produce-s, for the
i!,ame weight of dry food, nearly twice as much manure as the
]iig, while the ox produces even moie than the sheep. This
(lifibreiiee is supjwaed to be due to the less digestible chaivvcter of
the foot' supplied to the sheep ami ox. The quantity of mannie
jiioduced during the sjime time, and for the same body weight
is, however, very similar with the tlti’ee animals, the greater
onsumptiou of food by the pig couulorbalancing its lower rate
of ni.anure jjroduetioii.
The business of growing pine-apples in the Biiharaas is in
some years very profitable, and in others the reverse. An aero
of good land will caiTy 6,000 plants of the sugar-loaf variety
or about 6,000 of the scarlet kind. The price of laud runs
from £i to £5 an acre, and if a site can be obtained on the bay
so that the fruit con be easily shipped, the business of growing
yields excellent results. ’The total export for the season is from
four to five million pine-apples. The average price paid is
about Is. Od. per dozen for the firat cutting (the first year’s pro¬
duce), Is. Gd. for seconds, and Is. 3cf. for thirds. As a rule, the
scarlets go to the United States, the sugar-loafs to England.
The wages paid are about 2s. per day for men. Is. for women,
and 6d. for children. Of late, the business of putting up tbo
varieties ot vriieat has failed to secore the immanity from nut
that was hoped from it. I trust that no oue will be led by this
failure to doubt that wheat-growing can yet be estabiished os
one of the grand industries of Queensland ; but it will not bo
established until a variety of wheat has been seoored that is
suited to the condition of your climate. I beg to sabmit the
following suggestions in regard to securing such a variety.* I
will first of all i>oint out the probability that a strong analogy
exiats between the rust of the wheat and the American blight
of the apple. Careful selection has been brought to bear on
the apple, and has resulted in the securing of a large number
of varieties that are either blight-proof or so little liable to the
blight as to be exceedingly valuable. Until similar careful
selection is breught to bear on the wheat, I belieVe that little
headway will be made with wheat-grovring in QuesnsiancL
A rust-resisting variety may be secured 1^ a happy finke, but
I do not think you ought to rely on the chance of that. The
i^rocess that ought to be gone through I believe to be substan¬
tially as follows:—1. Let farmers who have rusty crops this
year go through them carefully, and see if they can discover any
heads that are free from rust. Such heads should be cai-efully
watched, and plucked when ripe, and sent to the National
Association or to some private person who would interest him¬
self in this matter. 2.—Some of these sound heads would, ia
all probability, produce grain with rust-resisting properties. I
would suggest that the grain from these heads be mixed, and
sown under conditions that would invite the occurrence of rust,
and that the sound hoiuls from the resulting crop be again
selected and saved. If this process be Tej)eated a sufficient
number of times, I think it more than likely that a number of
rust-pi-oof varieties will bo secured ; but they will have been
chosen for ability to resist rust alone. 3.—The next process will
bo the selection from the rust-proof varieties of sorts that are
also valuable for their milling proijmdios. I expect that at this
stage mucli might be gaitied by artificially crossing the different
ru80-))roof varieties." Mr, Farrer is hanlly justified in assum¬
ing that a strong analogy exists betwoGU the two cases cited.
Analysis ot oerUiin varieties of apple—blighting and non-
blighting kiuds—disclosed the fact that the latter contained
lime in eonaiderablo proportion, whilst from the former lime
w;ui .almost absent. Applications (>l lime to the roofs and
br.anches had long been a recognised cure for the blight, and
thus the analysis c.xplainod the catuse of the immunity of such
varieties as Winter Majolin and Nortlieru Spy from the attacks
of aphis. Ill the case of wheats the rust is a fungus, and rast-
proof wlieats have liitherto been foimd only amongst varieties
havuig very hard straw, with grain that is better adapted for
making macaroni Ilian flour. Exiierieuco, so far, has shown
that when the composition of tlie grain is changed in the desired
direction, the straw loses its rust-resisting power. We do not
wish to discourage intending experimenters ; indeed, we shall bo
rather helping tliem by pointing out the olistacles which appear
to beset their path.
The Paris correspondent of the Madrai Mail says;—
“ Ammonia and nitrates play BO important a rdfo in vegetation
.and cultivated soils, that too much importance cannot be given
to clearly indicate what is exactly known, and what is uncertain.
fruit preserved in tins has been commenced, and it has already The Pic du Midi in France ia a meteorological station, 8,164
attained considerable proportiona. In 1880 about 200,000 tiiia feet above the level of the sea. Messi's, Muntz and Anbin have
were exported, and in 1881, the number waa iucreaaed to anaJyaed tbe ammonia contained in tbo air at that altitude, biit
287,000 tins. Bad weather for several years in succeaaion inter- found no perceptible difference as compared With that Contained
feml with the success of the crops, but since 1880 the seasons iu the air at the level ot the sea and in the low lands. Water
hawi^beeu favourable. collected at the siarac height from rdn, snow, and ‘ fog ’ contained
’’ _ less ammonia than that contained iu the vicinity of Loudou
Tub possibility of raising rust-proof varieties of wheat hii.s and Paris. In other words, the strata of air nearest the
been discussed without any practical outcome for an indefinite ground are richer in ammonia, due to the drops of water
length of time, 'riiw author of the idea is unknown, but sweeping tlirougli a longer extent of air. It ia to Boussingnult
attempts to carry it out will doubtless continue to be made reverts the uouor of demonstrating tbe permanency of ammonia
adinjinitum,. We nctice that Mr. William Fari'er, of Warren, in fogs and dew. That iiermanenoy has not been proven in the
New South Wales, seeing that rust has again api>cared in the case of rain-water. One fact admits of no question-that
Darling Downs, has written to the Queendander, urging that quantity of ammonia in the ah’ is variable. bchUesiiig emito
further attempts be made in the way indicated. He says “ i the opinion that ocean is the groat reservoir of ainuionia. This
notice that the rust has again made its api>enniuce in the wheat . is not wholly axact, as certain electric inlluoiiocs can produce
crops of the DarUng Downs, and that the cultivation of Indian j ammonia in the atmosphere. Messrs. Muntz and Aubiu did
OTB HODOEAN AC^KraroBiaaf;
Han^ 1« 1883,
not discover anjr ttiinUs in Uw ou. Sdith do not, as a mle,
tb«« exist,' Nutates a»» only iwodooed in the ntmoepibere,
foUoviiig nlaetric disehatl^^ henee, why nitrates are tdwajri.
present Ui meteoric rain-water. The fwmation and the decom¬
position of nitrates by oppcettS' natwes, have been demonstrated
in the. case of drained laade- by BernU and Kuhi-
mamv A new exphvaatoary fact has bmn made known, that
one oUse of anim^cviles makos the nitrification, while another
destroys the contbinatioft of the ekmeute. The process of
uitiificatiou takes p}ace,aocDrcling to the experiments of Messra
Ddierain and Maquenne, naif iti »o*l* rich in organic saatter,
and exempt from the aetion of oxygen. These conditions can
only be ftdftUed in the case of bog lands or flooileil soila One
fiuU wBi-tliy of notice, the decomposition of the nitrates, or
reduction to tiioir ofigirnd'elements, is accempanied by the pro-
duotion of prnt-osyde of nitrogen, commonly known as laughing-
gas, and employed os an anmshetic by deutkts in " painless ”
tooth extraction. But what is the cause of these changes 1
When a. portion of rich soil was heated, or sulnnitted to the
fumes of ohloro form, it lost its property of deccanpoeing tire
nitrates; on the other hand, when fresh soil was mixed with
tliat 'haated, Ac., ttiedecotniwsition set in, because the animal-
culM.(vibnoU8) existing in tUe fresh earth, attacked the organic
matter, set free carbonic acid and hydrogen. Tlie matter,
seizing the oxygon of the nitxates, disengaged the nitrogen
under the form of prot-oxyde, And the HnimalonJos were
readily detected, and were identicaJl witli the vibrious found by
Pasteur in his celebrated researches on fermentation and
decomposition.’’
Acookoiko to the Board of Trade rotums, the imports for
Deosmber laorsaied'£2,133,871, while the exports for the same
moBth decreased £2,010,000, as compared with the oorrospondtug
month last year. Tlie imports for the whole year inoroased
£18,228i393, and the exports iuoreassd £7,45t,478 as compared
with 1881.
The falling off of over two millions sterling in the valus of the
exitcrts last month proves conclusively that tha trade of tbs country
has received a ssrious check. It Is to bo observe<l, however, tliat
the falling off is partly due to a fall in prices. Tlie decline in the
quantity of goods exported is not as gi-uat as in their value. No
doubt a fall in prices means that the profits on tUu trade are smaller,
and in not a few coses, we fear, it means tliat the profits Iiavo
disappeared altogether. Bnt still a decrease owing to a fait in
prices ts not so discouraging as dlmimitioii In tlie quantity pur¬
chased. There is, however, a diminution in quantities also, nud not
lu otto atUole only, but in most of the groat articles of our trade,
and In tile quantities taken by so many countries that it would
encumber our space to esurasrato them. Tlio most serious fulling
oil', however, oontiuuee to }>o that in the cotton piece-goods aoiit to
the Par Bast. For example, the falling off in tho value of cotton
piece-goods during December, os compared witii December, 1881,
bought by India, Chino, and Japan amounts to £1Q4,000, or nearly
one-fifth of tho total fulling off in the vniuo of the export. There
is also a falling off in the quantity of iron and steel exported, dns
partly to tho check given to railway bullibng lu many directions.
And gcneially It would seem that the purposing power of foreign
countries is not as great as it was some time ago. There con be
little doubt that our merchants have overdone their business,
that they have glotted the foreign markets, and that
some time will bo required before the stock thug ocoumnlated is
bought up and oetlvity returns to our trade. But there is no reason
to brieve that it Is anything more than a temporary check which
w# ara now witnessing.
Ths Govei-nment qt India, Bovonne, and Agricultural Depart-
meat have made enquiries regarding sugar imported from
Mauritius into the Bombay Presidsnoj', and its competition with
Indian sugars, the result of which may be summarised
as follows '.—In separate commuuicatioua addressed to. the
Govbnuiient of Bombay, to the Chief Commissioner of the
Central Provinces, and to the Bombaff Chamber of Commorcei
the GovenrmeAt of Judin unquiiod what classes of sugar are
mainly impi^rtetl from Mauritius, whether they compete with
the Indian oitido o* are put to special uses, and to what
extent the cost of railway oairiage ptevents the sugar-producer
(rf Northern ImUa -.lzem aqoewwft^y <MaD9«tnng,--witb the
importer By BOft
T3te r^Hea- of the GUrV«ninmt» eoiMttIted, an alao that of the
Bombay Olmmher nf 0<«im«r»>, havsB . now bwh. rooeive^, and
ara published .-for ioformatiqu. They, show that the Imports
of sugar into, the pvssideucy faU l^wadiy into two olasseg;
(1) rsfined.sngHCT, aad'(2) y«r, a eoiapost iOf,s«igar;aind midaasea.
The first doss is almost exduaivsly sniqdisd . by Maur^'i;
the second mainly by sea-hoard from.. Jifadraa. Suab- 'as
comes from Northern ludha- oomywtee IsM with ths refined
sugars of Mauritius than with t^ shipments of yur from
Madras. The imports from Manritins meet a distinebdsraand
for crystallised sugars, which at present Indian manufaoturers
make very little attempt to supply, aud therefore a rsduo-
tion of railway freight, although it I^ight enable ths. ffur
imported by rail to coniijote on mors favonrable terms with
that coming from Madras, wonld not divert the trade in refined
sugars from Mautitins to Northern India. Meanwhile the
demand for yur throughout India fully eqnaisi it is 'believed,
the supply, and this is jwobahlf one of the oauees which retards
the development of sugar, refining, in the Bombay Preaidency and
elsewhere. The area under sngareane in the Bombay Presidency
and in the Central Provinces is, however* iuoreaiing,. and the
time may, it is trusted, be confidently anticipated when the
indigenous article will displace to a great extent the refined
sugars of various qualities at present imported by sea from
Mauritius and China.
C. B. Pritchard, Esq., Commissioner of Customs, Opium and
Abkari, Bombay, states that when the piioe of sugar is quoted
for various ports of the 'Bombay Presidency at rates ranging
from Ha. 7 to Ba. 17 ])ei' cwt., some of the quotations must
bo for coarse nndraiued sugar (ywr), others for refined sugar,
and others again must be averages struck from the prices
of refined and unrefined sugar. Ks. 7 is somewhat below the
pi-csent average price of g?/r in the city of Bombay, while
Rs. 17 fairly represents the price of refined sugar.
Our was formerly sent in large quantities from Northern
India to Bombay for Guzerat, but since the opening of the
Rajpootana Railway it has been sent direct, and very little, if
any, )io\v comes to the city of Bombay. When it xwed to l>s
brought by this route, its price in Bombay ranged from Rs. fl
to Rm. 10 ijer cwt. Our is largely imported into tho city of
Bombay from the Miulras Presiiloucy, from coast jKirts in this
presidency south of Bombay, and by hind from Rollmporo,
’The present jiricc of thi.s ///«' may bo quoted from R.s. 0-8 to
Its. 10 per cwL, but as will lie seen from the following table
the avoiago declared v,alue in the years 1870-82 was over Rs. 0
per cwt.
Import o/ Our from Cbast Ports, includitiff Madras Presidetic )/—
Ybar.
Qnantity.
Declared
value.
Owt, j
Be.
1870-80
187,238 i
17,68,021
1880-81
194,789 j
18,90,484
1881-82
185,848
17,43,946
The imports of Mauritius and Chiua sugar in ths same period
were as follows !—
1879-80.
1880-81.
Mauritius,
Sugar, refined ’"-I
,, nnrofiuod ■"•j
f Cwts.
1,19,^4,M
2,236
r- 8,821;
602,W
95,41,496
1,218
4,601
1 Rs.
fCwts.
1 Re,
82,03,073
1,2^
4,768
China,
SugaroanJy
Sugar, soft, refined ' ‘' -j
rCwte.
[ Rs.
1 Cwts.
L Be.
24,488
5,86«090
0%84S
8.74,990
27,911^
6,00,628
1,12,882
18,75,432
1
96,60?
5,72.821
89,486
14,72,318
88
THE INDIAN. AGKICULTUEIST.
Miffoh 1, 1883.
^ejplored that mate euch explanation as that now forthcoming
did not accompany the report wken ft originally appeared.
Chemical analysis of soil at the best does not accomplish what
the balk of fairly edueated men giro it credit for achieving.
Even conducted under the moat favourable conditions it would
be nudmew in the highest degree to claim for it more than a
sort of average result, while it is very doubtful if the same
experimenter taking fresh samples of earth from the some
held and conducting his analyses under identical conditions
would bo able to arrive at absolutely identical conclusious. As
our correspondent says, “ Those who know most about ngricul-
toral chemistry put the least trust in the results of an
analysis.”
"We would go further, and eay, that an analysis of soil
while it may confirm the results of field experiments, it would
nevertheless be the height of folly to appeal to analysis as a
confirmation of field experiments unless both had been conducted
in snoh a way as to eliminate all the possible sources of ei ror ;
and this Implies on application of crucial testa under every
conceivablh condition, and combination of conditions, to
which in our estimation the Cawnpore Farm field experi¬
ments can lay no claim. In our opinion the limitation of
Mr. Fuller's generalization by our correspondent requires still
further limitation.
PnorBseoB Dvxb of Eew, has sent to India specimens of
three kinds of wood taken from tea-boxes which had been sent
home from India, probably from Assam. He says :—
“ The enclosed pieces of wood are fragments of India tea-chests.
We are anxious if possible to know the names of the trees which
furnished them. A carious question has arisen about them
which may lead to a lawsuit. Wood No. 3 has produced the
complete corrosion of the load with which the chest was lined.
The metal is in fact converted into a coating of carbonate of lead,
which you.will see as a white incrustation on the surface of the
wood. The result of this has been that the tea became damp,
and deteriorated daring the voyage. Nor was this the whole of
the mischief; the wood has a sour acid smell which it communi¬
cates to the tea. All the chests jjacked in this wood proved
practically unsaleable in London. It is therefore important to
find out what this objectionable wood is, and gibbet it as a
thing to be avoided for the purpose in the future. If you cau
help us with any information about it, we shall be grateful to
you,”
Mr. J. S. Gamble, to whom the specimens were sent, says in a
note to a contemporary, as far as a mere guess from resem¬
blance and the descriptions in the “Manual of India Timbers’
goes, the woods were—
No. 1. Erylhrina iudica or suOeroaa (certainly).
„ 8. Derria rolusta (probably).
„ 3. ikanpi/ira sjdvatiea (proIxibly).
jProfewor Dyer’s description of the odour and ajipearanco of
No. 3 was quite correct, but in order to make sure and also to
ascertain if the wood of the wild mango is usually one of these
nsed for tea-boxes, I have sent the sijecimena to Mi-. Mann for
his opinion, and hope to oommuuioate the result to the
FoTMtf ’
It will be a meet important matter to warn planters of the
damage such woods are likely to cause to their tea, and it is
therriore to be hoped that we may be able successfully to trace
the tree which gives such an unpleaseaut wood. I have known
“ champ” wood in Darjeeling give a similar scent, but the
specimen was not “ champ,” which besides is not used for tea-
boxes. In Darjeeling the common tea-box woods are—
Terot,—1, Toon; 3, Iiampatia; 3, Semal; 4, Goguldhnp;
0, Kadam ; 6, Mandania ; 7, Mainakat; 8, TJdal,
Toon ; 2, Eabaehi (maple) ; 3, Mahua ; 4, Gubria;
6, Ghilanni; 6, Lepoh^hal; 7, Faning—
while the Ohittag<mg toon and others not well known are used ;
and ia C&ota Nsgpore I have s^a salai employed. Perhaps
tem* OBO will favor us with a list of ^ Assam and Caohar tea-box
woods sad help to complete the list
(Ooetalpinia eoriaria) has beea circulated Forest Depart¬
ment with the following queries :—
(1) Whether the information contai n d In the note is oorreot,
(2) Whether the Departmi^t Can add mij^'“ihirUier Information.
(3) What part of India is believed to be the best for Its onltlva-
tion.
(4) What steps the Forest Departmens is disposed to rccom-
i mend to extend the cultivation.
Divi-divi is the pod of a leguminous tree known in botany as
Ccetalpinia coriaria, Lihidia ooriaria, or Poincinama c^^tYia.
The x>od itself is also called Dlbl-dibi, Libi-Iibi, or Libi-davi. It
is a native of South America andi|iP)e West Indies, and is chiefly
found in low marshy situations in New’Grenada, Mexico, Ven¬
ezuela, North Brazil, and Jamaica.
2. Dr. Wallioh introduced it into India about tike year 1830,
and it has now been thoroughly acclimatised in South India,
which, in soil and cUmate, resembles its original home. As the
plantation near the Government Harness Factory at Cawnpore
proves, it can be, with a little care, succesafnlly cultivated in the
drier climate of Upper India. The hot winds in the summer
and the frost in the cold weather are, however, very destructive
to the young seedlings. The seeds therefore should, in the first
instance, be sown in a nursery in May or June, before the com¬
mencement of the rains, and the seedlings should not be trans¬
planted till they ore at least three feet high, by which time, it is
supposed, they will be sufficiently strong to ondure all the varia-
tions of weather to which Northern India is subject. In plant¬
ing out, the trees should be put down 6 feet apart, so that
an acre of land will contain 1,210 trees. Irrigatiori will bo
necessary as long as the trees are not sufficiently grown up to
dispense with it. The ghara system of irrigation can bo advan¬
tageously employed. In South India the tree takes throe years
to arrive at maturity, but in a drier climate it will perhaj>s
require a longer period. Indian botanists recommend the culti¬
vation of Divi-divi ns a profitable, as well as an ornamental,
plant.
3. The tree is cultivated for ita seod-pods, which contain a
large quantity of a most powerful and a quickly-acting tanning
material, rather too strong to become a substitute for oak or
babul bark, but very valuable as n cleaning aud brightening
agent in the after-process of currying, when it takes the place of
mixi&xh ov Ithus coriaria. Both in England and at the fawn-
pore Government Factory it is used os a substitute for sumaoli,
which is a dearer article.
4. The actual demand for Divi-divi pods is not known,
England imports about 4,000 tons every year, in addition to
about 12,000 tons of sumach. • But ns Divi-divi is gradually
ousting the latter, its demand appears to be capable of great
expansion. For the same re-aaon Franco, which now annually
imports more than five million kilogrammes of sumach,will prob¬
ably become a large mai-ket for this article. It has been prov¬
ed beyond doubt that the tree can bo profitably cultivated in
India, and the quality of a consignment sent two years from the
Khandesh Farm (Bombay) was pronounced by experts in Eng¬
land to be very superior, and fetched a higher price, than tliat
imported from the West Indies. One great advantage in its
cultivation ia, that the tree requires no oare after it has once
grown up, and the proceeds are net gain minut the trifling cost
of picking the pods. The ground underneath could bo ns^ for
raising fodder grass, and the falling leaves for fuel or manure,
the three great wants of the Upper Provinces. An acre of
Divi-divi is supposed to yield not 1$^ than one ton of market¬
able pro<luce, valued in India about Bs. 100, in England
Rs. 160. The following are the actual results of the trial con-
sigumeiit mentioned above :—
£ a. a. £ t. a.
Amount realised by sale of 14 owt. IS K.
of Ulvi-dlvi in London, at £16 per ton., 10 12 6
Less dlsoouut at 2} per oent ... 0 6 4 10 7 1
Charges In London ... „.«■ .„ 3 0 6
Balanes ... .., 017 7
Tss ftfilowing note \if fiaboo Mdokerjee of the Beventte
Bad Agrienlt^ Sefartiaent, rtgarding the Divi-Diri
Be. A. P.
Eqahalentof£617«. 7d,inlndi«Qmwey,«tl(, 7H. 88 1 1
March 1, 1883 .
THE INDIAN AGEJOULTtTRIST.
89
Br(m{;ht over
hate IntUanSn^enua,
Railway chalge lonn Klkandtah to
Bombay
Cort-blro in Bombay
Skipping Cborgea, bunder foes, bill of
lading, &o.
Addreaaing on 16 bags oontoinlng the
poda
„ Net proceeds
83 1 1
Rs. A. P.
13 10
2 8
3 16 0
0 6 0 29 7 0
63 10 1
It is not, however, known h^w many trees or what area of
land gave tho above prooeeds. But Mr. Stormont, the Superiii-
teiideut of tho Khandesh Farm, who sent the consignment,
reckons upon Bs. 80 as tho net prooeeds from one ton of Divi-
divi on one acre of land, after paying the heavy export expenses.
These expenses, ha states, can be reduced by sending the article
loose in ships’ hold, as a packing material for bulky goods, in
which state the Atlantic shippers are glad to receive it at quite
nominal rates.
Ur. King is not of opinion that the cultivation of Uivi-divi
will turn out a hopeful financial prospect in Lower Bengal, and
has furnished the following note :—
“ The Divi-divi has been in cultivation in Bengal for many
years. But although the value of its pods os a tanning material
IS well known, the cultivation of tho tree has never excited
much interest in the province. Seeds and plants of it Imve
been available for distidbution from this garden for years past.
But they are very little asked for. The reason for this is no
doubt the slow growth of the tree in the soil of Lower Bengal.
Trees of it in this garden, which ai'e certainly not less than from
18 to 20 years are only from 10 to 18 fe^ high. They have, how¬
ever, largo spreading heads. For example, a tree 18 feet high
Los a leafy head measuring 66 feet in <liamoter. On this
uceonut a comparatively small uumliev of mature trees could
bo carried on lui acre of land. I ob,serve that in paragi’Uiih 4
of tho Memorandum by Baboo T. N. Mookerjee, forwarded by
the Qovoniment of India, it is mentioned thal. fodder gra.ss
could be grown under the sliadc of Divi-divi trees. This would
not bn tho case in Bengal, as the shade is so dense that
.absolutely nothing will grow under a umture troe."
On the whole. Dr. King is of opinion that in Lower Bengal
tho cultivation of Divi-divi is not a hopeful fiiuonoial ju-uject.
Regarding Boluir and the drier parts of tho province, ho 8j)eak8
less confidently j but is not inclined to think that even in those
pai-ts it would be advisable to press the cultivation on laufl-
holders or tenants as n source of rtiventie.
Mr. Benett, the Director of Agriculture and Commerce,
speaks more hopefully of its prospects in the North-Western
I’rovinoes. We extract the following from his Report;
“ Varions attempts liavo been made in these proviucos to
cultivate the Divi-divi. Three sowings were made at the
Saharunpore Gardens in April, May, and .lune, 187.0. In all
three trials, the seedlings after attaining a height of one inch
or so, died down under circumstances which led the Superin¬
tendent to infer that tho seed supplied was to blame. Another
trial was made on the bonks of tho canal near Cawnpore. Tho
experiment wa» initiated under the care of an officer, whose
interest was enlisted in the matter, but a change of officers
subsequently occurred, and the experiment was finally reported ns
a failure, accompanied by an expression of opinion, that of all
civil officers, canal officers had the least leisure for looking after
such matters. In neither of the above instances can the tree be
said to have had a fair chance. At the Cawnpore Exjxjrirnental
Farm about 10 seedlings were roared three years ago. Of tliis
number one or two, which were transplanted to very poor soil
perilled. The remainder were transplanted to fairly good soil
and have all done well, but have so far shown no signs o
fruiting.
“ At the Harness Factory, Cawnpore, about 3,500 trees ban
been successfully raised, and more are now being planted.
“ From information kindly supplied by Captain Stone, in
charge of the Harness Factory, it appears that the proper tim“ j
to sow the seed is either March or July. If sown in March, the '
Modlings should be transplanted In tho following July ; but
if sown in July, transplanting should take place in July of thf
lollowing year. The_ trees commence to fruit in from 3 to 4
years after transplantation, and yield about 6 Ibe. per tree.
They grow to » maximum height of 16 feet, and planted from 18
o 16 feet apart. As a general rule, in tree planting to allow full
fcope in growth, a distance between trees in a plantation should
oe maintainerl of one-and-a-half time their height. Assuming,
itat 16 feet intervals will suffice, we have 192 trees to the acre
delding 8^ cwt. of pods per aunum, worth Bs. 42-8 to Bs. 100
.car ton, from which sum again has to be deducted the cost* of
carriage to the coast.
"Allowing 10 feot intervals, the number of trees per acre
will bo 436, and the annual produce 19J cwt, at Bs. 100 per
on, Bs. 97-8, but it has yet to be shown how far the lessening
>f the interval between each tree affects the estimated
troduoe.
“ The tree is admittedly delicate, requiring care, irrigation,
and good soil. It seems doubtful from tho figures given above
whether good soil in these provinces, distant as they are from
die coast, would not yield a larger profit if laid down in good
fruit trees ; but the evidence so far cither for or against the
maintenance of Divi-divi plantations is inconclusive, and
with the approbation of Ids Honor, experiments aud enquiries
will bo instituted by this Department, with a view to obtaining
more exact information. ^
“ A small supply of seed has been obtained from the Snperin-
iendeut of the Harness Factory, and is now being pUnted out
.It Lucknow. Efforts wiU be made to obtain a good supply of
West Indian seed for distribution by March next, and care will
bo taken to give the seed a trial under fair conditions.”
Exporimout-s regarding its growth are also
British BurmaK
in progress in
BARLEY CULTIVATION FOR INDIA.
{Co’mmunkal.iti.)
Class
Natural Order
Monoootylsdoneas.
. CJremiuea).
r Hordeum vulgar*, Linn6.
>1 distiohon, do.
bolontiflo typioal names ... 1 „ he^tiohon, do.
English general name
Hiuduateni name
Bengali name ...
defioiens, Steudol.
xisorlton, Linml.
.. Barley.
.. Joo,
.. ilob.
IXTRODUCTIOX.
The barley )ihint luas been under cultivation from the most an-
cienttiiue, and has always been held in great esteem as supplying
food to man and anbrnted natxira under the protection of man.
We find it mentioned in very high tenn.s in the Bible—riai
Ueut. viii, 7 and 8; Jer. 2, xi, 8. Notwithstanding ail the
recent discoveries made in the vegetable kingdom introducing
pUuts possessing more valuable properties for food, barley
still maintain* it* character ; aud is most conducive to the
wants aud comfort of tlm millions of poor people and live-stock
of oil kinds (including the very valuable breeds of Arab and
aud Barbur horses, which are exclusively fed with barley com)
and in all parte of the world. Indeed, at the present time in
extensive cultivation, barley stands first of all plant* of the
natural order gmmv/Knc, wheat standing second, and rice third
in the list. Speaking about India, barley cultivation is far
more e.xtonsive and general than any other cereal grain plant
in tills country. This might be said of barley in other parte
of Asia, Afi'ica, Europe, and America ; the reason of this
extensive cultivation, because of equally extensive consump¬
tion, will a]ipeav from the facts delineated further on.
Classification of Bablet.
Botanists, with due regard to botanical characteristics ob¬
served in the ear of barley plants, have classified and placed
them under five types described above, Since it will
be found ueeful and interesting to persons wishing the improve¬
ment of the indigenous varieties of barley of India, and tho
introduction of new vatielies from other parte of the country
and the world, I accordingly subjoin a list of the principal
cultivated varieties, togetSer with a description of such of them
HS may help towards an improvement in the barley estivation
in India.
90 THE INDIAN AGEICULTUHIST. 1 ,18B3.
_ . ___JS ■ ' ' ' ' .--1—-1-
l.—Bordewri vulffare (the fow-rewed barley).
To tlila type beloging tbe following Twietie*
, Smteg 4. Pewl feriw,
$a.iiiait*r or Swid 5. Bl*«k
Bwrlev. 6. Ruesito B*ri0y.
WtoferBwley. 7. Frenoh Barley.
8.
8. Naked Badey,
"G. Wheat Barley.
lu thlellst pearl barley, A sab-variety of winter barley, is the
moat vainlable. It» very hardy, a heavy cropper, the earliest
in coming totnatariiy, and the .grain ccmtaiuing the largest
peKipnt^e of gluten 01 «U .barieya under cultivatioii; the stem
and foliage lu'e also very nutrition* fodder for the live-stock.
Pearl bi^ey therefore tecommendB itself as the best barley
for food for man and Kritnale. Peoii barley, however, is not
suited for ttwltlag nurpoees as well as other borleys are j so
much the '^ttcr for India, India reqniring food, and not
heer, po^r, wipes, spirits, intoxicating drugs.
Summer barley has dhe advantage over ether barleys in that
it will grow on the poorest soil, can be malted, but is xkkw
in yi^ ; because it hw been grown from generation to genera¬
tion on soil deficient, in food ingredients necessary for its growth.
The other barleys, under this' heading, do not reqniio any
special notice. Our Indian barleys, a* found in Upper India,
belong to JST, m^fore.
II,—Sofdmm diStiohon*(common two~rowed hetrley).
-Varieties—
1. English BmIov. 5. Long-eared Barley, 0. Golden Barley.
2. Chevalier Bliley, 0. Black Barley. 10. Liberian or Halil-
8. Anuot Barley. 7. Large Barley. day Bailey.
4. Bnnlr^ Barley. 8. ItaUan Barley.
All of th^ varieties are suited for food for man and animals ;
and, excepting the Liberian or Haliidny barley, are also woU
B<^pt^ for malting.
111.—Hordeum hexattirhmi, {the eix-rowed barley.)
Varieties—
1. Bed Barley. 2, Sootoh Barley. 3. Square Barley.
4. Bear Barley.
These barleys are noted for their easy culture, freedom
from rust diseases, and for strong and firm stems which enable
them to stand erect and brave wind and raiu. All of them
can be malted.
IV.—ffordeum deficient (the Red Sea l\oo~roii<ed betrlen/).
This barley is most extensively cultivated in Arabia, Egypt,
Abyssinia, and other jsiris of Africji. The strength and swift¬
ness of Arab and Barbar Ivorses are derived from this barley
with which they are fed. This and an allied species, If.
macrolepit (A. Br.) are rarely' cultivated in any other part of
the world, and might be iutrodiuiod into India !is valuable for
feeding live-stock.
V .—Hordeum xetcriiion (the Tartar two-roteed barley).
Vwieties—
1. Spmt Barley, 3. Fulham Barley. 6. Rice Barley.
2. Battledore Barley, 4. Putney Barley. 6. Turkish Barley.
7. Dlnkel Barley.
No special notice seems necessary regarding these barleys. In
properties they are similar to the varieties of /I. Jisiichon,
slightly difieiiug from them in botanical characteristics.
USKS.
Tlie two parts—(1) seed or grain, and (2) stem and leaves, are
valuable.
(1). Seed or grain .—From time immemorial, in every part of
the world, barley (^ain has served os food to man and animals.
In India it forms the staple food of the agricultural population,
and millions of the poor of Ipdia, the rich also consuming it. T*he
natives of India have different methods of preparing and asitig
this cereal grain. A few words regarding these may be
intiBaiting.
A.— Barlby, Mixed or UifMtxKD, as Flour.
In India barley is rarely used singly for flour, but inmost
cases it> is mixed with puuies >and wheat, and then milled into
Bour. This is done in order to improving the flavour and
nutritive properties of btirley, hence poor people blend barley
grain with wheat and pi^es ; no poor people will eat barley
^one without one or rnote'admixtures described above. With
this end in view Indian cultivators raise barley as a mixed
crop, and In the bazaar* barley is sold as a mixed grain. Rich
people, however, do not like admixtures ; for them, therefore,
Isurley ie raised singly, and sold ae an.uumixed grain. So that
bariey is, to be found in two states in the Indian markets—mix¬
ed an4unadxed. Those who aire not agrioulturistB (if mixed
groin be not found iu the marketit purobase, according
to taste, Oiie or more pulses and whsan blend them in ditferent
proppifttbaii tritii Ixwley, reduce the whole i»to flour, and con¬
vert the fifinr into bread. By doing this, superior relish and
economy in »e cost Vnivin® are efieoOul, wheat alone being
so very costly tM; pool*,pec®ie capiiqt ^ord to buy.
Believing that it will be interesting and useful to those
wishing to make experiments igt, aseertaining the effects
product on humap or animal body, I join the £ffierent kinds
of blendings with OEudey com ptacnsod m ifidka?;—
1st blending / Wheat (Trigeum eB/gofc ...25
(gojacH.l "I Barley (fl’erdetm imigore) 78
2nd blending 1 Barley ... ... 60
(jao-ohana H.) ) Gram (tluxu* orierinnmj ... 80
8rd blendhm /Barley ... ... 60
(jeonutraH.) \Green Pea 60
4th blendiim f Barley ... ... ... 78
(jookeraoB.) "I. WhltoToa 26
Gth blending
(bljhraH.)
6tli blending
(bijhra H.)
/Btoley ...
-I Grain ...
I Wheat ...
Barley ...
Grueu Pea
Wheat...
... 60
... 25
... 25
... 60
... 25
26
7tb bleuding
(bijhiR H.)
( Bariey ...
( White Pea
( Wheat ...
... 60
... 26
... 25
100 ports.
100 „
100
lofi „
100 „
100 „
8th bleuding
(bijhra H.)
( Wheat...
Barley ...
Oram ...
Green Pea
— 100
... 26
... 25
... 26
... 25
87
— 100
Of those blendings, the last one is very superior, having all the
nutritive ingredients necessary for the nowrishmeut of the body,
and is that with which exporinieuts should be commenced. In
feeding live-stock I would recommend, bn physiological
grounds, the mixed grain, whichever of these blendings is
desired to be experimented with, to be reduced to flour, and
then administered. A two-fold object is gained by this pro¬
cedure, viz., easy digestion, and economy m feeding, the cost of
milling being covered by Ibo less grain given, and toe fe^er is
advantaged by the health and strength imparted to the animal
on which exi)eriment is made. I might as well note here tliat
on exjwriinents with cattle, I have failed to get broken grain
tliorougldy digested by the animal, having on examination
found broken grain in the dung of the ouimu so fed ; but suc¬
ceeded very well with flotir which was thoroughly digested.
Uuorushed or whole grain is still mwe difllcult to lie digested
by animals, liecause it taxes and weakens the digestive powers
too much. Hoisos have been found to digest this kind of food
better than cattle, the latter having been fonnd to pass it off
with the dung in tlie very state it was administered, (hir
object in feeding these and other animals should therefore be
not to tax and break down the digestive powers of animals_a
very great point to persons wishing improvement of live-stock,
and economy in feeding. Barley is a cooling food, and there¬
fore very appropriate rood for man and animola in India all
tiirough the summer and rainy weatoer. It is on account of
this valuable property of barley, that Arab and Barbar horses
fetl with barley corn can bear more fatigue in the hottest port
of toe world than the best Indian horses, because Indian horses
ore fed with the heating grain nil through the year_toe
Indians not knowing or over-looking the seientiflc theory_
licat e.vhau^ing and aold bracioff—^ theory holding good any¬
where and everywhere.
B. —Barlxt as Somoo.
Sutloo IS a well-known artcle of diet in Upper India, extending
in toe east from Western Bengal to tbs Aighan Fl^tier : on the
west down south to too Central Frovinoes, In Bengal' Froper,
suttoo is rarely eaten, nor have I found it in vogue, in atw
other part of India. It is peouHsfly, a poor lanonring maus
. .. tifile'' fgr
tWs
midday meal, which he prefers 'ht this tiflle"' fgr two
reasons—^firstly, beoause at midday, he is aUoWed only a cotnfle
of hoars’ leave tor refreshumut, wluoh bs findn.- insoiflcient mr
the tedious ajud time-absorbing work of cooking and cleai)ing
of cooking utensils ; and, secondly, beqattse sorabmy is ^lOted by
eating euttoo at midday, and booked^fo6d in the bveiflrig, after
freedom from a day’s work. There' are tooke kinds ^AWtoo
made in Behar, North-West Frovinoes, Qufih,.«nd the Fonjab—
(1) of pure barley grain, (2) of barlOT.aiul gtm in equal prppor-
tiou, and (.3) wheat and barley gridn in.'^uOt ^poruotn
^Tliese three kinds of tutfob mk peparefl OS doiM&d
The peisona desirous of getting mode Calces fakr.mfln,
mixed or uumixed, according to tooia«^ to iha i^rbhoi^et
he requeste to fry it for him, remunerating hita wito either a itttle
grain or a few gundae of cwwsM (iil'toe cniontity to he
little), or even seers ot groin or' atmas tff (if toe qmoitity
to l>e fried be latge). On reee^ of. the remuBCtsfikm toie
bharboega (a class of .Mn^E^edOn and Hindoo pemfie
this name) proceeds to Icy toe grain toQa.:—«dj
(a long oven) the bhdidmega htt d wifie mcnitoa
in wiuiBb, Roemding to its holding ltd,
March 1, 1883.
fUE INDIAN AdfelCULTURIST,
91
of the fenjftle in«nt>«« of, bis ffunily calleil Mari/w^'t\
puts A qtinntity of., grain, then ho or she puts a quantity
of burning sand ftoip, one of the hajtri/at, generally 12 in
number fixed on the bhaur (two wtws of six kaurvoi), and
by means of a Urge iron spoon mixes the situd with the grain,
found on entcsnoe hito Kurope. as a ' wound'rwort.’ A oodtury
Utsr there mrpse from tho Ameriean pUnt world in qtdna.hatha
medh^e whMO action has found •ver^tnoresfing recognition even
In the face of the serorest (.'ritioism of ^ presout age. ^e loarket
of the world inuy, by means of the suBts qt -famtey it puts lotO
oymeansoi a^ge^u spwi wun tne pmn, draaUtioo, Indioito this bark as a most impqrtant medicmo. but
sieving the Baud out tbrov^h an iwn sieve. Tins fini^ed, the to-day rests much more ou the fact -that it is of servioe to
grain is ewmined to find whether it is siimcieutly _fnM tbe ihdasti'y asaraw material. Sinoe the .diecovery of auWue,
or not. If found sumcieuwy fried, tlie fried gram is mid the conseqacnl.lnnoadiate oommenoetpent of .ita-manafaCffral
kept aside, and the remainiog iiufi'ied quantity is fried production, the phatmaooanoslio tinportance ,,of, qufua. ItUa .'has
in the same way ; but if the |pwin be found iiisufiintently fried altered conuuensuratoly ; tlie greater oertaiuty . lu wte.fUMtitatiie
again fried, os at first, with nnotlier admix Lure of burning analyeis of the alkaloids also Ias liad tiio eu^t of throwing into
saiid^ from the Itqwrya fixed tp the oven, (lenerally one frying the background an,external knowledge ot the bark as such. Tho
is sufficient, hot when the sand is not ixiwerfally heated two revolution is taking place slowly ; until quite r^uUy in the phet-
fiwiugs become necessary. After tlio gram is fried it is token maoentlqil literature, the heading ‘ Quma SaiW sUll flourished in
to the home of the person, and tlw female members of his i^ pristine exuberant luxuriance, 1 he progress to. the
family, if any, proceed to separate the husk of the frierl grain
by meaus of a lever-mill {dltenld, H,) or by means of a wi^en
pestle and mortar {mootal and okhal, H.), fanned out by means of
a too}), H., and the clean grain milled in tho same way as wheat
or any other grain is reduced to flour. The flour thus obtained
is called rwTtoo H. or chuttoo B. If, however, the person has no
one at hi.s lodgings to prepare »uttoo for him he gets it preparetl
by either the pisn^uirin (female miller), or he goto it done by tlio
bharhkooja, for which additional labour he has to be remu¬
nerated ill cash or in kind as for frying, but somewhat more.
DlMrhhooja't mttno is not properly made. This iirofessional man
does not bestow the proper time and labour on the jiroiiaration
unless exorbitantly paid, but ollews a great deal of husk to
remain, and the milling is also very coai-se. On these accoiinto,
Indian people, whenever and wherever jiCBsible, prefer getting
tiUtno m.ade eitlier at their own homes or by tlie pionharin, this
woman being paid at the rate of wheat flour, at so much i>cr
every five seers called pantm't.
luxuriance. The progress to the Cuitare
of tho ctochouas necessitates spw another .consideration of Oliiu-
chouology (Chinology or Ootoology), as, with soaroely correct em¬
phasis, this suction of pharmacognosis is called. Unfortunately,
the materials are still to a groat degree, wanting to carry , tide out
to a satisfactory ouuclusiou. For a ^ysten^tic view tho butauioal
knowledge of tho plant-group andei- considei'aUon leaves mijiah to
bo desired, not to speak of the anatomical investigation of the struc-
tuie of their barks. Kven ou the most important question, the
Inorcase of the alkaloids in those plants, we are deflriont In informa¬
tion. Tho sudden flooding of the market with the Qutna oiiprea,
w'hioh docs not heloug to a oiuclicua, espeoially dilt’ering through¬
out in respect of its tissue from the <(uiiia barks in the narrower
sense, lias brouglit to light for the whole world tlio surprising
fact that quinine and tho allied buses are not ooufimid to
the genua cinchona, Tho new views which wu forced
upon ns by those observations lie quite outsido of the allied ques¬
tion, what plants within tho circle of the cinohoneu' generally
contain quina alkaloids. The answer ’can meanwhile bo only u
very imperfect one. A variety of biterostiuB topics are connected
with the quina barks, both traditions, whi^ have been and re-
water, the rich people using uheence, klumd, or nimen (refined
sugar) scented with rose or Kcora xfhter, dnwolveil more or less,
according to taste, with water. The upiier classes of Hindoos ami
Mabqmedans, whether of Upper Provinces or of Bengal eat mittoo
ill this way j but the millions of poor people eat imilon composed
of barley and gram mixed with salt and water with the
addition of green cliillies. In addition to these uses, suttuo is
largely oonsutlfed in feeding valuable liorses and costly cart
bullocks, for which purpose tuttov composed of barley and grain,
is preferred.
These are tlie different use.s to which iMrlcy grain
is fmt in India. In Europe and Aineiicti, however, other uses
are found. Beer nnd porter are brewed from biu’Iey-corii, and
tho starch used in laundries, jierfumeiy, and various other
articles are made from barley.
Stkms and TniAVRB.
(2.) Valuable fislder for tho live stock can also be used, where
abundant and available, for thatching purjioses and bedding of
live-stock. The dung of animals fed ou tho straw and litter
used in housing them arc excellent inadure.
J. B.
( To be continued.)
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
THE QUINA BARKS.
A BOOK* has recently been published in Berlin, by ProfosBor
KIttoktoer of Htio^oi-g, ou the Subject of quliiaf barka
It contains 79 IwgosniKt eight llthogi’aphod plates, and is divided
into 18 scoUous, under the following heads;—Origin; most im-
S ortaut uiuclionas; Hcniijia ; homo of the cinchonas ; culture of
le cinchonas ; gathering of the barks ; apprai'anoo and anatomical
ttructnro of the ainohuna harks ; uoiupnaltion of the tissue ; seat
of the alkaloids ; varieties of uiuciiona harks; so-called false
quina barks ; qalua ouprea ; conmicrciai statistics ; chemical
constituents of the quina barks ; quuutitativo analysis of
the alkaloids; mauufaoure of quinine -, histoiy of the quina
baiks up to 1737 ; recent historj- of the quina barks; list
of recent works on the cinchonas and ijulua bark^.
The following Is a ttauslatlom of the preface attuchwl to the
f.'.vork :—“ The, roost tmpoitaut vegetable 'medioiucs corro«pond-
iug with the .prr^p^ of development of . mankind are or were in
, targe measpraof oriental‘and south Europeasi urigln. America
atfirst eontmated but few, gifts, and that to which now in douios-
thi ecofioaiy suah an extraordfaiarity pretentious importance attaches,
tebaooo is df ite tniyoi^ice In medioino, althou^ uiootiaua first
_ * pi® ffiitoSCTden i &'j(bw*»aka(niort|loher Htoslobt dargestelt von me meinous pi Harvesting tne omonona dui-r m ouui-ij.
m i (Oi l. I I HtnoOTphirten Tafeto BerUn, 1883. and also the reoetitjy Adopt^ proeossos of coppicing, mosting, and
? Pbamscagnostie View, by F. A In seotlw fttfie appearance and anatemloal itrurtur.
t Wra to the Ohiua" of the Gsr- Iu‘teo nert
0* Dutch)* ia 4 ^ttorol term toelttdtog tko cinchona w! iMiFiifolla. amA uAfth?
^ Wki, tc., and ii by ^ FlfWdger, also to the “ Oi^irea” varieties of einohona harks, oaileaya, lanc^h^aad^
bars, whi^ as hessys, does not belong toaomoiwna. bra, as ttiey are sent to tiie market, ate deseribed, paia de
light of tho present, to clear away tho not always refreshhigmate-
rial of past ages and to open the road to a bettor insight. The
short track which 1 have boon able to make in tbls dirootioH shows,
however, some advance and invites to further labor. Tho following
pages arc, with a view to a larger clrele of readers, token from my
‘ Phannakoguosi,’ but are fuller ill iiiauy points ; the importanoo
of tho subject appeared to me t<> justify aueli a prooeetUne. In
this I have hpon assisted in the most obliging miinnor by iny friends,
Dr. .1. E. do Vrij, C. S. I., in Hague, and Dr. <1. Kenner (Ziiomor
quinine manufactory in Frankrort).” .So far the pesfaee. In
tho first saotion of his work, Prof. Fbtekiger dosorihes in a general
way tho ciwnnlhix Ji/ton or true oinehouns and tlie cittcaciUof boboii
or false cluclionas, tho formoi'of which are confined to tho niouu-
toiii shipoB of .South Amerioa, while tho latter are found muuh
more widely diffusod, WnddoU's »iul Kuntae’s lUvlirionB of the
oinohmias are described, nuii the writer says :—" It fa a questiou
whether it is a gain to exchange tho III varieties and sub-varieties
of Weddell for the 44 varieties and bastards of Kuutze. Granted,
however, that Kuntze was rightly informed as to the origin of the
forms met with by him in Rritibh India and Java, itoaliiiotbe
oonoelvod why the wild growing South Amorioau olnclionos should
ooirespond cumplotcly and entirely witli those eallotl bastards by
Kuntzo. Observations ou plantations have certainly proved that
crossings butwoeou oinuhonas so nearly allied to each other cun
very easily tnUf place, but in nature it is scarcely possible to dis-
fiiiguish whether v^c havo to do with such a mixed offspring or
with a form of a detoruiiued vaidoty, produced by Influences in
some other manner. The view of Bullion, that about 20 varieties
of cinchona are to ha recognized, though not further confirmed,
may still bo tho most correct one,” Section 2 of the book deals
with tho most valuable cuichonas, eis., suooirubra, _ oalisaya, lan-
oifolia, and officinalis, tho " robusto ” of Trimou lieing msnttopsd
under the first, oud 0, BoUviana and C. I.ie(lgoriaua bsiug des¬
cribed under tho second, The third sootion is nevoted tellomijia,
11 varieties of which are mentioned on tho authority of Triana,
the R. purdieana and E. padunoulata being specially referred to,
as furuishuig tho barks described as miinu ouprea. In section 4,
the home of tho cinchona is defined and the conditions necessary
for its growth are detailed. In tho fiftli lootlon a snamlikry is
given of the history of the introduction of cinchona culture into
ludia, Ceylon, Java, &c., and the diseases tc whioh tho plants ora
liable ore mentioned. \Ve transloto the oonoludiag portion of this
section, referring to the so-oallod ouprea;—“ The alkaloid yield-
Ing barks Which, under the name of tjuina ouprea, have of late
attolned to such surpassiog importauoe, belong to the muiis fteml-
jla, whioli grows under entirely different cliinatio conditions from
most cinchonas. If the forestry departments will now possess
themselves of tho valuable Remijias tlio oultnre of fever bark tress
con be oxtondod into wide traois of land from which tlieyhave
hitherto been excluded. Contrary to what Is the ease in regard
to the ciuohonas, the Remijias are not oonfiued to the hiU regions,
but suited to bear drought and higher temperatures, whicli pre¬
vail for example in tho climate of the llanos in the rerion of the
Orinoco and Aniacon. ■ Very likely among those ne other allied trees
may be found others stmilnr With quinihO-yialdirtg barks, whioh would
repay ottltlvatlon.” In the next seotton Prof. FlUcklgor describes
the methods qf harvhsting the oinobona bark to Sodth America,
92
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUKISf.
March 1, 1883.
gallinuw ” being ridioaled aa a liutaetlo name ; '' loxa ” li atio re¬
ferred to. Section lOtraate of the eo-o^ied false qninabarks, vis,,
CaeoiddUa uMh^Ua or Qnina norL roea, &o,, whiofa ccntain no
quina aUcidoiu and generally no alkaloid* whatever. The Utb
section Udevoted entirely to Qniha mwrea, to which Prof. PlUcbi-
gw was the first to call attention In 1871, though Mr. flomrd had
*0 Im: bank as 1SS7 received a piece of this bark and had nottoed
It* qolnlne-yielding propertv. Its first appearance in quantity in
the London market took plaoe in 1870-80, and since then the im-
paiti have been very large. Prof, Fhlokiger describes the oxter-
nalsiifi^nces between it and tme cinchona bark, the shape of the
bark cell* being very distinct; the enprea bark also yiekls oaSelc
acid, which Is not the case with other quina barks, Another bark,
IntrMUOed with the cuprea bark, but differing from it, is described
as cinobonamine bark. In section 12 statistics are given of the
imports of bark during the last few years into Loudon and other
pli^, and the prices for quinine which have ruled in Germany,
together with the probable consumption of the sulphate In tiiat
country. Sections 18 and 14 deal at length with the cnemical com¬
position of the quina barks and the quantitative analysis of the
aUudoida, several methods being given for the determination of
the latter, but a footnote stating that a quick practical method is
stilt wanting. In the next section the manufacture of quinino is
descried, and the efforts of Broughton and Wood are referred
to. Section 13 contains a succinct history of the quina barks up
to 1787, and section 14 carries the history up to recent times, and
concludes as follows :—'* The settling of so many still open ques¬
tions in respect of the oinchonas must be hoped from the forest
cnlturs of tnes* trees, on the development of which the Interest¬
ing official reports oi the English and Dutch give continuous iu-
iormation. very desirable is the complete systematic know-
le^e of the entire division of the ciuchoneio and the comparative
exac^ation of the barks of each separate variety from a ohomioal
and an anatomical point of view,” Section 18 gives a list of 38 of
the latest works on the cinchonas and quina barks, Mr. Owen’s
manual being mentioned. An index adds to the usefulness of the
work, which wo hope will appear In an English form.
We may add that the value of Prof. Flttckiger’s work is enhanc¬
ed by a sorios of well-exeonted engravings of various types of
the true cinchonas and of one of the plants which yield the uuproa
bark. The first engraving roproseuts tlie oharaoters, in stalk
lend, flower and seed, of cinchona auocinihra from un example
supplied by the late Mr. Mclvor in 1876. The second picture
pourtrays cinchona calisaya, var. Icdgeriana, “ nach Excmplarcu
aus Java,” the mole and female forms of the blossum being care-
lolly distinguished, and the peculiar small round dots on the
ledgorianal^ being prominently sho^vn. In the case of this most
valnabU of oil species there is a seMbrato engraWug, also from a
Java sDecimsn, displaying fully the character of the seed capsules,
natural size and magnified, the enlarging under the microscope
revealing pubescence on the capsule, bText comes a portrait of
(AneJutna lang^olia, also from a Java spcciineu, at ouco distiu-
guishable from ledgeciaua, by its much smaller leaves and its
mnoh more elongated blossoms and fruit capsules, the latter taper¬
ing more to a p(^t than is the case with the short stumpy ludg.
enona seeds. The specimen of C. pffieimli* figured represents
a twig from Darjeeling and indicates characteristics of leaf, blos¬
som and fruit, familiar to cinchona planters in C'oylou. Contrasted
with this furni are the long boan-liko capsules of pasrurH/a hppclp.
carm (magnUolw) oopieu from Karston’s work on the Flora of
Cofumbla. Finally, we have a figure of the principal type of the
plants which, though rosembling the true cmchuuas iu foliage,
do not belong to them, but whloE yield a hark (cuprea) with much
the same properties. The name of the plant figured iu Jii-mijia
piidunculata, the cinchona pednnoulata of Karsten's Flora of
Columbia. The foliage is wonderfully like that of O. q/ficinalix,
but, after all is said and done, we do not believe cuprea bai k is
destined to supersede that of the true cinchona. The characters
of the two barks under the microscope, as figured in this volume,
■bow very marked difference. For purposes of oomijarisou we
have first a page devoted to figures showing cross sections through
the youim bark of cinchmia a^miya, older bark of the same, and
bark of V, lancifolia. The outside bark, the oells, tlio pores and
other vessels and oonetituents of the barks are shown in careful
detail, and comparison proves the vast difference in the fibrous
matter of the true oinchonas and that of cuprea bark. A large
section of cuprea bark, given separately, shows iu a still more
striking light the struoturol differenoe of cuprea bark from that bf
genuine cinchona. To chemists, especially qulnologists and
botanists, this work of FlUokiger’s will be of special value, while
to the planter It is Interesting as well as useful from the largo
amount of information it summarizes, aud the well executed plates
it contain* of the leadi^ spooies of the “ Quina” plants, the culti¬
vation of whiofa in the intern World during the past quarter of
a century has advanced so rapidly that there can he littie hesita¬
tion in asserting there are now more oinchonas iu Java, India, and
Ceylon than could be counted in all the forests of the Andes.—
0€]/lon Observer,
SUBURBAN VILLAS.
Suburban Vilku and Reeulential Famu in KattyuMr,hy ISa^ar
H, L. Kvtl, Bombay Political Department. Educational
Sooiet^e Press^ ByouMa, Bombay, 1883,
ISLuob Nott’s little pamphlet is very carefully and neatly got
upl TSw jAans and estimates ore noourate, full and eawly
understood. In advocating a system of Residential Farms, Major
Nuit doe* not .pw^xwe a sudden radical chango in existing
habits and cnstiims. He hopes for a gradual and systematic
ImproTsment among sgiionlturists, by chiefs and other leader* of
society interesting themselves in his proposals for establishing
snburban villas and residential lanns. The following are tbo
advantages claimed for residential farms ;—
AbyASTAOXS AND Eemabks.
Saving in time ,—It is a fact tiiat, in many instances, men
and cattle have frequently to travel several miles to' thcii-
fields in the morning, aud the same distance book in the eveuiug.
In this way much time is squandered, and the coolest portions of
the day are lost to agriculture.
Saving in labour .— It stands to reason that much vital force,
otherwise available for the labours of the field, is expended oi^ilie
mere journeyings to and fro. ’ '*
Saving in war aud tear .—The agricultural implemout would bu
kept on the farm, liutead of being dragged backwards auj
forwards. ■*
Preservation of health, —The general health of the cultivators,
their families, and tbek cattle would be greatly improved by tbo
free open atr of the country. And, in like manner, the townspeople
would be beuefitted by the foot of docks and herds behig housed
for the night otUeide instead of inside the town.
Presereatinn and local utilisation gf manure — hpth, solid and
liquid .—This a most Important point, as will be aokuowledged by
all practical agriculturists.
Better protection of the crops, —The farmer aud his family resid¬
ing in the very midst of tboir fields, a view of which would be
obtainable from their own house-door, it la clear that the crops
would be hotter protected than If loft to take oarc of themselves
so much.
The necessity of fencing, —This would also greatly assist in the
matter of proteoting the crops.
Prevention of accidents, —The coming and going of herds being
stopped, would reduce to a minimum the number of accidents
whicn now aud then occur In densely-populated towns.
Prevention of waste. —This is too obvious to require any special
remark.
ISxtales mould hr oonsolidnted. —It is a common custom at present
for one man to cultivate distinct plots of land far distant from
each other. A compact fwm would obviate the waste resulting
from such a custom.
Eitatvs would he. within reasottable "control. —There la no
disputing the fact that one of the most crying evils of the present
day is that cultivators arc allowed to take up more, much more,
laud than they can properly manage. The amount shown iu the
plan accompanying would be quite sufficient for a single cultivator
with his family, nnd would conduce to a higlier or improved
description of farming.
The inoral tone of the people would be raised.—Tbo spirit of
freedom would undoubtedly bo enconraged, and the love of
“ hearths and homes ” fostered.
Major Nutt does not propose to take a resident in n certain town
or village aud suddenly transplant him, his family, and agricultural
possession’s to some out-of-the-way “jungly” place. VVhat I propose
doing, bo s.aya, iu the first Instance is simply to invito any individuals
BO disposed to occupy aud cultivate suitably sized farms or holdings
in close proximity to their native town or village—within a
stone’s throw, so to speak, of their present place of residenoo—so
that their connection ndth their fiiends, the monoy-lcndors, the
grain-dealers, the potters, the carpenters and others, would not
be interrupted iu tlio slightest degree, but oontimied as heretofore.
In this way personal security would olso bo provided for, as the
town or villas police would at nil tiinoa ho within call. Another
objection which is of the saiuc nature aa the above os regards the
idea of this agricultural change being instituted at once, aud iu all
places, was that the nature of the land tenure aud payment of
revenue would bo necessarily altered, to the derangement of
existing custom. Well, all that need bo sold on this point is, that
whereas the experiment is only proposed in o very small way to
begin with, no doraugemout to speak of, in existing tenuros, need
take place at all,
1 would comniouce operations in the immediate neighbourhood
of towns and big villages, granting sites with frontage on a public
road.
The holdings should not be too large, say not exceed 20 or at
most 25 acres, of good oultucablo land, with a sabstautiai houso for
a cultivator and his family, and suitable out-buildings for his cattle,
implements, and general husbandry stock, iuoluding a commodious
room or bam for storing grain. The homo should be situated in
the centre of tho pruporty,
A good w'ell should be sunk close to the hoase, And a stout fence,
planted with trees, should surround the estate, which would bo
approached from the public road.
Plans and estimates are attached, from which it will be gathered
at a glance how I would propose to lay out each farm.
AGRICULTURAL BANKS <feo.
Wk have received from Mr. A. P, Webbs a pamphlet on
Agricultural Banks and supplemental legislation tor agricul¬
tural relief. Mr. Webbe’s suggestions are comprised in the
following snmnianr :—
(1) Agricultural Banks to be officially initiated and worked—
and subsequently transferred to private agency under due safe¬
guards, -
(2) Loans to be granted to the proprietary, only on the " Ploating
Caeh Credit ” syeton, which will harmonise Vrith the practice oi
the village usurer, aud therefore fit In sympat^tteally with the
wishes and requirements of the agrloalturut—with tbis radioal
differenoe, however, that a fixed or
only will be permitted the agrioultarist.
March 1,1883.
THE INDIAN AGEICULTUBIST.
03
(3) Oaly iand and bomei are to bo mortf[amd to the Bank.
Snr^oe, one or more, with or without ooUatend eeonrlfy as the
oaie BUiy appear to demand,'
(4) Amoont of loan (or " Floating Cash (Credit ”) to b« deter
mined by marketable value of property or aotnartal value of rent
or inoome from the same. Substantial aureUes -to aogment the
amount of loan.
(3) Interest not to exceed 0 per cent per annum, and to be
graduated to the extent of the property mort^ed. So that small
proprietors too might be aooommouted with weap loans.
(6) Amount of loan and interest thereon to he offinallv deter¬
mined.
(7) Loans to be granted without formal mortgage, and without
fees and other inoldental expenoes,
(8) Form of appUeatlon for loans to be ojteiailf presoribed )
detidling number and area of fields, oboraoter and extent of build¬
ings, mortgage. Hen, Ao., on them, and their approximate valua¬
tion. These, to the extent officially tested and verified, to consti¬
tute the mortgage deed and the basis of the loan.
(0) The posltlou of fifit mortgagee to be purchased, if praotl-
cable, and the amount so paid to oonstltuto pvt of the “ Floating
Caah Credit ” authorised.
(10) No second mortgagee to be permitted afttr the Bank has
purchased the position of Jirtt mortgagee. Where the position of
JtrH mortgagee oaunot be nurohased, or where there ehould already
be a second mortgagee, no loan to bo authorised,
(11) Debts to be recovered c^laiiy for Bunks and at their cost
as if they were " arrears of land revenue,’’
(12) “Floating Cash Credits" to be grunted similarly to the
Usnantry, on two or more proprietary or other good sureties; and
similarly recoverable from the sureties, as if they were “ arrears
of land revenue.’’
The scheme of supplemental legislation includes such pointe
OB the follows
(1) State demand to be fixed for a term of 30 years, at 83J per
cent of proprietoi-’s rental exclusive of cossee ; instead of 65 per
cent inclusit’e of uossos as now (Sec 8.)
(2) AU tenant right, as now understood, to be abolisliod,
(3) Rent to be fixed by settlement otficor at periodical reWsion
of settlement. •
(4) Rent subjocl only to following enhancements under autlior-
ty!
Bnhanceraont 15 years alter revision of Land Sottlemont,
up to one-sixth of rent fixed at auuh laud settlement j when value
of produce has augmented through rise In market prices.
( 0 ) Enhancement, when land bos been improved by or made
generally valuable at cost of proprietor.
(.3) State not to share in such eulioncement. a
(6) Bents subsisting for 13 years or since last settlement to be
now enbanoed on the basis of (4) a ; and those tliat have been
since onhanoed more or less, to reniaiu unaltered till next settle-
ment, nnloss proprietor has improved (4)3,
(7) Land brought under cultivation after revision of land settle¬
ment not to be subject to State demand ur eiilionoemont till ensu¬
ing settlement,
(8) But tenants on snch laud to hold at scttloment rates for
like class of laud phs an addiliuual charge (/'superior to such land
in locality. Tenant and proprietor may oomu to agreomeut and
record the same in the Eevenuo Courts—rent to hold good till
next Bottlomcnt, unless as (4) A,
(9) Crops to 4>o held hypothecated to proprietor as now.
(10) Tenant to componaate proprietor for injury to land.
(11) Tenant to be evicted under court sanction oiUi/ foe non¬
payment of rent. But to ho oompeusatod for unexhausted ira-
provements. When any.
12) iSucceediiig touant, when any, whatever tlie interval of non-
cultivation, slioll pay only tho same rent as the tenant evicted ;
unleas as per (4) a and h, (8) and (17) involving outlay by pro¬
prietor.
(13) Rent to be abated when land is deteriorated or area
diminished through causos beyoud tenant’s control.
(14) Tenant con vacate without consent of proprietor.
(16) But 6 months’notice to be given proprietor, or 6 months'
rent paid him without notice.
(16) Tenants to vacate at 12 mouths’ notice when land is required
by proprietor—or to be compensated with one year’s rent.
Norice to be served through Revenue authonties iu all oases,
(17) Evicted and vacating tenants (11) (14) and (16) to he com-
peoaated for unexhausted improvements.
(18) No lub-divielon of estates to plots below IS acres to bo
permitted. - Eldest surviving male or femalo relative or child to
Inherit.
(16) Couaolidariou of dismembered estates into plots of 15 acres
each to bo eSected gradually os present Imlder die oil'. Eldest male
or female rriative inheriting.
(20) Partlon of tenant's holdings not to fall below 15 acres.
Eldjet surviving mole or femalo relative or child iuheritiug.
(21) Consolidation of tenant's holdings into areas of IS acres
each to be effected on demise of present holders. Eldest surviving
male or female relative to inherit,
(22) Revenue Department to poasess complete jurisdiction is all
matt^. Revenue Board to be final court of appwl. All pro-
oeedfllgt in eonsolidaHon of estates an(l tenants’ holdings, to involve
no ooet to the parries conoerued. Nor in the resumptiau of estates
by catrivaring proprietors (See 16 and 17.)
Mr, Webb oootenda and illustrates by instances that all
tenant-right whioh makes the tenant a fixture, tends to the
practical dispoeweeoent and ruin of the peasant proprietwy and
email land-holden whose numbers are annually increasing. It
also tends to the exclusion of capital, and ultimately pauperises
the tenants.
The Bcbjeote dealt with are carefully thought out and
elaborated, and the pampldet forms a very noteworthy addition
to the literature of the problems dealt with.
THE CATALPA: A VALUABLE TREK
S OME rime ago, Sir JoUu O’Shanessy otdled attention, iu the
Legislative Assembly, to a celebrated American timber tree
called Oatulpa spsciosa. The Ministers of Lauds and Agriculture
moved in the matter, with a view to procuring informatiou, aud
have received reports from Mr. Gullfoyle, tho Director of the
Botanio Gardens, and Mr. Ferguson, Inspector of State Forests,
Mr. Ouilfoyle reports on the 27th November 1882, that the tree is
said by many horticulturists aud botanists in America, where it
is indigenous, to be one of the most valuable timber trees known.
One writer, Mr. C, H. Miller, of Falrmotint Park, Philadelphia,
says“ There is a fine grove of oatalpa In tho pork,
some of them very large, one measuring 13ft. iu oiroum-
foreuce.” A Mr. Artlmr Biyant, of Prinooton, DUnois, is said to
have in his grounds a oatalpa of tho spedosa variety raisod, from
seed in 1830, which measured in 1870 (stump high) 3ft In dia¬
meter. Other of the trees in South-Eastern Missouri measured in
I 1866,3ft, and 4ft. in diameter, and 50ft. to a limb. In Indiana the
> trees reached a diameter of 4^11. From one tree a limb was ont off
46ft. from the stump, a seotion of which was 8ft long and 12^1n.
in diameter at tho small end, A Mr, Barney, of Ohio, reported
that a catalpa gate-post had been taken up, after being 46 years
in tho ground, and was found os sound as on the day it was set,
no signs of decay being visible. Catalpa timlwr used in a stockade
in Indiana had been found perfectly sound after being nearly 100
years in the ground. .Similar particulars are given os to otlier
pieces of this timber wliich have remained sound after being in
use about 100 years. One log, after lying across a stream nearly
100 years, was cut into perfectly sound boards. Professor John
Collet states that the tiniber is univonwliy aeoredlled with wonder¬
ful power to resist decay aud time, and that after diligent inquiry,
ho had found no one willing to say tho timber was liable to rot.
Auothcr writer stated that no decayed eata^ia tegs were ever found
in swampu. The tree throve iu France and Germany, and in
protected jiiositlons in the South of England. It grows rapidly,
and the wood is remarkably light, fine in texture, and capable of
roooiviug a brilliaut polish. The bark was said to bo tonic
stimulant, and antisoptio. The tree can be readily raised’
from seeds, and cuttings, and in tills climate the seeds
should be sown in September or October, and the out-
tings planted out oi doors in March or April. 'The tree has
been of rather slow growth in the Botanio Gardens, tho largest
specimen, although upwards of 18 years old, being only about lOft,
or 12ft. high. That tardy ^wth was doubtless due in a great
measure to the poverty of the soil. The tree would not o our
mch exposure to strong winds, and delighted in a loose and toler¬
ably good soil. Tho present stock of young plants in the gardens,
numbering some 30 or 40, ovoraged from 1ft. to 2ft. in height,
and were raisod from seed supplied by Sir John {j’Shauaesy.
Subjoined is Mr. Fergiisows report
“ Stam Ndbssry, Maoxhojv, Nov, 27, 1882,
“ Sir,—I have the honour to acknowlege the receipt of your
letter of the 24th instant, re oatalpa tree (upeeiosa.)
“ 1 have the honour to report that I rooolved from the late
Secretary for Agrioulture, in 1880, a paokago of seed of the above
tree, and beg to inform the honourable tne Minister of Lands
that 1 have Eero about 1,.'500 plants that have been transplanted
into nursery rows, most of which will be fit for planting out per-
maneutly in the forest during the ,;omlng autumn and winter.
“ Tho Cat,ali>a spieciosa is' a native of the Southoru States of
North America, where It growl to a moderate-sized tree, seldom
being met with more than 60ft. iu height, with a medium trunk.
When in fiower it is a grand sight and like its congener, Catalpa
bignonioides, of onrgardoni, is milch admired for its largo foliage
and tieautiful fiuwers,
“ The timber of speciosa is muoli souglit after in America for
piles and posts for fencing, and has been found to last for many
years when subjected to damp aud marshy places, where other
kinds of timber have perished.
“ Since its introduction to this colony, I find it to he a trie of
rapid growth, well suited for a dry country, and I have no doubt
when it becomes better known it will be extensively planted,
“ About ‘260 trees were raised In the State nursery at Lrageren-
ong in the Winimera district, and during last season I bad them
transplanted into nursery lines, and they are growing rapidly.
“ ’The Catalpa spseiosa, like the Paulovnia, walnut, ash aud
other deciduous trees in this locality, arc liable to get cut up by
spring frosts, and I intend uext scasati to make a permanent
plantetiofi of the catalpa iu some more suitable locality iu the State
forests.
“ I have to.,
“W. Fmoitsox,
“ Intpootor of State Forests.
To A, Uomst £kL‘i SoentAry tw lABdi, Melbonni^’;
94
THE INDIAN AGKrCDtTU^IST,
Miirch 1,1^883
Qgg^lAL PAPEa
BEB^KEEPING IN INDIA.
(Cw/^wttei from Pag* 5S, Vcik YJIL)
Tahvlwr Information —(Continaed).
96
THE INDIAir AOTICULTUEIST. March 1,1888.
Maxeh 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGEICULTTTRIST.
97
Itr, H. 8«irol], OUeotor ofXrlchluopoly, writes regMding tlie
Paoitftimalal Hills s—
. Wild bees are found in this district, ohloSy on the Paobaimslal
HlUa. There arc three vorietios of them, viz., the Katbaudai, the
Poroi, and the Siru or mosquito beo.
Tbo first ( Ka t h a n dai) Is we largest boo, being about an inch in
length and half an inch in diametor. its sting is Tory painful, and
sometimes results in death. These bees build their nests in
orevioas of rocks. To collect the honey a man Is let down In a
. basket or a ladder fastened to a rope. He kindles a fire under¬
neath the hive, whlob either stifles or drives away the bees, and
then coUeots the honey in gourds slung round bis waUt. The
nests, which are sometimes as wge as 2 x 2 x ^ yard, are said to
oontuin from 4 to 12 Madras moasores of honey each, a measure
weighing 4i Ib.
Too second variety is about half an inch in length. It has a
sting, but it is less pubiful thau that of the first kina, and not at
all (faugorous, It builds its nests generally in hollow trunks of
trees or on their boughs. The nests are comparatively small.
They yield from 1 to 4 measuroa of honey each. There is no
difficulty In oollooting this honey. The bees con be driven away
by holding a torch under the liive or by striking the comb with a
snok.
The third and last kind is the mosg^uito boo. It is about twice
the liae of on ordinary mosquito, and is inoffensive. It builds on
trees and in the eaves of houses The nests are very sntall, and
yield only from 1/16 to J measure each.
No reliable Information is available os to the quantity of honey
produced In the district. The Hub-Assistant Conservator of
Forests gives it os 360 Madras measures a yoar fur the whole of the
Paohaimalai Hills, while the head Assistant Collector puts it down
os 800 measures for his side of the Pachaimalais. I think 600
measures may fairly be taken as the annual yield. The bill people
sell their honey at about 8 annas a measure, and it is re-sold in the
bazaars at about a rupee a moasure. it is obieiiy used for
medicinal purposes. It also servos ns food on festivo ooeasions,
belug mixod with fmits, &o.
There is no honey exported from this district. On the other
hand, it is said to be brought hero for sale from Madura aud other
dlstriots.
The first or tho Kathaudai variety is not in my opinion capable
of being domesticatod. The soooiul and third kinds, which are
found not only on the lulls but also iu tlio plains might, I think, be
domesUcatod. But I doubt whether tho natives could bo easily
mrsuaded to take to bee-kcoping os is done in European oonntries.
The demand for honey in these parts is not great, aud tho juiee of
sugar-oano, whioh is abundant, supplies the place of honey as far as
tho sweetoniug of food is couccruod. They have, moreover, a
projudioc against bees, and tiiey consider it uulnoky to have thorn
iioar their houses. Probably tho prejudice arises from the natural
dislike to being stung,
Tho following extract is from a lottor from tho Temporary
Hrauty Collector of North Avcot to the CoUootor :—
In both tho talooks (Chittoorand Cau<lragiri) of my division I>ees
arc not domesticatod, and honey is taken from wild bees only.
There are four varieties of bees, r/c,—
(1) Pedda Eaga (largo bee, wliieli is of black color).
(2) Pulla Teneega (uun-colorcd bco).
(3) Tliorra Tcueoga (l»oe which hivc.s iu the hollows of trees.)
(4) Masara Eaga (grey-colored bee).
Tho first or the Pedda Eaga liivcs on tho tops of hills ; the
aecoud (Pulla TCiiecga) on tho boughs of trees ; the third (Thorra
Tcuoega) in the hollows of trees aud in the clefts of rocks ; and tlie
fourth (Masara Eaga) in the hollow of trees, in walla, and iu the
clefts of rocks ; boos make thoir hives dnring May, .Tuuo aud July.
Honey is extracted from tho hives of tlio lines of the second,
third, mid fourth descriptions by tlio process of snioklng. The hives
of the lico called Pedila Eaga, wbiofi arc made on tho tops of hills,
arc generally inaccessible, except to tho skilled KrulnK (hill people)
who extract honoy from them by means of Imlders and smoke. A
bamboo ladder is let down, fastened to a peg on the top of tlio hill,
and by means of this ladder one of tlie Knilas gets to the hive and
extracts tho lionoy, while others, from below, drive the bees by
means of smoko from a liglitcd bundle of tliatcliiug gross. The
man covers himself with eumbly to avoid tho sting of the bees. No
luformation is available as to what dlstiuotiou thcro is botweou the
bees hero and in the cold climates.
With the exeoption of tlic Masara Eaga, tho other classes of bees
do not remain pormoueutly in oue place. The sting of tho Pulla
aud Thorra Teneega Is not villahiou.s, while the Masara Eaga does
not generally sting. In the case of the Pedda Eoga, unless about
10 or 20 of them collectivoly sting there is no danger.
Tile quantity of honey produoed annually in the jungles of tho
Chittoor Talook is estimated at about 4 mauuds, while that pro¬
duced in tlie Cliamala and Pauapakam Forests of tlie Chainlrngiil
Taluk is estimated at 10 mannas. Each hivo does not prodii^
more than 2 pollums of honoy. The price of a mauud of honey is
between Rs. 2 and 2-8-0.
About 3 or 4 nmuiids of honey Is annually exporcea froni the
Cbaudragiri Taluk to Nollore, Madras, and KumbaMiam, and tho
rest is locally consumed for medioinal purposes. When no honey
is available here, it is sent for from Madras m small quantities.
Honey is not usually consumed as au article of food.
Mw Stuart, Acting Oolloetor of North Aroot, also forwards a
precis of reports received from Divisional Officors and Tabsildars,
whloh. may bo fouud useful, ^hnreforti aDnenaou :
local supply being barely snffiolent for the demand. J'horo is,
however, no importation.
(B.) There is no dooieatieatlon of bees In this division.
There are four kinds of bees in this division. Their stings are
very dangerous, and tiie honey oan only be obtained by the Irulars,
a wild jungle tribe. Their method of doing this is to strike the
oomb with a stone or spear, whereupon the honoy runs out into
pots nroviously placed undenieath.
(C.) Of tho boos found here, throe kinds are very wild, and any
attempt to domcitioato would only prove fruitless. Tho fourth
kind, however, called from its small size tho Mosquito Beo, which
builds its hivo iu ruined houses and the hollows of trees, might bo
domestiosted with a little oaro. The quantity of honeyinahivu
of theso bees is very small, and is sour to the taste, owing to the
bees gathering it from tho flowers of the margosa and mango trees.
It is often given to ohildren iu the belief that it will make them
able to talk at a much eorlior age than usual.
II, This Temfobabt Depotv CotLEcron.
(A.) Ttdooki qf Chittoor aikl Ckandragiri and Tiriipati Divi~
aion .—The Chittoor jungles produce about 4 inaands, and tliu foresti
of Chainala and Pauapakam, in Chaudraglri Talook, .about 10
mauuds of honey per year. The price varies between Ks. 2 and
2-8 0 per maund. About 4 mauuds arc annually exported from
Cbundragtri to Kelloro, Madras, and Kumbakonam. The remain*
der is ounsumed locally for medicinal purposes, and occasionally
os an artiolo of food. Hmall quantitios of honoy are brought from
Madras when tho local supply Is exhausted.
(U.) There aro four varieties of bees iu this division, but none of
tliem are domesticated.
(1). Feilda Harjti. —Theso bees build their hives on the tops of
high rooky hills. The jungle tribes extract tho honey from the
conilis iu the follnwiiig manner ; A bauibou ladder is fastened to a
peg on tho top of the iiill and lot down tho ollff on whioh the hivo
is built. Oue man descends this la<ldcr aud gathers the honey,
while others below drive out the liees by sinolriug them. There is
no danger from their sting unless 10 or 20 of them attack at tho
same tiino. These bees do not hive permanently iu one place,
(2.) Pulla Tenac/lit; a dun-colorcd beo, whioh hives on the houghs
of trees in May, Juno, aud July. Tho honey Is obtained by tho
smoking process, Liko tlio above, they do not remain ^Hirmaneutly
in any uiin plaeo. Thoir sting is harmless.
(3.) Thm'm /Vni'e 7 (i.—-These boes hive in the clefts of rocks ond
the iicllows of trees ill the months of May, June, aud July, and
the lioiiey Is extrimtod by the smoking process. They do hive con-
tiiiualiy in the same place. Thoir sting is harmless.
(4.) Manarn, Jslaati or Orep-cninrwf Bee.—They build thoir hives
iu the hollows of troe.s iu the mouths of May, Juno, and July. Tho
honey is extracted by the smoking prooeas, aud, as a rule, the beoa
do not sting. Tiiese, unlike the foregoing varintlos, generally con¬
tinue season niter season to hive in trie same plooc,
((.' ) There are no bees in this division likely to prove valuable if
doinestiuated.
(A.)
III. The Dkpotv Tah.sild,vk ok PcNOANun.
Pawjamr JOimiori .—About 60 mauuds of honoy aro ob¬
tained yearly from tho jungles of Aviilpiilly and Kilapatla iu this
zomiiidari. It is sold at Rs. 2 per mauud, aud tho supply la sulli-
eieiit only for local requirements.
(B.) There are five kinds of wild bees fouud iu this division.
(1.) Para Teneeija ,—This species, which is the largest fouud,
hives on higli aud inacoossiblo rooks. The yield of a hive, whioh oon-
siats on an average of four combs, varies from 2 to 4 Madras nioa-
sures, tho Irulars driving tho boos from the hive by smoking thorn,
Tlieir sting is very painful, aud has oocasiouoHy proved fatol.
(2.) Thnlii 'J'eneei/a or PuUa y’encegrt.--Tlua species build their
combs in tho hollow trunks of trees, ercyioos of rooks, ant hills,
and tho walls of miiuliabitod liosS'^s, if flowers aud water ara
sufiiolently near. This beo is of a reddish black oolor. The yield
of a hive varies from ) to 4, Madras measures. The bees cau be
driven out and the honey ta*en by merely shaking the hivo,
(3.) Komma Tenerr/a or [2) Junli IVnecf/a.—Those liaes hivo iu
bushes and on the bniiiohes of trees. It has a black bead with a
grey body and wings. Only one comb is built, and the yield,
therefore. Is only about a ejuavtor of that of the 'I'liala Teneega.
What it lacks iu quantity, howover, is made up for by the superior
quality of tlio honey, which is the sweetest, clearest, and thickest
of all,
(4.) JUlu TfMffiii .—Tins is the next iu size. It hives in huslios
aud on the bmnohes of trees. Tho honey is good, but the yield is
so small that it is not wortli the trouble of ooiroctiag.
( 5 .) Mmara Tnirr^u .—This Is tho smallest in size and rosoni-
blos a mosquito, It hiiilds its hive in walls, under stoves, aud in
tinali holes in trees. 'J'he honey is very sour to the taste, and tho
yield is very small. Tlio wax alone is eolleeted.
IV. Tite Deputv Taiistluab ok Kanuunm.
it is therefore appended i
I. General DoriKa DEvurv Oollbotob.
(A.) Tsdaoki of Polar and Wandiwash and Arni f)ivi8ion.--4)uly
a small quantity of honey is produced in this division. It is sold
in the local marketo at 8 annas a visa, There U ng exportatign, the
(A.) Considerable quantities of honey and wax oie olitained
from the jungles near the villages of Kangundi, Noolaguuta, Adivl,
Boodugiir, and Oliadumoor. The season when tho hoes are most
active is during tho south-west monsoon, from May to August.
Tho host honey is that made from the flowers of tho Paoehalo,
Ycrrachookie, and Vep|iala tress ; that gathered from otiior wild
flowers is much inferior in flavour. The yield of tlie whole divi¬
sion is now only about 50 maund.s. Prior to tho present reckless
felling of his forests by tlio zemindar, tlis yield was about 100
maunds.. If this system of felling coiitinuos, it is to be feared that
houQV will coftBo to bo produotd iit ftll this division. The local
price is from Rs. 1-8-0 to Rs. 2 per maund, but iu ktsdras and
Bangalore, to whlob places a considerablo quantity is annually
export^, ftbgttt dcublo that price cau bo gbtainod. Much cl this
98
THE INBIAN AOEICULTURIST.
March 1, 1883.
exported honey, however, ooBiorteMaHy ol honey nodinagery.
The honey le eepnrntad from the wax either by ebtfeoxing
the mixture In a doth or by mixing It wltii water. The honey U
then boiled to prevaHtlti going
(B ) Ther6 four kUidi or boM found ia thii dlviviOQ.
(1. ) KpfulH JVneepa, a blaok bee almost an inch long. They
build their hlvea In the orevloei of rooto. The yteM of honey from
a comb varlee from 2 to 4 full meaanroe, and 1* Of vow good qn^ty.
The honey 1» ooUtoted' from the him by tho'Ordinary smoking
prooeei. The eHng of this epodes U very painful, and has been
known to cause death. , , ^ ,
(2.) Thotluga Saga or Thorra Saga, a boe of ^ to e an Inch in
length, and of a red and blaok odor. Theeo bees build their combs
In the orevioee in the trunks of trees. The yield varies from i to I
measure, and the honey Is much anperior to that of the last-men¬
tioned apedee In sweetness and flavour, but is inferior in solidity
and dearness. The mode ef taking tha honey Is very simple: the
btes are driven out by sfalklng the Wve with a light switch, and ths
eomb can then be taken with safety.
(8.) Komnut Saga- These build their oombs on the branohes of
trees, and exoel all others In tho sweetness and f lagranoo of their
honey. The ^eld varies from 1 to 1 measure, and ths honey is
ooUected from the hive In the same way u tliat of the last-men¬
tioned spedes. . .
(4.) Katura iojfo.—These build their eombs on tho eaves of
hoosss, and sometimes on small boughs. Tho honey is of a very
Inferior quaUty, and tho yield Is less tihan a quarter of a measure.
(C.) Aesarenot domeetleated in this oivUion, and there ap¬
pears no probability of thsir being eo.
V. Thb Tahsildab or Viua&B,
(A.) Ifo information given.
(B.) There are eeven kindi of beei found In tbli talook.
(1.) Periya 2'(W>al.—Theee build their hlvee on high rooky
hills, and will attack trsspaiseis vary fiaroely. The bees are smok¬
ed out aud the honey then taken.
(2.) Kurumbi TAenf,—These build their oombs on the big
branobcB of trees. The honey is obtained by the smeking process,
(3.) Thodttga TAeni.—-These hive In the hollows of trees ; they
will sting if provoked i and the honey is collected by tho smoking
process.
(4.) Kombu Thuik —Build their oombs on small branohes of trees.
(fi.) Kota TAral,—Hives on walls.
(d.) CkUtai TAeui.—Hives on bushes.
(7.) Kappu Thtni _Hives on malse crops,
Beu are not domsetioated in this tuook.
^0 above extracts exhibit the principal Information that tho
Board have bean able to obtain.
K, SEWELL.
The relBng proeeaa, whieh foUosrs next, ia in kome 'gd^ena
carried out by maohinery, and thmby mnoh labow le sarv^ iliongfa
perhapa not Mtogetfaer tO'the b^Mrilt m %ke lOaf. We wOl, ttere-
tofo, keep to the dd plan. 'A hundredwei^t of the witaered
leaf is given out to every three meUt a&d if tke leskf be ettOontent
it will Sake them four or five honn to roll iMe properiy •• the work
la hard imd exhausHng, and verynftw Hte'mieabe|ittrM eariy as
3 A.if. to get it Well over before the greathest Of the day eomee on.
Each man takes as tnnob at a time ae he can jgt^ and emrmilently
eover with his hands, then with arms and hmdalM givOa a sort of
rotatory movement to the leaf, whieh he preesee with the ^me
and heels of hie hand, and deftly-gathera together with his fingers,
working the mass so as to break ml the oells of the leaf and free
the sap, and at the same time to give It that ourled and twisted
form peouliar to manufactured tea. When suffioientlyrnanipUtated
the mass leaves the hand in the shape of a ball, and ti piaoed to
ferment in baskets^ which will hdd idmnt 2 owt. eadh, Qned and
covered with damn blankets.
The amount of nermentatlon given to the leaf is a matter of great
iuiportanoe, and requires in its regulation much judgment and
experioDoo ; the prooeae oan be oheoked or enoonraged at the will
of the planter, x^ese object is to produce a leaf of a bright orionr,
like a new penny, wbloh is also the colour tho finished tea should
have after infuiion.
When the proper amount of fermentation has been obtained, the
balls of leaf are taken out of the basket, broken up, and thrown
into metal pans, to bo oooked over a gentle fire. This at once
cheeks and stops the formentlttg of the leaf, and makes it softer
aud more pllablofor the second rolling, which is generally neoos-
sary at this stage. The leaf is from this time called “tea,” but
it would seem that it is not yet quite a finished article ; for even
after pauulng, the colour of the newly-manufactured tea far liable
to obaugo, bwomlng, as It Is thought, oxidised by the action of
tho air. It is the planter’s butlneis to see that one process of
manufacture euooeeM another as quickly as possible, and iimno-
dlatoly spreads the now tea on bainiboo nwts, or iheete of (ino, and
places it in the hot sun, which quickly dries up into the tea all the
roraoiniug sap, fixes the twist, and odds a bloom like that on a
dried raisin. To prevent the possibility of the tea boooming sour
aud any loss of aroma from exposure, it is, after a short exposure to
t)ie sun, taken to the long, narrow firlng-rosms, which run along
the side of the factory, and plased in wire-gauze trays, bolding
alxmt 21b each of tw, ovor charcoal fires, which are jiontainod
in long narrow troughs of masonry, about two feet high. ~ .
1001b of tea to be over tho fires at one time in these 2n
trays, It would require an hour aud-a-balf to dry tho tea sufficiently
for poking, and as space is limited, the tea Is usnally fired to such
an extent os will provost Its turning sour, and finished off after¬
wards.
SOETIWO FOB MaBKBT,
Acting Sub-Seorotary,
SELECTIONS.
INDIAN TEA.
(Oentinutd from pagt 60, Vol, VIII.)
Pick INO,
T he sap begins to rise In March, and by the middle of April
the first flush or picking comes on, and every available man,
woman, and child In the lejl^bourlng villages is hunted up to
reinforce the permanent coou.s of the establuhment. A man and
a boy per acre are required for a garden In full yield, ot Re, 4,
Es. 3, or Be. 3-8, a month respeon<ely. On a garden of 600 acres
there would, therefore, at times be the msponsibUity of 1,000 cooUet
on the head of (me Bnropean, who has himself only to rely upon
for good management and effiolent work. Tl« flushes oontinuo in
greater or less strength end vigour from April to the end of Octo¬
ber. A long, succulent shoot runs up of four, five, or even six
leaves, and from these three or four ore taken os the case
may be ; the whole ehoot, stem and leavei. Is picked off by
the fingers down to tho leaf which Is loft to shelter the bud from
which the new flush Is to spring. At times the growth Is so rapid
that by the time the pluokers have been round the whole garden
in the course of two or three weeks, and have, with their nimble'
little fingers of both hamds at work at the same time, taken off
all ehoote that are then ready for plucking, now ehoote have C«me
to perfection. It is astoniehlng how few mistakes these pluckeh,
make ! they become such adepts at tho work that It te very eSldom
that too few or too many ready leaves are picked from any parti¬
cular shoot,
Pbkpabation or TUB Leav,
Baring a good flush some 6,OOOIb a day of leaf will bo plucked
on the pfamtatfam, and when it ii brought to the factory, if it be
intendecT to make blsiok tea from It, must all be Spread out In thin
layertto wither. The planter’s ingenuity, after all his floors and
tables are covered, Is mucli exercised to contrive surface for this
nooessaiy process. High rooks are oonstruotod, and divided by
thin slips of wood or wm. So as to form lofty stands tor series of
light bamboo trays, which oodtafn the leaf. In this wry the air
circulates among the bright, tretb'green leaves, and what was life
■ to them whilst they w«e on tho bnekes now brings doeay, and by
the following morning the day’i piokii» le changed to a ^k green
odonr, and tho ortep leavee flaw) Become withered, soft, and
pUaUe.
Alltbat romaineis to olassify aud tort the tea, and to pack it
tor market. A certain amount of olassifiuation has been going on
daring manufacture ; and the larger and coarser tea coo be
leparated from the mass by sifting it, but after that the tea has to
be ehaken out pound by pound on to bamboo trays, and sorted by
the quick fingers of boys and girls, who, whilst they separate
the various qualities of tea, pick out all useless and foreign matter.
This is a long and tedious work, and, to the uninitiated, seems
hopeless.
Each estate keeps its own sawyers, carpenters, and smiths, who
cut tho trees from the forest—which the planter should always bo
careful to Include in his land purchases—saw the planks, aud make
the chests In whicli the tea is packed, and which, lined with sheet
lead, arc sent off to Calcutta or Loudon. The soasou’s tea is sunt
in as tow consignments os possible, to seourt uniformity of appear¬
ance and taste to tho various " breaks/”
Now comes the Indian tea-planter’s great difficulty. He has laid
out oousiderable capital in land, In planting, in oiiltivation, in
mauufaoCnro, He has worked hard, honestly, and consoientiously
to produce a genuine and pure article ; and now ho wishes to sell
bis prodnotlon, which those best able to judge pronounce to Iw equal
at least to the very best and purest teas grown in China ; but
the brokers tell him that these aud inferior China teas have so
long held the fint place in the markets of England, and that the
publlo have been so impressed with the notion that no other tea
oan hear comparison with them, that they have the greatMt diffi¬
culty In procuring a fair trial for his tea. Tho Indian phmter
finds that the vast quantity of China tea which is annually finport-
od into England, and tho ^'arlety of quality and flavour which
these teas possess, together with the facility afforded for mixing
growths of various distrlott. and different qualitiM-of teas, so as
to meet the taste of the English ounsumer, have vitiated that tMte
and rendered the pure, unadulterated, unmixed, ami wholesome tM
of the hlils of India, an auknown, and, consequently, unappreciat¬
ed, article in the English markets. It very soon becomes plain to
htw that bis Interests are sacrificed to those of the retail deajer f
and Utus, when teas of widely different vahie, of itavoor, of
season, imd of growth are imported In enormous quantities, tiie
tmptotlou y, mix them, so as to force the contutn^on of low-
priced tea at swjh a price as should of right only be commandad
by those of tho best flavour aud growth amongst them, U almost
Irresistible by mercaotUe morality.
As most of tbs Indian teas are of remafkabls strength End flavour,
they arc largely bought, ni>t to sell iu their pure tlate, bstco mix
with groatiy iuetior teas ; and hi uidot to keep an opOn mwket for
these mixed and adulterated teas, the public, in many Instances, is
allowed to bsUeve that Indian teas are unfit for drinking in their
pure state; and tire Indian plantar finds that tills Interested and
pemistent miarepnseBtatlon Utaada in tite 'way «f . evarydinnest
attempt on hie partto fastrodooe tsrpubUoinottee'aBemiMeiseMnd
to none of the very bsatriproduee of'Okina, ' Aa be ta.omntlU&g i that
nil t«a should be regtsmd only as an article for giving b^ and
Mawdi 1,. 1888.
TH5 AaBicuLajumsjE.
99
flavour te loftrior Ohtiu i ,t » o , and u bo beliovoi bio too to bo
wortbjr of livery bigheot:{ilMO tn the pnbUo oottmntion, and that
tho pea^ «rf England can onlv rarely, aa thing* are, taata the- tea
of ttio Kaagra and other Mil dUtneta, he Km now dotemiiDsd to
be,, a* far oa poMdble, the taluman of hi* own prodna*. Ho i«
enoOnaagod to do thb booauio though the Mate for Indian tea is
(hown to bo in<»eBaing by the fact that so many doatem comparative¬
ly BOW protoa* to aoll it, an dnglo-Indlan on hi* retom home very
seldom find* ^at, oven .in these shops, ho can get the' same kind . of
tea M he drank with so much relUb in India. It hi only in tome
unknown ilip of a shop, or a room, where little attempt at publicity
is made, that he oan bnv the real artiole he wants, out of the eheat
in whiob it wae originally pnoked, in the garden iii wMoh it grew.
The planter believea th^ if he comet Mmtolf to England, and ofiert
the puniio the. produce of hit own garden in its pure nnntixed atate,
he will soon run John Chinaman’s mixed and artifloially strengthen¬
ed rabbbfli out of the markety seonre his own iatoreste, advance the
prosptrity of India, and ueedily command from the English pnblio
that tnpport to whiob ali honest trade it sutitled. He will at
hand to afford any information poatlble reoardlng the cultivation,
marrafaoture, and tale of his produee, and if it be true, that from any
cause the present aystem works neither for the advantage of the
produoer not the consumer, it is only right and reasonable that ho
should use overy proper aud legithnate means to improve matter
without being oontldered guilty of any unseemly or unfair com¬
petition with wholeeole or retail tradesmen.->&ardtter’s Chronicle.
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE FAR EAST.
O NE of the moat interesting branches of commercial history to
trace U that of the growth of the sugar trade, from Its first
rude beginning* away back among tbs mists of time, down to its
present onormous development all over tlie world—a development
■wliioli last year In the United Kingdom alone, witli a population of
.SB,,900,000 souls, reached 089,208 tons, of su^r,—giving an Indivl-
dnal oonaumption of 62'77 tbs. ; and of molasses 12,672, tons, or
•801bs. per head. •
According to Dr. Mosley, the great authority on the history of
the surar Industry, the first uotloos we liavo of sugar are from the
pens of JPliny and Dioscoridos, the latter a sort of army surgeon,
who accompanied the Bomau legions In the first eontury of our era.
What their description simply amounts to is that it was a sort of
concreted honey found upon canes In India, of the consistency of
salt, and, like It, brittle between the teeth. It was used at Romo
os a medicine. Now, as the art of refining sugar and of making
loaf-sugar wiis not known until the end of the fifteenth oentnry,
it bos been very naturally conjectured that the sugar referred to as
Iieiug in use at Itome, Is no other than tlie sugar-candy of one's l>oy-
hooci, the ai't of making whioh has been known in China from
u remote antiunity. It is further kuosvn that large
(juantitics of this article have for many centuries been
exported to India, and that from thence, small quantities wore sent
to Rome. As, at least, showing the wide diffusion of the article,
wo may mention that so late os forty years ago the beautiful white
crystals of Chiuoso sugar-candy wore used for domestic purposes,
to the almost total oxulnsiou of evoTy other kind of sugar, by the
Europeans at the ^ different settlements of tho East. Canton was
not only a great ton aiulsilk ixirt, but. In possessing this monopoly,
was, as times weiit, a great sugar port, the annual export amount¬
ing tp the respectahlo hguro of 10,000 ton.s.
It will thus bo seen tliat the suecossful Introduction of tho sugar-
refiniug industry Into tho colony had, if.'we may so put it, some¬
what liko a liistorical warrant to authorise its iutroduution ; an<l
in saying this we do not in any way detract from tlie credit of those
bold spirits who worked so bard and lost so much in placing it an a
workable basis. As Hong-Koug, since its cession, has gradually
absorbed whatever of the ^nteu trade that did not go to the treaty
ports, it is natural to sxpeot that it should also have a share
in its sugar export, and with its greater facilities more than
take op the position that Canton once held as one of tho principal
centre* of distribution of refined sugar for the East. With sugar-
S ri^uolng countries all round ns, sugar ought to become a staple iu-
ustry here. Prom the statistios published by the luspsotor-
Gsueral of Customs at Shanghai, and from other souroo* of informa¬
tion, we learn that the cultivation of the sugar-oane, and the
rough and ready refining of sugar, is moie than ever seriously en-
gaMng the attention of Chinese farmers and oapitalists on the main-
Mnd; thna indicating that In spite of all drswbaohs there incident
to such an industry, n possesses -within itself all the elements of suc¬
cess. The native appliances for ornshing the oaue are of the rudest
construction, and are profiled by animal labour, usually from four
to five small oxen. The juice, after being oolleetsd in a receptacle
in the whioh holds from twenty to thirty gallons, is re¬
moved ny hand to the boiling pane. These boiling pans ate made
of oaet-lron and are mannfaotnred at Fatehan, near Canton. The
principal varieties of sugar made are the oaudy, tho groeu, and the
clayed sugars, of which the first and last are largely exported. In
all the three descriptions, the process seems to bo tedious, uncer¬
tain, and wasteful, involving a vast amount of human and animal
labour. Tke endeavour to get rid of such hampering conditions,
together with a desire to have freedom from official Intorfercnco, in
a urge meaenro explains the erection of tho refinery bv a Ghiueie
Company at Bowrington, East Point. The machinery for this con¬
cern, we believe, IsenppUed bj' a well-known (Ireonofl* Ann. It
poMeases the latest improkements, and has cost £50,000 eterling.
We learn that, with t&e exoeptloua of tlio manager, enMneer, and
one or two others, it is entirely a Chinese spoonlatlon, and altogeitber
under their control.
The oaneee which at preeent arc militating so disastrously against
lugai.reflalng in England and Fnaoe, we imagine, will ultimately
oondnoe to the proqMiity of nigar-refiniBg abroad, especially in the
East. Germany and Anetrio, in Barticalar, it la well known, ore
bolstering np at the expense of their ratepayers and of other bi-
dustries, the mauufxMtnre of beetroot sugar, by a system of boun¬
ties utterly subversive of all prinolplea of free or. fair trade. The
only remedy for this state of things, as far a* can be seen at present,
is the rodnotion of alt intermediate profits the transfer of all pro-
oesses oonneoted with refining to sngar-produclng localities. If
this is the remedy, and facts tend to show tpat it is, tlie oonsoquenco
will be the removal of English capital to the souroes of produotion ;
and it most he oonceded tliat nowhere is there suub a^ combination
of advantages as ore to be found in China and the Philippines. In
the first place there exist all suitable conditious of olimate and of
soil, labour is cheap and abundant, refining from the cano is speodl-
ly and less expensively effeotod than from beet, Ac-, and no other
sacoharlferous plant surpasses the cane, in the purity of its juice,
In its extraordinary vitality and in the prodigality of Its yielcl, and
lost but not. least the constant, almost ^ily, uommonioatlon
with tlie principal sugar-consuming countries by line* of steamers
prooeeding to both hemispheres.
That we have an undoubted advantage in poseesslng abundance
of cheap labour Is borne oat by the fact that the sugar-producing
oountries of Hawaii, Ueuiurara, the Mauritius, Cuba, Natal (and
North Queenslaud, if we mistake uot) have, all in turn and at
immense expense, imported field hands from these shores. Even
the introdnutlon of Chinese laboarer* does uot solve the difficulty ;
for the Chinaman who has a genius for retail shopkeeping, the
moment be has capital enough, turns his hack on all Arid work, and
sets himself up in a store In the neighhouriiig village or nearest
town. Nay, more; further oomplioatioiiB await the planter and the
mill-owner from tho ooolies they havo Introduced. Referring to tlie
introduotion of Chinese labour into Hawaii, Mr. Thrum of Hono¬
lulu remark* :—“ Tha very large influx of Chinese during tli*
early part of the year affoixfed no apparent relief to sugar and rice
plantidlona in modifying the rates of wogM, whish have materially
advanced since the workings of tha treaty were entered upon, as
they (the ooolies) were found to bo under sworn sscrut society obli¬
gations to maintain rates or figures fonud existing ; aud to secure
sufficient to break such a monopoly would be to endanger our com-
meroial relations and lose our autonomy,” We may remark that,
notwithstanding the troubles that affiict the Hawaiian sugar-planter,
he has been doing very well. Tho sugar exported to too United
States was oalonlated to be 45,250 tons—not a bad output for a
group of mountainous island* of an area uot much larger than
Vorkshiro.”
From the trouble* we havo mentioned above, employer* of labour
in China and our uelghliours lii the Philippine* are happily to a
peat extent exempt. 1’he teeming millions of unskilled, badly-led
labourers render oombloation among this class next to an Impossibi¬
lity, aud they are not adverse to emigration to tho PUiliPidnss.
Our local line of steamers render the exfieusee of specially ohartsr-
ing vessels for einigranU unnooesiary ; and the Spanish Govern¬
ment, if we know it at all, la not a Oovornnient to stand any
nonsonso from secret voolotioa or trades-union obligations. lYtien,
in tho present condition of sugar-growing aud sugar-refining in the
Philippines, wo find that Manila togavin the Now York market
oompetos to advantage witli West India aud lx)uisiaua sugars and
homo sngar made from heot and otliur socohorlno plants, it Is a
logitimate inference that witli a still fuller development of the trade
and with an ultimate reductiou of expense uonsequont on thu In¬
troduction of more economical methods of working, and as time*
goes on, we shall hid fair to command a wider and more profitable
market, Lotus take an instance. We quote from a number of
the Sugar Oana :—Tho steamer Malabar some time since arrived
in New York with a cargo of 2,325 tons of sugar. This is said to
have been tho first stoamor that has over oome from ths Phlllppin*
Islands to the United States, and she brings what is believed to be
the largest cargo of sugar imported to the United State*. Tlio
cargo was consigned toMessrs, Willett & Hamlin of New York, who
have sold it for 9360,000 to Messrs. Havsmsyer. and Elder, sugar
refiners. The cargo will pay duty to the Government of about
$125,000.” We do not know and have not oared to enquire whether
this particular cargo proved a profitable speculation or
not, but Ik does not take tnuoh acuteness to read between the lines,
and to perceive that, if the sugar hsd been refined in Hanlla, what
a great amount of charges for freight, for commissions of all kinds,
and porliaps, for duties, would have been saved.
We refer in this artiole to no concern in w'tioular, nor hove wo
any Interest or bios In favor of any particular iospactioo ; what we
simply wish to point out is that there is a great future for the s^ar
industry in China and ths Philippines—speaking generally. One
point must not be omitted ; It is an unquestionable fact that the
use of sugar among tha Chinese is rapidly inersaaing ; it is ceasing to
b* a luxury, and is fast becoming on article of diet, Wltii suen a
market at our doors, oapahl* of almost lude&ttit* expansion, thers
sliould be no room foe hesitation; espscialty a* ths experieno* of the
trade show* that wlienovar sugar has been mtrodnoed Into a district,
the demand is maintained. As fottbe sugar-bounties, we oan afford
to laugh at them, fur no bMt refineries, M they ever so liberally sub¬
sidized, can ooutlnuo long to oompoto with the exceptional combina¬
tion of reeources that Nature ha* placed at our disposal, in a teeitp
iugaud iodnstrious populatloQ, in a fertile soil, and in tropical
Ruu.—(M ma Mail.
TSHLGIRI BOTANICAL GARDENa
T he report on the progress and condition of ;the Government
Botanical Garden and Parks on tho Nllglris for the year
1881-82, which was submitted by Mr, A. Jamieson, tho Snporiu-
tondeut, in July 1882, has been published, with the remarks of
Government thereon. The latter Inoladc tho following i—“ Tho
100
THE INDIAN AQEICULTtTRIST.
Harcli 1, 1883.
dal^y in the eubtuitdon of tfati report, which wu dae on th
10th July, is noted with d&Mppmr»l, In fnturo the Coliecto.
should {orward the Superintendent’s report «t once with any
remarks ho may have to make. An elaborate coveriaa letter on i
technioal subject Is wholly unoalled for.” Wo read that “ durian
the year nnaor report, 377 fruit trees, 2,34S timber trees, 7,96(
ornamental trees, shrubs add herbaceous plants, 2,317 packets of
vegetable and flower seeds, 65 bouquets, and 141 baskets of out'
flowers were sold by the gardens. iTbe gross inoome from the salt
of seeds, plants, Ao., from the several gardens was Rs. 3,0l26-10-4,
and the expenditure Es. 18 , 4526 .” The growth of potatoes during
the year has not been satisfaetoiy, but the Superintendent has
obtaumd some new and approved kinds from England whloh
promise to do very well. He agdn calls the attention of plantora
and owners of cattle on the hilts to prickly oomfrey and Bromt
grass as fodder-producers. These fodder plants, he states,
undoubtedly hold the first rank both as regards quantity ant
quality of their yield, and the ease with whloh they can be oultl
vatod. A now fodder plant, tagasoate [Oylimu prv^tiruc) has
attracted Mr. Jamieson’s attention, and he says that of all the
plants with which be la acquainted, none seem to have taken more
kindly to the soil and cumate of the Kilgiris than this shrub.
The plant would, he feels sure, be especially valuable In localities
such as Kartary and Kalhatti, whore grt^g Is year by year
becoming soareer. He has a quantity of seed and will be happy
to give some to any one willing to ^ve It a trial. Some interest¬
ing experiments with cinchona were tried. Oinchnna Oarlltaf/rna
thrived very well, and the propagation of this valuable spreioa
has been so suoeessful that a number of well-grown plants and
cuttinn were handed to the Overseer of the Dodabetta Plantation.
And Sim’s Park Ledperiana did not suooeod, owbig to the soil
being unfavourable. Here some foresight and a tittle thought
raisht have prevented what proved a useless experiment. It is
well known—or should bo—what soil LedynHann will grow in,
and surely the Superintendent knew what soil he had to deal with
In Sim’s Park ? There is no lack of lltoraturo dealing with oinohons
oultivatiou. Owen’s Manual Is one of the best works yot published,
and besides that one there are King’s Manual, Markham's “ Pern-
vian Barks,” Mr. J. Ferguson’s essay, and others. What Mr. Jamie¬
son prized most of the new plants introduced wero the Oa^tiUoa
JUlaulka plants obtained from Ceylon, and which he has no
doubt will And a suitable homo In Wynoad, where it will
probably yield a profitable return to the cultivator. The black
wattle appears to thrive vevy well in Ootacamund, and as the
bark is vaiuaWe for tanning purposes, while the timber is of a
superior quality, the Superintendent of the Botanical Ganiena calls
theattennon of all who contemplate planting to this valuable tree.
The cultivation of the wattle Is •in^le and easy. Perhaps we may
soon read what the Conservator of Forests says about wattle, as his
opinion has bocusou^t. Mr, Jamieson says oELiberiau ooifec :—
" This excellent coffee continues to grow luxuriantly and yields
annually more abundant crops tlian the ordinary coifno growing
alongside of It. The Native estate proprietors in and around Bar-
liyar aro now, I am glad to say, beginning to recognise its supe¬
riority over the Coffee Arabioa and ore now planting it pretty
oxtonsivoly on their estates, There can be no question that in a
climate like that of Barliyar lieavicr and more regular crops may
bo oaioulatod upon from this species of coffee. Nearly half of last
year’s crop was stripped from the branches before ripening by the
nigh winds in November. However, snffioiout was saved to raise
nurseries and moot the demand for seeds.”
Ipecacuanha has made fair progress, hut has not increased iu
size and vigour, or made root growth saffioiont to onoourago a hope
that It can ever bo mown at Barliyar as an article of eommoroe. At
his Excellency the Governor’s request some plauts are being tried in
Ooty. Ceara Rublrer trees have done very well, and there is a
oonsiderablo demand for plauts. The cultivation of Jalap has passed
beyond the experimental stage, ami it is now an establlshod fact
that Jalap eon be grown sucoessfally In Ootacamund, and will pay
a fair return on the outlay, eveu at the price allowed by the Medi¬
cal Stores. On the whole, the gardens have been useful to the
presktottoy, but there seems to be something wanting ; Rs. 13,000
per annum should produce better results. The experiments are
generally on snoh a snuill scale that a slight aocldeut may at any
time destroy all the Superintendent has got of any new plant, and
thus delay the publioaisott of information whiub may bo of vast
importance to the agriculturists of the country, professor Law
son's advent will probably give a stimulus to effort iu this depart¬
ment, and wo understand ho Will spend several weeks at the
Peradeniya Gardens, Ceylon, bofore arriving hero. There a much
larger sum is expended on experiments, and the receipts for plant
and seed sold are much higher .—IdadfM Mail,
CULTIVATION OF DIVI-DIVI.
Mb. W, E. EoBBBTSOtr, Suporinteudent, Government Farms, re¬
ported to the Board of Revenue in October last that "Oivi-Bivi bush
grows freely at ^dawt and its neighbourhood. Wo have in the
Botanical grounds 17 bUidtea about four years old, raised from seed
obtained from Bangalbre whiob, last year, yielded 1^. of pods, and
they are now beaitag ag^. The seed will bo ooUocted and sown
In view to the estabushment of a small plantation,” Ou the 20tti
October the Board of Revenne requestsd Mr. Robertson to make
inquiries as to the demand for 1«e leads in the pmrket for tauning
purposes, and to report whether he thinks an extoosion of the culti¬
vation would prove tinaneiolly successful.”
Surgeon-Major G. Bidio, M.B., Superlatendeut,Government Cen¬
tral Museum, rsportod to the Secretary to Government, Revenue
Henurtmeitt, os toe 10th November, as follows —“ With raforonce
to G, p., 9P9 Sflth August 13?2, 1 have toe honor to state
that It appears to jne tiiat tos Foyest Dsfttriimattt might instllnto
small experimental plantingt of toe Dhi'Qivl where this could be
done without iuourring lanoh extra expense. So far as my owa ob¬
servation goes, the tree does not grow vefy freely on the plmns, imd
it is desirable to find out Where It will tfative Without much, trouble,
and where the attention necessary to get it to grow would render its
oultivatiou too expensive. If its oulturebi Ukdy to prove remunera¬
tive,the experiments of toe Forest Hapartmeot mil m the best means
of showing this tothe people and inducing toem to plant the toees.
The Divi-Divi according to my observation thrives host at an eleva-
tion of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the eea level and likes a fair
amount of moisture. The trees at Hoonsoor are the largest and
most luxuriant whioh have come under my notice, and thole at Oim>
toor indifferent." Major J. Campbell Walker, Conservator of Forests,
reported on the 16tU Deoembor as follows " I have_ the honor to
submit the following Iniormatiou regarding the Divi-Divi (Oeualpiniet,
Boriat'la) called for m G, 0., No. 908, dated 29th August last. On
receipt of the order iu question a circular memorandum was issued
to Divisional Officers requesting them to report on the cilltivatlou of
the tree and the pros^ots of sucoessfally extending it. Replies have
reached me from all (usttiots except Nilgiri and Godavari. The
tree is not cultivated in the Kurnool, 'mchinopoiy, Coimbatore,
North Aroot, Palghat, Nilambnr, Bellary, Tinnevelly, Cuddapah,
and Madura Divisions. The Assistant OoUeotor, in temporary
charge of South Conara Forests, reports that he knows of no oultiva¬
tiou lu the district, but the Collector adds a note to too effect that
ho has seen some plauts of merely two years’ growth which look os
if both soil and climate suited thorn, and that be has three promis¬
ing young trees of his own. The Head Assistant Collector in
charge of Palghat thinks that the tree might thrive in toe Walayar
Reserve, but fears the moisture would be too much for it elsewhere
iu his division. The Deputy Conservator of Wynoad Forests refers
to a few trees grown lu a coffee plantation of Colonel Woolridge, a
rcsidcut of many years’ standing ; but gives no information os to
their condition or the soil, ospoot, and elevation where they are grow¬
ing. Ho is anxious, however, to receive seed for oxporlmont. The
Deputy Conservator, South Arcot Forrets, reports that experiments
are being tried by Mr. Weld, Sub-Collector, near Tiiidivanam, and
states his opinion from observation of tlioso au(l„othor plants grow¬
ing a mile from the sea that the tree is likely to succeed in sandy
soil at Cuddalore. He has failed iu his own efforts to introduce the
Divi-Divi into topes and reserves, and the yield from trees ho has
known elsewhere iu the district is not satisfactory. He refers to
some trees lie recently saw in Wynoad, probably the same os those
(ueationodlu paragraph 5, and describes the wood os white, hard,
and uaofiil, and the growth of the tree slow. The Deputy Couserva-
!or of Salem Forests states that the Divi-Divi is oultivated to a
mail extent in his district by private individuals, and, referring to
1 commumcatiou from the proprietor of the plantation near Mad-
■as, ho advocated the opening of an experimental plantation by the
Forest Department in the Salem District. Ho says a stiff clayey
loil is goiiorally well adapted to the tree, hut wherever the Aixieiit
'furtij/nliT ffonrisiiCH, it is safe to plant the Divi-Divi, and this is one
if the best guides in seluoting a site, J'he Snb-Assistant in charge
if Goomsur and Surodo Forests reports that he has now six trees iu
ho e.xporimontal teak plantation at Moyagudda, which were pro-
ured from Chicacola in 1870, and aro now thriving, averaging iu
iciglit J3 feet with a girth of 2 feet at li foot from the ground. Ho
lonsidois an experiment is likely to succeed. This information is
;oo meagre to justify definite conclusions for or against extensive
jiiltivatiou, but I agree with Dr. Bidio’s suggestions, recorded with
J. O. No. .3883, of 20th November last, and think we cannot do
letter than iustituto a number of experiments in different localities,
would suggest Mangalore, Nilambur, Walayar, Manantoddy, the
uaimalais, parts of Salem, Tiiinevolly, Maaura, South Aroot and
'•laiijam as localities whore suitable arrangements could be mode
‘or experiments, and if Governmeut approve and obtain seed for
ho purpose, I will issue the necessary orders. The tree grows fair-
.y-well IU Madras, and, I believe, in Bangalore, and nseful informa-
tjou regarding it could probably be given by the Honorary Secretary
to the Agri-Horticultural Society and Superintendent of the Lu
Bagh Gardens.”
Order of Government, dated 17tli January 1883—"The Divi-Divi
ireo (Cwmljpiinu nor-l/ii’ia) has long been cultivated to a small extent
n this I’residonoy. It grows and boars uimndant seed on the worst
oils in Madras. It will probably succeed bettor at a higher ale-
'ation, and in view of the coinmurciol value of its pods anu the In-
reaso In their export In late years, the Government resolve to lauc-
iou the proposal of the Conservator of Forests to cuItiJate the tree
jn a large scale iu the places named. The Board will call upon
Mr. Bxibertson to expedite the submission of the report asked for
paragraph 2 of their Proceedings, dated 20th October iMt.”
F.K MAN ’S PATENT PROCESS FOR TREATING
WOOD AND FIBROUS PLANTS.
M esses. HINDEA CO.,of Caliout, who an agents for Mr.
Ekman, have now been good enough to fulfil their premise
iding us specifioations of patents and also estimates. It
.poears tiiat the chemical agents used in the process of maceration
,re sulphuric acid and carbonate of magnesia in tite proportion of
.wo of the former to one of the latter, the solution giving apprexl-
matoly l‘4/10ths per cent of magnesia and 44-IOths of sulphurous
add. Magnesia is preferred to either potash or soda as being less
'ujurlonsto the texture of the wood or fibres treated. The lob-
jtanco to bo prepared Is boiled in tlie lolutiou under pressure ;
gas and steam being also blown off, mainly, it would ssem, to
prevent burning, itodiflcfttlqni gf the appliances employed would
March 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AaKICULTURIST.
lOi
have to be nutde with reierenoa to niaterUU treated, eueli aa
banibM, rhea, Ao., Ml iurormation boinfi aSbrded by the ageata
on rofetwoeto them. The royai^ on tno jireparatlon of paper
Pap^ work*, 8uoh~ as Mr. Khenan’s In louden, oust £10,000, the
ma^inery alone coming to £7,100, thus :—
Fonr jaoketted boilers 13 feet long insidn by four feet
diameter, with lead lining, aapports and fitting, cost,
ereoted, say ... ... ... ... ... £2,GOO
Two smali generating boilers, capable of supplying
steam to tlie other boilers, up to 00% pressuro pec square
inch, say ... ... ... ... ... £350
Kiln, to bum 500 tons of carbonate of magnesia per
annum, Will cost about ... ... ... ... £150
Apparatus in laboratory (exclusive of building) to mako
ohendoals for 1,000 tons of dry fibre or paper pulp per
annum ... ... ... ... ... £000
Eighty-inch paper machine, speeded from 20 to 150 feet
per minute, with stuff chests, knotters, back water pumps,
intermediate rolls, cooling cylinder, two sots ordinary
calenders, damping apparatus, steam engino and gear, would
cost, erected ... ... ... ... £4,000
We are told that working day and night such a machine would
produce from 20 to 30 tons of paper por week, say 1,000 to 1,600
tons a year according to the sorts made. Working only by day,
which would probably be best to begin with, it would easily mako
000 tons a year. It is added that—
The other arrangements of the Mill should lie made with a
view to working eventually up to the full power of the paper
machine.
Then follow long details of breakore, washers, potchors, beatmg
engines, farbia and clay-mUiug tanks, alum and sir.e, auj two
colour coppers, bleach-iiuxiug tanks, &o., Including u 200-hoixe
power engine and cori osponding boilers, bringing the total cost
up to £19,705, still apart from buildings j an,l wo arc told that
such u mill could bo •iucroasod to turn out .GO tons of paper
per week forau expenditure not exceeding £10,000 for machinery,
ftc,
Huoli a uiill, if built at'Caloutta, for the working up of jute with
others at Bombay and the various capitals or coutres of cotton
districts for tho preparation of waste cotton, would go a good
way to supply thn total present demands of India for paper. A
turn-out of 50 tons per week would amount in a year to 2,600 tons,
or 62,000 cwt., equivalent to 07,000,000%. But wo, in Ceylon,
have only a geueral interest in snub huge pax>er factories. What
we want to Know is buw best to prepare out bamboos, aloes,
piuoapplos, plantains, and other cultivatod and wild fibre plants,
into “ Imlf'Stuff” for paper, or clean fibre or textile purposes,
with a view to their sale in the Loudon or other markets at profitable
priues. Unless tho boilers could be easily carried to and erected
lu tho neighbourhood of abundant material, the carriage of snub
material to the manufactory would bo costly, oven if smali crush¬
ing rollers were used to squeeze out tho largo proportion of water
contained in plantain stems, aloo, and pineapple leaves, Ac.
The process for tho manufacture of paper-pulp from wood, bamboos,
or any fibrous plaut^ ami for separating valuable fibres such as rhea,
jute, hemp, Manilla hemp, flax, Ac., Ac., from tho green ripe
etems, is said to bo “ simple and inexpensive.” Lot our readers
judge from tho details given ;—
The process is simple'and iiicxponsivo, and consists of placing
tlio substances to bo treated in a cylinder ami snbjocting them
to boiling under a pressure of 90%. of steam, in water containing
so much surpburouB acid, more or loss in oombinutioii with on
alkali or baso, as shall bo uecossary to prevent the oxulatieu of
the organic matter.
To insuro perfect success tho base must be such as forms tolerably
soluble compounds with sulphurous acid. Potash, soda, and magnesia
aro available for this purpose ; tho latter is the host and cheapest,
and is principally ohosen oy Mr. Eknian for his pioocts.
Sulphur and magnesia aro therefore the only chomicals required.
Necessary buildings and apparatus for the manufacture and mani¬
pulation of chemicals coat about £1,000.
To mako stuff for 800 tons of paper per annum would require 4
boilers, eooh 12 feet long by four feet in diameter. One such
boiler costs, with lead lining supports and fittings complete, about
£600 or £600 erected, and would boll at ouo operation sufijclent
wood, Ac., to produce 6-12ths of a ton of dry paper-pulp or cellulose,
and a boiler can make two boilings a day.
A cylinder, 16 feet in length by 6 foot in diameter, lined with
lead, would be anffloient to turn out two tons Of dry cellulose every
24 hours ; and this would bo sufficient to keep ni lining large paper
works Buoh as Mr, Ekmau’s at Ilford. This cylinder would cost
£1,000. The smaller oylinders are probably more suitable for
India.
Paper works such as Mr. Ekman’s cost about about £10,000.
Tho space required for joint factories, i e , paper and oollulose
or fibro-oleaning, would be about 2 acres. Au ample supply
of pura water free from iron is required for washing purposes;
should Iron exist in water at a suitable sito for manuiaotory, it
ean be preoipitated by the use of caustic lime.
Pure cellulose or “wood pulp,” and “ultimate fibre” are all
produosd by the same apparatus, and Mr. Ekmau's is the only
process by which the most or “ ultimate fibre” is produced, Tho
great advantaaos of the process consist in its simplicity, cheapness,
andthenon-injnryand non-dlsooloratiou of either pulp or filamente.
To paper filaments and ultimate fibre, polongea boiling and
wwbJvi alone is required, Bat the preiuninary arrangements
for the preparation of wood and fibrous plants differ oonsuk mbly,
and depouffit on whether paper-pulp, ultimate fibre filamonts, or
fibre such as aloe or oott fs to be made. Wood will require
different proliminary treatment from hemp, and bamboo from
rhea. After the raw materials have undergone tho patent process,
the treatment must bo entirely different for paper-pulp for filament
and for ultimate fibre ! If therefore a manufactory is to be economi¬
cally sreOted and worked, it is necessary to determine boforcliand
tlie ulast of raw material which is to be treated, and tlie class of
fibre to be produced.
Paper-pulp requires beating and washing ; ultimate fibre requires
thorough washing; fltamouts require washing drying, scutching, and
heokling. Again, to sub-divide papsr-pulp making; if it U iuteudsd
to make only ordinary printing papers, small bands, and wrappers,
no arrangements for chlorine bleaching will require to bo made in
tlis paper-mill ; but to make superior sorts of paper os
well as inforior, then arrangements must bo made for uleaching
by hypochlorite o fllmo. It is not possible to give any idea of
the cost of gear and amount of room neoessary to prepare
a certain quantity of raw material for the patent process until
I the Ititul of raw matorial is defined.
Plans and specifications for the ersotiou of paper uiilli, or for an
apparatus for the proparation of wood or fibrous plants only, can be
obtained by sending to the agents at any of the principal towns
in India the following infotmation with reference to papor-mauu-
factnre :—
1. —The kind of raw material it is intended to use.
2. —Tho (quantity of paper intended to bo manufactured per
week or month, and the sort of papor requireit,
3. —An exact plan of tlie locality where it is proposed to erect
the mill, with sections.
As regards fibres for textile purpose—such as tho fibre got
from hemp, rhea, Noilghurry nettle, Manilla hemp and otnor
numerous fibre plants miiuli abound in India— if a good fibre can
be produced from any of this by any process, better can be pro-
duued by Ekmau’s process, and ut Isss cost. If fair sized samples
of raw matorial aro sent to Mr, Ekman In London, au opluieu
will bo given—
1. —As to whether tliey will prove usofulat ell.
2. —At to whether they aro best suited for paper or textiles.
'J'ho right to mamifactnrc papor-pulp by Ekinan's Patent Process
can be arranged for, subject to the payment of a royalty of £1 per
ton of dry pulp produced.
'I'he royalty on the manufacture'of filaments and ultimate fibre
will be somowliut higher and will be uspccially arranged through
the ageuts—Hind* and Co., Agents, Calient, Malabar,
Looking nt the abundnuce aud the cheapness of white fir lu
Eurupu aud the low ratu at which it can bo couvortod to
paper, we do not suppose any one iii India or Ceylon
will thiuk of meddling with limber woods. Bamboo is in a differ¬
ent category, and if thn matured stems, instead of the young
shoots as desiderated by Mr. itoutledge could, by Ekiimu’s prooess,
be converted into lialf-atulV, we should think the manufacturs
might in many localities, especially on tho banks of rivers, bo
profitably undertaken. It Is probable, however, that Qovarnmout
authorities would insist on sowing or planting operations sufficient
to i')rcveut the oxtlrjiatlou of bamboo forests. In tho case of aloes,
pine-apples, plantains, Ac., the longer and finer fibres would pro¬
bably be prepared for textile purposes, and the shorter fibres and
waste would answer for paper. “ Simple aud inexpenslvo ” as
Ekman’s process is said to be as woll as oneotual, wo supjioso it is
neither simple nor inexpensive enough to moot tho oonditloiis
laid down by the Uovorument of Inilia, or tho Hs. 50,000 prize
offered for the best machine fur cleuniug rhea fibre wuidd be
olaurisd. If we rooolluot aright, perfect portability was Insisted
ou. Mr. A. Dixon will be able to say If oarbonato of magiioefa
ooiild be easily and cheaply scjtarated from the dolomite limestone
which occurs lu our mountain regions, and tho value of which for
agricultural purposes is, we believe, deteriorated by tho proportion
of magnesia present in its composition. Had sulpliate been the
form of magnesia required, there would have boon no difficulty.
Tho salt manufacturers of India and Ceylon would gladly see uti¬
lized a produot which, from its bitter taste, purMtlve properties,
and extreme teudoucy to deliquescence, is, to them, one of tho
S oatoit possible nuisances, Doposlts of salts in onoieut
kcB, Ac., have frequently boon objected to, owing to tho mistake
of first using the layer of magnesia sulphate whioli covered the
pure sodium ohiuridu ; while in tho Mayo saltmines in India, tbo
grey mineral is composed of magnesium sulphate to no less a pro¬
portion tlian 68 per cent. If chemical soieneo Includes a oheai>
methud of converting sulpliate of luagnssia into carbonate (as we
believe Is the case), abundance of the latter would be available
here and in India. But tliore appears to be au exteneivo formo-
tloii (over 8 or iO square miles) of native carbonate of magnesia
(magnesite) in tho Salem district of the Madras Presidency ; and
it is said also to occur in the district of Tricldnrtpoly, Coimbatore,
and Mysore. Apart, therefore, from tho cheapness of this agent
in Europe, no doubt stores can bo gathered or prepared in India,
while some of the Indian and Ceylon pyrites might yield the ue-
uessary sulphur. Wo oauuot afford space for Mr. Ekman’s detailed
■pscification in full, but we quote the {laragraphs in which tho
special merits of the process are desoribed ;—
Tlie peculiar oharaoter of the Invention wUl be better nndsr-
stood by oousidering the advantages poasoasod by It over the usual
method in which oanstio soda is employed. Instead of using
caustic lod^, chemicals are employed which have a far less damaging
affect on tho fibres, and which, especially when magnesia is use^
are mnob cheaper. In boiling with caustic soda, the separation
of the fibre from the inorustiug matter depends,_ as Is well known,
on luoh matter being ronderod soluble by oxidatfon, but it is im¬
possible to prevent the fibres tbemselyes irom being also oxidised
102
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
March 1, 1883.
to Bonw extent, thereby weakening and partially deeiroying them,
and dimlnlghlng the quantity of pulp yielded by the Wood. On
the other band, in the Br«p<aatiD» of pulp according to , rty in^
vestiOB, BO oxidation of the fibre oan ooour when the o^raMoa i«
properly oouduoted. and the inemoting matter obl^inw ia ip we
lorm of gnmmy mattor (rf oommeroial value, tnetcgd (» befiw oou-
vortsd, a* by the old method. Into worthies* product* of the huittui
type.
Another advantage is that the boiling oan be done at hbcwt half
the prcwnro required < by the usual method, wh^ob i* of
great Importance in practice s beildo* that, the hbre U
SsM liahle to be weakened in the prooeaa A third advan¬
tage is, that by this method fibre Cba be prepared whiob,
without any farther ohemioal treatroeat, is auffiolently white to be
used for ordinary kinds of paper, and is oapable of iapplylng a
strong good paper withont admixture of other fibre. After a
subKcjnent treatmmrt with bleaching powder, It is mode saitable
for the manufaotnre of all the finer kinds of paper. Thu fibre
much resembles Unen in its phyaioal and ohemloal properties for
paper-midcing, and is tlierefore a very valuable material for this
purpoae.
A fourth advantage is that the solntion whiuh remains after
boiling contains a gamdike substonoe which at a sesall cost con be
made to serve os a substitute for dextrine for many purposes, and
thereby produce economy in the manufooture. Some portion also of
the ohemioal* used in tbe solution may be recovered. A further
advantage consist* in avoiding the iuiurlous efieot on vegetation
and on animal life prodnoed, as is well known, by spent soda lyo
resulting from the ordinary method or process.
And, lastly, oellnlose of good quality oan be prepared at a com¬
paratively low coat by the process hereinbefore described.
Keoder* interested In tbe .matter con now see whether Ekman's
pruoesa is simple enough, and also cheap enough, machinery,
chemicals and royalty included, to justify them in trying its effeot*.
If not by individuals yet by a Jolut-stook Company, we should be
glad to see experiments tried. Of fibrous plants a vast abuudanoc is
Boattered over Ceylon, and a simple and inexpensive, or, if
profitable in the end, a costly method of utilizing such plants, would
be an Iniineusc boon to the colony.—Ceylon Oftfcj'wv.
THE WASTE SUBSTANCES USED IN PAPEB-
MAKING.
A mong the most interesting of the scientific and technical
lectures delivered during the post month was that by Mr.
P. Ii. .Simmonds, who discoursed at the meeting of the Society of the
Art* on the snbjoot of “ The ■Utilisation of Waste : A quarter of a
eoutury’s progress.” Mr. Simmonds began by saying that though he
bod often discussed the some subject before the Society, he could
not but think that as stock-taking ws* on important featnro, it
would be onrlons and useful to ascertain the progress that hod been
mode in many of the important branobos to which he bad directed
attention sinoo he first introduced the snbjoot to the Society twenty-
eight years ago. In the last quarter of a century, very important
progress hod been mode in our home industries and foreign com¬
merce : but oertoinly the sucocss that had been effooted in the
ntlllsing of waste products and developing neglected ones was not tbe
least remarkable of recent sclentifle advances.
Mr, Simmonds then proceeded to deal with animal waste ; tlie
former waste of meot in New South Wales and Victoria, when sheep j
were boiled down simply for their tallow, and the recent development
of the preserved meat trade and the transport of foreign meat to
Europe. The nsa of horse-flesh os food was not left unnoticed, and
much stress was laid on the enormous waste of portions of animal
food that still goes on in the United States.
Of course the manufaotnre of "shoddy” and "mango” from a
mixture of woollen rags with wool or cotton received attention, as
well os the manufacture of waste silk. The adaptation of skins of
fishes a* well os of animals for various articles, and the adoption
of other waste animal substances Os manures was touched upon, and
then Mr. Simmonds came to consider the subject of
V^tUthU Waito,
in respect to whiob he stated, referring to paper manufacture, that :
—Let us pass now to vegetable substanoes, and I will first consider
tbs paper manufooture. A recent estimate was published, whiob set
down Uie paper mUla of the world at 4,000, producing 1,000,000
tons of paper, of whiob tbs halt was used for printing.
The quantltyM paper of different kinds now made in the United
Kingdom probably eeceeeds 8S0 mlUion pounds awuaUy. The news¬
paper press alone has made enormous strides, to say nothing of
books, pertodloals, and other printing demauds. A q^narter of a
century ago titere were soarOely twenty or thirty daily Issues of
newspapers In theKfaigdOM t now there Ore at least 140, many of
them papers with very large clrotthAhms. <
In 1856 we reo^ved but 10,284 tenl pt f^perrmaklng from
abroad ; in 1881 webnported 26,773 tons. . lEipartO .^^'s yfw only
Introduobdte «ny exte..'. 1861, vrhsn^l tons wen stceiyed. In
1S81 the imports had risen to 182,49.8400#, valued at £1,280,211.
Besidesthls we also imported ifii,<i50'toaS 4^ irood pulp and other
paper-making eubstattoet>. ■ ■ • , ■
It is uow evident that the hitora of the paperindnatiy trill In a lOrga
degree depend upon the use of wood is adraady to extensive*
ly employed. For the ordinorjrvarieties of paper grpniid wood Is
used, but for tbe finer sorts ohemloalfy psepaiwd woofi fibre or
eollulose is employed. The prootioM proosaa for ibe, praparathm of
cellulose was disoovered in 1852, and . numeroBS otiur procestee Or
Improvements have since been invented. It ooums into oommerqe
in two forms—wood pulp In sheets or blocks, and ligneous meal or-
wood flour.
In Central Bussia aspen wood Is moat extend vely employed; In
Sweden and Finland spmoe and fit, whloh afford the longest fibres ;
In Germany, France, and Belgium mixed woods. The pulp f^m
boeoh and birch woods has too short a fibre.
About twenty years ago some of the Amedoan papers used the
bamboo largely for making paper. This is no now application, for
the Chinese have long employed it for a common description of paper.
Of late years, boVever, Mr. Thomas Hontledge, of the Ford paper
mills, Newcastle, who was the first to ntUize extensively esparto
grass, has proseouted extensive reiearohes and enquiries, so as to
extend the supply of this exoellent paper material. It may be
mentioned here, that the number of the Softy’s Journal (Novem¬
ber 28, 1856) containing Dr. Boylo’s paper on Indian fibres, was
printed on {lapcr made by Mr. Routledge, entirety of esparto.
The fibrous stem and leaves of tbe plantain, which is so plontifnl
lu most tropical regions, have not yet been praotioally utilised,
altbougU efforts were made some years ago in British Guiana by a
Company, Dr. Ring, the Colonial Botanist at Calcutta, recently
reported ;—“ It lias been found that during the dry months, simple
exposure of the siloed stems to the sun is sufficient to p-epare the
fibre for paper-making, provided the paper mill be ou the spot.
What is still wanted is some cheap mode of rennvUig the oellular
tissue, so that tbe fibre may be shipped to England without the risk
of fermentation ou tlie voyoge. ”
A good deal of thu jute sent from IniUa to the United States con¬
sists of the dark root, or but-teuds of the fibre, which are out-off wlieu
the juto is pressed into bales. These are called " outtiugs ” in
Calcutta, aoix with us, " rejections” ; they now form a regularly
quoted ortiele of export to America, whore they are employed In the
fabrication of various shoddy stuffs. In former years those cuttings
wore thrown away.
Tiie Dundee AauertiHcr of tho 14th May 1873 was printed on
paper made from jute, and in the issue it was stated;—"This
IS the first paper, as fur oe wo are aware, ever printed on
jute. Being in the ooutre of the jute mannfacturing district, wo have
been anxious, for some time, to print ou tbe material which has
now hocume the staple of our local manufactures, and we are indebt¬
ed to our principal paper-maker, Mr, D. M. Watson, of Bullion-
field, for carrying out our wishes. It may bo explained that this
sample U made Minost entirely from old jute baggiug.” To some
extent, jute bagging and waste have uow been used by paper-makers
for several years.
Other waste substanoes arc coming into use with tho paper trade,
where obtainable in quantity and cheap. Megoss, the refiiss stalk
of the sugar-cane, makes excellent paper. The husks of oats,
barley, rye, and rice are also used aloue^ oi; oombined with other
materials.
Straw-board, of late years, has boeu found to be a cheaper material
than the old fashioned “ paste-board,” and it has oome extensively
into use in Amerioa for paper boxes. The annual product of strav/-
board in the State is from 35,000 to 40,000 tons.
Straw has loi^ beon emplovud as a paper material, but it is often
aoaroe and dear. It is even found protitablo to buy up the bedding
litter from the metropolitan stables, and, after woslifi^ and disin¬
fecting it, to sell it to tbe paper mills. The last United States
census (1880) showed that more than 270,000 tons of straw were
used for paper.
By the patent process of Chodwiok and Clench, the Carbonate of
soda is recovered from the waste liquors, resulting in the reduotion of
fibrous materials when manufaeturing paper pulp from straw,
esparto grass, hemp, jute, and other fibrous materials.
In a paper read last year before the Scottish Sooiety of Arts, by
Mr. Q. J. Wishart, ou tho recovery of soda from the spent lye iff tho
paper-maker, he observed :—
"The industrial progress of recent years basin no direction been
more marked than in tho utilisation of waste materials. New Indiu-
.trlea liave thus been created, aud old ones rendered more profitable,
* The whole matorloU used were :—
Straw ... ..,
RiQ^H see 4*«
OlUpaper ...
MaiuUa stock
Ootton-waste
Com (moiso) stock
Esparto grass
Sw.
640,843,600
413,417,409
103,848,9 6
1,363,$11,too
This is iaelusiTs *f the wood-pulp oouismsd.
Tm INDIAN AGEIOtJLTtJBIST.
103
March 1, 1883.
wUlogmv* ^bllo Bii{a«noei have, in many ooeeo, heen removed or
“ Ware U not for the bye-prodoote obhrfned from, what ,wm once
oone{dei«d waste in the manufootore of paraffin oil, it would be
inip(n«tble for the nuumfaotured oil of this country to eompoto with
the ready-modb article of the American welta. By a aimliar otilieation,
gas—the prbdnet primarily sought for in the disthlotion of oannel
ooal-^-eon, Itissaii^ bemannfaotorsdireeof cost t while, in the paper
industry, the ohemioals enjoyed ip the process of converting esparto
and other raw fibrous substances into paper pulp are now, to a targe
eartent, recovered, and are thus kept out of the streams they former¬
ly'polluted, to the manifest profit of the manufooturer, uid the
Batustaotiou->-8o far—of ripansn proprietors.”
Until a very recent period, the waste paper of the Qoveminent
offices of London was the perquisite of the messengers. But when
it wsB found that the aggregate sale of this waste paper reached
the sum of £10^000 to £18,OM a year, it was thought time to look
into this, and it was then handed ovw to the Stationery office, and,
in the lost financial year, the sale of waste paper reached £11,771.
Unfortunately, the Government printing is very lavish, every
member receiving about a ton Weight of Parliamentary documents
yearly. The United States Trcasuior sells yearly more than 600 tons
of paper pulp resulting from tlu) destruction by maceration of Gov¬
ernment securities, bank-notes, &o.
In one large printing and puhllshlug establishment in the
metropolis, the waste paper in shavings and imperfect Improssions
exceeds 70 tons a year. Bven the newspaper offices now economise
and use up their spoiled iuipressions or overplus papers for printing
their posters on.
Mr, Slmmonds then went on to consider the utilisation of
fibres for brush-making of seeds for producing oil, beot-root pulp
for foedmg cattle, the molasses of beet sugar for alcohol, and the
residue liquor, or “ vinasso,” for making iwtash. Ho then wont on
to spoak of waste substances of ttie brewery, and numerous other
vegetable substanoos, and oonoluded with an interesting referenoo
to mineral waste, iuoinding broken glass.
In tbo ensuing disenssion Mr. Rontlodge said the paper trade was
probalily the one wilich, of all others, ntilisoJ waste products more
than any otlior. They utilised cotton waste, flax waste, homp waste,
jute waste, old ropes, canvas rags, and even, os had been said,
stable manure—and he had soon very respectable paper made from
that material; they also used spent tan. In fact, the paper manu¬
facturer oonld use any vegetable fibre whatever, sometimes adding
a little animal fibre to give greater strength. Amongst other
materials In connection wltli the silk industry w'as mulberry bark ;
It was customary in nil siik-produoing countries to grow tho mul¬
berry loaves on the young bronches of tho trees, and when those
were stripped they were out down, and had bitherto been burned.
Soipo time ago be tried to collect them In Italy, but found it cost
too much; there was, however, an immense quantity to be obtained
in India, and it would, he believed, produce paper equal to what
Japanese made from tho paper mulWry. Ho had been astounded at
the statement in the paper of the enormous quantity of maize wasted
in tho United States, bat could readily believe it, for somo years
ago, having made on excellent (inolity of printing^per from maizo
leaves, he took out a patent for It in the States. When ha got there,
however, he found the cost of collecting the leaves was so great as
to render the process practically unworkable. In some places they
actually bumoS the corn to get rid of it. Allusion had boon made
to the fact that, in 1886, when he introduoed esparto, tho Sooioty’s
JourtMl was printed on paper made from it; and he might add that
tho year before last a portion of one issuo was printod on paper
made from bamboo. Asbestos hod also been used in paper-making,
and would be very valuable in some cases, booauso on uninfianima-
ble paper could be modo with it. He had some very fibrous
asbestos wbioh could be need admirably for what they oallod a
“ fiUer-up,” A oonaiderablo deal of attention had been given to
tho utilisation of the plantain tree and banana for papor-uiaking,
tot his experimonts had shown that it contained so small an
amount of fibre that he did not see how it onuld pay. The stems
of these herbaceous plants oontained 80 to 8,1 per cent, of water,
besides a large quatity of muoiloginoasand gelatinous matter which
must be elinunated, or else fermentation would set np ; so that,
practically, he did not get much more titan three to five per oent
of fibre. He hod made excellent paper from Manilla hemp In the
shape of old rope, and. In fact, the whole of the groenbaoka intro-
duted by the Americans after the civil war wore made from this
■ubstauoe. He had bought hundreds of tons at £2 to £3 a ton, but
the present ptioe was £llto £13. It was oolleeted by tho Americans
and exported,, because they found that by ohemioal means they
oould bleach it and make magnificentjpaMr matorlal. This hemp
was produced by slave labour in tho Fhuippino Islands at a vory
low cost, and sold here as a soml-manufactured fibre at £25 to £30 a
ton for rope-making, and also for making hangings, beoause it took
bright oolonted dyes. After being thus used, it come as a' waste
product to the paper-maker. Jute waste was also used to a large
extent; and ^-day, although the In^rtation of esparto grass was
very large, pfpbobly raaobiug 200,000 tons, without these waste
products oensumers would not obtain the cheap papor thoy
old, or the cheap periodical which wei-e the result of ohnap
. Wood pulp was likely to assume very consldor-
able importance m tb'o paper trade, two or three new prooesscr
having recently been introduced, by wUob pine wood could bo
oonvectod into cellulose. He had samples of paper made from it,
of wmderfnl strength and tenacity, very muon like parchment.
This oelinioae oonld be made In two ways, either by boiling the
wood with oaustlb alkali, or by treating It with tulphuroas aotd ;
Md when the palp was manufaotured you oonld. hardly tell, one
from ths other. He bad recently inspeotod tho process in Sweden,
and found the results very extraordinary ; but it could hardly bo
colled utilising a waste prodnot, though a largo quantity of matorlal
was made use of which otherwito would not to of much value.
THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP BY MEANS
OF SULPHUROUS AO!D COMBINED WITH
A BASE OR OTHERWISE.
(Translated from tho Journai den Ji’aMcanli di< Papier.)
S HVKRAL patents have lately boon taken nut in Frauue by
foreigners for the treatment of ligneous and textde materials
by sulphites of lime, soda, potash, and magnesia, with the object of
converting these materials into paper pulp.
In the interest of Krcncli industry, and likewise in some degrss
for its reputation, we consider it a duty to pahlisii in extento the
description of a patent No. 110,906, tAen out tlie 12th February,
1877, by M. Lioud, a paper manufooturer at Bonrg Argehtol
(Loire).
Wo shall tlusoriljo this by extracts, in order of their dates,
from tho patents taken out In Franco by .M. D. V. Franckd,
tho 13th Ootobor 188; by M. M. 0. Hokmanu, tho 10th
November, 1881 ; and from tliat obtained In Germany, and not In
Franco, by M. Mitsolierlioh, the 23ril January, 1878—patents all
having the same object, claiming directly or inUiroolly tho treat¬
ment of vegetable moterials, principally wood, by sulphurous acid
combined with a base, for tho production of paper pulp.
If these several inventors, of whom we neither suspeot the good
faith nor merit, have already been able to profit by their discoveries
ill their own countries, and can also profit like other inventors in
oura, by coming hero to manufacture their paper pulp according to
tins process, thoy cannot pretend to demand any remuneration for
tho invention itself from those who are equally entitled to make
usoof it, because a remuneration of this kind can only be due in
equity and jnstiuo to the real inventor os a logitimate reward for
his labour and sacrifices.
The patent of M, Lioud is lost, failing the regidar payment of tho
annual tax legally required. If its author has no longer tho oxolu-
aivo right to work i;i Franoe tor his sole profit, this potent for the
treatment of wood and textiles by sulphurous acid alono, or com¬
bined with different bases to produce paper pulp, and this because
he lias uhoudonod it voluntarily, for reasons whloh we need not
enquire into, it is only right Mint we should givs him the credit due
to Ids invention, and that Frauuo os well as foreign industry should
profit to the utmost extent by the fruits of the invention of one of
its coimtrymeu, and this without paying tribute to foreigners who
may lay claim to tho morit of the same inspirations as the original
inventor, only nomewhat later on, ■
Patent No. 116,096, 12th Fobmary, 1877, by M. Lioud. Title :
The, reparation of wo<Hly and textde mUtriaU yenercMy, and their
conversion into paper pnlp.
In order to render both woody and textile fibrous materials
suitable for tho production of paper, it is necessary to break up and
destroy the oombination which unites their fibres together. In
effeoting this, however, it is essential to preserve a certain length
to the ultimate fibres, while at the same time rendering tiiem fine
and supple, failing wbioh the..proper degree of felting together
oannot bo maintained, this being essential^ in order to produce a
good sheet of papor.
By certain mcohanloal means at present employed, the fibres can
be reduced in length, bat they still remain coarse and thick ;
ohemioal processes, whioh are daily extending, have the merit of
romovlug from tho tmo oelluloea all, pr a oonsldarahie portion of its
inorusting oomponnds, of separating it, and rendering it supple and
fine, while at the same time preserving its length.
The treatment whioh hi the object of thU patent oonsiits In the
disintegrating ohemioal action of solntiona of snlphurous acid, either
alone or more or loss oombined with difierent boaos. The operation
consists in digesting woody or textile materials In these solutions at
a temperature more or less elevated and prolonged, according to
their respective oharaoter, and thus U obtained a product sufficient¬
ly disintegrated to felt in a suitable manner, after msohanioal
treatment, for the manufacture of onrd-boards or papor. The pulp
thus prepared may to employed either for oarixm or paper,
I claim the treatment of fibrous sabstanoes ,by i^mittlng them,
aooordlng to their character,to the^dUlntegrating action of tolutlous
of sulphurous aoid, more or less ooftoenttatewL rithec alone or oom¬
bined with bases, and at a temperatuxo more pr less prolonged and
elevated, a process wlilch renders them fit to be eonvoited Into
paper pulp by a snbso<xnont moohanical trituration.
104
THE INDIAN AGEICULTUBIST.
March 1,188S.
Patent, D. V. Franck^ No. 145,317,13th Ootolm, ISA : for an
impt'otitdproem (tf fnam^acinring paptr pulp.
According to tbkaiyeolftcatioii, a toloticm o{ eulpbtte of lime
with aalphurolu aoid i» prepared by cauiing the vapounl of sal-
phnroue aoid, produced by burning anlphur or roaetlug oroaloiniug
lulpbidM •aoh a» iroh pyritea, to pua up a tower packed with
limeetone kept moiat by a flow of water.
It ia in tbia lolution at 4 or 6 degrees Bsauin4, that the materials
to be treated are boiled under a pressure of from 4 to 5 atmospheres
during 12 to 16 hours,
M. B, V. Franok4 claims as bis invention the production of
paper pulp from wood, espswto, from com, maize or other straws, or
from any other suitable fibrous materiaU, by treating them with an
aoid sulphite of Umo prepared and applied as ho describes.
An additional oertifioate, dated 21tt December, 1881, follows ;
This patent ooniroenoea by declaring, having now found that the j
aoid sulphites with other alkaline earths, snob ss magnesia or the
soluble alkalies of soda and potash, are also applicable to his process,
and he describes the method of preparing such solutions.
For au alksUne earth such as magnesia, or a mixture of magnesia
and lime, the process is the same as for Umo ; to treat a Holubls i
alkoU such as soda or potash, be fills the tower with some inert
materUd, porous, however, such as soke, bricks, or porous stone, i
and while the snlphurous acid vapours traverse the tower from
bottom to top, he percolates or pours over the porous material an
aqueous solution of the uanstio alkali Tbs liipiid cr>llcct»4 at the
bottom of the tower is tlie sulphite of the alkali.
In this additional patent, hi. D. V. Kraucki^' claims as Ids
invention :
The method of extracting from alkaline earths or from an alkali I
a sulphite applicable OS a dissolvent for the produotion of paper
pulp. 2nd ; The manufacture of paper pulp by treatbig wood,
straw, or other vegetable fibres by acid sulphites of an alkali,
prepared, and applied essentially as described.
Fatent, Daniel Eokmann, No. 14.6,744, 10th November, 1881.
Title ; Improved method for the treatment, of toood in order to
obtain Jibree suitable for the manufacture <if paper.
The foUowlng is the desoription of this process, liaving for its j
object the production from wood of a fibrous pulp suitable for the ■
manufacture of paper and other purposes. It consists in digesting
wood nndcr pressare in a solution of sulphurous acid and magnesia
under oertain conditions described.
Potash and carbonate of soda may also be employed, but the in¬
ventor prefers magnesia, because it is more advantageous, and
possesses chemical properties wliiob render it peeullarly suitable
for this process.
It is therefore upon the hypothesis of the employment of
magnesia and the wood of white pine of good quality and fine grain
the following desoription is bassd.
Tlio wood, deprived of its bark and its knots removed, is out into
pieces 15 to 20 miUimetres in length, and crushed between two
rollers so tliat the solution may readily penetrate it; this prepara¬
tion, however, may be otherwise effected.
White pine, And the other woods of this species, are particularly
suited to be treated by this process ; they afford for the mauu-
footuro of paper fibrea long, strong, and very pure, resembling w
character those of hemp. This speoles of wood is very abundant
in all countries, and generally cheap.
The suitability of other woods for this purpose depends ohiefiy
on the length and quality of their fibres, and upon the greater or lou
faollity with which their inorustiug compounds ore dissolved. The
choice of wood, therefore, is determined by the purpose for which
the pulp ts to be employed.
It is desirable in general to avoid employing very resinous woods,
on account of the difiloulty of sufficiently dissolving the vaiions
Incmstlng compounds in order to produce good celluloss. The
wood is sorted with more or less care, aooording to the pulp which
it is desired to produce i when a superior quality of pulp U desired
all resinous pieces, also those which are bard or decayed, are
rejected.
The wood thus selected is sorted over as required, and filled into
a boiler Witi> a double jacket, lined in its interior with lead, and so
arranged as to turn on its trunnions to facilitate charging and
discharging. .
It may be a vertical oyUhdrioal boiler, 1.'200 m, diameter (4 feet)
by 3'600 m. (14 feet) high. The boiler is SUed with wood to two-
thh^ its height, and the solution should cover the contents, so that
darii% the whole period of the oporatioa the contents should be
always covered, still leaving suffioieuti^paoe lor stoam, A plate of
load pierced with holes prevents any rising of the nateriiUs. The
cover is then secured by e steam-tight joint The boiler is also
furnished with a valve or stopcock to be regulated by the hand.
In the preparation of the ley it is deeiraUe to obttto a solution
containing about two eqnivalsnte of sulphurous arid for one equi¬
valent of magnesia, or approximatively in the proportjions necessary
to oonstitute a double sulphlto, or the salt known as bl-sniphlte of
magnesia. The solution then contains very nearly 1*4 100 of
magnesia and 4'4 per 100 of sulphurous aoid.
The steam is introduced into the jacket, to begin with, at a
pressure of 10 to 15 lb. per inch i so soon as the pressure in the
interior of the boiler att^s 5 tt). per inch, the stopcock is slightly
opened to permit of the escape of a small quantity of gas aud steam.
The pressure in the jacket ia increased gradually as the pressure in
the interior boiler iucroasea, end it is reoenunendedthat the excess
pressure in the first shall not exceed that in the second more than
30 lb, per inch (two atmospheres I-IO").
As the pressure in the inner ley boiler increases, the escape of gas
and steam should also bo increased, to avoid either the baming of
the discoloration of the wood.
In a boiler of the dimensions described the operation should
be conducted in such a manner that the preasuro in the ley vessel
reaches 25 lb. in two hours, and that it increases 20 Ib. per hour
during the two succeeding hours, 10 tb. during the next hour, and
10 lb. per hour during the following two hours. When the pres¬
sure reaches 85 to 00 lb,, this is kept up a further three hours,
when the operation is finished, this being proved by a peculiar
smell given off by the gases which arc allowed to escape through the
blow-off cock.
In the event of the wood becoming charred or discoloured,
which is indicated either by the oharadloristic odour of the gases
allowed to escape or by the colour of the ley, the further odraissinii
of steam is arrested, tlio boiler is emptied, and the wood washed.
AVlien no burning of the wood is indicated, it may bo allowed to
remain some time longer after the admission of steam to the jacket
has been stopped, the boiler is then emptied aud the wood drained.
The resulting pulp is triturated and washed, as usual, and the
ley, by suitable treatment, furnishes a gummy substance wliich
in many cases may be used os a substitute for dentrine. It may
also be troatsd to recover the chemical agents that - have been
employed.
AVhen it ia desirod to produce a pulp o f lower quality, by
abstraoting a less quantity of oombiued compounds, a ley less oon-
oeiitrated is employed at a lower pressure.
The proportions of the elements of the ley may be varied, noting,
however, that the solution of the incrustlng compounds will be less
complete the more basic the loy, and the production of the pulp
much more readily attained the more acid tho ley.
It has been remarked that tho pressure should not exosed 85 to
90 lbs per inch, because within these limits good results are attaiu-
sd, and a higher pressure would not be desirable in an economical
point of view ; these limits, however, are not absolute, as good
pulp has been obtained when the pressure has been oarriod to 110
lbs or even higher—8 atmospheres or more.
The pulp thus produced ia suitable for ordinary printing papers,
and when treated by chloride of lime, for papers of finer quality.
Tho ley, which is of an amber color, contains a large quantity of
gums resembling dcxtrluo, and some other soluble substances,
susceptible of being more or less utilizsd.
Whou the separation of tho compounde incmstlng the cellulose
is less complete, the pulp is euitsble for papers of inferior quality,
for carton, aud for papier machd.
The process is readily employed for other woods besides white
pine, with suitable modifioations. The quality of the pulp will
always depend, within the limits stated, upon the ndtability of the
wood employed for the manufautare ; thus, vai^ resinons wood, al-
thongh its fibre may be very good, is only suitable for inferior
papers, on oooount of the difficulty of abstracting the Inemiting
esmponnds.
The peculiarity of this process for the mannfaotiKe of pulp con¬
sists in a consideration of ths advantages it possesses over the cus¬
tomary process with caustic soda.
Instep of soda, materials are employed whioh haift much less
action niwn the fibres, besides which they ooetmuofa less, eapecially
when magnesia is employed.
By the soda treatmant,tbe separation of the Inomsting oomponuds
from the fibres depends upon ths former besoming soluble by oxida¬
tion ) but the oelluioso is also at the same time inevitably oxidised,
tho fibre thus loses its strength, and the yield of pulp is also less,
Mftrch 1, 1888.
THE mDIAN AGRICULTtrEIST.
106
Wfaeit tba MW prooett U Judiolowsly «(mduoted, no oxidation of th«
fibre* oan be produced, and the iuonutlng oompoonde are obtained
in the oondiUon of gnm«, whloh have a oommeroial value, irutead
of being of no Toloeiihe thoie reeultlng from the soda prooeai.
Aaotiier advantage derived le, that the treatment of wood by the
bi.»uJphlte of magneela only requires half tho pressure neceeaary by
the *oda prooee*. A third advantage is, that the pulp produced
by thii eyetem i* (uffiolently white, and can be employed, without
other obemieal treatment, for ordinary white papers, and affordi,
without any addition of other -fibres, a good and firm paper. If the
pulp t* bleaohe d by means of chloride of lime, It may be used for
all fine ipapen.
The pulp evidences in its conversion into paper physical ondcheml-
oal propertlas analogous to those of hemp ; it Is, therefore, suitable
for similar purposes. A fourth advantage results from the leys,
after the boiling, containing a gummy substance, which at low oost
may be oonverted Into a substitute for dextrine ; a portion also of
the materials employed for tho ley may be regouerated,
A still greater advantage is, that the process lias no influence
cither on animal life or vegetation, while such is not tho ease with
the process employing soda.
Finally, the cellulose is of excellent quality, and can be produced
at a comparatively low cost.
M. Mitsoherlich, of Muuden, has taken out in Germany a Patent
dated 23rd January, 1878. Title: KoveUk» in Iht jn-octs>et q/"
exlractiny tannin, u'ilh reauvry of the hi-in'odiicte, celluliisr, Qiim,
aetiic acid, doitblo tulphite <f lime.
Description : Tho process consists effectively in the action o f
double sulphite of liino, or sulphite of lime dissolved In a solution
of sulphurous acid, upon vegetable substances previously digested
by steam, for example wood, at a temperature above tho point
of the ebullition of water.
In what follows, wood slone will be referred to, although the
process U equally applionble to all otlier plants.
The solution of double sulphite of lime is obtained by causing to
pass simultaneously through carbonate of lime, reduced to pieces
of medium size placed In a tower, a current of water flowing,
from tho top to the bottom of tho tower, while a current of sul
phurous acid gas Is caused to pass in the reverse dirootion.
The sulphurous acid is produced partly by the burning of sul-
pbur, or other sulphur mineral, and partly by the evaporation of a
solution obtained as hereinafter dosoribeil ; in tho same manner,
other sulphurous salts, such as sulphite of soda, may be obtained
at low cost, which con, under certain conditions, bo equally em¬
ployed for this process.
Tho wood with the hark taken off, cut by a saw into pieces of
suitable length, eltjier with or without tlio knots, is placed in an
iron boiler covered with cement and lead, furuislied with lieatlug
tubes, and the necessary apparatus for the entrance and exit of
liquids and V'apours. I’ho wood is first submitted to tlio action
of steam, and then boiled in tiic .solution of bisulphite of lime, a
shorter or longer time, according to its state of division, but at least
during eight hours, at a temperature of 180 deg.
During the process, the compounds which are not cellulose are
dissolved In the sulntiou, the latter remaining as a softened mass.
The oontente of the boiler are thou submitted to evaporation so
long as the vapours escape, and they are condnotoj into the tower
containing the cai'bonatc of Ume previously mentioned, still bearing
the smell of sulphurous ouid. These vapours may also be conduct-
ed into a reservoir containing water and pure slacked lime, and thus
may be obtained a concentrated solution of bi-sulpkitu of lime, the
use of which Is extending more and mure for preventing the
fermentation of acetic acid and other nou-fermentablo
componiidt.
If the carbonate of lime U replaced by carbonate of soda, soda-
salts of different degrees of acidity are readily obtainable. The
soltttien in -which the cellulose remains is then drawn off. It
contain* besidos the stilts of lime, plaster, Ao., tannin, gummy
mattoTi, acetic acid, and a little snlpharous acid. Up to the
present time it bM chiefly been employed as follows
(a) A* a material for tanning skiua.
(fi) For the maoufaeture of gum,
(cf For producing vinegar.
(a) The solution may, without any other preparation but oon-
oentmtioD, unless employed where It Is produced, be used for
tanning, because the bl-producta, other than tannin, which it
contains, have no damaging effect In tanning.
The may like wise be precipitated by lime, and separated i
after a given time from the dried precipitate by means o! an add, j
The patentee remarks that the small quantity of sulphurous
odd oontalned in the solutioa expedites the tanning prooemaud
increases die solubUity of the bi-products in die soiudon. The
tanning matter* of the solutiou, when it is employed as it is pro¬
duced, retain the properties of tbs bark of the wood from which
tliey are derived. If, for exampln, the wood is pine, the natural
colour of the skiua will be as litde oban^ed as if the bark itself
-wore used, but the colouring action is modified in certain cases
when the solution Las been treated by lime and add at previously
described,
(b) For the manufacture of gummy prodnotSi the solution is
simply evaporated, the sulphate of lime erystallaed, and separated
by decoutadou. The residue of a brown colour, very deliquescent,
replaces in many cases gum-arabio.
The residue dried in the same manner M the ooBcOntrated solu.
tlon can be kept indefinitely withont ttay trace of deeompMidon or
mouidinoss. For some purposes it le desirable to precipitate the
lime by sulphuric add, and to separate the sulphurous acid
disengaged by evaporation, or to convert it into sulphuric acid by
tho addition of an alkaline chloride. For other purpoeos, it is
necessary before using tho gum to eliminate tlw the tannin.
(c) The acetic acid is obtained J>y ooudeusbig the vapours which
are disengaged during conoeutratiou. Alcohol may bo obtained by
the fermentation of a portion of the solution.
The insoluble portion which remains in the boiler is the cellulose,
with a part of the knots of the wood, tho condition of which is but
little altered on account of their density, and which may then bo
readily separated by mcchanioal means, Tho cellulose, nearly
white, is obtalaed by this now process in much larger quantity than
hitherto : thus, for example, pine-wood, aii’-driod, will yield 66 per
cent of ooUaloae. This is fit to be employed direct, or after having
been bleached, for the manufacture of paper, and oven for the
the produotiem of tissues.
The advantages of this new process over those now in nse are,
that it requires a less minute division of the wood, a temperature
and A pressure so low tlmt the boiler is not affected, and tliat all
ulmuue of c.xplusion is avoided. The preliminary digesthig in
steam materially fuoilitatus the reaction of tho hi-snlpliito of lime
oil the wood. Tho yield of cellulose is greater.
Thu patent, the description of wbicli wo have just read, boa
evidently for its principal object tho manufacture of paper jmlj/,
The assertion tliat tho yield of oelluloso froni air-dried pine should
be more than 60 per cent is spocially to bo noted, os it has been
considered till to-day that no wood has given more than -10 per cent
yield. If by Kitscherlieh’s process 66 per cent or mote is obtained,
it is possible tho pulp obtained is not pure oelluloso, but contains a
largo proportion of the incrusUng compounds of tho wood, trans¬
formed and bleached.
It appears from the oiroulor of a manufactory employing this
now- process that tho unbleached pulp may bo employed for white
paper without any other preparation than an energetic wasliicg by
plain water.
To avoid auy accident when sizing, it is desiiable to add before
doing so a small quantity of bi-sulphite of lime. This oompoiuid,
which constitutes acooriUug to the previous deseriptiou the basis
of tho manufacture, can be delivered from the manufactory in
solution, in carboys, or casks preserved by petroleum.
In tho event of a higher white colour of tho pulp being desired,
this may be obtained by treating with chloride of Ume. It is re¬
commended when doing this for economical reasons to add a small
quantity of milk of lime. The reason for doing this is not ex¬
plained.
fl'his process, for which no patent has bean taken out in Fronoe,
has been employed in Germany before either M. iVonck^ or M.
Kekmanu made application for their patents,
CINCHONA.
THE CINCHONA TEADE.
I T is a frequent remark that there mnst needs be a limit to the
demand for, and consumption of quinine; and it Is argued that
those who are planting oinchona largely, in confident expectation of
tho maintensiioe of present market values, are likely to be caused
severe disappointment, when they commence to reap their harvest
of barks. Tlie Madras, Iteng.xl, and Nothcrlouds India Oovornmenti
have undertaken tho cultivation of cinchona, not in view to making
a profit from It, but primarily in order to render clnohona_more
106
March 1, 18S3i
THE INDIAN AGEIOULTTOIST.
abnndaBti And tbweby to Mnff quifitnc more rctdily within
of the {ever-UAble maltitvAe. i^inine U not eKootiy the hind of
madioine that one would go out of one’* way to indulge In tmueuee-
■ortty. It U bitter in tlte mouth f it leaves an acrid taste (and it is apt
to make the head sWim, and the aan to buzii. But year by year the
demand for Quinine luereases, and tbU demand ha* produced a
great inoreaee of supply, conned with the malntenanoe o( a high
and prolitable range of prices, lu 1870 the ijuantity of einchoua hark
imported into the United Kingdom (chleSy iuto I^ondon, which is
the chief market for the commodity in the world) was 2,53(i,<>08
lbs., voluod at sms,000) or at Is. 84d. per lb. Twelve years after¬
wards, or in 18S1, the imports amounted to 14,040,096 lbs., valued
at S*. 5d. per ib., or £1,814,601. Thus the <)uantity Imported in-
oreaaed by over five and-a-haU times, yet the average market price
rose by a half. The Importatioos from ludia were so smalt prior to
1870 that they were nrt thought worthy of special notice, aud were
included statistically in the quantities received from America and
other oouatrios. In 1876 they stood at the modest total of 158,480
lbs., valued at £9S)682 ; In 1877 and 1878 they stood at about half-
a-miUlon pound, valued at about £75,000; iu 1876 they shot up to
1,004,080 lbs., valued at £140,876 ; whence they rose iu 1880 to
1,814,736 lbs. valued at £215,068 ; and in 1881 to 1,864,612 lbs.,
valued at £248,804. Bo In the six year* ending with 1881, the
quantity and value of Indian clnohona bark increased by over
eleven time*. India, howover, supplied in 1881 but little more
than a sixth of the quantity of bark taken by tlio United Kingdom.
Bbe ranked notwithstanding second on the list, aud was followed
by Pem*-the original home of “Peruvian Bark”—^wlth 1,169,168 lbs.,
France with 1,067,608 lbs., Ecuador with 1,016,736 lbs.. United
Btates with 486,064 lbs., Ao. Columbia headed the list with
7,045,728 lbs., valued at above a mllliou sterling, iu 188], os com¬
pared with 080,408 lbs., vidned at £84,330 in 1870. In 1878,1879, and
1880, the Imports from Columbia amounted to about 2,500,0001l>s.,
and In 1881 they nearly touched 8,000,000 lbs. The increase was
chiefly due to the newly discovered Cuprean Bark. The total
imports and exports of the United Kingdom were :—
Laic,
Imports,
SxjkHs.
lbs.
worth £
XU.
worth £
1870 ...
... 2,636,608
... 2,860,810
218,666
1,431,920
2,017,344
123,376
1871 ...
286,970
164,180
1872 ...
... 8,188,612
286,620
2,132.260
224,013
1878
... 6,121,424
... 4,723,204
460,060
3,274,320
341,046
1874 ...
442,241
3,890,9.62
390,042
1876 ...
... 4,091,472
374,160
3,630,400
307,1.37
1876 ...
... 2,914,362
272,164
3.804.080
391,209
1877 -
8,908,800
402,109
2,683,010
41.6,460
1878 ...
0,036,232
807,,370
3,791,472
047,777
1879 ...
... 6,796,272
970,333
4,0,67,2it(!
049,18.6
1880
... 8,917,770
1,183,301
6,416,312
011,16.6
1881 ...
14,040,090
I,814,;i01
7,047,000
730,9,60
The average price per annum was—
1870 1«. 8W. 1 1870
1871 2s. 53. 1877
1872 Is. Did. 187.8
... 2.?.
1873
1^. 9:
1879
... 2«.
1874
U 10.
d. ISSO
2.«,
1875
... 1». 9-
d. 1 1881
2»!
/ <(.
FORESTRY.
TREE PLANTING IN BENOOOLEN.
B atavia.—U uriug the month of November laaJ^Uieauthor¬
ities at Bcucoolen made praiseworthy eiortiona in planting
useful trues, the success of which will greatly benefit the popular
tiou of that roaidoncy now in such n backward state. It is aluoet
incredible that the aaam or tamarind, so Indispensable in Java
cookery, is so scarce in Bencoolen that it has to be imported
from abroad for the consumption of the people. In the com-
ponad of the Resident's dwelling, three nurseries of tamarind ■
seedlings have Ireen laid out, with the object of planting them
on the roadsides where now either worthless trees or none at all
grow ; thereby glorious shade, and charming lanes will be secur¬
ed. About 1,000 Banda nutmeg seeds have been sown hitherto
with successful results. It is intended to distribute the plants
from them among the population to replace the too old and
dca<l trees in the many but sadly uuglected nutmeg plantations
there, whereby it is hoiied to raise from its prc.sent declining
state the cultivation of that inwluct which formerly was a
source of abundant profit to the people. A similar experiment!
says the official .lava CouraiU, will be made with seeds of the
Baiula knnari trees from whoso hard fruit, eaten like hazel¬
nuts, a jjleasaut oil is extracted.— Java Lode.
THE PROTECTION OP FORESTS.
T HIS matter forma the subject of an article in the current
number of the AortA American Afu'ieie, written by Professor
Sargent. It has reference especially to North American forests.
After alluding to the difference in the forests of the Atlantic,
Central, and Pacific regions respectively—differonoos with which
our readers arc fairdliar from the writings of A. Gray and
Hooker—Professor Sargent goes on to remark tlint “ the distribu¬
tion of the forests over the continent shows that where the
mintall is hraviest, the forest growth Is heaviest; that whore the
rainfall is light and uneiiually <listributed, the forest Is propor¬
tionately light; and that ivhero the average annual rainfall siuks
below a certain amount—about 20 inches—the real forest dis¬
appears entirely, tipeaking of the malnteuauoo and reproduction of
forests, It is truly stated “ that a forest in which a regular
succession of young trees is not commg on is always In danger
of speedy aud entire destruction.” Fire is the greatest enemy
to the American forest: next to fire, the browsing animal Inflicts
upon it the greatest damage; and the American people, iu
generally using their woodland for pastui-ago, have adopted the
surest method to compass tiic final destruction of tbelr forests.
The mean overage for the twelve years was 2s. 2^d. It is a
ourions oiroumstanoo mentioned by Mr. John Hamilton, of Great
Tower Street, London, to whom we are indebted* for tbosc figures,
that in 1881 Elnglsmd imported 1,067,808 lbs. from, and exported
1,084,272 lbs. to Ftaaoo. Tlie actual consumption of bark in Franco
rose from 1,764,600 lbs. in 1877 to 4,277,145 lbs. in 1881, and
the price fi-otn 2s. djd. in the former to 2*. lOfd. iu the latter year.
Tlrore are now four quinine nmnufoctorles in Fraireo, viz., two In
Paris, one at Argenteuil, and one at Ivry. Germany imported aud
used 1,430,000 lb*. In 1877, and 4,760,160 lljs. in 1881 ; paying 2s.
per lb. in the formorand 3s. 2d. in tlm latter yooi’. Italy imported
690,080 lb*, in 1877 and 5,546,240 lb*, in 1881. Mr. Ilamiltou says :
—“ A good deal of bark is used in its rough state by the inliabitants
of marshy and feverish part* of the oountry, iu addition to tlio
large quantity annually consumed by the imi>ortant manufactory at
MJ&n for makUig quinine. 1 am told that in 1881 as mucli os
4,000,000 lb*. wa» used for the manufacture of ijiiinlnc alone.”
Lastly, Holland received from England 2,010,320 lbs. iu 1881, from
Oovemment plantations in Java 178,2961b*,, and from private plan¬
tation* 60,244 lbs. ; aud the United Btates imported 4,201,372 lbs.
in 1881.
AVe gather from the Administration Report of Madras that on the
31st Mntoh 1881 ^ere were 647 acres under cinchona cultivation
belonging to the Government with 677,850 plants. Between
1874-76 and 1880-81 nearly throe million plants were raised, aud
tho prodnoo in baric rose from 57,260 lbs. to 243,24.5 lbs.,In 1875-70
the Government realised He. 60,404 from the sale of bark, and in
1870-M R*. 4,24,323. Tho report docs not state the area of land
nudef oinchona cultivation by private ludlviduals.—Jfadras Mail.
* BtatistUs of Cinchona Bark, by J, Hamilton, London ; J, AV
CoUiogs, 1882.
In epito of this, the unequalled forests of fir of tho north-west
coast hardly show tlie marks of thirty years of cutting and
annually iiicroasing fires. Iu this liumi,’. climate j'oung trees of
the same valuable species spring np so quickly on laud stripped
of its original forest covering, and those now forests grow with
such remarkable rapidity, that there is little danger ,f their final
extinction. Serious and often fatal injury has been inflloted on
the Siena forests, liowovor, by the sheep which every suratnor
ore driven up by tliouaands to pasture iu tho cool moist subalpine
meadows of tlioso liigli mountains. The slieop, en’oroed by great
Imiids of horses, cattle, and goats, clean everything before them—
nothing but tlie largo trees and tlio most stuliliorn ftnd thorny
“ chapi>eral ” CBcapij tlicir voracity. Every young tree, eveiw
bud, and ovei-y blade of herbage is devoured, everything green is
destroyed, aud the sheep tread out from tho dry grav'eHy hlil-sides
tho roots of nil youug and delicate plants, 'riie Sierra forest
is over most of its extent a forest largely composed of full-grown
trees, containing but tow young soodhugs, and little undergrowth
to shelter and protect them. Its condition, tlien. Is critical,
and unless measure.-, can '.e taken for cfiectually limiting the range
of lirowsing animals, it, total extinction must be merely a
ijuostiou of time. A iorust crop is slow to mature, its area cannot
Ix) extended or i educed m response to large or small demands,
A forest fii-' -’lay destroy in a single day the growth of 500 years,
and wl -..other 600 years can hardly replace. Although tho
forest due-s tiul cause the rain to fall, it husbands it after it
luu) fallen. It servos as a mulch on tho earth’s surface, it prevent*
tho too rapid flow of water from tiio surface, oheoka evapora¬
tion, liroaks tho force of destructive winds, and prevputs the sell
on tho mountniu-«i(’ from bobig wosliod away. Tho great value,
then, of the forest aos in its power to protect the sui-fooe of
the ground from denudation, to regulate tho flow of rivers, modify
i/smperalnro, and preserve the rain.
Mardi 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICHLTTXBIST.
107
TEA.
ItriKAN Tea ur KAsnaAftiA.—'Tha Dombat/OazMe mys :—
People who are. inteceeted in Indian lea will loat'u some curiona
fao'ts in Colonel Kuropatkin’s ‘‘ Kaaligariii.’’ Boforo the
year 1S64, when the Cliineae were driven ont of Kashgaria,
the inhabitants got their tea from China, along the great
tratle routes. When this sourcu of supply w<w out olf,
and the stores in hand esJiauated, the leaves of an indi¬
genous plant called surrogatine were useil instead of tea, the
infusion being rendered ])alatable by the help of salt, butter, and
milk. Then tea began to be imported from the llussian tonitory
and frem India, Chinese tea came in ria India. Kuropatkiu
mentions that even at Taahkend Chinese tea is sold whii li has
come from Canton to India, and thence by tlie Suez Canal to
Odeasa, and so round to (Jentral Asia. Naturally the Indian tea
is much cheaper than Chinese tejr coming by such a roundabout
route, but it is considered inferior in (jualitv. It is smuggle-d
across the Kussiau frontier, “ to the great distiuliauoe of Ivussiau
tea triulers. ’’ According to a inodci’ate computiition, it seems
that tlie Kasligariaiis wouhl consume about .£5(5,000 worth of
ten per annum ; tlie (luiuitity going to them across the llussian
frontier amounts to rather less then £54,000. Latterly the Clune.se
tea is beginning to tlnd its way along the restored trade routes
to Kashgaria, and Kuropatkiu thinks it will drive out not only
the Chinese tea coming nuind from ('anion vid India and Ilus-
.yia, but the Indian tea imported diiecl. And it will,he exiiects,
find its way into Russian territory also by the restored routes.
“ Tea of Indian gixiwth,'’ he says," however cheap it may be, is loss
advantageous to fts than the Chinese artkie. At present in ox-
cli.aiige for tea we disjiose of our manufactures, ospe-
cially cloth, to China, whilst for Indian tea cash exculsively
must be paid." It would he denying a pleiwuro to Indian
tea-plantoin to omit the very next sentence, in which the writer
shows that his particular reason for enoounvging Chinese as iigauisl
Indian leas is aliout to cease and doterniine. “ Unfortunately
of late our rRussiau] trade rehitioiis with China liave become so
biui that if we do not adopt measures. China will disappear
altogether as a market for our wares, .and for t/hina tea we snail
then have to Isay oxelnsively in liard cjisli." As it will take less of
this .somewhat sairce commodity to buy Indian teas, India will
then have a very good ehance of getting t lie snp)>ly of the ('oiitr.'d
Asian market into her hands, provided Kiiropatkm's adviee to
inijiose “ a heavy tax on Indian teas,” as well as upon English
goods, be not acted uiion. Even if it be, thoro will be room for
a considerable extension of the .suiuggiing trade to w'hich that
gallant officer refers.
COCOA.
SHAND’S PATENT TEA DRYER AND COCOA
CURER.
B ESIDBS a tea dryer, Mr. Shaiul claims that his invention^
as wo have before stated, will bo c(pially efficacious with
oinoho- - bark, and particularly with the curing of cocoa. Various
exporhuouts have been tried by Air. Shaud, wliich all go to prove
that, beyond doubt, tho sun-drying of c<icoa after fermentation
can be equally woU performed by this machine. About 70 lbs.
of cooou nibs w-cre placed at Mr, .ShauU’s disposal, wot from tlm
p.iU.s !>y t)>'i 'Joylon Company, and laid about 4 inches deep over
tlie •■ab’onr.ecl iron plate or boiler, an (sjual temperature of about
(70 dog cs being inaiutaiiied. Wo have already desorilicd this
maoiiuio in an issue of a few days ago, so tliat furtlier details are
unnecessary. Tho object kept in view witli regard to this experi¬
ment ..-as, whether or not the two processes of fermentation and dry •
luge ould bo ai algaiuated into one. About three days after tho nibs
were first placed on tho moeUine tlicy woie perfectly dry, aud the
inside kernel hn-’ a very ricli, dark, chocolate colour. The system
has only one d.=advantago, namely, that the outside of the bean
WM a dark, dirty shade, duo to the mucilage haviug dried on the
Another experiment wai tried. On a larger though similar
maohine a quantity of fresh and wet beans were placed and an r(|nal
temperature kept up {i.c.,i70 degrees), but tho layer of beaus was of
the ftlnnest and In a few houm tho beans were perfectly dry Tho
outer skin had, however, split from exudation and the outside cl |
the beans was again dark. In this case, Mr. Shand made s.omo i
ebooolate, which we had the opportunity of tasting about 24 hours
after tho wet cocoa besns had neon deposited in his luaehlnu I
With regard to those experiments, one thing ’ icrtain, that,
whether the fermeutliiB can bo amalgamatoti with \ j after drj iug
lu one OTOoess or not, there is no difficulty whatever in drying ctcoo
aitw tt hw been femwated, so tiiat, U this Is establubod beyond i
dottht, th^priat^pftl.i^ffioalty encountered by tho cocoa planter will
be overcoSteS %n^t%tilM, whloh uimtlly takes about eight days,
can always be done hi tho osteto store, and Is tho simplest thing in
the world, all that is required being to heap a quantity of the nibs
to gather orr the floor, or in a bag, or tub, when in about eight days
the whole is oomplotely fermontod.
The great and almost insuperabw diffloulty is that immediately
after tlic fermentation is completed, the beank mwt be placed at
once in the hot sou for tho space of tltreo days. Should thoro be
no sun th<! whole of tho picking U lost. It will bs at once aeon
how difficult it is to make CO .-tain of turning out a good sample,
owing to tho fickleness of our wot oHniate and tho mnmonso ad¬
vantage a machine such as Mr, Shaud's Iras over a bombination or
meteorological cuuditiuns. The Inventor is, however, of opinion
that, with prefectly fresh beans—of sonrso tho beans experimentod
with were some days old—and a losaetdug of tho tommratufe to
about the point where natural fermentation stops, say, IW degrees,
tho same oifect will be produced; and, as a oonaequence, no two
processes will lie required. Wo reeomineud oocois planters to
pnreUase a small model maohine from Mr. Shand. It oan be
obtained with full directions for Rs. 10, is quite as good a test as
a larger and more expensive machine, ana oan bo heated by a
koi-osinc oil stove placed at - one end.
Tea has hocu successfully fired op this maohine, and though largo
aiul more extensive cxperlmeuts arc reeulslto before pronouncing
definitely as to its euiuplote success, wo have but little doubt it wifi
prove to bo as useful aud efficient as other machines, while irros-
paotivo of the advantage of its chsapuoss. It has excolloneios of its
own which, should they bo eontinned by similar results on a larger
maohine aud more extended scale, cannot fail to bring tho patent
into general use.
TOBACCO.
TOBACCO IN BORNEO.
A CCORDINC toaSamaraiig paper, the/udwcAc Vadoi-lmuiof
the 20th December, tito Netberliuidor from Deli who hsw
Isutii inquiring into t.ho suiUbleiiesa of North Borneo for tubacw-
growiiigiH Mr. L. F. iSaunders, who h.ad been comniiasioned by
tlie Brjtish Ni-rth Borneo Uompaiiy to tweortaiu whether tho
toljacoo grown by the natives there would answer, whan jiltinted
and preparei,! for the Rurojjoaii nwrket. Mr. Saunders thus
aeU forth the result of his resoarches iu the coast (iistriet :—
“ I was rejoieeii to find that the genuine tobacco plant, and
not the inferior wild variety, grew very luxuriantly in Sabah,
and that the product wjvs of such a nature that even under tho
earelesH mauagumeut of the natives the leaves reach each a length
of one fool. The seeds and hence also the tolxicco are in¬
digenous, .and 7nny be ooiisiderad as belonging to the ‘ Falem-
bang' variety. The leaf terminates where the mitlrib eommencea,
the latter b<>ing bure with the e.xceptioti of a few small haiw.
Ill sliape the leaf is very broad at the lower end, ami is only
oviiUy I'ouiided otf at the jxiiut, while both leaf and fibres leave
nothing to be desired in tineiioss. Thu almost total freedom from
hides, notwithetauding the notonous iiidolouee of tho growers,
furnishes proof of tlie fortunate absence of worms, locusts, .and
other vermin. During the growth of tho tolwuco plants, rain
sliowers usually fall at uigffit, whereby spotting and rust aro
liroveiited. So far as f can judge from a single season’s samiiles,
the ash is pure white, and the smell is not only uuobjectionablu,
which alone wouhl he enough for tolxicco intended only for
('ovui-iiig, but uvea fdeasant so that the smaller leaves available
at e,T.cli ump aud used as 111 Him will be more suitable for that
jmiposci than many Jav.a kinds, Tlio seasons and iniiifail aro
favoiuablu. The rainy season begins in the middle of August,
so tliat the beginning of April is Uio fittest time for pl:uitiu,g.
Ill coiitiguraliou the country traveraed consists of steep hills with
small tups, while plains are oitiicr altogether absent or .almost so,
what few there arc being only bi the valleys between the hills.
After clc.ai'ing the ground tlie natives plant paildy on the slopes
of these liills, and afterwin-dH tolavcco in small quantities, but
only for their own consumption. I found tolMic-co gi-owiug
luxuriauily at the licight of 3,000 feet, showing all tho gooil
uiualiticH eiiiiiiierutedabove. It struck ino that the elevation of
the laud cxcrci.ses ;i favourable influence on the fineness of tho
leaf.” Air. Saiindcis deai:ril>cs the formation of tlie soil iu Sabah
IS very suitable for tobacco cultivation, the chief difficulty to be
vercomc being ..caveity of klKiur, while land transport will bo
found indispensable, from the currents iu the numerous riven*
and streams laiiug too sti-oug and dangerous for tlie conveyance
of }n'oduco and materials. Towards the conclusion of liis trip,
he examined in the valley of Uachak the most extensivo tobacco
plantation lie had yet seen, its urea being half an aere, and collect¬
ed there many large green leaves for tho jairpose of drying them
by way of experiment. Mr. Saunders, thougii arlmitling that
the quality of tobfvcco can only be nseortiiined after being
thoroughly feriiienteil and cured, comes to the following oonclu-
Bioii :—Without arousing too great expectations, it may
safely he assumed, considering tiie favourable nuceidained
cluiractoristies of variety, size, liiienoss of leaf, smell and
ash (unfermeuted), that at a height of 2,<XK> feet ou laud not
too hilly, and with a European mode of eultivaUou, tobacco crops
of superior quality may probably ba MOOMd.”
108
THE INBIAN AGfRIGULTtTEIST.
Mitfcli 1, Ills,
Z UI. U L A N O A N D O E T E W A Y oT"
" 'I kitov wbat it u,’ kb Antmvadf from
euphorbia flowers, whioh^ ere vet 7 poUoacM.' efqmKBetk^ mede
mo feel exceodtugly uncomfortable; but 1 lAioHed trttm Mm' 'WM
not much danger, as the ‘moaM* teken wfrhlt would neiciiMice tb^Mfect
of the poison. Directly he mention ed pe frop I lUved. iido tht aod
nulled out a bottle oi ENO^ EltUlx &ALT, and omptying.a quantity
into two pannikins, flllod them up with water, and aemM times
repeating the dose, In a few honn we wow obnsidsTnbty bettet,”-.-
"Zidulaml mul CfAeinavo," (p. 130),hy OapttMk W^Jt.jAidlma, Iti Bolt.
if. V. Royul WariL'iekshtra IlMi vtent,
“‘What on earth ihall I take to Zuiulatkl ?’ naked mV irieild Jim
Law one day at Aldershot, when ho had just received etdera for South
Africa, to Btart at forty-eight hours’ notloe. I replied, ‘It you take
my advice—and it’s tliat of on old traveller—you’ll not budge without
0 few bottles of EbTO, even if yon leave half your kit behind. I
never am without these hlolts, and, please the pigs, never Thteiid to be.’
On his i-eturu 1 biquired, ‘Well, liow about ENO’8 FRUIT SALT?’
‘ My dear fellow, it was the best advice you ever gave ; they saved
mo many on illness; and when I left Tuogla, 1 sold the remaining bottles
for ten times the original prioe I ’ ’’—Lieut.-Ool.
ilfSPAROY OF LIFE. THE CHEAT DANGER OF DELAY.
You can cliance tlie tridcUag otream, but not tbe raging torrent.
W HAT EVERYBODY SHOULD READ.—How Important It is tocvoi'y Individual to have at hand some simple, effective, and palat¬
able remedy, such as ENO’S FRUIT .SALT, to chock disease at the outset! For this Is the time. With very little trouble you
can change the course of toe trickling mountain stream, but not the rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I fool I oannot suffi¬
ciently impress thU important Information upon all Householders, or .Sliip Captains, or Europeans gonortdly, who are visiting or residitm in
any hot or foreign climate. Whenever a change is coutompiated, likely to disturb the condition of hoaltli, lot END'S FRUIT SALT be
your companion j for, nmlor any oiroumstanoes, its use is benofioial and never can do harm. When you feel out of sorts, yet unable to soy
why, frequently without any warning you are snddonly seised with lassitude, disinclination for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
siokneu, pain in the forehead, dull aching of back and limbs, coldness of the surface, and often shivering, Ao., Ao. ; then your whole body
is out of order, the spirit of d^ger has bmn kindled, but you do nut know whore it may end : it is a real neeossity to inavo a simpla remedy
at hand that will answer the very best end, with a positive nssuraneo of doing good in every cose and in no cose any harm. The pilot oan
BO steer and diwet as to bring the ship Into safety, out he uaunot quell the raging storm. Tne eoinmoii idea when not feeling well is, “I
will wait and boo, perhaps I shall bo bettor to-morrow ; ” whereas, had a supply of K.SO’S FRUIT .SALT been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all calamitous results might have been .ivuuleil. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many sweet alllanoes,
blasts so many oustdclous obterprlses, as untimely death f
E NO’B SALT.— “After suffering for nearly two and ft half ve.'irs I rnriR AUT OF CONQrrRST [« LO.'iT 'VVITHOt.TTTnEAIlTOPKAT-
from severeboadaoho andrtisorderoil stomnoh. and after tryiiii; utmost i I IN't!.- DINNER ENOAriEME.NTE.—HTIjMriLANTO.— ToO ftfOll
everything and spending much money without finding any boiwht, I was . POOD. —LA'I’EHOUllH.-INHUf'PlClKNT EXERCldE. - K.MOITEMEN’r,
reeommsndod by a friend to try ENO’B FRU IT HALT, and before I Iwfl &o. — A geutiemiin writo.s ; “When T fool out ef sorts, 1 take n iUmj of
finish^ one bottle I foimd it doing me a great <laal of good, oud now I ENO'IH FRUIT KALI' ono hour buforo diiinur or first thing in tite uioriiiiig.
am rostoi^ bi my usual health ; anil otliers I know that have tried it Imre .'I’ho elloot is all 1 oould wish." Uow to enjoy good food that w.iuhl
not enjoyed suen good hoalt.b tor years. — Yours most truly, Rout, othunviso cause biliiiasness, hendaohe, or disorJored stomach —ii.so END'S
HtrMHMUXTS, I’lwt Office, lUrnisfonl." 1 FRUIT SALT.
OUCCBSS IN LIFE.—“A new Invention is brought before the public, au i oomin imlf aiiooesi. A score of abomtiialdo imitations are
immediately introduced by the unsurupulous who, in copying tho original closely enough to deeoivo the public, and yet not so exactly
as to infringe upon legal rights, oxoroise on ingenuity tiuit, employed in an original ehaiiiiul, could not fail to auuuro reputatiou and
profit,’’ —Adams.
C AUTION.— Le'/al rhjhtu ant pmUHnl in <mry cinil'nnl connh-f/. Examine '''fh Bollix, ami srr «/|.> captnlf is mai'h’tl" END'S FRUIT
g AT. T ” lYiC/iOlR it you have iKC/ii/uponi'iloii by woHhUas imilatioiis. Bold by all Ghcnuati, price Ja. 3d. ami .fa, (Id.
DIRECTIONS IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE.
Preparod only at ENO'S FRUIT SALT WORKS, HATCHAM, LONDON, S.E., by J. 0, ENO’S Patent,
ORiVTEFUL—COiMFORTINO.
EPPsi^COA.
THE AGRA BANK,
LLVITEJ).
Capital... ... ... £1,000,000
Reserve Frnid ... ... £170,000
CALCUTTA BR.ANCH.
BREAKFAST.
a thorough knowledge of the natural laws which govern the
JLj opomtlonB of digestion and nutrition, and by a rarefu-
npplicatlon of tbe lino properties of wcll-solontcd Cocoa, Mr.
Epps has provulod our breakfast taidos with a delie.itoly tinvonred
beverage which may save us many lieavy doctor’s bills. It la j
by the jnJicious use of suob articles of diet that a constitution
may be gradually built up until strong enough to resist oveu-y
tendency to disease. Hundreds of subtle maladies are floating
around us ready to attack wherever tliero is a weak point. \\'(j j
may escape many a fatal shaft by keening ourselves wtdl fortifiud I
with jrare blood and a properly nourished frame.’’—.See article in
too Civil Service Oa&vttv,
Made eitnply with boiling water or niifi.
Sold only in packets, labelled :—
C IUllIvF.NT .ACOOUNT.S arc kept, and Intorcet allowed, when
f tile Credit Raliuirr doe.s not fall below Ha. 1,000.
DICFDSITS rcooivi’d available at any time, for Xteiuittanoo to
England in the Bank’s Rills, nud interest nUowed tliereoii at tho
rate of 4 por rout, per aiiiiuiu.
DlCl’OSITK uro also received for fixed periods on terms Which
mny be barnt on iipplieatiou.
IJRAKT.S granted at. tin' oxohango of the ilay on London, Soot-
laud, Ireland, and the B.iuk’s Agoiiclcs in the East.
CIRiyULAR NOTES i.sniicd, negotiable in the principal places in
Europe.
OOVI‘’.l!.NMEN’i'aiid other .S'l'OCKS, and SHARKS, ImugUt and
sold, a id the .s«fe custody of tho same undertaken.
INTEREST, PAY, a id PENSIONS collected'; and every other
dosorlption of IJaiiking Rusiiicssaiut Money Agency transacted.
All Roiniftauoos should be made payable to the Aoua Bank,
Ljmitki'.
JAMISS I±1E>E>S tfe OO..
HOMfflOl'ATniO CIIEUISW,
I.ONDON.
154
AUv—REPS'S ClIOGOLATJC KSSEh'Cli,
for A/Uruveu nu.
SELECT SCHOOL AND CHRISTIAN HDML
I lECOM.MENDlOU by Paukxt.s in India, whose daughto(() have
_\) rosidoU nearly lev years. Arrangements for Udidays, Sea
side, or Travelling, Jligh Clave Education,
Good (eetimonuUa, and terms on application to
MI8S HmVLAND,
AfarcAflioKf House,
CtoMli End, Bonisvy,
Mar(^ 1, 1888;
THE A0BI€ULTX7RIST.
109
FOR PRICKLY HEAT. INDIOESTO. HEADA CHE. BIUOUSIIESS; A RO FEVERS.
Tba tcuttsuaj of aatilwri pwitlMsva bao boe^i uiwiufUieMi lu lumte at
PLoneit PTSim saliib,
A* poMeutag otoiorat* raoat auentlal for the raatomOt^.MA lA AmmUUi with perfect rHtoor of body nod wiatL ^
It ifl BllterT640lB.tt wid fTMtel^ta t fbvx&izts •>. ''X^kV’sBMPfkHuL’ VitAliaitic* And Hafroohioff Sovtxtg#*
ES®£i*i8T?’iSf‘«r?igs
_ altnmt eouwtbiDH i>f i&ojUood. ^ a ■ m , * ^
5?« ieme of irameniB benefit to monliind.'* ( *>r. teAEu ftioveniment MaJioM Ipepeoto of JPmbtrwt* ftop I^oaoui
Dr iCQil^AK.>->*nt ninitSbMtbe blood with ttetoetMltooeanetlttumta.'* I writoe*—”f UawgiWptoMnwmboirlByiny <50«li»M»»»a»aartoiMfliBe»fc«gr.
CKms»XnKB«T OFFXOIAZS JJTS niAHTZBB earing for the le^Ostere of tilieir eni9l<^ elioiad note
_ ite value ae a ^peolfie m Fever oa eee.
1 umA it in tbetrMtiaeiit of (orty-twoowM vt YeUow Fevers
mr KMltA CMC.'*
Sbm Its iutiwaotlun fbe E*tal Watt ludluFovenaredoprived
fninowM
v€Uue,noAl
tormH of BonTlftt J
br. a.
ti^tmonf of (ueO)
MPtnwAtTB, nn>iA-“ Vo fl
nKtfe^t pfei
4. fttUMd it net
iw M«>aa«. u, tb.
i 3 Ita« loog tiMB aoaUrmeu by znertidU axj^niaaco.
bebere that the uao of ymir
Uu> ever InipovioU mti ottro/*
and £aud(y, in Um wont
Mao itMioogbaoiiaoaU
veAw, and l ttaa rejoice to near »la m the uouaae ot aii Burupeaae naiting u»e trupioa.''
To 1>o obtoi&ed of any ORezniat or Drug Storoj In Patent G-laaa.atoppered da. 6d.« 4a. 64.^ 11jiu« aa4 824. eaoh.
urhioli would oanee oalonlous or other earthy de poeite. _
H. T. A -M-TST..OTTa-s:, 13.3, XiOlTIDOl^r, B.O.;
GOVERNMENT
oiirasoiT-a. s'EBiuiB^xja-si-
A n ^ffleient Bub»tilnle/or Quinine. Sold by the principal European
ami Native DmggUls of Oaletuta. Obtainuble from the
Superintendent, Botanical Qardene, Oakutta. PokI free, at 4ox,,
St, $ ; So*., Ba. 11 ; 16 o^., Ea. SO-lSt. Cash with order,
1
PLMTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
XilAdHTElD,
11£BC«ANTB AND OEKESAL AOENTS,
Calcutta.—30, STRAND.
General Mana/jer—'W. E, S. JarFBBSOS.
Manarjer • . . .
AgonoloB for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantageous terms.
Coolies recruited by onr own staff of experfenoe<l Agents, with
DepAts throughout Chota Nagpur and at Dhubri.
FRANCE.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AGENCY
(ZTOENSED),
14, RUE OE CHABROL. PARIS.
Trausaots evo^ dosorlption of CommUalon, Merchant, and
General Agency Business.
AU Indents executed at Manufacturers’ most favourabm tenns.
Oondiiions ,—Two and’a-haUper cent. Commission when Banker's
Draft on London or Paris accompanies order. Special terras to
rejjuiar con'espondents. All Discounts oonosded to pttrohassrs.
Original luvoioos sent whoa requirod.
Produce taken charge of ana realised to Iiost advantage, (Jasb'
advanced on Oousigumouts. ......
The Agency Ropresonta, Buys, and Sells for Firms.
Public Seoui'itioa, Estates and Propottie i.bottght and sold, ua^a.
Mortgages, Minos, and ludustrial Investments, 4c,, negoalatod.
Manufaetorers andProduoers can have suitable artioloi introdnoeu
to tile market,s on advautagoous conditions. _
Pbiob Li.si— c’omure^iisiee and reliable—ron a)>pUeataom
BANKERS.—PAllis ! George Waters, Es.i., 30, Boulevard des
Itallous. London : The Loudon and County Bank,
3, Viotoria-stroot, Westminster. . d
Address t The Manager, (Jonlinental and Colonial Agency,
do Cliabrol, Paris, Prance. w
NOTIQB
TO lidC-A.ITTJT'-A.OTXJIiBlBS,
AJTD
OTHER USERS OF POWER IN BULKe
Indentors and Consignees of all nicrchandmo.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, and Private Agents.
Asawn.—•' THE EXCHANGE,” DIBRUGARH.
W, J. Wheatley, Manager,
A. D. Stcabt, Agency Superintendent,
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and European
Residents,
Price Llats on application,
Agsnte for India General Steam Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agents for
Commercial Union Assurance Co,, Fire and Life ;
Agents for "Star ” Line Ocean Steamers,
Calcutta to London ; Agents for
Reuter’s Telegram Co.,
Limited.
Lond<m.^KKAT WINCHESTER-STREET, E.C.
B. O. Back, Secretary,
AganoieB M BiiwhilStoJA wd Ohatente.
iir ATER POWER, varying from 100 to 1,000 H.P., is awOl^e at
^ 33 sites on the Bari Doab and Wostoin Jumna Canals lu the
unjab.
The tracts in which the Water Power is situated ate—
(ti) Between the rivers Boas and P'vvi, to the north of ^e
Sciudo, Punjab and Delhi RaUway, 26 sites, close to the
Umrltsur and Pathankoto Railway now under construotlou.
lb) To the west of, and about 16 miles from the river
12 sites, on a navigable oanal running from Kurual to Delhi,
and within easy dlstonoe of the Grand Trunk Road.
Loose will bo granted for 20 years, on the following approximate
ates per H.P, per annum :—
For the first 3 years . Ks. Nil.
„ ,, soooudS „ ..
„ „ third ... 100
„ „ fourtli 6 „ . » 1®0
Full mrticulors can be obtained from the Offl<» <ff the Joiut-Sooro-
ary toWmnZit, Punjab, Irrigation BmnohlAthorc, and W°n^-
ion, regarding tiio Water Power available at the various sites ^d
heU- lo^advantages, con bo obtained from the offlees of tho
nperintending Enginoer, Bari Doab Canal, Dmritoiu', and Superin-
Engtoeer, Western Jumna Canal, DoUil.
By order,
R. HOME, Li.-Cou, B.E,,
• Offg. Joint Secy,, Qovt., Punjab,
p, W. D„ Itrigatiion Branch.'
Li^e,-Jan«wya4.1882,
no* THE INDIAN AGRICULWJRIST. March 1, 1883.
T. E. THOMSON &
OALOUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
All mu OF IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TFA PLANTERS,
Griffin’s Patent Kodallies, all sizes.
Grifl&n’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Oast Steel Digging and Border Forks.
Potatoe Forks.
American Spades and Shovels, all steel.
Pickaxes, Double ended, diamond points.
Sickles and Reaping Hooks.
Betts’s Tea Lead.
Tea Sieves.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Cast Iron.
Switching Bills and Hooks.
Assam Daws and Jungle Cutters.
Garden Shears.
Tea Garden Pruning Saws,
Pruning and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Irons.
Chubb’s W. I. Fire and Thief-proof Safes,
Plain W. I. Chests for holding large quantities
of Silver.
Point de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoop Iron and Clout Tacks,
Portable Weighing Machines with English and
Indian Weights.
Beams and Scales fitted with Teakwood Pans
and Iron Chains.
Salter’s Spring Balance.
Garden Spades, Shovels, Hoes, Rakes, and
Syringes,
Garden Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines. •
Hand, Lift and Force Pumps.
Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized Nails, Screws, Ridging and Gut¬
tering.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN\S
I
Patent Swift and Sure Transplantiiig Toola
Mard) 1,188d.
THE IltelAN AOBIOULTURIBT.
OOODALL’S
HoaseboM Specialities.
A Single Trml eolieited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
Tns ILUAinAim ^ a FAC-SIMIE of the
The Meet JD^ieloiu h*uoe la the Warld.
This ohsftp snd ezoeUent Sauce makes the plainest viands palat*
abWi mid the damtiest dh^es more delicious. With Chops, SteskS)
Fish, Ac., it is inoomparable. In bottles, at 6d., Is,, and w. eabh.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
Tbs Baft in the World.
MaJms delicious pudding without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light br^ wiUioat yeast. In Id. pockets, Ckf., Is,, 8>.,
and 5s. tins.
OOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Bast cmd most ii^iresalils Tonic yet introduced.
The best remedy known tar Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
General Debility, &o. Bestores deUoate individuals to hcal^ At
Is. lid. and 2s, 3d. each bottle.
MESSm SUTTONS' SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BiWASE or nmAnoin.
NOTICE.
COODALL'S CUSTARD POWDER, sutton’s seeds & oamioques
For mahinn Delicious Custards without Bgga, in lees time
dnd at half Oa price.
The Froprietora can rooommoud it to Honsekeopors generally as
a useful agent in the preparation of a good custard, Gm ii A
TbiaIi. Bold in boxes, 6d. and Is. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makes Throe Gallons of the Best Ginger
Beer in the World for Threepence.
The most valoablo preparation for the production of a dolioious
and invigorating beverage. It is easily mode, and is by far the
cheapest and best Ginger Beer ever offered to tho public. Bold in
packets, Sd. and 6d. each.
COODALL’S EGG POWDER.
Its action in Oakes, Puddings, &o., do., resembles that of the egg
in every particular. One penny packet will go as for ns four oggs 1
aud one sixpenny tin as far as twenty>eight. Sold everywhere, in
Id. packets t Od. end Is. tins.
GOODALL'S BLANCMANGE POWDER
Hakes dolioious Blanomango in a few minutes. In boxes at 6d.
and Is. each.
All the ahove-TUtmed Preparations may be had qfall Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
PniSietors: GOODALl, BACKHOUSE & CO, Leeds, Englaiid.
FREEMAH'S SYRUP OF PHOSPHORUS.
Katnre’s Great Brain and Kervo Tocio and the most wonderful
Blood FuriSer. The highest Hedioa] Authorities say that it is tho
only Onre for WastingOlseases, Mental Depression, Loss of Energy,
and Stomach Oomplamts.
It is pleasant to the taste, and might bo taken by the most
delicately constituted. In the most enfeebled it builds up a NEW
AND HEALTHY CONSTITUTION. One dose of this Remedy is
equal to Twenty Doses of Ood-Liver Oil.
Thousands have been imatohed from tho brink of the grave by tho
timely use of Fuibriaif’s Sybot of Phosphohcs, May bo hid of all
Chemists and Potent Medioine Vendors, in bottles at 2s. 9d,, is, 6d,.
11s., an^SSs._ _ __ _
BwuinTAT. AGENTS:
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & GO.,
White H«r«e Btreet* Iseeds, BofflanOs
JIA7 BB HAD OF DVLT ATTTBOBISED AOBim
m B7EB7 PAST of the WOBIO,
INCLUDINO-
Tho Proprietors, Indian ^rkulturiat, Chowrltighoe.ro»d, Cal¬
cutta ) the Groat Eastern Hotsl, Company, Limited, CUeutta»
Measra. Wilsoni MAckenzle & Oo*i 18* Old Court Houie*8treet|
and 1, Mangoe-Iano, Caloutta. OrMrs rooeived by Messrs.
King, Hamilton & Co., Caloutta.
35TOTIOE3-
In ordextog throngh Zioxtdoa Shipper^ pimliM<
shoold be partlcnlar to stipnlate for
SUTTON'S SEEDS.
TE8TIMONIAU
jProm S. Jemingt, Buf., Me Vice-PretidaU qf the Agri-
Horn, Society qf India,
" Witli reforonoo to your mode of packing seeds for
export, I must say how much I was gratUed with tho
system you wero so good as to show mo. During tbo
whole of my long IndJim oxporlence, it was my oonstant
rogret that English packed seeds wore almost invariably
lower in germinating power than the Amestoan, After
seeing tho elaborate preoantions you take in exoouting
such orders ns that of tho i^-Horti Society of
India, I am by no moans surprised to hoar that you have
been gratitled by tho receipt of so much testimony from
the tropics as to the conditio
the tropics as 1
tho receipt of so much testimony from
0 conditioo of your Seeds upon arrival."
THE QUEEN'S BEEDSH&N,
AND SY BPBOIAL WABBANT TO
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES,
READING, LONDON,
r Ji n I o
All e nTdwiiniina.' hinTia flroxn the Trade should be address¬
ed direct to Beading.
u«e<kum^
-97-^ICT3B’R2iA:B*S-STESD^’^» .XiQiTO^IS', ; , , ■
HYDRAUUO CMOfNlBiM ; ■. '
PuttlNG MACHINERY OP EYiRY DlSORtPtH
^ . FOB STEAJif^ WATM, CATTLE, AJ^D MirtTJLf, POtMR.
" Hydraulic a»d Screw Fwises, (HI JCU Ma<to«y, Sj^dra*^
SOia HAKIES FOB i r
iim ’8 PATOIT 8 IK 0 T-A 0 IIIB STEAII-PWIP,-«M THMI l»^ W #*£■
fTH* T<M*oinira am son or xhk proahkiwx advajtxaobb of tn blakh rtm*.
It triU Start At nay point
of Rtroko.
It hM no 46*d point.
It woita Burt or, slow
with the enmo oertsBrtjr of
ftotion*
It U eoonomlont Hu a
lead on th® PUde Valve.
11) In ecsi^Krt and dur¬
able.
DetaoUcA
-• , .- -a* ~ ■ ■-
BLAKE’S PATENT
Dlnot.Aatli« Stnm Foap aaS BoU«r IMer.
It i» IntMOtai^'Me In
■■
than any other Ptunp.
It ia itaade cd beat mate-
flail in the meet worfcnwn-
lilce manner. •
Can be worked at 200
etsskea per boor, or 20
ittoke* mlnnto.
Soublo-beml Oantruoton'Paap*.
tor Sind or Stewa Fewer.
Improred StMm Boring ■ ^ ..
appantm.ilie H voOLa
Portable Puspc.
, tor OoBtnoton
-t«Ung*WMi»wai.iwnn™«--,-- ®^ 5 »a 2 S? 5 iS?.“”“
blake-s patent pot md mcAL BOttia
nmm 2S w«S?mv to i-LAjiTiiiom. small tomb on viuao™.
’ TOtofriM’s Ironworks, WMtolriiur’i-Btreet, Fteet-»t*eet.
• -CcMlogvts and Eitintam Free on AppltaH tm.
.. . " "^ F ljBAQB"ArTM^IATK61IAM&"FBl^POglMPlA”OmCg,CALOgTTA.
ft^KTOD & POBlilSHKD FOB XM PEOPRIEXOBS, BT W. E. U >
APipj S, I88A-
n MM'WLWiW «0 JWMW
i>RtZ"S 6 ...
H I 2 iB 9.
Haubitbob t* } OiKonryATt *<• »»» . * 1680 j , Xtan^Dita
Bbblin •«.• ■ HkwYosk • M »♦« -'♦ ■•*•' iSSO L iklAUNtA
SYBtfit *.. ' »•' wf*.- MbmocbnI! .« ... ., , M, 1880 p'PcrigBCw .
Atalasta ..I 18*8, ' I Nwr'ZBAluurD ... 1888, | FAWBoiaR ’1888,'' f TryiitooTH
First Premium, PWSw^^ Sydney, 1878. ^ ^ Htuftbntf,
iSwUn, 1878.
Melbourne 1880. 1678. Cincinnati, Jitiu, IBM
OVXB «6Q,QOO WUHf BGUD iMmiirO 1881,
pi'i'if '?*•'' i’Jf
New Zealand, 1862.
Including 8,877 Scot of w^in Jh^i^.<s, ojf tvidths rmiging from 13 in, to
60 in,, are working in over 6,0w miUi and* Worka in £m*c^ and America.
iZSie fpUomng TaU (iy Kirhtddy, Of ZortAwt) fhm thi rdaUm mren^t/t and value,
compared viith Ltaiher.
Best Poubin IMSM 6 % Belting
Qandy'a 6 In. x 8-ply Cotton
Breaklag Btreis pen St^uare inch of .Section.
’ '* ■ - i)s7fi ttw.''
lbs.
per foot.
6e. 7d,
a*. 6d.
OAKDY BELT.
Any ZenytA or irkl/A
for Main Driviwg,
It is the best beit
ever mode for all iair^K)a-
oa. Much Cheaper and
Htronger than Leather,
llioroughly Witterproof,
and not anecled bj- tem¬
perature, clings Well to
ifie pulleys, wns true,
aud am be made any
length without joints.
mis Series of Belting
{*<•« e»(iraviiuj) wiis sup¬
plied in One Onler to
Measrs. Jolin t.’ivssley
and Sons, Halifax, May
1, 1880, and <v:iutmvn s to
give entire satisfaction.
TIHEJ
G ANBY’B Patent American Cotton
being about hnlf that of leather, v
ns shown by rgpeated tests taken by Ki
dlreotedi Ti»w> *' G.^ucly ” bolts aro
thus obviating the noco.sfty of having t
as it Is impoasihlo to have bolts of ex.TJt
Gh.A.isriD-y
BELT.
ingaoouthcur tnat of leatuor, wmio iw iitronjirtii ana gnpi>hif{ power alxjut doublo that of tlw bout
n W tCHte taken by KirkaMy, of London, Tb&se tentw tire j’ivon al>ovft, to which special attc»
i, Tii^ “ Gau^ ** boits^ fU'o mado of anj' width up t*> 72 iuclmB, ujid auv lou^li up to 340 fodt witho
via^uf the Doco^sfty of having two boltn on the kiuuo uiillov. a BVabnn of tlrivintr which is n^ver xatiKi
Thoi© ttoppagos are avoided by usin^f UandyV Patont \M>lU in one width. 'Pbcffto Chmdy Bolte are made of the finest
Amerwaii Cottdm Duck, Bpeolally proparo<l at llfl.Uimor(’ for the pmi.iO'its and then put togetlior and fimehed by.eGJ«j^’s
1 patanied special Machiueiy and process to prevent airetohing, and render thou iiupervious to Atinomiberic influei^o^.
LPoaKWMid of advantage* fuen oa theso, tho universal adoption of Gandy’s Belts con only l>a a question or time.
A dSrSSf ANTXAI. OUABAKTBE OXVSN WITH BVBBY AaIN DBIVIHa BBLT.
Patenteo and Manufacturer,
DO, Queen Viotodo-etroet,
UMDM.
WOKES; Llvsrpool, Buglaud;
and Baltifflore,
e.8.«.
114
THE INDIAN AWKJ^ULTUKIST.
ApriJ 2V. 18S8.
(Kty Lui 9 of Steameis.
FOU {iONPOK DIEBCT SUES CANAL.
Tons, Captain.
UmchtHtr
pf CaHhaijf,
of Cauterhwij
pip (if iV/HCI!
(Ktp pf London
OUf pf Mhd}V.rjjh
VUy pf Mhiop
Vily of 4prt»
CHiy tf Calcidia
Oily of Oofbrd
City (if Oambridyo
319( A. Macdonald.
3801 J> McPheison.
8212 d, Marr.
3207 H, J. Mofiat.
J, EUolc.
W. H. Barham.
8230 A. Thoms.
„ 3412 J, Gordon,
...3830 B. McNeil.
,. 4000 Wm. Miller.
.. 4000 D. Anderson.
8212
?212
, The CUy <ff Oalovlta will leave about 7th April, Mid will be
followed by the OUy (f Venice abont 21it Idem.
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE A Co.,
7 Ap[onti.
B JL osr E B3 a-tJ 3Sr Q-H
ms BB1CE8
AND
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BUEN & CO.,
CAICUT2'A.
16
Ktmoledije and “Progress” go hand in hand,
“PROGRESS:"
A Monthly Enoyolopadia of Information:
COMPILED AND COLLATED FBOM
THE LATEST CURRENT SCIEHTIFIC AND GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
OB’ THTBl
Each Ho. Is a very “Library " of Valuable Reading.
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QUARTERLY ... Rs. 4.
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wuiciH nawmvss ihb sum-out ok
SVEST EDUCATED MAN IN INDIA.
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PubUshrae^
& OrO.,
Vi, BAHE-STREET,
OALOUTTA.
THE
SOUTH OF INBIA
POBLISKSb WSXXLY AT OoiAOAllU5I>,
The Head-dinarters of the Madraa Qorenunent for
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TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
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Peratmum ... ... Rs, 20 0 0 Be. 28 0 0
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Aeenti in India:
Messbs, HIGGINBOTHAM A Co. ... ifadras.
Agents in London:
Msssas, GEO. STREET A Co. ... CbraAiH.
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Msssbs. GORDON 4 GOTCH ... St. Bride-ttreet, London, E.O.
Msssbs. RHODES a Co. ... 34, Nieholaa-lim, E.O,
14
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
A MONtULT
Record of Information for Planters
COFFEE, TEA, COCOA, OINOHONA, SUGAB, PALMS,
OTHER PROOUOT8.
Suited for cultivatton in the Tropics.
ruhlished on or abont the 1st of each month by A. M. and
J. Ferguson, Ceylon Observer Office, Colombo.
Price in advance yearly, fis. 10..
Re. 1 per copy.
10
ms BBICKS.
E ANEEGUNGE fire BRICKS as supplied to Government and
the various Railways, Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Steam
Narigation Companies. Price—Rs, 9 per 100.
Kstnirt from Official Report of tests made at H, M.’s Mlnti
Calcutta, by THEonoBB W. H. Huoues, Esq., t.o.b., a.b.9,m., Offi¬
ciating Deputy Buperintendmit, Oeologioal Survey, India:—
“ ne. hire Brich tested bysne viere fumished the Firm of
Messrs. BURN i- Co. *•* The malerUds from wUeh they are made
ure eery refraetciy and capaWc qf resisting high tempemtare with-
out se.usibty fusing. * * * Thai compared with Stourbridge Fire
BrkU are sonse.whal superior.”
The specimens were subjected to a temperature of'^over 8,000
degs. Falu'., the smelting point of Cast-Iron being 2,786 degs,
Ve^'. e-
Apply for the above, and foi Raneegunge Salt-glased Stoneware
and inii)eriBbable Drainage Pipes, to
BURN & C(fi,
7, Hastlngs-sireet, CMcntta,
or Raneegungs Pottery Worka, Baaeegnage,
ALBri BiogaL
2 ; l^S.
Ml INDIAH AGBIOtJLTimiST.
115
For India
WtpMith papert ai iM» Ofiee .■—
THS QHPllAir AaBItII 7 L*nrBI 3 T.
(MONTHLY.)
Saftt qf BvbteHption, inclwHug pottage,
StXtmtY IK ASrAKqB,
/Yearly ... ... ... Be. 1
1 Half-yearly
For Europe ■[ ffttf.y.ei-iy
Single eopiet, Se. 1; iael eopUe, Ss. S.
ddnertimnentefor the “ Indian AgrieuUuriet " thould be tent in
n^&wihan theSSrd, to appeal- on (Ac tel of thefolloxeing month.
f BS 7Bl£in} OP IHHIA AND ^ATHSUAK.
(WEEKLY.)
Ratet of Svibeeription, including postage
BTBioiLY IK acraKos.
Town,
(■yearly Be. 20 0
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{.Quarterly .00 ,,
Tho reduced rate for Mleatouaries is Bs. 15 per annum
For Europe {nSfyeorly 14
Single copies. A), 8 ; back copies. Re. 1.
Adverliiemenls for the ‘'Friend of India” should be sent
not later than J^idag, to appear on the following Tuesday,
For India
Mofiltsil.
B». 22 0
.. 12 0
7 0
^™STEH^fpTH.^EKEKOy.
BR. LALOR’S PHBSPHODYNE.
{Trade Mark—^fioaphodym,)
TYCKm TBaaS’ PUBUO test, ASD THOnSANDS or TESTIMOKlalSB JWWt
aii PABTS OP THE WORLD KSrABLieH
PHOSPHODYNE
as the only Sate, Belialile, and Kever-faiUng Phosphoric Remedy
for Over-worked Brain, Sleeplessness. Harassing Dreams, Worry,
Anxiety, Excitement, Epilepsy, Business Iheseare, Woetiug
Diseases, Nervous Prostration, Stomach and Liver Complaints, Im¬
poverished Mpod, Pismiatupe Decay, and all morbid oo^ltions of
the i^item dependent upon tile doii^noy of tho Vital Foroos,
8TATESUAN AND FRIEND OF INDIA.
(DAILY.)
Rates of Subscription, including postage,
aiRIOTLV IN ADVANOE.
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Jlo/ussil,
Yearly
Be. 30
0
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0
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Quarterly
■> *2
0
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Monthly
i> ®
8
11 ^ ®
Yearly
Half-yearly
, Quarterly
LMonthiy
...
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„ 34 0
„ 18 0
,.7 0
TEE
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For Europe
Single copies, As. S ; back copies, As. 4 and S.
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than 5 p.m., to appear on the following morning.
Intending Subscribers wUl please address the ilanarjer.
Subscribers should state distinctly for wmoH papek remManees are
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Agents in London for the aho're papers •
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D. J. KEVAIER 4c CO. ... 1, Whilefriars-st)-eet, Fleel-slreel,
, London, A’. G.
BOLE AGENTS FOE THE UNITED STATES :
THE INTERNATIONAL NBWSPATEB AOENCY,
H. V. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
New Haven, Gonneclicut, U.S.A.
DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE
PORIFISR ASTD
Enriches the Blood, nears tho Skin, thoroughly Invigorates the
Brain, Nerves and Musoles, Bo-euer^es the Falling Unctions of
Life by supplying the Phospuorio element which has been wasted,
and thus imparts Energy and Fresh Vitality to the Exhausted
Nervo-Elootrlo Force, aud rapidly Cures every form of Nervous
Debility, Paralysis, Kidney, Nervous, Mind, and Hoart Diseases,
I from whatever cause.
This elegant Phosphatio oomblnatiuu, the Wonder of Modern
Chemistry, is pronnnnced by the most eminent imemton Of tiie
Medical Profession to be unequalled for its power in replenliAiug
aud elaborating the Vitality of the Body ; by its tnpplyu^ all (lie
ossoutial and vitalising constituents of the Blood, Braik, and
Nervu Sobstanor ; and for developing all the Powers'and EIiao-
tions of the System to the highest degree; by Its being agreeable
to the palate, and innocent In its action. While retaining Its
wonderful properties, it acts as a Speclilc, surpasslne all the knewo
THESAPBtrriO AOENTS of the PRESXKI AOB, fOT WO SPEIIDr and
PICKUAKBMT otTRK of the abovo disease,
Db. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE is sold In Bottles at 4*. M. and
Us. by all Export, WKolesalo, aud Retail Medioiue Venders
throughout tho World.
IMPORTANT NOTIOE.--NONE IS GENUINE UNLESS the
name, Dr. Lalor’s Pbosphodyue, London, England, is blown' in
the Glass of each Bottle, and every Bo^e bears the'British
Ooverument Stamp, with the words Dr. Lalob’h Puosphod^’^,
London, England, ougraved thereon by Order' of her Maje^’s
Houournhle Commissioners j ly not, it is A VoBoiwy, akdwo
HA vie HEE.N IMPO.SKO nrON BV A WORTHLESS IMITATION. .
Manofacthbed only ai the
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY
DR. ROBERTD. LALOR, - ^
BAT house, 32, OAISFORD-STREST, LONDON, N. IF.
(The Sole Proprietor and Oriqinatob ob PHOsruoDTKje, '
the AGRA BANK,
"LIMITED:'
Oapitgl ... ..' £1000,000
RMorTB Fund ... £170,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNTS are kept, and
Interest allowed, when the Credit Balanoe
does not foil below Ea. 1,000.
DEPOSITS received available at any time
for Remittance to England in tbe Bank’s
Bills, and Interest allowed thereon at tbe
rate of 4 per cent, per annum.
DEPOSITS are also reoeived for fixed
periods, on terms which may be loomt on
*^fi^kFTS granted at the exchange of the
day on Londw, SiN^tlaud, Ireland, and tho
Bunk’s Ageumes in the East.
CIRCULAR NOTES Issued, negotiable
in the erineipal places In Europe,
QOVKKNmENT and other STOCKS,
’ and Shares bought and sold, and tho safe
custody of the same uudertakou.
INTBEEST,^AY, and PENSIONS col-
leoted I snd every other description of
Banlting Business and Money Agency tran-
saoted.
All Remittances should be made pay-
able to the Agra Book, Limited, 35
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to ROBISON and
CLEAVER, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Prioh Llstil^ST
FREE) of their
‘ Thoir Iiish L!i»ou ColLtrs, CnffH,
Bliirtri, ^c., )invt) tho merit ol
IRISH LINEN
choupueas.'— i
Court Circular.
Lodloa* And Chih
COLLARS,
T 4-foId, 4/11 to &A1
’ t>or doc.
For Ladies, Gentle*
men, and Children,
6/11 tyl0/yi>oi doc.
Best Lonncloth A RHIflTS
Bodies, wlA 4-fold PC qniniO.
all Unen frontM end
cuffs, tho half
doJi. (to moftsuru, 2/ extra).
IRISH
Si^Uoe
Linen,
per
yard.
CUFFS,
RoolTrlHh Linen BheotlnFi
2 yards wldo, 1/11 per
yard,
Bxtra Heavy (a most dur*
able article) 3^ yorde
wide, 8/3 per yard.
Boiler Towelling, 18 Inch
wide, 8^. per yard.
Linen Dus*
LINENS'
Cloths, 4/0 per
I 11 dox.
"■ Fine Linens
and Lluou
^Hapor,
lOd. per yard.
CAMBRIC
Children's .. a/o
LttdKM* .. 3/3
Gentlemen's .. 4/10
Hemstitooxo
POCKET
Ladioa’
'Oeuta'
per dos.
.. 4/9
9/i
Plah Napkins,
8/0 pur <Lof..
Linuor Napkin
0/0 per doz.
Table Cloths,
ydssquue. 8/11;
31 yards by 4
yards, 13/4 each.
ptms
HANDKERCHIEFS.
&DAMASK&
*Tho Irish Cambrios of tfeurs.
, Robinson 4i Cloavor have a world*
I wide lamo/—rA« Qmch,
lAadios’ Uuder*Clothlng, Rnby Linen, Drou Uateriab, Flannels, Irish and S'wiaa Smbroideries, Hoelery,
Oluvod (Judor-Yoets, Fonts ; obso Lace Goods of every description, at lowest wholesale prices,
ROBINSON A OLEAVER, Ma&nlheturers, by Bpe^ Ap-
poinment to her Majesty th» Quoou and her Imperial Highaeea
the drown Prinoees of
THE ROXALJOUSH LDipiI WAK^0^S|*„^LFA8T.
115
THE iroiAiT Ax m m m n m m.
T. E. THOMSON & GO.,
e, giBgi4iLAqrAX>^-:RQ-w,
OALOUTTA.
IMPORTERS OP
AIL KIKDS OF iMPLEMEMTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TEA PLANTERS,
Griffin's Patent Kodallies, all sizes.
Griffin’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Oast Steel Digging and Border Forks.
Potatoe Forks,
American Spades and Shovels, all steel.
Pickaxes, Double ended, diamond points.
Sickles and Reaping Hooks.
Betts’s Tea Lead,
Tea Sieves.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Cast Iron.
Switching Bills and Hooks.
Assam Daws and Jungle Cutters.
Garden Shears.
Tea Garden Pruning Saws.
Prtwing and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Irons.
Chubb’s W. I. Fire and Thief-proof Safes.
Plain W. I, Chests for holding large quantities
of Silver.
Pomt de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoop Iron and Clout Tacks.
Portable Weighing Machines With English and
Indian Weights.
Beams and Scales fitted with Teakwood Pans
and Iron Chains.
Salter’s Spring Balance.
Garden Spades, Shovels, Hoes, Rakes, and
Syringes.
Garden Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines. '
Hand, Lift and Force Pumps,
Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized Nails, Screws, Ridging and Gut¬
tering.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN’S
Patent Swift and Sure Transp lanting Tools.
Rbgbumi Vo. 18 S .3
raE
INDIAN AGEIC [JLTUEI8T.
A aOKTHLY
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.J CALCUTTAMONDAY, APBIL 2, 1883. [No, 4.
NOTICE.
SUBSCRIBERS to tlte Statssman, Feikno or Inoia, o/irf
Indian Aobiouliceist are in/ornxed that arraiujiemetUt have
Hoio bem nutde by which those Journalt loUl for the future he pub-
Uthed under the general superintendence of the undersigned.
All communications conoeniCng tlte general business of the
Statesman and Friend of India Office, Advertisements, and
Subscriptions to the daily Statesman and Friend of India,
weekly Friend of India and Statesman, oinI Indian Agricul¬
turist, should be addressed'to the 3IANAOER.
All communications regarding literary matter should he ad¬
dressed to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM RIACH.
June ISth, 1881.
CONTENTS:
Txqu.
t lOBRBSrONDENCE—
Tlie Silk Industry 117
The uses of Chemical Analysis
in a PracHcal Point of
View. 118
Leadino Auttclbs —
End and FodJor Kosorve.s ere 121
Tfrigation in Bongral ... 122
The Forest Administration o^
Britwb Bumah ... ..^122
TUiliration of SOwago ... 123
Edttouial Notes . 125
Barley Cultivation for India 130
Aft-rioultural and Horticul¬
tural Society of India ... 132
OPFICTAL pAPEn—
EsiabUsbrnont of Fuel and
Fodder Bosorres •«. ... 131
Selbctioks—
fieienoo in Agriculture ... lod
The Development of the
Mineral Resources of India 137
The AgriculUiral Kxlubition,
—1., IL, in. 138, 139, 140'
Page,
Lignihoation and its Teolmi-
cal Aspects. ... 141
New Products iu tlie Low
Country of Ceyhm... 142
CraCHON-i—
Note . 143
Coffee—
Coffee Prcpectn .1 44
Foue.strt-
The Fonnation of Cencontde
JUntJS in Wood ... Hi
The UiiiDKN—
Notcfl on tUe Cultivafi.ni of
Hot Season Natiro Vei/o.
tnbloK . ..146
How to apply Fertilize. ., 14*
.MlNSnALOriV —
Note ..
SEnicPLTrnE —
Nolo . 148
Our Correspotulents am! Contrlhuiors nnU greoily ohligr
ys if they ieUl take Ute trouble, inhere th>^ ntunis of cultiva¬
tion are state^J>y them in Indkin weights and measures, to
give their English egwivalenfs, either in the terl, in paren¬
thesis, or in a foot-note. The bigah in particular varies so
'^mmh in the diffierent provinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to give the English value of it in all cases. It would he a great
reform if the Government itself followed the same course in all
the official reports published by it
All correspondence must bear the full name and address of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee
of good faith. ITe, shall take no notice of anonymous l.dters.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE SILK INDUSTRY.
TO TNK BlirrOK.
Sm,—lu yonr esteemed columns long letters hevebeen Appearing
regarding the Bengal silk. Your correspondents generally
bemoan the fate of Bengal silk as an industry tliat Is dying off,
abuse tho spinner or katanies, and try to prove by amrious
and many arguments why the silk In Bengal will never be again
what it onoc was, and what ought to be done to resnsoitate It, Ac.
1 have had a good many years of experience of silk dlatures,
I both on the Rajahaye side of the Ganges, and on the Hoorshed-
' abad side too. I have also seen something of it in Beerblioom and
elsewhere, and even now I hear one way and another a good deal
about silk filatures.
My experience goes to show me that, so far from the silk Indus¬
try dying out, it is very flonriihing ; but of course as the Buro-
pcajis have done their best, and are doing tholr utmost, to make
dealings with them disagreeal.Ie to tho dealers in cocoons why,
they are losing tlic business, and os the looal consumption of silk
ISM Increased a hundred-fold, and cannot l>e traced by the Enropean
producer or the Government, it is lost sight of, and a " hue and
cr.y” is raised os to the falling off of the silk industry.
One of your oorrespondnuts writes os if lie was training for Holy
Orders, and dogmatioally lays down the law by stating that a
small filature ooutains fifty uion and fifty women, and a large
one five times os many of each sox. Ho does not know that, across
the fianges. on the Rajshaye side, where probably 30,000 to 60,000
lands reol silk every day, during the season, tliero are not among
bom .10 women katauies. I know a charge of fiOO basins iu
ivliioh there was not one female katailie, and most of tlie men
ivcre married mon with families, and many of tliom kept their
.vomeu as their women were not permitted to
be seen out of their homesteads. How- is It that the onrse com-
lalnod of on tiie Monrshedahad side, whore single mon and women
4arry on mueti of tlie work, falls on tiie rospoctalile lot too?
Again, one man writes alwut “rack-renting that,too, is absurd
If the ninllierry fields were to pay three times the rent they are now
charged with, they would still leave a handsome margin to tiie
cultivator.
IvUstly, comes a man wlio wants to run oil with the cocoon eggs
,o tiie hills, and abuses tho Bengali katanie as being Incap¬
able and lazy, &e.
To this man I say there is no more patient worker than a Ben¬
gali, and value for value, the Bengali workman will heat any
tvorUman except the Ciiiiiaman.
'J’lion, as to cooooiis. If your oorrespondonts can afford to do pro-
igies, then of course tliey car call out not. (irons change tout eela
lilt os tlicy cannot, I suppose tilings must remain as at present.
To any one who has been behind tho scenes, and to any one wlio
las studied tiie subject, the reason for the decline in the quality of
Bengal raw silk, ns sent to the home markoto, is very plain indeed.
Tile cocoons taken all in all are nincli as they were formerly,
'here are good hatches and had batches, and the best of silk and
ihe worst of silk will be tlio produce of them respectively. The
katauies are fit to spin any class of silk, and would, if at liberty,
ipin silk that coulc^ not he beaten or he found fault with. Tiia
nacUlnery and filatures are better than tlicy wore in former yonri,
and easier worked. And tho whole secret lies in tho fact of managers
witliing to make impossible quantities of good silk at
.inpossiblo rates, and to a pernicious sy-stem of management that
will only end when the older hands liavc brought ruin ou the
118
THE JNBIAN AGRICITLTUEIST.
Ai«ii3,18|8.
boiiaeis, Mv« been oompeitod by that mia to tUfm out. and
MW blooded * wow fOMoMblo and i^idioloni )«•«»«»
)urt come u.'
Why, Mr. Editor, when I tell you that in moat ol the
filaturM tbeecaie of aaUry paid ‘o kattoSto thirty yean ago
is still perslatDiJ in, you will easily understand how it is
that the business is being rained. Food, living, the value of
money, and in fact almost every item of dbmestio economy, has
undergone a change in Bengal,.but to« Itatwies’ salaries, wherever
the " antediluvians ” liavo tbs powsr to carry it out with the
atroog. byn-'i have remained in "UtUic qua. Bioe may sail at
one tnpeo or Hve rppeea per mannd it makes no
diffei'enoe. Five rupees and four rupees they got respectively
year out of mjud, and that they must get, U not,, how U silk
to pay f
Again, as ragarJs quality of silk. I have stated that the
cocMus, wlion sorted and worked fairly, wiU yield silk of similar
quality,'in fact, os good sUk as can he desired may he produced ;
but the ooooons are not sorted to moke speoioi olassss of silk,
and, as a rule, the spinners are bound to make only such a class
of silk as pays, and they do it. Donbtless the managers want,
and would like to have, the best of eilk, but it does
not pay to have the beat of sUk.and they take, with
all sorts of make-bsUeve of dlasatUfactlon, what they can get,
aud do the}r best after tney have got it, to pin their fifth to it,
and pass it off as the best In quality that can be reeled.
You will say that my statement smacks of a paradox.
Wellj to it but aerertheleiB, It is true. Ths process by
which the ay»a»g«ment comes about requires explanation. To begin
with awy Matora, •* * native—the gomashu,
for all the money sent to ths filature,the ooooons
boagtitiat or by S>«! fflatw»(, the quantity and quality of silk mode,
aud the losses incurred on ooooons with whioli the silk Is made.
Tho» l»anaeslata«t,.too, Ineaoh filature, or hi charge of
two, of“no.
ueofclty’’ kept, to look aftof ‘he general working, to
draw oommission on all the silk made, aud to keep the
natives in some sort ol cheek. Ho U expected to see, too, that good
■ilk la raelod. As tha season opens, the money comes in from head,
quwrtew for the purohaae of ooooons, and with it an order or liint
up to wWoh oaoh seer of silk wUl be paid foi- at head.quarters exclu¬
sive <rf reeling-expoises. ,Thns, if an order of Ks, 10 per sepr is
£iven,and a mannd of ooooon yield three eoei-s by estimation of silk,
^enthegomwhtaoan pay fis. 30 for that mound of ooooons.
17ow if the gomaahta buys those cooooni for Be. 30, and
they yield only two eeers of silk, he It Bs. 10 to the bad silk.
There la the lecret and actual reason why bad silk U made. The
ifomashta, b^“* responsible, takes very good care that he obtain*
all the prodnoe ho can from tlie cocoons, aud the spinners are
told to work accordingly.
Bars I must digress to point out that oaeh uocoon contains as
a covering a certain quantity of coarse, loosely put together, silk.
Tide moat be cleared off If a clean fibre ii wanted. The clearing tide
floeayoovertagwpweents so much ices in produce of good raw
silk and the reeling off of some of it with the clean fibre Is so
much gain of prodnoe, the gomashta elects for the latter. Well,
whew it Is nndewtood that the gomashta U bound in his own Inter-
«sU to obtain produce, It is very simple to follow up the reasoning,
aud the result or oonoluaten come to is that the katanlsa as a rule
are not permitted to work with the view of making the beet ilik
poesible,and therefore, not being free agents, tliey cannot be blamed
for thrning ottt bod ellk.
Having ilmwh what is the actual root and origin of bad sQk,
I will proceed to add that the system of checks at head.qnarteri
to test the quality of silk le simply bad. The natives who carry
out the testing are fearfully corrupt. 1 kuow a large concern—
In fact, one of the largest oonoerns in Bengal—In which It Is ntual
for the gomashtas to send money wfth each despatch or lot of
silk and provided a good mnount aooompauiei the silk, no matter
what tile quality of th* silk is, it passes as flrtt ohus. Tlie managem
profeM to khow nothing of this, and this evil, being ths outlet
to woA off ths i^lk, tesnlting frbni produce, damns the whole
bttslMSS.
It ntoy hb ^ .sot exaggerating, iml tudii is sot tK<!
ease. I have satti silk nqt ’fit to^be sont toCmarket passed, and
on toe otiier hiu«t .1 hllfva.stoh Sw^Sass stlk reported on ae bod,
Slid sil tUe natitohahfts toed for k The gqmosbtas ahtarally
•ay what is the good of using prodnoe and making good silk When
onelms to bribe to see it paieml, just the eame ae is dons for the
badsilha,
. It is easy to dsduM firoto this .Itlsit so tong ss flktnws »»
mansged under a systosp ittito *ho
first dass silk ium be Mtpegtoi ask
Of ooniM to«re are ere^^itfonB to wa^ sWs, and ths eWJsption is
this—when veiy good bsfohto of oototos happkn to bo bought, they
seldom turn ont bad silk off them. But In tiiise oaimS too the
AssUtaut, unless he U very smart, is powerless, beoouse the good
cocoons ore often mixed with the bad ooooona
It will heastodtoatlf it lain thstototoSt of the gomashta to make
bad «Uk, and all the gomaahtai itiake l)ad sUkg how U It^ .that any
good silk is made ? Why, It is a oontinual " pjai-devil-pull-baket"
sort of - a game. «»d asslstmits nosV
men,and create a reign of terror for a few daysi whim a litfle good
silk is made, then it gradually falls back to the old stwdard, and
bad silk continues to be reeled.
To sum up. The demand foi* local consumption Is now very great.
In the viHagoi, formerly only the rich men wore silken appsrel ;
now ooolies do so. The demand itimuUtei prodactlon, coarse threads
are reeled for tho weaver, the yield from ooooons of saoh tkrsad
is greater than ae fine thread, and thus the natives carry off ooopons
that to the European is prohibitive; the European outturn falls short,
no one tokos Uie trouble to probe tho matter, and a general outcry
U made of the sUk dying off.
It would be very, easy to follow up what I have written above,
and to Show how it is.tkaj the Europeans are . '"?•*
perseverlngly putting an end to the carrying on of silk huiluese so
far as oonoerns thilr filatures. In a few years mote they wlU have
about a fifth of their filatures only at work, and those also will
work about 4 to 6 mouths in tho year, but 1 have no time to write
more to-day, so will leave the matter for my next.
SILKWOBM.
THE USES OF CHEMMlA.L.AliAl(YSIS IN A PRACTI¬
CAL POINT . OF VIEW.
TO TILE EDITOR.
Bn ;,—111 bygone .'igos when the science of cheniietry was in it*
infant Hliige, analyses of soil or those of any other thing, in tbs
luiitoriul world, in civilised oountrieB, and for practical jiurjioees,
were a mere stoiuething for the gratification of enquiring minds;
because the then cliBCoveries, in the science, were so few that the
results pcrfurca became very unsatisfactory, accurate finding
out being tholi almost impossible. Again, in those days very
few people had a knowledge of chemistry, and that knowledge
was so very limited tluit its use, fli practice, was .a matter of
question ; he;ice agriculture and other eiiltivations, the aids
and inaiuifactures, medicine, house and other buildings, and
vai-ious other things too numerous ti detail here, had to be
managed without the help of chemistry ; and of course in very
crude or imperfect, and mieatisfaotory fashions. The time I here
allude to embraces the primitive aud dark ages. As, however,
time rolled on and discoveries were mode, things aseumed dif-
fcient aspects ; so that in the present time chemistry, in civilised
countries, is considered abeohitoly necessary, because chemical
manipulations have, practically, been found to be productive
of the happiest results in multifarious ways. Ohemietry, it
should be noted, is a purely experimanlal demonttrcaive teUnee.
To elucidate the subject, I must say that the chemical constitu¬
ents of (1) the solid food we eat j (2) the liquid food, ench aa
milk, wines, spirits, beer, porter, various other beverages, aud
the water we drink ; (3) the medicines, whether externally or
internally, we use ; (4) the ores we dig out of the ground j (6)
the salts aud earthy matters we extensively use in the arte end
manufactures, also as food ingredients ; <rf dyeing ;
( 7 ) the compounds of nietaUa«d minerals in ke arte
and mamifactures ; (8) the clay, sand, and stones we um as
building nuiterials for oouverslou into bricks, Ume, and mortar
and in pottery ; (9) the soils in which plants grow j (10) tiie
atmospheric air, manures, and irrigation wat^ which serve,
in addition to the soil, as food for plants ; (11) and
Histly though not the least, the planto tiitmielves--ai»
all Inquired to be known, and known in mott ca^
tborougbly, bafore we can decide tiielr adwkbwty . for
soeciia or general purposes, and fix thttr oonuasroial m-.intadar
sic and raveune value acoordingly. What I liave advuiosd, no
«M having kte ktelleot sound, ImowWge and education ]ttffsefi
T^IJ .INDIA]^ l^l^CXJLTURIST. 121
requiting itBU^ «ii)9te ew ton .ex^eiuively be grcwn in Itnito
tbwib-^UtfeMmntrt^ But the foi«g()jag famoue inveetigar
tion by diittoipui&ed and very high authoritative
doctors, ahd' ether things tnentioned above could not have
been made vri^out the help oi chemical analyses, therefora
its great praotiaal tise as respects soils of all klnde and depths,
and for all manner of plant cultivations.
10. Chemical analysis of atmospheric air, the most tedious
and time-absorbing in the whole range of analytical chemisti'y,
^is of a character which might be likened to the Director in
whose hands are the destinies of the present and future races
of organio nature of our planetary orb, earth. I will presently
explain in which way air ani^lyBis assumes this most important
ciiaracter.
The comtxiueut elemeuts of the ntniosphoric air, it is well
• known, consists of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic acid
principally! and ohlorim, phosphoric acid, and sulphuric acid
in, comparatively speaking, insignificant quantities. These
substances exist in the shape of gases and blended in different
proportions or volumes ; hence to use the words of Bonsaingault
and. Dumas the atmospheric air is a ‘ true mixture.’ The
properties of all these elements arc also fully known to
every one knowing anything of science. In organic
nature an equilibrium, termed by the distinguished chemists
and physiologists whose names have been cited, ‘ balance,’ is
maintained This balance is the soui’ce of life to plants and
animals of all kinds and in all places, dry land and water;
but it cannot be .always maintained, its breakage, in the
physical world, being already tbreatened by the very rapid
increase of liuman beings and animals of all kinds subserving
the purposes of man, besides tliftse in a wild state not yet
extirpated, also plants of numerous kinds to supply food and
other wants of man and animals subject to man. All these
su’o constantly robbing the air of its njoderating element—
nitrogen, for such is the real character of this elemeui, and
since the processes of evolution and ini’olution are disengaging
only a very small fraction of what nitrogen element they
arc storing in their structures, the balanre of organic
■nature cannot hold out long, but, sooner or later, must break
up by the paucity of nitrogen in the air. The vary
moment this takes place, the all-powerful life-maintaining
and at the aame time life-destroying oxygen gas will break
asunder its present mildness, become violent and burst out in
flames. When this takes place univeraal lightnings (violent
electric sparks), thunders of the most virulent character, cy¬
clones, probably at Uio beginning hail and ram also, and earth¬
quakes, on account of nature following the laws of gi'avitatiou
discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, and cohesion, will Uike place ;
and gradually, by inrmeuse physical clianges which will then
take place, the planet eai'th will be enveloped by one unuitei-
rupted mass of flames, whereby the whole animated u.atnre
including plants, will be burnt up, not » single human Iwing
will be found living. All the waters on the eiirth, such as seas,
4 oceans, lakes, rivers and wells, will boil aud p.artially or wholly
be dissipated like water in a cauldron doos when placed on fire,
consequently Ashes and other animals Jiving in water will
perish, aud then the bible prophesies quoted below wall bt* ful¬
filled to the very letter.
‘ But the day of the Lord will come as a thief in the night,
in tbic which the heavens sliull pass away with a great noise,
1 and the elemeuts shall melt witli fervent hejit, the eailli also
I and the works tliat are themn shall be turned up,’ II Pel.
! ui, 10.
‘ And groat earthqjijliceR shall be in divers places, and fam¬
ines and pestilend^B ; and fearful sights and great signs shall
there he from heaven.’—St. Luke xxxi, 11.
‘ Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the
e 8ui\l>e darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the
i stars shall fall fitim heaven, and the powers of lieavon shall
I be shaken.’—Math. Jlxiv, B9.
I Other passages in the New aud Old Testaments might also
I be refened, which exactly tally with science aud the Scrijrtures,
) and it do not vary to the very letter.
1 The uses of chemical analysis of air consists in the data it
5 ran fttraish f^m time to time, regai'ding tlie proi>ortion of the
I gases in the atmospheric air on which to base scientific aud i
■ poUtiottl measures for, at least, prolougiu^ the inevitable pro-
phtoied destruction.
The manures and irrigation watert, Iwoause supplying plaut-
fbod ingredients, also require to be analysed.
H,—The chemical analyses of plants are very important, both
for gaining the necessary knowledge for growing them, mid for
what uses they are adajited. ,
The inference of the whole said above at ono* brings home
to the minds of the most siiiierfluous thinker the great Import*
ance of chemical auatysis in a practical point of view.
Some people advance that various results are obtained in
analysis. To them I say, efficient analysis always does its work
admirably aud can trace down to one millionth part of u grain,
which datum certainly is quite enough for all practical purpos¬
es. It is true, viirious analytical methods exist giving
vai'ious results ; in reality, however, there is but one method
for such analysis, aud the sooner this method, which must be
the most approved one, is agreed upon, by chemists, tlie better
for progress. The most approved method consisting in the
most approved way adopted, chemicals and apparatus used in
the pai'ticular chemical manipulation (analysis). To my mind
all chemists and chemical societies in all parts of the world,
ought to arrive at this all-important decision, the sooner the
better.
0. L. BEYCE.
Baliraich, March 12,18U3.
Jitdian ^jriijttlinrisf.
CALCUTTA, ATHIL 2, 1883.
FUEL AND FODDER RESERVES.
i N the siipiilement to the Onsette of India for tlie 10th March,
there is a very •important resolution on the conservation
of grazing lands and wooded tracts, especially in the proviuoes
of the Punjab, the North-West, and the Central Provinces,
including tlie Berars, which we reproduce elsewhere, and to
which we desire to draw the attention of our readers. It is
perfectly clear to those who have studied the agricultural
conditiou of India, that some such measure as that proposed
in the resolution is becoming year by year more imperative.
The vapid increase of population following from the jieacsful
nile of England which has reduced to a minimum loss of life
from war, iiestileiice aud famine—those natural checks to the
growtli of j) 0 ]mlatioii, coupled witii the hitherto all but
insurmountable repugnauee on the part of the bulk of the
Indian jieasjintry to any scheme of emigration on a large
scale—make it imperative that jimgle land should be cleared
for grazing purpose.s and the latter in turn utilized for arable
hand in larger and still larger ai-eas year by year. The pres¬
sure of the population on certain areas in India renders the strug¬
gle for existence more and more keen, and in this struggle, it is
very evident that ignorance, want of thrift and fore8ight,as well
as poverty and the hereditary apathy of the Indian peasant, have
worked mischief to the laud aud its power of producing fodder,
fuel, and food, which, though not irreparable,has in Upper India
and elsewhere produced conditions which render it impoesible,
should a single monsoon fail, lo keep alive the plough cattle,
and which even imperil the lives of the cultivators. We do not
believe that it is possible with such a peasantry os that of
India, ovindeedaiiy peasantry mainly dependant for existence
on the safe gatlieriug of almost a single crop, to do more with
one generation, at least, thou render their lot a little less hard.
Habits, metlmJs aud idiosyncraciea crystallised and hardened be¬
yond any hope of remoulding, as Well os tribal and race
oliaraoteristioB iagrained,in the web and woof of the people’s
lives, render change and innovation all but impossible WiUi
those who have reached middle life, while even wilh. tbe ^stng-
generation a fresh set of conditions aud surroundings, broader
ideas and newer methods are but things of slow growth.
122
THE INDIAN AGRI0ULTTTBI8T.
A^ 2,18B8.'
N'tTWthdsu, as ws ha^ said,some little ma^ be done to render
their lot leu bard,to stave off impending calamities, and to avert
eyils whidi ignorance,jwverty, and thoughtleesnees hare already
produeed and are producing ; and it is in this dii'ection that
the Agricaltuml Department will find, in our estimation, the
widest and (he trnest scope for its usefulness. The resolution
above noted proposes to maiutaiu throughout the plains of Upper
India a supply wood for fuel aud domestic purposes, as well
us of fodder for cattle in times of scarcity, or rather we should
eay, (odder resources are the object chiefly aimed at, in tlie secur¬
ing of which a supply of fuel will also l)e obtained. The
plan ppjposed is that the Forest Department should be consult¬
ed regaining the beat means of bringing waste lands into a
ccmdition suitable for the purposes aimed at ; tliat certain areas
should be enclosed to prevent the destructive grazing of goats
and cattlc,and supply fuel aud food iu times of ueed,and in this
Way to restore, and if possible increase, the usefulness of land
which is fast decreasing, or has already been practically lost. The
adviee and co-operation of Local Governments is asked regard¬
ing the form in wWch system and continuity can be most ad-
vautageeusly establislicd. The whole details of the practical
working of the scheme are, it will thus be seen, wisely left
untouched until such time as the various officew who may be
supposed to have an intimate knowledge of the localities, aud the
various matters implied iu such an undertaking, have recorded
their opinions and experience. At its present stage, then, all we
desire to do is to commend the wisdom of the proposal, and to
hope that the department from which it emanated will be able
la a few years to say that in the districts where fuel and fodder
reswveshave been established loss of cattle to any great extent
is rare, tliat land previously waste and comparatively useless,
has been covered with foiest and gi-azing grounds, and that the
peasantry of these districts is thriftier, healthier, and more jiros-
perous than those in less favoured districts.
IRRIGATION IN BENGAL.
T he Revenue Report of the Public Works Department,
Irrigation Brunch, Bougal, for the year 1881-82, has
been pubUshed. It shows that the .capital invested in
inigation works iu Bengal (direct charges), up to the end
of the year under notice, amounted to Rs. ">,48,10,043.
This was divided os follows :—
Rs.
PrtKluctivo Public Works . . 5,24,57,080
Imperial Ordinary Works 8,.W,fi24
Provinoial Works ... ... 15,21,4.?0
The results of the operations during the year show a
deficit of Rs. 19,22,213 (this iucludos interest and all
iiidiroot charges), against Rs. 2.3,00,111 in 1880-81, or
excluding interest, Imt including all indirect charge.s, a
profit of Rs. 1,62,976, against a loss of Rs. 31,363 in the
previous year. This comparatively favourable result is
partially due to the rate of interest payable to the Supremo
Government on works executed from loan funds having
been reduced from 4^ to 4 per cent, but it is also
largely owing to increased receipts from tbe Soiie canals.
The net receipts for the year from the Western Main series
of the Sone project—the capital expenditure on which
has been Rs. 1,59,92,879—were Rs. 2,76,564, against
interest charges amounting to Its. 6,04,022 ; so that on
parts of the irrigation works, the returns have begun to
bear a very appreciable ratio to the burden tliey caused to
the provincial finances.
The collections in Miduaporc and Orissa wore not
(^tisfiiotory, mainly owing to the low prices for vice, which
continued to prevail It is stated that since the close of
tfte y^ under review considerable progress has been made
in realMflg tbe an-em-s iu Orissa, but in Midnaporo the
difi&oul^i(|i^ which impeded colleotious are only just begin¬
ning to 1)6 surmounted. The Chief Engineer adverts at
len^h to oertain coses in which the* coUootiou establish¬
ments in this district were charged with oppressive acts
in realising the water-rates due. The matter was brought
to the personal notice Of the Lieutenant-Governor when
on tour, and a searching enquiiyr by the Collector and
Supcirmtendiag Engineer followed. The allegations made
were oompletely dliqprowed ; but in the tasantime ooT
lections almost ceased, and low prices, the prevalenee of
malarious fever, and the time taken up in issuing leases in
place of those which expired, have agitated against the
realisation of the arrears which bad seoumulated. The
system which was last year introduced in Bhahabad, under
which on experienced Deputy Collector was placed in
direct clmrge of the oolleoting department, has been
specially successful, having received much personal atten¬
tion and supervision from the Collector of the district: the
amount received dm’iug tbe year for water-rates was
Rs. 5,30,706, against Rs. 3,09,98p^u the year preceding,
and for the first time since inigatloh operations were com-
monoed, there is a decrease in the balance remaining to be
collected at the close of the year.
During the year under review the working expenses,
direct and indirect, amountc<l to Ra 11,03,834, against
Rs. 10,-50,728 in 1880-81. The excess is wholly in Orissa
aud llidnapore, there hiiviug boon a decrease of Rs. 14,01.5
in the charges on account of the Sone cauala Heavy
floods in Orissa, ivliich iioeessitatod special repairs to
the ombankmeuts on the Byturnce river, and large ex¬
penditure on the dredging plant Used on the Midnapore
canal, were the chief causes of tho increase. There was
a decrease in tho total irrigated area, and this occurred
wholly in Beliar. Tho falling-off iu tlie area watered
by the Sone canals may for tho most part be ascribed
to seasonable rainfall, wliioh, to quote tbe report, wa.s
6'17 inches in tho kharif season, and 4T1 inches iu the
rubbi season, more than iu tho previous year. The
deoino in rubbi irrigation is, however, partially due to
the substitution of kliarif fijr rubbi crops wherever irriga¬
tion can be secured, and is observable, though iu a less
degi'ee, in Orissa.
Tiie navigation receipts of the year amounted to
Rs. 3,42,876, and thus exhibits an excess of Rs. 63,892 over
that preceding. This increase occurs chiefly in llie receipts
from the canals comprising tho Sone project, but with the
exception of the tidal canal, there has been devolopmont
everywhere. Tho receipts from tho transijort service,
which are included in tlie above figures, reached Rs. 91,606,
against Rs. 67,387 in 1880-81. It is contemplated tn
gradually transfer this service to private enterprise, and n
beginning has already been made, the Calcutta .Steam
Navigation Company liaving, from tlie Ist January of the
current year, taken over the steamers on tho Midnapore
canal. T'he results of tho year's working are tlic most
successful yet experienced, and though up to tbe present
time irrigation works have failed to defray the charges
I for interest payable to tlio Government of India, the
' returns arc increasing, and warrant tlio expectation that
eveutimlly the Orissa and .Soiic canals will cease to be .a
burden to the province. K.stiuiatcs for extending tho dis¬
tributary system in Orissa liave been submitted to th*
Covomment of India, and os at prosout 106 of the 214
miles of canal in that province are absolutely without any
means of distributing the water they oai-ry over the
country tliey ai-e supposed to irrigate; it is hoped that
sanction will not be withheld. If accorded, it may reason¬
ably bo expected that the now distributaries will be as .
successful as those now existing, iu whicli case the receipts
will suffice to cover the interest ohaiges on the entire
capital expended.
The Hone canals require time todevelopo; the largest
proportion of tlie revenue is at prosept derived from the
Arrali canal aud its brauolies, and it is thought that there
is no reason why irrigation should not become equally
developed on the rouiuiuiug branches as their advantage
becomes better known.
THE FOREST Al).VlINI.STHATlON OF BHlTLSU,
BURMAH.
T he Ciiief Oommlssionor’s resolution on the Forest ad¬
ministration of British Bumiah for the year 1881-82
testifies that excellent work was done by the department
during that period.
'I'he area of reserved forest was increased by 836 square
miles, making the total re.sorv-ed area stand at 2,876 square
miles at the end of the year, which is distributed between
tlMT Pegu and ciroles in the proportion of
2,440 iquare mllee to the former, and 436 eqnare miles to the
latter. With the eJ^feption of 47 square miles reserved in
the TenMeerim 'the work of reservation during the
period under notice (shears to have been entirely confined
to the Pegu oirolo. The new reserves were the Mindome
Yoma and the Yaythe in theJPwme division, tl»e Upper and
Lower Tramayee in the Eaagoon division, and the Kyon-
kewasin end ing in the Twingoo divMon. The wm-k of
reservation is said to bo far advaueod iw^ clifofly in the
Pegu oirolo, whore it is considered to bo completed on the
<;. West slope of the Pegu Yowa. In both the P^u and Ten-
asserim circles further tracts have been examined in view
to declaring them reserved forests. The local adminis¬
tration considers that the reservation of forests has been
most suooMsfuUy carried out, and that,the ofoeers employed
on forest demwoation have been very careful in ascer¬
taining and examining the claims of those interested in the
forests proposed for reservation. Kvery oonsidoratiou ap¬
pears to have been sliown to the villagere whenever tlieir
removal has been rendered neoessaiy, and they have been
allowed to move at their convenience, ample compensation
being also gi’auted to them for the trouble involved in
shifting tlioir dwellings.
Of the total area of 115,982 acres under protection from
fire, only 1,906 acres wore burnt during the year. ,In
1880-81, 19,363 acres were burnt out of 96,218 acres under
protection, the area actually protected being only 76,858
acres. 'I’he improvement in the year under notice is tliero-
fore very notioeahle, but although the area protected is so
much larger than in 1880-81, the cost of protection lias
only increased by Rs. 780. Th* average cost per acre of
siiooessful protection was one anna seven pies, against two
annas two pies in the previous year. There worn fifteen
fires during the year; most of them are believed to liave
been due to aocidontul causes, tliougb several arc also
attributed to iuociuliarisin, some for the juirposo of driving
game out of the forest, and others from purely malicious
and mischievous motives.
The progress made in teak planting does not appear to
liavt; boon very great. The total area under 1 oak at the
close of the year was 8,000 acres, against 7,131 at the end
ofl8H0-8i, or an increase of 869 acres. 'I'ho jdanting
operations arc being conducted now on the toungya sys¬
tem, the entire area of teak toungyas at the end of 1881-82
was 4,4.39 acres, costing oil an average about Rs. 9-13 11
per acre. 'I'iie system is said to bo snoocoding admirably,
the greater portion of the areas on which it has been tried
is now stocked well with healthy seedliiiirs, and every
advantage is being taken for promoting the system. An in¬
teresting experiment was matlo in the Pegu circle in tho
Bwet and Nynnleh reserve* in toungya Aoak planting in
ureas wliere the bamboo has flowered. TJie course adopi eil
is to burn the flowering bamboos and plant up tho area so
burat over with teak seedlings transidanted from nurseries.
All area of 450 acres was planted in this manner during the
year, and the results have been very siiooessful. Further
operations on this system are to be tried during the cur¬
rent year. The results of the experimental oultivaiiou of
exotio trees at Mergui and Than’awaddy have been on the
whole succcssrul. Tho plants of the Pana, India-riiliber
tree, and tlie Cenre trees are said to bo growing well at
Mergui, while such of the mahogany plants in .Mergui uiid
Amherst os have escaped the attacks of insects are making
eioollent growth. The cinoiioua iilautat.iou at Thandoiiiig
has not hitherto promised a ell, and lliat at Pynunclioung
has done so poorly that orders have been given to abandon
further outlay on the cxperiiueiit there. The local admiui.s
tration is desirious of obtaining tho advice of an oxperl ns
to what should be done to secure greater success, and it la
Loped that Dr. I^pg willlie able to visit Burmali shortly,
if his servloes can lie spared by the Bengal Government.
In the account under girdling operations, we see tliat.
24,409 trees wore girdled during the year, at a cost of j
0,210. During the coming season it is believed that
about 11,000 teak trees will be girdled, and it is estimated
that there will ^en remain about 26,000 to 30,000 trees,
tiio girdling of traich will extend over two years.
The total revenue of the Department amounted to
Rs. 22,31,804,08 against Rs. 15,16,613 in 1880-81, or an
increaw of Rs. 7,15,191. Tho large increase has occurred
in timbsr and other produce removed from tho forests by
Goveramaut agenoy. The total number and quantity of
logs and pieces of timber of all kinds extracted by Govern¬
ment agenoy during tho past two yesi^ were;—
Nam)>tr of k>ga
and
Too*.
1880-81
38,487
18,910
1881-82 ...
1M,789
00,817
Increase
... 1,83,282
81,807
Of this timber 43,630 logs and pieces,. and 2ff,615 tons
were teak. The extraction and utilization of .other timbers
than teak is now lieing largely taken to, a course wliich is
viewed with great satisfaction by tho local administration
os likely to help to expand tho business. Owing to tho dc-
olino in the prodnotioii of euteh, there has been a largo fall-
iug-oft’ in the receipts under the hernl of “ minor forest
produce.” There were only 2,611 oauldrons at work during
the year, as against 7,275 cauMrons in 1880-81, and tho
amount realised for permits to maiuifooture eutch was
Rs. 48,486 against Rs. 81,006 in the yeiw preceding. Tho
decrease we observe is attributed to tiie fact that the ciitoh
supply outside reserves is nearly exhausted.
Tho total expenditure of the year amounted to
Rs. 11,50,223 .against Rs. 7,12,568 in 1880-81, the increase
being principally due to the enhanced cost of extraction of
timber by Government agenoy, owing to the larger qinmtity
brouglit out of tho forests.
UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE,
S O Duioh has lieeu said and written on this great social pro-
Uem by ph.y8icianH, sanitarians, politiml eoououiists, and
soientifle agrieniturisis nf euiimuiee, that it is scarcely iwssible
to nmot tiie subject without tnuicliing on preidously published
opinions. Tha lute revelations, however, concerning the state of
tho Calcutta sowers by Mr. Tlioinas Joues,-reiidere necessary a
clearer comprehension nt tho laws of h^'giene than OiU lie gained
by a study of the logic nf clisturhed tmuiieipal functioniiries,
who object, it appears, to learn through exact observation and ex-
amiiiation tlie muse of deficletieies iinude palpable by their very
vilciiess. We have already learnt enough to know what gave
origin to tlie December stenches, .accounted for tlien by the
horso-drofipiijgs and other Mu.‘on>s, in the absence of easily
acce8.sihle and since ascertained conditions. These conditions
brought to light by Afr. Joiiss point to some defect in the con¬
struction of our seweft, or neglect on the part of those reapon-
•sible for tluir control, and to the surmise that for some time
past these sewers have, instead of contributing to our health
and ciimfort, been converted into active generators of zymot i
poisons. Sewers arc coinsidered by some to be the perfection of
sanitary skill, and W'o are far from disputing their value, when
properly worked, for we have exact statistic dat»'(b show that
wherever tliey have been introduced and rigidly looked ofte r
epidemics have ceased. But wo liave seen, not in this country
alone, that we cannot safely rely on having tho ideas of the pro-
jofdins of these works carried out ; that consequently it be-
coiue.s a matter of importance to seek for additioiuil
measures to meat eouditions which, under similar circumstances
to those locally revealed, might again occur. To secure sucli
measures wc must put aside all question of eipen.SB until such
time as completo siifety Inia been provided for, when it will be
our duty to consider whether, by tho iitilizat'ou of the waste
organic maltei's operated on, w-e can I’eooup either wholly or in
part the money HjiBiit. In order, therefore, that our judgment
may be facilitated respecting such extra measures, it becomes
necessary to shortly refer to those in use in European
cities. We allude of course -o the various precipitation pro¬
cesses in operation at Loudon, Liverpool, Leioester, Birming¬
ham, Brailford, Coventry, Tottenham, Swindon, and other
places, one or two examples of which taken from pa]>er8 by
David Forbes, F.R.S., and Dr. Wallace of Glasgow, will en¬
able us to comprelieud at a glance the idea governing them,
08 well as inform us of tUcii' cost and value. “ Among the towns
where precipitation is in usi*,” says Dr. Wallace, “ none is
more worthy of attention than Leicester, the population of which
is about 120,000, while the sewage amounts to 7,000,000 gallons
per day. The quantity of lime used is 20 or 80 cwts, por
124
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. AprU 2, 1883,
million gallotu, and nothing in obtained fw the nlutlfft, n-liWi
Ima hitherto been employed, almost exclusiyety, in making np
land in the immediate neighbourhood of the works. The
cost of working, for lime, fuel, and labour, is .£2,300
per aniium. The whole of the sewage requires to
be pumped 26 feet. The precipitation is efiected
in A series of very large tanks and settling ponds, and
and the ijiBuent is further purified by filtration through an
osier bed three aores in extent. Coventry has been working for
some years Dr. Anderson’s patent in which sulphate of
alumina, with enough liffle to throw down the alumina, is
employed. This latter process yields a sludge having three
times the phosphatic valno of that precipitated by lime alone.
“ Whatever aystem,” continues Dr. Wallace, “ of precipitation is
adopted, the disposal of the sludge is one of the most important
elements in the calculation of the cost.” This is a question,
however, which we think in a place like Calcutta will be easily
met. Agaiuet the statement by Dr. Wallace concerning Leicester,
that nothing ia obtained for the sludge, we have a report by Dr.
Augustus Voelcker,Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agr icultural
Society, on precipitated London sewage ; it is addressed to A. P.
Price, and quot^ by David Forbes, F.B.S., ns foliow.s
“The following is the composition of the sewage deposit.wliii h
you desired me to analyse :—
100 parts of the dry sewage depcnit contain moisture,
less In drying at 212°F. ... ... ... .T'98
• Organic matter and water of ooiuMnation ... 20'll
+ Phosphoric acid ... ... 28'52
Lime ... ... ... ... 1.8'Ofl
Alumina,and oxide of iron, and a little magnesia
and alkaline salts
Insoluble aiUoeoui matter ...
100-00
* Centaintns nitrogen 0'fi7,equal to nmmonia 0'09.
f Equal to tribasic phoupnata of Ume 63'26.
The whole of the phosphoric acid, I may state, occurs in this
manure in the shape of precipitated phosphates, a form I need I
liardly say in which the phosphates are readily available by
plants. The presence of a large amount of water of combina¬
tion in the deposit, that is, water which is not expelled on
drying at the Imiling point of water, shows that the phosphates
with which the water enters Into chemical combination, and
which does not escape at 212'’ F., are not likely to retui'ii
readily into the ordinary and, compai'ati\mly speaking,ineffectivo
condition in which they exist in phosphatic minerals. Being
obtained by precipitation from their solution, the phosphates
are present in the deposit in a very efficacious form. *
It poeaesses valuable fertilizing properties, and in my opinion
a sewage manm-e, equal to the sample analysed by me, will
command n ready sale nt £7-7 per ton. Believe me, youn
faithfully,
(8d.) Augi'stu's Voklckku.
According to Forbes, the estimate of value here given is due
in a great measure to added phosphates, crude phosphate of
alumina being used as the precipitant; almut £2-10, however, pci'
ton, would lie the value of the material recovered. It is.
therefore, reasonable to suppose that a manure representing ever
one-fourth the percentage of phosphates noted, would commanii
a ready sale at Calcutta. The purifying action of these precipi-
tants is due, says Forbes, and as we ourselves well know, to the
chemical reaction between the alumina salts, and the organic
matter in the eewage, by which compounds are formed, especial
ly with the nitrogenous or albuminoid constituents, more or lesf
insoluble in water. Putrefaction is thus checked, and the evolu
tion of foul gases carrying into the atmosphere we breathe th»
germs of cholera, typhoid, and small-pox rendered impossible
We cannot pursue our reflections on this subject without a whol
train of thoughts occurring to ns, and the germ theory of diseiwe—
no longer a theory' in our opinion—is that which forces itself upon
ns at tvery turn. As it appears that certain municipal fuuc-
tiohariai are inclined to disregard the opinion of authorities on
this point, it may be well to quote Tyndal at this plaM«. “ Let
me state,” eays that philosopher, “ in two sentences the grounds
qh the enppmters of the germ theory rely. Prom their
respeottve viroees you may ^lant tyyihoid fever, scarlatinn, or
small-pox. What is the crop that will ari«e from this hus¬
bandry 1 As surely os a thutle i-isee from a thistie seed, as
surely os a fig comes from the fig, the grapeJfrora the grape, and
he thoiit from the thorn, so surely does the typhoid virus
ncrease and multiply into typhoid fever, the scarlatina virus
nto scarlatina, and the small-pox virus into emaU-pox.”
Putrescent sewage matter is tiie soil in which aymio infusoria
abound. Since then thei'e is every reason to believe that these
fermentative organisms can transform tliemselves under pecnliar
conditions into different ferments, which,fructifying in this aoH,
yield germs endowed with distinct poisonous properties, the
idea of destroying the chance of their evolution in the first stage,
becomes of vast importance. Water, according to David Forbes,
Dr. Wallace and others, has per ee no purifying action whatever ;
it merely acts os a diluent, and serves to carry out the first
principle of sewage engineering, vii., the rapid disposal of feecal
matter, into the nearest tidal river or to some centre where sewage
irrigation is practised. Here another thought of importance
oceui’s. Some sanitarian has said that by the former means of
dis])osal, we pollute our sti-eams to such an extent that they'
can no longer furniah water' fit for either man oi' beast to drink,
or fishes to live in. Happily in Calcirtta our great ai-terial
drain, the Hooglily, offshoot, of the holy Ganges, is not
utilized for this purpose. Tt apirears, however, no less certain,
in the abscenee tif special protective measures, tlrat wlierevei
the city sewage is conveyed, its jiroperlies and elTects arc
not altered. Disaliarged as it is into the salt lakes, some miles
beyond the city, and thence as supposed into the Bydiadiiri-ee,
a. tidal stream, we conclude that the etfects and influence.s
of saline matter, the atmosphere, tide and cuiTent, must reudot
it innocuous. Arc wo, however, satisfied that this is the case i
We must admit of course that the matter is rendered, so far
as we in Calcutta are concerned, inoifensive, but we may have
wafted back to us, when south-easterly winds prevail, disease
goi-ms of varied potency, which indeed, the characteristic un-
lioalthiuess of the intervening suburbs fioiuts to. The closer, in
fact, we examine the question, it will appear that we cannot pur¬
chase safety at a cheaper rate than the people of Coventry and
Leioester. We have seen tlnit the defecated sewage of these towiis
is rich in all the elements essential to plant growth ; that it,
is further of a compact nature, and may be used for raising
the land. AVhy, then, in the cjise of Calcutta, where a natural
inii)idHe urges us to save it for agriculture ou the one hand,
. 111(1 for our better protection from the action of tidal wave.M on
the other, should wo not venture upon this second, and
evidently cotichisive, step in sanitation ? We know that every
grain of who.it, evory grain of rits!, and other seeds, every chest
of tea and indigo, cvci-y l)nlc. of cinchona and numerous other
products which leave the country contribute year by year to the
exliaustioii of the soil. Tliis is an oft-told tale, but it cannot
Ijo too often conveyed to the native mind, and to the minds of
European settlei-s who have large interests at stake. This
sewage prcci|)itiitc is the manure par e.ucoU<ni4e for indigo, by
reivson of the large amount of ammoniiuaal matter it contains, and
for wheat and tea, by reason of its richness in phosphates. The
demand for such snlrstances, however, must bo created. The ob-
vioxrs duty, therefore, of the Calcutta municipality, if they think
fit to .adopt any of these additional methods for the prevention of
the putrefaction of waste organic matter, is to do so, at first, with¬
out hope of profit. That such measures are necessary there can
he no (juestion, especially since the president of the
Calcutta Council maintains that undiilatory strata of almost
concrete sewage, varying from six to eighteen inches, does
not retard the flow of matter, and the desired accelei-ative
action of the tide. Butting aside altogttbor this argument,
which we might make much of, and bearing in mind
simply tliat this concrete matter—itself pntreacible—forms
a series of cessiwuls wherein recent fuscal matter becomes de¬
posited, ferments and (ills the drain with deadly gases of greater
tension than the superincumbent atmosphere, we must instinc¬
tively admit, not alone from their very*-'palpableness, that
such vapours find their way by perhaps a thousand
difiTereut outlets, into the atmosphere, and that if we do not die,
it is l-wcause fate keeps ns without the zones withiu which
zymotic germs find egress. It does uot fall within our province
125
• April 2,1888. THE AGBIOXJLTUBIST.
to poii^ out which method of aewage irrigation or predpitarion
wonid be moet applicable to Calcutta, but we wenture to suggest
a means of its profiteble disposal when so treated, and we do
so, bearing In mind the Wish of the present Qoverniaent to raise
the native to a better estimation of himself ; and in doing this
we need but refer to Akbaris instructions' to his collectors of
reventie with regard to agriculture, which were as follows ;—
" The collector must consider himself the immediate friend of
the husbandman, be diligent in business, and a strict observor
of the tmthiy being the repreeentativo of the chief magistrate.
He must transact his bnsiness in n place to which veryone
may find easy access, without requiring any go-between.
His conduct must be such as to give no cause for complaint. He
mnst assist the needy husbandman with loans of money, and
receive payment at distant and convenient periods. When
any village is cultivated to the highest degree of perfection, by
the skilful management of the head thereof, there shall bo
bestowed upon him half a biswah out of every biggah of land,
or some other reward proportionate to his merit. Let him
learn the character of every husbandman, and be the immediate
protector "of that class of subjecte. Let him promote the
cultivation of such articles as will produce general benefit and
utility, with a view to which he may allow some remission from
the general rate of collection. In every instance he must en¬
deavour to act to the satisfaction of the husbandman.’’ This
quotation, we think, renders our plan at once obvio'us. Let the
Government purchase the Municipal produce, insist on its use,
and recoup themselves at distant and convenient periods by
imposing a slight tax on the calculated increase of produce,
keeping in mind, however, at tjje some lime, the principles laid
down by Akbar. ’They will thns in a simple way conduce in a
gi-eat degree to the spread of ngiicultural knowledge, and
prevent the inhabitants of large towns being overtaxed to insure
life, when, as it is, they are heavily burdened. They will con¬
tribute to a reduction in the price of food-stuffs, by promoting
their increase, and so, to contentment. Above all, they will
contribute to their own safety—for zymotic germs fuc no
resjiectera of persona.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
F rom the report of the oxpcrimontal farm at Bhadgaou
fertile half-year endiua: December last, wo observe (hut
the area cultivated with cotton wms 210 acres, or an exi’css
of 68 acres over the area of the prcccdiug year. Notwith
standing tho excessive rainfall of the season wiiich injured
somo of tho crops, tho out-turn is good ou tlio wlioU', 1 he
average yield of clean cotton being estimated at 2001bs.
per acre. In regard to tho prospects of cotton in tho
district, Ml’. Stormont, tho auporiiiteiulcut of tlio farm,
thinks that tho produce will be equal to that of the yoiu"
preceding in quantity, and considerably superior in quality,
owing to the almost entire absence of tho Waradi or Dcahi
variety, which is now scarcely cultivated anywhere in tho
district. From the results of his experiments with a new
cotton, which was believed to be a hybrid, though suime-
quently it was proved that the plant was no hybrid at all,
Mr. Stormont concludes that a crop or jdnnt of any kind
may be readily and largely developed and modified by
cultivation. The plant in question was sown under varied
conditions, in rich garden ground, ou medium land, and
in a poor oottmi'Aeld ; and with the results that, under
the first, it maintained its peculiar charaotor, the second j
was irregular and below average, while the third failed
entirely.
. The area under ba^ri and jowari was 106 acres ; the i
abundant rainfall of the season was highly beneficial to '
both crops, tho yield would doubtless have boon largo,
wore it not for the damage done by locusts, liy whose rav¬
ages half the entire crop was destroyed. I'ho cultivation
of wheat was also, we see, more extensively carried out
during the period under report, and the crop promised to
turn out well Coneigaments of tho farm wheat have, we
observe, been sent to British Burmah and .Mysore for cul-
tivatioii. In Bumu^ it is said that it is intended to ^
attempt its cultivation in lands which are rendered unfit
ibr paddy ouUivatiou, owing to their being inundated
during tho rains. The oultivotion of the early amber-cone
has also been attended with sucoess, fbejajtree and treacle
manufactured from it is said to be of superior and
the latter is to bo utilised for making candy sugar, for
which purpose it is believed to bo suitable.
We see that the exhibition of farm bulls at the recent
agrioultural show at Ahmednugger has resulted in a
demand for superior animals in that distriot, and some
animals are now being sold at prices lungiug fbom Bs. 100-
to Rs, 126 each. A two-sooro flock of Dumba sheep was
also added to the livo-stock of the farm during the half-
year, but from the experience already derived iu tho
breeding operations carried on, on tho farm, the superintend¬
ent does not think that animals of pure blood will take to
the climate. The cross between the country owe and Dumba
ram has, however, it is said a good constitution, and retains
to a lai-ge extent tho fineness of wool of the pure Dumba.
Wo observe it mentioned that the employment of saw-
gins for oottou-cleauing has, through tho experiments
shown ou tho farm of their oSeotivenoss for this purpose,
found much favor amongst private firms and oompauies.
In one district of India alone, half the cattle,
or 260,000 bead, died from starvation in 1877. Disasters
of this sort have resisted from an increase of tho
po[)ulatiou, which advances further and further into
the jungle, bringing into onltivatiq|j|jjj||ltivable waste
land, which formerly served the purpas»W^illago grazing
grounds. Precisely the same enoroachments occur iu Eu¬
rope from tho same cause—that of iucroosiug numbers.
But owing to the greater constancy of tho weather in tem¬
perate climatea. the effects there are not serious. In suoh
places, compeUt^ion for the lost grazing ground is fotmd
in tho increase of cultivated fodder crops, upon which
reliance can be placed from year to year. But iu ludisi,
things ore difrerent In unirrigated riaots—that is, over a
vciy largo part of the country—if droughts ooour, and w«
kviow that they do so porvodioally, the fodder crops wither
and die, and the cattle, having no longer any jungle to
which to turn, perish miserably, Tho Government of India
is therefore setting itself to w’ork to remedy this state of
things, by protecting and enclosing forest grazing lands.
This will serve a‘double purpose. The long-rooted grasses
deriving a supply of moisture from below, and the shallow
grassc.s protected by shade above, will then furnish food
for cattle, while the bushes and smaller trees will reproduce
thomaclvos by seeding, and provide fuel. Something has
already boon done in this way in Ajmere ; and tho results,
after five years only, aro said to bo most enoonroging, the
appearance of tho hills and countryside being quite altered.
Averse as tho villagers mnst bo at the outset to a pro¬
ceeding which encloses even a portion of their grazing lands
for a time, they come to see the advantages of it when
drought is upon them, and will, no doubt, before many years
have passed, bo allies, instead of opponents, of a measure
designed solely for their benefit.
In Ajinero, side by side lie protected fodder reserves
and unprotected jungle, and the dificronoo is most
striking, though the enclosuros have existed so short
a time. “ Tho fii-st aro covered with an almost impene¬
trable thicket, chiefly composed of shoots edible by cattle.
Tho second are practically devoid of all vegetation, and
appear to be mere heaps of rook and stone.”
One of the chiinges resnltiug from the reconstruction of the
Miuiras Agricultural Department is the retirement from the
eer\ ice of Mr. K. Schiffiuayer, Assistaut Superintendent of
Government Fanns, Mr. Schillmayer is a graduate of two
German Agricultural Colleges, and a pupil of the late
B.iron Liebig, whose lectures he attended when a
student of the Boyal Polytechnic, and of the University of
Munich, Mr. Sohilfmaycr came out to India iu 1873. He
was esjiecially engaged with the view of being employed
in connection with district farms, the establishment of
which was then under oonsidcratioii. Distriot farms having
never been opened, theservice.s of Mr. Schiffmayer were utilized
ou the Ssidupet Farm and the Agrioultural Ocdle^ of that
place. Whew engaged in the oliemkaJ lahozBtoty, he was
seriously injured by an explosion of chenrioata, which led even-
tvially to, faia retirement. Mr. Scbifltoayer paesessea a farm
near J^yp^ore, and intends, after having iWruited his health,
to use rile aamo as an experimtatal and ucdimatisatioii
station.
The Conaervator, <rf Foreeiai, Seatiiiwn Diviaion, ftipatia that
the experiments made in his division have ^vod utter fail-
vues every where, except in Belgaum, where hotter reeultawere
ehtoined, and where there are 312 seedlings now .remaining of
an average height of four in^ee, Wt what effect the late heavy
rains have hod ou them remains.to be seen.
A BtnTi,T of '@3th of Carob seed was received from the
Director of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
North*Westeh» Ihrovnices and Oudh, in the month of August,
and was aant to the Dirisional Coiuniissiouers and Conservators
of Forests in the Bombay Presidency for distribution among
the District Collectors and Foi-est Officers for cultivation in
lociilities where it was likely to suouoimJ. Reports regarding the
I'esult of the experiments wei'e called for, and have been leceived
by the Bombay (lovenuneut ; and the following is the general
results of experiments :—
Ibe Acting Conservator of Forests in Sind reports that the
Carob seed sent to him was distributed amongst the District
Forest Offioers ; that experiments made with it in the Sukkur
circle iu Bahuja nursery have failed ; that another trial was
also made in the Sonde nmnery in the .Jeiruck circle, where, on
81st July 1881, about 11 tolas of the seed wore sown bro.adcast ;
and again, on the Bth October, 14 tolas more were siniilarly
sown ; that of the July sowing only 0 seeds germinateii, but the
August lot produced a considerable number of plants, of whicli
C6 have survived ; and that the f> July seedlings have reached
heights of 33,'^3, 28,20,18,14,11|, 9, and 6^ inches, and the
August plants vary from 1 to 14 inches, but the 'greater number
stand from 5 to 8 inches. The Conservator states that all the
plants were ju-otectetl by mats from the frost during the cold
season, and adds that, when onee tltese plants have established
themselves in the soil and h.ave sent .Uieir roots deep enough to
reach the lowest level to which the moisture sinks when the
floods subside, they should be able to exist witbout artificial
ifrigatioti or protection j and that at present they are. too swell,
alid he thinks it would he vu'emature to express an opinion as to
their flourishing in Sind or not.
The Superintendent of the Economic Garden at Hyderabad
reports that two'thirda of the Carob seeds received by him was
sown ill pots on the 28th October 188J. The seed came up well,
but a great nnral^r of the youug seedlings wore lo.ston account
of his having (for want of small jiots) to transplant them at
once from the seed pots into nursery lines. Only 46 jilants ro-
Uialu alive ; thc 3 ' are quite hcaltliy, Init the largest plant is onlj'
aliout 7^ inches high. Ttie rcmuiiider of the seed was sown on
the 7th July 1882, anxl is bcgiiiniiig to show signs of germinat¬
ing, Mr. Straehau states that he lias tried this plant twice
since tlie garden was shifted from Salaru to near Hyderabad,
and five or six dififereut times at Salaru both in seed-beds and
in pots, and has found Uut latter plan must successful, and adds
that, so for as the sUilivbility of Carob to the soil and climate of
Hyderabad is coucenied, it will grow, but the slowness of its
growth will prevent its beiug of much use except as on orna¬
mental shrub in gardens, and the cost of rearing a plantation of
Carob in Sind would be very great.
In submitting Mr. Btrachan’s report, the Commissioner in
Sind observes that the results of the experiments tried at differ-
«it timto with Carob seed iu Sind seem clearly to show it is
not likely to giww well in that pi-ovince, or be successful as a
ti-ee for purposes of trade.
The experiment has proved somewhat succcaaful in “ Rutna-
giri aiid Bauara. It has been a complete failure in Kalodgi,
mid the re]X)rt for Belgauni is also discouraging. It will pro¬
bably succeed fairly in the moist climate of the Ghaut and Kon-
kau Districts, Rutiiagiri, and Knnam.”
The Conservator of Forests, Nortliei ii J3ivisiou,submits reports
from the District Forest Officere of .North TUaiia, South Thaiui,
Khandekh, Nusik, Ahwedniiggi-r, t’oomi, Satara, Sholnpore,
SUrat, and Fallch Maluda, from which it ivpjieiire that the experi¬
ments made ly these officers iu the cultivation'of the seed generally
failed except at Batam, where almost‘.hU the seed sown in pots
germinated, the young plants Issiug now healthy and about nine
inches to one foot higli, and at Sholapore whore the seed sown
rwoHed iu 26 healthy seedlings, which are now one inch high.
The report from the Manager of the India-Bftbber Works
Company, Bilvertown, Eseex, upon samples (ff rUhJ6er obtained
from tree* of Hevea In^ilietms and Oattilloa growing
iu the experimental garden at Heveratgoda in October 1888, and
sent by the director, Ceylon Botanic Qardtn, to BUetv ter trahshtde-
sion to Messrs. Silver and Company, is a Very satisfactory one.
As far as quality is concerned, the caodtehone produced in
■Ceylon by the three species of South Amerrioan'rubber-trees
inti-oduoed Ijy the Indian Government • in 1878-77, is in all res¬
pects fully equal to that ooUected from the wM'trees hi their
native districts.
Ilevea R-Mer. —As far as ' ohotoieal examination goes, this
rubber difiTurs in no respect from Ihe better description of Para
bottle rubljer, except perhaps in having a little more wuter im¬
prisoned in it than is usual With well-seasOned Para. The me¬
thod of preparation, os' each layer in Pern bottle rubber is
paiiially dried when held over ' the fire as prartised lU Para,
may explain this. A portion of this rubber' well washed and
dried gave a loss of 18'7 per dent. The amount of ash obtained
on incinerating a portion of the unwashed sample is 0‘7 per
cent, which is about one-half that from the'Brazilian product.
( There is a great similarity iu ithe composition of the ash of
the Hovea and the Para bottle rubber. The ash fitmi the
washed and dried Hevea is 0‘6 per cent. This sample is
almost oiith'cly free from extraneous matter. On digestion in
alcohol it yields only a slight coloration. Like Para rubber,
its fresh-cut snifaces show a alight acid re-action, easily ro-
I moved by washing. The washed product is free from taste and
' smell, and turns a dark colour on drying similar to ordinary
Para rubber. As far as can bo determined on so small a
samjile, there is reason to believe that us regards strength and
elasticity, it would be fully equally to good Para India-i'ubbor,
When mixed with the suitable proportion of sulphur and
vulcanized, it jxissesses great strength and elasticity.
Caatilloa llubbcr, —Ou washing and drying a portion of this
I sample the loss is 12'.3 per cent, so it is necessary to use warm
water iu washing this rubber j it becomes, on drying, much
darker and sliortcr than para rubbef. It has a bitter taste,
which is not removed on washing. Tlia unwashed sample
yields 1‘9 per cent ash ; the washed sample gives 1’2 per cent.
Tlio sliortiiess of this rebber would restrict its use to some
slight extent where tensile strength or tenacity is required.
When mixed with the usual proportion of sulphur and heated,
it vulcanizes well, but imperfectly, and is devoid of strength,
characteristic of the better kinds of rubber. Nicaragua rubber
is not at present met with in this country to any gi’eat extent,
but there is no doubt that the purity and general qualities of
this sample would gain for it a favourable reception, even if our
supplies from present sources were more adequate to our
demands. The chemical analysis of the ash of the CaMilloa
shows that there is no very marked differenoo iu the mineral
constituents of the juices of the Hovea and Oastilloa under
' the present system of cultivation.
At a meeting of the German wood-pulp “manufactutjers a
communication was road from Mr. Keller, describing how he
first discovered wood-grinding for pulp. His first idea of taking
wood as a substitute for rags was conceived by reading of the
wasp's nest. Experiments with sawdust were, however, fruit¬
less, and a remembrance from early days brought him to
tiy wot grinding, using a Common grindiu/" stone for the
piirpo.so. He then obtained wood-pulp, and straining tlmough
a oloth, pressing between a book, and drying, the first sheet
of wood paper was made within four hours. He finally built
a small grinding apparatus, taking his wife alone into hi«
confidence. He made several attempts to ubtain a partner,
but iu vain. In 1846 he received a patent from the Saxon
Government, aa4 shortly afterwards was saeosesfal in
m
^ X,V, Sloci ^ou>-n ^,«^: ItUJiaportant la^lhv^.^ot
wTie ^ c»hy ^ li^ Jnto .xeouUon ,0^^ «ten£t«nea »t short periods. Sheep sffoni a <^««^ meom* wa.a«Jly^I«nb
or«^^ Shortly a^rwarfs Voelter heard of Us in- and wool,^id they are us,^ abopt eqnal in val^ The
^ntiop, ai^d lito some interviews became possessor of it for
the an^ of YOO thalm and a participation in profits. The
year lfi48.49 brougiiS the Eevolution, and 1850 a flood which
complete^ stopped Eger’s mill. In these oirqumstances he
appU^ 'to :a»B Saxcm Gtpvernroent and received an advance of
8,000 iihalem An artificial’ “ leech” of India rubber was one
of the novelties invented by Keller in those hard times, but
this was jwld to an American for sevepty-flve dollars. Voeltor,
in the majuitlme, hadpot micceededin deriving any profit or
snooeM), and finally the compact was dissolved, Keller beipg
obliged latejp to give up Us mill to ijie creditors. Voelter’s
furtbw rticc^ is well, known,.
An American oontemporaty says : Sorghum-sugar enthusiasts,
are properly alarmed at the perfection glucose has attained in
the hands of skilful chemists, who have succeeded in getting 24
pounds.of pure, dry, white, absolutely crystallised glncose, close¬
ly resembling loaf sugar, from each bushel of corn of 56 pounds,
at a cost so low that by-products pay all the expenses of
the manufacture, enabling the company to soil it for from 2 to
2io. a pound in large quantities, and half-a-oent moie for small. The value of the omr. .
Itloolmmuchasif the sorghum men must make a fight to States is .toted to be ^,000,000.^7^^^^^
have this glucose sold under its own name, and not as wine 1 .. n i, T ,ww,,w. xnere are raatjy ways of
.Wi 1. i. no. ^ n, .duin,»n, „d .tan... " f*
power of wimilating food is opq of , the most important of ani-
mU functions. Sir J. B. LaW% ^U^ experimento to deter¬
mine the percentage of food utilized, or stored up, by dififerent
anufiais, found that sheep stored up, in increased weight, 18 ner
cent of dry food consumed, whilst cattle only laid' up
m increased weight of 8 i^r cent.-^that is,' 8j pounds
of dry food increased the weight of sheep aq mpeh as
18i pounds did the weight of cattle. So that, if these ewjMi-
meats are to be trusted, sheep must be . considered as
utilirers^ at food—as producing, at least, as many pounds of mitt,
ton, besides the wool, from n given quantity of food sa can be
produced of beef ; and, as the best mutton, brings as high a
price as the best beef, it would appear, on'this basis, that rhysp
would give the fleece an extra profit over cattle. On this vle.w
sheep, on suitable lands, must be oonaidei’ed among the most
profitable of farm stock. It is true the dairy cow hriaashm-
profitable flow of milk to oflTset the fleece of the sheep • bat the
good dairy cow does not lay on flesh while in milk, as doss 'tlm
sheep while growing the fleece.
sugar, which it is now ust^ to adulterate and cheapen.
The Mexiean Financier has recently called attention to the
value of the well-known American agave, a species of the aloe
plant, found everywhere in Mexico, and numbering not less
than thirty varieties. The ferfflo plains called “ Los Llanos da
Apam ’’ have long been noted for the special excellence of the
pulque, to whose production the plant is most exclusively devot¬
ed. Situated between Puebla and the city of Mexico, these
pUina are covered, as far as the eye can reach, with these flour¬
ishing plants, each of which piwiucea pulque, the iiatiuiil ex¬
udation of the plant, to the value of about six dollars, and then
is supposed to have lost all its utility. In the district of Te¬
quila no pulque is drfiwn from tlio plant, l>eeanse its special
virtues enable it to produce tlie brandy named after the di-striot,
and widely used throughout the country. This Tequila brandy
is made by an old system dating back to the days of the Aztecs,
and wliioli consists of roasting the bulljs in a furnace dug iu the
ground. This gives a sweetish liquor, which, when cleared and
subjected to the further processes of fermentatiou and distilling,
yields the favorite brandy. ,But beyond this, no use is ramie of
the plant. The same is tlie case in very district of the country
where pulque and tequila are produced, and so notorious is the
general ignorance or indifference to any further use of the plant,
that its destruction is general when it has once passed its period
for yielding either of these products. And yet there is very firoili-
ty for utilizing the plant in at least four distinct uidustrial pro¬
duct*, each of them very important and promising large returns.
Next to pulque and tequila, the plant can be made to yield an
excellent quality of molasses, by clarifying the sweety decoction
of the bulb. Distilled, this becomes brandy ; imdistilled, it
yields molasses equal, if not superior, to any pressetl from sugar¬
cane. The peninsula of Yucatan has groam famous for it.s
production of henoquen or jute. The loaves of the maguey
plant everywhere in Mexico, when pressed, yield a fibre in all
respects equal to the best Yucatan jute. Various experiments,
though on a small scale, prove this. Hopes are in use in .a
thousand districts of the interior, made from tlicso leiivcs, and
Of unequalled strength and excellence. The peculiaritie.s of
soil afid climate are of some importance in considering the uses
of this fibre for cordage, but even whore it is found somewhat
inferior in fhis respect, which i.-j rarely the ease, the pressed
■.\«ves yield a pulp absolutely uneeiuallod for making paper. 1
The paper milte of Belem have repeatedly produced an excellent
quality of papewaade from this pulp, and is has not made its
1 r-- -IVI' tUO LllIlQ (
but very few have proved to be entirely shccesaful. A corres¬
pondent of the American Z)airym?i says that after ttybig qeyer-
ral methods, he has found that eggs covered with m^ted Mtaf
fine kept the best of aU, and those of them that were put Zwn
in weak brine, in which they sank to the bottom, kept better
than others packed in dry salt or in plaster. He mentions also
a German preparetion of salt, saltpetre, and borax, which how-
ever is patented In Amerioa. He hod some eggs pat down Iii
this for five months, and they were equal to fresh eggs, even
when boiled for eating, a very delioate tost, as eggs very soon
exhibit any sUleuess when so cvioked. An omelette niade of
eggs put down in this solution was very good, and so was one
made of eggs a year old kept in paratRue, as was also a- sponge:
cake made of beaten eggs.
The life of telogi-aph poles is estimated as followsCSsdar,
16 years; chestnut, 13; juniper, 13 ; spruce, 7 yeam. Cerfar*
chestnut, and spruce are usetl in the Northern States, jnnipat
and cypress in the So uthern States, and red-wood in Coliforeja,
Poles eut in the summer will not Last as long as those cut in the
winter by five years. Soil and climate, of course, make a dif¬
ference with the life of poles.
Mo, C. Benson, Assistant Superintendent of Oovammqnt
Parms lu the Madivis Presidency, having obtained permiMlon
to visit the works of some of the loading Agriouitnral linnle.
meut Makers, and the Experimental Parm at Rothamstead?!^
submitted the results of his investigations, in the 'course of
which he makes the foUowing suggestions “ I would venture
to point out the extreme desirability of doing everything within
the power of Government, to introduce into India an improved
])lough suited to the conditions of the Indian cultivator u
regards his poverty and the strength of his cattle. As faf os
my experience goes, no thoroughly satisfactory plough has yet
bMu nnule, and it is probable that in various parts of India,
slight moilificivtions may be required to meet the ideas of the
ryot, but for the greater jmrt, ftg now, one geiier^ form of
plough would meet the demana. Again, tliat it a iesirable to
atoain every nerve to create a demand for Improved pipnghs
110 one who has studied Indian agriculture, and the affect vi^ich
the improvement of it Would have as a means of preventing
famines, can doubt. The Indian farmora aW cannot draw on ’
the world for supplies of manure to replace withdrawals made
„ r-To——- r-r.-by the crops raised as the English farmer does, but must rely
way into commerce, only because no one has as yet token hold J on indigenous resources. The greatest store of these lies below
of thto virgin industry, and produced the pulp in marketable J the surface stratum of soil at present tilled, and to readfi this '
quantities. | the ryot requires a bitter till^ implement than he'nfiW
Its
THE liTWAK AQ]yOUIOTRIST. IMS.
sewtMk 1, ihmtton, ventare to urge th«t of the light
p]on^ i^e bf the chief makem ahould be obiaiaed and sent
out to the diflhrent pvorineeg of India for a thorough trial, do
that, when the result* were reported, with euggestioae for the
modifieRtira, it ueoessarf, of any of the ploughs whloh appear
suitaUe, or with eamples of what is required, together with
infonaationfor the use of the monufootwer of the price at which
ehailar ploughs can be made up in India, the question can
be eolred, whether a cheaper article (in every sense) can be
obtained for *the ryot in England or from native makers. It
would also hereafter not be out of pUoe, nor bad economy, for
Government to diq) 08 e of a considerable number of ploughs of
the pattem selected to the ryots in different parts of the country
at rednoed prioes, themselves bearing the actual cost.
“ A trial, such as I have ventured to sugggost, would be of
the greatest value, both for solving the question referred to
above, as well as for putting within the reach of the ryots a
suitable and tolerably efficient plongh. The cost would not
be great, but the trials would have to be conducted most care¬
fully and under as vmied conditions as possible, and would
require the assistance of an engineer and an agricultural expert
in either ease.
“Besides the urgent want of a good plough for general purposes,
there is little scope for agrioultural machinery in India, the
native implements being either sufficient or capable of cosy
Improvement Exceptions may be mentioned iti a low priced
simple winnower, a seed drill with the power of coutrolliilg
the seed snppJy and depth of sowing, not now p)oasessed by
the native drill, and an implement suited to the operation of
breaking up black 'cotton soils to a great depth in order to
eradicate the strong deep-rooted grasses with which they be¬
come overgrown.”
In North India, the Government of the North-Western Pro¬
vinces are caiTying out the latter operation with a set of Fowl¬
er’s doable engine steam ploughing tackle.
In the Bellary dictriot, a large demand sprang up last year
for strong heavy ploughs for this purpose, and a native mer¬
chant ordered out over 300 of different patterns from Sweden to
meet it, The plonghs obtained, although they can do the work
desired, are not the form of implement beat suited to the object
in view, and, acting on information I gave thorn, Messrs. Ban-
Bomes have put in hand a special implement, or rather a form
of plongh, for the purpose, which will weigh about 100 ft., have
two long handles, one wheel, all parts wrought iron, steel dig-
ffing breast, and share, trussed beam, and made to work about
IS inches deep, and to cost about £i. This they also intend to
send out to I^dras, with a request that it may bo tried later
on In the year. It is very desirable that this should bo encour¬
aged, os such an implement would be very valuable in the
large tracts of country where the black cotton soil prevails, and
the operation is necessary, for with the rough native implement
now used, it is extremely costly and tedious.
It was purely accidental that the order went last year to
Sweden, and if the English agricultural implement makers were
kept fully informed of what was passing in the agricultural woi'ld
4n India, they would in all probability be able to compete with
the Swedish manufacturers, where pricos are generally more
favorable, For this purpose, I would urge that all the leading
firms should be regularly supplied with all reports, &c., ou the
Bgrioultoral operations conduct^ by Government in India, and
especially with reports on the agricultural systems of different
looalitieSiSnoh asthatofMr. Bobertson’s on Coimbatore (1876),
and mine on Triohinopoly (1878-79), Cuddapah and North
Areot (1879), and Bellary (1830).
Betades a heavy plongh for the use of the ryots themselves
in the operations referred to above, a large steam implement
(Or reciting large areas for use by Government, or large land¬
holders, as has been dona by the North-Western Provinces
Government, would be moat useful, and, after seeing “ Darly’s
Stsani I>l(^;er” at the Beading show, I went down to the neigh-
fcourhood of Chelmsford and saw one of them at work. This
implement semps well suited to the work, but it travels over
the ground it ooltivutes, a principle which has never hitherto
mcceeded, and h omiergoi&g improdemeut os a new
SM^tike, Vtm report of a puhllc trial, it app«an more
eoonomlosl than afteaa pteughlng tackle,, it Is lets -
cumbrous and lea* eostiy, ^though stiH: 1^ prite (4^]^ )
charged for it is heavy f or ihe pwotoie M It If, how¬
ever, any GovwBment iq Indk is IbUowing the
lead of that of the North-Wettem Eroi^oes, I would «®1***'
that the value and sniteWlity of this machine shoald be. con¬
sidered before obtaining a set of steam plongh tackle,
Messrs. Hornsby have been making a reaping maohine for
cutting indigo. It is a back delivery nawhine, out S'3" wide,
weighs 4i cwts., and the price, packed and delivered in London,
is £19. It is geared for use with boUooksand made extra strong
for cutting indigo. This maohine appears to have met with con¬
siderable success in the Bengal indigo distriots, and its in¬
troduction at Madras might also be useful in some of the
indigo distriots, and would certainly be , so at Saidapet for
educational purposes. The same firm have been making also
an antomatio delivery reaper in the same style ; its price is X84,
unpacked.
No one who has visited Bothainstead, and seen and heard of
I the results of continuous corn-cropping there, can any longer
be in doubt that our Indian soils have been greatly exhausted,
or rather reduced in productiveness to a very low ebb ; in fact,
reduced to very much the same point as, If not lower thau, thivt
of the plots which have now for 30 or 40 years been growing
wheat and barley at Eothametead continuously without manure
On these plots, it is found that the average production for many
years was reduced at an average rate of about one-fourth
bushel per annum ; but that, after the outtuim had got down
to about 12—13 bushels of wheat or rather more barley per
acre per annum, further reduction does not go on nearly
so fast. This fact explaijis why ft is that Indian soils, with
their very small produce, have not shown generally within
recent years those signs of further exliaustion which have been
expected by some.
The following figures show the results obtained frem plots
eontimiously unmanui’ed
Avers OK Annuai. OtfrrtrRN or
Dbe-sskd Corn,
Fifteen Years,
1852-66.
Fifteen Years,
1807—81.
Bushels.
Weight.
1 !
Bushels.
Weight,
(
lb.
It).
Wheat—
Plot 3
15i
877
lU
644
„ 20 ...
16J
881
Hi
644
Barley-
Plot O-I ...
21g
1111-5
14i
749
>, 61 .
24
1,261
141
772
These figures show that the average production of wheat in the
second period was 27 per cent lower and of barley 36 pel' cent
lower than in the first, taking the weights per acre.
The effect of season on such small crops as are now obtained,
which it should be i>emembered are very like average Indian
crojis, is most marked. The figures for the last two years are
shown below
1888. THE INDlV AOBIOtTLTTTBlST.
187
Mvn twoMM 4*»««rtr*tfd to onr MBtiul phytl<»I mum*. , ■»<*« to fwnd them) wd no tjMhw who cm t^e the plwgh and
Aiil yw iMMiitol Jtor known m the " ooneervatlon o? eaetgy," nud twa • model fattow to w Ulnetoetton of the i^olplee upon which
ri vhtoh.Dt. Ftontoy »id *' It U the htgbMt law of phyeloj eolenoe ploughe ^ made and Iwd> “ weU to teach their pupils
pMfialt Ui to Deroftiva^” U anotner of theM dll* j tii« meoluHiioftl part of the fti't. Those, ho\revei’, ai’o what aro
sowdto whiA^Jphda wid remove many dlffloultlo* from path ' required,— York Timtf,
of the ttodtot, out In Mprloultura! loleaoe, although even these
laws of phyrtoe have aidea greatly to make Inveetigationi more oer- _ »
fatfa Mia more efleotive, yet we have not one broad and dlstlnot law THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MINEBAL
yet laid down ae abaals upon which any latetafactory practice can he EESOUitOFiS OF INDIA.
tmOt np, or one whioh Is not full of doubts and difiloultles, or
which la not at onoe fiercely oombated by other investigators,
Webad'the ^eral theory of Liebig which was popular 30 or luterestinu series of four lectures has jusl been delivered to
40 years 5 then «me the nl^en theory of ‘^usslngault, A " at the Bassoon Mechanlos’ luatltute, on the
liawes, ana others and the totally different one of VlUe and some «i!nornl minuroMof India bv Mr. Alfred N.
wms disciples feoturer is iva Assookte of the Eoyal lohool of Mines.
w«”ZW reridcut ^ to ouo of the.GolJl Mining Compaides
his own satUfaotion proving the truth of bis own theory. And
the result u that the praotloal fanner is entirely without help, and
is haafused and misled by the multitude of opinions all differina
from each other, and the uselessness of any one of them to oilora
him any aid la his labours In the field. In foot, it is (xuestionable
if there is one nsefnl result that has been of any benefit to the far¬
mer of all the Investigations which have been made in the science
of agrionlture. The only approach to any useful service has been
the valnablo praotloal information furnished by experiments in tho
field Conducted upon aclentlfloally aoourate principles, and by the
methods of the farm rather tiuui those of tho laboratory,
Tbe fact is, that however desirable and Interesting they may be to
the intelligent farmer, tbe reeulbs of eclentlflo investigations are
nothing more than pleasant readings and subjects for tliought aud
roentaT ouiture, just as any other scientific matter might lie ; aud
the farmer is apt to regard them wholly in tills light and there¬
fore value them rather lightly. Ami it may be that this is the
was lately resident engineer _
in iha Wvnaad. and is at present aoting Meteorologioal Bepomr
for TytoC^inX ThJ^ foUowlng C on outltuo Sf tho four leo-
* The l^turer said that at a period when one of the most min¬
ing experiments ever tried seemed to nromUo nothing T)Ut jpganti^'
fafiurerand at a time when it was the policy of the Supreme Gov¬
ernment to foster industrial effort, and to force the growth of manu-
faotures, it seeniod very opportune to take a look rouiw ‘*^*'*°
what could be learnt about tho miiieml resomccs of Inma. There
could bo no doubt that, had Intending investors m the Indian wld
Holds paid more attention to the known facts ooneeming the miner¬
al wealth of the country, there would have been less rashnem dU-
nlaved in the adventure. And whilst It might be assumea that ui
tlie steps recently proposed for the supply of country-produced iron
to State Kailways, the Ooveminent of ludia was acting under oom-
petcut advice ; still It would he interesting m tho light of that
reason
lue toom rather liglitly. And it may be that this is the toportant in tho proporatlon of metals
Ict trose minute nracticai ditaiis which werltheresult of long
were those minute practical - - . , j., j.
V- XI 1X4 xf . Avripfienue oulv. Tboi'o WOT a ucueral tuiTuiig Of attention towanlfl
forthoKeneral want of respect for agnoultural floionoe among prac- wouU of India, ami an evident wiUiagaoas to aeo
'ICUl* , i ess X-.,. tisi il f
have been instituted for tho education of young farmurs, ns well as
tloal farmers as well as for tho barreuuess of results from the agricnl
tural colleges and the experimental farms in and upon which there
what could ho done towards its devolopmout.
has been "too much dependence upon strictly scientific methods The Vagoda^trw, nndw'whteh one
of^ching and woik - A Uttla knowledge 1, a dang.wous thing." ^HSc Md plcl ^ S than that of
This is true, but not directly or positively beoauso tho knowledge it- '-uiiiu reciiuo uuu p r ... . ,
self tends that way. On tho < . ’
• positively beoauso tho knowledge it- the golden fruit from the rlohly-laden branehes.
contrary, a little knowlcdgo is good ^ thought that either tho figure had hoeii
ar as it goes, if the possession of that ^f^adte^ or the tree hid eeaseefto ho so fruitful, for tho pagodas
and useful and beneficial so far
little has not debased tho m^d and 1ml it astray ’ and unbalanced
it. But this is too often the caso when one has bccomo possessed
of a smattering of scientific knuwledgo, an<I that only partly learned,
and has learned to believe that the Tittle ho knows enables him to
deal justly with matters of which os yet ho knows nothing. It is
just as when tho miner begins to work a vein of oro. He penetrates
so far, and so far ho knows. But if ho is a green hand ku is too
apt to believo that all tho ground ho heu blocked out, and
all that 'between and beyond his narrow drifts and level, is
rich oro like that ho has been working through, and he figures up
aooordingly and helloves ho is possessed of a vast store of wealth.
He therefore builds groot aud costly mills and spends nil ho
lias earned in machines to work up the oro which he believes is “ in
sight,” ns he may say, and within his reach, Aud when this is
done tho first stroke of his pick or tho first blast shows‘him tho
borren rock where he oxpeotod rich oro, and the man’s hopes and
expectations ate bUghted and he is ruiued. But the experiouoed
miner escapes nil this. Tho little kuowledgc he gains at the ex¬
ploring of his miuo is not daugorous to him, for he counts upon
nothing further or beyond what ho can take out, niid actually
gains, and he expends nothing from no settled belief upon any
promises beyond tlioso Yhich he knows to bo actually existing, aud
BO escapes injury and loss, it is precisely so with tho student t>t
agricultural sciouoc. If ho is not practical as well as scioutilte,
and tests his soienco by actual practice .u.s he goes along, he will
very surely find himscli all wrong, and will bo but a bliml leader
of the blind.
A young man cannot learn to he a farmer at a scientific school any
more than he can learn to be a hlacksmlth ata university. Ho
may perhaps—and not then unless he is shrew-d, lovcMieadod, and
cautious—prepare himself welt to become a farmer by pructicsl
work afterwarils, and uccxuire tho ability to work inorc elfeotively
because of superior mental discipline and general intelligonco ; but
the time spent at an agricultiaal college or scientjfic agrioul
tural school Is too short for this, and the .cudont dei'srts
from the institution with no dosiro to h's aciiuiromciits
into practloo lii tho field or tho (l»>'ry : but uiifurtiiuatoly
thinks he is better yualifiod to become a teacher himself, and
BO seeks a vacant chair and a prcfossorshiji at some other school or
collego, or attempts to instna^c farmers through some agricultural
journal. And then it is discovered how dangerous a thing a little
knowledge is. , . .......
Agrionlture is eminently practical, and it can only bo taught
piootioally, or scieutifioally along with practice. An agrloultuial
Bobool or college without the beat practical iustrnotion or demon-
Sttotion is 08 useless as a medical school without the operating
room, a school of nurses without a hospital, or a sohiml of chomisty
without the laboratory. Aud the soioutifio instruction of the agri¬
cultural school should ho illustratlvo of the practical work, and
misleading, ortho tree —— -
no longer dropped off with a gcntlo shaking, and even wTien ouo
stood to and shook vigorously, they generally fell but
mimbors However this might he, tliere was no doubt that the
figure grow up out of a solid ground of fact i and, indeed, it was
w-oll known that tho corrootnofis of India’s triwlitional character was
eouIlS by historical ovidonoc. The lecturer thou pointed out
how Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Ureck writings, as ato wore recent
ones, midi us those of Marco I’olo, boro witness to India 8 anoiout
mimwal wealth. It was needless to romaik, however, that wealth
was a comparative thing. A man enjoying an income o a thousand
a vear and living in a eouimunity ol men who none of them cariio 1
mor^c than twoLudred, would be regarded bv hie fellows as a rich
man; but if some of those recipients of two hundred ?
oimhlcd by some stroke of fortune to raise their moomos to £10,000.
they wouhl begin to regard the man with his thousand as
conmaratively poor. India iu early times occupied the position of
the Alien with a thousand a year, while the rest of the nations
KgVPt perhaps excepted, earned only their two hundred : hut of
i-'faj 11- 1 1, , „im.^,oiioue growth of its iron iuduBtrics,
late voars Kngland with the marvellous growth of its Iron wciuBtncs,
America through the discovery of its gold and silver deposits. South
Ab-ica with tho diamond mines, and Austroha with its gold, hail
th'rowu the wealth of india into comparative shade. Moroovor, tho
sumdv hv tho.HO eouutrioa iu so iai'ge quantities of tho metals and
„tl.'-r useful mineral products, together with the great advances in
navi cation, had rendered It possible to otter in the basaars of India
tbese foreign productions at a cheaper rate than those indigenously
Xjroduced. [nquiiy os to what wore the actual
mineral resuuroi''' showed a table whioh he had
, ,..,1 vJ.ig a list of 82 useful minerals, and dividing the whole
nt Viidi“' luho ion dilforout areas. Au easy reforenoc to this table
wnoJ'l slio'V iu which of tho.se 103 areas uuy particular ouo out of
the 82 usol'ui muiorals occurred, aud whether it w^as preseut in only
more" traces, or iu payable quantities, or whether further
oxaminatiou was needed. The iufurmatlou for the prciiuration of
tho table liad been obtained almost exolusivuiy from tliu publications
of the Indian Geological Survey ; and m..iuly from tho third volume
of the “ Geology of India,” published by that department. Tho
useful minerals of India were for tho sake of couveniouoo divided by
the lecturer into fuels, metals, precious stoues, building stones,
clays cements, chemical requirements, manures, and misoellanoous
Bubstaucos. It was impossifaio in tho siiaoeof four lectures to
undertake a detailed inquiry into the dejiosits in India of oil thasa
minerals : out of 82 of tho economic minerals they could rfve a
general glance at only 28. Under tho heading of “ Fuels, ’ the
coal fields of ludia were touched upou, aud it was stated that India
contained tho thickest known coal seams ol tho world, some being
100 120 and 100 feet thick. On tlio Banigungo coal field, which hod.
cultural school should be of the praccioa no s, ^nwhrhl”area of 1.000 square miles, th^ were in 1872 no less
used for the purpose of explau-iug this. Thero are many fanners a pionu , .... . . k ., j.a jjS.OOO tons of
who desire to give their sons a good practical education as farni^ws, V p to 389,000 men,^ 196,000 women, and
dairymen, or stockmen. But these young meu mo sent to far^, , , expense of oatriage of coal over land was
t’hipUfee,“ZU^^^ is levied'” It very considembio and prev^W the I^tlf
WoffirbTter it theso'young men could study at a well-appointed much i^re "7,^ IUMg«i fllK tIo I
and a wall-oonduoted aoicDtiflc aud pnvctical school, luanagod ou ^ rujws at tno pu » moutu ou wio •
the same system os the schools of meohaulus and teohnolo^ are, Md the “ Iliamonds C'lvit aud Gold of ’ India," stated
rae where their education could be oomnlcted as far os it is carried, his little book ^ TX
^t, to yet, there are no such Boh«ls, although attempts have been that the annaal cenBumptlon of coal m India was upwwtts oi one
138
Tg^IOTJAljr A;^ 3,,
Bnd>»-halt mtUioatOoi. and that la round fiipiroa two'tfalrda ol tbli
amount VM (aiMd in the oottotrsr. A« B of. pt^pr^: fo ^a
devolimtaeat of Indian indiutriM tU« atatoment «w hm'aimttofao*
toiy i but it waaoomiteto^ ivatfad wb«a ono tnratd to tm otatU'
tloi cd Um En|d^ obw Araa, whore In 1S72 not One. and>a<baU
million, but iSS) tnUliona of tone of ooal vera raited, id milbUme of
wbloh were expoited, ud the reat oonaumed in the country. Other
fnela, anobaa wood, {teat, lignite and petroleum ware dealt with ;
and befiwe ttavhag ^ aubiect of fuel*, the impottan'oe of tfie eun’e
boat aa a fuel waa pointed out, fiowerer unmually wood and ooal
were diatdbuted over Indian there waa no doubt t&t aansbine waa
clTen Inmartially enough. Soma efforts to uae It In a oonoentrated
form bad bem made In tiie diying of tea but with only partial
auooeaa. For most obemloal piooeaaea and won for brick-bumlng,
the lecturer bellered a determined effort to iqipiy {it would result m
auooeaa.
4ni<mgat tbe of metaia, the lecturer touched upon iron,
allv'er and gold. Qola, it would be aaoert^ed in a reference to
the Ulormeb^oned table, occurred at 41 plaaet out of the
103, and out of these 41 plaoea there were no Iom
than 11| where it baa oooomd in auffoient quantify to make ita
mining prOdtsbte, ' 1%ere waa abundant evidenoe to ahow that
g old waa to'nnorly obtained from theas plaoea In large quantities ;
ut there wsa no evidence, ao far aa the lecturer waa aware, which
ahowed that the mlnera who obtained theie large qiiantitlee grew
weal^jr by their industry. 7he south of India was, and appeared
always to nave been, the moat important gold region in the country.
The riverbeds all about the region of Malabar wero known to con¬
tain gold; in many plaoea the inhabitants had traditlona of gold
having been washed there j some of the rivers and villages were
naroea alter tho preoions metal. These rivers took their rise in
the WynAadi&ehnlglris arid the rieighbouring hills. The occur¬
rence. of gold sb generally In these rtvers did not, however, imply
that rich oeppaita of gold wonld be found in the mountains whence
tho rivere ^^rang j for ft should be remembered that the water of
the rivers offered a process of concentration, carrying away the
lighter piattclea of mud arid aaud, and allowing tho heavier,
amongst which waa the gold, to remain behind in the river beds.
Aa a matter of fact ft would be found on o anffiolent oxaminatlou
that the riven bad got nearly all the gold, and that there waa very
little of it left in the rooks in bUu. Most of the reefs in tho Wy-
naefd were Imt the ruins of what they once had been. Ages ago, at
a p^od ao long book that ft must be reckoned not by
hliMric, but by 'geologloal time, there could be no doubt thot
the reefs of the Wynaad, wero extensive enough, and
that ft waa then a gold region of very considerable maguitude.
But now there are to b» seen, generally speaking, only frag¬
ments of this former greatness. The mills and the reefs with them
have been washed away by tho incessant action of tho weather.
After a further description of the gold regions, the lecturer went on
to say that, as to whether the 44 oompaniea and the four mllUons of
money engaged in the gold adventure in the south of India would
or wcrnld not produce profitable Teaulta, he bos no hesitatiou in say¬
ing that as a whole they would not. They could not, and no re¬
asonable man would expect a mania to result iu anything but disas¬
ter. Taken individually, some few of the ooiripauics that liad gone
cautiously to work might succeed, especially if tliey liad I)ocn for¬
tunate enough to find “ pay shoots” of fair smo aud after but a short
search- The oasUy ana quickly found “ pay shoots,” however,
namely, thow which came up to tho surface, hod been nearly all
worked out yfeariMoby tho nativesjand it required no illustration to
show that the underground search for these might involve an ex¬
penditure of considerable time and money, and after all result in
nothing but failure. Amongst the preoloua atones, the localities of
ocourrenos of diamonds, corundum, agates,&o., rubies, sapphire, and
lapis.laxnU, were mentloned,aud some details given as to the nature
ot the deposite. Amongrt tho building stones, were specially noticed
the granites, slate, and marble. Amongst the clays, pottery clays,
more eepeoially Badhn deposit Were montrouod; ana tho neoesiity
for attention to a deposit*, of ftTo-olay pointed out and em¬
phasised. The mineral resouroee of IxiUfa could not be developed
without furnaces and furnaces oould not bo built with¬
out flre-brlckij i yet nearly aU the flre-bricke med in India
imported. Amongst cements, the materials tor the manu¬
facture S Portland oomeut and of plastor-of-parts were innationod,
and their occurrence in India pointed out. Amongst the crasnil-
cal requitementei^Ium, sodium, carbonates, borax and iron pyrites
were noticed, under the heading of alum the manufacture of
Kutoh alum was noticed ; the process of manufaoture was stated to
bo unique. The lecturer sold he had ascertained the deposit of
alum earth in that atato to bo probably extensive enough for the
supply of all India with alum for some hundreds of years. Tho
mhuial manures were of great Importance, and would become more
and more so In this country every year.
Having briety Indicated the ocournmoe of tho more important
minet^ 1*> “"'I pointed out where complete Information
about thSrtJ could bo obt^ed, attention was then directed to the
work frf th'Mr actual development. Bfavfog fixed npou the develop¬
ment of any particular mineral deposit, the first ftep to bo taken
was to find out in a gSnferal way what might be the extant and aver¬
age quall^ of tite d^msit, and to make sure of a oortaiu definite
valhe of tno same licfore sinking a large amount of capital iu the
unuettaklng. d?hlt process was known In mining lanmago by the
term “ prSpOotlBg, a word which simply meant a looking baforo
hand. xUr Idokhs^ beforehand was one of the most importont
branches '« tiiinmg engineering, aud required no little
exercise of kuMme* niiriirsl skill to acoompUsh ft
sucoessfully. Its Impdrtanoe would bo apparent to every
one It was a yon old observation that a man going
to buUd a house, “ nf»t sitteth down and counteth the oost."
Hm this matter been more' wideljr understood by bitendlng investors
in Indian gold mines, th«H wofild h»v« been lets capitU invested
ooa*
in thoaXonoenn. Tha leotnrar det«rtt>ad and UlosteMsd
•Idembte de^ tiw stud of vein do
and showed the molhodi of the nadwgrottsd wroiiwaMiri^id
working of these, tiiuitntlng his desor^tlagBO by
disMsias and drawings on tha UmAboard. Se deomdtwdna
methods of anpportiog mlniag aKsavations by tiafiMcteg end
masonry; and polated out the »acihidl(B»alllH la tills port of
mining work In India owing to tbs sootonlngof the ground by the
montOon ratni, fie oOneluded t^ .expi^ng a hope tiiat 'tiw
leotum, neostsarily of a somewhat griteral and oatUne oharAeter^,
might stimulate some of the nattesaoif .the oonutry to lookn|;lois’
mining worit as affording a useful aad saitklfiaoatecw lor amtia
throughout life. Booh work had frequently beta regarded as an
inferior kind. This idea had doubtieee originated ft;&titer^araoter«
of several men who bad entered into it. Befaig aeoaste^-a wmdt
oonsidetnbly of otumoe ft had otteaoted man of a gsasthHng
turn of mind, who bad done not a Uttiatoininre tim -rsjmtik'
tion of the industry. But he thought thatsrhen ell ww oonimtrad
which had been brought forward In the lontases, WurOttW be
perceived that mining work was proparly of a most hbttousabM
character, presenting as ft did problemssmioh eallad forth for thek
solution the best natural aldlitfes arid ooqufaad ei tti d amefi ta
At the end of the fourth leoture, the ohairBam,Mr. Forde, the Oon-
suiting Euglneor to the Municipality and Praiidsnt of the Bassoon
Meohanicsinstftute, said that he was sorry to have to announoe that
tills was the last of Mr.Fsarson’s very Intereatlng and able leoinret;
and ho was sure they would accord a hearty vote of thanks to him
for the trouble he had taken iu their preparation and delivery, Mr.
Peaison, in reply, stated tirat it had given him great plaasnre to be
associated with anything useful, but that ha. had beeu nesSty en¬
couraged iu his by-no-means easy task by the constant attention
with which the lectures had been listened to.—7»me» oj India.
THE AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITION.
1 .
T he agricultural exhibition which has recently been held on tlm
Island has deservedly attracted a large amount ot attention,
and, it Is to be hoped, will be productive ot os good results as
similar gatherinpp have been found to lead to In America and
England. Nine years ago a similar exhibition was held,-as some of
our readers may remember, at Baldapet, and it was originally
intended that there should ho an annual one. 'Various reasons
led to the Government postponing the Idea, the famine being one
oftheohiof; ami It was not until lost year that Mr, Robertson
was able to persuade Government that tho time had ooino for
taking a new departure iu this respect. It has now, we heliove,
been decided that a general ocutral exhibition shall l>e held in
Madras quimpicnnially, or septenuially, and that, iu the intervening
years, district Bhow.s of a similar nature, but on a smaller scale,
shall be lichl annually in various selected localities. This, we
think, is likely to lead to bettor results than, as seems to be tho
wish of some, would arise from bolding annual exhibitions in
Motlros Itself. Tho only fear is that tho experience gained In
the present ease may be lost, and various errors and defects, which
we shall notloo horoaftor, may occur, and In a great measure
lessen the value whioh should he atteudaut on a well-devised
and managed exhibition. Such gatherings as wo have recently
witnessed, to be of full value, should be arranged so that not the
slightest hitoh should ooour ; and there should be no dlffloalty in
making out what tho exhibits are, and whonou they came; for
their greatest value lies in keeping the pnbUo informed of where
they can ol>tatn what is brought before them at the exhibition, and
the probable price of such articles.
In tho section of tho show directed to live-stooln we have not
much to complain of, bat we must remark that we foil to sea the
utility, apart from its adding to the attractiveness of the show
to visitors, of any money being spent by jGovemment in trying
to got together any number of horses. Horses, as is well-known.
1 ® ® ^ ...X*.__it- __ T.. Jl_ - it- . • *
at tho recent exlribition itgght, ou another ocoasion, ho much bettor
spent iu rendering other portions qf the exhibition mote oomplate.
Atnougst the cattle wo have only 0>u) thing to complain of, and that
was the difflcnlty in distinguitiiing wMoh animals were competing
for partionlar prlaes. Practically, the only cattle shown w^
Nollore, for the other stock wero but a poor show, and it U moit
regrettable that no Mysore cattle wore broq^t forwawl, tye
have in this Presidency iu reatity only two good b^da oI oattlfc
the Nellores and the Mysores, and each type filU, a dillMen^ Jdaoe j'
tho former are a large, hoavy-ftamed, powerful breed, prodMlng
good draught animals for slow wOrk whioii r^aitos great ftrength j
tlie latter are light, strongly built, and active aulmals.' veryenitehla
for the ordinary operations of farming and road-work. The NM-'
loros have the adattioual advantage of being fair lailken, odd tharii-'
fore more generally valuable to the native ; but they are too large
and heavy for use iu crossing on the small, degenerate, breeds'
of the Soutliem districts, with a vieiV to their iumrovomeut. The
Nellaroa at the exhibition made really a splendid show, and i^o two
magnificent old bulls, brought down ny {Iheir owhere\fom near
Ongole simply for show, werp as finespeoimens of the breed as any
one could have wished fqr. As ipl^t be expected, hoVeydr, they
•bqyred the defects of the breed, a heavy, , loo^^ld appearuioe, onq
139
April's, iff88. iWitkat
#*iit ioJb« ciM*t> (^though in doptii of oorouo tiioy wafo
not lAodlilly .Aniongtf the youagor bnlls, both yaarUags
•nd &MO under three years old, the teodenoy which the b^«ed
has to ton to leg was (nUeh mote marked, and showed that in ono
resj^t at least the breed U aa{iable of great improvement, and
that ta fa aarly. development. In three years it should be p 0 S 8 lble>
where it is feMible to raise sueh stock at all, to turn them out
nearly foUy devrieped; but it would aj^ear that the Kellorea do
not reach tWr full dev<do^ent until dve or sU years old, or later.
Amongst the oows of this oreod there .ware shown some remarkably
fine animals, bat we eould not tinderstand some of the awards ;
smhe animals were apparently passed over without cause, and
inferior ones plaoed above them ; in partioular, we could not agree
with fae judges in the award to the old oows, for the fourth prize
cow appieeired to us as fine as the winner of the first prize, and
muofa snpsrier to thoee plaoed second and third, whilst another
parttooliwly fine sow was lift out entirely. As long as the judging
U placed in the bands of amatonrs, who have had few obanoaa of
Scqalrfag the speoial skill neoessary to adiudioato on tbo different
points of oattle, the results of their awards must necessarily be anon
to oriUoism t but we fail to see why It should be Umiosslblo to and
quallfiad judges for the work. Surely a district which can produce
snob oattle as it was our pleasure to see assembled last week, can
alio famish competent judges. To the heifers of this broad the
same remarks, as we have already made with refarenoo to the ^oung
bulls, equally apply ; but there was not the same uniformity, in
colour at least, displayed, indioating perhaps that some not pure
bred animals had got in.
Of working oattle, whether for hoai'y or ooooh work, the show
was very poor, and this is in a measure surprising, as it would
appear likely to have bean a profitable uudertaVlng far the breeders
to bring down anlmalB of this sort, for which we Imagine there is
a ready demand. As it whs, the only pair (and a fine pair) of heavy
drangut oattle came from Arcot, whore they could not have boon
bred, and oven these would not have compared favourably by the
side of such mognifioeut draught cattle as we have aeon in the
Ceded Districts, At present, heavy draught cattio are only bred
in Kellore, and the chief market is in the districts named, the cattle
being taken over annually hy the dealers and dispersed by them
ovsr the country. The light draught cattle were a better show iu
point of numbers, but not iu quality, and the show was really poor
in quantity, oonsidoriug how much larger a stock of this type of
animal there is. We saw no representatives of the draught buUooks
of Coimbatore and Salem, nor aii;^ of the true Amrluit Mahal type
in its best form, those shown haviug something of tliu latter typo,
but appoariog under-bred. This latter typo of animal U specialty
adapted for improving both the fann and size of the diminutive
Caruatio cattio, as being Interinediato between the latter ami the
heavy-built hfelloros. One very interesting exhibit wo did notice
iu this section of five jroung bulls of the Aden breed, imported by
Government last year, ivith the object of furnishing sires of a good
milking strain far use in the districts, the experience gained at the
Saidapot farm with a bull and cow imported in 1874 haviug oonoln-
blvely proved the value of the breatfin this rospoot. Besides their
good muklng qualities, the breed is remarkable mr its docility, and
at the same time the animals are of fair size and form, and intended
to improvo the ordinary ryots’ stock considerably. It is only to be
regretted tliat 500 instead of five such young bulls could not bo sup¬
plied for use in a selected locality ; but wu must remark that until j
all other stock-getting auimols are removed, or their powers dee- |
troyod, no really good results can bo expected to follow from the |
use of five or of five-hundred sires of good breed. The remainder i
of the cattle were not worthy of much attention, and, though In
some cases evidencing great spirit of enterprise on the part of their
owners, did not show favorably beside the great gathering of Nel-
loroa. Guo cow only do we fool specially called on to refer to, and ,
that was a brute shown by a gentleman in Madras, to which the ,
judges awarded a speoial prize—why, wo cannot understand. In a
miloh cow docility Is of primary importance, and a more dangerous
and vicious beast than thu one wo have seldom aeon : in form tlie cow
had several good ^ints, but her temper was enough to cancel them
all, and the only thing she appeared fit fur was the butcher.
The show of sheep was poor, and hero the chief exhibitors wore
Europeans. The oattle were chiefly brought down by native breed¬
ers for the show simply, as they refused to sell many of their animals.
Of course persnosion may have been freely used by tbo district
officers to fadnoe the cattle-breeders to come down with their stock,
bat nevertheless it la disappointing that, in a province containing
some four million sheep of soveral distinct and well marked broe<ls,
so poor a display should bo made. There is, wo believe, no reason
whiy'India should not equal Qaeonsland in wool growing ; wa lia\'e
good stock to be^ on, which, if small, is hardy and covered with
wool, which only reqairea jndlolous crossing and selection to be
improved greatly and rapidly. The small exhibit (far show only)
from the Saida^t farm was interesting as showing the results of
selaotion in bi'eedtng, but it only brings home to our miud tlie
pottering manner in which this groat subject has been taken up in
India. We hope for better things ere long, but Government ought
to be in a portion to supply every flock-master in the country, who
can be Inonoed to take them, to the exclusion of rams of his own
breeding, V|^h sires for breeding of a good, thoroughly aoollmatiied
hardy; wo^beuiug type of sheep. The show of goats was small,
although there woi'e some interesting exhibits, but that of poultry
was full, and was intumstiug as showing that the natives are, to a
certain degree, faking to keeping fowls of good broeda, a good
noraber of the prize-winners being natives. On th« whole, the
exhibition of livo-atook was successful, but it will bo well, on
another oeoasioa, to endeavour to got together more working oattle,
sheep, and paitfanlarly represenfanves m the Mysore breed. Our
remirics on Gie atfai^cnaents of the Exhibition we shaU reserve for
uofasr oeoMlon, when we have had an oppoffanlty of referring to
II
T tJBKIKG now to the dead stock oxhlbits, and first to tho
implements, machine*, and tools, wo must remark that, os a
"if display was not gmtlfying. Though large prizes wore
offered for fibre-cleaning, oit-prosslng, and paddy-husking
maomuM, none were awarded, and it is much to lie regretted that
did not induce any maoufaotnrers to come forward,
lor the two first purpose* aM Very mnch required, and
though a Boomer oH-press was exhibited by itself, it is of little
use, as oil-seeds require to be otushod or bruised bofafa pres-
suTO, Considering the extremely hlefflcient extraction niade by the
na»ve ml-mflls, and the large proportion of oil left In the refuse
oBKe* after pressing, It Is surprising that attention has not been
more strongly drawn to the opening that exists far the introduotlou
of complete and efflolont oil-mills and preiies' tnto India. In the
“'^rests of the oonntry agrlonlturally, it would be well worth
while for tlie State to offer onhsiderable indnoements to any one
who will introduce and work suoh presses as will prevent tho send*
from being exported os now ; for If tho most Valuable portion, tho
oil only, is sent to Europe, tho oonntry, that is, the soil, will lose
little by the growth of oil-Seed crops t but whilst the seeds still
oontinuo to be sent homo, a oohtlnnal and heavy drain Is grade
thereon. While there is no corresponding Import of mannrial sub-
stanoBs to balance, lii fibre mills, again, there is a great \vant, and
though tho largo prizes offered by the Government of India for tho
production of a machine capable of oloitnfag the rhea fibre have
hitberto been without satisfactory results, there is also a great
want of a machine oapoblo of dealing with such plants a* the
aloe, the common plantain, and the manilla hemp, all of which
contain strong useful fibres, but which oanhot bo extraoted eoon-
omioally by hand. The hand-mortar far cleaning paddy, to
which a prize was awarded, wo* only an ordinary native mortar,
but of rather su^rior finish. It was, we believe, exhibited with¬
out its pestle ! The only cotton-gin shown received a prize, and
was ono of the well-known pattern of Burgess and Key's emery’e
saw-glna, which have ao long ooonplod a foremost position in gins
of that typo. Some native rollor-glns wore exhibited, bat none
possessing any better oliarnoter than those in general use. The
throe patterns of Messrs. Thomson and Mylne’s Beheea sugar mills,
exhibited by Messrs. Oakes and do,, deservedly attracted attention
both far thflir Imrclinrss and offloiohoy, of whioh any one oould
judge, far they were sliown outside the yard at work. This mill
has been a great success iu Northern India, and the first brought
to Hiii rreiidonoy about two and-a-half years ago, after being tried
at SMdapet, was forwarded for more complete trial to Bsllary,
and there compared well with the local mills, althongh far from
being so superior to thorn as It Is claimed to bo over'tho Indigenous
mill of Bengal and the N.-W. Provlnoei. Blnoe then, we learn
that another of those mills has boon sent to Bellary, quite recently,
this time a throe-roller mill (the first having onl.ytwo rollers), and
this has been much more sneoessful. A mill of this last^ pattern
was at work in the shoivvaril, ns w'oll as a two-roller mill. De-
sorvodly those mills obtained prizes, for they are portable and
easily set up, and more effioiant than the native wooden mill ;
whilst their price Is nearly the same, and tho material* of which
they aro made muoh more durable. Wliou tho wooden frame-works
arc made up locally, and tho Iron works only purchased from tlie
manufacturer, the price of these mills should be reduoed to a point
considerably below that of the native mills. Messrs. Oakes, who
oxhilnted these sugar mills, also obtained a prize far a winnowing
inaohino made far them in England ; but we think the maohlne U
inueli ton heavy and costly to bo likely to meet with general favour
in tills part of India.
The most interesting part of tho exhibition in this soetton was
the comparatively large show of ploughs. For this -Sweden,
Ainnrica and Kugland all ooiitributcd, besides looal manufacturers
in Messrs. Massey and Co., and tho Songal Works at Saidapot.
The judaes apparently wore unable to follow the olassifloatlpii of
prizes offi-rod hy the Conrmlttoo, and awarded prizes far ploiigbs,
not according to the materials of oonstmotlon, but aooording to the
purposes tor whioh tho various ploughs were adapted, lu this wo
think they were right, for the eraoienoy of ploughs oau bo more fair¬
ly oomparod lu this way, it being mautfestly impossible in auy way
to omitrast tho value of a “ wood-plough with Iron working parts,”
lutemled for breaking up black ootton soil to a dopth of Iziu., by
moans of four or five pair of largo Nelloro oattle, and one of similar
materials designed to rcplano the crooked stick of the ordinary
ryot, and to bo used with his diminutive stock. Throe classes wore
formed: ono for heavy ploughs suitable for deep work, row
performod by the ryot of tho Ceded Districts, when reclaiming foul
land, with his pad da madaga (one of whioh we saw la tho cxliibl-
tiou) i anothor for strong ploughs capable of doing all the ordinary
operations of cultivation ; and a third for light ploughs of low cost,
which, though fairly effiuicnt for gonoral purposes, were speuially
designed to bo ma<lo at a price within the means of the great bulk
of our ryots. Iu tbo first division tho show was good, but almost
the sole contributor was Mr. Sabapathy Moodelliar of Bellary, wlio,
besides throe ploughs which the judges considered worthy of
consideration, exhibited two English multiple-furrow ploughs,
which ho is using in Bollary. Bushlra the above-named gentleman,
th.' Sangal Works exhibited a plough made on the lines of ono
Imported by the Agricultural Dopartinout some years since from
Sweden. The latter obtained tho second priz-e, tbo first going to
one of sllghtljt ditfereut ooustriictiuu imported from Swedeti, to the
oxciuaiou ot either of the -i ery useful looking ploughs made by
Messrs. Collins, United .fifates. In tin? second division, or ploughs
of raedlam size suitable for gruorul purposes, the Ooinpotitlou lay
between two ploughs exhibited ny _ the well-known firm of
Bansomos, (lead and Jefferies, oi Ipswich, and n plough made
by tlio Onorums Bank, Bwodon, of whioh a largo namuor havo
reoeirtiy beets imported by tbo Agriotiltund DtqjaniiMat for <Ustri<
140
THE INDIAN AGRIOtJLTTJEIST.
AptU2,188A
bntlon and ealo throiuhotit the presldeacy, and are mido op by
Mossre. Macney and Co., looally, eomethiog oaths liae* ot the
Svrediab plooeii, but with oonelderablc alterations. Tho first prir.e
went to one ol Ransomea’ ploughs bearing their math K.W,n., a
very uaefnl, light, and strongly built plough, costing E«. 16-8,
with Btoebbearing parts and a wheel. The ssoond prize was awarded
to Messna. Massey's plough, whloh, though built on good lines,
had a considerabla objection in that eas&igs were raaoie use of In
it; its prloo with oastings was Us. 15, Imt made in wrought
iron Bs, 18 ; and when mMe in the lattsr material, it should bo
H most yalnable implement. The Swedish plough favored by tho
Agrioultaral Department was excluded apparently because of Its
weight, bnt at the price at which it csn 1^ doUvered iu Madras,
Ks. IS, it is a wottaerfnlty cheap, useful, «nd strong plough. In
this case, aa in that of other implements, we must remark that
we cannot naatd the awards as at ail final, for, witli ploughs
ospeotaUy,' it Is impossible to fairly adjudge their qualities with¬
out trial in the flmd, and with a dynamometer, besides having
regard to their oonstruotion, the materials used, and tbe cost.
On another oooasion wo trust that all the ploughs at least will
be pnt throngh and through practioal trial before the prizes ore
awarded ; the exhibition will thou bo of much greater educational,
or rather Instructive, value to the visitors ; and seeing tho
ueoesslty that exists for Government to find out whence the best
and ebeapest {not lowest mioed) plouc^s can be obtained, wc
hope that the Exhibition Committee will rcooramend that ail the
exhibits oonsidered worthy by tho judges may be put through
an exhaustive series of praotioal trials under various conditions
in different looaUties. We have no quarrol to make with the
award given, but we think the jndgoa will admit that those
awards were made on Insufilolent data; that a few hundreds
of rupees spent in the way we mention would be prod native
of muoh good, wa feel assured. Lot it be advertised that
the praotioal plough trials will be held In Bollary, at
Saldapet, and in Tanjore, for Instanoo, iu Jnly or August
next, and lot arrangements be made for the full trial of
all such ploughs os are brought forward, and wo shall then be
wall able to repose confidsnoa in the verdict. In the third
division of ploughs, that is, those of very light oonstruotion and
low price, the judges divided tho prizes between a small wood
and steel plough made by Rausomes and an iron plough made by
Massey and Co., both costing Be. 10, In tho latter the body,
share and mould-board were all eastings, and the two last
portions being oast in one piece would have to be replaced
together, though in pj-aotloe five or six shares are worn out to one
mould-board) this difilcalty the mannfaoturer has, we believe,
got over at a slightly inoreoaod coat; but tho use of castings at
ml in implements to be placed in the hands of Ignorant rynts
we look upon as inadvisable, as an unfortunate accident might
lead to the plough being thrown asido, and the whole tribe of
which it is a type brought into disrepute.
We have entered so fully into the (jnostion of ploughs, that we
liave little space left for remarks on tho other exhibits « bnt we
regard the question of providing a good, cheap, nud eOicient plough
of so great importanoe, and that of all other field implements at
present of suoa secondary interest, that we believe ourselves
lustified in doing so. No suitable cultivator or grubber was shown
for competition, although a second prize was awarded to one of
Messrs. Coleman and Morton’s maxo ; but we observed one
amongst an interesting oolleotion of exhibits sent by the Saidapot
Farm of very simple oonstruotion. In this place we must remark
that we regard tho rule preventing Oovornmeut institutions
from competing for prizes as a mistake. They should bo allowed
to oompeto, as they oau ofton show the best aud most suitable
oxhiblts; and os these exhibitions are as valuable for Instruc¬
tion os for anything, the best exhibits should obtain tho prize.
It would be easy to arrange matters so tliat no money should
bo paid to Government institutions. Just as iu the grubbers, so
in the harrows : tho one most suitable to the wants of the
country was exhibited by tbe Saidapot Farm, but no attention was
drawn to ft by its being awarded a prize. The iron harrows by
Howard of Bedford, shown by Sabapathy Moodolliar, for which
a first prize was given, appeared to us muob too heavy for general
purposes.
Of tho other artioles shown, there is not much to bo said. Both
Messrs, Oakes and Messrs. Massey showed interesting collectinus
of osoful tools, and the former a coileotion of useful dairy utensils ;
whilst tho latter were deservedly awarded a special prize for one of
their well-known ooffoe-pulpors. Nothing new was brought out in
tho way of water-lifts, but the wind-mill working in tho gi-ounds
attracted considerable attention, and we frequently heard oft-
repeated remark that wind-mills had not been snffioiontly tried iu
India. Hitherto all the trials that havo been made have been
nnsuooossful, and we do not hope for muoh from them in the
future. In this department of the exhibition, os in all others, tho
same want of knowledge of what was being shown was patont to
all, and we think that on another oooasion some attempt at a
catalogue should be made, at least of those articles competing for
prizes. We hope to bo able to refer to the raw products and
mannfaotures exhibited at on early date, when we shall have
something to say also on tho general arrangements of the
exhibition, ■—•Sfmiras Mail,
111 .
W E have now come to the most difficult x'ortion of om-task,
for it was in the portion of the Show devoted" to raw produoe
that the arrangements wore most defective,-and where it was most
dilfioult to disaovor what was what. Tho oonfusloii which existed
was, wo believe, for the most part due to the hurry with whloh
eventhiM was laid out for cxhlbitiou,aud also, in a great inoasnro,
to too limits b«4ug iorwwdsd to tbe SsorotMy often wlthont
lists, and generally with no .<mb in oluu^ to see that thb axUt^
were laid out in a anltable mannet, <Miis^[aaatly tim whole woiic
of laying out and arranging theim as far as possible pntetioaily de¬
volved on the Steword In speeial charge, on whose shoulders also
foil, iu addition, the same anty os regaras tite exhibits of mannlao-
tures. It was a simple Impossibility for any one pengm to
into anything like proimr order snoh a numbw of exhiints doUrored
in the state mentioned. Abont 8,000 exhibits, were, wo beUsva,
sent In, and often a single exhibit consisted of many dtffkiont arti-
oles, so that at least 6,000 or more artioles hod to be doMt ndth
In the short time silottedT—tfaree days only I It is sarprisiiiK that
so muoh order was aotnally attained, and that greater oontusion
was not visible to the oasual visitor s bnt w« hops that on another
oooasion the ^mmlttee of Management wlU antieipate the digni¬
ty, and provide adequate means for laying ont and displaying the
exhibits in such a manner that the publio may derive the fwOst
benefit from the Show. As it is probable that some years may
elapse before another such exhibition is held in our oi^, we trust
that the opinions of those Stewards of sections who did aotnally
dlsobarge tho active duties of their office, will be asked for and
recorded for tlio guidance of future committees, whloh must, from
the shifting naturo of our population, on a future occasion, consist
almost entirely of now men, who will be altogether ignorant of the
dlffloultlos met with on the present occasion ; and wa also trust
that when another exhibition is hold the Stewards generally will
have learnt bettor how to disoharge the responsibilities whloh they
have undortakon. The Stewards in each section of an exhibition
should bo praotioally a working Sub-Committee, and see that every¬
thing is arranged to the beat advantage for display and lustruotion
to tho public, and should have snob a knowledge of what is exhibit¬
ed os to bo able to diroot tho work of the judges, so as to save
tho labour and time. They wlU only be oble to do this by Insisting
that all exhibits should be delivered in a proper state for exhlbltiou
at least a week or ton days before tho Show is opened to the publio,
and so marked that no confusion can possibly arise, or the exhibits
be placed in sections where they are altogether ont of place. In a
great measure tbe Stewards must depend on the exhibitors for
facilitating tho acoempUshment of those ends, and with every oxhi-
tion the exhibitors will learn better how to prepare and send up
their exhibits. In an initial uDdertal|jng like that reoently held,
of course a great deal must be in a rudimentary stage, aud,consider¬
ing all things, wo must allow tliat a great deal of suooess was at¬
tained.
In tbe jmiging, too, wo saw much still to be desired; the selection
of competont judges ought to reeoivomore attention, and the work
should bo more sub-divided ; tho judging should be done before the
public arc admitted ; we can see no reason why tho names of the
exhibitors should not be attaohod to all the articles : and we regard
it as ossoutial tliat the cost of manufactured articles, os well as
that of partially prepared produce, such as fibres, should in every
case bo stated and oonsidered by the judges. In the selection of
the judges, wo think it must bo evident to all that specialists
should be selected ; n, man, who is a good judge of grains and fod¬
ders, is not necessarily a good one of fibres. In another matter
also tho Cominittco might improve matters, and tliat is in the
simpIiSoatiou of the prize lists. Unless tho exhibition is to bo of
a more permanent cliaraoter in future, the offer of separate prizes
for a long list of varieties of grains and pulses seems to us Inadvi¬
sable, aud tho offer might will be confined to oolleotions of the
common groins with n few prizes for special new products, which it
is desirable to encour.ago ; poddy, however, ^liould always be kept
separate from the unirrigated grains. Wo should, nevertholoss,
look upon the establislimont of a more permanent exhibition with
favour. In a Show like the reeeut one, it was almost impossible for
any one, witti the amount of leisure usually at tho dlsMsal of most
people iu tills country, to form a fair Idea of the eimihts of any
particular desoription of produce, it would be muoh more benefloial
to tlie country if tho exhibits of produce could be kept on show for
several weeks, and tliiis afford ample opportunities to those intor-
ostod to study them at their leisure. In the exhibits of grains and
pulses, the visitor was brought face to face with tho foot that the
natives recognise a tremendous number of varieties of paddy ; one
oolleotion from Malabar consisted of 116 samples, and to render
tho subject morn oonfusing, the names of tho different sorts
vary iu different looalitios, so that it may almost bo said
that the names of varieties of paddy ore legion. The Com¬
mittee attempted to classify all tho varieties of paddy under tho
heads Kar and Samba—divisions well known in some parts, but
altogether unknown In otliers of the Presidency. The show of pod-
dy, as a whole, was disappointing ; partly from tho confusion,
partly from the waut of names, and a good deal from defootivO
arrangements. I’rizes were offered for samples of the Carolfna and
Madagosoar varieties, hut although we noticed that the judges
had awarded prizes for them, wo were unable to find them. The
oolloctious of various dosoriptions of nairrigated cereals were
particularly fine atid deserved great attention, but there also tbe
waul of adequate arrangements prevented the visitor from finding
out whence the prize samples had oemo, and we believe that it was
not until the close of the exhibition that the names of the owners
wore all found. It is doubtless convenient to give each exhibit
a number, but a label bearing tho mark “ Exhibit No. 1,<KX), Dlv.
(a). Class 1, Section B," does not tell muoh to those who come to
see and leant I lu the pulses, the same exeetlenoe of apples was
visible, aud wc really can scarcely understand how Xhe. judges
wero able to diseharge thuir work. On another oooasion, it will m
better tliat, at least with some grains, tho sample should bo aouom-
panied by a sboaf of com in the straw. Tho oilseeds also came
out strongly, but nothing now was exhibited on a large scale,
Tiunevelly alone coming forward with a good oonection of
misoelianoous oUseods, but in that ease tho quantity of each sort
sent was very small. The exhibits of ootton were good, but it
was not posftblo to mo them to advantage, and fwtoro another
April 2, 1888.
THE INDIAlj AGEICULTURIST.
129
These figures show how carefully deduction must he made from
the residts of expeHmente, as a more propitious senson than
usual may lead to results which appear contradictory, and also
how long experiments, of the description of those above referred
to, must be continued before absolute results can be at all arrived
at by averaging the returns of a number of years together,
They should, however, be very valuable in convincing any one
who is still sceptioal of the fact, that Indian soils are in a very
exhausted condition, for the latter are almost continuously
cropped with com of some description. A good deal might be
done on Government Experimental Fanus in India, iu collecting
data of a similar nature to those given above, and a commence'
ment has been made already in that direction at Saidapet,
Another very remarkable set of results, of great interest to
those connected with Indian agriculture, are those obtained in
the growth of wheat alternated with fallow and wheat growi)
continuously on the same land in adjoining plots. They are
given below :—
Total Corn, i.«. Straw, ld.
lAftcr Mlow
Fh’o years lS56—eo l.Slifi 7(i(> l,0ia +218 2,.014 ! 1,2'>7 l.fls.s +431
Do. 1S61—Cl l,aO« 804 OW ■4-14!) 2,483 l,21l) J.UIH) +174
Do. 18(10—70 fl8U 408 831 +8(10 1,3»4 (417 ],12a +405
Do. 1871—75 785 :W,8 (UO +25S 1,130 710 1,0.81 +312
Do. 1870—60 754 ■S77 507 +100 1,110 877 +303
Twonly.flvo yoHra 1855—80,1,13(1 ,’.0SS^ 801 +835 1,780 803 1,221 +328
1881 .. .. I 718 I 874 I 803 +180 807 | 14(1 1,1.16 |+(ll)7
The figures showed that over a period of 25 years half tlio bionniai
produce (i.e., the average annual produce ) of the hind alternate¬
ly fallowed and cropjiej luas lioeii 2.36 lbs. or 31 bushels of corn
.and 328 lbs, of straw less than that obtained from the adjoining
laud continuously cropped with wheiil. The figures for the
crops of 1881 are also remarkable, and the whole scries
show the exhausting efi'ect of coutiinious coni-croppiug
without manure, and still more so of alternate fallows;
they also show how great ia the effect of season on tho outturn.
The main results can Iki explained by the fact thattlie drainage
tlirough fallowed land carries off nioi'e uitrugeu from tho soil
than that from cropped laud. They show lliat tliough a hare
fallow may be advanbigeous by allowing, through a tempor.ary
cessation of cr(>pping, the sifil to accumulate larger immediately
available sujiplios of nitrogen (for other pur)jo 8 es) if the prac¬
tice bo continued, it is I’oally more exh.aiistiiig than eontiiiuons
eorii-croppiug. These results ought t (3 l>e i'(jineinb(;red iu Indi.a,
where fallowing is generally looked upon as a most valuable pre¬
ventive of exhauetion ; but there the danger i.s not so great as
the loss from dr!iina,ge would never l>e so much, as the native
cultivator never bare fallows his land iu tho manner done iu
England ; he allows it rest from cropping, but does nothing at
the same time to prevent the growth of weeds over the surface,
or to ojien up the soil, so that it m.ay bo thoroughly aerated.
Tlie weeds in their growth prevent a considerable aiuounf. of
loss by drainage.
It would be most beneficial if experiments similar to the
almvo were ciirofully emnducted on all Indian Ex]>oriment;il
Farms.
The rain and drain gauges used, aud the system of oUsurviug
the results obtained, are also well worthy of adoiitien 011 Indian
Experimental Farms, as very valuable data could l)e ooUeoted
by that moans. They oi'e fully described iu the .lourual of the
H. A. S. C., Pai-t I of 1881.
The above are the chief results, &c., which I noticed at Rotham-
stead that ore of most interest in India ; but the care with
which the soils sampled frequently foj' analysis, the gi-asses
from the continuously manured grass-land are collected, sorted,
and the effects of the diilepent manures 011 the herbage tabulat¬
ed, and the work always going on the laboratory iu au.alysing
the soils and samples of the coips grown, are most striking.
With reference to one problem which has received a grejit
amount of attention, aud which is still a point of controversy
amongst agricultural chemists, fit., tbs sources of the supply of
nitrogen to plants, Dr. Gilbert requested co-operation from
the department to which I belcmg, and especially asked that he
might be furnished from Saidapet with the following informa¬
tion :—Statistics of produce of leguminos<» on sandy soils
With information, if possible, of the average percentage of
nitrogen in the dry matter : how frequently the crop can be
grown, and whether it leaves the laud in an exhausted or im¬
proved condition for other crojis (cereals, &c .); stating how the
crop is dealt with, removed, ploughotr in, or fed off, and he
added that “ it would bo very desirable if careful samples
of the soil could Iw taken to every 6 inches to 4 or 6 such depths,
and the nitrogen determimsd-in the land before sowing Uio legu¬
minous crop, and also after its growth and removal ; it being
essential to have the samples from a fixed area and depth.
Four, five or six samples should be taken from eaoh plot or field
at each depth. Of the surface samples half of each should bo
kept separate, and the other halves mixed j of the subsoils
a mixture may bo made of all of the (samples from the
same depth iu each case ; the reason for i-otaiuing half
of the surface samples unmixed being for reference in case
a suspicion that any one contained tho droppings of some
animal arose. The weight of the soil samples should be taken
in the field ; afterwards they should be sifted successively
through sieves of 1 inch, | inch and i inch mesh, and the weights
determined in each case aud calculated back to the original ;
what last passes through call ‘ mould.’ Then determine tho dry
matter in the mould at 100 " C after powdering finely and calculate
back to the original ' weight’ Although the above data have
been 4 «ked for with special reference to the Saidapet farm, if
similar figures could be obtained from other p-arts of India ami
on different soils, they would be moat valuable in assisting iu the
solution of the problem I have already i-eferred to.
On his farmatSawbridgeworth, Mr. Front has been growing
coi-n coiitimiously over near!)’' its whole area for nearly 20 years
without intermission, and the crops ho now grows are very
heavy and show no signtj of diminution. The system which
has enabled him to do this ia deep and thorough cultivation (by
steam) combined with an oxtousivo use of artificial manures,
c. < 7 ., a very fine crop of barley which I saw, IkuI been manured
with artificials to the value of A'2-6-0 per acre. No stock is
kept except a few horses for ewtiug, <&c., and oue cow for dairy;
this condition is very similar to that of tho Indian lyot, who iu
general only keeps stock for draught purposes. Mr. Prout’s
results show that ooutinuous corn-growing may be made re-
inmieralive and not injurious to tlic laud,where a supply of
ai-litic,ial manures is available and is properly u.sed ; they ai-e also
nterestiiig as being a practical application on a large scale of tho
j tojicliings of the Rothamstoad experinrental plots. The system
' can never he fully followed by the Indian ryot, for be will never,
as far as we know or can foresee now, be able to obtain a
lupply of artificials at a price which the market value of his crops
will enable him to give; but in oue respect he may well be urged
to follow Idr. Front, and that is, in deep and thorough oultiva-
,iou; and if ho did so, the results would be moat beneficial to
limself and to his landlord—the Government.
Since tho last special report on operations of the Agri-Horti-
3 ultural Society of Madras, furnished to Government under
date 27tli November 1878, this Society has not relaxed its
fforts to perforni its self-imposed public work, aud to confer
lUoU btuiefits on the public as lie within its sphere, those efforts
jing, lujwever, often ci-amjjed by the necessity for husbanding
ts resources.
During the time refen’od to, the Society has introduced,
xpei'imeiitcd witli, oi- distributed, in addition to curioua and
ruamentnl plants, large numbers of vavluable trees, plants and
7 Cgot 4 vbloa of known economic value, j>articularly Persian Data
?almB, the Copal Varui,sli Tree, African Oil Palms, Mahogany,
Aiidolphia, Ceara Rubber, Caixfijs, Brazil Nuts, S.apaeia Nuts,
Queensland Nuts, Water Chestnuts, (2ocoa, Chinchona, Clovee,
Nutmegs, Liberian •Coffee, Bhamie Cotton, plants for fibre and
laiwr-making. Eucalypti, and grasses and fodder plants.
Ploughs, scythes, galvanised wire, cauvaa and rubber hose
or irrigation, pumps, syringes, and other agricultural and
TEE WmiMl -&<3IfDXnLtUlWr.
April 2, 1B88.
UorUou:lt 47 »l iT^pl^etiUt bAve be«i^ importAd, <ir . obtained, and
dietrib^ted to various piaoes in India and Bttrtnah.
Qard<tneni. have been engaged and sent to''employere in India
and SttiTnah; and many boys are conetnnUy being trained in
tlte gardens.
Tke already magni/ieetit botanic^d collection belonging to the
Society ie being almost daily added to, and a new Botanical
Oarden baa been laid out and maintained.
A very extensive correspondence on botaidoal, arborioulturnl,
agricultural and horticultural subjects baa been kept up for the
purpose of diffusuig information; aiul the monthly Proceedings
of the Committee have been regularly printod and distributed to
raembeze of the eoeiety, other eipiilar bodies,, and to poraons
interested in the VMinua subjects to which they refer.
Publications on economic plants and their culture, and cata¬
logues of plants, imd garden and other xequisiteN have been
obtained from, or voluntarily, sent by, the publishers and addwl
to the Society’s libraiy, (which, tho,ugh limited, forms a much
used wnree of inforraalsou on arborioultural, agricultural, and
horticultural subjects), or sent, to persons requiring them.
Botanical specimens are given freely, whenever asked, to
local professors and lecturers, and scientific visitors, and the
Botonic Garden is believed to be of gi-eat service to the students
of the various botanical classes,
, The Society acts, and is largely employed, os an agency through
which.persons at u distance obtain supplies of fruit, avenue
shade, and other trees, plants and eeeUs, and annually obtains
and forwards to all piwts of India, and often abroad, large
quantities of grafted mfuigo and other trees, and seeds of many
nseful plants, .particularly Inga Dulcis, Casuarina, Cotton,
Tobacco, Senna, Forage-plarits, and Maize, and other cereals.
The Society ia often honored by references from Government
and the Board of Bsvenqe for information on horticultural and
kindred subjects ; and is frequently able to be of use to Com-
iiiissioners, Collectors, and other authorities in distant pro¬
vinces.
The increasing interest of tho natives in the objects of the
Society, and their marked success in imitating its Guropean
supporters, may be gathered from tho iiumtor of prizes won by
them at the Society's Annual Shows, na detailed in tho lists
annexed to the Annual Eeports ; while tho sale-books show
tliat if the natives do net join the Society as membere in such
numbers as is desirable, they contribute haiulsomoly to its
supjxjrt by being largo purchasers of seeds, plants, &c.
It will be observed that the Society lias no grant from Lnojil
or Municipal Funds, and that Its. .500 out of the Es. 3,500
anhnally received from Government is a special grant dedicated
by Oovermnent to prizes for useful products. The Committee
lias reason to believe that the Society’s medals offered from this
fund are much coveted by planters and mauutacturci-s, and
obeervee that success in obtaining them is frequently advertised
as a proof of excellence.
BARLEY CULTIVATION FOR INDIA.
{ €on»nwiiaatcd )
{fiontinued froni page 91.)
CniMATB.
ARI 4 EY will flourish best in a temperate climate ; but
Iwing hardy and having various species and a large num.
her of varieties scattered throughout the world, it will grow in
wide ranges of temi>eratnre. The frost of Indian plains does
no injury whatever to tho indigenous varieties, much less
to barleys of the colder regions. The Indian plains and
the hills are admirably suited to bafleys of all varieties and of
all parts of the world.
Tim* or Sowing.
The same as for wheat— I. A,, Voi, VII., No. 4, p. 116. I
might as well note here, that the native cultivators of Upper
India sow baeley from the middle of-October to the middle of
November.
Oboobapkical DiwawOTioN,
The genus fforrfetmi is a native of Asia, extending from the
Caucasus mountains all along the east coast of the Mediterranean
8 ca down totbeaxiretBe south of Arabia, in tho west side of
Asia to China ajjd India in the east, stretdiing northward
to Sibeiia. The African barleys origimdty came from Arabia,
and its noriheni neighbour, Palestine. From some centuries
Lick by means of extensive cultivation and'betaniaal researches,
the most approved species with their varieties, have been
introduced into various countries of .Gurc^, America, Africa,
and even the mhabltod parts of Australia. It is, indeed,
voi'y Hurpriaing to find India haa ilttrodnced none of the varie¬
ties of barley other than what it has from days of yore. I
experimented with some of the mort approved varieties of the
two-rowed, four-rowed, and six-rowed barleys imported fimn
Europe, Africa, Arabia, America, and the Indian mdigenous,
which succeeded well in the sandy sfiil and variable climats
of Lucknow and -Sitapore, and altogether well on ririi soil
artificially made at these places, from which 1 believe all exotic
barleys, ficm other parts of the world, will grow remarkably
well in Judin extending, from tlie hot plains, upwards to 16,000
feet in the HimaLiyan mountains.
Soil.
Ordinary ngrienlturisU, on account of their finding barley
growing and yielding a fair crop (according to their estimation
of fair crop) on poor sandy soil, on which wheat and many other
crops would fail, pronouuoe barley to require a poor soil, much
sand, little clay, little or no monurial ingredients, and
so forth. This is on account of tho stnrdineas of
bai’ley which certainly deserves better treatment.
I have grown barley, aud grown it experimentally, I
might emphatically say, more than any one, past or present,
in India ; and from all the da^a 1 have gathered about the
appropriate soil for this very valuable and badly treated plant
fmm ])ersonal experience, can testify that barley requires, if a
buiui>er and nutritions crop be the object, very rich soil—the
same as wheat, barl ey differing from this best of cereal grain
lilants in this, that wheat will not grow aud .yield without tho
nitrates present in the soil, whereas barley will, because barley
draws nitrogen from both the atmospheric air by its upper axis
and from tlio soil by its lower axis— Lo., by means of Us root
fibrils, wheat drawing nitrogen by menus of its root fibrils only.
Should, however, riilrates be pi-osent in tho soil, Isirley will Ije
ginteful and repay by yielding .a still gi-eater bumper crop.
Loamy toil of tho cakarcoua order, and of the sjiceies having
less lime aud more humus.
Vomposilion of toil :—
Clay ... 50 parts.
Lime ... ••• 4 ,,
Uumus... 8 i>
Sand ... ••• • • 41 ,,
Total ... 100
CtlEMlSTKT OF THE BARLEY Pi.ANT.
The chemical constituents of the produce of one acre of this
plant (tiifc heading yield) will he found from the following
tables :—
Orguntc mattor. Inorganic mutter. Total,
lbs. Il». lb*.
good .. .. T,.'i«,tiiri'933«l3 4,041 ■;«4826 I,a2,9W29e4a)
LmvO* .. 1 , 10,110 iWOSl-i 0,098-470450 l,lK,SlS-8a«800
Total .. ‘A75.0:«-!SKH)47 10,189-8S«1!83 885,17S-13«80
Chemical analyses of the inorganic portions of tlie fore¬
going
Seed. tisaves, stsm, Jto. Total,
lbs. lbs. , lbs.
Oxide of potassium ... 854'S447S8 684-248386 1,638-603121
Chloride of potassium 228-337169 ... 228-387169
Chloride of sodium ... 40-817703 130-807268 171:326063
Ume ■ . 68-882536 363-101440 419-783078
.Oxide of magnesium... 29.3-4031.59 164-658702«.- 488-061861
Oxide of iron Se-OSlOWi 82-930198 169 020290
Phosphoric acid ...1,184-018217 439*089873 1,683-709090
Sttlphurio acid ... 77-190087 66-473328 148-663416
Oxide of silicon ...1,239-891036 4,177-452262 6,417 - 848297
Total ...4,041-.306820 6,098-470456 10,189-836M2
Ap^ 2, 1883.
UJCe INDIAlj^ AOBICULTUBIST.
131
OBWfroo'.pH'rsioi.ooicAi:. Remarks.
Had it not been for th^ pretljr tlavk husk or skik
ndheriog to the seed, barley gniin would have the eiualleet
percentage of mineral matter not exceeding cue per cent
including the husk it has 2‘48 per cent, the stem, &o., having
4‘99 per cent of it. Of the oiyanic matter the grain has
07'C2 per cent; and tlie ateni, &c., 95'01 j>er cent. Small oa
these percentages of the ash might appwr, the quantity of it
carried off the acre is quite lai^, equal to a cart-load which
can only be drawn by a. pair of very strong bnllocka This
quantity of ■ the mineral constituents of the barley plant must
be present in the soil of one acre, and in a form the root-
fibrils will imbibe them. If these precautions be not observed
in barley cultivation, the cultivator can never hoi>o to crop
a bumper crop for which he is always trying. It might also
be noted tlrat the barley plant (equally applioable to all other
plants), draws a good portion of its organic constituents from
the atmospheric air, but the remaining jrortiou must be
present in the soil without which the plant will not grow ;
because this plant draws its food by uieatw of the upi^er axis
as well as by means of the lower axis. These points respecting
barley and several other plants have been thoroughly estab¬
lished beyond dispute, by innumerable ohemico-physioJogieal
experimental demonstrations.
Barley is pretty ricti in the mebil potassium—.as an oxide,
the seotl has 21T4 per cent, and the atom, &o., 11’22 per cent,
of this metal; and as a chloride, the seed has 5’G5 per cent,
but tliere is not a particle of chlorine in the stem, &c. Tlie
metal sodium is found in combination with chlorine—seed I’Ol
per cent, and the stem, ^w., 2'14 j>or cent—a very sniall per-
oeiitage ; no oxide of this inet^l is found in this plant. Barley
seed is very i>oor in lime, the stem having more of it for
building of its tissues in combination with other elementary
substances, seed 1'05 per cent; and stem, &c., 0-79 percent.
Magnesia is mere abundant than lime, in this ])Iant ; seed,
7‘26 jjer cent; stem, &c., 2‘70 T>ov cent. It is remarkable to
find so much os 2T3 per cent in the seed, and V3() per cent
in the stem, &c., of iron, in combination with oxygon, present
in barley. Barley i.s very rich in phos)ihorio acid, which in
(juantity ranks second of all elements found in the asli of this
plant, silica ranking first—28 fl7 per cent, and stem, &c., 7‘20
per cent. There is more 8uli)huric acid in the seed tlian
chloride of sodium, but less in the stem—8ee<l I'91 per cent ;
stem, &c., 1'09 per cent. Of silica tlie grain has 30'68 per cent ;
and the stem, &c., G8‘50 per cent. The abundance of silica
and potash in the grain is on account of the thick husk
atlhering the kernel. •
Barley belongs to the tilka order.
Starch, Gluten, and Malt Principles in the Barley Plant
A knowledge of the intrinsic value of a plant is e.ssentially
iiooeAsary for a cultivator beforehand, because sucli a know¬
ledge will be his guide in the sale of his produce, and he
M’ill know what kind of reception his produce will find at the i
liamls of the purchasers and consumera ; also he will be in a |
the iiositiou not to be duped and overreaclie<l by them. To
experimenter this knowledge is essentially necessai-y to enable
him to judge of the Results of his experiments, i.e., whether he ,
has succeeded or failed to improve the plant lie li.is cultivated. |
The quantity is nothing, for if it were so, gr.oss would have vied
with grapes, all success lying in quality. The native oultivatoi-s,
as a rule, do not pay attention to the quality of their produce,
hence the extensive degeneration found in the vegetable kingdom
(cultivated) in India. Brooding over this matter, I think a concise
account of the oiganic principles found in the baidey grain (the i
most important part of the plant) will be fomid useful and |
interesting, having already given a detailed account of the ash
constituents of this plant. 1 accordingly proceed to give an
account of what 1 have herein mooted.
The kernel of barley grain, like that of wheat, has two
organic substaiSea, having small percentages of mineral matter,
known to chemists. Vy the name of eiarcA and gluten ; and when
a chemical reaction is produced on them in the process called
malting, other sabetances ore formed denominated malt prin-
ciplea, I will describe each of theee separately.
Starch.
This substance is very abundant in the barley grain, re
sembliug in outward appearance the other starches found in
wheat grain, rice, different pahns, and sevyrnl roots nqd tubers :
on feeling and microscopic examination, however, barley starch
diffeiw in its granules from all other starolie.s. Iterein lies the
microscopic detection made perfect by uhaiuical analysis I)y
which the oonstituonts of the starch is thoroughly, asca^-tained.
Barley starch is a white, soft, powdery substauoa e.asily
separated from the other substance, gluten, by kneailing
the flour in water, i e., the flour is first mads into a lump
by moistening it with water, and then water gnadually added as
kneading proceeds, until the gluten is entiwly Separated from the
starch as a sticky substance, and the starch remains mixed in
the water, gradually suliaidihg, leaving the surface water clear.
This can only lie done by allowing the starch-iihvter to be at
rest for some time. After the starch has subsided, the water
should be drainwl off, the starch collected, dried artificiivliy, if
accuracy is required, nt 7o'’C , or under a strong sun, woiglied,
again dried, and again weiglied, repeating this procediii'e
several tunes until the weiglit bo found unaltered. The La.st
weigtit indicates the quantity of starch in the flour.
It should be noted that starch does not contain an atom of
nitrogen ; the abundance of starch in the barley grain, therefore,
forms no criterion of barley-corn as food-grain.
Gluten.
Gluten is the other suljstanco found in the barley gi’ain, and
is the one on which depends the intrinsic value of barley os
food-gr.ain. It is a nitrogenous or blood-jirodncing principle
existing in the largest quantity in wheat grain, hence the value
of wheat over all other coreal grains as food for man
and animals. Starch alone cannot nourish the animal Imdy, for
though the large qiiantitv of carbon" present in starch is
essentially necessary for animal economy in tlie formation
of bile, without wliich no chylificat.ion can take place,
yet without gluten no Wood and mnaeloM, (fee., can bo
formed. TImiee, nature has proviiled this latter substance very
extensively in all food-yielding plants. Another value ot gluten
is that without it no broad ciin be nia<lo ; and according to Mr.
Bumas, unless more than 34 par cent of gluten exists in the
flour, it is impossihle to make liread. The intrinsic value of
barley tlierefore consists in the quantity of gluten it has ; tlie
more gluten the, more valualilo it is : the leas, the less. Up to
the pre.sent tine chemists have not fixed the poroeiitago of
gluten which should exist in the cereal grain as a commercial
standard of intrinsic value of the grain. For barley I think 2!>
jw cent, of gluten ought to lie considered as maximum ; and GO
j-ior cent for wheat. Gluten is obtained in the manner desci'ibed
above : also dried and weighed like starch. Every eximriiiientor
and cultivator should try to increase the quantity of gUiteu in
barley and whe,at grain. T find Indian barleys very doticient
in gluten, not exceeding 10 ])er cent; also a variety of wheat
known by the name o{ Jamnaparl, a variety of the red han
wheat, grown in tracts of Upper India bordering the .Jumna,
hence the name. Tliis wheat scarcely has more than 11 per
cent of gluten, on which account it makes very bad breail
cannot lie stretched and .shaped properly, and of course is not
nutritious. It doe.s not find a ready market in any part of Upjier
India.
There are chemical elaborate methcsls of separating starch
ami gluten, and for ascertaining their weight. They are
tedious and impractinabie to those who are not Analytical
chemists. Tlie processes heroin described are very simple, not
very acoiunte in the result, but perfectly within reach of every
one and everywhere.
Malt Principles.
By fermentation,starch and gluten bf barley corn are converted
into now substances, ta'z., cHtpoew^ws, prorsiii compound, dietate,
alu)lett«rin, foU, and acid. Those are tlie organic priucipiu found in
beer and poi-ter, to which are added severjJ others by the ad¬
mixture of foreign substances, of which a small percentage of al¬
cohol is always present. Beer and porter are slightly nourisbing,
stomachic ; and intoxioatingj if taken in large quantitloB ; batm-
1«SB drinks or 'beyei-ages, valuable for females wbq nofM their
132
THE INDIAN AGRJCUDTUEIST. April 2, 1883.
own or others’ children. The ther.i,|ieutic properties of these
beverages is anti-tawbutie, and are crtensively prescribed by the
medical profeasion. These are costly drinks, ^rowover.
Ploughing aud weeding, same as for wheat, Indian Af/i’irultiirh't,
Vol. vn, No. 4 , p. 117.
Beds and water channels, same os for wheat, Indian Agrionl-
tnriit, Vol. VII, No. 4, p. 1)7.
Selection of .seed, same as for wheat, Indian Affrwvliuriat,
Vol. VII, No,* 4, p. 117.
Sowing, samo as for wheat, Indian Aprimtliurijf, Vol, VU, No.
4, pp, 117-118.
Quantity of seed required for sowing one acre, same os for wheat,
Indian AgricuUwritt, Vol, VII, No. 4, p. 118.
Habits of growth and remedy, same os for wheat, Indian Agri-
cuUnrift, Vol, VU, No. 4, p. 118.
Irrigation, same os for wheat, Indian AgrUmUnri-tt, Vol. VII,
No. 4, p. 118.
HABrESTIiro.
Like the wheat, barley ear is not provided with glume os an
outer protection of the grain, and therefore, if the grain be
thoroughly dry on the ear, it is apt to fall down by the
slighWst touch or even by the action of wind, or by the fall
of rain, and get lost. Hence barley requires harvesting at a
lime when the grain, though thoroughly mature, is not perfectly
dry. Tl)e best time for harvesting this plant is early in the
mormng or when the sun is down ; should, however, the ear
be found in a state capable of being harvested during the day,
baj-ley might be harvested even during the day. If the sheaf
be broken, wheat cannot get lost, but bailey will : the greatest
cai-e is therefore necessary both in tlie time and in the manner
bai'ley is harvested. It must be rcmemljered that no rough
handling will do for barley. A bunch of bm-ley jdant, in the
lightest manner, should be drawn with the sickle, firmly
grasped with the left hand, and with the right hand
cleanly cut out as near the gi'ound as possible without
distiu-bing other plants. This can very easily be accom¬
plished by means of a very shari) sickle. The native
sickle cannot do it. It is a blunt, badly-shajied tool made of
maleable iron, with a rough handle. Tlie sickle should be of a
semi-oiraular shape, manufactured of pure steel, coie-hardmed,
and the cutting pai-t formed and shaqiened like a barber.s’
razor.
The produce of oue bunch (selected) of barley producefl by
me at Sitapore sudder station during the ruhhee season 1871-72
which having received, in every respect, the kind of cultiva¬
tion described in this article, contained 100 sheaves, each slieaf
on an average, containing 60 grains. This produce was tho¬
roughly dried, grain separated, and then weighed. The weight
was found to bo as follows :—
Cb, Tolas.
Seed or grain. ... ... 3 _ j.gy
Traves, stem, etc. ... ... 2 2•602
Based on these figures the produce of one acre will be found
from the calculations given below ;—
C2i. T. Md«. a Ch. T. ftt.
“(288 X 1,820) X (3-1- (l7)»l,080-15-lS-2' 2«;lfi2,9C8'2,W,t»
IxiavM, Stem, etc. »t288 x 1,820) x (2-2-J02)=l,4e5. O- 8 - •32-122,213-8,so,800
TotaL .. 8,<85-25.8.2-(12-2S6|l!r2-l,80,22l)
These should be accepted as reliable maximum data as guide
for calculation of manure for one acre of barley on the formula
given by Baron Liebig {vide heading, Application of Manure, of
the wheat article. Indian AgricultwrUt, Vol, VII., No. 4 ,
p. 117).
O. L. BEYCE.
AGBICULTUKAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA.
rnHB Aonual General Meeting was held on Thursday, the Ist
JL_ March 1S68* *
H. OottswXLXt) BUq.i Prettidont, in the Chair.
The Frooeedingi of the last (January) meeting was read and
ooufinned. <
The following gentlemeai were oleoted Memben t—
The names of the following, gontleir. n were submitted as
desirous of joining the Soriety t~
SB. M. Moriiaim, Esq., Ilwohant, Ocdcutta,—proposed by Mr.
W, H. Cogswell, sooondsd by Mr. S. H. Bobinson.
MnnihiMado LaJl, Zemindar, Munsif of Mirsaporci,—proposed
by the Raja of KuntH, seconded by the fieeretary.
Major K. C. Corliyns, Btputy Commisslpuer, Shahpore Bistriet,
Punjab,—proposed by the Secretary, seconded by Mr. J. p;
Macbaohlan.
Major F, E. Lowis, EA., Caloutta,—proposed by the President,
seconded by the Secretary.
R. E. Waller, Esq., Morohont, Calcutta,—proposed by Mr. S.
CressweE seconded by Mr. E Blechynden.
Miss BeMomet, Booteriah Tea Garden, Barjaelittg,—proposed by
Mr. John Stolkartt, aeoouded by Raja S. A. Ghoesil.
B. J. Zemin, Esq., Caloutta,—propoesd by Dr. G. R. Perris,
seconded by the Secretary.
H. J. Joakim, Esq., Merchant, Calcutta,—proposed by Br.
Ferris, seconded by the Secretary.
Sejointd —Br. G. R. Perris, Calcutta ; Mr. R, J. Carberry,
Caloutta ; Mr. A. G. Watson, Mr. T, M. Francis, and the Pro.
prictors of the Jugdlspore Estate, Beheea.
AfriTOAI. RltPOBT.
The Report for 1882 from the Council was read. The Report
first enters into details connected with the internal economy of
the Society (showing that the number of Native Membere is loss
titan one-sixth of the entire list,) and its financial operations, and
closes with notice of flower show, garden, Jto. The following are
extracts on these latter topics :—
“ The usual .Annual Flower Show was held on the 3rd February,
and woe equally as sneoessful as that of the previous year, indeed
more so in one respect, as the quality of the plants submitted
especially of haudeomo foUaged ones, was superior to any prevlou.s
exhibition. The number of visitors (1,6()0) was beyond tlie
average. The space allotted to each class of plants being extended,
admitted of abettor arrangement than previously : more time was
also allowed for the introduction of specimens. The sum of Rs. 4M
was awarded from the general fund besides Rs. 67 from the sum
of Rs. 100 placed at the disposal of tho Judges by the President.
" garden.—The stock of fruit grafts, espemally of certain kinds
most in demand, has been much Vioreaaed during the post year,
which wUl admit of a much larger distribution than formerly ;
it is anticipated that the supply will prove fully equal to the do-
tnand. This remark is also applicable to Roses, a class of
plants for which the demand greatly exceeds that of any other
kinds. Some of tlie newest varieties have been recently intruUuoed
which will be in course of distribution during 1883-84.
Much time and labor have recently boon devoted towards a
general clearing up of the gurdon and the removal of several
large trees and shrubs, of whioli there were many spccimouN
occupying a largo space of ground which has been better utilized
by Rose and other plants much in demand. The majority of these
trees wore introduced ten years ago to fill up vacant spaces on
the formation of the garden.
“ The distribution of plants is not equal to last year whioli indeed
may bo considered an exceptional year ; bnt it has not fallen short
of previous years. Rather more than ten thousand ornamental
plants have boon issued to momb'ors and the public, beside.s
oertaiu economic plants aud cuttings; of fruit grafts two
thousand five hunurod have boon sent out. A good many plants
to cotton, fibres, and the introduotlou of superior kinds of potatoes
These matters and many others having been iutroduced into the
monthly procoodiuge need not be reproduced here, except to noti¬
fy the fact that in .Tilly last the President proimrod a full and
carefully worded circular letter which was sent to os many as
eighty native noblemen, chiefs, and lauded proprietors, throughout
the country, together with a copy of the lost published number of
the Journal. I’he Council liave to notify, with much regret,
that as yot three only have responded to tho suggestion that
their names should be enrolled on the list of membere. Tlie
Council regret to have to reiterate the fact that, while education
Is rapidly spreading throughout India, the largo body of tuteUigoiit
Hindoos aud Mahomedans have not, with very few exoep^ns
shown that interest in the proceedings of the Society which might
naturally bo exiieoted from a class who would derive the uwst
benefit. The Council would also be glad if the European mombers
would endeavour to induce their friends to join, so os to fill up
tho gap annually caused by deaths, resignations, and departures
from tho country. It has bean more thou once observed in previous
ropoi-ts that if each member would undertake to odd one friend
annually to the list, that list would soon bo doubled. Tlio Couuoil
would, in oouolusion, bring tbis fact again to the notice of members
in town and oountsy and urge their hearty oo-operaUon."
At the oonoluslon of the reading of the Report, the President
addressed the meeting as follows :—
Gentlemen,—I feel that the Annual Report for last year just
read, embraces so much and deals so fully with the afialrs 0 } the
Society, that very little is left for me in the way of comment
thereon, hutthero are a few points on which I wish to touch ns
briefly as possible.
The Report alludes to the efforts we have madetoraaoh the
largo number of native noblamen and wealthy lEfluentlal landed
proprietors to join onr Society,
It h ahoira that there were eighty of them addressed, aud that
out of that lai^ number,throe only have responded favourable to
our representations, '
Surprke only at such a result does not convey my feeling,
which is also one of great regret tliat snofi Indiflferance
eliwaotodze# those who should be foremost in fostering a
Ap^ 2, 1883,
THE INDI^ AGRICULTUEIST.
Society) whole atm Ond ohjeot are the fnrthomuoo o{ laadhol4|K’
faitereati) -io' the bnproeement at their eitatei, by a higher fed 1
better ouitivatloii of their lead, by the uae of well leleoced
leads, Mtd as a aatoral resnlt, a better and larger yield Of orops, i
and a riober harvest to themselves and to their tenants. i
It U doubly disappointing when we think that among etioh ^
gentlemen there is no lacfi of leisure, means, and ability, and
douhtleis in many oases, the taste and application ueeufnl to
devote to saoh objeuts, with mooessfal i-esutts ; and although I
am at a loss to understand such apathy, I still look to that
w^tby community with a feeling of confidence that ainongst their
fixed resident ranks, many may be yet influenced to join ns and
take an active part In the great and good work initiated and
proseonted with seal by a few, whose good example shonld be
followed, for they have oomiiarativoly but a passing Interest in this
country, whilst those to whom I allude are In their native land,
and with every inducement to come forward and take on active
part.
This Is the more necessary, tor soolally, a great change has
taken place. The European has become more than over u liird
of passage than formerly. With some exceptions, men are less
public spfrlted and have less time at their disposal. The battle
of life Is greater, competition is keener, and they have less time
to give for the benefit of public institutions; but independently
of these facts, there is certainly much less public spirit generally,
and not that inclination to devote a portion of what is taken
from the country for the benefit of the country This, I think,
holds good with few exceptions, among the higher classea of the.
official community, who draw so largely from the State. The more
rapid communication with Europe has no doubt greatly contributed
to this state of things. In former yoais a young man entering
the service of Oovernmont comnieuced life under the impresaion
that bo would prob.ably liavo to work for a certain length of
time in the comitry uiidistuj'bed, aud that ho should give a
portion of such time, iudcpcudently of official work, towards the
benefit of tlio-su among whom his lot was oast. This fooling was
shared by military men in civil aud political employ, as well as
by civilians generally ; now, the object appears to bo to ondenvour
to aecnmulato wealth and to retire on as early a date as possible,
and all our public Institutions suffer more or less fi’om tills state
of things; bonce the greater noccssity for the native wealthy
landed proprietors aud othe* to como forward and take their
place, and stand in our ranks, and become lutmoated in such work
as would redound to their own credit, and whilst forwarding their
own interests, they would benefit thoir ooniitry nt larg".
The Society’s records are flooded with valuable infonnaliou,
>' and bear testimony to the great bonoCts this country has derived
from Its labours and Influence durbig the past half-ocutury : records
of good work done which cannot ho forgotten, and requiring
only the support and ouoourngment of those to whom I Imvo
alluded ns an additional reform, or adaptation, to meet the new
times and enable the .Society to iuereuse In the number of its
adhorcuts, in its wealth, and in its great iufluonoe, and for the
accomplishment of which I appe-al to all those who' have its in-,
terests at heart to continue unflagging thoir efforts to further
its prosperity.
With the.se observations I have pleasure in propo.sing the adop-
tiou of the report.
The report was unanimously adopted, and the boat thanks
of the meeting wore voted to the President for his^ interest¬
ing aud appropriate remarks. The election of officers and
council was next entered on with the following results ;—
i'lvs/f/cH/.—Mr. W. M. Cogswell. ^
—Kaia Suttyammd Cliosal Bahadoor, Mr. W,
Stulkartt, Mr. 11. A. Firth, and Baboo Protapa Chnudra Ghosa,
Serrirtaiy. —Mr. A. H. Blechynden.
Council, —Mr. J. E. AtacLochlau, Mr. K. Blocbyndon, Dr G.
King, Dr. 8. Lynch, Baboo Peary Cliand Jfittra, Mr. 8, Cress-
woll, Maharaja of Coooh Behar, Mr. 0. L. Kemp, Mr. 8. H.
Biobinson, Baboo .loykissou Mookorjoe, Mr. John Martin, and
Mr. 0, Cmickahank.
IIomi-Flobiocltpkal Exuimtiok.
The reports of the judges on the annual show of vegetab^s,
fruits, and flowers were submitted os follows :—(Judges : Dr.
8. Lynch, Mr, W. Stalkartt, and Mr. John Lyiiain).
Jiartiailtural .—The exhibits for which prises were oRered on
this occasion was on a comparatively limited scale on account
of the limited spaoo at disposal, not more than H kinds of
vegetables and twelve of fruits. The quantity in each basket
was also limited. Notwithstanding the aimounuoincnt being
widely notified to the intending competitors, many baskets con-
HuAeuHural. —(Judges: Dr. O. King, Messrs. G. L. Kemp, If. A.
rirth, and Raja Suttyanund Qbosal Bahadoor.)
The coUeotfon of plants was rather less than last year, hut
the quality of those exhibited was equally as good, and In amne
instances bettw. The cAiinpotltion was much the same —1»
gardens of whom H gaiutHl prises. There was a good collection of
handsome foliage plants, notably erotons, dieffouoachis dracaui.-is,
marantaa, antlmriiun, nralias, begonias, irtolndlng several in'w
kinds. The colleotiou of cut flowers, especially roses, was cxcellrnt
—far superior to last year. One colleotiou of" roses from tho
garden of Mr. 0. A. Eorbes at Earraokpore deserves special
menMon, but no pri /,0 could bo awarded to it as it was sent too into.
Among tho annnals u’cro good examples of asters, pansies,
violets, and verbenas.
'The Royal Botanic Garden contributed a very Intcrestin g and
much larger collection than last year', occupying seven stands, of
three tiers each and UJ feet in length. Of many fine plants the
following may be mentioned as amotrg the newer—namely, piper
mngnifioum, authmium, warooqueanum, dlolfenbachia marroorata,'
D. parlatoroi, D. maculosa, U. Braxilicnis, aralia veitchii, A.
olegontissima, selagluella mognlflca, S. poradoxa, droeama
bontliami, philodendron carder], heliconia aureo-strlata, phyl-
lagathis rotnudifolia, liudsayn pectinata, sphaorostemma mar-
moratn, alloraorphia griffithii, uiuhorisaudra musaloa, Wenesto
moluooana, ptychospcrina singaporoirsis, scIiUmattoglottis
lougispatho, and oentrasolouia anrea.
There were throe commpctltors for tho “ (irant Silver uredal''
for the boat collection of plants or flowers of any number of
kinds, Tlio modal wn.9 awarded to Baboo 8. 1’. Cliattorjeo.
Extra prizes to tlio value of Ks. 61 were awarded from the
sum (Rs. 100) placed again by tlio I’rcsldcnt at disposal of tlio
judges for rare or well grown plants not iiiohuled in the sohedute,
and Ra. 'Ill were awarded for the bitter. A detailed list is
hereto auiiexod.
The attendance of visitors was less Ilian last year, attributable
probably to its not being a public holiday Thoir ExooUonoles tho
Viceroy and tho Marchioness of Kipon, oud his Honor the
Lienteuaut-Goveruor and Mrs. Kivers Thompson honoured the
show with their presi-iiue.
The thanks of the Society are duo to Culoiiul McNair and tho
Oilioors of the 4th Regiment N. 1., for tlio sorvleos of their band on
tho occasion.
A report from the Gardim Gommittee. was introduced and
adopted in respect to proviBion of vegetable, flower, oiid agri-
cultural seeds for next Beiison from Europe, Amurioa, and
Australia.
Maizi; ok Jniiian--(!Cibn.
Tho Scoret.'iry subinitlcd the billowing few notes wbieh bo
had prepared in conneoliuii with some cob.s or ears of ludian-corn,
which bad bcou recently sent down from Tirhoot :—
Goloiiol Money, the jilauugcr of the Diirblmnga Raj, lias soiit
us two cobs of maize raised ill till! Itiij Garden. It apponre from
tliuir size and general appearance that tliey tiave been raised
from imported seed : prolialdy from the kind we import from
Philadelpliia as “ Yellow Canada,” to whiob they am fully equal
in every respect. (I placed those on the table at our sliow on
theltli February, aud so highly were they appreciated that
they were stolen by one of our many visitors, tho sheaths
only being left bnhiml.] I have requested Colonel Money to Inform
iiB of the stock from wlienoo doriied, the soil in which grown,
aud the manure employed. If maize of this character can ho
raised iii India in nny qu.mtity, we should bo able to compote
successfully with tho Uuited .Status m tho English market.
It would oppear that tho quantity of Iiidian-corn taken by
England from abroad, ohiefly from America, in 1881, was upwards
of .83 millions owts,, or considerably more than half tho total im¬
ports of wheat. In n recent artiole in the Enyliihmaii it is stated
that “ the ehip))iiig of ludian-coni In mcreliantablc quantities
began in the latter end of December last, but was discontinued
early this mouth (February), o.wiug to tho want of supplies of a
Riiffioieiitly good qiiolity. Diiriiig this sliort period betweeu twelve
and thirteen thousand bags were shipped i oud wlien tlio now
! season beglus next month, a very large Imsiuoss is expeo,ted.
This Inisiuess con, however, be but insiguii.cant compared with
i what it might bo if the Government of tlu eouutry were properly
; alive to its true interest in establishing cheap ooinmunicatioiis
[ between the uoast and such rich, but isolated, tracts, os tlie greater
t part of tho Central Provinces, wblcli ore alone capable of sup-
; plying all tho Indion-oorn England remiiros, without any serious
- rise of priooB, Hero is a potential addition to our export trade
, ofnrobablv not less than five millions sterling per annum, which
3 rrtVu%r SraShT-d =Tther kh^ds Of nrW“not loss'
“^^ba^st^el^NntSd rt!>‘"rien?r*gh\re'‘o^h 4teA^o'^;: im to the eanahlUtio^f the
tnenumneroi eaen amu, . ji^sod in those districts. At (Colonel Dixon’s request tho Sooioty
"'Among^the v^etables, there was a marked improvomenf in forwarded him large quantities of J “J
eelorv Oarrota ud potatoes were also well represented, and sevcrsl consooutive years which he reported had greatly Improved
Sike^mrt or.ea^nb Tomates and beet were excellent, the character of their stock Whether it has since deteriorated I am
Peas and'dtenoh beans were fairly good. unable to soy, but am makbig enquiries thereon.
In the list o» fruits, bael showed well ; there were soma good The outer sheaths on those cobs, of which it will bo seen tbwe
spoolmons of pine-apples, papyas, and gnavas-thoiigh out of are many enveloping each cob, and which are now either thiown
iwon. Aspe^priM wasawarded for a small Chhio orange away or used fuel, would most probably prove avalnablo ad-
iOMon. A speoUi m
tree laden with fmft.
IfV vw
aadB*i61{9iirQi1»,
moi’ket gardeners
izea were awarded
ere for vegetAblos
dition to onr stock of iiapor-maktng matenojs.
Whilst penning those few notes, I have received a tuwful con¬
tribution from Capt^ Pogson, on “MaisoM a pftpot-pxoduoer,”
which I introduce hero in oonneotion with the above remarks,
K M to rwdoi ont iaf«iiiMti«a moio oomplftfi pd iattioatingi
135
April 2,1BB». AG^ftrOTO’PtmijSa'.
TrftOtt 10 {HTOteoted form ai tiis preseitt time a small proportton the moat general aoooptation, wHl be briefly dosortbod in the fol-
ottlmagricBitaral area of Kbrthem India. 1 lowing paragraphs.
3. The hlatory of'the famine and dronghte whloli have ooohr^ 8. The general oontrol and administration of the mcasnree
dating the present oentnry, and espeoially in late years, U replete wltii which this Resolution is oonoemed ehould, in the opinion of
with painful oooonnte of the wholesale destmotion of cattle by the Government of India, bo primarily in the hands of the local
starvation and the failure of the fodder snj^ty. It may l>o donbt- oiilcers, vh., the Commissioner, the District OIBoer, and his
ful whether the loss which the agricultural population has thus subordluatcs In chaigo of sub-divisions. The official ohanucl
snstained has always been fully approolated. At a time when they through which the Local Govommeut would oommunioate with the
have been deprived by a failure of the rains of a gi-eat portion of divisional and district officers would be the Agrfbultural Depart-
the produce of one or more seasons, they have also had taken from ment, wbioh would he roBponsiblo for providing the Government
them, in the dostruotlon of their plough-labour, the means of advice and Information, and for maintaining continuons
rooonping^eir loss in snooeeding years. The late famine of 1877 action. The actual management of the lauds sot opart for the
has furnished many examples of thb kind, Aoconnts have reached supply of fodder and fuel would be placed in the hands of Forest
the Government of Tl1/^4a of the serious deterioratinu of the agrioul- officials, who idoue oau bo expected to establish and maintain
tuial proup^ty of many tracts which, there is every reason to without Interruption a scientific system of treatment.
boHeve, would now be in a flourishing condition if the cattle could 9. In order to satisfy the above conditions, it would bo nocos-
havo been saved. On the other hand, instanoes have boon brought «ary, in each district or division in which operations arc likely to
forward In which tbo existence of a suffleiont area of grazing land [ be suffiCloiitJy extensive to require scioutifio management, that an
has, In distriots moat affooted by the drought, both preserved the officer of tlio Forest Department should, whan financial circum-
oattle and scoured the agricultural population from prospective loss, atauoes mlmit of this being done, be placed under the orders of the
4. It is desirable at this point to explain that the term “ grazing district or divisional officer. Ho would work entirely under the
land ” as her^ used, is not to be restricted to land which provides orders of tiro Civil officer, who would, however, refer tiueations of
nothing but the ordinary pasture of a grass plain. Such land is a professional or technical character for the advice of the chief
often aSeotod just os sorlonsly by a drought as the unirrlgated'aroa Forest Officer of the province or circle. In many districts the
of cultivated land. Grazing land is here intended to include necessary staff exists already, hnt in other now posts will liavo to
those wooded tracts and jungles which provide hashes, trees, and bo created,
herbs from which cattle can obtain a plentiful supply of fodder, It must not, however, bo expected that aiTsngcmonts can bo
•von at times when the grass on open ground is dried up and dos- made, financially or otherwise, under which every district or divi-
troyed. There are many trees and many bushes wliich, drawing si<m can, in every part of tlie Upper Provinces in which the
ujmn a supply of moisture below the surface of the earth, can main- measuro would bo useful, bo supplied with a separate Forest Office
tain their life and vigour when the shallow-rooted crops and grasses for the work contemplated. It would, indeed, be extremely unwise
arc parched and withered. And tills is not all. It lias also to enter upon any expensive organisation until much more expo-
boon ascertained that the grass itself which, on an exposed rieuoe and information has liuou acquired. It is only, therefore, for
surface, would succumb to the^lronght, is, in the cooler atmosphere those regions in which gro/ing lands arc disappearing at a rapid
occasioned tiy the sliiido and protection of trees and shrubs, saved rate, or m which history bos shown tliat draught causes oxtensivo
from destruction, destruction of cattle, that any application for the services of
As. moreover, there is, apart from the question of fodder, a ofiioials could at present lie entertained. It will probably
dUtinot agricultural advantage in maintaining throughout the plains b® oonsblerod sufficient if at first a Forest official is attached as as-
of Upper India a supply of wood for fuel and domestic purposes, «i»tant to the Commissioner in one or two of tho divisions in each
the term used In the following paragraphs of this Rosolutlon to P^vlnoo in which protection is most required.
designate grazing lands will bo that of Fuel and Fodder Resorvos. 10. In the meanwhile the serious duty will devolve upon
6. A further effect of the absence of proper food after a.period tho district officers of ascertaining how far the cattle nood
lit drought is that tho cattle, which have been starved for weeks, protection, and tho extent of laud, wliothor tho property
feed too greedily on the young shoots of tho millets that are sown of Government or purchasable from laml-ownors at a
with the first showers of rain, or on tho coarse grass that springs up reasonable price, which can be niado available for fuel and
on tho roturn of tho monsoon. The excess of food to which they fodder reserves. For this purpose an airalysls of every district
have been uuaoouatomed Induces a rapidly fatal disease which has should be made by tho local officials which will show its nood for
carried off thousands of auhnals in many parts of India. protection against drought.aud tho extent to which loud is available
6. Instances are quoted in which cattle perished in largo numbers fodder rcaorvea. They may also bo directed to
from want of fodder in tho droughts of 1877 and 1880; while, on onquiio how land can bo most advantageously scoured for tho
the other hand, oases ore noted in which they were saved by being required purposes in districts whore a sufficient quantity of Gov-
fed on bushes and leaves of trees. In Rohtak, for example, no orument loud la not available, how far the landholders themselves
less than 250,000 beasts arc said to have died, or about ono-half of or local boards will be able to oo-oporato with the Govormnent in
tho whole oattlo of the district. This was in 1877. In 1880, the matter, and at what cost suitable areas can be procured.
15,000 cattle are reported to have perished in ths district of 11. The Agricultural Department will probably at present ho
Jhansi, while many others were only preserved by the bushes in the most usofnliy employed in ascertaining, by actual experiment, and
ravines or by fodder obtained from trees. In tho same year large in consultation with tho Forest Department, what are the best means
numbers of cattle wore in tho Allahabad Division kept alivo by of bringing waste lands into a condition in which they can most
being taken to tho forest tracts of Handa, while throughout tho economically provide a supply of fodder hi a year of drought, and
division all tho available trees wore stripped of thoir loavos. in what way they can in ordinary years bo most profitably employed.
“ Thero is no need,” writes the Commissioner in quoting from his The Department would also suporintuud.in ooriospoiidcuce with Com-
distriot reports, “ to multiply these extracts, all of which toll misaionore, the analysis roqtiirod by tho preceding paragraph, and
precisely the same story.” would review for the local Govemmonte tho reports received from
7. The examples to which roforenoo lias now boon made ore each division. Tho same department may also osoortain whether any
Bufflefent proof of the ueoessity of taking some action for tho system of stacking hay or storing fodder oaii ho ostablishod, or
protection of tho oattlo of the country against drought, whether it may not bo useful to close grazing resorvos for a portion
Tho loots brought forward seem to prove that at present °f ysar, espoofally when other fodder, such os tho stubblo of
the agrlouloural population will not or cannot thomselvos nowly-veaiiod crops. Is aval’able. For if gross reserves are only
take sufficient prooautions to provide against exceptional thrown open when no other food U avallablo, tho gross will have the
ocourrenoes. They trust to oooldont or to assistonoo from requUito opportunity to make head, and wUl thus provide a much
the Government. But In this matter little or no help con bo afford- more ample supply of fodder than if exposed continually to dasnltory
ed, unless systematic arrangements are made in advanoo, and con- grazing- Enquiries of this kind will fall within tho scope of the
tinuously maintained, under which a supply of fodder in a year of Agricultural Department.
drought may be tfecured* It U nooeuary, thoreforo, to consider in 12. This Resolution ib not the place in which tho treatment of
what form, extern and continuity cau bo most advantageously es- land n ^uired for conversion into fuel and fodder reserves oan lie
tablUhed ; and it is on this point that tho Guverument of India is considered in any detail. But the opportunity may l>a taken to
inaiaiy doairons of obtaining the advice aud oo-operation of Local give expresalon to the opinion of the Ooveminent of India that
Ooveramenti. little real good oSn be effected unlees tbe reserves aroi at any rate
The general outlines of iiie sohemo which commends itsulf to tho for some years, bn)aght under tho control of Qovomment, and
Government of India as most likely to secure tho desired resultSi systematically protected against tho invasion of goats, oattlo, aud
aud which from enquiries already made appears likely to racct with fire. It appeal's to bo a inattor suaccptiblc of proof that a protected
136 THE INDIAN AGRICULTUKIST. April 2,1883.
area will, beBide* giving aoenrity in a year of dronght, afford ,
over a certain number of ycara a oonsidotably larger amount of
fodder than an unprotected area of otpal extent. It seema
probable that the difference ie aufSoiently great to admit of a hope
that fuel and fodder reeervee can, in a largo number of inatauooe,
Ije made financially snooeesful, The importance of this view
deservati some further e.xamination of the question. The following
illuatratious may therefore bo adduced in support of the view
which has now been brought forward. In his Administration
Report for 1879-80, the Inspector-Ocneral of Forests shows In the
following words the results Of protecting grazing land :
“In ail except the most arid tracts, or where denudation has
been complete and of long standing, mere protection, aid ed by
sowing and planting in suitable places, has the effect of gradually
clothing the ground with trees and shrubs. What Iiappens is
this,—the old stamps and roots In the ground produce shoots ;
seeds which have lietai lying in the soil, and seeds brought by the
wind, germinate ; the slioots and eoedliiiga, wliich without proteo-
tion would have been destroyed by the fire or o,atL'u by tlio cattle,
grow up ; and wborovor there are sufficient remains of the old forest
growth in the ground, the result is most romarlfablo. The diffl-
oulty consists in tins—that now resorvos must bo formed, and tliat,
during the firat few years, this unavoidably entails some restric¬
tions in the matter of grazing. At first the protootion of the areas
selected must bo absolute, and the pooplo In the viuiiiity can
uoither bo permitted to burn the grass, nor graze their cattlo
in these areas. But the grass which grows up abundantly can
be out, and thus furnishes abundant cattle fodder until ttie forest
is sufficiently advanced to admit of grazing.”
1.9. In Ajmere the results of enclosing areas, hitherto barren,
with tUo object of securing fodder for oattle in times of drought,
are already romarkalde.
“After five years’ conservation tliere is nuioU in tlirso forest
reserves to encourage us ; tlte appearance of tlio hills and country¬
side in those tracts is quite altered, Tlie people even have begun
to recognise the advantage to bo obtained by tho experiment we
have introduced. We have been blessed with another year of
plentilnl rainfallthe niidorgrowth has become in places in
Mairwam neai’ly Impenetrable, and in tlio ravines and valleys
I have boon surprised to soo the number of fine youug trees spring¬
ing up. Our groat enemy now is firo”— Ajm/rt Fm-enl JUport,
1879-80.
(•razing is strictly prohibited, Imt tho villagers are allowed to
out and carry off the gross on pack animals. The c.aHh receipts
arc at present small, imt the boiiotita which tho people indirectly
enjoy from theso reserves are very oonsideraldo.
14. Again, in the North-West Proviueos, various experiments
have for three years been conducted by Ibo Agricultural Depart¬
ment, with tho view of reclaiming ««o>' or n h land—r.e,, land
rendered more or loss nnoulturablo by tho exoeas of salts in tho soil.
It has been found tUot the simple expedient of ouolosure is more
ofiioacious than any otiicr opcialion. The natural grosses which, so
long os the land is acoossiblo to cattle and goals, arc nibbled down
os fast as the young shoots appear, spread in the enclosed areas at
a rapid rate over tho worst land. After two years, experimental
cuttings gave a result of 20 mauiids of good liay per acre —an out¬
turn wliich on a square mile would suffice to feed 1,000 cattlo for
throe months, oxclnsivo of the bushes and trees which, there is
good reason to believe, can bo grown when once tho gross is well
eBtabUshed,
1,1. Tho terrible devastation caused on unprotected land by
sbeep, and the impossibility of ro-coveriug forest and undergrowth
once lost so long os tlio laud is exposed to the grazing of
sheep, is forcibly brouglit out in a late rejwrt by U.
Boppe, Inspector of Fronoli Forests, on the Forc.sts of Scotland,
from which extracts are quoted in Appendix D. His remarks on tlie
greater value of land for purposes of grazing after ouclosnro arc, in
oouneotion which tho suggestions made in paragraphs 11 to 13 of this
Resolution, especially deserving of notice. The present barren condi¬
tion of the greater part of the wastelands of Scotland is attributed
by M. Boppe almost entirely to one animal—the shoop. There is
V017 strong ground for believing that tho goat, which may he said to
take the place of tho sheep in India, has boon the one chief cause of
the present barrenness of large tracts of country in Northern India.
Extensive areas now bare are known to liave been onco covered
with a rich growth, if not of forest, still of scrub and grass that
would, If not destroyed, have formed a rich pasturage; oniuials may
not have been the original cause of tho dlsappoorono^ of the vegeta
tion, but they have been the constant causci vfhioh provonts renewed
growth. No more striking iostanoes, indeed, of the effoot of the
natural recovery which eusuoii when goats and cattlo are excluded
can fje found than in a comparison between theee hlUe in Ajraeve
whi^ have for four yours only bean enclosed, and tboee which
havj remained open to goats and oattle during the same term. Tho
first are covered with on almost tmpenetrahle thicket chiefly 00m-
poeed of shoots edible by oat tie : the second are practically de¬
void of all vegetation, and appear to be mere heaps of rook and
stone.
18. If the conolualouH indicated by the foots and arguments
adduced in tlio preceding paragraplis can be acoepted, tho objec¬
tion wliich lias not unfroquentiy been brought forward to the
occupation of grazing lands on the score of the inoonvenlenco
sulTerod by the adjacent population In being deprived of their
cattle pasture is greatly diminished. The occupation is only
temporary. T he inconvenience which is temporarily oooosioned to
the agricultural population is due to their own action in diminish¬
ing the efficiency of their grazing lands by an improper use of them.
The Government proposes to fio no more tlian restore, and, if
possible, to increase, the efficiency which has been lost. The
measure contemplated will, it is believed, result in a future supply
of fodder, which will bo far larger and far more oertain than that
of which the owners of the cattle have been deprived. In this
view it may be eve n found desirable to attach for oonvorsion into
fuel and foddor roserves land which has been broken np under
plough, but which, as fodder reserves , would bo moro profitable in
preserving cattlo from starvation, than In growing crops which ore
subject to failure in a year of drought.
SELECTIONS.
.SCIENCE IN AimiCULTURE
T here are too many dalfi)lcrs in sciouoc. In regard to the iuoom-
pletc, unoortaiii.and iutricatu laws which relate to agriculture,
and wliicli go to make up wliat may bo regarded as tho science of
this art, tliis is ospcoialiy true. This is a great miaohief and
damage. Not tliat tho mere study of tho science of agriculture or
its consideration I>y farmers can bo in the least harmful or con¬
ducive to anytliiug but good ; but that so many porsous who never
turned a furrow, or sowed a seed, or watnhed a plant grow from
its first sprout to its maturity, and who never fed an animal, or
watclied Its thrift and growth under tho influeuoo of feeding and
managomout, but who hav'a read perhaps one book upon the
subject, or have attended a course at on agricultural college, will
protend to expound this most intricate science with all its profound
and uuiatliomoil depths. And thus they lead men astray who
know no bettor tlian to follow their second-hand ideas, wretcliodly
distorted aud perverse ns they may be, or disgust those who are
bettor ac(juaintod with tho subject, and are able to see tho errors
and blunders and miseonooptions into which those “ writers upon
agrioultuml soioneo ” ignorantly fall.
There is not so mucii of this seen in regard to any other art than
to this “ oi’t of arts.” Science is the handmaid of every art. By
its light and liolp the industries of the world are guided and led.
But there is no other soienco in which there is so much confusion,
aud at the same time so much difference of positive statements and so
muoh disputation as to priuoiples and operations, as in that of agri¬
culture. There are other arts of which ati exact soientifio know¬
ledge is quite as desirable, such os metallurgy, the reduction of
ores, dyeing, tanning, &o., but iu those there are not neatly so many
or 50 groat differences of opinion os in rogord to tho growlli of
plants and tho souroes from which plants derive their substance.
Nor is there any other subject of sclentiflo inquiry In regard to
wliioh so many positive boUofa are so rudely oud completely npset
aud displaced as in this. A study of the history of agrioultnral
chemistry and physiology tiringa to mind the mistakes and errors
of the old alchomists, the founders of tho soionoe of chemistry, os
they groped in the dark, before the dawn of light fell upon them,
aud which were simply truths Iialf learned, and foots only dimly
seen or perhaps not seen at all, but merely reoogidzsd in part by
their effects, \nd as the daylight dawned, and these facts were
viewed in tho full light, and viewed on every side, on^heir rela¬
tions were better understood, knowledge became ooenraw, aud de¬
monstration took the place of opinion and belief. What a olond
of misunderstanding was swept away by the discovery by Didton
of the ultimate constitution of matter, and upon which he founded
his atomic theory ; no longer a theory but a recognized law, al¬
though it is proved only by Indirect and secondary evidence, and
April 2, 1883.
ShpwUhal4 w« truafc tUftt aorae oPoveoleat inathodof
th% Mubplea BaWliifid wtil be <ieviaei|, and that ou
oooaehm' moi^ apace -Ml be allotted to claw ot i
Hie other dbrea made a fair* ahow, but "tlioagh we via! .
Exhibltienk with every latentioii of adding to our kuowledge ^ the
•hbjeotf wo were not able to learn much, and the judging dianot
afiford ue much guldaooe ; probably the Stewards of the aeddoti
were not able to toll the juagea what there was oompetiog. The
judges retoark that ** the specimen of Mauiila bomp aiiown waa dta>
colored aiid weak.** but we notioed a small sample not compc^ag,
exhibited by the Saidapet Farm, which, altbougn extracted by hand
labour and at oonsldorable coat, showed that it is possible to
obtotu good dbro of this kind, and that the great problem Is now to
extract It, in great lengths, eoonoinioariy. The magnificent
specimens of the plant which yields this valuable fibre, mistukou
by many we imagine for common plantain plants, which stood
lust ilisiae the main entrance, showed tliat even in the oUinate of
Madras supplies of the fibre can bo raised, whilst on the West
ooaet it grows luxuriantly and almost without aoy trouble. As
the judges remarked, the show both of green and dry fodder was
very poor, and, oonaidering tho work which has been done nt
Saidapet in this direction, disppoiatiug ; liere, again, tho rule
preventing Government institutions from competing for pid/.es,
prevented public attention from bebig drawn to some excellent
exhibits from our Government Experimental Farm.
In the class devoted to specim and plantation produce, the
arrangements were better, partly because there was not so great a
variety, but chiefly because one of the judges (not a steward) visited
the exhibition before it was opened, and aided in arranging the
Ai'ticles which the overworked stall' were struggling by hook or by
crook to get into something like order in one-mth of the time
necessary to do it satisfactorily. Hero wo noted that no proper
arrangements were made for testing nuch artiolfM ns cannot he
judged by iiispoctiou, cinchona bark, for instance, and we did not
at all envy tho iudges in their labors, fiogardod as a whole, tho
show in this ens^ can only be regarded as fair, an<l wo must
remark that wv regard oilseeds and fibron as l)ciug just oh nmeii
** spoelal protlnce” ns sugarcane, or indigo, and otlier dyoa. There
wore some very fine specimens of sugarcane exhibited, but the
finest specimen came from bsyotid India, and we iiiv glad to hear
that it received tho first prize; its exclusion from a prize would have
been most lU*advised, for we want to know wlmrc the finest produoo
can be grown, just as nin9i\ as to encourage the growtli oi finr
produce in luuia. When it is known where good seed can b^j
obtained, it will be easy to obtain it, and distribute it to our ryots,
in lieu of their own inferior sorts, and whether a bundle of sugar¬
cane comes from tho »Straits SottlementB, or from liellary, it Is
eciimlly deserving of a prize. Encouragement to tho introduction
of good staples in just as important as eneouragemont uC their
growth, and until it is known whence good staples can be pro¬
cured, introduction uanuot prooced. The exhibits of forest
produce were disappointing although sevwial fair coUcctions of
woods were shown ; still, lierc again nothing could bo learnt re’gard
iug their respective costs. Tussa silk cocoons cnnie fairly well to
tho front, and there wore several oKliibita of honey j wliilst Ur.
Shortt’s bee-iiivo attracted a good deal of attention.
Tho division of the exhibition devoted to manufacturos and
misceUaneous articles drew crowds of visitors, but we (|Uoation tlio
advisability of mixing up laces and iiarrows, silk olotlisaud chillies,
In tlm same exhibition; and in this partioular chho, it is vory evident
that the Committee were unabln to cope M'itb the difficulty of dis¬
playing those exliibita, whilst the space available was absurdly
inadequate. Some of the articles included in this section no doubt
j»roperIy appear in an Kgrionltural exUibiHoii, cumbUos, reeled
silk, canvas and gunny, bricks and drain iiipcs, and ropes, but
oth+'is wrn'nitich out of piaoo; and If it is desired to hold exhibi¬
tions of tho local manufactures, tho work should bo done separately,
although perhaps it might be usefully oonnecto<l with an Agricul¬
tural Exhibition. lu tho Hat of puVos for miHccUancous artic!r-s,
there was nothing particularly out of place, but wc fear that theie
was eonsidorablo repetition,* and that exhibits ol tlio same snb-
stanoes might bo made both in this and in the class devoted to
spooial produce. The wool shown was all coarse and inferior, but
not so l^,bnt that a few orosses of good wool-bearing broods would
render It a valuable article for export. In the jaggory also, wo
notice somo excellent exhibits from Salem, but here also no imlicu-
tion was given 08 to the price. Wcalso noticed a small example
of very tolr-looking jaggery, made, we learn, at Saidapet, ou the
usual native system from the juice of the Amber sugar couc, a
variety of the Chinese, iStirtfhum Sarc^tamtum, which sliould encour¬
age any one interested in the matter to attempt the growth of this
crop in the other parts of tho Prosiiloncy, for, if its growth can be
mads saooessful,aud good jaggery made /rom tho juice, there is little
doubt that the sugar trade of tho country w ill bo revolutionised.
Aad now we rauat oeaae from our pleuvant duty of recording
our obaervation on thU, conaidering all tlio dillloultiee to he coiitoD-
d«d with, moat eucoeagful Exhibition. Whilst wu have been unable
to do otherwise than oritielse the defectiveness of tlie arrangciueiits
in several ways, we are quite aware that, lu a pmotioally new midor-
taktog, under untried cirouiustaiices, and with no experience to
■pride them, the Committee have achieved a great deal ; and we
nope that when, in a few years’ time, anotlier exhihtioii is held, tiie
then Conunittee may be oa suooessfiil tu getting together as good a
■how of the manifold productions of the country, and that tlie
minor fi^ta w’e have uotloed may be conoplouons by their absence.
To facilitate this, all tho experience gained now by the Committee,
Htowarda, and Secretary, ahould bu recorded for the guidance of
tboae who may oonie after tliem. Wo hope that the present
Secretary, Mr. W. R. Robertson, M.R.A.C., may have the plea¬
sure of organlalng many mora exhibitions for us l>eforo be vanishes
from tUa aonntry, tho great agricultural wealth of which ho has so
loag been itriving to aevelopo.—i/hdrck Mail,
THE INDIAN AaEICTJLTURIST.
141
LTGNIFfCATIONf AND FI’S TEcn^^tCAL ASPF.CT.s.
O N the 2Sth of January a wper wae road at tho Society of Art
by Mr. C. F. Cross, deaiblg with the anbjeot of the treatment
of wood oud woody fibre for the purpose of manufacture. The
whole (jnestion was handled in an able and interesting manner, but
the poiutb of prtvctioal importance to paper-makers were those
relating, to the processes for treating wood and other resistant
vegetable substances for tho preparation of teper pulp, and the
modWoations of these, which wo can show to follow from what is
known of tho composition of theso fibrous structures. Up to with¬
in a compaiativoly recent period, those processes Imvo oonsistod
uniformly in a drastic treatment with alkaline solutions ; the process
of boiling under pressure with caustic soda, originally applied by
Rontlcdge to esparto, has boon generally extouda<l and adopted,
and is, indeed, the standard method of Geating lignifled aubatmiccs
for paper-making 5 efforts to substitute this process by one based
upon the principle of reduction or antl-oxldatiou have been made
by one or two technologists, who, at the same time, do not appsar
to have approached tho subject from tho same point of view. The
snbject appears to have been developed most oousistontly by Fry
and Kkmaii, and as their labours have and strict referaiioe to the
principles nntler discussion, their tirntment will occupy the prior
place.
Fry commenced the investigation of this suhjoct about 17 years
ago. He was familiar with Houghton’s process, tho objeut of which
was to-throw the work of disiiitegrating tho wood upon the
agencies other than the .-ilk-xli, which hitter it was found could be
propoitionati-ly reiliiced in quantity. Fry was led to investigate
tho roiolving action of tho water alone, mtdor tho guidance, not,
unworthy ot uioiition, of a passagu in Faratlay's “ Mauipulatioii."
which directs tho chemist, in analysing a mixture, to adhere to tho
method of preliminary separation by moans of solvents suooeasivo-
ly apidied, of theso w.ater being tho first. It was found that water,
at sulfiniontiy iii^di temperature and pressure (70tti. of steam),
exerted a very ooiisKlcraiile disintegrating action, sufUciciitly indeed
to produee a pnlp well adaplwl to tins manufaoturo of Itrown
paper : also tiiat (d' the soluble products of resolution a largo pro¬
portion wcio noid boilie.s. 'J'lio following statistics, having referen™
to the two procossus, are wnrtli leproduotlon, tho wood operated
upon being in both eases that of tlie eoiunion Pinim Hi/lreKtrh ; —
(1.) JJiiiiffhloit Pnit'ess. —5,378 parts (dry) wood, yielded 1,787
parts dry pulp--r3.S per end.
(■J.) iVutPi' Pmr.m. —ti,.‘(38 parts (dry ) wood yielded 4,424 parts
dry pulp—70 poi- cent.
Tim process of disintegrating tho wood by mnaiiB of water, at
elevated tcinperuturas, was worked to a practical issue, aud a mill
was put up ut Heigvik, in Mweden, for tho manufac¬
ture of “ lialf stuiP foi in-owu paper. At the same time, invostiga-
tioiis wlioru conlimiously prosecuted with tlio view to increase tlio
solvent action of tlio water, and thus to arrive at a product more
nearly approaching cellulose. It Ijecamo more and morn ovideiit
that the condition of oxidation was especially inimical to this cud,
and to antttgoni.Sd it by the presence of o reducing agent was tlio
purpose which nndorlny tlio next series of experiments. These were
carried out by Ektnait, and ills ciioico of a reducing agent soon fell
upon siilpluu'ous acid, u choice which was perhaps in tlio
first instanco dctenraiicd by a natiival fitness on tlm side of
cconomv, but is now seen to have tin- more important (uuotion con¬
ditioned by tho peculiar relationship of the siiljiliites to the alilohydo
irodocts of rosoiution of liguose. Tiic results Mdiicli followed
roui this modification, tlio removal of a further 20 pur cunt, of tlie
uoiK-elluloae ouiLStitncnts of tlie wood,and the production of a residue
wliicli is liiit little removed from pure cclluloso, are now matters of
conmiou knowledge. Tlie special commercial advantages which
tills procoas ofi'ers, vis., the power to employ a raw material at
£2 3 per ton, from wliicli 40 to 60 per cent, of a pulp is obtainaiile,
suitable for all classes of paper ; tho use of ro-agents of little cost ;
and tho production of n solution of tlie non cellulose constituents,
from wliicli doulitlcss, v.xluablc products are to be isolated,or which,
lit least, will causo no detriment to tho wator-courses into which it
may be run, arc auflicieutly obvious tn have alread.y commanded
coiiaulorablo attention from practical men.
The Kkman process differs from the water process, in the sole
partieular of the presence of the magnesium sulphite ; and tho
hiuutioii of this salt appears to be, not so much to aid positively
in the resoliitlou of tho wood, as to prevoiit the degradation of its
constituents in virtue of tlie reducing activity of its sulphurous acid,
and the property of the entire salt of forming compounds witli
certain of the iion-oellulose constituents which cuter into solution.
In other words, tlin water, at the olovatod temperature ut which it
is employed, appears to be tho effective solvent j but wlille under
oi'diuary etrcuinstaiices, the solvent action readies a limit deter¬
mined by tlie formation (by way of oxidation niul syutlietioal
oomliination) of suoundary doi-ivatives, which resist the solution,
tliese secondary change,* are obviated by the presence of the sulphite
and tlie resolving action of the water is allowed to proceed un¬
impeded.
Other processes for resolving wood by means of solutions of
sulphites have been patented, and worked witli more or less
success. Upon the exclusively practical question of deciding as
to tlie relative merits of these, it is not for ns to speak. We may,
however, inquire from what point of view tlieir originators have
in\ estigated tlie matters, and therefore, so far as a study of tlieir
specifications will permit, to what extent tliey ooutributo to the
establiehraent of the general principle upon which they proceed.
In 1866, Tiighman patented a process for tlie preparation of paper
pulp from wood, by heating with sulphurous acid solution, with or
witLoat a hose, and at a pressure not exoeedlng that of the atmo-
’ aphere. In bis spsolfioatloa hs bnilda upon two propsrtUs of this
142
THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST.
April 2, 1883.
re-agAut w eapeoially ooatribating to the result, vis;—(1) Its bleach¬
ing aottou upon vegetable as omu onlinal tissaes; and (2) its Smoi-
fio action ss on sold upon tns couetitueuts of tbs vood. Tiiis
point of view Involves no general theory of the obetnicsr function
of the sttbstunoes ;^»ratd npon ; and tlte vout of suoosss which
attended Tilgbmsu’s work is raferabto partlv to their somewhat
inode^iitats oonoeptiou of the theoretical oasis of his process.
Augustus Mitsoherllch took out to 1674 a Oerman patent for
treating wood with a solution of bl-sulphits of time, and bis pro¬
cess lias mst with considerable success. This chemist, iu his speci-
iicatioti, wisely avoids tlmoretical nutters; at the oome time, trom
tbs atatemeut Which it contains that the yield of oellutose from
Piniu Sj/leetti-U amounts to 06 per cent, of the weight of the wood,
we are enabled to gather (1) that he oifootsa very Tnoomplete reso¬
lution of the woM substance, not much more, indeed, than by
means of water at the same temperature as that employed by him ;
and (2) that he ottaohee a very dtSereut meaning to the term cellu¬
lose from that wliloh U current amongat chemists who have investi¬
gated this subject from the more purSy theoretical point of view.
We cannot see, therefore, that either of these processes was insti¬
tuted upon a clear recoguition of the chemical relationship of the
re-agents. The process also, which bears the name of Froncke, is
one which addresses itself rather to the inuiii practical end of con¬
verting wood into paper pulp than to the ostablishmcnt of a general
principle, and, therefore, can only oluim from us this passing no¬
tice.
Whatever he the minor iisnes of these several prooesses in their
competition one with the other, they ail ofior a solution of the pro¬
blem of preparing paper-pulp from wood under reducing oonditions,
andooustitute, therefore, together with the many obvious points of
superiority of the produots, both soluble and undissolved, and of
its results, economioally considered, a very strong indictment of
the older methods ; added to which, confirmatory evidence drawn
from the theoretical investigations of the constitution of lignified
tissues, makes the case for Ac sulphite method complete.
We miut not omit to uotioe that there has keeu hitherto a practi¬
cal objection to this proooss, which has been of siiffioiuut weight to
deter many from nclonting it, who were on other grounds fully
satisfied as to its superiority—ttiis lay in the necessity of using a
lead-lined jacketted boiler, a very costly piece of apparatus
in the first instance, and one very liable in tlic next place
to get out of order by displaceineut of the lining, and thus
to oauBO serious interruptions. It has only recently become
known to Aose engaged in developing this prooess that a metal
has been in use now for several years, fu tlie proooss of manufactur¬
ing glucose, which resists the action of dilute sulplmiic acid boiling
under pressure, and fulfils all the conditions demanded by tlie
sulphite process for wood-pulp. Its adoption removes tlie only
sanouB objootlon which could he urged against the many advantages
wiiicU it ofiors.
In the ousuliig dkoussion, tlie Chairman said Mr. Cross outitlcd
his paper “ Tcohnical Aspects of Liguifioation," hut it was maiuly
directed to the set of changes which occurred iu “ deliguitlcation.'’
The point mainly to bo disciHsed was the success of the various
processes to whioli iie had referred for converting sucli a very coiri-
mou and clicap material as ordinary wood into paper. 1'lie cliicf
questions of interest were the character of tlic fiin e produced by the
various processes, tlie yield, the cost, and tiio use iicsdo ot the
sulphites to wlilch the author liad alluded. Althougli, uo doubt,
sulphites generally would exercise a protecting action cliomists
knew that often very iniiiute difi'erences, sucli as would exist
between the various sulpliites, might be of most material importauce
in 0 'ses of this kind,
Mr, George Fry said tlicre was one point to wliioli Mr. Cross
had not referred, on which lie iniglit say a word. Ho wanted to
satisfy liiinself some years ago that tlie chlorine process was actual¬
ly a process of oxidation ; ho tlioreforo made tlie following
experiment. Ho treated wood witli water at liigh iirossure, and
after washing the fllire thoroughly, obtained tlio brown pulp shown
on Ae table ; be Aen took tins pulp and treated it with a dilute
solution of nitric acid, and warmed it gently ; lie tlius got an
oxidation of tlie brown oolouriiig matter by the decomposition of
the nitric acid. He then treated the pulp with an alkali, ami wasli-
ed away tliat part of tlie encrusting matter which w.xs soluble, and
by repeating the process several times, got at lost a cellulose whicli
was virtually pure but not white j it was a grey colour : under the
mioroscope it appeared colourless ; and iu order to produce tlie
white colour sliown iu the other specimen it had to he treated with
ohiorlue. That was an interesting experiment, as sliowing clearly
that the solubility of the euorustiug matter was purely due to
oxidation. As to the yield of pulp by tlie difiereut processes, Mr.
Cross bad told them tliat if wood were boiled with a caustic alkali,
at high pressure, you got, in the main, a yield of 33 per oout. He
was interested to see tlie result if ho first boiled the wood in
water at liigh pressure and afterwards treated at the high
pressure with caustlo alkali ; lie should liave obtained tiio
same quantity of oclluloso wliieli lie would have obtained if lie had
treated tlie wood direct w'itli tlie caustic alkali, but lie found to
his surprise tliat the yield obtained was ooiisiilerably less, being uot
more than 2fi or 26 pur cent. By the present process, however, they
obtained a yield of sonietliing like 48 to 50 per cent. He woe, there¬
fore, of opinion that iu both the alkali prouess, and in tlie process
of first boiling with water, and then treatment witli alkali, there
was a solution of the ueUulosc iu seme way or other.
The following lottor ou tlie subject of Mr. Cress's lecture on
“ Liguificattou,’ appears in the Sorlety qf Arts Journal fur the 0th
February :—
“1 regret much that I was unable to be present at Mr. Cross’s
lecture, the report of n Ulch 1 liave read witli grai^t iuterest, as the
subject discussed will, without doubt, have a most importaut iu-
fiuenoe on.Ae fntuto of our paper trade. Mr. Cross referred to me
M orlgloiUog A« procosR of boiling under pressure with caustic
fM applied to eeparto; tUs is not ooneotiM sono of sny seivotal
^ _..its opeoify higii pressure, but As ooatrary; ooiAor have I
smi^yodbigh preautresioois Ae AAoduotion of eetMurto to Ac
ttaj* in ISll, up to Ae pnossint tbne, during whtoh I havo been
trocAig from 190 to 160 tons of oeparto ursiekly. Indeed, 1 do not
coueider Aat hiahproasiire is required for Ae Aeatmeat of esparto
or ubrous materiM of a similar Aaraoter t and alAongh I am aware
th£t high preseure is employed fay some paper>makers,Tts advantsges
are very questionable j certainly ae good results are Atalnable by low
or atmospheric pressure. The case is different wfth wood and oAer
vegetable snhstances of several years' growth, which demand more
energetic solvents, and more elevated temparaAre, only obtainable
by high pressure. Mr. Cross referred to Tnlgiiman’s patent of 1666,
as heating Witli sulphurous acid solution with or without a base,
and It a preesnre not exceeding that of the atmoephere. This is not
quite oorreot, as, in the speoifiowon of that patent now before me,
Tilghtnon olaims “treating vegetable substances, whlA oontaiu
fibres, with a solution ot suTphnrous acid in water either wlA or
without the addition of enlphites, heated in a close vesisl under
pressure,” &o., and in the body of his patent, he speol&ee boiling in
a closed vessel, heated by moans of a steam-jacket, until Ae tem¬
perature of the liquid {sulpiiiiroas acid and snlphlte of lime) is about
‘jeOTahr. {-=^3Sm pressure.) In 1876, Tilgiiinaii took out niioAer
patent, claiming the use of snlpbnrous aoid iu water under pressure
uot exceeding that of the atmosphere, stating Aat tho addition of
sulphite of lime, magnesia, or soda, or other suitable base, so as to
form au aoid bl-sulphite, is advantageous. BoA these ratents of
Tilghman’s have expired, hut a Frenolimon, M. Lloud, took out a
patent in 1877, for Ae treatment of woody and textile fibrous
nintovials, with solutions of sulphurous odd, either alone, or more
or less eumbiued with dUforent oases, and at a temperature more
or less elevated and prolonged. This patent, however, was allowed
to lapse, assnmedly finding he’ had been anticipated by TUghinan.
Now we have Mitsclierlioli’s patent, 1874 ; Franoke’s, October 1881 j
Ekiiian’s, Nov. 1881—all claiming similar prooesses to the above, and
we liave, it would appear, to olioose between those acid and the
caustic suda processes, tne lattor patented by Houghton in 1857.
We have exoellent pulp made from wood by the caustic soda pro¬
cess, and it remains to be proved wiiether that produoed by tiie aoid
process is equally good, and can bo as readily produced with no
drawbacks or dlsaavautages. Wood pulp will oertainly extend in
use os a paper-making material, seeing that esparto, on wliicli we
now mainly rely, malutaiiis its price,and is likely to become dearer,
«
‘ Tnos, Routledok
“ Claxlieugh, Sunderland, Fob. 0,1883,”
NEW PRODUCTS IN THE LOW COUNTRY
OP CEYLON.
Oever-vl Rei-om Kott .Takoarv, 1883.
fjiberinn Coffee—Ctr'oa — N^itlinrps — Cloves — Knhhfr—TeaJ —
Camhoyr -fruit — Hugo — Pepper— Tea.
T his Uas been on tlie wlioie a dry month, tliough a few showers
fell at intervals of ten day-s. About tho middle of the montli,
tiie strong litnd-wind eoaseil, and it has since been calm and occa¬
sionally cloudy.
The variety of coffee that siifforod most from the If. V, is throw¬
ing outmany suckers from tiio stem, but nothing ou the bare brandi¬
es, wliile every loaf, us it expands, becomes the prey of the pest.
Such trees as have been only partially denuded of loaves are throw¬
ing out soooudarioB, but with tlio same result—every fresh leaf be¬
comes infected, Such as came out of the epidemic with little da¬
mage have taken a fresh start of regular growth, and promise well,
if they can only weather the next storm of spores. The largest
blossom of tile season was out ou tlie 22nd, and has all set. Of
course there was none on the eutlroly denuded trees, but on the
partially denuded it was full, and on the least scathed very large ;
that is to say, tliere is as iniioli crop as can be paoked on the Aee.
Tho cocoa is recovering from tho effect of the wind, but many of
the trees still look bare and ragged. Wlien,the tree, however,
hoe weathered tlirough tlie first two years, it seems to have aoquired
a fund of vitality that rapidly repairs any damage sustainea from
tlie weather, iiulcss tho soli is too poor, or the siAation too bleak,
to parndt them to get into form at ail. Even in such situations, if
they survive tlic first eigliteen months, they do not die ontright,
but continue struggling, aud sending up fresh stems, as the old
ones wither, till a spoil of favourable weaAer enables them to
branch, and then it is safe to become a tree. As soon as the stem is
surnionuted by a crown of branches a foot long, it oomei on with a
rush, adding six Inohes to the length of the branohes at every
monthly flush, till chooked liy unfavourable weather. I have three-
youi'-old trees here that oompletely shade a circle twelve feet in dia¬
meter, and, in one ooso, the first crop is seventy well-establiAed
ods, and so little does the tree feel its work tliat suokers have to
e stripped from the stem almost weekly. There are fresh Aees
comlug into bearing week by week, and, at 1 said last month, there
will be an appre^ble crop twive months hence, I begin to be¬
lieve in this product. In a carefully SHlvcted eoll, and exposara, we
may safely oaloulate on five hnndred weight per acre, on the average
of years. This, at 80s., gives 400s. Ra,;240. Tho mc^ libmial oul-
tlvation and all other expenses of bnnglng to market wonld be
amply provided for by Rs. 120, leaving Rs. 120 as the profit for the
proprietor. After encountering the enemies of Ae plant, termites,
oriokets, a speoiet of caterpillar, and a minute insect Aat preys
ou the young leaves and tender bark, we have now to make the
acquaintance of Ae foe* of Ae frnlt, So far I have only met
April 2 , 1883.
THE INDIAX agriculturist.
with two. One day, 1 found five ripe podi on one tree
two on another) with the fauake torn open, ud the aeed abetn
At first I thought it had beun a thief, of the genua Ao.
variety Sinhalese, but on reQeutiou I came to the oonutusion t
teeth, or nails, leaving the empty shell on the tree, when he could
have curried it off Imdily, with so much less trouble. Finding
this solution untenable, I hod to ohoose among flying-foxes, aquir
reia, and orows, and I have not yet settled the point, but a oouph
of sqnirrels were seen disporting themaelves among the routa|sus-
pioioosly near the scene of plunder. The other enemy is aSmall
worm that eats through the husk and enclosed seed before it is
quite xipo, I have only found one pod so perforated, but that
wae uttwlv ruined.
Binoe the dry weather came, tho few oardomoni plants I have
took a start, and are now growing rapidly, It seems ^tor all to be
that rain was the retarding element.
A nursery of 800 nutmegs produced 2-10 plants, one-half of which
are probably maUs, and oan only be elliuiuated, after flowering, at
the end of four or five years. I am however encouraged to extend
this cultivation from the large crop this tree yields after the fifth
year, and the promiaing oondltion of a few plants on another place,
I have a few clove plants down, but in this dry weather the
growth is vary alow, but most of thorn look healthy.
The rubber trees are taking a rest during this dry season. I had
a good crop of seed,but when I set abont odlecting it off tlie ground,
I found that somo one bad been there before mo. I have made
ever-incroaslng skill, Ceylon will be able to hold her own with all
the world, m long oa the heathen Chinee can poison Cbriatendom
with hie spurious abomiiiation there will be room In tho morkots for
the genuine article, and tho Ceylon planters have always produced
tlie host of whatever they cultivated, and will no doubt continue to
do so on a more extended list of prodnots. Ceylon ooooa has already
topped the market, Ceylon holds its own with India and Java
In oinebona, Ceylon tea is asserting Itself, and a multitude of
minor products will help to keep the pot boiling. Hemltia
eastcUi-tat has been a sad enemy to tho planting Interest, but it has
not been all evil. Had coffee encountered no more pronounced
enemy than tho failing fertility of soil, the losing battle would here
l>eon fought for a loug series of years to come without calling out
the reserves and auxiliaries, and the cinchona, tea, cocoa, carda¬
moms, nihber, Ac., would not have been in existence os exported
products for many a long year to oome. The coffee-leaf fungus is
the immediate parent of all the new products that Ceylon is now
sending forth, and the planting mind Ming roused and its energies
directed into this channel, there is no discernible limit to the amount
and variety of Ceylon’s products. Other tropical lauds have
superior soil, but Ceylon rests her capacity of competition on thrae
facts—a forcing climate, cheap labour, and superior skill.
CINCHONA.
enquiry, but have found no oltie. I had no suspioion that any one
would touch it, but after the deed was discovered I recollected that
Rs, 10 per thousand is still demanded in some quarters, and, perhaps
paid. So I ceased to wonder why Sinhalese villagers or estate
coolies should desire to possess it.
1 have land ready for a pinery, and only wait for a few showers
to got plants of the best kinds. At the tropical garden, a Kew
pine of 19 Ib. has been achieved on indifferent soil, and from the
veiy superior appearance of the few plants of this kind I possess, I
expect still hatter results. Of all the fibre plants with whioh I
am auquainte<l, tliut of the Kew pine is tho finest anil the strongest
—far too valuable for paper‘^uff, but espooially suitable for the
manufacture of thread or liuou of the finest quality, In any
moohauioal process of extracting tho fibre from the fresh loaf, the
waste would lie enormous, but, if Kkmnii's process oan be applied
on a smaller and loss costly scale tiiaii that needed fur a largo
paper mill, a vast trade could be eroated uuder tho auspices of a
focal limited company In a couple of years. The quantity of fibre-
yielding material in any circle of ten miles radius that goes to waste
in the low country of Ceylou would ke^ a factory at work without
any special planting fur the purpose. The promoting of a company
is not in my line, hut 1 bestow the idea on tho public gratis, and X
hope it will bo taken up by some one, with the nocossary qualifica¬
tions of personal influence and business habits.
Of timber trees, teak grow freely for the first two years, but it
is growing little or none now. Certain insects so utterly destroy
the leaf, that many of tho trees are mere bare poles. In rapid
growth the teak beats every other tree. In fresh land of fair quali¬
ty and not on a severe exposure, it makes one foot in height every
mouth, till it reaches about ton, when it begins to spread out, and
the rate of ascent diminishes. 1 think halmilila is a valuable tim¬
ber and a good shade tree. On the land now clearing there is
much milila, mostly of i»o great age. I am trying to save all the
straightest stems for shade.
Can you tell me if the gum of tho goraka tree is the true gamboge
and what tlie value of gamboge is in the market 7 I will send a
sample for report os soon as 1 can oolleut enough.
of fruit trees, the most flourishing I have Jiere is the rambutan.
Somo thirty plants put in the field aro growing very vigorously.
The nam-uam plants liave all perished but two, and tlicy aro not
promising. Of some hundreds of oranges I planted, about twenty
nave outstripped the destructive agencies to which the young
plants are so subjeot. Many other native fruits that 1 have
sooner or later faUed from a variety of causes, tho chief of which
are insects and wmd. It looks as if tho bread-fruit would do well
Report of tlie Sub-Committee of the Planters’ Association appointed
to oommunicate with Government on the subjeot of a series of
analyses of Cinchona Barks, in order to obtsin reliable data
for the guidance of CiuclionaGrotvers.
OUR Sub Committee bogs to submit its report at the oonoluiion
of its laboui'S, which it regrets have not been successful in
achieving the result desired.
It will he in the rocollection of niembors that the following reao
lutioi) was unanimously passed at a recent General Mooting of the
Association, r/.t.—That this Association, in view of the large and in¬
creasing cultivation nf cinchona in Ceylon, re.spectfnily requests
Governmout to have a series of analyses of harks made in order to
obtain reliable data for the guidance of cinchona growers, and tiiat
a Sub-Committee, consisting of Messrs. A. T. Karslakc, T. C. Owen,
G. A, 'I’albot, Wm. Forbes l.*urio, and IV. Smitli, be appointed
to communicate with Oovornmont.” Vour Secretary Immediately
forwarded a copy of this resolution to Government, and expressed
the hope that it would roeeive early favourable consideration. No
answer liaviug been recoived to tliis ooinmunicatiou, and it was
tiiought that Goverumeut might he waiting for some definite scheme
to be laid before it, it was deemed desirable to ask if Government
was prepared to accede to tho request made, and if so, if it would in¬
struct tho Director of the Botanic Gardens to place himself in ooni-
munication with the Association. In answer, it was intimated that
tlie Governor does not consider that tho Government oan undertake
tho work ol analysing cinchona bark, and a copy of a despatch
from tlie Secretary of State was forwarded eiielosing corre-
spouduuoe with Messrs. Cliristy A Co., London, complaining of the
action of the Commissiouors on New Products, and stating that
Lord Kimberley has given a distiuot assurance that it is not intend
od to interfere with tlie ordinary course of trade, and adding that be
had no doubt tho views expressed were shared by his Exoellency.
Vour Siib-Coiiimittoe having duly considered tlio reply received and
oounaeted corrospoudenco felt that, however advisable, oii general
here, in sboltered spots, judging from tiic one plant that has al¬
ready become a tree.
The sago palm seed has not germinated well. Indeed very few
have grown beyond those that were germinated in tlio box when
they arrived, 1 will possibly have iOO plants, but I do not know
what to do with them, as 1 have not an Iticli of the sort of land they
are said to require.
After Mr, Holloway's warning about peppor viues I mnst ascer¬
tain whether 1 have got the beat kind. So far us my eye eaii judge,
I oan see no difference between what I can get in a neighbouring
village for the trouble of removal, and that beai'ing a high price at
the tropical garden, but I must bring the specimens together before
exteudmg the cultivation.
Tho only tea field yet established in this dutviot is on Coramilla
estate, two miles from here, the property of Dr, Btork, and
managed by Mr. A. J. Stork, who bus had some years of tea-
planting up-oountry. The field was planted last May, ami I can
nanily realise a more rapid growth than has taken place, my
opinion bsieg just worth as much as tiiat of any other man who
has no expsnenoe whatever, 1 believe this is the northern limit
of tea ooltivation in the low country proper, but it will probably
creep northward, os for as the Mah^ya, beyond which lies the
region of protraoted droughts, whioh seems the one condition likely
to cheek its profitable pnmnotiou. It seems to thrive on all soils and
in ali temperatures : from sea-levei up to the slopes of Pidnrutala-
gaia, while the art of manufacturing tho loaf is doily extending
and improving. Tea soeme destined to be a far greater king than
ever oouee has been, and with cheap labour, perfect machinery and
grounds, the decision arrived at in cennectioii with Messrs.
Cliristy A Co.’s complaint might bo, it had no neoessoiy practical
hearing on the Association’s request that Government should ar¬
range for a series of analyses of eiuohona hark in order to obtain re-
;iablo data for the gnidance of cinchona growers. On the contrary,
your Sub-Committee maintains that it appeared to militate in no
way with tho principle laid down by the Secretary of State.
Ill support of this view, tho following reasons were submitted for
,he consideration of his Excellency the Governor !—
I, . Tiiat if the Government decides to proente the series ol
analyses asked for, these analyses will doubtless be mode by
imlnent anolytioal chemists In the way of thoir profession, and
accordingly that private oatcrprisc will be encouraged rather than
jttierwiso,
II. That when the data desiderated liave been obtained by
loans of analyses, the ordinary operations of commerce will
lertaiuly be etimniated. It was fnrtlier pointed out that your Sub-
Dommlteo hop«d to be guided by the valuable assistance of Dr.
Trimon in the classification of the samples, with a view to enable
ihe Govornmont to lay them before Dr.Paul or some other eminent
ihemlst, and as a further argument for a reconsideration of the
lubject by bis Excellency, the course pursued by the India.
144
THE IKDIAN AGBIfULf^RIST.
Apra 2, 1.883,
Gorernment wm instimced, and also the present need for every on
couregomeot aud help in the proscontloii of the entor^vUe in Ceylon,
Your Bub-Oonjmltee regrets that on a ro oonsideration of the
questic*, his BxoeUeaoy the Govonior was unable to reverse his
previous deotsleo, said ooeordingly that for the present at least it
must bo reluctantly accepted that the Government does not desire t
be in any way instrumental in furthering the development of tho oin
ohona planting enterprise in Ceylon on a solenttilo basis by rendering
the asefstauoB asked for, or by affording special help and encourage
ment to planters In endeavonring to osoortaln authoritatively the
varieties most likely to be successfully cultivated iu vaiions
districts, altitudes, and soils.
COFFEE.
COFFEE PROSPECTS.
A COERESPONDENT of a contemporary writes
A review of tho present etato of the coffee trade would show that
it is sufferiog acutely from the action due to speculation and over-
produotioj). Prioos have fallen away to tho lowest limit compatible
with its profitable oultivatlon. Indeed, there Is re aaon to believe
that at 65 sbiUkigs per owt., tho prlue at which M. P , coffee stood
a few weeks ago, only the largest, and the best maimged, luien-
ounibered estates can work at a profit, Some few years ago large
fortunes were made in edffeo, in Cey Ion, Java, and South America.
The public came to know it, and at once tberc was a rush for the
coffee countries. Fancy prices wore given for laud, extensive
plantations were opened, and after a time prodn ctlou was enor¬
mously increased. But still, somehow, the d etuand for coffee kept
pace with the supply, tiado was good, money was plentiful, the
habit of drinking ooffee spread, and tho price steadily rose. Thou
speculation ensued ; merchants bought ooffoo fur the rise ; bankers
and houses of agency put their ■ money freely into the hands of
plantcia on the socnrlty of land or crops, and a very strong coffee
'* interest” was established. At the beginning of IS'T coffee pros¬
pects were at their brightest, apparently •, M. P. coffee touched
121 shillings n cwt,—the liigh water mark of the coffee rise—rloufale
the figure it stood at a short time ago. Ever since, with the excep¬
tion of a slight rally in January 1880, there has been a continuous fall.
The break-down of an Amccican coffee ring, wliich locked up large
supplies iu the expectation of a further rise, is said to have had
much to do with the fall. Be that as it may, the markets of the
world were at length overetoekod, a period of general commercial
depression followed upon the period of pi osperity, in which coffee
has shared, money became scarce, speonlation in coffee uame to
a stand-still, and prices fell. With falling prices there camo the
borer and leaf disease to embarrass tho astonished planters ; leaf-
disease, the chief enemy, existed long before, but had lieen kept at
bay by high and expensive cultivatlou. Now, diiniuishod crops
and falling prices ro-acted injuriously upon plantations, and leaf
disease spread alaimingly. No need to describe the battle with
leaf disease. It ended badly. For tho most port bravely strug¬
gling with adversity,planters without sufficient capital of tlieir own,
on bad soils, or otherwise cramped, sank deeper and doepei in -
their agents’ books.' At lost the day of reckouiug came ; iu many
coses too long delayed. Then it was found tliut oapilalials hud
been throwing good money alter bad, and in the hope of averting
bad debts of comparatively small amount, had iueurre.l serious
losses. Not only houses of agency, as they arc qallod, but old and
solid bonks felt tho pinch, and hundreds of sharelioldcrs, innocout
of all knowledge of ooffoo, felt it in diminislied dividends and sunk¬
en capital in their houses for away. All this was not calculated
to Improve the market price of ooffee. Investors of all kinds gave
It a wide berth, and down It tumbled from bad to worse in spite
of the full demand which subsequently arose. It wea not leaf
disease which cast down tho market prioo of ooffeo ^ although that
Btateinont is often made. The more loaf disease there Is, the scarcer
and dearer coffee must become. But indirectly it confirmed the fall
by ruining the planter, who, in his turn, crippled tho capitalist,
who consequently avoids ooffee spccuiaticn, and will do so until it
pays. As w'Ul be seen, ooffee dopressiou has touched tho lowest
point. The iujurious iofiuenoes which effected it, are temporary in
their nature and are passing away ; and mokt -important of ail,
there is no dhniuutiou in the oottsamptlon of coffee, but ratlior the
reverse,
FORESTRY.
FORMATION OF CONCENTRIC RINGS IN WOOD.
U NTIG very recently it was a matter of doctrine to believe that
the conoontric rings one finds in most woods* oonstlthte each
ouD year's growth. To have questioned tno universal truth of this
dogma would have been considered the most rank heresy. Even
at tlie-^resent <Uy many writers on forestry fondly cling to ths
old belief, and this bluid uncompromising adherence in every pose,
in spite of tho clearest evidence of ooutrory facts, to an untewble
and exploded theory detracts Tory considerably front ths vAlue
of a recently published book, the Manual of Indian Titnierg,
which has obviously cost the writer a vast amount of labour, and
is iu many respects iuU of very useful and trustworthy Informa-
tinn, both original and compiled.
I Recently the Timber Trades Journal, in Its issue of 11th No-
' vember last, quoted an interesting extract from the Oamada Lum¬
berman, giving on autbentio instance of the formation of more
oonceutric rings than ths number of years in wbioh they were
produced. Iu 1859, a M. Charnay oausod all the trees to be
foiled, whioh hid the fa 9 ade of one of the pyramids of a palace
among the ruins of Falenque in Moxioo, In 1880 he again
visited the place and cleared tho trees that had grown up during
tho interval of 21 years since 1859, and noticed that of all them
contained more concentric rings than their age inoluded years. On
tho section of one tree, about 2 feet in diameter, be counted 250
rings. “A shrub, 18 months old at most, had 18 concentric
circles !”
The extract thou goes on to say that Professor Baoholort has
asked whether “ M. Charnay took aooouut of certain coloured
rings which some tropical trees present In cross-section, and w'hich
are to Ite distinguished from the annual circles.” These lines of
different colour, as every one knows, mark the progressive oou
version of tlic sap-wood or alburiiuni into heart-wood or din-amcu,
and may be seen eonspiouonsly illustrated iu many Indian woods,
siioli as, for instance, teak, lioswellia tharife.ra, &c. They have
nothing to do with tho production of new wood.
The Timber Trades Juvruat then remarks as follows
“ If this be so~aud it must bo observed we liave only one witness
yot—the learned in arboriculture, ancient and modem, have been at
least doubtful, if not false, teachers. And if this deviation from
tho old rule is peculiar to ‘ hot and moist climates,’ where shall we
Iraw the line ? There must be some intermediate stage of average
barometrical teinpcratiire (sic) at whb.h this pwplexing change
jouiraouoes iu the development of tree growth, or is tho whole
lypothesis imaginary, and no rule at all ?
“ This important question cannot be allowed to remain in its
present unsatistactoiy state. Tlie account given by M, Charnay, as
recorded by Professor Bachelart, will have to bo either contradicted
or confirmed ; and a very pretty controversy among adepts, or, as it
is now the fashion to call them, expei'ts, is likely to result from it.
It seems almost impossible that two theories so opposite to each
other can both be true : and, if there be found a connecting link
between them, how shall we know to which aide of it our specimen
may belong ? Hitherto these ‘ cuuoeutrie circles ’ iu trees were os
religiously believed in as the revolutious of Uie planets. Are we
now to unlearn all we have been taught about them r”
As the subject of the above remarks is extremely important, and,
us tho roniarltB tliomseives show, but little understood, 1 may be
lardoned if I venture to contribute towards a better knowledge of
t by publishing in the Tnilian in a eondonsed form,
what information I iwsscss buai lug on it. For the soko of clearness,
t will be impossible for me to avoid entering into some questions
)f vegetable physiology.
It is now an ostablisbed faot that the well-defined line between
,wo adjacent rings of wood is caused by a sudden variation of
tension in the growing or other soft tissues along the olrtminferenOe
if tho stem.
In the case of gromiwj tissues, tension may be due to one or more
cf tlie following four immediate causes :—
I. Turgidity of the component cells due to ths hydroetatlo pres-
lure of their oontents of their walls. - This pressure can oqpur only
• I need hardly »: itat the stems of tree Lilituea, of man; climbers,
!uch as Laahinia Vahtii, uurtcKfafa, &c., and of some otbw
dluotyledonnus apeoies do not inoresse by the odditian of eontinucue lay¬
ers of wood all along the oiroumferonoe. An extraordlneiy mode of
growth, which has never been obs -rvod before, and whioh will a^nlsh
vegetable physioloadsts, has bean noticed by me in a ipeoimeA of Laibei'-
nia p(mkulata, and will shortly be dosoribod in the Iwiian Fvrtticr.
• ‘ 2 , 1^3, INDIAN\,QKitqULTURIST. u?
is geosrelljr poor. A ftm tho best fn^ts should, therefore, be 11 tree, wbieh stood seven feet from the manured ground, made shoots
aonnally reserved for seed, for sowing lu the following season. Ij fifteen inches long,and at eleyep feet distance the shpota grew seven
vtiUisinHw).—This species of cuoumber I pr eight inches. At fifteen feet no pero^tible effect of the maanroi
has fraltii itom one to two feet long. When in a young state a sms visible, the geowtb not esaeediug threp inohas. The eapert*
they are covered with soft, downy hairs, and are then of a pale 1, ment showed that a decided benefit was gained to the tree at eleven
green colour. When fully ripe the colour changes to a brilliant j feet distance through the few roots on one side, and that the roots
orange. It is sC ^e hot-season vegetable, and will not succeed in formed a radiating circle at least twenty-two feet in diameter.
the NcUrth-WeSt Provinces, at least during any other season. It
should be sown in the end of February and any time during March.
It prefers a dry, loose, open soil. A well drained plot should there¬
fore be selected for growing It. After manuring, the ground should
bo laid out in beds, and three or four seeds sown in patches tltreo
feet uMrt., vegetable marrows, only one of the strongest
should be allou^ to ranatn if they all germinate. Water should
be given once in ten days. If given too often the fruits turn
ysllowand fall off before they are ready for use. February sow¬
ings are ready for use towards the end of April. If a second
sowing Is made about the middle of March, it will keep up the
supply until the bogluning of the rains.
KauiRA, {Oucuntu galivui, rnr.h—This isa variety of the eomnion
cuoumber, with small egg-shaped fruit, and is also a true hot-season
vegetable. In order, to keep up the supply until the beginning of
the rains, three sowings should be made—ope in the cud of February,
one in the middle, and one in the end of March. It will succeed
fairly well in any soil, but prefers a rich one. The ground should
bo laid out in drills, one foot apart. Sow the seeds along both
sides of the drill, and If the soil is very dry, water immediately
after sowing. After they germinate, water every ten days. This
vegetable, like the huhn-e, sbonld not be watered too often.
Kurbaila (Uowordica rharantia, rai '.).—There are two varieties
of this vegetable. Tlie natives call one I'urrat'a and the other
kurrali. The former oomos into lse during the hot season, and the
latter daring the rains. The greatest differeuee between them
appears to bo the season when ready for use, as both are of the
same appearance. The fruit is pointed at both ends, and covered
with knotty protubciauocs. It has a very bitter taste ; neverthe¬
less, It is mnoh relished by some in curries. It should ho
sown in the cud of Fehniaiy aud all through March, iu rich soil.
The ground should be laid out in beds, and the seeds sown iu lines
two feet apart, and the same distance allowed between each seed.
Water should be given twice a week until the ground is covered,
.afterwards once a week will bo suffioiout. The first sowing
^vill come into use about the middle of April, and siicoessivc
sowings mmle in March will keep up the supply until the
beginning of the rains,
Bbinjal ok Eoci-Pt.VKT (Solanum MrUtnijrmj.—ThU i» a
popular vegetable with native gardeners, and one of the most iise-
lul. It is ahnost needless for me to describe its cultivation in
detail, as they seldom fail to grow it to perfection. It can be
brought into, season at anytime, end this quality causos it to bo
very valuable when other vegetables are seareo. It should he
sown in October and November when required for use dining
the hot season. It can also bo BO\vn In February ami Marob, and
will then come into use about the beginning of the rains It will
grow in any soil, but as with other vegetables, thrives best in a
rich one. It should be sown lu beds and trausplantod when two or
three inohea high, in lines at a distance of IH inches apart. It should
be watered twice a week, and the soil frequently stirred around the
neck of the plants. The fruits are very palatable when properly
cooked, and no garden should be without them,—W. U,
HOW TO APPLY FERTILIZERb',
M any orohordlsts in California are, it seems, awakening to lire
necessity of maintaining the fertility of their orchards by the
appUoation of manures of different kinds, and it will be timely to
Inimdnce some foots ooncemlirg the method of application. There
is a tight way and a wrong way, and fortunately the
propsr metiiod can be shown by a series of systematic experi¬
ments. A writer for the Country Qeiitltmn gives the
foUowiag:—“ A rnle adopted by an old writer gives the
length of th% roots os equal to the brauohes above. It is safe to
say that this rule does not Indloate generally more than a tenth of
the ground which the entire roots really occupy. Many years ago
I mhde an experiment on a row of peach trues planted in grass and
within a few feyt M each other. They had been set three or four
yeoM, and were c^ht or nine feet high. Wltblu a few feet of one
end -ol the row the gronnd wae made very rich with a heap of
maam Ite itbanlatiag effect upon tile neorett tree was suob that
ttM ilicMi anrio in MUf iMiiw ««» tiro fsot «D4**>lHal >«H< Af
MINERALOGY.
T he most important result of the past season's work, says
Mr. H. B. Medlicott iu the February port of the .ftscorefe
of iJte Geological Surveg of India, has been the proving of
tiie new cojtl field of Umaria at the west end of
the Smith Rewah-Gondwana basin, within 34 miles of
Katui station on the East Indian Railway. This field
was mentioned in the last annual report, and Mr. linghes had
given a notice of it in the Uncord* {or 1881 (vol. XTV, part 4)
The actual area of exposed coal measures is small (about 5
square miles), in an angle between the giieissic rocks and the
great spi-ead of newer Gondwana sandstone to the north-east.
The out-crop of coal hivd been known for many years, but its
appearance at tlie surface was not promising, All this area had
been surveyed iu 1872 by Mr. Ilacket, without distinguishing tlio
true co.'d measures ; but, from what I had seen of the ground (iu
M,arch I86t)), on a pi-eliminary inspection between Raueegunge
and Jubbulpore, 1 was aw.-ire that further examination would
be necessary before anything could bo published. Mr. Hughes’s
8 ucces.s was then no chance find ; he recognised a difference
between the Gmai’ia sandstone aud that of the adjoining area,
and ho had a close search made for fossils, from the evidence of
which there was no longer any doubt of tlieso rocks being on
the hrtrixiin of the regular coal inessures. He Sien
at Cijce marked sites for trial borings ; and these
wore carried out with very crminiondable expedition by
the locul uuthoj'ities. The results, as to the extent, thickness,
autl quality of the i'o.n!, are very iiromising. A notice of these
borings wa-s given by Mr. .Uiighcfi in the Records for August
last. Railway surveys arc now being made fora line ftom
Katiii to the coal-field.
'riie field thus o))ened to ciitcrjjri.se is very e.\teiisiro. Umaria
is the ueiu’est possible source of coal for the North-Western
Pfiivinees ; imd immediutel^K east of it lies the immense coal-
field of Sohagjiore, which disti'ict is also rich in
agi'icultiiral jjrodnce and the natund entrepot for the surround¬
ing forest tracts. From .Sohagpot'e southward.i lies the least
lirtlcttlt line of commiuiication ficLweeu Northern and Southern
India, into the jihiins of OlmUeesgurh, loading down the
Mah.auiiddy vidley to Cuttack, ami uji it over the plateau of
Bastiir to Vizagaixvtmn.
Not tlie leitst inipoi'tivnt result of this new opening is the
onpovtuiuty it. gives for sinjces-sful iron muiiufuctui’e. l know
of no spot ill Ttnlia where there is such an abuiidaut supply of
•H variety of first-class iron ores as in the neighbouibood of
Kiitni. Much of the lime now used in Calcutta comes from
Katui, ami other requisites will probably be forthcoming, if
tho cold fulfils our ex|>octatioiis.
Mr. niighes extended his survey of the .Sohagpore cotvl-field
eiistwai'ds into Sirgujah. He reports in very encouraging
terms of the services rendered by suUessistant Hera LM.
Ill the Anutud Report for 1877 (Reo. XI, pivge 7), a notice waa
given of the oxploratioiis for coal in the tiatpurah region,carried
on by the Central Provinces Government under my advice,
and the coueludiug ojjerations of those trialB are given
at page 97 of the llcvords for 1879 (vul. Xlf). Most
of those trials were near the northern edge of the
, Uusiu etoBC to the NerbuJda vidley, and four or them wero
! ill interior valleys. In yvery ease the object was to find the coal
measure,s themselves, for the ls,riugsall stiwled in rocks known
to be of later foimatioii, ami in one case only, that close to
Malipani, was there an outcrop of the coid meaaures anywhere
near. None of them woiv suiJcessful ; and it was then pointed
out that the nearest ground where there waa a direct prospect of
coal was in the Shahpore field on the soutli side of the basin.
The outei'ops theie had been reported on separately by
throe ofiicors of tlie t^urvey (in 1859,1808, and 187.')), but none
held out any promise of valuable seauis. The latest of these
surveys was by me (published with a map in voL VIII of the
Records), aud I then marked three sites for borings in different
jijtrls of the field, in l iew of fiiLuro expeiinientiU explorntiou.
These trials wero token up in February 1881, by the Public
Works Department of the Central Provinces, and the last of
them waa uoeed on the 11th of October 1862 under my iiutruo-
tiom. Two of them were made to a depth M 400 feet, nnd the
thMtoMOlMh They Ml pawed tiawi^ t»t«w^ew!ly w—a>
148
THE INDIAN AgltlOULTI^BIST. April 2 , 18 i 8 .
with some thin butidM of coftl; hut none were of sufficient pro¬
mise to recommend the siuking of a trial shaft I believe that
(tUthe coal-bearing moasuies were passed through in each boring,
but tto teams are even j^rer than at their outoropa. The coal
prospeotd in ^e ^tpUrau l)asin are that for the pi'escnt reduced
g etidet the Mahpani mines) to the Faimh valley field, of which
r. Bltnforderave a veiyenoouragingmwrt in 1866 {Records,
vol. SV, part 2, 1882). This flcldnfts naturally lieen left to the
last on account of its cowpai-ative inaccessibility ; but the engi¬
neering difBoultiee to be overcome are nothing like so great as
those on the new Indore and Bho^ial Btate Eailways, and a line
from Itarsi up the Tawa valley to the Bench would be in every
respect the most favourable for crossing the Satpurah range be¬
tween the Nerbudda valley and Nagpore. Such a line would
pass along the Shahpore coal Geld, and might lead to a further
exploration of those measures.
The cretaceous cosl-Gold of Dai'angiri in the Garo Hills, re-
jwrteii on by Mr. LaTouche f/iwoj'cfs,'Vol. XV, part 3) during
lastseaeon, proved quite as good as was expected ; the quantity
h veiy considerable and the quality very serviceable ; but if the
company now engaged in opening out the coal-Gelds of Upjier
Assam achieves anything like the service it proi^es, it would
scai’cely pay to work the much inferior coal of Darangiri. Mr.
IjiTouche is now engaged in tracing the coal of the Jaintia
LiUs eastwards,with morenee to a project for a railway through
North Cachar.
Mr. Foote was engaged iu the districts of Madura and Tin-
nevelly, principally iu completing his map of the coastal region,
and joining this work with that of Mr. King in Travancore.
The principal features of the ground had been examined in pre¬
vious seasons, so there is nothing particukr to be noticed. A
detailed account of this large area will be published during the
current year. Ijvto in the season Mr. Foote made a traverse
across part of the Mysore gold-fields, an account of which is
published in the Records for November.
CtlMrftHIIMIMIT
jfoxisTa^Qisr^ B'EJsmiH’TTa-s.
A N ^ieni suhttUuit/or Oittm'ne. Sold hy llupr^^ci^thiircptm
and Native NmggUtt gf Calcutta. Obtainahk iron
Superintendent, Bot-anioai Oardetu, Calcutta. Post fiee, at 4 m„
Ss. G ; Son., Ss. 11; 16 Rs, SO-IS. Cash toith order,
1
SERICULTURE.
M A.TOE COTJSSMAKEE has eoncluded his expci-imcnts
in tussev sericulture, and the result arrived at is a
contemporary says, not such as to encourage the hope that it
can bo made a paying initnalry iu the lloiiibiiy Presi¬
dency. The direction in wluoh Major Conasinitkcr's etrorts were
chiefly directed w.as towards the proiluctioii of “ lusser waste,”
which term signifies tlie silk taken from the bmut cocoons after
the moths have flown. He found the expense, either of collect-
ting the cocoons from the forests or of rearing them in a state
of semi-domosticivtion, to be so groat that no margin of profit
is left upon their sale to the ninnufacturcrs in England.
The cocoons c.annot be collected from the forest, it
ajipears, at a less cost tlwii four annas per lunwlred ;
and as roganls the attempts at cultivation, though tiie
results were most s-atisfiaetory as to the quantity produced,
the outlay reiiuired for watering the shrubs, protecting
the worms and cocoons from crows, sp.arrow.s,.squirrels, rats, &c.,
was again too high to admit of ,any profit. The tusser cocoons
of the Bombay Presidency are smaller and contain less .silk th.an
those found in other jiarls of India, and all Major C'oussmaker’s
effoids to inci’ease their size proved abortive, the climate, he
finally concludes, lieing an unsunuoulitable oUstaelo. Major
CouHsmaker sent homo ltl7 llw. of cocoons which he had collect- i
•d during two years, and they realised only Us. Idt) 1-1 .annas, |
waste in England is only li. 3</. per lb. Hiiring the last year of ’
hia exparimeuts Major Coussniaker was able to collect .uid pro¬
duce 26,031 cocoons, weighing only .'>7] lbs. and the amount ex¬
pended to obtain this result was Bs. l(>8-I.3-». Major Oouss-
,maker has handed over his plantation of Lageretrit niia and
Ziaipbus bushes, together with the bamboo screens, iron
isids, &c., he used for endosureK, to the Superintendent of
the Yerowda Jail, as there is laud attached to the jail,
which the bushes can lie planted, and the head jailor
takes an interest in the experiments. Major Coussmaker
adds ;—“ A vary little expenditure in water labour will
suffice to keep the pkats in good health, and, os they will con¬
tinue growing, will be available for any future experimeuts
whioh may b« made. If no other use be made of them, they
can be planted as hedges iu the garden, and as they bear a
profusion of beautiful lilac flowers, and when kept trimmed
PLAt^TERS’ STORES & AOENCY 00.,
XilMITEIX),
MSfiOEANTS AKD OENSaAL AOSIfTB,
O»loutta,- 30 , STRAND,
Oeneral Manager —W. E. S, JnFFSESOlt.
Manager-
Agencios for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantageous terns.
Coolies recruited by our o«m staff of experienced Agents, with
Dep6ts throughout ChoU Nagpnr and at Dhnbri.
Indentors and Consignees of all merchandize.
Army, Navy, Civil Service,tand Private Agents,
Asaam.-" THE EXCHANGE,” DIBRUGARH.
W. J. WuKATUiT, Manager.
A. D. iSTUAni, Agency Superintendent.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and European
Kusidcuts.
Price Lists on application.
Agouta for India General Steam Navigation Co., Ld, ; Agents foi
Commercial Union Assurance Co., Fire and Life;
Agents for “Star" Line Ocean Steamers,
Calcutta to London ; Agents for
Reuter's Telegram Co,,
Limited.
London.— GREAT VVINCHKSTER-STREET, E.C.
E. G. Rock, Secretary.
Agencies at Birmingham, Bordeaux, and Oharente.
6
FRANCE.
CONTINENTS; ft COCONI.U; imCY
(LTOKXSED),
14, RUE OE OHABROL, PARIS.
of Commission, Merchant, and
Transacts every description
General Aficuey Biisiuess.
All Indents oxeeutod at Manufaeturors’ most favourable terms
C'oii'lifi’oHn.—Twosml-a-lialf per cent. Comuiissioo when Banker s
Drait on London or Paris aocomp inies order, Spaoial terms to
rfgiilar correspondenta. All Discounts coneeded to purohsaers,
Origiual Invoices sent when rorpiircd.
Produce taken charge of and realised to best advantage. Cash
advanced on Consignments. , „ „ ,
The Agency llopreacuts, Buys, and Sells for Firmsfr
Public Securities, Estates and Properties,bought and sold. Loans,
Moi-tgagee, Mines, and Industrial Investments, &o., negoelated.
Mwnfactai’ors nudProduoors oaii have suitable artlclos uitrodnoed
to the markets on advantageous conditions.
PniOE List —eotnprehenstve am reliaole—on applieatton.
BANKER.—Paris ! George Waters, Esq., 80, Boulevard dst
Italieos. Lohdoit i The London and County Bank,
8, ViotorU-street, Westminster,
bnbk meet luxoriantly into leaf, they will form mi oniameutal, 1 Addrus ■. The Manager, Continental and Colonial Agency, U, R ne
a* Weil ttt to unfttl/ additieu to the gardens,” fl* Chabrol, Parir, Prtnof, *47
*. IM*. MB® OiniAfl AGSIOtTLirmlST.
149
db JBU9 **r Pff iHiriBi ^
-FOB BftftlCLY HEAT, INDICESTIOUlHFADACHE, BILIOUSM ESS, ABO FEVERS.
Th* twtlmwjr ot I
UMPUgGH’S
ittmani Iih totn uu^tulUM in iinuw o<
AM iXMMulii« Dlimoat* matt mwutUil fur the nutontlau nnd innlntdnHUW uf hmllli »it1i iKrfimf. vifioiir af lindy unU mind.
It li BffervesoinK and Taatelasa; forming • most Invigorating, 'Vitalising, and BefTeshlng Beverage.
tUlaBt rsUaftn HSASaOH)!, BBA M Biwops SKIKNKSS, QONSTIPATlgN, INlng-RgTjiOH. LASWTLTIK. HBAUTHUItN, will PEVHEiSH CTLB*! pmrSatl.SniJ
r eam the wont forms of TYrUOS, BCAtt^tET. iUNdLlS, nliii other PBVBliii, SMS.itl’or, WfeASLES. amt hBUl'TlVK or AkiN OOMI'LAINTS, end nrioi
_ _ __ ocmdttiob** of the blood. _
gg. of_linp^w» bcnafllto i^anlklJid/; 1 l>r. 8P43X9 {Oovomwwut MwllOfil JnrpMtor of JinjtKi
rtouj otber
PaSXS {(iovei-nmeut MwIIoaU Jnffpeotor ofJinjterant^ from the Port of Loadon)
•'‘*1 Uttvo KiTtii itlBiwurttlu wttrbigtir/OoWltttUMlunAtiy to tiB effleaog/*
». We powi^a.-*' I QMd it to ttb
! ft tingle o
W. KTJIVJUfi.--^ tUuee lt« rntrodnc
joeteftUneoofflrtHiMmtji.** „ .. . ,
OOVtKKill^tlS^ 4>ITgOliL£e AjId PXaajnrS&S earhtgr tli« w«lfla«e of muir m^laywi oboold note
Ite value ae a naoifls in Fern oases.
litlottotreetmontof forty.twooeeei of yeUw Fever, RAWrrr, PDrpBB, PUNJAPB, IWJ»IA.-"Wo llroilii toUere ^e use of yonr
vlngleoate.” pypoH o wali ne wUTdotuoro topr«r«ut fever tharmUtheQmniiweTerlmpor^ nftnmw,
_ ___ _itrddQCUou tlxe Petal Wett ImllA Pex’ert are deprived j3r. ITT? “ l found it act »b a sp^fio* in iayjM||»rt»Hoe aod fiLajlly.in the norat
. the <|OvaatKou or axm^ Laoins, k iSn|™nioapi^).-';itt uMfumew lu uio
tnftlftUerqf pooueat to aa additiwftl tw^of the BtUlse, »t*t««-^Tt it of ormi treaUnontot mteiMe bMlongM»wulUiaedD)rinoaioal«tfmattoe.'^
MfMs mid I thftu 1^0106 to DKut it it In the houjiett of all KumpMaa vUdtlnK the fropioa.*'
To ba obtained of any Ohemiat or Drug Storo, in Patent Glass-stoppered Bottles, 8s. 6d., 4s. Od., lls„ and Sis. eaoh.
Floaso note in oonneotion witli the vecontly observed offsets of ths ns# of Citrate and other preparations
of ICagnesia that lUUffFIiOXrOB'S TXnETlC BALUTE is warranted not to contain any snbrtMtte
_v^oh wo uld oan se oaloulons or othe r earthy de posits. _
H. LiLT^I^LOUGhU, 113 ,' 1 io'l^]BOE;^^iEcXjL, LOliTISOliT, H.O.,
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
" *I know what It is,’ he answered; ‘this honey Is made from
euphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.’ This explanation made
me feel exceedingly unooiufortable; but I ellaitod from him that thoro was
not much dauger, as tho ‘msass’ taken with it would neutralise the effect
of tho potsou. Directly he mentioned poison I dived Into the packs, and
pulled out a bottle of END’S FRUIT HALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pannikins, filled tlioiii up with' water, and several thnea
repeating tlio Jose, in a few honrs we wore oonsidevahly bettor.”—
“ ZiilnliiiKl and Oi trimyo," [p. 1J0), by CapUtin }V, B. Ludlon’, Ut Balt.
B. Boyul iVui-Li'k-ktUiiv Ri iiimciit.
“ ‘ \Vhut on earth shall 1 take to JSuluiand ?’ asked my friend Jim
Isiw one day at Aldorsliot, win u lie had just received nrilers for South
Afi'ioii, to start at forty eigiiL liour.s’ notioe. I replied, ‘If you take
my ailvico —and it's that o£ ou old traveller-you’ll not budge without
a few bottles of END, even if you Icuvo iiaif your kft liuhind. 1
never am without these .Salts, and, ple-ase the pigs, never intend to be.'
Ou his rctiu'ii I iii<|uiiud, ‘ AVell, liow about KNO’-S FRUIT SALT?’
‘My dear fellow, it was the liost advice you over gavo ; tliey saved
mo many an illncs.s; and wlicn 1 left Tiicgl.a, I sold tlie remaining' bottics
for leu times tiic origiiml price ! ’ "— lAcnt.-Ool.
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANGER OF DELAY.
I
You can change the trickling stream, but not tho raging torrent,
W HAT EVERYBODY SHOULD READ.—How importaut it ia to cv^cry InUividuttl to have at hand some flimplc, effective, and nalat*
able remedy, such as END’S ERUIT HjVLT, to check diKoasc at the outs<5t! For this is tho time. With very Uttlo trouble you
can change the course of the trickling mouutfiiu Htruam, bub not t!i(Y roUiiig river. It will defy all your tiny cffoita, 1 fool I cannot suffi-
oiontly impress this important information upon all Honseholdors, or .Skip Captains, or Europeans gouerally, wlio ore visiting or residing in
any hot or foreign climate. Whenever a chaiigo is contemplated, likely to disturb the condition of lieaftli, let END’S FRUIT SALT bo
yonr oompanlon ; for, under any cireumstoiicos, its use is lieneiieial and never can do harm, AVIieu you foci out of sorts, yet unable to say
why, freipuontly without any warning you are suddouly seized with lassitude, disiucliuation for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
BO steer and direct as to bring tho ship into safety, but ho cannot quell tho raging storm. Tno common idea when not feeling well is “ I
win wait and see, perhaps 1 sliaJI be better to-morrow ; ” wheroas, Iiad a supply of END’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all calamitons results might have been avoided. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many sweet alilances,
blasts BO maiw anspioious entorprises, as untimely death ?
E ND’S FBUIT SALT.~“ After suffering for non riy two aud a half years milE ART OF CONQUEST IB L0.3T WITHOUT THE ART OP EAT-
from severe headache and disordered stomaeli, and after tiyiuK almost, 1 INU. -DINNER ENUAGEME.NTS.—STIMULANTS—TOO RICH
overyHiing and spending much money without finding any bonoUt, 1 wn.i POOD.—LATKIIOURS.— IN,SUPPICfENTBXKHCraJi.-EXCIl’EMENT
rooommonddd by a friena to try ENO’iB FRU IT SALT’, and before J had kc, "A gontlomnn writes: “ Whon J feel out of sorts, I take a dose of
finished one Iwttlo I found It doing me a groat deal of good, and now 11 END'S PRUIT BALT one hour before dinner or first thing in tho morning
am rested to my usual health ; and others 1 know that Imvo tried it Irnvo i The off«et is all I could wMi," Ilow to enjoy good food that would
not enjoyed sueh good health for years.— Yours most truly. Roar. ! otherwise cause biliousness, headache, or disordorod stomach—use END’S
HuMFHaBYS, Post Offioe, Barrasford.” 1 FRUIT SALT.
S uccess in I^E. —“ a new invention is brought before tlic public, and commands sucoess. A score of abominable imitations are
immediately introduced by the unscnipulons who, in copying the original closely enough to deceive tho publio, and yet not so exactly
aa to Infringe upon legal rights, exercise an ingenuity that, employed in on original onauuel, could not fail to secure reputation and
profit.”—A dam.s.
C AUTION.— ^af riqhts arr. prolectM i/i every cioUiaeil country. Exu/nine each Bollle, awl ee.e tim eapmde is markeA “ END’S FRUIT
SALT.’^ WithoVit it you have been huposeil on by worl/Uest imitations, Soiii by all Chemists, price 3a, 3d, and Js, Cd.
OiREOTIONS IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW T9 PREVENT DISEASE.
iTopared only at ENO’S PEUTT BALT WOEKB, HATOHAM, LONDON, B.B., by J. 0 . ENO'S Patent.
THE INDIAN AOllliCULTITBIST,
April IfSS.
;; ..-qALOfTTA.
THi^DEST ENSINEIRING ESTABtlSHlIlNi1iii)iA,
JESSOP & GO.,
Oivil and Mechanictd Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron I'oiuidira,
Metal Merchants, Ac.
Forgtd and Cati^ Iron Jf'ori, Sotlert, Machinery far JwU, Colton, and Rice Milh, Collieriet, Indigo Coneenu, Tea Cfardene, dv.,
Contmctoi's’ and Brieh^mcdcing Plant, every does of Iron and Bratt W<yrk made to order,
SOI.E1 -AwO-EJIT'rS roll
Eobey & Co’s celebtated Portable and Fixed Engines and Machine^, Gwynne & Go’s “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Gould’s
Eotary Pumps, and Kobinaon’s Patent Steam Traps.
imranEits and manufacturers of every description of steam engines and machinery.
Eobey & Co’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Eobey ” Semi-fixed Engines, Combinetl Vertical Engines and Boilers, Land
and Marine Boilers, Gould’s Rotary Power Pumps, Hand, Lift and Foi'ce Pumps, Tangye’s “ Special” Steam Pumps, “ Vauxhall"
Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Soorkoo MiUa, Pug MiUs, Brick^making Machines, Road Rollers, Saw inches,
Sb'de Surfacing and Screw Cutting Lathes, Drilling Machines, Punching and Shearing, Slotting and
Screwing Machines, Emery Giindiug Machines, Silencer’s Hand Drilling Machines,
ChafT Cutting Machines, Kennedy’s Patent Bar Shears, Selkirk's Boiler
Tube Beadei's, Steam Pressure Recorders, Electric Peu.s, **
Richard's Engine Indicator, Gilford's In-
joctora, Cooking Stoves, Fii’e-
Proof Safes.
The following are the principal advant¬
ages of the “ Invincible” Pump :—
let .—It is arranged to swivel on the
bed plate, and may be placed at any angle
simply by slackening a few nuts, with¬
out interfen’ng in iuiy way with (lie bed
plate or tlm jomta of either the suction or
Uischai'ge pipes.
fl^td .—It does not requii'c a foot rdve,
being fitted with small air exhauster
and clock on discharge which always
keep the pump charged ready for
woA.
3rd .—The bearings are made on an
entirely new principle, and one beai'ing
will last out four of the old aiTonge-
meuts.
J. & H. GWYNNE’S
“Invincible” Oentriftagal Pump.
/gfi.—The form of the pump casing is
BO arrangwl that one side can be taken ofl'
in a few minutes for the inspection of
the whole of the disc and interior of the
pump.
tuh ,—Himd holes arc made on each
side of the suction pipes to enable any
foreign matter which may get into the
pump or disc to be easily' removed. Tlio
covers are fitted with a bayonet joint so
that they can be removed and replaced in
less than a minute.
6th .—The “ Jnvindble ” is 26 per cent
lighter than any other Centrifugal Pump
in the moi'ket, and discharges at least 10
])er cent, more water for the power
applied.
Baasome's Isdlam Plough. Price, Eb. 15. Howard’s Eyot«’ Plough. Prloo, Ea. 80.
These Ploughs hare been expressly designed and manufactured for the use of the Ryots of India, whose special needs have been
oarefmly studied in their Construction. They onibody all the qualifications for which the native-made implements have hitherto been
preferrso, whilst being incomparably superior in strength, durability, and efiScienoy.
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the Boll to three times the deptlt of a native plough, and leaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the dirtiest land
without getting choked with weeds. Price, Rs. 15. •
IHDIGK) AND TEA PLAHTEBS’ IMPLEMENTS AND STOBES.
EllTGUaSTJBISIiS’ TOOLS -AJSTD STORES OE JeJSUTu BCIITES-
Alwats on hand a large .wook or Plate, Bau, Angle, Tbk and Corruoated Iron, Stebl, Brass, Coma, Pig Iron,
Foondri Coke, Surrar Coal, Fire Bricks, Fibs Clat,
Gatdiogues on ApplimtUm.
A|»y 2, 1883.
THE UTDIAItAGItlCULTTJRlST
GOODALL’S
Honseliold Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TOUSSBlRfi BEUSH.
The Xm( Delloleas Sauce In the World.
This cheap and excellent Sauce makes the plainest viands paint*
able, and the daintiest dishes more delicious. With Chops, Steaks,
Fish, iK,, It is incomparable. In bottles, at 6d., Is., and 'in. each.
GOODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
The Beit in the World.
Makes delidonB pudding without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light bread without yeast. In Id. packets, Od., Is., 8s,,
And b8»
GKDODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Beet and moit Agreeable Tonic yet introduced.
The beat remedy known for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
General Debility, so. Bestores delicate individuals to health. At
Is. l|d. and As. 8d. each bottle.
lUUSTRATiON IS A fKhSIMIIE OF THE UD OF
MESSRS. SUTTOHS’ SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BBWABII OF IMITAT IONS.
NOTICE.
GOODALL’S GUSTARD POWDER. seeds » catiiobues
For mahing Delicimui Cueta^a toithovi Eggs, in leas tune
and at half the price.
The Proprietors can recommend it to Housekoepors generally ns
a useful agent in the preparation of u good custard. Give it a
Taiax. Sold in bozos, Gd. and Is. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makes Three Gallons of the Best Ginger
Beer In the World for Threepence.
The most valuable preparation for tho production of a delicious
and invigorating beverage. It is oneily made, and is by far tbo
cheapest and best Ginger Beer over oflerod to the public. Sold in
packets, Sd. and 6d. each.
GOODALL’S. EGG POWDER.
Its action in Cakes, Puddings, Ac., &o., resembles that of tho egg
in every partionlar. One penny packet will go as far as four eggs 1
and one sixpenny tin as far as twenty-eight. Sold everywbero, in
Id. packets | 6d, and Is, tins.
GOODALL’S BLANGMANGE POWDER
Makes delicious Blonomango in a few minutes. In boxes at Od.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations maybohadof all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Proiol^; 600DALL, BiCKHODSE & CO, Leeds, England.
FREEiR’S SYRUP OF PHOSPHORUS.
Nature’s Great Brain and Nervo Tonic and tho most wonderful
Blood Purifier. The highest Mehoal Authorities say that it is the
only Cure for WastingDiseaies, Mental Depression, Loss of Energy,
and Stomach Complaints. . , , ,
It U pleasant to the taste, and might bo taken, by the most
delicately oonstitnted. In tho most onfoobled it builds up a NEW
AND HBALTHT CONSTITUTION. One doso of this Remedy is
.equal to Twenty Doses of Cod-Liver Oil.
tftvo been snatchod from tho brink of tlio grave by tho
timsly nse d I^xuan’s Sybup cc PnosPHoans. May bo had of all
Chemists and CTBent Medicine Vendors, in bottles at 2s. Od., 4s. fid,,
11s., and 88«. ___,
sphoiaz. aobnts!
600DALL, BACKHOUSE & CO,,
mute Wterm fUeeetf LeUkh BagliBHl.
MAY BE HAD OP DULY AUTHORISED AOElTTg
nr EVERY PART of the WORLD,
IXCLUDINO-
^in-kiilums/, Chowringhon.road, Cal
We Wl Lindtad, CalAitta
ami t '^1'' Coi'rt llouse-streot
ami t, Uaiigoe-Iano, Calcutta. Orders reooivod bv Messrs
King, Hamilton & Co., Calcutta. ^
ITOTIOE.
.D ordering through London Shippers, purchaser
should be particular to stipulate for
__ SUTTON’S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
Fiviv S. Kvf., hn rm-Prmdm of thf Agri-
Jlorii SocitUf tij'hidia,
"With reforcnco to yiuir mo.io of pocking «ooda for
export, T must say how rancli 1 was gratified with the
system you wore so gond as to show me. Dming tho
whole of my long Indian o-xiiericneo, it was my oonstaot
rogret that English packed seeds wore almost invariably
lower in germinating powoi- than the Amorioan. After
seeing tho olalwrato precanfions yen take in executing
each ovdom as that of tho Agri-IIorti Hooioty of
India, I am by no means surprised to ho.- Hint you have
boon gratified by tho receipt of su much testiujony from
thotrories os to tlio condition of your «eodsu)>on arrival ’>
THE QUEEN’S SEE1>SUEN,
AND JIV SPKUIAL WARRAXT TO
H.B.H. THE PRINOE OF WALES,
READING, LONDON,
r n I o
All communications &om the Trade should be address*
ed direct to Reading.
THE mi)IAN ,
IsqnoTed CUUD Boilng M ^ .
A|«uMia,>I<o • VgStlcT^
ScilllC TMli of mtj dawriptlon, tor Artetlw 'VoUf.
tofUiiB lor Mltwitolii VoonlkMeu, As.
tofUuB lor Mitwitolii VosnlkMeu, As.
BLAKE’S PATENT DIRECT-ACTING STEAM PUMP AND VERTICAL M
wo:r iKKiC3--flL.Ti02sr x>'cr:R:E>os:B3S,
r pt.tJV Q TANK.B, WATBE.SUPrLY TO PLAIJTAXXONS, SMALL TOWNS Oli .VILLAOS&
Xronwofks, WMteiriar’B*street, Fldet-street, Lon^oii.
Catdognee and EftimaUs Em on Application, ' ■ ‘
Iharnm 4i Vmamo ws *» Etoamm, mr W, S, VaM», a* sms«BTAtswAM & JfMBTO or Itou " Ovma^ Oawwa.
I-IIJKV
JiH/RHAL Of m/Af/ Aomufm, M/mAmr, and sTAmTics.
rot. Vllt.1
=T
OALCUTTA TUESDAY, MAY l, 1883.
F
[No. 5.
LATENT
COTTON BELTma
^NtC^KU-Y auiTEP FOR AND I^ATENTU IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
PR l!Z E8. '
HAHBUfiOa
BSSUK
STDiiar
ATALASTA
First Prenuam,
1888.
1878
1879
, 1879 , _
Kxw ZsAliABS
i Prize.
CteoniyAii
Nsw Yokk
MSLBUdBNE
188S
Syj ney,
Falhooth
1879.
1880
1880
1880
PiwsiroBo
At ALANTA .
PitiaBUiw
1882, I TrNBMOUTH
Hamburg,
... 1882.
Diploma,
New York, 1860.
Berlin, 1879.
New ZeaUud, 1882.
Melbourne, 1880. 1878. Cinoianati, June, 1880.
OVER 460,000 FEET BOLD DTmXHO 1881,
a Including 3,877 feet of main Driving Bolts, of widths ranging from 13 in. to
60'in,, are working in over 6,000 Mills and Works in Europe arid America.
Tht folhvnng Tests {by KirkaMy, of London) show the relative strength and value,
compared mth Lealhe>',
Breaking Strain per Square inch of Sootioo.
Best DonWo Leather 6 in. Belting
Gandy'S 6 la, x 8-ply Cotton .
8,872 lbs.
^811 lb&
Prloe per foot.
■ ;54.
1^,„
Wiip IN ' .
i,#-
v»_
TUTHK' •
V w.' i 'B ,
r. '."SA- *i
XI'VJ.-'-'L
m
%:■
. .V V; :
*i. 7d.
28. 6d.
THE
OAI^Y BELT.
Any Le^ih or Wulth
for itciin Driving,
" Wt"
It is the best belt
ever made for all purpos¬
es. Much Cheaper and
Stronger than Leather.
Tlioroughly.- Waterproof,
and not. affected by tem¬
perature. clings well to
the pulleys, rune true,
and can be made any
leuH^ without joints.
This Series of Belting
(jm engraving) was siip^
plied in One Orrlor to
Messrs, John Orossley
and Sons, Halifax, M.iy
' 1880, and continues to
give entire satisfaction.
O-.A^ID'Sr ” BELT.
? oaa imm a roporiopHy ow liatLer IwlU ia
m'tnar*
®®a claim a auperiorlty over leath^wlta io every particular: its cost
v‘‘f skeagth and glpptny power fa abmit doahle that oftbe l»iit leath^
of bondi», fijBsc tesM are.glven above, to whioti special attention is
w -a fT “"X widpr up to 72 toohei^ and any length up to 8i0 foot withoutioiut,
fcjirI 1 two belts on the same pulley, a system of ilrivi^ wMoh is never satisfs^rv
> taidtis topcsmblo to h^o Mte of exaoBy fto same tension j benoe one or the other is always oausiox a stouoouel
“ these, thau uTvwsrt adei^tiWBf^gb^iiBriteeft^
*. 1 dTTmwmi EVERT ii 4 iE jHUSwa mvs.
iimae
iice.
e.s.Ji.
•»
154
THU INDIAN ^OmCtDOTBIStt.
ZdiM of QtoasiAers.
1885.
TOIB, mmK DIBSOT vti SUEZ CAKAL.
Oitg qf MoMhttter
OUjf qf OaHhagt
Oitf q/' Oanleriwy
City qf Venias
qf Lmdw,
City qf Sdiniurgh
City qf Kkiot
City qf Agra
City qf Calcutta
City qf Oxford
Oily qf Cambridge
Tom.
. 8180
. 2601
. 8212
. 8207
8212
. 8212
3412
. 8836
4000
4000
Oftptaln.
A. Hoodonald.
J. MoPhenoa.
J, UatT.
H. J. Mo&t.
J. Bl4ok.
W. H. Barfaazn.
A. Thomi.
J, Gordon.
B. McNeil.
Wm. Miller.
D. AndetMn.
The City qf Oanterbury trill leave about 0th May, and will
followed ^ the City qf Agra,
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE A Co.,
be
mE BBIOKS
AND
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
16
Knowledge and “ Progress ’* go hand in hand,
“PROGRESS:"
A Monthly Znoyolopssdia of Information:
COMFILBD AND COLLATED FBOM
m LATEST CURRENT SCIENTtFtC AND GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
OB’ THCB3 IDA-Y.
£atih Ho, ts a tiery “Library " of Valuabh Reading,
8UB80RIPTION1
YEARLY ... Re. 12 | HALP-YEABLY... Re. 7
QtAETEBLY ... He. 4.
The ftew Of India have raofces in nnanimoiu approval
of thla work,
Which liEaaRVBs the eurroRT or
EVERY EDUCATED MAN IN INDIA.
A^ epecimen copy will be sent gratia on application to the
I,
8c OO.,
(10, HAB-B.STB^ST,
OALOUTTA.
THE
SOIM OF IHDU Oltom
Pnuucsaxn Wkskit at Ootacahohd,
Dm BeadiiTUHiws of the Matou Oovemment for
^ greater part of the year.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
(ExoLTrsivB or Fdsiaoi.)
Per annum ...
„ half-year...
,, quarter ...
,, menaem ...
Alwoe.
Ba. 20 0 0
„ 10 0 0
„ 6 0 0
M 8 0 0
Arreara.
Be. 28 0 0
„ 14 0 0
« 7 0 0
..280
NeUgKerrj) Frett Co., Limited, Proprietore,
Agent* In India:
Maesas. HIGGINBOTHAM A Co. ... Madnu.
Agents inLasiaa:
iSsasBS. GEO. STBESH k Co. ... Comhill.
F. AIGAB, Eao. ... ...S, Olement'e-kme, London, E.O,
Messbs. bates, HENDY A Co. 4, Old Jewry, London.
Mssase. GORDON A GOTCH ... St, Bride-ttreet, London, E.O.
Mjcsane. RHODES A Co. ... S4, NUAolaa-iane, EC.
14
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MOJnrHLY
Record of Information for Planters
or
OOFFBE, THA, OOOOA, OINOHONA, SUaAB, PALMS,
AHD
OTHER PRODUOT8.
Suited for culiivatioH in the Tropice.
Published on or about the lat of each month by A. M. and
3, Ferguson, Ceylon Cbeerver Office, Colombo.
Price In advance yearly, Ba. 10.
Be, 1 per copy,
10
ms BBIOKS.
B ANEEGUNGE fire bracks aa auppUed to Government mid
the various Bailwam Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Staam
Novigation Companies. Price—^Ba. 9 per 100.
Kxtnot from Official Beport of testa made at H. M\l Min t,
Calcutta, by Tusopobk W. U, Huokbd, Ei^., r.o.e., A.a.a,if., Offi-
^ting liojauty Snperintendmit, Geoh^cal Survey, India:—
“ The. Fire Brich tested l>yne mre famishei, by the Firm qf
Mfssre. BURN 3tOo,* * * The maUrimfrom wkim they are made
are. very rtjhictory and capable qf resistmg high tempenUure with¬
out sensibly fusing. * * • That fiompared with .Stourbridge Fire
Bricks are somewhat superior, "
The apeeimens were subjected to a temperatnie of over 8,000
d^. Fahr., the cmeltlng point of Outdra being 2,786 iefp.
Apply for the above, and for Baneegunge Salt-glaied Stmeware
and imperfahablaDxynage Pipes, to , ^
BtmN & 00., '
tr
7, Haafingi-ttraet, Oateutta,
or Battaagangt Pottety Woffia, SmiMgimga,
THE IKTBIAN AtJEIOHLTURIST
15S
We puiltti fie /o^/owjNjr fiefpm ai Hi* Office
' tBB SRSZlifl
(MONTHLY.)
_ Satee etf Svieeription, including pottage.
StStOttV IK ASVAKCni,
T JLTH, STRE]
Dfi. ULOR’
STRENGTH, AND ENERGY.
{^y ::: I
For’'«ri)po{gg;„ly |
^ Singh eepkt, Re. 1; back copiet, Re. S.
AdmUtmetUifor the •• Indian AgrieultuHit ” ihould he tmi in
notlatw «*«« the tSrd, to ^peai- on the Ut of the fdOowing month
TBE FBlBn) OF IMDU. AND 8TATBBMAN.
(WEEKLY.)
Ratei of StAtertption, including pottage
BmaXLS IK ADVAKOB.
, Town, Mcfuatil.
^ T j.. 20 0 Ba. 22 0
Forindta -{Half-yearly ... „ n o „ 12 0
(Quarterly „ 6 0 „ 7 0
The ndaoed rate for MUsloQarleB ia 15 per annum.
For Europe {ISf^yearly r.: ' V.; E |
Single copies. At. 8 ; back copies, Re. 1. '
Advtrliitmmtt for the •• Iriend qf India" should be tent in
not Hater (^»t Friday, to appear on the following Tuesday,
TEE 8TATE81CAN AND FRIEND OF INDIA.
(DAILY.)
Raies of Su6Mrip<to», including postage.
STHIOM(V IK ADVANCE.
, Town. Molmsil.
Yearly . ... K«. 3a 0 Ks. 42 0
For India Half-yearly . . 19 0 „ 21 0
For India
Motnssil.
Ke. 42 0
„ 22 0
>. 11 8
„ 4 0
,, 03 0
Quarterly . ... ,, 10 0 „ 11 8
Monthly . ... n 3 8 , „ 4 0
Yearly . ... .88 0
^ i; I
-Monthly ... ^ 7 0
Single copies, As. 8 ; back copies, As. 4 <snd 8.
^_AjJi>ertisem^t for the “ Statesman ” should be sent in not later
than 5 p.m., to appear on the following morning.
Intending Subscribers will please address the Manager.
Subscribers should stctte distinctly for \yiiioH papek remiltanccs are
intended.
A|[ejita in London for the above papers:
GEOEGK SlKKaX, Bsij. ... UornhUl.
F. ALUAB, £sq, ., 11 & 1 ' 2 , Olement’s-lane.London.R.O.
BATES, HENDF & CO. ... 37, Ifalbrook, London, E. G.
D. J. KBYMEE & CO. ... M Whilefriars'-street, FUel-street,
London, E. 0.
80 IiE AOENta FOR THE UNITED STATBd:
THE INTEENATIONAL NEWSPAPER AQKNCSr,
H. P. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
New Haven, Oormcctieul, U.S.A,
LALOR’8 PH^NODYNE.
(Trade Mark-^fiosphodyne.)
TWiat T TXAXS’ PVBLIO TSBT, AKD TEOtmAKDS OV XBmUOKlMS nOK
ALL PABI3 OP TEX WOBLO BSTABUBH
PH08PH0DYNE
aa the only Safe, Reliable, and Never-falling Phoephorlo Remedy
for Over-worked Brain, SlMpleseneM, HaraealM Dreams, Worry,
Anxiety, Exoitement, Epilepty, BasinoM IVeaaare, Waatlng
Idseases, Nervous Proetration, Stomach and Uver Complalnte, Im¬
poverished Blood, Prematura Decay, and all morbid oonditions of
the system dependent upon the deSolenoy of the Vital Forces,
DR. LALOR'S PHOSPHOOYNE
PCBIPIXS AKD
I Enriohes tbs Blood, Clears the Skin, thoroughly InvJ|p>Tatea the
Brain, Nerves and Muscles, Re-energtses the Foiling Fonatlons of
Life by supplying the Phosfhobio element whtoh has been wasted,
and thus Imparts Energy and Fresh Vitality to the Exhausted
Nervo-Eleotrio Force, and rapidly Cures every form of Nervous
Debility, Paralysis, Kidney, Nervous, Mind, and Heart Diseases,
from whatever oause.
This elegant Fhosphatiu oomblnation, the Wonder of Modem
Chemistry, is pronounced by the most eminent members of the
Medical Ptofesuon to be unequalled for Its power in replenishing
and elaborating the Vitality of the Body ; by its supplyutg ^ the
essential and vitalising oonstltuants of the Blood, IBuik, and
Nerve Sobstakob ; and for developing all the Powers and Fnno-
tions of the System to the highest degree; by. its being agraeable
to the palate, and Innocent in Its action. While retaining Its
wonderful properties. It acts as a Speeldc, surpassing all the known
TBEBABBUTIU AOEKTS of the PBESEKT AQE, for the 8PEBDY and
rEBHAKEKT OOBE of the above disease.
Db. LALOR'S PHOSPHODYNB is sold In BoUles at 4s. 6d. sad
11s. bv all Export, Wholesale, and Retail Medicine Vendors
throughout the World.
IMPORTANT NOTI0E.-NONE IS GENUINE UNLESS the
name, Dr. Lalor’s Phosphodyne, London, England, ia blown In
the Qloss of each Bottle, and every Bottle bears the Br^h
Government Stamp, with the words Dr. Lalob’s Phoseuodvkb,
lAmdou, England, engraved thereon by Order of her Majesty’s
Honourable CoinmUsiouers ; ir not, it is a roBOEBV, AKD you
HAVE BEEN IMPOSED DPON BP A WOBTHLESfl IMITATION,
I MAKtrrAOIUBBD OKLT AS THE
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY bt
DR EGBERT D. LALOE,
BAY HOUSE, 32, OAISFORD-STREET, LONDON, N. W.
(The Sole Propbiesob and Obioinatob op Fhosphodtkx.)
THE AQRA BANK,
‘ LIMITED."
Capital ... £1000,000
Reaenre F und £190,000
CALCUTTA branch;
CURBRNT A(XX>UNTS are kept, and
Interest allowed, whsn the Credit Balance
does not ftll bdow Bs. 1,000,
DEPOSITS reeehrsd avMlabie at any time
for Remittanoe to Shi^and in the Bank's
Bills, and Interest wowed thereon at the
rate of 4 per oent. per anniim.
DEPOKCTS ore also received for fixed
periods, on terms which may be learnt on
appUoatton.
DRAFTS granted at the exchange oi the
^y on London, Scotland, Inland, and the
Bonk’s Agnsnoies in the Euit.
. CIRCUXAR NOTES Inued, negotiable
srinolpsd places in Europe.
GOvEBNmMt and other STOCKS,
and Shares bought^nd sold, and the safe
custody of the same undertaken, I
INTEKBiST, PAY, and PENSIONS col¬
lected i and every other description of
B* nlring BnsineM and Money Aganoy tran-
wrted.
^ RemlttoaoM sbonld bo mode pay¬
able to tho Agra Bank, Limited. 86
The Pnblio are invited to send, from any part of the world, to ROBINSON and
OLEAVRB, BELFAST, for Samples and fhU range of IWoe Xdata (POST
FREE) of their
* Tbolr Irish Llnun CdUoyh, Ouffs, > Real Irish Linen Sheetinjf, _ pc dos.
ShlrU, Ac., baYo the merit ox j IQICU 2 yaitU wide, 1/U per Children’s ..2/0
IDIQU IlyCII ORoellonoe and ! InlOIl yard. CAilRIIin S/B
imOn LinCW oheapness/’- 1 Extra Heavy (a most dtir* Q**'^^*®**i'» .. */l0
Nil.. able artlole) 34 yards
Clrcu^ars wide, 8/3 per yard.
Boiler Towelling, 18 Inoh
Ladle.' ana ChU- Du,- Hmarircusn
C OLLARA ^°‘a.S:’°m LIHEHS Pflcrfr-.. . psra«.
COLLARS,
' oheapneM/’- I Bx
> a
' Covrt Circulars i
Bo
Ladies* and CbU"
dreo’B 8-fold, 3/11 SnrpHce
, por dos. QenU, Uaiou,
, 4-foId, 4/11 to 5/11
Children’s
CAMBRIC
HKifaTiToaes
CUFFS.
For Ladies, Gentle-
luen, and Children,
fi/11 to 10/0 per dot.
Beat Lonaoloth SHIRTS.
Bodies, with 4-fald **
all linen front, and
cuff., Si/O the half '
dot (to mea»uro, 2/ extra).
Fish Napkins,
8/6 per doE.
Dinner Napkins,
6/6 per doE.
Table Cloths, 3
ydsaqnoi'e. 8/11;
34 yards by 4
yai^, 18/4 each.
cnoth»,4/er«r
dor..
Fine Linens
and Linen FUBl
Diaper,
lOd. per yard.
POCKET,
HAMOKERCHIEFS.
& DAMASKS.
*The Irish Cambrlos of JMeesre.
Bobinson 4^ Cleaver have a world,
wide laBie.’--'3b4 Qwes.
TAdW Under-Olothlntf, uaoy ijinoo, L*reM nauonaiJ, rianueis, aimu ana owtaa jumi
Glov^Uuder.Veeta, Pouts; also Lace Goods of every doeuriptlon, at loweet wholesale prio
Mannfactttren. by Spe^ Ap-
1 fuid h«r Imperial H l ghnw g
THE BOTAL XSUH X2R8N WASBXOtnBL SfiyFAST.
10a
Tm INDIAN AGBIC5DDtDEJBW.
T. E. T H OfM S 0IS4 & CO^
©, E]SE>X*|AIT-A.I5S3“I10’W“,
OAtOUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
ALL KINOS OF IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TJEJ PLANTERS,
Griffin’s Patent Kodallies, all sizes.
Griffin’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Cast Steel Digging and Border Forks,
Potatoe Forks.
American Spades and Shovels, all steel.
Pickaxes, Double ended, diamond points.
Sickles and Reaping Hooks.
Betts’s Tea Lead,
Tea Sieves.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Oast Iron,
Switching Bills and Hooks.
Assam Daws and Jungle Cutters.
Garden Shears.
Tea Gordon Pruning Saws.
Pruning and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Irons.
Chubb’s W. I. Fire and Thief-proof Safes.
Plain W. I, Chests for holding large quantities
of Silver.
Point de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoop Iron and Clout Tacks.
Portable Weighiug.> Machines with English and
Indian Weights.
' Beams and Scales fitted with Teakwood Pans
and Iron Chains,
I Salter’s Spring Balance.
Garden Spades, Shovels, Hoes, Rakes, and
Syringes.
Garden Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines,
f Hand, Lift and Force Pumps,
Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized Nails, Screws, Ridging and Gut¬
tering.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION,
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN’S
Surd ToolSr
THB
N AGRL
A U0I7THLT
JOUnm OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS,
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTATUESDAY, MAY 1, 1883. [No. 5.
' ■ " w.......
] j, NOTICS, ACKNOWLEDOMEN13.
' RVDSCRIBMR8 to the Stateshau, FaiKUD or Ikdu, and
^ Indian AaRiODiTtnaiiiT are infomed that airangmxnte have
I MW leen. made hy vhich thete jownalt vUl for the fiitwe be pub- Ten Indian Foreatw for April.
j lislted under the general superintendence of the undersigtied. Notes on the Seeds of the Abnu PreoatoHos, by 0, J. H. Warden,
A/I communications concerning the general business of the Bengal Medical Staff, Profoeior of Chemistry, Oftloutta Medioal
•Statesman and Friend on India Off/)e, Advertisements, and College,
Subscriptions to the daily Statesman and Friend of India,
weekly Friend of Indu and Statesman, and Indian Aoricul-
T0I119T, should be addressed to the MANAOER. CORRESPONDENCE.
All communications regardmg literary matter should bead-
dressed to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
NOnCE,
New Ligui.—D eclined with thanks.
WILLIAM BIACH.
June ISth, 1881.
CONTENTS.
A UNIVERSITY OF THE ALLIED SCIENCES.
Page,
AiKNOWLEDOMENTS .167
CuBRESrONDENOE—
A Umvorrity of the Allied
Heienoos .167
Tho Utilization of Sownge ... 16S
UorticnUnral Sooietlos ... 158
Cotton iSeod.168 |
l.SADISO Auticies-
I’liviil Dieea.ie.'i ... ... 15U
The Improvomont of Indian
Ayrioulturo.ISO I
'I'lie Bengal AgriculUiral
Hcholarshipe .101
Tho Yellow Pamphlet ... 162
The Jute Industry >•* ••• 168
Major Coussmaker'a Expert*
monte ••• «•! ... 164
Cotton in the Punjab m 166
Editowai, Notes .166
Al Cultivation .174
Agricultural and Ilortioul-
tvunl Society of India », 176
Hbi.botione—
Eire Conservancy in Indian
Poreste 176
Forest Progress Eeport for
British Burmoh 1881*82 ... 177
Sugarcane Cultivation » 178
Planting and Cultivating
Northern Cone .170
Page.
Tho Cultivation of tho
Potato .176
Fibrous Plants in Mexico ... ISO
Lime .160
Uotatiou of Crops .181
Tho Wheat Trade ... • 14 181
'fho Antiaeptio Action of
Spongy Iron .183
CacaO'*~'
Nolo .18»
Experiments in Cocoa Curing 183
Fokestrt—
Note .184
Forest Tree Planting ... 184
Artilioial Planting for Protoo-
flon. «. ... 186
The Purpose and Process of
Crafting .185
The Gabdbn—
Notes on Cultivation of Itainy-
Bomou Vogotablos,.186
Notes and Gloauiogs ... 186
Sbbicultgre—
Note .187
Berioulturo in Now Zealand 187
Natural Coloured Bilk ... 167
Tobacco—
Note .181
Seeding Tobaooo Beds ... 188
Ajdvehtibehbnt* .188
Our Correspondents ami CosUnbuturs will greatly ohlige
ua if they will take the trouble, where the returns of cultiva¬
tion are stated by them in Indian weights and measures, to
give their English equivalents, either in the lexi, in paren-
(Itesis, or in a foot-nole. The bigah in pattioular varies so
much in the Afferent provinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to gie^-Ae English value of it in all cases. It would he a great
reform if the Govemm^t itself followed the same course in all
the official reports pulMshed by it,
dll correspondence must bear tlte full name and address of
the writer, Aoif necessarily for publication, hulas a guarantee
^ 0/ good faith. We shall take no notice of anonymous letters.
10 TIIE EDITOR.
Sm,»-Uitborto no college or school, where the allied soicnooe are
taught, has made, in oonnoetiou with the univondties, proviaion
for oonforriug distinctions and honours to their different grades of
students. To tny mind this should, for progress, be made as
early as praotieablc. New university oertlficatos and titles, hither¬
to unknown and unooinod by tho nuiversity members, should be
coined, established, and conferred. Thero need bo only one
cortiffeato, tliat of the Licentiate qflhe Allied Sciences, to be confer¬
red oil studeuts who have finished three years’ uourse of the School
Department ; three College Department titles, viz., B,A. Sc.,
Bachelor of Allied Sciences, to bo oonferred on students who have
finished tho first two years’ course in the College Department j
M.A, So., Master tf Allied Sciences, on finishing tho next two
years' college course, and D.A. Sc,, Doctor of Allied ScUiices,
on finishing tile last year college course «ltogetber eight years’
oourao—throe years in the School Department, and five years in the
College. Only students (candidates) snffleiently advanced in English
literature, or literature belonging to any other language as applied
to other countries where English is not the national or country’s
language, to be able to understand science, should be eligible for
admission in tho last class of the sclioo 1 department. If candidates
have roosived a course in some college of general oultnte up to tho
end of the second university certificate known os Licentiate in Arts,
they should be considered eligible for admiuion in the last class
of the school department.
The real reason of, hitherto, no certificates and titles oonferred
by the universities on the studsuts of allied sciences is the ignor¬
ance of the groat importance of tho solenoe of ptant-aultnre by
the university syndicates and faculties in all parts of tlie world ;
especially this is applioahle to India, On the subject of certificates
and titles herein referred to, the students of the Sydapot
Sohool of Agriculture in Madras applied to the Madras Oovernment,
which application proved futile, owing to two causes : the first is
that described above, aud the second is that the students (Sohool
of Agriculture) being wanting in sufficient learning to deserve
university certificates and titles.
Slues tho course now tn vogue for the tuition in the allied soisnoes
is both meagre and defective (because no proper encouragement
is in store for the students), reformation of tho existing stats of
things assumes paramount importance. I will record my views on
the subject os described under
The existing Colleges and Schools of Agriculture, Forestry,
Medkine, and EaginMring, also Vdsrintsry (wherever exitifaig},
160
THE INDIAN AGBIGUDXU^ST,
• JMay It 1583.
but UkiB UBwnuft in tauB, bu ct touttaic of alow proc^l. Tba j
faryUapai, dwo prineipuUy uwd wew coffee pulp, el readily ]
feniuptible (ubatenoe ibd> in aittoganbaa nuttier, gum, &e., but
poor in miawiti laetter ^ eoaeeant cake, a aubawMie more
MgUy nitrogenona, containing angarand gun,butatiffpoorer in
m^eral matter, and eaator oake, even more highly mpt^^oua,
and poor in mineral matter : theae with ordinai^iffeld and
atahle oompoata were thengenta ihtn, and we think now, much
in j egae. They were, ww know, long before the advent of the
.cfuernw, wd few a long time afterwi^de, laviahly applied. It
la true that aome planteramore ealightend and more persevering
than othera, did at intervala apply boae-dnat, and like anbetancea,
but theae men were few in nTxmber, and it ia qneetionable
whether, in the preaenoe of an exoeaa of organic matter,
abaorptiem of the eeaentiaU applied could have gone on to any
appreciable extent. Given, then, theae cironmataucee preceding
and following the diaeaae, wo have not far to aeek for its origin.
That the diseaso haa not sueenmbed to topical remedies calls
for no anrpriee. The Oermane, with all their power and ^lat
of victory, oonld not reduce Metz ; the French anccumbed to
that power which no Ufa can wlthatand—atarvation. So must
hamileia. And surely aa the conditiona which gave origin to it
remain, oa aurely will it continue to grow. No matter how
muoh of the fully developed fungi we may kill, we are not one
step forward: our auction must therefore be directed to
cutting off ita supports This we say after a matured practical
study of the disease, and subsequent consideration of the
nnmeroua views regarding it, expressed in that eminently
practical organ, the Ceylon Obierver. We have looked on for
many years, hesitating to add to conflicting current opinion, but
as the disease aflTects us in South India, we can no longer keep
in reserve our privilege to ipeak. We repeat, then, that it ap¬
pears clear to us that if we are ever to succeed in mastering the
plague, we must give our beat attention to funclamontals,
and that our first duty in this direction will be to destroy the
cofnditions essential to its development, the first step towards
which will be the abandonment of the use of the higlily
nitrogenised fertilisers mentioned. Next, we must endeavour
to discover by examination of plants which have not been
affected, that is, plants grown where the disease is as yet
unknown, the characteristics of truly healthy sap, to got, in
coffee at this timo was perfectly sound, we would ai^ why th,
spores iitiite kmer fjaugi, such ■ as ' which it may iiav^
swung, ^ ant in ewflJet times find on it a congenial soil, it
might be here answered that the primary form had only at t hu
time sprung from something (flee, that it was the rosnlt of ihe
blending of seteral heretofore known fungi under peculiat
conditions, in the humid depths of the forest, and that when thp
dry season came round, the ^ptrres of this new creation wen
projected into the atmo^hme, and ohtan aa their habitat, coflee.
We aay again, however, that Imd the eap of the plaij^^ at thi,
time been healthy, no form of lower vegetable life oduld luu-e
germinated therein. Whether or not, however, the disease hiul
its origin in this wa.y, or whether of primordial growth when fii-gt
seen, is a matter of little conse^enee, for the remedy would ni
either case be the same. Mr. Oairutheis, oondudiing hU re.
marka on the wheat peet, saye From the history of the
fungus, it is manifest that at no stage is it under our. control,
and though we oan take steps which may prevent at different
stages the unuecessary increase of the spores, m twut be
hafied in any attempt to prevent the appearance of ihe diaeaae,
whellu/r Ml the mat or mildew ataye. We take objection to this
conclusion, because we do not believe that fungi can come inlu
existence, or thrive elsewhere than in unhealthy places ; their
habitat is the morass and the swamp, the interior of forosi.,,
badly drained fields, sewers, cesspools, and places where the full
influence of the sun and the atmosphere is not felt They are *
as surely the result of a bad state of things, agricnlturallv,
as are typhoid and malaria, from a sanitary point of view,
and presumably like these latter may, if we go the
right way about it, he stamped out. It is to bo regretted Ihut
Qoveruments have neglected to apply the resources for th<'
discovery of causes and the means of removing them, which the
knowledge of our timt renders possible. Contented with v arious
curious discoveries, they do not seem to realise that oertiiiii
changes and deteriorations in important staples are, bad though
they be, but iudioations of greater mischief. Does the stu^
of coffee disease lie outside Gie duties of Agricultural Depaw-
ments 1
THE IMPKOVEMENT OP INDIAN AGRICULTURE.
fact, at its exact constituents, so that we may compare it with
that peculiar to diseased conditions, and so be able to judge
when we have brought it to a a healthy state ; and when at
any future time like indicatione of disease occur, wo may know
in what way we have deviated from necessary conditions.
Judging from the agreement in certain essential effects, brought
about by the combined action of auxiliary remedies, such as
carbolic acid, sulphur, &o., with tonic treatment, we are sangfulno
that the same treatment, a/ier we have completely mthdrawn the
evil inflvtenoet mentioned, would, if universally adopted, free us
from the i>«st. But we emphatically say that even should
we discover a specific, which would penetrate into every fibre of
the plant, and so destroy every spore, the diaeaae, unless
we ore prepared to use the remedy in perpetuity, would re¬
appear with aa great virulence aa ever. We must adopt measures
to prevent further growth, and this we can only do by with¬
drawing the esaentiala to growth, and withholding the same tor
a considerable time from the aoiL In the Journal of the Agricul¬
tural and Horticultural Society of India (Vol. VII, Fart I)
three is a reprint of ui excellent paper by Mr. Carmthors, F.R.S.,
in which it is fairly demonstrated tliat wheat mildew and rust
are one and the same fungus in different stages of development,
and that a atill earlier stage exiati in the shape of the vecidiwm
on the leaf of the barberry. From this it might be reasonably
inferred that hemileia, pLylloxei-a, and sadi like pests ore also
higher forms of other fungi. Bearing in mind the relation¬
ship of hemileia to common mould, we would to a certain
extent be inclined to favour this view, especially knowing as we
do that the forests in the vicinity of Madulaima, where
hemil e ia was first seen, abound at certain seasons in low forms
of vegetation. But, we argue,' such were not new, and that
had fihe ooffee first affected not offered a ready nldns by reason
of, i^.diseased condition for the spores of these lower forms of
Innglj.jpnuiting it to haV^ originated in tMs way, we shopld
neverhav« i»ttduf the c^se. If it is contended that the
L ast year, amidst a great flourish of trumpets, Mr. Buck
published a resolution of the Supreme Government on the.
orgauisation of Agricultural Departments in the voi'ions pro¬
vinces, It contained a number of statements which no one
could dispute, and pointed out how it is incumbent on t)iu
State to do all it can in India to promote progress in agricul¬
tural matters ; it also contained many statements, such as that,
for instance, regarding the necessity of drferriug action until
more information has been collected regarding the condition of
the country and the people, which are not only incorrect, but
very misleadiiig. Half-a-oentury and more of rule haa put th«
Government of this country in the possession of auffioient facts,
if only tltey would read them rightly, to guide its action in pro-
moting agricultural reform. There is also the experience of the
methods adopted in all parts of the civilized world from Great
Britain to Japan, to show them how. to proceed. However,
our rulers have preferred to proceed in a slow flunner, and
it will be useful to see what is being done.
The main idea evolved in Mr. Buck's resolutkai was the
combination of the work of revenue settiement and agricul¬
tural improvement in one d^artlnent. ' This of course is a
most ill-advised course, b^use it will eatise all the efforts for
improvement which may be made, to be looked upon by the
ryots ns so many endeavours to find ezouses for increasing the
land rent. Veiy little experience is neceswry to make any one
aware of the fact that the ryots with iuspidon on all efforts
promoted by their landlord i(ttie State) to bring about an
increased rate of production from the 'toll, ho matter hfjw truly
disinterested the views of the Govenmwtt may realty bt.
What, then, will be the ideas of the gyots when they see the
self-same officers, who' are engaged in fixing the rent,' doing all
they oan to induce them to improve their systems of husbandry,
mid thereby give on excuse—as the ryot will belfeve—for in-
creasing-that rent 1 Hie Idea has, however, -been aeo^ted by
noethi ^ local Qovemmehhs, tdid'-is being oarried out, but
^ or U bdiill It will b« w«ll to
; ffhat id hkot In tM |l«a^i^iillM« When a^eoltrtiral
pronment ha«Uth«rton«^r^ao«taitiestion>-4)u^ Madras
d the Ifr.iW. Frovinon. The tormer provinoe ha? for many
jrsDOwbad'lhtte ettrlee/a tpedaSy trained agrioaltoral
pert, and under him has matatained an experimental farm
which many nHfnl inVestitlations have been Carried
t; it has also for the past six or seven years been
nportieS, an A^pdcqltnral' College, which has been doing
,nd under oonsiderable disadvantages. This work
IS begun to shown signs that it is having effect in the
)utherD presidency, as we have recently heard of native
jntlemeil, owners of large property, taking to sgricnltoral
iirioits, adoptlog. {m{nroved implements of hnsbaindry,
id employing the trained men turned out by the Madiw
allege as their managers. We cannot think, however, that
earlf as mpch has been, or Is bring, done in Madras as the
leans at the dkposal of the local Government would admit
if. It . is very probable that Mr. Eobertson hae been
rippled in his efforts by want of support from his superiors,
w we find frequently in his reports references to sobeiues
or sxtei^g his work, but in af^ years no further reference
0 them. It is a great pity that the Madras Gkrvemment do
lot see their way to extend the vfprk of its agricultural
iffieers, of which they now have two highly trained and of
lonaiderable experience in India, and they must, amongst the
nen who have been educated in their Agricultural College,
mvo abundant material for widely extended operations.
Mir. Eobertson was not long since appointed Agricultural
Kcporier to his Government, whatever that may mean,
and it was then' stated that he was to report on the whole
M the Madras Presidency with a. vietr to devising means
'or dealing with it agriculturally so as to avert famine.
No doubt the work could not be pat into better hands, bat
how one man was to be able to perform it in the ordinary
course of an official life in this country does not seem to have
hi ruck the pereon who propoeed it; it is in fact impoeeible ;
and made the more eo as hb. Eobertson was to cany out the
duty in addition to all those he has heretofore performed, and
which for eight or nine months in the year tie him to his head¬
quarters at the Agricultural College.
At the same time that the extension of Mr. Eobertsou'e
duties was made, the Madras Government appointed its
Pirector of Eavenue Settlements to be Director of Agricul¬
ture. What the value of this step may be it is difficult to
Burmise. We have already indicated the evils likely to
result therefrom. The able officer whq is appointed to fill this
jxiet is probably, like'his companions in the Avenue Depai’tment,
as innocent of agricultural knowledge ae a new-bom babe, and
there are eigne of his already having “ put hie foot in it,” if
we are to believe the Madras p^re ; whilst we also eee tliat
not long ago the Madras Board of Revenue wanted Mr. Benson,
when acting for his superior dm-ing an abeeace on furlough, to
revert to the old exploded idea of endeavouring to teach the
adult ryots by means of a commercial farm conducted by
Oovernment This last idea shows that although in many
ways the epithet " benighted ” is Inapplicable to Madras, in
things agrionitural it is benighted enou^ and we fear that the
newly appointed Director of Agriculture may, like oo many
otliers who have Sot itodied the subject thoroughly, be led
away by {daoribk arguments, and force on his department an
incubus which we are glad Buck had the clear-sightednesB
to relieve the operatlcus of the N.-W. Agricultural Department
from, whilst he was directing them. Besides its direct ngri-
cultural Operations, to which we have referred, the Madras
Government are fornt^g a ritoug veterinary department, which
will combat and endakvisar t^ suppress cattle-disease. These
operations cannot fail ito (to great good to the country, but uuti’
our U'^eji^aeks are be^ led and cared for, tremendous losses
must ^qnently take jilace amongst them.
Turning now to the P., only other province which
nae as yet made any rSai profetalon of work in this line, whai
do we find f—department called that of - Agriculture and
^«nier«i,and devoted almoet entlrriy to the coUectioo of
*•***•*5* aad ft# «f batd meue n^imidaaatoa
:i tlte umt:idy^ were cuMed oot' ly ij a
landlord in would almoet soteljr m
ment w#d,*^ might, be fulfilling li gfeat Beside*
his, (helHpuetmsnt baa an Engineer officer emdeavOnring to
fti^;a>witttso care tist iUs caused by the mistake* of ^jj^triance
>f foem^fe^wera, m., the effect of nA. Agiit, thrire'l*’ Iha
Cawopore tom on which Mr. Fuller has been doing sf 'i^
woik ai riKiM be* expected on to badly eelected a ^
umping to ooBotnrions on altogether ineaffirient data ’m Vlii'
(Jeo to be expected from an amateur, Etperts are llal^
moulds to this mistake, bnt when amateors are taken with an
Idea, it nsurily carries them away. '* Nitrogen ” is no denVt
an element which is very easily exhausted, but to tn>v^ (t »
paseword on the strength of a few iaolated experiments ie p
gross blander. On this farm, we were led by the last report of
the Director to believe that a college, something similar to that
t Madras, was going to be started' The idea was under dis-
inasion in December 1881, and the Director stated &at Mr.
S. Hill was to be the Principal of the College j that gentleman Is
now going home, so we must believe that the plan hae broken
down, whether from differences of opinion between Mr. Buck
andthelocallights, or from an ill-advised refusal of sanction
Irom the Secretary of State, it does not matter much, as, what-
sver the cauae, the oocurrenee is most lamentable, and coming
lust as the department was apparently taking a new departure
In a right direction, will be regretted by all who have the
interests of Indian agricnltnre at heart.
In the other provinces of the Empire, very little has yet been
done. In Borabuy there is an agricultural class in connection
with the College of Science at Poona, but it is not doing much,
nor can it be expected to, unleis placed on a firm and efficient
fooling. Perhaps Mr. Osanne will be able to do something
when he returns to India after his study at Oirenoester. In
the Central Provinces, Mr. Fuller Is doubtless infueing his
energy into the operations of the local authorities, and we only
hope that be will be able to do something satisfactory with the
Nagpore farm. In Bengal, the Lieutenant-Governor goes on
tliruwing away large sums of money in sending young men to
I Cirenoeater, who, on their return crammed with book know¬
ledge (for we are credibly informed that at Cirencester the
Bengal students ai‘e of no use outside the College) will have to
eiiend two or three years in leaniing how to apply what they have
I learnt in England to Indian conditions before they will be of
I any nee. The money spent on these scholarships (something
like £900 a year) would educate about 40 or 80 students at the
Madras College, where the students, in addition to obtaining a
very similar theoretical knowledge to that gained at
Cirencester, would have seen it applied to Indian conditions,
and BO have been, at the end of their etudlea, much bettor fitted
for immediate service. What the Bengal Government is going
to do with its students when they they return from England,
as two shortly will, has not yet been announced. In Burmah,
Assam, and the Punjab, officers have been appointed in ac¬
cordance with Mr, Buck’s resolution, bnt it does not seem that
they know very well what their duties are or may be. In fact,
the whole question of the organisation and duties of these new
I Agricultural Departments requires overhauling, and the
details worked out by specially qualified peraons. It
I is very easy to iketch out a general scheme for anything,
but we hope that the local officers appointed under Mr.
Buck will be able to work out thoroughly practical methods
for attaining ends which it professes to have in view—the im*
provement of Indian agriculture.
THE BENGAL AGRICULTUML SCHOURSHIPS.
I N a separate article, we have summarised briefly what is
being done in India for agriculture by that reenscitated
geminl of a dspartment, the Revenue and Agriculture. We
have stated our conviction that the combination of revenue
and agricultural duties assumed by the department or rather
the i mp o sing of some o( the work of the dcpMlment «>
revsnnai offiosra, tins tdentifyng in Ae mind* «t tiis pesranfix
iiw Axisg and enfanstoi M tte meiHW, iriOt alowH aver^
|woa«<», dirtnirt,
ymd ''ci^l^{ilQ)]i «ist^ Ifal Tjiota to «Tei7 >ie^
pn»;v«tiw|it ptopoaed b;' tbai^c|^bi^.aatikDriUei; anopnttead
agrioattwq, taatoi^r' ret«idiiv|it. We jpld tiwt
Vi^ oflSif^jWoparijf to, 4«*Jt wWi tbe inia^Me pw-
«|^,4KB.be p^|i4fiai^ i«lQjili.«orto q( aqniam and roond bolWi
am tb« dMMtotent froia itp bigbeet to it* lawaet
gtidee^ not aidy' mSfi a irimdp, deteninlned reeietanoe to the
pla^ eag^S^ioiis; schemes, the Agriooltural Depertment
be nidf^ ap smohg the pessahtc;, all the more stirndy aad
detet^O^, beeaose seemtolj^y- aoqniesceat, bat well>u«a&ing-
otevto med, full of theo:^, wd, it may be, orammed 'with the
laifeet wd most advanced text books and scientific treatises,
will Work mitohief almost irreparable, and air their fads in
reso^ntipOB and rej>orto, <uid before a wondering peasantry, who
wiA‘Iistep,,look on, and ii tbey do not laugh at the ioAei when
bis l^k ia tumedt will wonder what it all means. The very
eoTietani^ agripultural eohdlarshipe instituted during the time
WMU Sb Aiit^y £den ruled Bwgal, and since then further
deyehwed, are, we venture to affirm, better fitted for a peoifie
oratniMs in advance of the average Indian peasantry. W^t
oonneetfioB tbmw is between mere power of cramming the con>
lo.^c^ 1 wia i
them fw tiu '
ire^ of cflh^; , m f | lj top« is -;te ^ nwnuto weft; and yrit,
^^:9"Vf..1V'^r<9t wfi^-smd;wtoiwi,l ..a^Jtso, th«,
s^pqpld be tminad
to tlia‘^,sprt,pf'Iwil; _Wepi* On many
(>c^pn8^,to«pas^ have ventured to
Conn^l the liibi^ei.4^Ij0C(dCNw*i1im»«pto agticul.
lural ; but itis probab^ np part of 4iiie duties of a pnbl|^buraal
to tmich Indian dppaitments their weft, and .show them how u,
effect it bmt. It does, however, seem* to us Umi there u a
grou and unjastifia)>le waste of jptmo nimMy in founding sad
rich echdjaMh4^ as those of l^gal, v^hin, in tfjp whole pro-
vinos, there is scarcely a pim spmt in legfii^hnate effort to
teach the pemnity, m: inombto piupiietoty ryots ^th ideu
on agriculture mher iiian those wh^ i^jt' fatben
have followed with unvaiying, routine ^ ajpe. mere
playing at agricuitnra is wastisfnl and-disignicefal, and the
sooner it is ended the- better.
THBj Tfi&LOW PAtfPBliEf.
touts of boohs for the purpose of diegorglug them at examina*
tioBB, and an intelligent study and practical acquaintance with
the’Various operations implied in rural life in India, is pro*
bably kno^ beet to the welbrneauing, men who planned the
fietigal dgcicultural scholarships. We venture the opinion
t^t iS'Sdarcely a student at Cirencester College who at
a p|n^, could ,not perfprm every aiugle manual operation
neto*^7 **1 E»gl^ farm—from cleaning a byre to buying
of fetotm H pig at a market; who could not plough and trench
a^, groofp, mipc< '^itk moto or less skiU. To place men
c^tl^'stan|p,in the-same catogory-witli the contemptible men
of bwks and exnnainations sent to CHrencester from Bengal, men
Who never twisted- the tail of bullock, or carried a plough on
their shoulders unless by proxy, is to iusult the former, and to
expect from the closet student the knowledge of the practical
qf the world. We do not by any meaus undervaloe
intellectual training and knowledge derived from books, but we
hold that the qualities most im)>eratively desirable in all who
aspire-to become tlip leaders and teachem of agriculture- in Imlia,
are tfim power of-accurate observation and of exhaustive
eXperluiStit, based on a practical acquaiutauqe with the whole
details of agrimrltural aud rural life in. India. To confer
sudh rich soholarshiiw as those of Bengal on clever book¬
men,- distiuguished univei’sity students who- have shown no
aptitqde -for, or k^aowledge of, the work of an ordinary ryot,
who probably, could not distinguish one crop from another
if ^ point out one or otlter as they stood in the
field, and whose ignorance of things agricultural is contemptibly
conspicuous, is, to sity the least of - it, astounding. We
are prepa^ to holdj that of all places in the world least
suitable for the teaohiug -of Indian students of agriculture,
Oirencester is the wgi-st. The class of students mainly found at
Qireucester are oopriKised of the sons of wealthy farmers,
land-owners, and it may be younger sous of the nobility, a fair
pnippriion of 'whom, as in most educational establishments,
attend^ by tbe sous of the 'wealthier classes ip England, are,
to say t^e l<|ast of it, nut abeorbingly devoted to study.
Luxury,' leisure, aud lectures are not the best preparatioD for
the study of Indian agrieulturo. Indeed, it seems to us a
gross waste of public money to send these clever Indian young
men to Cirencester, to- acquics a more or less thin English
ven^r, a paiTotdike knowledge of eroi)s, rotation, soluble
phosplkato, manuring, form machinery, and costly English and
Continental methods of wofklrtg aiid' winning crops in order
tq s^upu to India, and Imprww these and suoh-liko theoretical
tosrhfiugs ,ou Indian ryots, whose whole houseimid,' - farm
animals,, apd labourers Uouhi live for a week on what it cost
Beqgsfi. agricuHural soholar 'tor, a gams-at-ibiBiasds in
/ Ws.aric. to« Qoveriiiueitt'Sf Bengal Whmt'it ejects
Soholass twho ara now- btteg steadily
pnfaUft .i - What'- ha«« any,’of- them-
dosto for aigdiMllnn^ w'Wlnt does tha ClovanuBstft sspsat thMu
HE yellow paipiibllt, Indian Wheat,tomts American '
Prot^rioi^” has been much honpuredi It has been
noticed in, tie bu^ot, and has reoepfly formed the text of ^
a letter toditi the ’Sngad Chiunber of Cpmmerqe to Gtoveni-
ment. Aid It 00htaKn8''st^e vefy useful statwtios. It is,
however, disfi^Pd by soriib hiAly sSttoned critiolStas of a
not very ptofduna soW;,' afid iSrilPW dsetruotlve thin coii- -
etruotivo in -'itd' tSUdebOfett No# is' it alriays adourate. -
And this last-is a’seliouB defltot
At page 20i we fi»d-^“ Tltoildweet rates ever sanotioued
“ for the oarriago of grans by rati oreon thfe Punjab' Hail- :
“ ways, oil. (l-7th pie per mauad per mile) ,0746 shillings I
' per quarter per 100 mae^ . . . aud ore considered to |
‘ bq so probably; uuremmterative that the present nerve- ’
‘ loss management of the lines have- never given tho -public
‘ tbe advantage of them., But all tho same, wo.must not .
withliold our admiration for tho enterprising aud far- ;
‘sighted policy of the Board of Pirectors of tho Sind, I
‘ Pupjab, and Delhi Railway, &o,, &a” This is cloquout :
enough. But it is uiaforthaately not in aooordauCe with |
facts. At certain seasons- of -the year; the rate mentioned, ‘
1-7rii pie, exists, and tlto public has-advantage of it on both
the East Indian and Oudh and Bshilkund KoBwaya
Videri q;mm etae bos, for so many yewrs, been the poliey of
the Punjab, that it is not suroris^ that others act while
tho Pupjab only legislates The point is,- however, whether
1-7th pie, which is equivalent to pne-half-penny a ton per
mile, is not too high. That lower rates than are at present
quoted could be given to tbe pnblio seems to be
undoubted from tho foQowing obixsiiferation. Official
returns show that on the'East Indian EaO way the average
cost of moving one ton one mile is pies 2*34, and tho
average profit pies 4-OS. In other words, there is a profit
of about 200 per cent, whioh leaves a large margin for a
reduction of the average rate on the railway. If railway
managei-s could only be brought to uadhrataad that a low
rate and a wide pulnio is tbe most profitable form of busi¬
ness in railways as in other tsansaotioos, what a, revolution
in things there would be, and how rapidly the publio which
pays the railways would increase in area.
We are entirely with the auiior of the pamphlet in
his main object—the reduotion 6f rates. we doubt if
he is right in his denunciation Of extravagance on Indian
lines.' We believe that they ore generally m*TiBgad eoono-
mioally. We have never' seen a' obmpai^n mode with
American railways; but one wh^’^ittlhdi railways was
in favour of the Indiau' oonMrhs. However' may
be, the econmnies whiah oouM be mi^eed would' probably
not be very great, and, wi^ i»effto eff ^ p«r otos^s^ost
of oarriege, do not require to be madq on- the fiast In¬
dian, at least befbre the topprimpmt of Ipyfor rates, could
be iutroduoed. Oh other lines, pertfieularly on the Punjab
line, the margin is smaller, put ought to. be little
.alarm in thMing the. experiment anywhere* £nr all. e^ri-
mioe-hx ell bukhtoin'is In ffivouv of tow wSbfill* aid Uxg*
.Jiff'%»*•**'
<# .13^ gewp^^ yw?, lyd
V ffie i^9» "«*o *•»• Sd^i®®*®* i
this matter. If private enterpriee eminot be eueom^geS
withQu* mieohievoM reaorion ofttiUeort, it Is a queetion
It should not'be idtondoned In Avour of some other
first objeot of the writer of the pamphlet la
the rejaotioo of rates, thlsdiaa our entire sympathy. So
has the .itftbhd wf wjpW "atwon, of
the r^wi^'i^ ;,!«,{» .<W .IWffior wquld aAwve :by
on produQtive worhs,
two m’” OT”i w eqmvalent capital of 50
a,0,090 mllee of railway in 7 years.
This question of pafital^ation is not new. It was, we
believe, submitted to the Seoretary of State, and vetoed.
But, supposing that it .should, be, ^Waitted, we think the
author of the yellow pamphlet is .going rather too fast.
The sudden oo^tnmtion bf 20,0,00. miles of railway would
seriously derange, the produce, and labour market, raiaiag
I mateti3lyboththe .O08tof work on the line and the. price
j of iron jiWoed in, it. About 12 years ago, os is well known,
»the very rapid extenrion of railwayB in dunerioa had this
’ efieot^maWng .the Munes (rf ;fingUsh Iron ^and coal
masters, and vaw wreasipg tlje cost of both, minerals, to
the ihiury of raUways.both wmhmg and under oopstruotion.
Perhapioowever, the writer is apeaiing hyperboUoally;
andtiiat some more rapid rate of progress is needed, we
readily admit And not only w its deeirable in Indian
sgrioidtural.^, in .Indian, manhfaoturing, interests also.-
if it were oertain that r^lways would be rapidly extended,
it would pay capitalists to'set up in India iron-works on
a scale of sufflolent magnitude to, make such concerns pro¬
fitable. Could'not the Secretary „of, State be induced to
permit partial capitalisation of the two millions 1 If, for
instance, so much of it were oapitoliwd as to produce 10
instead of 60 millions, a ^eat deal might be done which is
now impossible.
The author of the pamphlet is hard UP®“ Government
as finaneloi's, but he surely falls into a fallaoy himsalf. ^ In
diseuBsing ospitalisation be says.—“ And as to increasing
“ the amount,of sterling debt, that 4|l!« no»V of the Indian
“financier, nothing would be easier thap to arrange that
“ the, guarantee was to bo given to the company, not on the
“ amount of starling lodged, in tie,treasury at home, but
“ on the amount of rupees lodged fn the treasuries in India.
“ This simole arrasKement would turn the whole into a
“ rupee ,loin.”^te,^e ; but what is the advantage of
a rupee ,loanl The fiotV of the Indian financier in
respect of sjterlisg ,d^t,is not the sterling, but the loss on
cxchs^a But how does a rupee loan remove this loss 1
It of .course, cannot do so nnlqsa fhe holders of stock are
in .India, and spend the dividend hero. But the experience
nf r <^il »ny in this. The ahareholders
are ^ .wljii.an ajpeption too insignificant to be
of cxmsequeuoe. Th® result^ that the dividend, even when
paid in i® ^ Jlugland; there is, con-
8 eqneptly,,oompe(ti( 4 on fiM:.gcld, and the silver is depreciated.
It ,ia tina tW ' vvhil*'the stoiik is being paid up, the con¬
trary operation takea plaoa ip'<?r,%en thora .is a comMti-
tion fpr silver, and it,is appreciated. But this is merely a
temporary alieviation. We do not think, tfev®f®re, that
the author^thepampWfit has here .given financiers any
useful suggestion- . ■
What^^ says about guMantees is more to the point.
As it ia now nndouht^ Indian railways, taken
together, on the .whole, a;g.uarantee is no extravagance;
but on tiie contrary,.If it,tmrdsto attracteapital not other¬
wise ,it is Sjttwmaly ,if private
enterj^lse is to have the oyster, .and Qovemment only the
shells, the average retmms mey be reduced and guarantees
of a na*ure.to,attitwt e^iit^^ ,beoem®.“®P*?‘“^®'
private'^tfjBdse may, .tSweefore, .be htjurious to the
oomfe,,if,:ae profitajDie:iiwee«>,liiWy
iaquir
-lie, au^ is
ttadtaiiwhkih id'
hard on
tot eig&t and wot!
ims' gsuit hoetr..
faBiy‘gM]ed:'’t«mi' its iwerk r '
ttentiooeil 31 m truth is, thatML „
loya aw Qo^emors, these things ' ami ^
espeolii% inttie East The iiemstrlm'-!ahmtt-' it l r# < <» !Wi,.,, ,
se^ % tH to be too swee|dag,
we nriy «ay that the de&bsment 'of
seems to Its a W^ton extrsivagaaoe, sspeidaljly sB ^fir’'
into^ eifaagsmratB the baUdiig; Sre m cbtH^
than fismtesly- The author also must live in
piaoeit if his obaprsasesa gst fis. 84 a-^year.
reoeive Bs. very brilhant >iiipshd. "
He eom|fiai»e ^that pne mlQion is qmt upon nia^fOdim-
tiva military eipsadtture. But how ls this to be wwttfeWi'l
^ long as ^ere mustbe an Brmy,‘%ate must-be bnll^eigs.
The army, thongh, unproductive ttaelf, mokes possitde - hsefiil
production on the part of otheie> a{id'is,d& thepreseht
state of the world, we faiB', a n^ssity.
The author is appM^ntly astrong advocate fer ttuifbrtdiify
of gauge. This fighting for osiie sturdard'bhs
seemed to us a mistMe in India, dt may have'tNMti'ib
error to oonstroot the Bajpootana line on >the
It would have been a far greater error to <NMtni«t tife
Muttrs,dlattrass railway oa . a gauge of fiiaetfi'wekes.
In his ooutrut of America ai^Ihdi(i,:J|e vleavesloaltef
fiig^t the fact.that Ameriosas Ore witlingto.hsvattiniithe
railways of Amerios, but that^Indiaus are get -.ps^arsd to
invest in Indian railways
Mr. Grant White, who, aaau Aneriean, mpyhe^pMed
not .to be prejudmed against ihis eouptry, .eonridemithat
English railways,.in.,the matter of .p8Mei;9S^tltt]sdliqg at
all events, are to be preferred to Amaioan. hfor are -Arne-
rioan railways always mani^ {brit]w:Sbsr«holdei*»aiid.4fiiB
public, but for speoulative ringsrmso ^Ihat the ipoiiey
employed cannot always bo sofdy ^pealedito. 'H.The
pcdilio,” said Vtmderbilt ht^, in reply to a remeosteaiime
against some policy of bis, the publio he damned-"
THE JUTE INDUSTRY.
T O thoae people who are under 1
sent exosptioually good times in the Jute numufottuf
industry here are likely to be permaaeni a word af waraitig
at this moment may not be altogether iuopportUuef At the
outset, m would remind our readers that therfffs'-aftotfcet
place besides Calcutta where jute manufaetums'throve
long before many of our Bengal mills were in exis«etioe-jau
ancient town full of wealthy and enterprising .tifartew, Who
are not likely to let the business slip though their- ftagers,
without making a strong effort to retain it--*we allwdc‘“to
Dundee. Dundee, as most of our readers.are dcfubtless
aware, has been the seatof thsjufe-mami&oturing.indua^
from the commencement: it has the .finest Jute .nnUS;.in
existence, and the experience of.themostoapableand.pmeti'
oal men in the trada For some yearn past, until vitiy:
recently, oompetition between .Dundee ..and Caloutte -.whs
very keen, and though Caloutta has wrested many, a;
from its older rival, the oompetitwaiW very ;CiI««e,., ebd
many a company here,liad .almost bUttenithednet ,ene
game was soorsdfor Celeuttm But. thoughi Caleuttaiha#
the advantage in many respects of Dundee, that !viv»iitpe
is, in our opinion, only .felt when .profits ure at
murn ; and when, os uii^e past year,, imlla, .ai;e ea|i^
30 per cent end mhw, U®uaee (^niw
lipid her own.
^ vices from D uudee intimate, that« ohsnge . h®*,. eWC
over the state of the jute trade, during the PWt few.mwthe,
shown not only by the full emj>£)ynmt. And ujfsea^
wages given to the woxking.c^asa^ but.j^,hrttha,r;&4mn-
iug and extension of mifls.and .fjntorii^.in Dnudqe
neighbourhood. Tlio.prodnetioB,,iti»g^ Im heen.,;*^
materially inoreased pf.lata, and will,
extended. Duriag,;the;$tter mcipths;<lf,lq82„>ief«^,i^
were re-opened, tiie most imP'E*®^!*.
Spinning Company, the 0|»ve Mfil, I^g^^ ,.Wo^ .^o
the Westfield Mills, besides many in^riaut adcUtion8'be%
made by the fimm The ,Dand<< idvsrriier in . a.rfoent
article says“ T^;ii^ty of.erijienoe the int®’r
dpetien m heSiig . ht ether dlwtiW
D9omt,ai^BjwipggJHw^:h^^w.h^^W
which have been wme time standing are now, or wil
of tiK t»o4a«Ul9ti; !«>£ .*•
e«fl|toy»d <a the Sen g^w<< I wl w ti i B i , mortiy ^
now, T«ny .laatr«. Sow Jwwiwai prodi^on »;
ju«Md«d renjaia* to be eo loag aperioa of j
di^nm podooen eeem wosia^ to aatiolpate go<4 trade, |
are ovidently to be.er^ it Up *11 aow ,
the; ootaiuly have not mabh of the benefit, ibr ?
Agfr hare jret got th^ dnarphidbaiee rnrhed-up, and it la j
enoDuragi^ elenumt ■
of-aafi^ to sphaMto|^ei».toatttdintoi^ at prOeest. -< The,
dentand^ en^eotlfy ^ 7 alR(k% eoatinuaB ver; gbod, bat;
edartbor Dsadee «a& iiwveaM bba export boto of yama ax^
dofit^ooffidently to inaet a fbrthN: important inoreaoe in
The trade is undoubtedly large,
neither ia the ex-
teniHon of works by «aj means confined to Dundee,—the
very lioge increase in Calcutta should be kept steadily in
vieWi**^^^^ It does seem aa if tha produotion were h^ing
pace with 'the inereaae in oonsumption, if not more. While
leased to see such signs of returning proepwity maidfesting
thenuelana, it. is w^ to remember that ita duration may
be ma^ doMtec by an excessive production.”
In OahRitto mitonsionB are going on by leape andlMunds;
tte Boeg^y IGUswitb SOO looms are in course of erection,
ao are tua additional 200 looms to the Howrah Mills j the
Saokipara Millii with 300 looms are also under oonstruo-
tinn, so is a mill of 500 looms for the Somnnggur Company.
CoQsery Jute Mills are about to put in another 74
lotttas, and we suppose that the addition to the Budge-
Budge Mill will be not less than 180 looma Messrs. Maoueill
and Co. are repeated to be putting up a mill, and we observe
that the Yiotoria Jute Company, Limited, has been floated
in Dundee, with a capital of £200,000, for the purpose of
erecting a jute manufkotoring work in the neighbourhood
of Calcutta, and carrying on the business in oonneotion
therewith, the Board of Direction consisting of well known
Dundee gentiemen of long practical experience in the trade.
Under these oiroumstances it would be as well if investors
oatefUUy reviewed the eituatioa At the present moment,
consequent upon the very large profit made in 1882, jute
mill stock is abnormally high. There is eve^ probability
theft these large profits will be sustained during 1883, but
witib the close of this year we anticipate that things will
ratuim to their normal condition, if indeed there is not
another crisis Or the industry. It is absurd to suppose
that the present high profits can be maintained; at the same
time, the jute manufacturing industry isa perfootly honest
and legitimate one j and if extensions ore gradually intro¬
duced, end the manufacture is oonduoted with the neoessary
ddll, care, and caution, a reasonable profit should always
xsatain to be divided among the shareholders.
To show how the trade haa developed, we quote the fol¬
lowing from the Sem Francuoo Commereud Herald: —“The
annum oonsumption of bags and bagging for the Pacific
Mope has grown to such proportions as to overshadow most
desoriptions of import merchandise in value, aud
they are ooneec^iueutly becoming more a daily article of
i^MOttlation and investment. A few years back, and between
_B montta of Septembw and April they were soaroely
heard 0 ^ vdiilst now there is soaroely a day, certainly not a
week, in any month, in which hundreds of thousands, some-
f irnan millions, are not sold. As an illustration of this
meeulative action, a Oalifomia-street house, that makes
dealing in jute goods a speoiality, on the Ist September
last bought over five mUlione of Calcutta bags, and re-sold
the whole in a few days at a small profit for delivery from
Ja&uaiy to June.” T^teto large speoulative trausaotions
an^ however, often a souroe of danger, as a heavy failure
^tesoxalises'toe market, as was the ease a few months ago.
The exports of powerloom gunny bags to San Franoisoo,
doling toe last four years, were aa under; 1879—
W,^,518 j 1880—22,412,779 ; 1881—19,227,774 ; and
tfifiSo'lfiidSS,380, while toe toipments for January 1883
erete no lees toon 7,620,900, It wiU be seen that there
hM been a steady foiling off during the iast few years,
toe present year has opened well. We observe that
l^ij^pmouts to Austoalia are steadily on toe increase, no
Ittii" thto 18,652,061 bags having been e;q>orted thenoe
from jfoto'in 1882, as.kgiin8t 18,503,852 bags in 1881;
]?0,'200,f28 hUA in 1880, and 10,606,942 in 1879.
MadBiOi Traaoitwo ate toe two ohlei places to
ttolch 'ew' ■'pai-1^' ■•pA ji'mist nMonsbls
ve hilwut DttodM la ordinal
chserve tW
gBOSybags have
been miDde to'toe Dattvd XtogobA from hei& which in out
Olsten tooWitlibat ll^andee at stoM is Ml of busiueeg
„ toe '^pfrneBt seiMnii jnto hu ruled cheaper iu
-Loadem that! n tofr to'hy it doito, Wtdoh it aB in favor of
Dund^ ' > . . .
MAJUB OOUSSMAKMB E3CPEBIMENTS.
tr A JOB OOUSSMASEB’S expudstehto in tusier sericulture
slL in the Bombay preslffwiojr have not, It appetas, met with
the Buooess fmtioipated. He it about to leave IndlB, and in
his last report, vmioh has just been Bubxnltted, he says he
oannot recommend (government to oontiane the experi¬
ments, as there seems little prospect of their proving remu¬
nerative. There are three oanses which have led him to
come to this oonolusibn. Wild silk, he says, is now
exported very largely from China, and the price of tusser
waste has toerofitfe fallen to la Sd. per lb. in England. =
The tusser ooOoOns of the presidency are also said to be i
smeller, and contain less silk than those found in other f
parts of India, while toe expense of colleoting toe oocoous
or of rearing toe worms in a Irtate of semi^bmestioation
is said to be great
During the year 1862, Major Coussmoker’s ooUeotioo
amounted to 25,031 ooooons, weighing O^lbs. Some
ooooons which he sent home last year to Mr, Wordle to be
sold, fetched Is. 3d. pet lb., and the report of the buyers
was “ that the fibre ^m these ooooons is somewhat eoareet
than most tusser wadto, aud toe ooooons have been opened;
but this is hot a serious drawback to its spinning qualitiee.
China is now sending over such large quantities that the
price of tusser waste is very low.” In his attempts to
increase the siae of the cocoon by Importing some of the
large variety from Sumbulporo, YamtoHa, and other places,
Major Coussmoker has not met with suooess. The moths,
he says, have paired reodily, and the worms have hatched
out, but there has been no differeuoe iu the cocoons.
This failure to improve the breed, Major Cousamaker attri¬
butes to toe climate, and perhaps, he ^ds, the differeuoe ui
food may be another cause. As for os quantity is Oonceni-
ed, it appears the result of rearing the tusser silk-worm iu
semi-domestioation is moist satisfootory. Major Cousamaker
writes: “ I have now been able to gather withiu six weeks
three codtMms per hinning foot of hedge. My first worm,
this last season, was hatched on the 9th May, and the first
cocoon was gathered in 3'2 days’ time. Of this particular
batch of worms, I took carefm notes; they numbered 380,
and 347 of them spun ooooons, ootmnmming on 7th June
and ending on the 24th idem. They oonsumed 110 ruu-
uiug feet of hedge, a few feet (ff whloh oonsisted of onttings
that had been ke^ growing for a twelve-month, bat the
greater p4rt of their uiatenoe wae i^nt oh a LagCrstroomia
hedge, which on the Ist Mky had been out down to 2 feet
in height, olbared of every twig and vestige of a leaf,
irrigated eyery third day and enclosed within tarred
screens of split bamboo, over which a coarse cotton cover¬
ing had been stretched on rattan hoops ; as fast as this
hedge was oaten off, it sprouted again, and by the time the
worms had reached the ^r end, the new shoots on the first
tree were covered with leav^”
Major Cousamaker tells us that in his experiments ho bus
only attempted the oolleotion of tusser waste, but he
oonsiders it most probable toat the produotion of perfect
dry cocoons ready for the reeler, or reeled raw silk, may be
more remunerative. Major Coossmaker puts on record iu
his report some valuable information retarding the bfoooh
ing of tusser silk, which hoe bem plaOel vt hn dispcwal by
Mr. Waxdle. This geutleraan, it appeus, haa made sevml
experiments in overooihing the dia«(^ in tusSer Mtki and
has proved suocestoil in fafo attempts. Afr. Wardle’s
method, which will no doubt be *8f interest to those
interested in toe sito industry in this oountry, is as
foUowa :—Mixin water, well impcqinat^ trito eoft soap,
carbonate of soda oryst^, s^tud in we%ht to ohe<qharter
of toe sUh to be bleatoed, and imaai^ng the silk, boil it
for a mote than Tkm. ‘ wash it
(
I
i
i
f
f
i
i
i
j
f
H b peiAotiy cietth flmk jm»bmikrmww4iap veMe!,
and > £ni.!«n^p»«faeiaffiaia t» the liquid
Mrezida flf byd*og«». «W »**<» niaka it eJhaline, pom it
^ the dSc, iQitil it (x^eteljr oovere it The rili^ while
nn ^« ^ in ff thb tM«t»«w, muet be kept perfeotly ia the
dark, Midu tbe pewadde does not remain alkaline, a little
rnme ammdnla mbit he ftdded. Seep the silk in this state
for 24 hours, thei heat up the mixture till ha temperature
readhei 120*'-150* ?hhr., and let it remain at this heat for
iTl^rs, when it will he found that the silk has become
bleached.
Although Umor Coussmakers connection with these
expsrimente wm now ceas^ we observe that the experi-
umts ave not tobe«itirely abandoned, as the plantations,
Ac., ere to be tnuaferred to the central jail at Yerroda,
where it is probable they may be continued, as the
author^a, aocordir^ to Me^or Coustmaker, have always
taken an interest in them.
mmmmmmmaarnmm
COTTON IN THE PUNJAR
T he year 18B1-82 was on the whole a favorable one for
cotton oiiltivation in the Punjab, and compared with the
results of the two previous years, there is, during the
period under report, a sensible increase in the area culti¬
vated and in the outturn and value of the crop. The area
under cotton and the outturn and value in 1881-82, com¬
pared with the results of 1879-80 and 1880-81, ore as
follows
Area in
aotM.
Onttnm In
owts.
Value In Bs.
1879-80 ...
HlESSiSSi
644,483
1,21,12,122
1880-81 ...
781,729
1 9l8,26S
1 853,917
1,31,08,086
1881-82 ...
' 787,661 j
1,40,34,850
From the above figures, it will be seen that there has
l) 00 n an inoreaae in area of 156,636 acres, and in outturn
133,664 owts., and in the estimated value of Rs. 16,26,781.
Though these estimates may have been capable of im¬
provement, the tiooal Government considers that they may
bo taken as a fairly correct statement of the actual resulte
of the year. The average outturn per acfo for the pro¬
vince iu 1881-82 was leibs, of cleaned cotton, or the
same as for 1880-81. The district averages vary from
2381bs. in Jullundur to 281b8. in Sirso, where it is said
that the crop was unusually poor owing to tho heavy
and unseasonable rain and the ^ravages of insects. Tlie
divisional average for the 10 cotton divisions vary from
hSlbs, in the Rawul Pindeo division to 1491b8. in the
Umballa division. We observe that for some of the dis¬
tricts, the aveyage outturn is plaood very low, and in
others very high, and it seems doubtful whether, in these
instance^ much reliance can be placed iu the fi^irea The
case of Kangra in the Jullundur division is speoiaily noticed
iu the report. Here the estimated out-turn per aero is
placed at 29iba, and the Local Government is of opinion
that this can bo by Uo means a correct estimate for so
favorable a year as that under report.
The cost of cotton cultivation per acre is given under
tho following heads :—
(а) Luids irrigated and niitoured.
(б) Lauds irrigated but not manured.
(c) Lands unirrigated but manured.
\d) Lands uniirigated and unmauured.
Under (a) the cost varied from Rs. 11-11 in Goorgami to
Rs, 37-13-4 in Jullundur; under (6) from Ks. 6-12 in
Qoorgaon to Rs. 80-15-6 in Jullundur; under (o) from Ra 6
iu Qoorgaon to Bs. 26-16-6 in Jullundur and Umballa i
and under (d) from Rs. 6 in Goorgaou to Ra 17-11-11
in fullundur. Under all four heads, therefore, the cost of
cultivation ha* been lowest in Goorgaou and highest in
JuRundur. Here, l^ain, wo notice thattbe authorities are
inclined to doubt the ootreotness of these figures, and
the h(q>e is, express^ that the agricultural department
^ the province, reoently estabUshad, mav be able in futu^
4o assist district officers to imrao'ife statistics of this kind,
fbe aveiage retail and Wlide»^ prices of cotton per cwt,
ia tha^£aq|ab .lbr,tlu ymr ccmiiaiwa. srah the
yaar.l8AMi,am«ivenin tlsaMowi^jNdimw, ,
’ . . ...
' ffwt
,,,, , . , ..
' '■.VUSjil^sahr, lirtaiqfWftft*.' '■
181^1.
1881-82.
' 18M4L '' '
' ''.'''■I
B. A. P.
R. A. r.
R. A. P.
t ‘ ,
1 8. a.
21 7 S
19 7 0
21 12 \
■
18 2 8
The fbtail prices vary from Ra 66-6 per owt in Jhelum
to Ba 28 per owi in Bawul Pindee,' and tho wludesalb
prices from Es. 16-14-3 per owt in Rohtuk to Ba'25^8 pet
owt in Poshawur.
The total amount of cotton imported during the year was
68,068 owta, or 836 owts. less than the imports of the
previous year. In the total exports of tho year, there ie^
however, a very Batisfkotory increase; the quantity exported
amounted to 224,416 owts., or 83,660 owts. in excess of tte
exports of 1880-81. To this increase, Umballa, Jullundur,
Goojranwalo, Moolton, and Lahore have ohiefiy Contrihuted.
Of the total exports of 224,418 owts., Calcutta to<* 64,679
owts., Bombay 16,089 cwta, North-Western Rrovinoee
19,319 owts., Sukknr and Kurraohee 40,886, Bikaneer
3,600, and Afghanistan v4,896 owta.
Tho total number of looms at work in the province
during tho year 1881-82 amounted to 136,733, as oompared
with 104,^5 for the year previous, the increase chiefly
oconrring in the districts of Umballa, Rohtuk, Mcintgomary,
Gajrat, and Hazara.
EDITORIAL NOTES,
W B have to acknowledge the receipt from Meesre. Robert
Kettle and Co., Glasgow, of a very interesting aeries of
tables containing the prices, from mouth to month, of the more
important kinds of cotton yarns from January 1871 till
December 1882—an eventful period of twelve years.
The moat notable feature, it seems, in the prices <rf last yirr
was the sudden and important rise in oertain ohuses of yarnSi
owing to the war in Egypt, and the consequent diminution ahJ
deterioration of the cotton crop iu that country. No doubt,
these prices have since fallen to a point not much above the
old rates, but It would be unwise to assume that all daUger of
another advance has passed away. Oc the contrary, when we
vonaider that the poverty-stricken planters on the delta of the
Nile are hurrying every bale into the market to raise money,
and that April may witneas the exhaustion of the crop, the long
interval that must elapse before another can be grown may
again afford a favourable opportunity to speculators to force
up the price of Egypti.'uj cotton.
Onk of the most remarkable events of the ptUt yedr, con¬
nected with the Glasgow cotton trade, was the pitched battle
fought between the Scotch Turkey red dyere on 1 printers ind
the Gorman alizarine makew. The Germans suddenly advanced
the price of alizarine fifty per cent, aiid threatened, so it was
understood, to stop supplies Of alizarine. If the dySra did
•not give largo orders at the fiew and exorbitant rate. Thus
seized by tho throat in a thoroughly Rianiarcldan style, otlr
friends, the dyers, showed themselves to be quite equal to tile
emcrgeucy. they met the tactics of tho Germans with the
strategy of the hedgehog, and, by contractiug tiiemseVveS
to half their usual bulk, they slipped cleverly out of the grasp
of their Teutonic assailants. In other words, they cut down
IhAr consumption of cloth aild yam by something like 60,000lb.
per day, reducing in proportion their demand for alizarine,
and thereby gaining a decided victory Over the manufacturers
of that .article.
About ten yean ago the sooroe of the Turkey red dy*' was
either the madder root, ^r its product, guanciue. Sad any
one at that time predicted that io a lew years the gaswaeiM
m
«»p«(«d«4
Mrtoia lU^ticMi. Btit aw wmo pn^«t
tba^ JlH^ mate iW«i«Wti» of gUkinlEtng, 'wbiah ««■ <i&w«t<»«
wljW#>dto PV i!km«r a Kood prioo for
cara^K ^ Miqt«.noorlaad corav, voald
aoon become on« of fihe i^incfa ot nveuae to the oom-
psBiee, ln« aoMod f aa gMi e n - eraoU hare been looked «pon by
pn(e|ic^ SMR M aim^ wbmrd .and too gpod to be tme. W^od
yet both predlctioiu have beea amply ^aldUed. Coal ter ie
now a grefd>> and la. eome oaaae the ohief, aoarae of income
teiMio<^CIoa|i{wdMi,'"ddte, ite. alUariae,, ia iaoom-
■pateh^fte teote^alnaMaatei nlhMde mwmidwnaiibilmrhcy
nai lUtr'jdjMnfaate pdatenaia.
Mkteas. Kettus in their Obroutar aay The t^aW; two
or thrite jHteib hATb not bemi very profitable for the
ipfnt niaj^l? of p^Uoera in the dfiidu trada AUhoofdi
the v nlQi^ a, of bdsinaaa hat bten lat^e enoogb to keep
aw^doffi?, aoinib^ H {ua. not been anffici en tl y large to
aia|iid^<aiitetate and manufactuaemto get faidy res^onatative
ipttam She pnUbitiye tariff oi the United Btatea, the grad¬
ate' iiwrteao ef da^aadmpogrtein Franoe^ Qa/nmay, Aoatcia,
&aate4<aadff^paia-'-earatdl CO teauy deliberate attaoke on omr
oommeroe and manafactUrea, A Cpafedtetcy, oompoeed ef
neHAytelthe teviliaed nattena and of our own moat impoitant
otecfh^ has been formed against as, and the Government
bf 100 tni^ims of the largest conetuHers in the world are
ddihg trhhi they can to shut ont the prodace Of oar looms
and spindles. The moet important problem of the day is,
Mom muA w hose are we toaeoare compensation for this con-
etant loss of bosiness 1 How and where are we to find cue-
tomers to take Ute jfiacea of those whe are leaving osl
The first great field for the extension of our trade
and oommeroe, says Messrs. Kettle & Co., undoubtedly
fs Ifadia, Trae, vie have alsooBt a monopoly of her
tradSy Itet that trade is capable of an expansion
far beyond anything hitherto accomplished. In 1870-6
the tette importa ^ merohsodise into India amounted to 37
luiUlons, while in the year 1860-81 these had inereaeed to 00
raillidne, about aeven-eighthe of this sum being from the United
Kingdom and her Colonies. Bat 00 mllUoiis sterling is udy
about' 4i. Sd. per iiead of Uie population,—net quite a penny per
head per week from our Indian fellow-subjects. The imports
into the United Kingdom amovint to fully ;£1S per head, and
if the Indian people could only be brought up to a twentieth
part of 'this rate, or . to import a sidUing’s worth for every
pound’s worth imported here, the result would be that India
would ooBsnme tiirioe as much as she does at present, and we
alt know that a trebled demand for the East means a flourish¬
ing trade for the mills and the’factories, the dye-works and
the print-w(tf}M of Lanarkshire and Lancashire.
Bobbut Kbttlb akd Co., of Glasgow, in an interesting circular
i^pirdipg the progress and prospects of the cotton trade, says;—
” Sir James Bain, who has devoted some tims and attention to
India, and whose oi>inion carries great weight,, lias arrived at
the conoiusion that, with India properly handled, me may safely
defy Europe and America combined, and in spite Of all their
tarifla, Successfully maintain and increase Onr tneroantile and'
manufacturing supremacy. But Sir James goes further. He
proposes to lead India into the .groat agriCultnrat arena of the
nations, there to compete for the highest prises with ail comers,
and to wrest from the ^a^ oi the American fanner the
cereal championship of the woi'ld. Sir yamea calculates that
If the inreseat irrifmtiou and railway fadhties of India, which
are^ inadequate and trifling Compared with bet dense popula¬
tion and bcwndless agricultarte resources, were made abundant
and ample, she could pay the freight ftom her own (mores
to liverpod and thence to the sea-board citiee of the States,
where with her wheat, her ludlah com, and hSr millet, she
oOted nudeMell the western farmer and realise a handsome
pr^ib/ior bSrself. Such a blow, vigorously dealt to the United
Sti&lif), i|p to the ue«k, in proteotiem, wooM be “the grandest
fniaiiidf of tils gimemtion. ^miat an tateraottve
spsbteslo ii m a ted W to ssa the Amsrfaws lawaif Ic p l si fteg
ateiffy;to''-: g ! MteU : - inteHaA ;
teste; 'liaaBtfaH ]to4igj .^<ng 4 |«(^jpn|^ ^
grtelM C HpfletetlffW dM Ao4#iliiS&s bc«|i;y
srovu •auHui.viBU jtner preuperoos, am am Timw-niare valuahls
to; ttt dk a bi^er of ntiMlteiidlM eyte ^hte been. xh«
^ttietie inUfittifanas' M and'tUnt^turim,
classsB to k^'do^t ^aA to.'th^^dtafioh ^ the real
diarantor and m^flitlfa of. t^t . .oi^ntr^. ahd to their
eonsaqUBBt inability to' i^pteteteb ^ enwinoiijy, valuable
sigviateahao|«:m^rto‘itt,4g,«teton ^ .oiBulUy ioKtetant
sarvioes rmrdered to her. Shs is sspetetely and psoiliarly an
agstoaltoBte osnntoy^ and tberafenidKaatettlir wkat we. nquire
«B the obmptotaent to onr maa te kwtaiteag itetoatrteaat homa
Oadhar tteUte poptOkSem bsan.'ki ten obiae fxofiQrtu» m
ouia, har iowM and teSW sfbiUd INiiiMiffild a^ty miUioiu
at inhabitants, a ^nlaidoii litger tban Of all thb Btoteae.
Kotv, vdikt is faet t Ifte greiitete GUeit^ is only
about 100,000 larger thim GUu^w { bOh akodhd* ohy; Bombay,
about 30,000 leee than Olaagawq u^ils her third city, Madras, „
(md her fourth ciiyy LneknOtei xeqdire ts ba added together
to be equal to the queen of the Clyde. These four cities, with
all the other important cites of India added together, do not
oontain so many inbabitonte aa London. Ihe ptolfie oi
India are to ba tound, not in cities and towns, but
Settled on the tend 1 and it is oomputad ihat nearly 97 per
cent of the population depend inore or leiS directly on the
produce of the s^. Bat fbat pmduee, however oheiqfiy grown,
ie of no vktue to the Indiib fiaknter nnlesa he can find a market
for it, and no market can be found without raiiwaya Sir
James Bain, says that tniSih a few hundred miles of Calcutta,
grain is offered atfabuloosly ta% ptioee without finding a sale,
simply because there ^ ia at present no suitable means of
transit to the great consuming marketi. Kow, suppose we
were to begin in 1884 to make 2^300 miles of railway in India
onder Government goarautee, and to continue the prooeea
for five years to come, what would be the result 1 In the first
place, we should send out to India about 600,000 tons of
railway material annually j in Uia next place, the railway ex-
tensiou would bring every year additional millions of ludiau
cultivators into profitable connection with the markets
of the world ; iind the outcome of the dve years’ pi-ogramnie
would be that India would thrive as she has never thriven
before ; that she would become by far and away our best
customer ; and that the energies of the shipping, the manufac¬
turing, and the iron industries would bs texed to the uttermoet
to meet the legitimate and growing demands of our Eastenr
Empire.”
\Vs obeorve with much satisfaction that the mining
enterprise of Mr. W. 0. Law, of Moulmbin, in the Salween
district, Ims succeeded beyond ex^otatiou. A corre¬
spondent writes!—" Wo shall have bbtween -two and three
thousand tons by the beginning of the raina Tho want of
this country is roads and ppputetioa The Salween district,
where the mines are, is a dense Jungle, trees, nothing but
trees, for days and days, miles and miles, trees where men
ovff/U to be, and this aU beoailso there are no roads and the
waterways are so bad. The enormous fortunes in minerals
and wo^s here exceed belief, oOttld one only get at tho
places; but the ibrests ate all wtapped In the silence of
perpetual desolation, t^t is, aa far as men are oonoerned,
with here aud there oh)^ a few miaecabUi iKarens in villages
of 8 or 10 huts.”
Tr£ outlook for tbOae intemfied in the rice trade of
Barmah is not parUcuterly' bright. Most mQUna have lost
enormously by thter operatibns this s4aWA At the oommeaes-
ment, judging from bttote priees, tow ratte tone Icteud for hew,
and an attempted oo-operation amosgst hoyera to keep down
prices was started, bat owing to tke state «f eammtreial mor¬
ality did not last 48 buun. The Bortaese cultivators to tbs
district Withheld suj^es, k&d in eonsS^hoe prices ei paddy
have gone np frbto m. 70 to Be. 95, Itevhq' an euermote loss
ou oontri^ for delivery Of riee ratmlid into, taking the fcnMr
rate as ^ stsadard price. 1 am told ^lat ia tiie dtetriot ptoplc
held tmge etooke ef thatr ow% apd whUh did
mteesteBAteO^aMdlto wWiiB tfasgr 4tetoMlaMBs,9(b Sato
w
®* ’«»w» 4!bJ»<tWi togrt '*«W ^
’A^Si^ 5 ? 5 o
. '• _' .lint 1^ MmM.'wllUftflausfldt'At ^ tiu?8^ HUWli^W
TsaPtoyb^ »d
j|)*r<» hw .W41 i>8
2 &g 2 STL^T 5
S«Sd iiito fif^4ve <yvi«pp». ^
doing % ®»^ ^ pw>i?»oting a
-^ lasringlng many
t..'...WW or. t» ihta 'Wut ,Xt
9 l tbainl^bitwtnnl tb.
A TTdeed it i. -leabto aVnlL "n STto^n fwaing dwi tbn *pr &
^i^ewaw reported te *we-loet from S to 8 l^be of M«»|i . . . ., ,4f.._.v„ ^ »u.
“^^timir «n^, tU. «#PP% whUrt, ow^ to the non-
Sd of grtin Wthe ai«W<!t«,n»tiy rmOo J?^
f^ii,%e««ioning great lo« to their charterer The
’^‘^TutaASdrSoo^ima. and Doth buyenmndaeUer«
Sve“2a^«* W wLe. The former foolto to t^ to
to'todttoe ^tatee, and m aomeinatanw
cheating aaw iL.,*„«-a 4 .i-«*«««* ahort measurement*.
uineue that eewm-tentn* 9* v. y ytyfg rr
STto the fmwil*? clasei 9wi the d^ for
Station to botHt^f tbe l«ldatl« W
wpn** toh<dr into wgpa of late yeartt
effect of thej^e coni^try arangera. 4Jto(^h« ^ #»4^
i, to a flonrithtog oendition, and seems to U dotog Agpod
work. __
toM^er tw'iwow ywvc«i — " .
StingWch t>th*f% their Tm foUowtog wfrton the tAe
^or which the Eangoon paddy tirade hw ac^oir^ an unen^m baohmooda-ol <m wfatia
Tn,.«lla«airato.'when they found they had the out for themseim nom^ „„,„w ,Ao at aoiiiS
■^.rietv Th^Uers ag^'^he*' they found they had the
i“A toe banato, aS^id realise a handsome profit, are
tohoS^aimpiy rrito toe faint prospect of makmg
teSm They mayfiud toat they are kiHtog the
«r «»T
goose rorw ,n
iHi^Sf^smber d! ’future hnyete, and thus reductog
iStS f^toeir prodnoe, whilst their
CStori 0 e''«e ofensha,primitive nature to to. dmti*^
tSliiStowUlhe toond etentunUy that r^y tooted t^
iRBa cron will beomne damaged and unsaleable owing
of toe jjjjgo quantity of food will go to
wdSrest of toe world be of it through
buywi and eellers to Bnrmah being unable to conduct their
buatoeason amicable terms.
Mr Jobs AwamfON CtauM, the Secretory of the Institute
11 *th8 attention of farmers’ sons and daughter to the
nrnvidid bv toe institute. Could the Government of
lr?« -Sur technical lectures, illustrated by diagrams,
Sdmens and apparatus, on poultry
specimens, ^ ai-ranged that two
^uagemei^aud^^nm^^^
lectures daily e aavs. while to' attend all three courts
comp^tntotwrfv^^. ^ ^
xv^ T^^eier F-Z.^,from March 88 to AprU 0, with an
^litiEi on April 7 for J ^ ISS
e^amtoation
s^r^e^^-rSyrfor^rrifA
The lecturea are given at h^-^t ten i^ a ao^
* >.nt. Aav to the lecture theatre sa »« oouin
^S$l"TC"t w
to any of j<m W(adexB who may apply to me.
js.:nr.4.
^ 2 r«S:. 2 :
KalaJ», 1888 ,
Ul
tbomods of wno
out for themwlvea «w homes to *»»e w nx^
colonies, to«e«m«rt be a oonsidwable
SerTother have cense to regrefc the toeanttow xm of^tos
axe «r other tools, wheWby wounds
“ when far from medical aid. Under such clw«8«»aness
knowledge of ««« sitopls. cheap, yet ef^ioua
S5y a lae, or at least hf^ton a tar^y 1“
SlSmS^to’sgarden atliambe«».dur^t»^4»y»^««
I toere flouriabed one plant whose merits and nsep, 4( then
nototog attractive to eitheJ ^pe or colour,
iJiM^d to every emigrant’s noto-W^
Sary efficiency ITasresting toe flow of Wood fromyvftofl^
When Mexico was visited by a F«nch army some y^ ^ a
native suggested that the commanding offi<»r, Gene»^ Mwtoy,
should store to his camp a supply of what^ described as J^e
blood-stounohlng weed,” which proved to be tlie sati^ plant to
which toe English king’s gardener to IflSO gave hm name, to
his return to France, the General, ^vtog brought seme e^-
mens with him, planted and cultivated them at Vers^les, (md
enjoyed the satisfaction of Andlng the plant taklngjttodly to
the wil and retaining all the original styptic pro^rti;»i Sttri-
lld toit by toe enthusiastic Mexican peawint
power of suspending hemorrhage, on being oruehed or chw^
L applied to a wound, is said to surpa^ ev^ hithe^
known means. The Vienna pnes has lately been strongly
advocating its regular ouKlvation, and the ettg^tion saitot
weiniadopyto other countries. The plall is e^y feub
tivated, and would no doubt thrive jn both onr tiroploia tod our
temperate colonies.
1
Six years Ago last J^y, ^ J*
Nufloes^om oCppn’W*®^ Vith,8’?(> gokSs uud ;,40q begd ,^
fh«r^ C bavc d/)pP of toe.to?V»oi’-,wdW9f:to«f
apt been over tWP ■»» Cfpt .w tocir ,g99to,
diffefflun #«*s Wtoto tfto .to
Sfgoui; c4p wowtod to 4.|(ia wtoidfSn^W* 5*»* toW .fe
K ‘ffikSt anl^e jf MSPmV^^
profit ii)^ jn.toe hid" whiAatamwetaMMtodA gtor
' ' Jksooimofs, to (be ‘ «t_. Ti^, 4 ‘npcfflb
Ml' eeai'ta -tSoyerDtu'ent,,'^ lia
Geti^ at ifW Tori, fi^ irjdih it #onld &»t fh#
of'ilax (witioh me almoat nnknown iii tha ‘P'mtad
at ^ ooKanancaiuat of ihd pi^nt oantarj)'liBa of
^oara aoqairad a oaxtali liitportanoa. There are uov more
a milHon aorea dowted ta^afi-^rowing in varlooa parte of
UdIoSi Iowa ocoapjr^g; the leadioj; poaiticm abbtit
ifOOfiOd eorei, Indiai>a following with about BOOfiOO, while
nB&tA and KanMa each fumiah about 160,000 to the total
Ohio, Hinaeabta, WlaooiiatQ, Ui^ori, and Kebraska ahow a
tetal of abont M0,(Xlb acr«a. Trom thia extent oif land
undar bohiTation, it would at drat aigbt aeem that the produc¬
tion of fiax ia lAifioient to meet the domectic requiretdenta of
the tTnlon; but it ia remarked that the ineaperlenoe of the
growwa, and the inferior quality ^ the aeeda uaed, have com¬
bined to limit the advantagea which might be derived from thia
abundant eulture. An authority on the aubjeet haa stated that
f e nnea e omtiag 460,000 aorea are obliged, for the want of smtable
entiets for the fibw, toburh It, and only to preserve the seed.
.«i»e to out. Whue 181 ^ eym ■wste 'i^tad ont according ta
dhenewmaSked,«ofotopr«Mrvd13»i^of (he eye, the totg,
dBctwnwupeUmgJyaMtfcra In every oat«'
h out deep, IwwMMrWdU'^e 'iwH may he, gave
better yield and qtudity a»« artien a large jdeoe wg« gn,
liiaUaf#,' !S 6 mhhsthine tkr^ 'by butting p^toes in tbe
manner deecidbed, tbe ^etd may^ bb inocei^ at least 25 p,”
oent, wUlitHrgrehtBavingiaeifiiotedin'tha quadtity of seel
potatoes reqidred to plaiH tim elhjitted
Thb great money crop ca Weet«im i(wih ,A^ is ,tated
to be Zndian-oom,
Amoko our selections will be found a paper by Professor
W. A. Henry on planting and cultivating northwn cans-
While,some of the suggestions may beunsaitable for India,
others, we hope, may be vahwhle.
Tbepwteotion'i^Qrded by the-tariff to the domMtio industry
has to be oehtidered; and it ie fvcrther aeeerted that two large
Ithih firms, who have recently' established factories in Hew
Jecsey, are obliged to import the bulk of their requirement! of
the raw material
The oauae of this state of things haa been attributed to tbe
low pried' to which native American flax was driven, when tbe
reduetibn of the jute tariff opened the American markets to
large importe of the Indian fibre. The indigenous article
srould seem to have been employed at one time rather exten-
rively in the manufacture of bags and of coarse tissues. The
drccunstahoee allnded to brought about a depreciation of value,
which hais diaconraged farmers from giving the needful atten¬
tion to the much-needed improvement of flax culture.
It is suggested that if a proportion of the immigrants now
arriving on the ehores of America were to be put it in the way
of growing flax instead of wheat, &o., there would be more
ohanoee of sucoesa for those who have already been giving their
attention to cereals. In this way, it ia remarked, an improved
quality of flax might readily be acclimatised in tbe Union, and,
under the climatic advantagee it enjoys, the New World might
bs leasouably expeoted to produce those aupplies which hare
now to be imported.
Ar-a rsoent meeting of the State Fair held at Utica, New
York, Dr. Sturtevont, Director of the State Experimental
Statiem, propounded a novel method of cuttmg seed potatoes
for planting. He remarked that when a potato is planted in
iia natural condition, only two, three, or very rarely four of the
eyea vegetate. He maintained with elaborate illustration of
ugnment, baaed on experiment in germinating potato tubers,
that a single eye haa the capacity of originating all the potatoes
that «whole plant ought to be expected to bear. He stated
fh*t the first absorption which tidws place in the planted tuber
Is within definite Knee, vriiioh lines may be distinctly seen by
w pHWing the potato, and soakingHi in carmine water, when it
sriUbe' eeen that a line of vital tiaine rims through the centre,
wltil a Iwauh rumoing to eaoh Tubere may form any-^
wbettson these lines, as the life tit'tiie potato is not confined to
the eytii^ fCr a whole potato, after the eyes have all been
dtotrdyed,will eotnetimeadevriope a new one inside the old
ette,witiu«taay outwud vegetitikm whatever. His instruo-
'tiaoi for pbiating are-^Oot out each eye deep to the centre of
the potato ata'oertoitt definite angle, to be ascertained by
toepridmsht with oaxmi&a water>-doubtiees other colouring
inat(er, sulh aBtooat ofikeanifina dyes, will do as well—and
yon wtil got the ntariaraffl yield add the best quality of pro-
dnoe from that eye. T^rlab of thii ^an have been made at the
State Experimratal Station, of which Dr. Sturtevani is tbe
ShMtor,'with the fotlondng reettiti A hundred hlKs were
i|sa|fied in rows a loot apart. 'WbOrt' whole pototoea, or halves,
trq[tilnMjasr#^ifi)mted,,(htoe wttpo'aort of uniformity iu
tho'ifdeU^^lwlitwat^'ofadjriiSagltiUs varied M much as
The foUowtog analysis m {M<miu and India of the
Export Trade of Britain is compiled from the monthly account
published by the Board of Trade relating to the United
Kingdom during February 1888. It exhibits, in as clear and
full a mmmer as clrounstanoee will permit, not only who are
Britain’s best customers, but the character of the business
transacted with them. It is hoped that by this means oof
readers will be put in possession of information as to the course
of trade in its different branches that will prove of some
praoticol service :—
PrinclMl Artldles at
AXpOlt,
Alkali
Apparel and ilops
aaoka, and packiziff
oasea .j,
Boer and ale ..
Books, paper tor writing')
and printing purposes, >
stationery, }
CarMU tnot being rugs) • •
Coal, coke, cinders, aud
fuel manufactured
Copper, unwrought and
manufactured
Cotton, yam and twist ..
Cotton roonufootUTM, piece
goods of all kinds
Haberdashery, millinery,
&c.
Sarthenware
Hardware and cutlery ..
Iron and steel: pig. Dar."
bolt, angle, ana rod
Iron, rails of all sorts:
wire, gnlvanisod ornot)
bo<^ sheets, boiler
and armour plates, fire
plates(aastorwrought), v
galvanised sheets, tin
plates and sheets, and
idlothor manufactures;
old, for re*manufac-
ture, etsel, unwrom^t,
4w. J
Lead: pig, rolled, sheet,
piping, and tubing
Leather: boots ana shoM
linen and Jute yam
linm muiufitotiares
Jute mahufacturps
Machinery and mlllwwk,
steam engines, 4cc.
OUiseed^ ..
Baddtey smd harness
Silk: thrown, twist aad\
yam; slhc manufao*
tures, handkerchiefs, 1
•carves and shawls, f
ribbons of all klndt*,
Ac. j
^lilrits .. V.
Sugar: refined and candy
Wool: woollen a^\
worsted yam, ditto t
mtoufaotures, wonted [
faMotandatikffSi dM. /
83,4'’? 4,068
01490 890,891
««W9 76,m
99,888 89,861
' ‘787 ’8-881
48,720
791,088 898,943
4. 8y78D,m 1,688,814 I 4a(,888
169
JMMHBi
iport.
Apparol md slops
Ijigg, sncks, sell psoUntr
(WOS ..
BcoTondalo .. •*
Rwto, I^pw writing}
} and printing p)Urpo«w, >
f utatioueiyt *0, ;
Oui«t£ {not bdag rug«)..
('(Kil, coke, eixxwmj A&d
fuel manufactured ..
Copper, iwwrougkt and
mttiinfjwtured
Cotton, yimi and twlat ..
Cotton nuuiufactune, pteoo
goods of oU kinds
[ Hubcrdoaboiy, mlUlnery,
&c.
f RiirthonwOTO ..
j Hardware and ouUoiv ..
]rim tmd steel: ptg. oorA
Imll, unglo. and rod'
iron, rails of all aorta *.
wire, ^vaniaed or
not; noope, ahoeta,
< {toiler and armour
I plates, ftro platoa (caat I
j m ^vrought) ; galvan- ‘
\ i.4ed ahdeU, tm platea
and aboote, and all
otiior moDUfaoturos :
old, for rB'manufao-
turo I steel, unwrought,.
*e. J
Jx;:id I pig, rolled, ahoot,
piping, and tubing
boi\tuor: boots and ahocM
Linou and jute yam
lanen manufacturua
1 nto Tnanufacturea
Machitioiy and mlllwork,
htuaru unglnee, &c.
(MhftocdoU ..
Haddiei'y (Utd liumoas
bilk: thrown, twist and\
yarn; stik monufoi;* j
tiiros, Imndkorcliicfti, 1
suir7CR (knd sliftwla, f
ilbbouH of all kinds, I
*c, J
Sl>iritR
bugrtr: roflued imd candy
Wool 5 woollen and worst* ‘
od yam, ditto monn*
taoturcH, worsted fab¬
rics uid Btuffe, Ac.
XoiAtitf
105,703
070,ft
30
13,788
S,4Il
71,055
£.
185', ISO
S,017
86.888
50.180
18.180
06,180
05,742
28,248
07,557
251,059
6,720
02,101
U5,f30
7.748
Si,184
50,477
78,457
£
M,750
1*8',675
001,488
120,470
20,012
10,410
63,201
S5,023
4,4S8
5.751
£
S^llQ
0^037
117,076
15,660
8,671
84,280
l.O9t),087 j 340,770 j 103,248 2,210,307
£
34,028
31,801
48,367
48,658
133,316
38,000
178,000
83,074
77,029
306,584
60,711
36,482
68,215
604,203
11.014
46,394
8,274
Sl.Vfty
34,200
180,027
i5»,228
P,002
7U,008
lo.aos
&2,U84
177,81}
Many of the entries of exported articles are rendered in
these accounts in terms bo general that it is imposaihle to
include them iu the abo'7e tahula|ed sLatomeut. The more
important of such entries are set down as follows :—Aninials,
2I,755f. ; arms, ammunition, and military Hlores, 104,235/! ;
niannfactureB of brass, 37,606/.; candles, 10,270/. ; butter and
cheese, 14,713/.; manufactures of india-rubber, 84,278/.; can iagcB
of all kinds, 70,413/.; chemical products, 149,357/.; lace an<l
patent net, 321,158/.; hosiery (cotton) of all kinds, 106,019/;
thread fon sewing and stitching, &c., 160,717/.; fish, 6,033/.;
glass—plate, mirrors, flint, bottles, &c,, 76,022/. ; hate of all
kinds, 96,190/. ; leather, unwrought, 115,096/.; pickles, vinegar,
sauces, condiments, confectionery, &c., 90,278/.; plate and plated
and gilt wares, 18,461/.; salt, 31,180/.; soap, 37,809/.; tele¬
graphic wires and apparatus connected therewith, 22,738/.; tin,
unwrought, 87,777/.; flannels and blankets, 95,668/.; and hosiery
of wool and small woollen wares, 98,982/.
Tile enumerated articles repreHent a value of 16,470,210/., iu
addition to which there ore articles set down under the heatl
" tme,uimemt«d" valued at 1^10,«0W. The total dBelared
value of British luid Irish produce exported duiiiij' the mouth
of Fehruary last is 18.380310/. The tignves for the correspoiid-
mg period last year were 18^36,994/.; while for February 1881,
!dto;y 3 tood at 16,838,850/. The toal declared value of exported
articles daring the two months ended February 2Sth last amounts
to 38,889,469/,, wher^ the returns for 1882 wore 38,756,67'//.,
and for 1881, 34,164,461/.
Thk following agricultural etatistioa from a paper read before
the Society of Arts by Mr. Delislo Hay may be ueeftd
Lost year—1882— there were in the colony of New
Zealand 3,638,069 acres under sown and cultivated grass ;
1.003,488 under varkras orc^j of xridioh 8^1718
acres were ttnider wheat, SOi^lS acrat ORder oats, and
39)808 aoM under barley. You thus aae; whatt a vaj
small ptf^pdrlum (about l-12th) of even the fii8t.ellHa U|(Hcnl<
tural Iwd has yet bemt brought under wop. Th«e is an im-
pressioB {oevidSing iu England that New Zeahmd is getting
crowded, as far as tire farm lands are oonomned, and that not
much is left available to agriculturists. No dgubt it has arisen
from the fact that the Crown lands In the South Island SM
mostiy disposed of. But this is not to be taken as implying that
you cannot now bny laud there ; you can certainly do so} but
you buy from private owners, and, of covuse, at an advanoe
upon former prices. Nor does it imply that the land disposed
of by the Gh/vemment has all been settled, and taken up. This
is far from being the case, putting aside the question of the
wide tracts leased as cattle-runs and sheep-walks.
I am desirous of proving to you, said Mr. Hay, the enormous
capability of New Zealand os a wheat-raising country, and the
possibilities of the fatuiu in regard to this item. The iudiutry
is yet in its veriest infancy, but enough has been done to show
whut may, and will be, accomplished in coming years. From
the returns of last autumn—that is, February 1883—1 quoted
366,718 acres us being the total area in the colony under \riieat
crops. The yield was 1,037,236 quartera, giving an average of
rather more than 22 bushela per aci'e. The previous year, New
Zealand had exported 670,167 quarters of wheat, value
;£745,729, nearly the whole of this being sent to Great Britain.
The New Zealand fanner has already begun to enter into
competition with his fellow of Manitoba and the prairie lands
of Noi-th America, in supplying us hero with com, though what
he has so far done Ixi only an index of wlaat he will eventually
accomplish. 366,718 acres under wheat has served for a foiiud-
alioii to the grain trade : but this extent is only a tithe of the
12,000,000 acres—at least—whicli are suited for the corn-raiser.
It is profitable now to the New Zealand euhivator to send his
jivodiice to Great Britain, in spite of present disadvantages.
But when transit across Panama is rendered feasible, the cost of
placing wheat on tlio London market should be lessened from
the Is. 8di. per bnshel at which it stands at pi-esent, and tlw
profits of the grower will be oonsoquently greater.
Coni-raisiug in New Zealand must be considerably more ad¬
vantageous thau in North America, The virgin soil of the
colony returns an average crop of twouty-two bushels per acre,
about <1onblo the average of the prairies. An average of thirty
to forty bushels has beeu reaped in some districts, and ninety
bushels of oats has been known. Then, having no severe win¬
ter to contend against, the New Zealand farmer can generally
utilise his laud for a second crop of roots or other produce, and
can also make use of straw. Ills crop is also far heavier than
what is raised in Australia, whcl'e, moreover, droughts often
rentier wheat af.iilure. He h.os a home market, and an Austra¬
lian market, besides an English one.
It is iu tlio soutli-eastern part of the South Island that most
farming has yet been done. By far the greatest part of the
land now in cultivation is located here, and the production of
otlier districts has been slight, as compared with the production
of this. This applies to the piviacnt only, though, for the North
Island, and the northern section of the South as well, will show
substantial returns by-and-bye.
Agriculture is beiug more and more largely resorted to in
all the counties of the south-eitft section, giviin and other crops
being raised in all. But the chief wheat-growing counties as
yet arc Ashley, Selwyn, Ashburton, Geraldine, Waimate,
Waitaki, .and .Sotilhlaud, .Still, in W/u'kouaiti, Taieri, Tuapeka,
Biuce, tiutha, Bake, and Wallace, agriculture is promising, and
liU'g<! li.trvcf.t'4 of corn will yet be reaped in them also. The
stockman and shepherd aic boro giving way to the steam-
plongh, just as the export of wool and tallow and hides is boiuf
eucroaoheil upon by the demands of local manufacturers.
* The New Zealand of the future will be a country exportinf
her own manufaotuted goods rather than her raw produce
The Ixiglnnings of this are already evident, and, as we migh^
expect, are ^iefly apparent in the Otago and Canterbury dis
tricts. Take tlw item oFwool, which, as you know, has beei
one of the main exports of the colony. In 1880 the qnontit}
exported was 66,860,160lb., value X3,169,300. There was i
170
^11883,
tl»e swt Hum W» -wW *rta»
el tlUiJif:f4iiittfc'iiS’ip)Wji99(>, end '‘they
m^Uy. 417 Jwndte. Tl» »wtM!ai»,.i»
^■aleig eotit^ieeda thfit < ii1sm 4]| l»%Te a MMiden'blfl iiepotel
J881 the profit* <si tUa^etrtAUttn^ditsafi irate i£6,990> gii^ a
ten per cenC dlyidend to dutnlKdden. Ihere ie a toeenre,
toO| of,;£l^OOO. At jQodySf.* wlnirii of Dunedin^ thereto
, oi^otito*' Vn^en laotoryj; K^ch ooet X^,000, lor bnildinga afid
x«»oibtoiei 7 '. In the i rapidly, rising town cH Oamaim ttww to
nitothac.'. ,Xh0 lonrth to at BIato{»i, to. Ashley county. Thto
laa^ tote l|440.|^itodlee and ^.loopui, and it to said, that it oan
.ttu« fltptiiiQOO pain «{ toedhebiy and fi,QOO. yards e£ fiauned per
^ifaek.,, , 1 '
jlhes^ %utea may not seem very large, perhapat but Maa-
oheater and Glasgow had atnall beginntogs too« and the de^^elop-
ntent.ql maanlaaturing oSatres to New 2eatond will be more
l»pid, bManse^of the toeraased lacditieB proeniable to these
latter days.'I Wool and .woollen manofaotores. have the most
toiportont .bearing on the future country. It to doubtful il the
wp^'grcrartog capacity p{ the oolony haa reached anything lUce
itanlttorate inaaimum. The great die^walks pi natural'
pasture must certainly dimtotoh year by year, as egriovdture
to more reported to. On the contrary, laud at present covered
with useless .lent and scrub, or with forest, annutdly yields,
a larger and larger area to the sutler, which to broken up and
pnt, under grasB~made into meadows and paddocks, to short;
and this will feed moto sheep to the acre than the other; so
that the fiooks may be even increased in number, although the
present pastnree more encroached on by the plough.
CoNStTL McLain states that, next to the pine^apple business,
the trade to sponges is the most iniportaut industry of the
Bahabiaa, brtogtog considerable gaiu to the colony, and furnish¬
ing steady and. lucrative employment to several hundred
vessels and several thousand persons. At tost sponges
were divided into only two classes—^the coarse and the.
fipe, the former realising about twenty-two shillings a
hundredweight, and the latter about double that sum. They
are now, however, divided into many varieties, among the
.best known beb>Sf “ sheep wool,’’ “ white reef,” “ abaco velvet,”
‘‘ dark reef,” ” boat,” “ baidhead,” “ grem,” “ yellow,” and
“ glove.”^ The vessels engaged in .sponging are small craft,
of an average burthen of ten tons, each vessel carrying from
six to twelve men. They are furnished with about six weeke’
provisions, and coast along the banks and reefs where the water
to shallow, and among the islands where the sponge is known to
exist.. The sponges are seen growing upon the I'ocks, reefs,
and sballowB, the water being particularly clear, aud they
are brought to the surface by means of iron books, fastened
to long poles, or by diving. When first taken up, they ai'c
found to be covered 'with a soft gelattoons substance, full
pf Uff, and perfectly black, the sponge proper being but
the akeletpn or support of thto living organism. The day’s
ead.dh to Sfnafi *>P<>n the deck so as to kill thto living covering
wMdk, to decaying, emits a very disagreeable smell.
When a anfifioient quantity of sponge haa been gathered,
the boats are taken in shore, and a pen or hut of stakes to
mads on the beach, at the water’s edge ; the sponges are placed
inside, when the action of the tide helps to remove the black
covering, the process being completed by pounding them with
sticks. . Having been cleansed to thto manner the sponges
are irtnutg upon small palmetto strips, each string con¬
taining three or four sponges, being called “ bead,” and with
thto cargo the vessel returns to Nassau. A cargo will vary from
dlh to 6, according to quantity, quality, and demand. The
sales and handling pf Ihe sponges are controlled by the Nassau
Sponge Exchange Company, an organisation holding a charter
from the Colonial Liyd^tare. The company has. ereeted a
commodions building upon ode of the wharfs ; and it to
id thto bnildtog’toat U1 the spenge* are sold, eubjeot to certain
ta«e4.«K4 ssettriotions. As soon as. the daily sale to concluded,
t^)»p(mge*,aw .taken away to the packing yards, ..where they
arftuaspi^'pnd aHpped into good shape. They are then put
toto tubs or irats «f limwwater to spak for several hours, and
and dry in tli«
spa. . /.
. bides about three
fetoby twplsetin'^aufr, esrii oW^Pping lOOib., the packages
bring ooverisi yrithi’Shsm hsggtogi siidwly sewP and corded
shdareritoaiTMd^ fwghipiitoQti. yS3ithe work in oonnoctien
with ^e:s*iii8i«Bs^J^thSt^^ to perfoim.
ad’by ihd'^tdaobi. ilnre ha* ineeri^ been discovered, Con.
sal Md La in says, a new aud exledt|ve field of sponges near the
Iriand of Eleuthera, only sixty mtlto distant from Naafeu; i;,j
water, however, bn thto new field to from; five to eight fathomi
to depth, and tUshastlto effect of rtodering the gathering
of t^ sponges tedious and laborious, it to that the
field to a very ektenriva one, sttotohingovri:' many miles, auc
that the sponges are, as fed m knovto, all of the yi sheep wool,’
or most valuable dseertotion. Ihe'inajerity of "the sponge!
tonnd up to thto time are of a vei|ylairg* rise, and will not bea
outting to advantage, as the inner porttons'appear to be vei-
tender.
During’ three months of 1632,’thto field was actively worked
but a sadden interruption has occurred, caus^ by the fact tlu
myriads of small fish have invaded the grasqr bottom, stirrin,'
up the mud to such a degrei that if {u’O'veatad the spong!
from being seen. It to the opinion of ' fisherhien who havt
been engaged for years In this industry in the Bahamas, thii.
the sponges can only be gathered in any quantities in thi
field during a portion of the year when the wa^ to still aui
the fiUh to absent. This would detract very tonriderkbly Iron
the value of the discovery. It appears from . statistical return
of the imports and exports of the Bahamas that there is :
very large increase in the annual exports of sponges, the valu
in 1881 amounting to hbout J38,000, or nearly twice as mud
as in 1874 .—Jonmed of Society of Arlt.
Mr. L. Gisborne Smith, in the Jtidiaih Foreetef for April, Lh
the following :—" I notice in your vol. IX of January 1881, lu
article by Mr. Gamble, containing a list of tea-box woods use
in Darjeeling. Ho oonclndes his letter by asking some oin
to furnish a list of the woods used iu Assam and Cachai
As the tea industry is not ooniined to Bengal and Ass.iti
alone, I would suggest a general list being compiled of al
the woods used for making tea-boxes iu various presidencies am
provinces throughout India where it exists.
To further this suggestion, I send you a list of tea-box wood
used by the planters of the Kangra district, Punjab—
Palamporb Tbusii,, Kanqra District.
Chil
. ... P. imffifolia.
Baj
. ... A. WtAbiaiux,
Tos
. ... A. Smithiana.
Oi
... Alit^daitipukua.
Tun
, C. (oona.
Mango
... Jf. ifidioa.
Simmal ..
... P. emlabaricitm.
Ein.t,n Txtisii., KANcnu Dbitbiot.
Hail ... F. exeelta.
Bai ... A. TVri'ktPtthunpbre]
Tos ... A. (Brile'd;^dfat Paiampore.
’These are fihiefly uswl,'thbnj^ there are ijeVtoal other’ wbod
which I have no doubt would answer the purpose, snob 'ito'iddei
elm, poplar (pbalse), hill tdn, and tihil. Deodar to not nsei
for tea boxes owing to its strong smell of turpentine.
I hope to see the general list added to.
I KNOW, says Mi-. George W, Basoal, from practical expsri
ence that M. Bourlier and M. Hervd are quite uoerect ai
to. tbs value of diseased potatoes as aa artiols «< foot
for cattle, pigs, &c„ but the most important item to ^
observed they omit, in their dtoiatiotiSj which I revtoe a
follows;— ^
Boil the diseased tuben.fast till done ; drain, and let then
become perfectly dry by spreading,them out on eeves—a fpsuve
screen to tha best 7^ tuber« when cooked, to free Iron
potmu ; the .water in whiclf it to Imiled to a very strong
poison, and will scoui', if not kill, any «ninn»l that pairtakei
It Wh^ (Jj7,:.,llimqt,i(ig^jj|l»to»fly c%>lc(^th
,, and k«*F ia>4 0^ s iOn«; o^i^xtiNl
dried is cooking, ao thst if, liA^
Atity can be cocked M cw diqr,' Svery htrmt i^uld
w thii, w H woold «RV«?<blia«OjSMtig imy loM,bowe^
hie erep might bei
T appears that the suooflV the Afamednugf^ horse
cattle and agtitn^mnd exhibitloit held at JKagar
VnguBtlasthasezomdd aU expaotatloDS. ^ Theresi^
,he exidbition, so fhr aa regards the horse ; show, hare
ugbt to aotioe the laet that many exoellent mares are to
found in the distiiot, fmd the &mbay .Oovemmerit, is,
ircfoic, of opinion that oonsidemble improvement may bo
Ajtad in a &w, yearsdn the taeed, of horses through the
vloeB of the Government stailiomi. We observe that
le-brcodiug is aliio said to be making {irogress, . and prizes
ce awarded at'the erhibitiott to the owners of all maree
,ved to have been eovered by donkey stallions. Some
bbo exoellent bulls exhibited by the Ehandesh ihrm were
iglit up at the exhibition, and it is believed that tlieir
rchaso will lead to an improvement in the quality of the
ttlo of the district. The agricultural part of the exhllii-
u, too, was very successful. Some samples of excellent
xat were brought from parts of the district, and it is
isted that tlie exhibition will hayo the effect of stimulnt-
; the production of tlie bettor classes of grains. In oon-
ctioi) with the Ahmednuggur horse and cattle show, wo
serve that it bos been decided to discontinue the horse
ihv at Sirur, which is near both Poona and Ahmednuggur,
both of which places horse shows arc held. This will
ve the effect of making the Sinir exhibitors’ bring their
ttle over to either the Poona or Ahmednuggur shows.
Iv consequence of the early setting iif of the rains, the
.an/season of 1882-83 in the North-Western Provinces
les not appear to have been very favorable for canal
•igation, although the area irrigated during that period
xs 739,410 od'es, or 33,385 acres in excess of the area of
0 jjreceding year. The prinoipl crops iirigatod wore
garcaiie, rice, bajro, and juai*, maja®, fodder crops, fibres,
111 dyes. I’he increase of 33,385 acres occurs chiefly
ider sugarcane, maize, dyes, and miscellaneous crops,
lie total area of 739,410 acres was irrigated in the
Hewing proportion by the different canals of the
I'oriiioes :—
Acres.
TTppcr Ganges ... ... 330,070
Lower do. ... ... 199,116
Agr.a ... ... 62,263
Emitern Jumna ... 112,483
RohUkhund ... - ... 32,663
Dim ... ... 6,620
Bijnovir ... ...
Hameex-pore Lakes ... ...
Jhsnsie ... ...
Mr, W. CoiDsraxAH has written a very valuable note on tlie
iicijuragomeut by Government of private efforts by zemindars
.1 tree-pliinting in the Hoshiarpore district, which we give in its
utility :—
“ Captain Montgomery’s recommeudation, that zemindais
hould be encouraged to plant on tlxe erlges of efioha or sandy
orreuts, I entirely agree witli. Plantations in such situations
vould have.the best effect, and an effort in this direction is the
proper and necessary complement to reboisement operations in
ihe hills now under consideration. The useful action of plant¬
ations in stopping the encroachment of cAoAs oauuot be
lonbted; and ft is a fortunate provision of nature that the
ikUhv/n tree grows parrioulariy well in the sandy soils of
this district;, and a jdantation will iqiring up in most uufavpur-
sble-looking tracts in or near tffe beds of <Aoht,
“ The value of a belt of trees or plantation in stopping sand
drifu, of uHtf fsf, as it ie now generally termed, is obvious.
“ I think Captain Moj^omapy’s propqsal aa to terms is appro¬
priate, hut 1 would be to limit the concession to the
term of .settiemant, whw tlie plantation is formed on laud ac-
tuafiy a s sess ed to »venue*
“ I think also that Captain Montgomery's proposal to except
fruit-tfises is proper; sad I a^ ngiMi tbnt tl^ ntlss ahoald not
J^ye.1»ett^;ii!p«^e efl^ X andwstejA: tMiGkpta^ Ifonk,'
ths'lnad ls^'anaasd«i^4'«wrdas^
^Sv^ueonequal, tq hall ifiiteaitlAim.:
sboQ^ ^ elkmisd, I think this
Tbo.ldari tSti^ t khonid h* su^ect to supfendsitm' iiiy ;ii«^dMs*
triet Officer, who ihould have the power of '
when the potation was not properly looked after when young,
when^ trees were out down too soon, or too man; at onWi ei^
when.trto* out down were not replaced bj^ fresh safSin^' And «
the gmnt idtould not be made till the District OffioOrt» satisflad
that the .trees are not only On the ground, bat in k lair way of ’
doing well, and growing up into a plantatida,: ThWwOnld '
ordinarily be in the second or tliivd year alter the treea 'were'
planted or sown.
■< But there is another dii'ection in which J thiuki that .village
plantations riioUld bo‘ eneoUraged, and muelt rhiglit be done ^
judicious encouragement at settlement."
“ Captain Montgomery’s proposal is speoialiy aimed'.atdefend-
ing villago lands against clioh action, and this is doubtless the
direction in which Government has most to gain from villago
arboricnlture. But I also think tiiat village groves and planta-"
tions on a large scale might bo beneficially encouraged without'
special regard to their utility as defences iigiviust tlio torrents.
There are in this district, in the plains as well ns in the liills,
villages of enormous area, containing ahaniHat lands, generally
no doubt of an inferior description of sml, but quite suitable
for tree planting, and capable of bearing iim.st ralualde plant¬
ations of ahUhmn. and other trees ; sii.-U im kilaa', dhah or
palas fButea fi-oiidosa), ^»«'r (Ficus indioa), nud others. There
can be no doubt that many villages have tracts of land in ex¬
cess df their grazing requirements, and that even if plantations
prevented the growth of grass, they might have a much more
renhunerative product in trees. The grass on many of thesp
thamUat lands is of exceedingly poor qu.ality, such as it would
hardly be a loss to aUanJon. But I Inilievo tlmtrtho growth of
trees on many lands, if they were not jilautetl so as to be crowd¬
ed together, would not only not destroy, but improve, the graz¬
ing, and tlxus secure a double benefit to the village. It is quite
unnecessary here to say anything about tlie value of trees to
the villager in particulai', or of large areas of plantation to the
country in goiieraL Villager are now beginning, as mentioned
by Captain Montgomery, to appreciate the beuefita to. them¬
selves of tree planting, and many plantations of trees other,'
than fruit trees are to bo found throughout the district. But
they want I think, two hol]w. They need to learn, and have it
constantly imixressed on them, that trees will not grow propsrly
inless the area in which they are planted is thorough^ fenced
:n, and for the first five or six years kept free of cattle, and goata.
Secondly—and hero it is where I think a grand opportunity pro*
seuts itself during settlement—they used to he encouraged to atm-
•im, at proprictort, to rear aommunal plantation. I believe that
they know their own interest quite sufficiently to be willing and
even eager to enter into a scheme of tbs kind if the Settlement
Officer will bo so kind ns to show them the way. What they
sadly lack is capacity for corporate action. This capacity, I con¬
ceive, could be developed and stimulated by a very li^e aid bn'
,he part of the Settlement Officer ; and when the adminiktraf
.ion paper is drawn up, an excellent opportunity preeepts itself.
They would, 1 am convinced, in many cases be rn’ist willing to
set about making common plantations if, fret, they were only
shown the right way to set about it, and leooneSy, were assured
and became convinced that Government had no wish to inter-
'cre with their rights in the land or trees to be raised on them.
“ What I should propose is that when there is any large area
f common land, the proprietors should be encouraged to enter
conditions in the administration paper relative to
Fencing,
Planting or sowing,
Tending, [ A communal plantation or
Protecting, j plantations.
And in due time grazing In,
and cutting wood in,
“ Tlie rules need not be long, and might \)e very gimpls, tin- ,
der present oircumstanoes any propriftOT, who was pn^pessive .
enough and suffiriently pujjlicei^iritod to propose inaking,a eotp-i'
mon plantation,. would saeounter a hondr^ difficulties in tkh
172 THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST. May i, I883
_ .. . * ...
api^lty of •otQO and tie jaaloiisy othets of hi» fellows. But
if iiifw on tfcone pointt were ^dtkwia up in council undei- th«
itn]Mnwi8ion and at tbo instance ^ fMi official of influence, the
ice woidd be broken, and offioial sanction would nfford the
s«opMi 7 stimutue in a dimtidh to which they would feel that
all their own interests tended.”
Alt eateeraed correepondent wi-itee to ue : “ The Kagae in this
pertioil of the Naga iQlU (above Amgourie tea garden), are
gettir^ a good deal of mbbte from a woody vine. The vine
climbe trees and grows to three or four inches in diameter.
When the oaed-pode are ripe, they burst oi^in, and a light flimsy
mateiiid comes forth, and is wafted about by the winds. It is
this fact that gives to the vine ite Naga name Apunfftnanffe.
The botanical name I do not know. The vine is common in
the forest jangle of these hills, and the Kagas say it is in the
forests at the base of the hills, but not as abundant as in the
hill fOTMts. The juice in the green state and when dried has
every appearance of that from the rubber tree. It might
be well for Government to ascertaiu how abundant this
forest vine is in the plains and other hill districts of India :
also to give a thorough test of the value of the rubber from
this vine.
Fbou the report on forest administration in Coorg for
the year 1881-82, wo loom that the total area of the
reserved forests at the close of the year stood at 234 square
miles, or 149,866 acroa There wore no additions made to
the area of the reserves during the year under notice. The
work of demarcating the ghat forests was completed, and
63 miles of new line were opened up at a cost of Bs. 6
per mile. We observe that it is intended to depute a
settlement officer to go over the line thus demarcated,
with the olyeot of Bottling any olaims which the ryot
may advance as to tho inclusion in the demarcated area
of portions of land belonging to private individuals.
The results of tho attempt to protect the forests fVom
fire during tho year under notice do not appear to have
been as suocessfiil as in previous years. Out of tho total
area of 123,049 acres which it was attempted to protect,
only 46,666 acres were sucoessfully conserved at a cost of
Kb. 1,417; the failures amounted to 76,493 or 62'16 per
cent of tho so-called protected area. The fires appear, it is
said, to have been caused by shikaris and kurumbars,
and ore attributed to a want of vigilance on tho part of
the forest guards. Wo observe that some difficulty has
been felt in working tho remote and inacoessible ghat
forests, owing to the extensive timber thefts committed by
license-holders, who feUed much more wood than they wore
entitled to. To remedy this, it was determined to lease the
forests to respectable contractors, but the results have not
been satisfaotory, as tho contractor to whom tho Urti and
Kerti forest was leased, bos foiled to make it pay. The
local administration, it appears, now propose to w'ork the
forests dopartmentally, and this is to be done at first on
a small si^e.
An area of 109 J acres was added during the yeoi' to the
plantations already in existenoe, which measured in the
previous year 327f aorea The planting operations
generally are said not to have been very suooessful owing
to scanty and unseasonable rainfall; while the rearing
of teak in plantations is also reported to have been not very
satisfactory, in consequence of defective methods adopted
in Bovring and planting. There were 21 cases of breach
of forest rules prosecuted during tho year, of which 14
oases resulted in convictions, and 31 persons were punished.
The fi n a n c ial results of the year are given os follows :_
« r . Bs. A. P.
Beoelpts ... ... ... 1,00,363 12 4
Charges ... ... ... 69,868 1 1
Surplus ... 40,606 11 3
Compared with the income of tho foregoing, year, the
recei^ have increased by Ks. 12,507, the excess being
attiuDuted to large sales of timber, and to heavy fines
imposed Cn timber stealers. Only 60J tons of sandal¬
wood appear to have bera sold diuing tho year instead of
120 toai^ file ttmual quantity fixed for solo. Tlie deotOase
Is die to 'tiwsmall quantity of sandal-wood sold, the
authorities reftising to sdl the remtdnder owing to ii,,,
low rates offered. The mer. ‘mnta, it is reported. Lave
combined to keep the rates down^'sind the small quantity
of Cootg sandal'for sale has of late foiled to attract
richer and more respectable merchants, especially a^tbe
neighbouring province of Mysore has been supplying inuth
larger quantities of sandal fo the market.
Asr American paper says :—The enormous amount of jia .0
bagging used in the United States, and especially in the South
where it is required for covering six million bales of'-.cutlon
annually, directs attention to this article as a staple of great
importance and value to the people of this country.
Jute, ns is well known, grows Inxuriantly, and can be |utj.
duced with little trouble and expense in the Gulf States, Lm
the difficulty of preparing the staple for market has been iLo
groat obstacle in the way of its adoption as a Southern agricul¬
tural product. The jute of commerce is grown in India, and
is there prepared for market by the cheap hau<l labour of IL,.
natives, and as a consequence the Southern planter, at the rate
he is forced to hire labour, cannot grow and prepare the film;
so as to compete with the Asiatic producer. Attempts have
been made to use mechanioal contrivances for separating the
fibre of the plant from the woody matter of the stalk, but
heretofore no satisfactory results had been secured ; but now
a new machine for separating and preparing the jute fibre has
come to public attention, and, os far as it has been tested, it
appears to have accomplished the solution of a most iinportiuit
problem. Details of experiments-with this machine are giviui
in another column, in a letter from Col. Daniel Dennett, lie
presents an hitereeting account of the working of the machiue
at the Menelas plantation, near Brookhaven, Miss., on Frid.iy,
October 27th, when ft was employed upon green jute stalks
just as they were cut from tho fields. The results given aiv
s.'ud by Mr. Dennett and other gentlemen to bo excellent. .So
effectually did the machine do its work, tliat Mr. Smith, tliv
patentee, who was present to tost its operations, declared thiii
it would prey>are jute fibre for mai’ket at a total cost for pro¬
duction and separation of 2 to 2J cents per pomid, when tlir
imported article is solliug in the markets of this country ai
4 to 4J cents a pound, an unusually low price by the w.ay, but
one nevertheless which will p;iy a hand.somo profit to the Ameri¬
can producers.
With these results assured, another great iudustry is likely to
be opened to the Southern planters, and vast areas of lands in
Louisiana and other of the Southern States will be nvaiLable
for its development; but tiro matter will not stop with tin-
production of jute. The r^ie will follow logically. The nenl
of machines that will properly and profitably effect the prepara¬
tion of the ramie fibre, will doubtless bo supplied as effectually
as for the jute. The Whitney gin created the cotton industry.
It remains for another genius to bring the jute and ramie fibn-s
to a front rank in our textile productions. Lot us hope this
grand result is now about to be realised, and that other
great industries are to be opened up to the rich lands of lower
Louisiana and the whole Gulf coast.
The iV’ero Fori ExpvritmtU Station Dullitin has the following
note on milk :—
There is much to be learned yet conceiming milk. We know
that milk is not a filtration, but is manofaothied within each
division of the udder, and is therefore variable, according to the
working power of each sepai-ate factory. We know there is a
difference, through analyses of the milk of Moh teat sepai-ately,
as such analyses have shown a variation in physical constituents
as well as of structore. We also note that what affects the
efficiency of the factory, has also a pen^tible effect upon the
milk. It is this relation between the milk and the cow which
causes the dairy cow to exist, and which enables ns to say boldly
that breed is superior to feed. Qb account of this structural
relation of milk, its seention beoomea jnfluenced by heredity,
and the breeder is enabled to add npqnwties through successive
gonerdtious of seleotion, even as the book-keeper adds up his
suooossive items in the column of his ledger, in order to obtain
the totalresttlte. The <ff the Wild cow has not been
selected Ih the direction 0 * milk Thls^cdv in a state of nature
May 1, 1883. THE^NBlAN AGRICULTURIST. 173
yields milk, bat in the prelMnce' of ho*' o^. The deiiy eow,
however, the creation of the ert ef man through the prooeee of
selection, has had succeesiVe advanoee in milk-giving added on
to each generation, uotih uidilfie the wild cow, the dhiry oow
yields milk to man, irreepeotiv'e of tlie presonoe of-^e to
excite the flow. The wild cow' may be fed on the meet succulent
and milk-promotihg foods, and yet she gives no profit to the
dairy-man. The dairy cow,'however, responds to feed, in milk
to a greater or less extent, according to the heredity of the milk
secretion which she represents.,
Under this oondition,'we should expect to find phenomenal
ocourrenoes in our individual cows, such as excessive yields of
milk, of butter, or of cheese j yields promoted either by
acmdentel piroumstanoet, or else through what wo must call th(
ocoideutal accumulations of heredity in some special direction
Thus, in my past experience, I have known the milk of each
teat of die mme cow to vary from 24 to 42 per cent of cream,
and one day the milk of a cow which usually only marked from
13 to 16 per cent of cream, gave distinct definition of 60 i>er
cent of cTeam. Thus, some Jersey cows have yielded as much
as three pounds of butter a day, or more ; thus some cows hove
a recoid of rising 100 pounds of milk a day for several
successive days.
Frok a recently issued circular of Messrs. Ohiendorff & Co.,
we quote the following :—
The one mineral element to ■which too little attention has
been directed in practical agriculture is potash.
In most stiff soils there is sufificient available potash to sup¬
port the drain of numerous crops, especially of crops whose
roots penetrate sonte depth in search of food j on the other
hand, in most shallow soils of a poor character, in moor lands,
and old pasture la^ds, there is seldom a sufficiency of available
potash for the proper development of the crops.
Carefully couduotod oxjjeriments, notably those of the omineut
French chemist, M. George Ville, has proved that a defective
supply of potash is fatal to normal growth, even although the
crop may have at its disposal plenty of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, and tlie other elements of plant food.
Some plants require for their harmonious development more
potnali than others, but all, without exception, require a certain
quantity, and where the soil, though well drossod with nitrogen
and phosphatic manures, produces disappointing crops, the most
frequent cause is poverty of potash. Bearing in mind that the
entire quantity of the mineral constituents in plants is only 1 '
to 3 per cent, about 95 per cent being carbon and water,
derived from tho air and rain, the following table, showing the
approximate qivvntilies of potash and phoS]>Uorio acid carried off
by tho principal crops, demonstrates in a practical manner tho
important part acted by potash in plant life :—
A crop of contains in lb.
per acre ; Potash. Phosphoric Acid.
Wheat 6 qrs. gram
... 9J
154
straw
... 29
11
Total
... .38i
Barley 6 qrs, grain
... 11
I.-;
straw
... 19J
5
Total
... 304
20
Oats 0 qrs. grain
... 9
13
straw
„ 24
4
Total
... 33
17
Turnips 20 T. bnlbs
... 126
31
tops
... 76
28
Total
... 202
IT
Potatoes 8 T. tubers
... 68
184
haulms
9
3
Total
... 77
Zi
Hay (clover) 2 T
• ... IT . ...
30
Alans 26 bnsh, corn
straw
... 28
24
... 89
12
Total
...
... 112
IT
It i« hot to be inferred from the table that the application
<d potliyh li mpre neoewary than that of phoqthorio aoid,
because deep soilf obataih he a rule naturally sciffieieut potalh,
and light soils usually .a ..little, whereas almost all soils, Imth
heavy and ligh^ ^flcient in pihoaphoric acid. The figures,
however, pre^'t^'(^^re 'there uot naturally sufficient
potash, or where frequent cropping has too much exhaiisted
the natui-ol supply.in .the seU,itiibr, easentiui to add this («>u-
stitneut.
Probably tho bast way of sappl.'jing potash is in the form
of genuine fainif, which AouW contain a little over
23 per cent sulphate of potash, mid equal to about ISi per oen t
pure potash, aud inoludes also a large proportion of magnesia
and soda. The following is a complete anaiysiB of jkainit by Dr.
Aug. Voelcker:—Water, Ifi’fil ; sulphate of potasli, 23’03 ;
sulphate of magnesia, 17'26; sulphate of lime, 0'95 ; chloride of
magnesia, 14'64; chloride of soda, S7'27 ; insoluble matter,
0-46—total 100-00.
One Qwt. of iainit contain*, just nbeut 14 lb of pure potash,
whereas it takes 28 cwt. of farmyard manure to provide tho
same quautity.
The best time to apply ktiiiii is in the autumn or quite early
in the year.
It is also found ndv.-mtogsous to occasionally spread a little
luiiiit in stables, catUe-yards, and on manure hoap.s, as the
ammonia in the manure is thereby partly fixed, whilst at the
same time the jicrceutage of potash and magnesia in the manure
is increased.
Tks following Resolution of the Government of the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh, Publio Works Department, Irriga¬
tion Branoh, No. 6181 of 1883, dated the 3rd March 1883, exhibits
concisely the work done :—
Tho kharif season of 1882-83 (from 1st April to 30th September
1883), was not very favourable for cane irrigation owing to the
early Setting in of the rains. In the beginning of June heavy rain
fell in almost oil distriots, but the break in September oansed
demand for water on the Bosteru Jnnma and Upper Gauges
Canals.
2. The returns, however, show au inorease of 83,386 in acreage
and of Rs. 1,6-1,684 in assessments over the totals of last year,
Tho total area irrigated during tiio season under review was 739,410
acres, or 7,826 acres more than the highest ever recorded, nh.,
in 1877, a year of drought, when the irrigated area excooded tlio
highest previously attained by 220,960 acres.
The following statement sliows in detail the areas of the principal
crops irrigated during the last foor years
Table I,
1879.
1880. 1
1881.
1882.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Sugareane
166,661
136,292
164,669
197.978
Rico
76,903
133,370
101,765
96,357
Bajra aud juar
6,635
43,266
4,141 j
5,104
Maize
17,263
89,274
22,.87e
33,411
Other food-grains
12,636
9,207
6,887 '
3,982
Fodder crops
6,996
7,924
4,334
9,930
Fibres
59,580
63,680
63,247
40,722
Dyes
186,196
194,983
319,992
316,872
Miscellaneous
26,871
20,0tt
18,304
24,334
Total
556,641
700,139
700,026 1
739,410
Sngaroauo has far oxoeedeit the area of lost year, and the increase
is fau'ly distributed over all divisions. Rico is slightly under the
average of the last throe years. The chief foUlag off is on the
Rohilkhnnd Canals.
The increase in food-grains is due to the large area under maize,
which oultlvatora ware compelled to irrigate owing to the break in
the rains in Soptembor. The increase in this crop alone is 11,000
acres.
3. The items given below exhibit the aggregate differenoes in
the chief crops a* compared with the previous year
1881-82.
1882-83,
Aores.
Acres.
Bugaroane ...
164,660
197,978
Food-grains
133,130
160,784
Dyes, fibres and Others
406,207
300,648
Total
706,023
789,4)0
174
May;!, 1883.
THE INDIAN
__ . ___I
The life {9 the MVMg^ ta^uam b hbna equal to the t^
IncctMe b the .tol||»t 6 <l »»* « fhaet that In
]■ Monterbeh^ierf by * 4 ^ia^ 4(i «yb, ftb. the ;iiaBSii\ti^
hove^i In btter b hot 4he Hb My ai^ebbte
the. eiee t|utder isiUt'o, tht thW hfider which b 'Hjim
aghlMt 8 l», 0 *ft eeiM bht tbb’
4. Table il ootaptxtM the inigated areM of the two yhlin Iffil
and 1882 , by oanab
Xawjt.IJ.. ■
AL asvmAmm'
I'rheTiaa”*'****^^-
the f(dh>wb>g tiOnimniiikHb^* > ib6i|A' u frott e native
agfioidtBBbt m have uedo ittfi eittatt^.to duit^te tba
. SjiJiehfOtiie^bir.'t.Tjlo,^ ' !
fnEIS. crop 4* .giwim in i thn ee t idS.- ht&iaa tot Senov tt ia.
X oot heftt4,th»t it jf e.T^t!^%?ib^hih^tjil»iXt»t9aD.
Canals. .
1881, .
1882..
More.
Lett.
Upp«x Gangee
Lower Ganges
Agra
Bostera Jumna
BohUkhupd
Coon
Bijttonr
Hombpore Lakes ...
Jhonsl
tSUn'
204,873
86.497
104,187
38,^
A318
2,884
40
28
I Acres,
338,873
196,118
82,268
^090
1,678
76
O
Mu
A386
"'«»
SI
18
. Acreo. ,
"Hiisi
4,284
‘8,‘289
1,216
Total
706,626
!;M;410
47,861
14,166
The Inoreaie on the Upper; Gangee Oanal ii In the four
upper dlvbloni, vh., the Northern, Meerut, Anupshohur, and
Bnlundehahnr, which. In round numbenij have extended theb Irriga¬
tion by 3,000,17,000, S,000, ah4 10,000 aoree, teapeoUveiy, over the
flgoree of laatyear,.
On the Uower Qaugei Canal the faUlng off b entirely in the two
old divblone, the Oawupore and BtawM), pudsg to ihort aupply In
the liver in the a^ly pa^ of the aew^ Tha npw dlvbiona ta^
by theneelvai, diaw a al^ laoreaae, 14,800 aorec againat 06,827 s
and tbb, might have bean greater had there been nwre water avadl-
able for the tall portbni. .
The principal eropa in theM new divbtone compare ai folio wet— ‘
Crops.
1880.
j 1881. .j
1882.
Sagareone
Inmgo
Cotton
Others
Acres. '
2,786
18,171
1,220
11,687
1
Aorss.
6,662
.51,866
250
:' 7,770
Acres.
6,416
66,720
80
8,086
Total
28,717
66,627
1 74,800
1
Thb clearly ehowa that the tendency b for angaroane and Indigo
to Incieaae, Cotton apparently b unable to obtain a footing.
There b a alight falling .off on the Agra Canal, the decrease
being about equal to that fa ootton alone. There b, however, on
Inoreoae in lugarcape, but ahnpat the aamt decreoie In indigo.
On (bo Bohlljiditt^ Ca n o l a there. b a rbe in angaroane and. a
fallin g off In rice, and, on the whole, there b a al^ht deoreaee.
Thb b due to there being no deman4 for water for late kharif rice
sowinga, ,
On the Soatern tfonma Conal.the inneaM b dM to angaroane.
S. Tabb m ihqwe. tM goaeamn^ on aooonnt of oooupler'i
rate of the lost four yeori i—
Tobu
1876-33
1380-81.
' '' ‘
1S61-MS.
1882-88.
Upper Ganges
Lower Ganges
Agra
Bftit6TB JutlUllk
Bohilkbnnd
Co(m
K!ltbii,d :::
Bs.
12,01,«70
81,072
99',||8>
8,6e4p
20,106
16,216
1,146
466
Bs.
9,00,786
4,18,900
98,066
8,96,767
46.887
17,116
4,781
476
Bs.
9,69,858
4,62,943
.1,68,668
16,762
6,878
181'
Bi.
11,01,884'
6,11,884
l,87A91
16,886
3,016
116
Total ...
J7*42^
18,92,780
21,18,706
22,60,290
The rate per aere b 1^308, as^-b thereforattoMtetbowthalt
of tart yaw, ifhhih Jtta ^[gfattyj^ *a 8, ia»b b due to the
isomw faty «Um |rf rtopa.
It b known aa a root-cwop. It atao prednoea aeed-i^ii.
jort like .that H .tnaatnrd,, wlfh the 4mly diSacaMei of lit
colour, Ai oaed Jaftf tbahNh ooby.
character ,«n he preaeqa bnt.no. eiqparimetttj ys w,
yet been mode w tlb afifrt. iBoafa bf 'rt nbm'a (uepraa’
and root ctdotir, Tbeel toOta'ttfaga nft ’i to a irt ib i 'te d t6 IfaiMand '
whenM.wegeilba^tifnUyoQleaeeuetadBbxAweiibeknartn. uTbabe
etuf^ are aol^ .vecy. dw, here, , What#^ oolopc w^a fr<nn
the roqto b veiy deep. . Ai aofue plaoea in
Khamgam, Daryepdte.'Ao, won>0 traoeo .of Ite ooioarhutna*
faotoriee are atfll taen. A greater portion of these rootob
abo exported .bosk Bmi to Chahwpora iaBengal whera goeid
ntaptl^ (rqfajfo*), iharvm (red qlothe used for auutlng
covering to cushions) are dyed from .ita ooloups. ^tese dlotha
are well kiiown here aa '‘Nagpore'Kharwas." The slenderer
the roots, theltetter they are considered for making colours.
These roots when latjge are called “ kandaa.” The sleuder .roots
fetch a doable price m bseaar. It is a matter of the greatest
imporionos in ita cultivation that .i.t, thonld net be allowed.to
feed larger.
CLIKA'm
As this crop b w^-grown in Berqr, it . must be said that the
Berar climate suits ^ better to it. The climate of Berarj
is, in general, hot. The averaM of rainfall here every year
is little more than 30 inches. There is a very little difference,
if it ever b, between the Berar and the Deoum cHmate
excepting some districts. .Much raipb considered detrimental
to ilus crop. In the first year a infety dtal crop, either
of jwari or castor-plant, Is generally made w|fh the al. .
Soil,
The ayioulturbta here prefer for- thacrop tlie loamy sand
of the calcareous (»^der ; deep black aqil does not suit It at all, .
for it assists the natural prqpensitTof its roots to penetrate
deep in the soil, and thus to chensh large kandas to use-
lessuesa.
PionoHiNoa.
The soil to be grown with this cnm b not required to be
j^oughed. Such b the opinion, of the OulavatoN of long standing.
They say that ploughing makes the soil easy of penetratbn by tte
roots.; and this very fact reduces the value and usefulness of
the produce : mond, if its roob are once penetrated deep, the
soil' cannot be oleai^ of them entirely. The remainders do
great harm to any other crop made on the soil to the con¬
siderable, loss of the owner. These faob, say tbs Berar
agrioulturbts; induce them, to pmypars fields by making use
of •‘bnekbarB",only, With thb they turn vp the soil, Its action
b confined only to the surface soil. After turning the soil
up and down a little, they sow the seed by a drill in closer
lines. It b generally sown after the Mrig-abowsrs watered
the fields.' A bigha remiires about four payaUs .(kacha seem)
of eeed. If jwari b tne object of growing with it, every
p^aii (4 kachia seers) should be mixed with one seer of jwaii.
About ten days after, germs are seen peeping modestly on
the field. The field should be weeded no sooner does the
crop reaches the height of an inch. The work tt weedifigf b
f enerallv done either bT manual labour, or by an instrumsut.
t reqmres three vears to be ripe. The first,year's expenses
are defrayed'on the income of toe jwari sown with it The
second year givee a good crop of its seed whlchta ^te safficlent
to bear that yeara expaose on the field, ^t&g the third
.year toe root crop b ready. The seed b sold in bazaar here at
Bs. 80 to 40 per khondl (39 kooba maouds)- f
PairapaTioa of its Siko. .,
Tfiie Irses bear fruits during the second ywr. The fruits
are very bard. The shelle of the fruits sre filled up with
finall Qlaok grains. Haviim picked iw the frrtts from the tress,
they am rotten being mixsA with double the quantity of dung.
Wlme the fruits are beingyputrified, tocrare frbdden ewer '
by mm or by buflelocA' Tviey ore patriBefftoiato an sxtUit
that tfie teens beoomes ysry detestable. The nils itself be¬
comes a lovely abode of dirty wornn and lumote. (Thb
must be. done at great dietanoe from the habited Jocoh^ tb
avoid fiSisaaoe.) Ab filth b falmn after a a. v|vm^
where,Ac fmits are wojtoed clear, and too.
mall brain ore obtained. _fr(im them. The ash ci toe husk
of toelbtdta b very usefui, os togy oay, to rufrtomteeth with.
‘ No.-zaannm b regidxsd, or at kart toey do not use it for
irs
ijs<r,.
JIM^ {teri^l^ ia
H iccii^ feM B di fc Iti tKuuiltr ft Kban^
mpeaa to the edlen
' Aitetoti, Ijtt iprU 1883.
,ted talge bcm. 3 to
fetobM Imib 40 to 60
S. C. G.
AGQKiCJtrLTTrBAL ipTD ffOR*ftCULTTmAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA
tk» mwA MonMy Meeting thU i*iii)ietf wai ketd im Wedn^i^,
. the xletMgrcM^,
in the Chair.
ffioethiH were read and
g^r. P. W. D., Haiarlba^,
he Moretary, Moohded hyalr.
W. H. OoewwKUh.
Tm praoeedioge of the’
eoatnned.
' The Mlo w tn g were elected memheri;—llOMiibea Madho Lall,
MalomB. O Ooti^, and F. B. dl^owlet B.A, tliie 1^ .Momet,
Mem*. D.- k; M%I»o&, B.B. Wler. D. Jr. Zchii>t7iwid^Er. J.
^Mkiine
Mr* !0e^ White, AAri^iiot K
wa*..Bn»dMd aa a ueinber by
J.£..MaSMUan
C(»n»t9TmoKB.
1. Adhi^tilaiKdhof Beng^ 1881-82, and Aai^On llkaxtetnal
' tradt fbi'18814(2.—From ^e QoVetWhent dt Kdigal.
2. Benort on the Government Botanioal Gardena of Sahamnpore
and. HaUMbife.—From the Snpertiitendent.
t. MOnthljr theeti^ of the AgriooltoMl and Horttonltnral
'Societyhf Sfadrat' foi'December 1882,' abd Jahtuuy and Fabmary
1'888.—F^m the'Socic^.
4. Bepqrt of the' Qneentland AebUmatiation Society for 1880
and 1881.'—Frdih the Society.
TndiaH Ibretf^, Parta 8 and 4 of Vol.'Vm, Noe. 1, 2
and'8d!TeiJ;lX.—Fi^ the Editor.
6. ' ‘’FfopUdl AgncnlturUt for dannory and FeKmary 1888.—^From
the BiUtor.
7. Bbiiort on Fi^w Gardena for 1881.—From the Dlreotor.
8. S'Dnmal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Part I, Nos. 8 and
4,Fort Iti'Noa. 2, Sand 4 I6i 1882, and Froceedioga for'Secombor
1882.—From the Society.
9. Memoirs of the Ceologlcial Sarvey of India, Vol. XJX, Part
8, and of PidmiUblogia Indkd, Ser. XIV, Vola. i—3.—From the
Superintendent.
10. Betknt of Chamber of 'Commerce for half-year ended 81at
■ October 1882.—^Frbm the Secretary.
11; Calcntta Exhibition of Indian Art Manufactures, 1882.—
From thO Committee,
12, dbihmal of the Bombay Branch, B. A. Society, No II, Vol.
XV.—From ^ Sobiety.
13, ' FouV, Iclada , of Palm Seeds.—From the Director, Beyal
Botanic Gardem'Maurltins.
14, A qjmmraty of cuttings of tb'e Aloo Bokhara and vines,—
From BhWrlritendent Bohnuo Gwden, Sahamnpore.
IB, A bf Pean Seeds.—From Mr. John Stalkartt.
Tnb Fresideht having announced a vatnabie don^ion to the
Oa^en from Ml. W Stalkartt, of two fine large plante of AraneaHa
phoMl, the best thanks,of the Society were voted to that gentle¬
man for thie' acp^mble icontrlbiition. ' They have been planted out
near the prinolpal entrance gate.
ArBioos Oil.
Messrs. ;^ ^oott,Thomson repo^ on this'speolmen : " Is aj
pnrb oU, and 'piiy be used for au the ptt)^ea for wUoh orr
iSimotta w wjat present employed. , We. Uw tjwted It tb 1
wlbiqb it dofm AOtt ^hich' would mokei
It snUaiae for lubricating fine mebhanioal work*,' There would be
„ " any demand for It in ^l* country., but no doubt H it
could^ landed kEngland at 9tf. pCr Ib, it would meet'teiady sAle.
The aotnat value of it as an article of oommerCe' can'duly be as-
occtMned by sending a trial shlj^mentpf it to ' En^ a U d.**
Gabo Htlm Oonoir.
Bead a leit^ from t^e Under-S<(orctary to tfie Qovertitnont of
India, Agrlenltnral Department, rtonesang ,JO, be Informed If the
Bociety can fnimish’ any farther Information, re g ar din g Cotton from
.Cbiimaons and the Garo H^s. Theescretary menBoned that all
noeetosed by tl»e Sodety had beeb introduced In
,Js a^^note now furnished by the Government in
ooaidnnw;^ M *0*' -
The fievepnp
M ___^ ,
oUen" Milis at,tlmrt*«“r» to|he uotah
^ ^mpany at Alleifebad, and to the A^ri-
S(^e^ •« Calotttta. ..
The oPiotpns nmved' am nnan^ous in deeurtiig the oottop
for ipimning ^rpoeee by itself, because M toe shoitnese
of tte dbwafWTtWAW* W$J*Me nature, wW^rt^
toetomisbc^tostjNurpto.toeW^
Wist. TOe Staple Is fpW toTrtMm-
Die' la umoav w reapeote the" Nagpore^jnCrry, or WUt'te tn the
Berara called hlaUi oOtton ; but It seems to be miore Vegnlte In
r ,|s a nose now lurnuaeu cy sue uorenumvs in
im'.sabiect-
i^culpttnl Department reused lately from
iasi<m£m Assam, •ampl* ^ M' .obtton
^tbeOaroandCSiittagongNillFracts. Quahtl^iae
re sent for pplnioh m toe Empress'Mdls'at Nag-
j|l.Bbf mKis, and Woollrt 1*111* at ' d^-
oottffl ^ flmt ajSjbia l .FfbwBow j|» depreoated by the Mani^jor
of toe.EmprsjH. MiQi. irbo^ntN^Rme ago also brought oWee-
tloM against the Nagpoto
The cotton does not, Imwevn, pimn to be altogether aseless. It
U valued, and hi^yaov,for.mtmng s^tb certain efawMs of wools,
worn Its hard, hcBn^apa Mil® Sm iijwd In fact la said in soma
J**F“** to wore resemma worn ini^ ootton. For oarpet-making,
too, the Indian Ci^pet Ma&nmotpclng Compmiy of Allahabad
appi^ee of ft, e^ tbattft li;, enpettor oommodity, and
would be vtduable for toe mterkindij td stair and ea^t .clotbs.
The ootton has eltnady attrtioted e^eoUim in commenm} qimrters,
and an wpprt ttade Veiwr^ Op. The Dcpnty „OMniaissloner
t the Qw H i l l s DistrlK (Cwtsm jH. St. p. Maxwell) ' reports
t,_r<mghty, the amount of ootton exported'amoally »onl that
-dirtnot li not Im than 4P,0W..iaaunds whan dieaned* official
retums of trade on the other nana ehow that 88,360 Mpod* of
fromuCUhbagoing Nsraingpnipe.. TheAgri-
gorUimltiwia t&t thy atmk is flnsady being
mftenatvely nn^ in the m a imn wture of Saxon woollen fabrlM on
the -(^B^tof Enrapo.’,.
The wholeaate price of the ootton in the Garo HiUs district varies
from Ra. 10 to Be, 17 a.maund aocoydiag to toe segsdn of.cimort
and bade deiUand. The price in 'Calcntta varies between Be. 18
and.Rs, lO.amaund. . ,
very, abnpdant in tbo Oaro and CSditegong
■ Hills dtotiiola, and &pt«tai Maai^ll, reports—referrl^ to hie
figure ol eimort(40,pW,mantias)-4hat treble that quantity of
ootton oould oe grown by toe Garos if a ready market was avall-
able.
A few years ago an attempt was made to Induce the hUlmen
to remove tim aewl prior to nartclog the cotton for sale, and for this
pnrpoee a h|rge number of simple maoinnery were imported from
'Calouttaaad’dhiMbntod among them, tmi the nmv'emont mot
with no suooeis. Captrin htoxwell, who' menttons ’ too fact,
otplrini—
'* 1 have hotleed, however, tokt a G*ro Is sotoepftible to Improve¬
ment when the Change carries with it a pecuniary advantoge | and
1 have no doubt toat If the vUne id dUhaed cotton at toe local
markets make* it worth while’for MM Gfero grower to produce It
in toll state, hs win do so. The look ed enterprise ts not so- muoh
with the Garo as with the first parohasw Cf the plains, who
generally it too apatoetio and ifif^ent to eum into a vigorous
trade.*’
He adds If an inducement is held out to export the cotton
from these Hills in a Cleaned state,'! will tafcf(ev*iy' ihstirare to see
that the advantages to be ton's Obtained are cfirefnliymade known
to the Interested perties.”
A demand seems to exist In Awrttalh: for lust this sort of
ootton for mixing purposes. A Mtolplc of It, sent by the Bsveoue
and Agrlouitnial Dtmarlment to a firm,In Melbourne, was reported
on by it " as tplsudidly suited to their purpose ' if cleanliness is
kept opto sat^le.’" The first Co**, however, was oonsidered
rather nigh, for, to toe price toss tnling, ris., Bs. 19 per hsufsar
maund in CalcUtoa, wa* to 'bo ltddCd rate of freight to Melbourne.
More reosntiy a'fall in 'prioe OCcUrred; and the firm atailed
toomselves of ttis opportunity to Send an 'Order to Chittagong for
a small trial oonsignment. The reenlt la nCt known yet.
AUKBlOStr SOKAOU.
Bead the following letter from Colonel J. Sto'wart, B.,A., Superin¬
tendent, Harness and Saddlery Factory, Ca W h poro, in reference to
toe Divl-Dlvi !- :
Having seen in tb* proceeding* of y<mr BooMy, pubHsbed |n the
Fieassr of the ISth instant, amantiop..«i Ammoan Snipaob or
Divi-Divl {Oatalpmia eoreiaria) as a tuefql plant for tuning
leatoer, I beg to Inform you that I have snccnsfully reared the
{Jayt lor the last 20 years in Qaumpore, .wbers ths gnmpdt of the
mot(^ of whloh I have charge are covered with planwMons of It,
i I originally »t the seed la 1862, fnm Bsiigalor*,. where ths
offioeie of toe Madrss Artillery had plimtaMoas of it, for use in
their rcrimental tannery, totomaentiy more seed wee. ptoenred
from toe Botanical Gardens at Calcutta, and ths pUnt has thriven
very well here, though toe seedlings require peat oare and oultiva-
tkm for the first few yean.
The frost of t^ colu weather fn these Frovluo«|s is injnrioM to
tbs young lesdungs, and pnrteotloa is xsquired for tbsm. Field
rats are great eneimes to ths growth of the plaot.
I have oistiibuted seeds from Ckwnpore to several applicants for
them, and am pnpared to distribute more if required.
The secretary intimated that he had requested from Colonel
Stewart aa fuQ information as he cqold .kiudiy afford of to* ages
of hi* trees, the quantity of, poids obt a in a ble frwi each, anfi toe
weight required for tannvujleatoea ofoartaia ktods in ocmapmnson
with native tans, Ac. Be .had also. sppUed for. aaed to meat a
probable steady demand, now that toe wuue of toe divi-divl was
becoming more genorally kpown.
In conneotionwito toe above, a note Wa* introduced from Mr. S,
S. Jones, C.S., IXvirianal OfiScar, Dec^ur, sanding a tnw partlou-
tote from the Forest Officer «f the, Bontfaal Pergunnans, Mr. Jones
has likewise prombied a qnantito of seed.
. Also an aMtIlcatom fewn the Bxeautlvs Engineer of the Brahminl
Division, Cuttack, for seed of dlvl-divl for trial on tbo oanal
bthks. (Compiled with.)
Japak Pxa,
' The Secretary submitted tb* fOHcWIng^ms** from Gtpt^I^son
in respsot to the-Japan pea sent Whtet'fttid to some Otoer corre¬
spondents) in the early part of last ysar j—
' Tfaesasdl of Japan pea reoeivod by me in February- '188^ were
T distributed to several gentlemen at tUe station (Dehra).
'he seeds germinated, and 1 wa* sQbtOqiieatly lufoTmsd that all
176
iiipiAlsr
1S89.
the pl»at« died off )h>t WMttiwr. At iltmmftk, •t6$u
BOOM of thi« eomi tp tt iMitidV ffarddn, jpMir to
the height of two fe^ bote two At-.the
joints tl^elMdt twig; Wde were jait like thoJi^' Ot ihe
whur^oi {0<iijanut.»if(ha), the leevee were very like VKie tff the
moth 4<tU, only iwnd et the end intteed ed iM^ted.
I etHpedt tim Jispen pee seed eent to the Sh^etjr wee not ih>
varied lo highly spoken ot in AsiertM. I eseloee n photo, ol idu
JeponpeaesprMnoed in Mr, dr^ry's seed btra, ntid think il
would be « good plan for yon to itadnin the phhto. and ask to bi
suppUiKi with the seed of that pattioaiar jap^ pea. In the /n^i
AfHvultHri4t lor IteeoRiher Idte, pi^ 4M-SS^ there is a very
inter^t&g paper on the tni^ert of this pea, of widoh it eenni
there are fW klade, vie, “ the yellow, brows, ro'nn'd blatA, and
long blaok,’’ The pea sent tte is Of ike ntnu pea 'cSlonr, Which
mfm ftye varUtlee.
It'wonid be adytiable to dhtoin sfetno of each kind to be packed In
tin btf^ Ai^meitt.
bfortnatton as to flmS Of sewlng'in Japan' shonld be asked for.
As regards seed froiS ST.. Ore^r, If deiQMtohed so as to reach
CalMtta In Angnst, they wonld bo In growers’hand* to sow as
soon as the rains ceased, which wonld be by the 10th to Ifithof
Septeniber.
I caiSe down from JfnsMOrie on the 28th October, add In Novem'
bermade two sowings of Japan pea seed, putting throe seeds in
each dibble, but as the sera rotted. It was clear that germinating
powere had been destroyed. I the seed in a 'well corkod
Irattle looked Ip a box, so no dajnn oosld have got to them. Kovetn'
ber was a vero warm iwmi^ and as all common pea seed came np,
the failure of the Japan pea donld only be due to death of seed.
I think the pea answer at Simla, but have not heard.
Japxx 8 ikqlc.Boli.ook FLooon and I>bt Rioc.
Cwtain Fogsott sends the foQowing notice regarding the above
plon^ and Japan dry rice:—
It appears that the Japanese possess a plongh which is worked
by a .nngle bnilook. It wonld be, I tfainiu advisable to secure one
of these piougha ag * model, a* I think with suitable alteration
' snob a plongn would salt, for oaml ploQgbing—‘four camels can
draw a 8-potuider brass oonaon and limber, with a mounted man
per oamel; one oamA easily draws a park phaeton up hll{ from
Kalka t^ Solon on the SimlaToad, at a trot; then why should
not one oamel draw a, JajM Ai^e-bullook plough, made on an
enlarm scale, jnst as well as two bnUooks do the oommon Indian
plou^ f
In Japan, two varieUea of rise are onltivated^** wet rice,” on
the low lands nndsr irrigation, and " dry rioe,” on high lands
and mountain or hill slopes, without any irrigation whatever.
II this dry rise snited the Mongfayr, Reymehal, and Becridioom
bilk, the mnlt wonld be moet ^neficial, and greatly increase
the rioeHsnpply of the oountry. -This rioe was brought to notice
by a Britisn Consul at Japan, bnt 1 cannot lay my hands cn the
paper I anyhow no dlfflcnlty exists as to seour^ a supply of seed
rioe of this variety. But it shonld be peeked in tin, otherwise the
sea sdr will kill the eeeds, I am prety certain that the dry riee
of Japan would suit the Himalayas north of Umballa, «^id so on to
Kangra. which already produces very large qaantltles of wet rice.
It would be sound poUay to introduoe this dry rice into such
parts of the Afghan frontier where wet rioe is now cultivated.
The Government of India might, if asked, help in this matter.
(Referred to Government of India.)
MsxioAtr Alqx Fisks Extsaotob,
Bead a letter from the Under-Secretary to the Government of
India, Agrioaltural Depariment, retaining the model of the
Mexican uoe ’ fibre ettraoter,—iwe proceedhigs of November and
January loft,—and forwardRig a working maohine four-fifths of
the sls^
Mr. T F. Fi;ppe, .<ff Arrah, in allusion to the above maohine,
writes as follows '
“ I am anxious to know something of the machine for cleaning
ApQve flbre, whlehl uMenktand In Oaloutta, and want to
know what it ooets, and If It ddet the work roqnired thoroughly
or only paMany. ' I have been experimenting In the matter of
fibres in connection With a tea eetate, aUd nave therefore seen
that a machine, such as they use at the ManrithiSi is urgeatly
required both for ’ and Faureroga fibres,' ' I saw samples
of the latter fibre , at'IiOme valued at £40 per ttm,-and as the
plant fiourisbes in iphota'migpora, I do not see why it cannot be
proceed on a large' scate.- iU you con assist me in regard to
tbs preparation of' AgOOo tor thweroj/a fibre' I will be much
obliged.^'
The secretary mentioned that he had Informed Mr. Peppe that
the above maohine was' available for another to be made from
it, and'lAat he might obtain' eom»‘useful praotioal information on
the sumcm genormlyiroaa the Superintendent of the Haseribagb
jafl.
OMMUKIOATIOKa oS VABlOOi SCSjSOW.
5. From the Sx««t^ ^atiktaini and iytntti
Division, Cuttaok, A of «f AMewdatewai
wltii fall tnstruotioBS as to e«iidvBt^,^pnibame iririd, dm: (Seed
partialiy supplied la&d Ldonaatiam givan, ISoM Med to be «ap-
plied next season.)
8, From Under-Secretary to the Government of lu^a—fmrwardt
eoj^ of a letter from the Britiah Cowi iWVeotiBg
model of a Manilla hemp extractor, tvith riigm to hemp ex-
traotors, writes Mr, WOKlaacm : “1 mtd, on miqniry, that noaxa
can be had here, and the ptorinoe of HaniUa HmU ffoiauB ho
hemp; but I have written w Atlmy, whioh Is tiiO oentre of a large
hemp district, in order to oMkin' the teqnired model, which, if
sent to me, I will at once .forward to the Agrtoultnrai and
Hortionltnral Sooiety as deelNd.”
SELECTIONS.
FIRB CONSEEVANCY IN INDIAN FGBBSm
The MIowiMpimen wen also submitted
1. From C.'#. Mansoa, Esq., Doomka,—a paper on the mobws,
its nsefui properties, Ao.—(Trantfemd for Journal.) i
2. From the Unwr^Seorotary- Government ol Bengal,'—a Note j
on Wheat MRdeW.'-m&aBsfen'ra for Journal.)
8. From E. H. Man, Beq., Port Blair, intimatiim, in reply to
enauiry, that the qnaottiw.of tea' seed forwsardedi in tbs cold
faotorilr.
4. .-9rom W..Lae, Beq., Banghsr Tea Gardm, viA Naini Tal,
reporting the laiinre ol the Japan potatoes premnted by Mr.' H. A.
7TV:T. meeting of April 1881.)
wudOV waam -vra i awe wswaiavaa an wna
•oa of 1888, thtosg^ ;itei^y’s agemw, baa gbrndnated
J, aad the yonug punk) are SM hwtiiy and {wogreising satU*
T he heavy expenditure annually Inonrred by the Forest Depart¬
ment under the bead of fire Conservanoy, and the partial
snooess that has attended its efforts to control itmj^e fires, induaes
me to Invite attention to the matter, and inq&e whether the
benefit theiorest* have derived itinoe this braneb of forestry has
been organised compensates for the enoraons expenditnre inouried
thereon f . <
Forest fires, beyond doubt, may claim the same antiquity as the
forests they now overrun. If, therefore, they are so dMtruotlve to
seed life, apd such a hindrance to the poipetuation of forests, as
has been alleged, it seems wwth while making an effort to aoconnt
for the jangles in India containing snob mag^oent timber trees
when the British took possession of the oonntry, and to
eocplain how It is they have eontinned to meet the heavy demand
made on them slnoe that ^riod. 1 oonleu my inability to find a
solution to this apparent anomaly, though it Is }>osstble there may
be others, who ore in favour of firo conservancy, who will clear up
the dlffionlty, and explain what I am at a loss to understand.
What 1 desire to know is, whether indisputahlcF/ocfs exist which
tend to prove the destruotive nature of jungle fires, or whethor the
oonsuming nature of this element has been mode tho exouse for
failnrea in arboriculture that could not othorwiso ha've been satis-
iaetorily accounted for, and Government thereby indneed to sanc¬
tion an elaborate system of fire conservanoy at any cost ?
My experienoo In the matter makes me sceptioal, and tends to
tho boliei thst iungle fires aro not as destruotive to forests in India
as they are said tol>o. Indeed, I wonld venture even a step further,
and ask whether It is not possible that these annual oonflagrations
aro not oalonlated to do more good than harm, by opening out tho
soil, oonsuming rank vegetation (that renders a forest life so dead¬
ly), destroying insects, oneoking the too rapid inoraase of the wild
beasts, and admitting a free oiroulatlon of mr ? The finest timber,
beyond question, is to bo fonnd whore trees are not crowded, where
there is a free circulation of air, and where blight is not apparent;
and it is only in forests (in India) through which fires annoal^ travel
that such conditions prevail. Nature has a mysterions way -ef
fulfilling ber various duties, and it yet remains to bo proved
whether she has not in the present instanoo sought the services of
Hepbmstus to bring about a series of conditions essential to plant
life. •
After a forest has been fired, the ground presents a net-work of
cracks, varying in width and depth. These fissures, on the first
burst oi the monsoon, admit of water, air, and other gases, coining
in codbmt with the roots of tho plants, and serve to destroy un¬
healthy acidity in the soil, and to promote the decomporitton of
vegetable matter.
Soils, like plants, are oomposed of organio as well as inorganio
matter. The organio part of soils is ohlefly derived from the
remains of vegetable and animal substanoes. This organic matter,
by the aoiioa of alkaline substancts, Is resolved into nlmio and
hnmio aolds. As the Vegetable matter decays^ this organio portion
>f the soil alia rives to the land the vArious inor^nic snbstanoes
fonnd in Its ashes.
The inerganlo part of soils, consists in gSnersl of saline soluble
substanoes, and or certain earthy insolable SubStahoes. From tbMe
soluble oompounds tho plant obtains nearly all the saline matter
contained in its ash. The rain dissolves these saline snbstanoes,
hut hi dry weather they re-ascend to the mirfooe, and are thus
broughttn contact with the roots of growing plants, .
The surface soil of troplosl forests during tue rainless months is
known to be dty and indurste. It stands to reason, therefore, that
when tlio lana is not loosened either by artlflolal inas)M, or
opened out by the agency of firo, mnoh of the organfo matter or
humus is washed away (mpeoially in the case Of Wk triWB ‘Whiufa
affect hiU-sldes), or takes a lopger time to reach the epotj^oles o{
the trees than would bo the case bad the land on whirii tbqy grow
been opened ont by whatsoever means Assort, themfora, trom the
fact that forests, whose surface is not broken np, are rriibAd of
much notritioas matter, tite trees in A mesanre lose i^ fofl benefit
of the early rains, and remain dormant far a Iritger period than
would be the case had moisture permeated to thkir roots at ^sj^rst
burst of the monsoon. ' Thus far a have .endea'voured to ,glvr ,my
reasras for tupposlng that inngle fires a«t benefioially 'by makihg
out the soU to the free and early action of tvi^r, am, and o^er
From a sanitary point of view, 1 j^resdUM Bone wjB • the
benefit juog^ firos bring about, by oonituidag the mm V(MM|tira
that alike poisons the a& and waterfn locslttiM wlt^loi:lest.ottCcn
spend the best part of the year, and from the effects of wbioh
Ufif U ISIS.
THfilNDlAir AGmiorLTUBIST.
iff
maar <ioitto>d. 1 l«M3ifnim tta
for 181041. thiit
^ wwfwn (Mam, Mom wB^
on* dM, nod ono£*ft*r * pwtog«d t&d mtm*
^pM^ino**. iw*jtrtBto'be«nilafnvonniUa
oonnii^^^ ’^t of pr«vl«mt y«ar*, nod tend* to tbo twlM flat
uiuifiiitn^r o^dition of tho dlputnoot U inoraUi&s Jo ntio to
®itf*#R*pi ®wte, !o fire ooBMTvnnoy.
L ®*y«>d«tf!!iHttagleflrM allay blight, and datroy loNot* pw*!-
■aou to tiMi) bat whether the good they «®eOt u thi* reipeot
OosaUMtei forth* dunag* they areeoppoted to do, la a matter
®®®*^^**^* ^ tee® •xtenelro plantation* irf
tMta, ^er, and tluoo utterly mined by »mall blach hairy oater-
puler* that f«ed on the bade ; and have alao tees plantation* of the
aaoje tret* ua*oath*d by Jungle Are* that have been rapid In thdr
on. If ih*ar*a*iia1riirotMt*dfraniimw*MoarefaUy«tania*d,
1 am eatbfled that nta^y fifty per oent of the land would be
found oooupiad tr*M oraotab Jungle oomparativtly valueleMh
and that eontequmtiy a far larger amount i« expended on fita
ooiuervanoy tbtt thm le any aeeeaeity for
Subaeqnmit to the oompMon of thi* paper, I hare yeen
the “Progreu ^nort of VpreetAdmlnlttratioaln the Byderabad
aulgned Distrlat*" for Iwl-SSL Cotroboraidve of my view*
regarding the evil* that ariu from fire oonrerranoy, tb* Conterva-
tor write* :—■* Hitherto the benefiebd efieota of fire ooneervancy,
tuoh a* the creation of a foreet loU, jn or e i t ed reproduction,, dimiuu*
tfon in the rank growth of graae, fco., have annwy been recorded,
but I now have to bring to noidoe an evil wbioh i* making Itaelf
felt more and more every year, viz., the enormone inoreaee m ia<
eeeti, aome troubleeome only to man and animal*, other injnifon*
tonwi^ a dromne^oe borne out by the following extract from the to vegetation. Among the latter may be mentlonad a oaterpiUyr
rap<^ (rf Bntlah i^mah »» 18S0-B1 1 —*' In whl^ In the finrt break In the rain*, eapeoially if it la a long one,
attaoka the teak tree in awarnia, leaving it almoet bare oi foliage,
and thua oheoking ita growth to a lerion* extent. Teak eeBdlinge,
too, auffer great injnry from an inaeot wbUdi burle* ita eggs intne
latest growth. On the produotlon of the larvae large exoreabtnoes
are talaed, and the leading ehoota ultimately killed. How for this
Inaeot will effect the fotnrs of the trees remain* (till to be »eyn,
The ‘ borer,’ too, U becoming much more plentifol than
formerly.” I differ, however, from the opl^n exprseied In re*.
tte Fegu oirole the protection from fire of eighteen reaerve*
nd Mutation* was attempted. ooonrred in ten of these.
In tom* ’ ease* the fire was very trifling, but in several Instanoea
MW were eeriouB oonAagratloni, It la, however, aatiafaotory to
OM from later reports, aubmitted after examination of the
iwoipal reserve* which tuffersd, that the damage done la not
serious. In the Mokska-Beelln reserve none of the twea appear
to tave been killed. In the Bewet reserve the actual damage baa
not bm found to bo so great ae vim at one time feared, though
a good many of the teak plants have perished.”
Now, lu respect to the loss of Ufc from wild beasts, forest
reports are silent j it is difficult, therefore, to arrive at any satis¬
factory ooDolnslon regarding the part Jungle Ares play in snppreu-
fog their perpetuation or increase. It is on record, howeve^ thar
peot to fire ooneervancy befog bene&olalto forest soil, for I. bold
the reverse to be the oose.—3.—TAe Jmamdl qf Jfvreitr]/,
within the uwt two years 240 men have beau oarrUd off by tigers
fo the Suhderbuns Forests division, an area that oomprUes the
wooded portion of the gangetlo delta, where, as a matter of course,
jniji^s &es never occur, and tigers abound. All who have indul-
1 the delights of tiger-shooting know it is hopeless to expeot
> fo Jungles recently burnt over, and naturally wend their
vty to those foreets fo which Are has beeu best ooutroUed. In
18S1 the lorsest number of tigers killed fo the Madras presidency
was in the Malabo distrlet, where Are oanservenoy does not exist.
I have now illustrated how it Is possible that jungle Ares may be
more beneAcial than injurions to forests, and mnst Ua,ve it to those
who are fo favour of Are oonservanoy to correct my views whore
they axe at variance with existing faeti. Controversy unquestlon.
ably la the best means of developing truth, and aJI I desire Is to
arrive at the real truth of the questfonkt Issue,
From 1876*77 to 1880-61 over 1,00,000 rupees have been expended
on Are oonservanoy fo British Bnrmab and the Central FroYfooes,
and. aeoordfog to recent resolutians of the Government of India,
it would appear that the whole area protected from Are fo these
provfooes during tltat period must be retraverasd by Ares onoe
every eight and nine yeare respectively. At the present rate the
annual ooi^grationa are encroaohing on the area* protected.
With sues startling facta on record, it seems high time that the
pros and eon» ot Are oonservanoy should be most carefully oonsi-
dared, and a more economical and efficacious system introduced if
possible,
Bnferring to Are conservancy fo Burmali during the year 1880-81
the Chief Commissitmer writes” The business of protecting
reaervei from Are forms a ven difficult problem lu Bunnah. Thu
year we have spent 10,000 rupees lu attempting to protect from
fire 68,000 acres, out of a total of 1,300,000 acres of reserved
foreats : yet Ares occurred onoe, and more than once, in sixteen
reeorves out of .twenty-eight to which our efforts were directed-
The reserves will probably aggregate 2,300,300 acres before the
demarcation work now in oontemplatiou is Anished. At %ho
preeent rate of charge the Are protection of this great area would
ooetover two and a half lakhe of rupees. Even then wo could
not hope to keep out Are in years of rainless spring and sulmner
months, or from forests where bamboos had Aowered over large
area*. It 1* oomforting to And that teak of good growth seems
toesoim almost unsoatbed from ordinary Ares, and that oven
teak riSmtations, on tonogyas or elsewhere, have suffered much
leas from Are passing over them than would have beeu expected.
Though this 1* so, nevertheless the work of protecting from Are
a yewy.increasing area of reserves and plantations mnst be maiu-
tauned m one of the primary objects of forest oonservanoy fo
Burmah,” Here, again, we have striking proof of jungle Ares not
befog as deetmotive to foreats or plantations as one is led to sup¬
pose from the amount that it yearly expended on their suppression
and ooateol. However this may be, certainly I concur with Oovem-
ment fo oondemulng the present system of annually increasing the
area proteoted from Are before that Arst attempted hoe beeu ron¬
del oomparatlvely Are-proof, The resolution oiplains “ that
Are proteotioa. fo order to be of real value, must be contlnaous, and
that, before further extensions wore attempted, it was necessary
to i^e sure that the forest* previously taken in hand were
S uite safe. , . . No further extension of Are protectiou
honld ordinarily be taken in hand until the existing areas under
proteotion are oiMe quite safe. When this has been aooompliabed
ud new areas are brought under protection, they should be shown
isparat^, *o that it may be possible to trace the results, fo the
' Okie of each block, from the time when protection ootmrenced fo
it, only effect of fooreasfog the area attempted is to dim-
tols^fae awifrent amount of failure without doing any good."
N3&, fo respect to teak, and bearing fo mind that this tree Is
not gregexfon* m its habit, but grows amongst trees of compare-
tlvoly no value, it osours to me that a ocmndorable aaving might
be sffsoted, and better results obtained, were Are ooniervauey
oonfined tp •<«•« where teak seedlings grow most abundantly, and
titat'wlum the lee^ii^ have attafoed a suffioient growth to be
b^wd 'tia itMttm oi filet, 8 Mff Flat be ttritea ii hwd, «Bd ig
FOREST PEOQEESS REPORT POE BRITISH
BUB MA,H 188 143.
T he report before us shows bow very euooesefnl Forest Admfoi*.
tratibn ba* been fo Britlab Burmah duifog 1881-82, and how
vast ore the timber resources of that rioh provfoce.
Demarcation work Is stlU fo progress, and the total area of tb* re*
serve forests was 3,274 square miles, or somewhat less than that, Of
the reserves fo the North-Western Province*. It would be in.
teresting if the proportion of the reserved forest area to the total
area of the provfooe were always given fo Annual Eeport*.
Eight hundred and tUrty-stx isquare miles were added during
the year, imost of the new reserve* contafoing more or Wl
toak-produoing land exoept tbs Mindone Yowa fo the From* IHvl.
Sion,
Reservation fo Bunnah interferes very Uttl* with the pririlMea
of the people, because the very large forest area l«tt outside iae
reserves more than suffices for all thetr present wanta, The VrUd
uncivilised Kareu, never accustomed to restraint ot any kind,
oatoraliy objects to forest reservation, and the Fegu Cmwervatbr
very graphically explains his views. He lay**—“The Karen*
themselves say that once they were Uke jongle-fowL bidfog
where they liked, soratuhiug the earth here and there and putting
fo a grain oC rice and eating what came of It, If the luUi (i.e.,
spirits, permitted, but that now the Forest Department put
them lute bcandaries here and boundario* there, and they feel
like pigs fo a pen. But after a certain time they rarely deny
that their latter state is preferable to their former, more espeof.
ally in or near Are-traced reserves, where work is constantly ob.
toinablc ”
Forest reservation will, we may be sure, have a great otvUlsfog
effect on these interesting people, they will learn to settle down
fo the neighbourhood of ioresta where labor it constantly required,
and l)y more frequent ooutaet with Europeans and oivlUeed Bur-
mans will become useful, instead of deatruotlve, membera of the
community,
lu the reserve* there are very few rights, and those that do
exist, auoh as the use of bambou* fo* home consnmptlon and
grazing rights, will not be detrimental to the future of the
toresta.
The fact that the export lino of the two new reierves fo the
Toonghoo Division lies through Upper Burmah, shows what a
defective frontier we have there, auu that some reotifioation Is
required.
Fire protection has been extremely luooeeital, and fo eplte of
the great difficulties which have to be overcome, will compare
favourably with that fo any of the other provlnoea under the
Government of India, as only 1*8 pot ceut of the proteoted area
was burnt.
Incendiarism is common, and several Ares oconrred from this
cause. One of these happened at the Magayeo Plantation, and
the Extra Assistant Commissioner decided that it was the fault
oi some forest subordinates, without taking the trouble to exa¬
mine three wc-witnesses. This is an evil which it i* impossible
for Forest officers to cheofc, unless they receive every assistance
from the Civil authorities.
Mr. Ribbnutrop give* an foteregtfoe account of the oon*e.
quenees of frequent Are*. He says—“The first consequence of
these constantly recurring fires ate bamboo foteita with staudard
trees fo the bills, and Kamg grass savannahs In the plains. The
cover of head leaves on the ground Is anoually consumed, and no
humus is formed.
“ The rain-storing power of the forest is lost, and the bare
friable soil is washed down into the streams. Wherever a small
fiat stone, a piece of wood, or some other obatMle protects the
ground, this forms after the raius the roof of a little mud pillar,
and the soil round it having been washed away and carried
down by the streams, Is doubtlessly one of the main caosee of
their rapid tilting up. This erroston does not take place fo oreaa
which nave been snocesifnlly Are-protected (or tome years, and
the iteoMc* fo flre-proteoted forests beconie more and more peren.
Tmmmm
.l%K h mi-
, wkiab'KaMlur ««d «*« ■!««* «eo«l#
Intel •HMsteAidraTO^MMiviiwii fa)
MHb*«t«Bd«a»Mfil^{tt^tiw«^ of pm)t 0 em^in,^-w 1 gik^
‘•AuMAoTOf tbKt1b]r«ny«lb«rm«llkod. ^ j. ■ '' -
Btgbt lioadred and tvrma^*two »cret of piMUMwm
tk| j«*?, «ad ptliia^lly oonslrt of n«w kfm j^*^**!
osntmbigovorlOO Modliiui p«r acre. IIi« omatiHilytwa
«tt«Mad'«&IU Ur. Stau^Ua'a prograsma «( 9,600 aoraa par
li eirtOM out.
' BtoUr UtouiMil and -Shir abr«a oovared In' floaradiut tembocia
omnlUtm, 'Am tba C^l Oomittliakmar ramwrkf, th«
IjrfiNniaa&exeaUettteDa, MiMoiallyaail oao aaap the iMaon
1^«ra, Hm bi^Moa wHaaiidtag out neir thom that tboy will
floWer-lHKl-yaaBr.
i:ii*»a!ptoatiotioB of <ht|a)i hu bate triad wilb mooatia to Ibe
1I!MwwaddyIMatatali,aadan attaawt wi)I Brab|^y laanawto.^
-ttMale iMria toaoi^ Stoatamsai to-tba tto^attayo PU-
'^trkd.
’ftoMtiaiaiitU ottlttvattoo df vavtoai axotiea baa baao oonUnuad
Onam^aoala Wito varytog aueoaaa. Xba axp^toianU araaw^
■Ito^y aantod on to a bbU-liaartad way, and auoaaaa Is ImparUiad
‘%yoaWiie aoosotoy to ontttog down expendltnre on weedtog,
^ dVw^ B it waaa not for the attaoka of to-
Hota, pr<*aMy the tom of a baatla. It U *tat^ that '* aoina
traaa have thalr tarmtoal aboota oaten off, while others are attooK-
edjnat above the etXiax and abn^ girdled, rthera ^In we
bored^atoPf tile,witoto tooftto of »eir aten,’* This Utility to
toiniy of tomMnoba apeoiea la very onrkma, aod baa oauaM a great
bavoo amongat Auatndton teeea at the Oape.
Tea and coffee grow at Thandawy, and It is hoped that private
ea^tol nay be a%a^ to the leoality aa soon aa the raUway to
^$nAoeu opened.
SiwsMutia
‘n^aaftUto-
^'^^^^dtoonl^id will probably be aneossafully euUlvatedat
-Uiwfee, where a vanifialy DM been' bnill, and where two-year-
old ptontahave'hrnlted.
lovwfto,^ treea were gfadled, tecfodtog neatly 19,000 teak,
n treea'being to the n(to>deBiaroated ana, where it la
titot 40,000 narketoble teak remain, and then work
tow appeaio to be ae nnob at home to Bar-
iatoyae, and there la a thiivtog little plauta-
titot 40,000^ market
f^jreatera to the older pro^oee will read the pMtofthia re-
Mrtdealteg with the yield of the foreete with anmixed feellngi
' S^vy, Mnnne wm ooBeoted on 78,000 tona, or 8,800,000
DhUofoet, and free pemlta were given for over 42,000 tona of
tbabHr, aoeordtog to the review by the ■Qoverament of India,
UthoughlttonotTHidexatoodbOw the totter figure laarrlv^at,
titotog that free permita are given tor tree# without apeeilytog
^ i pen**"***, thele treee betog all eut outalde reaervea and not
narked to'any way.
Thia large yield, It muat be reoolleated, only ahowa the outturn
btt^Sl.Owtona, and the lOother reaerved kinds 87,000 tona,
'tod (a-extinaive of all the other uamerona apeoiet of timber,
toasyof wbltit, Inph aa Mango, Tenkltyan f Iferstinofte tomenfoeaj,
TMe fjinoflreiwiu oMwetootoj, Petwooo (M»rrytt aiimcmUta), are
regarded aa valuable treee to other parte of India. No free per-
Mto are reqolnd for cutting any tree# save the rwrved tonda
ootilde ibe deWtorcated area, and nearly 30,000 logs of 72 dlffareiit
'ktodepaaeed through the revenue atationa of the Baagoon Dtvi-
Wion td^e in tiiia way free of doty.
Otte tokh thirty thonaand tona (64 million onbio feet) of teak,
vatoed at over 100 lakha of rupeea, were exported from Rangoon
tod Monlmeto, thia inoiudtag of oourae a large qumitlty of timber
titSm Vvpw totmah. Of ttia timber, Bnglanil took 60,000 and
lidto SRoWtona, theexportoto otker oouutries toing Inaignlfi-
oant.
The rMea realiaed were high, being In Rangoon aa an average
Be, 08 per ton tor flrat ototo'and Rs, 42 tor second claas timber,
and at home varying from £18 to £16 per ton.
to aproof of how little the Forest Conservancy in Burmah
nnMba'^ the wiinta of the people, the yevenae dertved from
*^-^^lwoduoe was only 1^. 8,000 ; If we exclude the revenue on
Be. 40,000. Oniztog and fodder graae retiiaed the small
anm of Be. 19*. , „„ , , ,
Four.and-a-half mllUcn bamboos and ten mllUon palm leaves tor
tbattirtog paaaed throuto tiie Rangoon revenue atatioua free of
one man tapping from 30 to 40 trees fi- —--, - . „ .
ixttaoto Iw to 2001b of oil, aufflolent to manufacture
rto'3,000 torches, wMob atil looally at ««, i-8-0 perhun-
toltimagib to# B*. 60,000 were oredited aa revenuefrom minor
.grqikwe, the vtiufi otaxpotps from Bangoon and Monlmeto exceed¬
ed 86 iiiiba of rnpem, the ' artloloa exported consisting of gums
Mui reti-w, onleb- and gabbier, stlck-lao and wood-oil.
^ l y fc b f iof pgrtdoop wore lent *Oi Ibe ‘ United Kingdom,
•ad worO itoM fi»>4* toarket in Indto-
The finaudal toWto of the year Onre - very satitiaotovy, end the
of »early of rupees exceeds the tetalreoelpto of
Xhirteto Wtof <01 pgrtaoop were eent toi sue ■ unrsou xungaom,
•ad over 9 tokhi toato * toarket in Indto-
The finaudal toWto of the year Onre - very aatitiaotory, end the
toiptoa of |»early of rupees exceeds the total reoelpto of
4*' oxoeptioutils torge one, and to due
toari»to »etfrtoeof *al|k, toA>ta oonaoqneooe a larger outtorn
flf titot timber, as wtilM to fwth®
japm to4
jdtod to tiia luogom a«d |mwad#^atifi]r W
.{HwUon which was out wilhto Ike WMPWtob IPT)
thetowWtotlPTa atoWtoa-to-toM*
.M^n which was out wilhto the «to«W«b ttoTf atoMHoa
Rxotodiog the 10 etoptomta. to
there were 33 elephaiita balopgiitg 4o |ho SaMtaw
feed ooat Ba. 1,038. or the modeiMto mito otJBta.
|o maintain tliem to good oondiltoo, tod to xtoa Of ^
cdvan. The average ooat of feed and kagp, toctodtof fttib
however leas than m. 60 per aatoMl-PW manaMU . . -
Dynamite was enooeMfolly emitocyed to maOF OMM to topOto
roticy obatrnotlonin tiinbe».iaatiDg atreanw, Oits c4 nUftHimM
stream tree-fellera hae rweotly toea 'protfued from
for use to thopreparatiwi of looMctitoa tom, fottof i._-,. ..
State Ralldray, and we hope it will pnve «gtod tofMPtontt
financially. ■ '
Mr. Ktohentrap, who hM now toft Bnnnah Jpr' hia'OldfPtottotor
the Punjab, has been warmly thaakad by the ubtof <C» tifiii 4 w h war
for the exeeUent aervioe he hae done to the BwnMse. totntata.
SUaABOAJSlE CTHiMVATION.
A bout two months ago, the Ooveinmaht of todtoi Adfd-
oultural Department, hnued a rpther totereati# order' 0 tt%a
sagar Industry to India, the growth and opltlvatioh pt Rnfpigcoane,
and the munufaotore of augar. The retama aiifamltted at tin
time go to show that the Industry laM not fallen 6ff, but tomt it
baa not made the progreta it ought to have, tnl while to Ppiny
other branches of industry thefe baa bW an advance, such iu i^e
cultivation of oofibe and the growth and manufacture of tea, toff"
to the North-West Provtooea, ^mb», and Bengal, and Ifiadraa
was quite forgotten. True it is that tin Madras preatdeuoy has
uot taksn a very promtoent position to the grc^h of the oane
and the manufacture of sugar j but there way a’time, not very
long pest, when the prodnotlon of sugar to tin mofoaiil dlahriots
of this presidency received very great attention, and when IGnro-
pean capital largely embarked to an enterprise which did uot
turn out aa well as anticipated. It is aaid tint tile total annul
production of augar to this country is about 9,000,000 tOM, besides
the produce of palm trees, which yield about 160,000 tom. The
total production of sugar is not equal to the demand, and bsnop
it is that about 886,000 tons are annually imported from Moari-
tius and other sugar-producing centres. This loroS'miaBtity'is
tius and other sugar-producing centres.
large imautUy' is
mvar pf the
chiefly attracted to liombay and Centiiti India, while Ae Mi
presidency coutenta itaelf with auppUea from the northern dlatriste
and Bengal, where the trade ia large, and where tbe manafootaru
of sugar, though uot keeping pace with the progress made to' other
industries, has not declined.
In the Madras presidency the sugar manafactured at Aaka,
Bimlipatam, Chltavalta, and othar pto^, 'Onse eemmanded very
good prices, and the maaufaetnrera of the diffarent diwortotiona of
Bugoi' being Europaana, mcrchoota euterad heart and soul toto tije
enterprise, and hence the auooeu that attonded almott every en¬
deavour to iuanuiactare -a really good ortlete., For ' many yearn
some of the leading meroontilo firms to Ifiadrw bad tfaehr uotoWia
omtbe oooat porta, and at almost every sdceeasive aeaaen tboWMda
of b^ were ahipj^d; gradually with steady towrovemept .to ^
quality of sugar and the demand that extoted to Europe, tfie apght
trade assumed Urge proportions, sad ahlpmants proyed.oeinniaei'-
stive. But of reocut yeaca a change has come over the'.spiKti ^
the euterpnae, and while fine brown aagor wm manefaotiired ifft
ablpmeut, the merchauU ore (sow MBhent to eUp iMOKyr—
aucli os U chiefly consumed by the .poorer olnssee, .andhtooe
the manufacture of aagor hM ibeen ipven »p ma# pf the
leading merchants who . are aonteni to deal wf.‘! . jigptiiy> to
what U more tetiudcolly called eAeeos. The womt
refuse of the market —wm lately sept mTj^ tooni Moibse % ''
loads, and what likelihood la there timtauydeoided change
better will take place to the production emditBrnwifaetWe
so long as exporters owitest themMlfi* With 4^ ftp,
the ntanket r Uot whila this'hraaoh.ot Wtittottiadf li.uob
tog, the manufacture of sugartortocaleonaumptionluisn^ii..^^,
^Ve have seen soisples of Aska sagar that wfU hear .piBiipa^o
with the loaf augar moKifaetitred to -England . and .emti -to
for sale; and from acme of the Soatheto dhiti^ ,*toin
hfysore-.«speeialiy from the Aetrsgmm 4Mhlc4--ito sgi^ <
faoturedis of excellent qaaUtir, aad aiwa|ra
remunemtive market. Boom yasiw ago, awsu totenC
man missionary set up a.sugar faotort to -th* htorfh.-
He WM In naaehm work and with ,» vidw --
newly-made ^riatiaos mSS todiMt^ ^ which tbigr ipay hg i
obtain a livelihood, fie woosisnwy, grew esgatoatoii
out sugar of very snpertor luoUfy. -^uaion-to fjhs 'jWfSA
out jby thia se«Iooa lobourto toiihe mieeloSMud Is tfiadi.
North Arcot District Manuel. ^ wfth ^.dsatb tlta 'good Wtok
begun was not Conitotwd, .sad. whet would have twsed out Oprb-
fitoble and paying todustry iuw been allowed to gni^aiJly file out
for woat of encouregStount and sttmcort.
The question may, howtoto. m eshed.if.
dancy there is room for the dev|sic|»mejDt ef -the sgj^
I esmwor may eafcly' bagixen ia>Wiu-s totmiwiy y. ana
qfwffto JMwt wo
■jUS^MW I SKS^USU*
V, -wn] L
' 179
^ 46 ailV’TMaU!«a,«i 7 iiisT.
ftt^iii«6<raAeMtMiK Ssicr-
k«i||Ndbr gem ot tay a^hee
wn otuttntlott nhut b« Aunnudi tmd if ft 'It, tfat
1^' oom'pdnutte the ontUijr of tMto tnd nwnoy- In
f hson na os^kUH^m and pipmota of tita QihMoatOTO
sv, .Bobettoott, Saparintendaht of GavarmAmt-Fonoa,
ttl lAa fhbtmea offaraa fm anaanMaa cultlTtHon to that
. ara vary great, but that ouy 8,000 aorat of lead ara on
j^hatad with the osna, while under fair average oon-
a wn ,part of the onlnvabla land of Gotiabatore may be
tier tug ar oa na which will bring ha a return ef from Ra. SO to
_.1 ap tg>n againtt oropa that ytold no more than Re. 12 an
aoitt JlnocbrTOii to Dtir. Bcmerttoo,the Ceimbatora dIbtHot oftota
nii^ ttdiitietIn it! Dltoukta ud-aofi for the produotton of augar,
itod It it to ha regretted that tuoh a tmall area it otonpad with the
' " " Ludi ipaalally eat apart for the grotvtk of the bane
Uiya lotit their .prodnoi^ oapabUltiea, and where, about
hg% the Jddg ^*** toota tfaan 190 manndt par acre, it it
wwfm,iimte«ij^ty maUhde. We need not go on quoting from
Mr. ^bwtton’a r^rt to thow that, in the mofuwil dlatriota of this
8raiia(8i<^, the ottlnvation of remunerative oropa it neglected, and
&|Stii>#ntHee which may be worked to the greateit advantage, are
allo^a grddna^ to die out. What hae been aobieved to partt of
the Ben^ and Korth-Weet Provincea, In the matter of engar oultdra-
tioa.may be, with a little trouble and bare, aooompliihed In our own;
psendanoy. The remedy U in tho httnde of the better olaesee of the
ryo^ and it le hoped that, with the diffoeion of an improved tyetem
ta agnOultnre, luon at tau^t in the new School of Agrienlture, thia
toduttry win extend, and bring with it iuoreaeed advantaget.
PLANTING AND CULTIVATING
NOETHERN CANE.
Bv Pkofessob W. a. Rekbv.
f toUlS old lorghum plant of war timee It again a claimant for a
X, person of the farmer’a field and attention. While In the early
dayawe exeitemtat oauaed by this plant lubaided ae rapidly ae ft
aroee, there are reaeone which show to a certainty that thu time
eorghum hae come to etay. The plant, in emerging from an ob-
Bourity of nearly a ecore of ^eare, has taken the more popular
title cd " Amber Cane,” and with the changed name oomc quaUtlee
that must ae eursly win for it friende, as the bad qualities of the
old Borghnm made for ttself enemioe wherever it wae known. Some
of onr Weetem Statee have already grown amber oane in large
quantltlee, and the latisfaotory sales of the syrup warrant an
increased aoroago. To properly plant, onltivatc, and manufaeture,
ore all potota not yet understood by our farmers, and for some years
to come there will naturally be much disoussion upon these topics.
Let ns consider at thia time the plantbig and cultivation.
First of ^1, good, pure seed should be secured and carefully
tested. Two pounds of seed are allowed for each acre. By count
I found that one ounce of leed contains 1,7S0 grains. This gives
27,680 per pound. Good seed should be free from the hulls, and
weigh not less than 68 pounds to tho bushel.
No one should think of planti^ without testing tho seed,
to see whether or not it will grow. To aocomplish this fill a small
box or flower-pot nearly full of earth, lay on tho earth a cotton
cloth, and place on the cloth 100 seeds; over the seeds lay an-
another olotn, and then put on a layer of earth au Inch thick.
Watsr heavily at first, and place In a warm place by tho stove.
Wito proper oare„the seed should be ready to oxamiuo in six
^yg. If the se^ is good, not less than 00 of the grains should
ahow aprouta. The seed test should be mode so early that a
aeoond can be secured, if the first fails.
As to the use of manures on tho land, I should say that no rank
stable manure should be applied direct to the laiad. The leas
manure that can be used, the better for the quality of the syrup.
In general, the Umd should be in good heart, but it need not be so
rich M for a heavy crop of com, unless naturally so. Manure
darkens the syrup, as repeated teats ahow.
The question of manures brings us to a cousidoratlon of the soils
best adapted to oane growing. Upon this point there is quite
a unUonmity of decision in fivour of sandy soils. Most oertainly
thhi soil pays beat for oane, in comparison with stronger land,
' when the retative yields of thia and other crops are considered.
Cane grown upon sandy soil famishes the clearest juice, which in
turn makes a syrup of the lightest colour and finest flavour. Often,
kowsvsr, dark soils and clays make fine syrups and afford large
Ths.^paratipn of the soil for pitting is one of the points
where many mistakes are made. The ground should bo much
more OMsfally prepared for oane than for Indian-corn, Indeed,
no one stomla Alow the seed to be brought Into the field until the
whole snrfaoe U as mellow as a garden. To get tho soU into thia
requires not only that it be well ploughed, but that the
roller and harrow be weU employed. The last harrowing should
taka plaoe on tbs day the seed Is planted. To get the most syrup
front a given area of land, plant in drills three and-a-half feet wide,
five or ijx seeds every 18 toches. Many prefer to plant oheoks as
with. eoT" , but less oane can bo grown that way. If possible, plant
With some kind of horse planter, which, if it does its work
cannot bo equalled by hand-planting. With a Keystone
planter, and nmg rows, a boy with one horse will plmit
A6C9 mi bOttfe
Be asvemed by weather and soil as to depth, but do not plant
over an f pqb deep ai a rule ; often less depth will do. On some
soils ft to BMk the ground over the seed, but often thie
it a nacttoc. Tato strongly to favour of maddne planting,
IwtnoasaftsSi^iqfrtMBis used, i» earn
IfMftMrf iMBwir, aiid VetUemsd,deaek
be Umited to esaofty twh|MIMft per lore. Properly planted, the
ohne is half tended. SMwh;ftiAy«fng oane plants, app^i tw a
Ught harrow over the Bid(L'i;(|g«fl^sw qf the rows. 4
harrow hiaxoeUont.’.Bnfthad .inswe df tosmh, or a fleidbto eta
Don’t fail to hanww every" thW oy fohr days, fpr several wsw
alfter planting. When the nans, ft, dK i<#>w the wl.,_
the hoe. and uncover ftte j^sati tftit may hare earth on them.
Many Will shake their heads nt itaKMgeStion bi tjie barrow, fti
the oone-field, but yeaM af^, WnsftTft^seto'tlie boni-fleld was
recommended, unbelievers were juSt as numerous, I claim tfttb
beyond all cavil, the expense, of xidfing a mtot o^op Wp.bs redu'eea
one-half by the use of a^ht barrdw pal^yatton, out the ground
must bo in as fine tilth as fpr oniems at pwhftngtlme, Of ooufj^
the harrow will tear out some oane plants, .but ftds Ic^
be antioipated by extra seed at planting.time. Tbeham>w.ban
be mn Imth with and aomss the rows qf eaiqe, jdid ofti'bb u^
until the oane Is six inches high, tnen use the tWo-nbrs« oulOvitor,
he for oom, the rest of the eeaeon. The old prsotloe of hoe^
pane mnet be glveb up, just ae the hoeing of com has beeU. By
using the harrow, as dlreoted, the weeta fhat stetog up ;^re hlllM
when just startiiig. Wh«a the last barromng ft bbtog givsn, In
the men follow with hoes and dress out the osue, thtontijg ft
where neoessary. The equlyalont of one stalk for every six im
in drills that are three and-a-half feet apart, la suffibieut
hu-ge yield of eymp.
As a summary of the above t
1, Tett the Seed before planting, and do so early enough to
secure more if that should tail.
2. Have the ground to good hearti bnt not mide rich from
rank manures.
3, Prepare the ground as you would an onion-bed, and have
the soil freshly sUned on the day of planting.
4. Plant plenty of seed.
5. Use a light harrow frequently, beginning Its nee before toe
oane is up.
6, Try to use the hoe only for unooverlng and ehthntug the
plants.-—Pamerr’ Review,
THE CULTIVATION OP THE POTATO.
I T is commonly thought tliat any person ean ^w potatoes, and
while it is true that any person that can fit tne soil and cover the
seed, aud cultivate tho ground so as to keep down weed and grass,
oau grow the tubor, yet It Is equally true that few farmers in our
country grow the potato plant sueoessfully.. Perhaps the most
obvious reason fur the uncemin character of the pratato crop is duo
to the foot that tho potato plant la an exotic, that Is, not originally
native to our oilmate. Whore the potato phmt, named by botanists
Sola/imm tvb^lro^v,m^ grew wild in its native soil, in South America,
it was iound high up from toe sea level in toe ravines of the
mountain sides and upon the table lands, where, aooording to
Humboldt, tl>e temperature only varies from 66 to 80 degrees by
our common thomometer. This gives only a ohangs of 26 degrees In
a whole year, aud at the plant makes its entire growth in less than
half a year, it has been stated that during that time the raime of
the thermometer does not probably exoeed 16 degrees. It will bs
seen that this condition of the temperature we oaimot have; for
after the tuber is planted in early spring too temperature is liable
to vary 70 degrees, from 30 to 100. The only wonder is that the
potato plant stands tho strain of its changed conditions as well m
it does. One lesson that may learned from this is, a natoially cool
soil, other things being equal, should bo selected for the potato.
Hence a north Inclination is bettor than one to tho south. Plant
corn on the south side of the hill, and tho potato on tho north side.
Hut if there are no hill sides, but must grow the orop on the almost
level prairie, seleot a spot that does not hold water, a few inches
down, oe is the case with a thin soil in a sub-soil of olay.
Another cause of failure in the cultivation of the potato arises from
tho fact that while the plant Is a rank feeder, its roots cannot nm
far for food. Hence it needs a naturally rioh soil, or one made to
by proper manure. But it a proper manure for this crop ? And
when snould it be applied ? The plant is not as partioulw as to
kind of manure, as it is to its oonaition. Fresh manure from tire
bam-yard, whether made by horses or oattls, is not well adaptw
to the healthfal growth of this plant ; while old, well seasoned, of
almost any kind, may be used to advantage at time of planting.
A long experieuoo at the East taught the writer that the l^t way
to manure the soil for the potato is, to apply a heavy dressing
broadcast the year before, aud use none at toe time of planting.
Our ohoice wmuld be to apply from 10 to 20 or 80 oords of gpM
bam-yard manure to land having a good stand of red olover. Haul
it on during the winter or before the frost is out in early spring.
As soon Os frost is gone spread evenly. Two heavy crops of hay &
taken off the foUowlng summer, or one for hay and one for seed.
Then plough deep duimg toe following fall, and turn well under all
toe after math, notuMturing It at all. The naxt spring, ae soon
as the ground is sufficiently dry, run a cultivator aa deeMy as It
ean be done without disturbing the soil. When the »oU le well
pulverized, open farrows five toftx inches In depth if It la
cable, and three feet iqpart for erect growing early sorts, and three
feat six for peechblow, or Other tall viney kinds. If the object ts to
grow the largest possible crop from the ground without r^rd to
eoonomy in tabour, plant to the open furrows, dropping the seed
about Is iuohes apart. But if square feet of ground are njATo
abundant ztrona hands, then plant the tubers oroeewiee of the
rows, andsthe same £etanoe apart that the fuirovs were t^ene^
lu eitoer ease the eeed may be readily covered wito an adjueftnlo
oulttvator with two oovortog toetii in toe oatmr mid of tbe fasMoe,
nm^g eroeswfte of toe futrews. Or ft Ughh ftmow vrtUt tmrt
teeUi tvfik ftanrw every pftrpew.
180 *
h tm
Asomri (W BEHD.
Tt tOtoted tn MIU, uH «il)ly A two-e/ed pleoe at ea^ t
ti in'ntlla, iwe two Meii pltoN for hiu. Some ^tefer w^oie
tttbete lkt«tefa pUee, Bttt it l>«t alwaya eeomed to the writer to be
aweste to doeoi for if the tuber i« cut to «liule ey«« every dee
a^.if two-eyed plooee both will lunuly etert well
Bat if whole tahere tr® planted before eprouttog ttiueh, then but a
few trf the meet forward bade will grow, While the othen will
Moulin dormant and etoh die, aotiog ae though eonteione they
would not be needed,
Zt Will be eeen that one pleoe In drllli, or two in bflle, at tbe
diitonoe mentioned will t^e the aame amount per aore, whldh will
require, li large tnben, iram lix bo eight bnthele, and if unaller
onee, oorrespondtnsly leee.
iZhe moat suitable soil for tbe healthy mwth of tbe potato
plant U a eandy loam, and If mixed with the nne gravel or slate it
'0 ho obieothm j but mo soil should contain but a small Mr Oent of
nUy,utaessUkthbronnhlymixed and well drained. lithe soil
odataini considerable flme it is no partionlar damans, and if it
dOntains potash or phosphorus all the better. A email handful of
Wood ashes thrown around the young plants just as they break
ground will greatly Increase tbe soundness and table quality of tbe
crop, and win well repay where they can be procured for the price
of h^ a bushel of the crop for each bushel of aahee.
UBByiOUB OSOPS.
• It is mentioned above that a clover sod is to be preferred. But
as that is not always to be bad then plant In a timothy, or Juno
graae-^e. Kentucky blue graes, or white olover eod, iu oil caeee
nested as mentioned tor olover for a lage crop. In case no pre¬
paration has been made tbe previous year, thou plant on stubble
S ound after wheat, oats or rye. A very good preparation is to
m under a field of rye, the last week in April or first of May,
and after oarefuUy harromng with a ehort, fine-tootbod harrow,
plant at onoe. A good orop may be looked for,
Ihere ts groat objection to high hills iu a hot climate. On a dry
or well dnwed soil plant deep, then never use the plough among
the growing plants, but run a nairow harrow or cultivator frequent¬
ly, out iiMe no hiils. level surface, well stirred, wiU not
uy out and romse the plants to suffer like the hilling prooess.
If the ground plantM is so level as to make it de&sble to give it
nnrfhoe dndnage, th$u ran a amall double-mould broad plough at the
Mlwilltie
Ilia:; ■
idetergont properties. And ,1a ,
w6(^ea olotbug, It Is Maid anti ,.. ..
colours, but, on the ooDtrary, 'f
wuhed with an infusioh of iha root in
that the ptiaoipal use of this fibre in Its nattvho
ooarae purposee, it has been'described as ad emaNmta nnens^
to tbe best China gesM, and oopm^ Of ooUlg, manlBitiatM Wti
the finest fabrics. . ' ■. : >•
The maguey, century pUmt, or agave i» vArionaiy .ejtilfdL
is described in the report we ate oontidwhig an hrisA
abundant sa the lechtu^Ua, Tbe nugnay, as it wul!%n(jwnr.ls
the (Affave AewHeana A.) The heart of the ]^t yieiihi ag^
mieP’ or ** wort,” and this, when iarmented, heoeiua
an intoxicating liquor in great request by the petk
roaited heart u mesoal, and this, when preaisd injtnm yitii-
a liquid Im distillation, oa^ ' ^o de mesoaU* It hi
spirituous uqtti4 as olear and oolonrleM at nrhig water, A ittiM
la extracted from the leavee of tiie plant by eunply wrbqpog w
which ii said to be an exoellent antiaoorbatio, And baa broa n
with most satisfactory results in oseee of scrofula. The fibre oaa
be obtained from five to even eix feet in length. ItiaVOTfiiuL
and the Mexioana sreave it into fine textores, .It is aaiq thu
ehoemakera use It to make their best thread, and the Writer Of
the report eeys be hee teen it “ wrought into banosome mon^
bags, ornamental baskets, &o., and then tinted with varlout
oolonrs. So far no machinery hee been invented, or at laiet
the Mexican people know of none, suited to break, hacAle,
and prepare tbie produot. They do it In a onmbrous way by
The following is given at on illustration of the extent of agave
E lants to be found In a given area. At Santo Ytabel, a station
otween Ldimpazoe and Bustamante, the railway rune for a dis-
tanue of about six miles over the land of a oarttin Don Solome
Botellu, who distill a neat quantity of vino mescal. *' To glve>an
idea of the great abundance of maguey growing spontaneously on
bis land—all without cultivatlon-4t is but necessary to say that
20,000 plants were destroyed in clearing the ground for the right
of way. Lately, while making a ehort excursion aoron hit lasos,
in company with the general manager and general superintendent
of the road, he ooliod our attention to the neat loss oi magney
leaves in taking the heart of the plants tor distillation. Yor
every plant cut 25 great leaves were left strewn to rot upon the
middle between the rowe, one way only} having arranged the m-ounil.o''5,000 leavee to each 200 plants,” • *
rows so that a descent from it may be secured. Tile draining is, of The"palma criolla” (Oreodoxa regia) Is a tall-growlng.palra,
oouiM, better, but is often laoking.—ihmero’ Betiew.
FIBROUS PLANTS IN MEXICO.
often planted in avenues. It is described ae being very plentiful.
The fibrous leaves are used to thatch the ordinary Mexican hut, or
if straw or other material is used for the thatch, it is nearly always
tied on by strings formed from tbe torn leaves after being heated {
this string, indeed, oonstitutei the common twins of tbe conntry.
The fruit ts somewhat similar la appearance to tbe date, and Is
some times eaten. It is also distilled, and from It a quantity of
nguaMknte or rum is made, “ There was quite a large dletulery
of this kind near and northward from Btlmas on the railway.
This plant or tree has lately excited much attention, as throughout
it is 01 a fibrous growth, trunk, loaves, and all, and some are ex¬
perimenting with it with a view to the manufacture of paper.”
—Planters Qaiette,
A NYTHINQ and everything oonnected with the supply of fibre,
/V. whether for textile pnrposee, cordage, or for paper, is becom-
^ of more Interest almost dally. A recently issued report on sc^o
fibrous plants of Mexico, with notes on their habits, will therefore
be read with interest. The country under review, where the
plants referred to are found, is discussed in the following para¬
graph I— The river of Monterey, a tributary of the Sau Juan,
rtws in the Sierra Madre, and has for its oabeoeras numerous
■midi springs at a point known as the Fotrero de Santa Catarina,
■ay twelve miles WNt of Uontersy, and very near the railway.
A pOtroro or pastnre here means a plain enolrcled by high monu-
wall^ to which there is but one entrance. Tbe aperture to
this is dlmoult, wd the means of oonvoyance pack mules. This
potrero it very extensive from north to south, entering the heart
-pf tbe mountains. It has many sinuosities. On the right and
left from this central desflladero or defile there are others ruu-
xdng east and west, called canonei or canyons. Kaoh has its
■peolal name, and there are a dozen or more. Tbe surrounding
soenery U majestic. High peaks, cliffs, gorges, chasms, great
•can, and impending bonlders on the river fronts of the encircling
ttonnttin*. Htme pine trees tdorn the mountain side and crown
the top. IVom here there is a short foot-route vi 1 the Eioal-
leiiaa Cianyon to Saltillo. There are, say, thirty small farms in
this potrero, and they are irrigated by tbe numerous ipriugs.
The products are sngarcaae, corn, wheat, barley, sweet potatoes,
■quaro, ohlote, water and mask melons. Here the ‘ lecbugllla'
grows abundantly, and much of the fibre called Ixtle ie made.”
This plant, ^s lecbugilla, seems to be that known to botan-
ists as jBromeHa j>Ua, and, together with the maguey or Agave
Awerieaaa, and the Palma erioUa, have attracted mnoh attention
both In Mexico and abroad, in the United States, and Europe.
All tiie plants grow along the line of the Mexican National Bail-
Way, above an altitude of 1,000 feet, and throughout the districts
oontiguoni. They are very prolific, growing uvd upon the plains
and mountain side, between Lampagos ana Saltillo, and espe¬
cially so at Boatemante and tbs Flaxeala Pass near by, where
&eie is excellent water power from a strewn flowing from a
mountain spring, which has a volume of two square yards, with a
fall of 260 feet in five miles. They can be gathered at all points
along the line, and ooavenientiy transported in vast quantitiss
to an eligible lootiity for dlaintegration and shipment. The
aalubrlty of any point on the line of this railway is aaid to be
equti to tiiM m the groat health resorta of the world, and all,
owing to temperata^ altitude, and high condition, are far re¬
mote irom yeuew fever and other infected distrlota, and well
aulted tor mining opeeatioBt, manufaotnrlng centres, and populous
fliitricta.
TheleehngUla—timUtaMl translation of krbiah is said to be
small leMuro—to deioribtfi a» fnr&tobfaig a ooarie and etsrong fibre
from 18 to 24 inohea in toii||tit, and it used for making sacks,
nata, t«pst,hrttohea, Ao> If iatiM ixtio fibre of commerce, and-„-—,-, - . .. ---i-
toraanBried in Inpraaalng qnaniitte fmn Mexioo to the United . UsH wmch the takaa np, imtalso MaMtUa tiw MoW lAM in
iiiwiltodptttot i a w lI rt tA Ari Hai l wt titho no* haaatNag I oaBatartaotaNwithtim* wM m w * .
LIME.
Bv 3ip J. B. Lawss, Bast, LL,D., F.B.S.
f
T he report of the Directors of the Soottish Chamber of Agricul¬
ture contains some very interesting tables reipooting the
exhaustion of lime.
The directors have brought together in one page the opiuons and
experience of the great body of the farmers of Sootlaud: and ac-
coi'dlng to the evidence thus supplied, the shortest period of time
during which a full application of lime is said to last, to seven
years ; while thirty years and over is stated to bo the longest
period.
When we consider that tbe influence of lime upon a soil whioh is
naturally deficient in this substance, is due to several distinct
causes ; and further that the after-treatment of tbe land whioh hae
received the lime differs much iu different ooaee, we have no
eulty in nndentanding that there must be oousiderable variatioas
iu the periods of time daring which tbe beneficial effects of lime
will be apparent.
Two of the ci'ops which are grown at Rotimmsted In our ordinaM
rotation—roots and olover—contain largo quantities of lime ia thw
ash, aud when potash is not abundant in the soil, .ti>ey poaseta the
property of utilizing this lime iu its plaoe.
The ash of leguminous plants growing in an ordinary paatttM
whioh bad been well luppued with potain, oontained 82 ptf oeat
of potash aud 22 per cent of lime, but no paAtUre wbeM potaah
was not supplied, the ash contained 82 pep cent of lime and 1* per
oent of potash. LIum therefore economises the nse of potash.
Tbe first iqiplication of lime to moor land, or to pastitro* wbitii
are deficient in Umo, is often followed by a growth ofwhite clever N
atondaut as to have led some to the conclusion that the plant wAa
spontaneoualy generated in the toil 1 It may be obMrved, however,
tLkt it is only plants with creeping roots which oaA zb rapidly ooVef the
ground {a sunilar Inztanoe in tlie caee of arable land n^ fre^mfily
be obee;^ed in the equally rapid covering of the zoll byooitebBMs i
thia being a giamhuwooua plant can find In all aotb an atreiiiliaat
•apply of its own proper food—tilioa ; but Ume in many eedto it by
no means abundant, and if tbe supply to insuMOient, a Ubeeal
droasbig is eesonttal, not mt«eiy fertile purpose of innutiting til*
1% 1,
fsss'
m
IMT waottnfe «f Ubw dlawlntl, *nd
jitpa^'ln Am« (ia » w»*ot .U oooaUUnUd, lifll )&• MONtAlgr dF
eq^ltegllt* • few yeen eppMin to be ntlier diw
to# dwemot ipe lima to e lower level la tbeejDiUi wlMto;'til ll 1 *m
WB totfl^totiteyooti of the pUate.
V .I%(M elio tote u the medinia by which aitriflootlpn tekti' j^oe t
eadl tU jdsaMt eotlM ebeanoeof altretee in the water t«eef<)g
iteeuh Ih* peat Mila i# Sootlaad—wMcih abouad in aittogen—
total he toamiy d»e to tiie abeeaoe of lime.
:^4k.ii*tae|aMtotiieretameinthetabli ehowi tbit the effeot <rf
ttae to tooitdnrable upon paeturaa that are graced t thit Itaafleote
aiM very good wpon virgin aoil; that it laati longer uB<m good,
tiiM ipos had, land) and upon alaya and heavy loami, than upon
hmt Ittod.
ll%e ntoouQt of eoil nitrogra wbtoh ia nitrified eaoh year moat
dtoendaomowhat upon the amount that the aoU oontalna; bat
where ea^ 'ippileation of UmO ia attended with leaa benefit than
fite preoMfiag one, we may feel tolerably luie that the reaourcea of
toe adl hato bean too largely drawn upon, and that the export of
tertofi^ haa beto too great.
Ume therefore aota in a double capaolty—it famiabes an Import-
ant Iflgiedltot In tba f^ of roota and legamluona plante; end in
addtthm, it furntahee the key by which the atoree of organic nitro¬
gen in toe aoll are unlocked, and rendered available oe the food of
plante. It {a in tble latter capacity that ite funotioua are more
uabla to be abuaed.
' Aa lime doei not fumiah any of the more important, or of the
more coetly ingrediente which plonta require to form their atruc-
ture and aeeo, it la quite evident that theae muat be derived from
the toil: thla being the oaae, if the vlewa of thoae who hold that
agrlonitare thoula be carried on without any redaction of the fer-
tulfy of the toil are correct, it la evident that au application of
lime ahould be accompanied by on applioatlon of all thoae iugre-
dlenta which are carried away in the cropa, or by feeding With
atook.
My own opinion is that aoila are generally competent to yield a
oerhain portion of their fertility without injury, and that practical
experience of the particular diatriot will be the heat guide for
demding the amoabt of fertility that may be thua removed.—iV. B,
AgrieuUnrUt,
ribTATION OF CROPS.
W HAT la the true theory of a rotation of cropa ? Doolora
differ on the point. There ia a aohool in thia country
that roducea the qneatiou of the fertility of the aoil to a matter
of giva and take. Here, they aay, ia a general table of onalyaoa
of aoila, and alao of cultivated cropa ; of certain monurea, &o.
Nothing eaaiar than to calculate the total yield of a crop, to know
the quantity of phoaphatea and of potaah, ha,, carried off. The
analyaia of the manure will enablo the quantity of those
oalta to be eatimated and requiaite to be returnee! to the aoil ; if In
exoeas, the riohnesa of the land will ho augmented. It is
further laid down that oereals and industrial plantis draw largely
on the soil for nitrogenous priuoinles, but aa these crops are
auooeeded by forage plants the deficit is made np by the interven-
tiou (hypothetical) of atmoapherio nitrogen. Further, the necessity
to praotioe a rotation of cropping is explained by plants not
requiring the same mineral sabstauces, so that whut oue loaves the
other wul appropriate, and that, after a lapse, say of fivo years —
thanks to periodi&al manurlngs and dissimilarity of tillagea—the
^ternate exhaustion and the renovation of the soil will be fomici
equalized.
iTow, what it our atook of precise, demonstrated knowledge on
thia tubjeot of rotation? It is exaot, that the mineral food
removed muat be restored. By the successive cropping of lands
in Sloily with wheat, the phosphates had been exhausted, and the
aoil hM become impoverished. The same fact was in process
of realUatlon in the north of France, till M. Corennindor called
attention to the necessity of employing phosphates, and sinue
fertility has returned. Nov for plants, as for manures, thoro is no
oonstanoy either in mineral or nitrogenous, or even in any other
elements. Analyaia shows that a large number of different
mannrea vary in oomposition, from one to four thnea in the case
of the some element. Similarly for plants ; whoat, for example,
where the pweentage of nitrogen, as Ui gluten, varies from one
to three.. ^ere are analogous differences for tho potash and
phovhpovlo acid carried off. Hence there is no mean, no Procrua-
toan standard, that can be declared off-hand applicable to a special
aoU. Strictly speaking, each particular cose demands a now analy¬
sis. One fi<w may produce a forage five times mure nutritive
thu am^er,
A popular error exists, that Boussingault asserted forage plants
take nitrogen direotly from the air ; even his latest experiments
demonstrate the exact oontrary. Then the attempt has been mode
to explain tos resUtution of nitrogen to the soil by the agency
of meteors and rain. It is a tact tlmt ammouiacal salts and
ititrates are oonstantly present in the air, and conveyed, along wltlt
other saline and dust matters, to the soil by the rain, But the
latter falls on the just and uujust alike; upon all onltnres mdis-
tinotly, not U^n any partioular rotation, and not specially on
iOMtoe plants. It is assumed, but not proven, that elecuToity
aiimsis the osote of the air in the interior of the soil, by a union
wtth bydio-earbonaoeouB matters; or effects a similar end in tho
totariof of. plants, by their starch, sugar, Ac. We know, however,
tint toe osoteons matters* iu the aoll can be nitrified, but that
b notsuattoutotatioo of liohnew ; alao, Caveadbh has shown,
in ITM, toss su eleff^ spark traversing an atmosphere enriohed
with oxygen, can prodaoe nitric aoifi. Now, if elootriolty makes
aomtttoMll sabs and nlttat** % the atmMphere, that iatervtoitlnn
lifer aQ tobbfaos Mid or^
i ^ stay be laid doWhsi'ito aMeta, that every system of onltnre
tHslch does not brffig. adm aa phtalde source, the matenab,
Whether nitrates, phoitfitatos,' «fr potato. Ac., rare in a soil ami
carrisd off by the prMUOe, mttsi nltonatuy suffer In fscundlly.
Thera ia a netHMiy," apm from toste food oonsiderations, to
rotate crops ; the plan affords toe means for extlrijating weeds,
for cleaning the ground, and destroying inaects, since ff the lat¬
ter, peculim to a distinct crop, be depriyad 'of its sneobl food, for
one or two years, it most die of Starwidn. To Keep a soil rich,
depend upon manures, ratoer thad on the air,—iVriety BevitM,
THE WHEAT TRADE,
T he Bast Indian Ballway (>>mpany have given the S. B. and
C. I. Ballway Company notice that from the 1st Hay, when
the reduced rates nnder the recent atnngement for groin and
seeds sent from Delhi to Bombay rid Sabarmati, come into opera¬
tion, their own rate for grain aud seeds from Delhi to Howrah
will be reduced also from Be. 70 to 65 per 100 mannds. The com¬
parative charges will then be from Delhi—
FOK wnxAT.
To Bombay
To Howrah
11 annas per mannd.
10 2-6 annas per mannd.
FOB OTHXB OBAIK AND SBEDB OF SAME OfiABS.
To Bombay ... ... 11^ annas per mannd.
To Howrah ... ... 10 2-6 annas per maund.
The Bast Indian Railway propose making a further reduction, on
and from 1st Juno, on thb description of traffic from both Delhi
and Agra to Howrah, to Be. 60 per 100 mannds, or to, say, B 8dS
annas per maund. The present rates for wheat from Delhi are—
To Bombay ... ... 131 annas per mannd,
To Howrab .111-5 a nn as per mannd.
the difference being 2 3-10 annas. Mr, Wood, the ageni of toe
B. B. and C. I. Company, has nrged, and the Bombay Qovomment
and the Chamber of Commerce here have deemed it reasonable,
that the difference in rate by the two routes might bo limited to
one anna per maund. The ultimate difference now adopted by
the East Indian Railway is equal for wheat to 1 2-6 annas pet
maimd, or nearly one anna (6-10) less than the present difference,
which should bo greatly in favour of Bombay, the route being
SO much shorter. The actual redactions made on both routes are,
however, greatly to tho advantage of tho country and its trade.
Tho reduction iu tho rates of the East Indian line was anticipated
by Major Baring In his Budget Statement as a probable result of
th* reduction of the through rates from Delhi to Bombay. The
Finance Minister estimated the practical result of tho lowering
of tho rates to be, that ludiau wheat would be laid down in London
at a reduction of rather more than Is. 6c/. per quarter, Thia
will, it may bo Impod, encourage shippers of Indian wheat to see
what further reduction of expense may bo achieved, so os to enable
the competition with American wheat to ho carried on under more
equal conditions.
As wo have already mentioned, aoonapiouous place was accorded
in the recently issued Financial Statomout to the conditions under
which the export trade in Indian wheat may be maintained and
developed. The English market, which takes about half the
total amount—20,000 000 quarters, or nearly a mlUiou tons—from
this country, is ruled not by the outturn of English soil, hut by
the supply trom America. Major Baring gave some interesting
information bearing on tLis question in a seetion of the Statement
which may be turned to With advantage. We eon suiiplement
that information with facts and figures of no less interest which
will bo full of suggestiou to all who wish to forecast the futuro
of tho Indian wheat trade. To-day we slmll confine ourselves to
the conditions obtaining in England, and to the enormous advan¬
tages possessed by the Anrienoan supplier. Wo shall on another
occasion glanoe at the elements in favour of the Indian producer
and exporte:; lust now it is snfficiout to bear in mind that Major
Boring is inclined to attach considerable importance to the taot
that while protection saddles the American farmer with a tax of
upwards of 40 per ceut on his linnleineats and on most articles
uot indigeuouB to tiie country, the ludiau producer and exporter
are in the full possession of all tho eoonomio advantages of free
trade. Bearing that fact In mind, the oircumstanoes, which are
to all appearauoe eo overwhelmingly against our wheat export
trade, need net alarm us quite so mach as at first sight they
mi^t bo oalculated to do.
The average yield of a wheat-field iu England Is generally
supnosed to be about four quarters on aore, and the leut of such
land mag be put down as 35 shUUngs an aore. ^t wheat cannot
be grown for a series of years in suuoessioo : it is an exhaustive
crop, and requires careful treatment of the huid to maintain a
g^xia average yield. The crops which are grown "In rotation with
it are oi uicrivt value, aud help to bjiug down the profit wbiqlf
s J f; 1
tk ffOMrwr.
b iunuJ'tb^y £10 jui,fKir0, wf^ jiJqtiMted
tiUlwyw JBl- M" ta* itioome-
I pmb «r» fmt, wad w 20
aMnn@ tut tii« wrai’k aotttsdw-tiiWmwtwi, xbdMitore, U SO
•hUUnini b« dsdttoled for TOnt and 90 ahUlings for the farmer’*
preflt, MW rwMjnder of .18S.)ilttm8(ai.m wore may no taken ae the
expeam at EagUah ftma^ig andar praaaiit ooBdftiona. These
ax^aaaea are not liable to much deorwe t th^ oonalat ohiefly of;
labour and manars, aod the otwt of both these Item* b liable t 0 |
^la or y i a; aad If by .any ohanoe ^groat money retnn) of 180
■eUlltnga an aere t* panDanently lowered, then the obvious effect
.-wUl be that eeaauiy mutt be pmeMied to rant, or the ordinary
l^tefltoof the larmar muetbadeoreaaed, or both< The farmer, h
l(Dt likely to allow hli {irafifet to ba.railuoe(l>.,and the.ueoeaaaty
ooatoohesoe will be a daoreMo to vdnt. The struggle which Is now
going os’in'lraiand la for me rkduatlon of reut, becaote it interfere*
arttk the profit whtoh the tomer expects to enable him to live
and to thrive, ae it has beeniodMkdly mcpreaeed. The tamo strug¬
gle it silently ooouiring in hhigland, bat the remissions wblto
landlord* have volontanly gtanied are likely to become permanent,
and where new leases ar* entered Into the rate of rent has been
*___a a_ _a. * I At...t *-a11_1_
the moneys retam ,lor prodM will not be w high during the next
aeries of yeara a* It ha* oeen in the past, or in other words, that
00 ahUH^ a qaartac of wheat 1* not likely to be secured. The
oauM « twa 1* not tbs temwnary effect of two or three wet eeasons
in enooeaifiati whi<di has detboyea or reduced the produce of the
land, btat the fear.'«f American oompetitlon. Amerloan wheat has
beextaaldAt dAshUffnglw quarter in jUverpool. with profft to the
‘bppmrtw, and what has occurred h likely to occur sMiu. This
jfiwt Itoi dUiOQStrated that BagUito tomitog is to danger. If
.^kuriithwhae* can only be grown via dead coat mlnnsrentof 126
abUUap ,{oe toiw qatotonb and that quantity of American wheat
can be told in Sngbind at 132 ahUlings, there is only 7 shiUiags
an acre left for rant and for farmer’s profit*. It is quite obvious
that ondat-aoch-etteumatanoawhe.oanaot afford to pay a,penny of
rent» and that Us own profit must be reduced from 20 shUUngs
to7*lnUBgtan ears—that is, 8 ^ cent on bis capital. And
>attar,if ha oannot grow something else, to retire from farming
Utoga^ter, . and Invest hie money in consols or Indian 4 per cents.
The queetton of rent resolve* Itself into the queetlon—at what cost
itta American wheat be grown and laid down in Liverpool! It
haa bean done at 44 BhUUng* a quarter, and it ii to be considered
whether this price can be nudntained ae a rule, or whether it. le
lhd>le to be iuoreaeed or deoreased. Kow let ua turn to the Ameri-
mn wheat land* and their probable future.
Hr. Williamson, M.F., a large grain merchant of Liverpool,
eeafidered it neoetsary in oonneonon with his business to visit the
AitHNdeaa wheat-lands, and discover the cost of prodnotlou, and
what wa* to be.expeoted from the competition of this wheat. He
want from Su FranoliMO to Wahs-VValja near the Sierra Hevi^.
and found the most astonishingly fertile region that any one coal
Imagine. There wee a stretm of wheat-field* running eastward*
to the Kue Honntaius as fer as the eye could reach on all tides.
V]m whole expanse was covered with wheat, and he found that the
average prodace was 32 bushels to the acre. The country Is almost
unknown and untrodden, and will produce wheat in llUmltahle
r atitias. It is sold on the spot for less than 2 shillings a bnshcl, but
coat of carriage to the coast is so high that until greater railway
facilities are given we have not too much to fear fiom this region
even at present the farmers make a living without getting rich.
had twveUed over Califorhto, Otegoa, W-altW#i*,. mill
Biver, he was oonvlitcea tfia# •may UO"'
quantities, and that the Bnglltii fonuer h4i M
to wheat, although there we* « gaSsf M ,
produce.' ,
The wheat in America la <3 two ktodsv-'^
aunpeiad to,^ inferfor to ths: JSpg)^
wheat U;a»douhtedly better rite )
over a great part of the States, and gave t^r ramni wAjiWl
ia uivinu place to maiee to the older Stofos, but,mat.It ie.ueiitenu
rapldtyl5 the vaet pmlrie fond* of thanortt treat, irtete
aveinga return of late year* ha*
rv ua was v sssyvwa ava vw waaaaaaaa^w sa <^a%«MSrwa, ass woe^/saiyev
of growing iOfi millions of bnshel* of wheat per annum il there
tom'todilitle* of transit, and the soil is such that wheat has been
gtotrn for 22 oonaecutive years with a steady yield of 30 to 33
fit^tis an Mre on 10 to 12 feet of alluvial buck soil which is
tomtharuittble. Add.to titia, the attraction* of a climate where
paatiiea and gra^ ripen to the open air, and we may easily infer
toe future, of this happy valiey. In the Saoramento Valley,
SOO mile* by 40 miles, toe soil Is extremely rich, the climate
4^100*1 and the «o*t of cultivation a bagatelle. They don’t
re^to to ^ut up the wheat fnto sheaves ; they take the ears of
com hod put them into a pile to the middle of the field, where
they ard toreshto f aud .the wheat is put info sacks for shipment,
tniie Straw 1* burnt or trodden doWn'by hog* or cattle. The com
miy remato ri^ Iti toe field six weeks or two meoths until the
.Ikrsmr cSo overfoke it, and be does not ineur a great deal of
thrqUf^ ^atuwable weather. The oouse<xueuoe is, that the
MR^.|M4t>oUon’to California is extremely cheap ;.almpet clieaper
Qmo to any other part of toe United States. The wheat it shipped
to BiktiHiSi itod would coat 40 shillings a quartoi;. The Ked Kiver
ss fiat aaa table, no tree* except On the banks of streams ;
toeland is eiilto B®®d, not very deep, and
nothing to oempara trito California, but exoellont soil two feet deep
and poasessing ,great papabiUties. Tim part of the valley in
iSnh'^ U tSe''be*t,>a haaj toe advantages of two markets, one
At ChtoagOAUd the (tosw to lltoneapoUt, Where the great flour
are built. Hr. ,i*. in this val%, andhis
dpamtiohs areglg4utio. SieootoiMaoed with s,ooo, and now farms
ifyDlOA'Mre*, anid to an avtitiga be has 22 buitotis to the acre,
enormous tract of prairie yet unbrwen, < which _
almost exclusively to whmit, which le the
Wheat Is more or less being aoandoMd to the ol^
they cannot stand the eqnvpetttion with the prajpio
lucoostiul ottltlvation depend* more npm> toa,eeaipn,J3ifto.on;
Besides, as popnlatiou inere^e to |heee pa^, there J* a^g^
demand, for oafry and vegetable produce, whteb. Is, mOrq..prlptab
to rotation and w?th too help of manure, whloh taqreaaa* the .pott
of cultivation and makes it imposible to oompete with the pmlrie
wheat, which can be grown for pjany opweentiye year* .Wll^t
luonuro or any stinaible doorewa in tha yield. Maize u prmfln^d
lathe old States, beoause the return depends upon tillMe, 4*4 la
therefore more certain, and It zervee to fett^nid^. Ix^ pne
they cultivate, on itrlptly economic prinqiple*, toe .grtojfStt .; 4 Wa
which oau be cultivated under proper anpervi*^, sad msm
machinery admirably suited to tneir purpose. The pit^h* aw
perfectly adapted to the land, and their re^ng maoWuM are
remarkable. They have moohtoe* for gathering the wheat and
eelf-btoding with wire, but they oan now do If oheaMr with string j
it is a perfect machine, and makes a dlfferanoe of two or three
bushels saved in waste where men are employed. Mr, palrymple,
who owns the 30 ,OOO-aore farm, takes advantage of the splendid
oUmfttc, find does not mftke hit corn Into zhcfivcz, nnd Bfivez the
leimptPrMi
m
reaper, and lets toe wheat He until it la pa«^ to . sue
threthlng; machine, and thence to the ffTfinni^ oi* elovfiior, a* it iz
called, at the railway station, wherelt li sold, and sent of at the
rate off 1,000 bushels a day, which U somthtog ext^rdinanr.
The climate is almost always to bo depended upon, and the onlti-
vatlon is exactly suited to the land. Light {doughs and double
team and jumped on to the seat of the first plough, jmt it into the
furrow and start^, and then turned back and got tolils own team,
and followed as quick as be could. The shot of that man’s work
was smile long, and I waited Until he got to the end, and law
him jump or within 40 or 60 yards of the end of too shot, and get
upon the leading plough, which he turned at toe end, and then
he ran across to his own plough, and eogot bjmkagtin.” Xhem
besides the advantages of climate and toe ease with .which im¬
mense areas of stoneless plains oan be cultivated and harvested
with the best possible maohines and at the lowest cost, the wti4le
object of the raUway companies iu the Weetera States is to aeoem-
modato the farmers. In England the object I* to aooommodato
the traffio between largo towus, but in Amerioa the 'first qbjoot
is to develop the land, and directly toe line is built an aletattm will
announce “ Cash for wheat.” With all these advantages on bqnhd-
losB farms too statement of too Amerieans tirtmetives toat tiioy
can grow wheat at 12 shilllugt a quarter, Is not teprobab^ but
aUowlng for oxaggeratious, it may be aOoepted as oertaln tiwt
they eon grow it and deliver it at toe neareat railsny statien
’or 18 otw shUUngs a quarter. The wheat tafOde osatfoea at Oii-
mgo, and the carriage from the farms to'Cidcago, W|iti)h may bo
a distance of fiK) or 500 miles, is put down at^^. 8d, a qttinter,
while the carriage from Chicago to Hew York, which tt IjiODD
mUea, is only Os. 2d. a quartar. At proaeat there i* , no bailway
oompotitiou wcit of Calofiffo, but iii a short tilno, XJOBzicUurtjM ^0
rapid rate at Which the country Is being aettied, Wd* high 'eha^ge
-'or carriage to Chicago will decrease. Add the frefjgntiteilAtoF-
pool, 6 shillings 0 quartw, and oommtsaiett charges, ’'and svlMt
may be put down in ’ Sugiarid at 40 ahUllags g.mtoster j .amd as
it has boon sold for some time at 44'shUlings, ftwlB' be' assu 1iba4
this price gives a aubstantisl profit to the trade ) -and hy toaapen-
Ing the carriage, for which there is room, wheat esn btiprit
down at 36 shHUngS, or even at 82 ebUUUga, Whfoh ia the t#mat
ostimato made, Mr. Pell doe* not believe toeaefow fignra* vrifi
be reached, but he frankly aomlt* that if he ware T^inaf to “fofoa
land in Engloud, he would oakutate upon wheat hwiag awnfey
to 44 shUllugs a quarter. Obviously the ^ftomer hapr Ae
olanoe with wheat, and fanding must be entlcaly revolutioBtai:4Q
meet toe competition ofASwea, And IddiA 'IfSh* tstor^fafialn
her present pofitidn lu toaiBhglkdt market, and atitt tterst H toe fii
to Improve It, must be prfMrtd to eaoCtotSr,American entte^Hlae
*ithtimil*rmetoo«*~raB% deveiew^tv todiwifoA
jgt0fit0r ech^bix^ Ifii tlrt tbe grzllA b^tvzeft znm
port. Ornette,
:mcA0:
• t$ the V'tAe Mr. Jilwt Hogg
, in Uk'oodutniaicettea ef lest weak, with ti(eii-
r« "imwvBw&j wuuuusw^vnoa vi iiuni wmK|
• iW iiSr te»-“The (%to^ AiaHyela of Wttorti'tht
^Jiitiat •Telies Hii^lfeiihwt ft diiooieian which itmglit
ls 4 %'lilMiF esQhoted wm - carried'tu' ^enotgli at tb« In«tttat|on of
Omf>‘Bagiii»«»i to prore Uiat he made a mlataike.'’ kewl’q'diie
livable ter'^'dleefaivdr m' ‘'tniatahehe 'idlt^eii to, ahd meirt
cattail^ ’ Vfm" no adstake <» my nairt bf the otter ftdhi^'
of tfe’e^teWldnts'dlter tO'klH, or. aaSSr. Biaehofputeft, *' deat^y
tho^'ljierttW irpohrdaotlve haoteiUr aadfpoMtfblylbote ^ epldentfo
dhM^” llw<e:tperiniiMti« pwforuied with doe oare ib every way,
ehiwlf that wo tjfoagy leon^lter will-not deetroy ia reetlve gemai
aiM "X' bfBM’ooaaeM'^thatl eatirdy faU to aeeihe veiotaney of the
p wier v i ift laa ' df^imtOer, wUdh be importa toto the queition, with
«i^"OrtM ehsmioai as^^ali of driokiog water,It le a well-
kaowd faat 'tiiat' hotter oad animal eobetancee, if preeerved from
atbto^pherio oontaot, ow be kept eweet for a leatheaed pnfod,
I imitt'whet I'ei^ at the meeting of the lbetitutton of Civil
Etumeara, that my expeiimeOte were eondooted ' with great oare
and wl^ a deelM to form a per&otly honett opinion w to my reiolts
and nb mbre. 1 have einoe repeated'tny experimWta with every
preoantion, a^ opw a epeoimen of water, eent to me from Antwerp,
oOUeited undtr ohemiom aupervlBion, and at thie cold period of
the year, thh temperature oi tho water being onty 38* Fahr., and
theie'lwve ahra broken down'nbder the gelatine'aud mioroeoope'teitt.
I'Mfi piddeetly' jOetified, then, in oonoluding, It iinot bSeatteeDr.
Bti^<a‘telhi' na that it ie >the'objeot of the epongy iron filter ** to
deattbyaertidn’ipebifio poUons,” that the spongy iron filter wtU
aetni^ aooompl&h this, and seoare a oonitimt supply of drinking
whtor.
like spongy iron fihet- does exert some ohemioal or meohanlcal
action in water ; nevertheless, like other filters, it is only to be
aotOsQydepehdisd upon for separating the coarser matters suspended
in WMeiS'-^d which are, for tne mostpart, harmful—from those that
are fiiWr’ and, probsAl^ more dangerous. Thie will naturally
impart 'a blight and brfliUnt look to almost any water ; but water
so treated may yet conhdu the germs of death, and arrnngomeuts,
devised- with the bei^ intenUons, for their complete exolueion will
not avail much, - as the seeds or germs of baotoria arc so minute
and fanpaipable that they are carried about by every breath of air,
and a' sfagle drop of water is sufficiont to start them into Ufo.
Water is their natural liabitat; in it they live and multiply to on
almost Inoredible extent. What then can wu expect " common
sense ” th do for us in guarding filters in daily use agaiuit ie<infeo-
tiou } These epeoiflo poison germs exist in the extremes of oold
and heat of strong onti-oorrosivo fluids ; why then does Dr. Biichof
expeot spongy i^u shall kill them t A saturated solution of
oawlio acid, although apparently effeotive for the destruction of
eomo forms of micro-organisms, will not destroy the germs of a
speoiflo bacilli. Indeed, some of the latter, after immersion for a
month in fuming nitric acid, I have discovered very little the worse
for confinement In their new and oxtraordinaiy conditions of life.
Dr. Bisehof employs, ho tells ns, " covered reservoirs,” both in
Antwerp and London, for the purpose of preventing re-lnfeotiou
by suotlon, during filtration of the water. Does he seriously be¬
lieve that covered reservoirs will remove all obanoe of infootion by
atmospheric oontaot, for all time, and during each stage of his water
filtramn 7 I fear he 'will not gain much by bis covered roservoira.
What, then, U^e proper course to pursue 7 That which I have
so often recommended. We must draw our water from natural
sonroes, wMoh aro neither contaminated nor oontaminablc.
Our only seourity is resort to deep wells ; and (be drinking water
of ooiAmunltles and Individuals should only be takau from such
souroet. In London this could very easily be aocomplislied, as
within a olrouit of thirty miles there are 100,000,000 gallons of
jring water running to waste. Ilore, then, is the remedy
K 'pwutinn j and a bountiful supply, supplied by nature, for
inary and drinklug purposes. Why should Londou be
debarred from tapping thia source of pure and wholesome water 7
One last word wh respect to spongy iron filters. I notice thot
S 'ton exerts a detoxidlsing efieot upon water ; and, also, on
a glass bottle of filtorod water by for a few days, a oon-
de^osit of red oxide takes place. There is, probably,
no greatharm to be apprehended from the latter ; but water bereft
of tw oxygen, is neither very palatable nor perfectly wholesome.
For this reason it beoomes absolutely neosssary ouoe more to rostore
this im|)Orttnt element—oxygen—to spongy iron filtered water,
and-tbis is done atthe Antwerp water-works.
Itih now plaoed beyond a doubt that all the various processes
adopted ohemtets, more or lese, miss their mark. They all,
Indw, deettny without disoovering the more peruielons micro¬
organisms contained in their spooimeus. This I have insisted
npoh and'pointed out, and it bos been once unmistakably demou-
etnted by ^ the Medical - Department of the l.oaal Government
Bowd. Dn.' Cory has directed a series of experiments whioU
olearly prove tiiat a ohemioal examination will not distinguish
between an ezoremental- pollution of water and that taken from
aSpnre sonroe; eo “the lesson is taught us afresh and sigufioantly,
tSiM while we must ever be on the watch for the iudieatiout that
ehemtatry affords of contaminating matters gaining access to our
waMtS) we must go beyond the laboratory for emeucu of any
drialdim W^tefe b^g tree from dangerous organic pollution. The
efamnist ’ eon tall us of impurity and hazard, but not of purity
-OBdwitiy. Foriaformationidwatthose we most go, with the
aid 'ti tbO' dwin^ has been able to 'teaob ue, la search of
gmmmMgg wM« sooNM Bad affietiag «at»r
CUcAoCPh*riTi'fi&»'tj>*TlB»il^i“Ia'the'first half eif'lg^
the exports of oaoao hhd. 'ii> luiOiona of poiit^
Agahmt an average of eight ittifiidiih, and tbs Trimdttdt
Otrortfifc states “ Thebf «!eiir Thztd edtjao goes
on onceaslogty, as it hhs loeen dbiiig b'tiit dhe laot Id or 14 ypani«
the great majm’ity of the plohsi Bhuilt at SfSt, OWliSd’ Hvir MIMH
people t-i-deaanx laboarera and '<idfitra^r%' aSd
themselves, but by degrsee forfwt^ to the merchanta to w^Kdft
they are indebted for adraneeB, and by amalgfadatlon obfttsrtk
ed into good-sized prop«‘ties cduntin’g acres by the htpidtei
and (the cacao) trees by the tens of tbousands. There is no
movetoont oon’ceponding to this In omib j and the'; op^fig' of
cane estates bn any scale—and aWgo one, ahowt, is the narset
of Cora auM—goM on slowly indeed. Itcaimbt be done wiidt'-
out capital, a, capital of thousands, sterlfng, while a vbiy jsniiiifl
purse of savings will give a man courage to buy and laydown,
in cacao and provisions, a little plot of ten or twenty' acres.
Yet it is pleasing to note that where a new Hue of road cutk ‘
through virgin land, as at Conupia, by the railway, buyers
start up from the 5 j;round as it were that no one dreamt of j men
in the town successful iu businese ot trade whom no bie ’ h'ad
previously credited with a taste for cultivation, yet v{ho,iAi
being tested, have been found to be gifted with a - sombwhat
Mechiau ca|;3acity for Uio pursuit quite equal to, and in some
respects possibly better, than old olod-pdodders to the'manner
bom, carrying into the new practice the habits of foresight add
perseverance that had gained them their first successes, ai^
yielded them the means to enter on an untried ventaw;”
EXPliRIMEHTtS IN COCOA CUBmO.
[The following letter, addressed to a cficoa 'planter, bas beeta'
placed st our sorvioc for publioation.—E d, iTSmes qf (>{(&;SiJ
Colombo, Aprils, 1838.
Deau Sm,—I havci to apologise for having delayed so long my
promised report on the oxpenraents I made with ooooa pods you
were su kind ns to place at ray disposal ; one thing or another
came in tho way of my putting the results on paper. Vour letter
of the 31 st ultimo hoatoiis, by a few days, the letter I inteodod
to write to you. Oue of tho chief objects I had in view In askings
yon to lend me some cocoa pods was to oso^tate whether I could
hasten tho process of fonneutation, by the applioation of a re^lar
anff constant higlier warmth, than that of the atmosphere. 1 am
sorry to say that all my expuriments in this direction weir#
complete failures ; the result, therefore, is, that instead of prelwn^v-
ing the pink colour of properly fermented beans, all l experhsePted
with are very dark and coated, so far as the outward appoaranoe
is ooncorned. 1 attribute this complete failure In a great measure
to my previous unacquaintauce with the ordinary process, os also
with the nature of the mucilage to be dealt with.
1 found that if tho whole of the mnoUage was not got-rid of,
what was left immediately turned black by exposure to the
atmosphere and very quickly got mouldy. All this of course ypu
know, and I only mentlou It as ou explauatioa of my fMlore io
the object I bad in view. But it the result of my experiments
wns unsatisfactory in one respoot, It was satUfootory in
another; it proved to mo what yCn no doubt know, but
which I did not, that fermentation of the beans is only
practised for the purpose of removing the mucilage, that proeelM
being perfectly nnneoessrry for imparWK the true ohocdlato color
to the ooooa kernel, this being deVetopea, in the course of drying
the beaus, by tho conversion m tho watery juices of the kernel Into
the colouring oil, which forms so large a portion of the ooeoa bean.
The lattsfactory point asoertained by the exporlmente is, that not
only may tho whole of tho muoitage be got rid of without any
fermentation wliatever,' by a very simple and easy process, bat
tiio mnoilage itself can'eaaily be oonverted into a valaaole produot,
instead of being wasted as by the present method.
I found by experiments that oonridorably more than ball o( tho
muoUago may be separated from tbs beans, by washing them, or
rather mixing them, witli alittle water, and by agitating them in a
revolving cylinder with perforated boles lor the freSh eacoharln'e
liquor to run into a trough, which would convey It to a
olarifyer, which U tho first process towards its numu&otnre into
sugar.
That portion of the miioitBge next to the beans—^specially that
.adhering to them—is more refractory and diffloulfto separate, but
I found thot even thU could bo easily rubbed off by motion. 1
should think a maohlue, similar to a washing machine, would
ooswor the purpose on a large soole. I may mention' that in my
email exptriinents a quantity of small shmee was 'i&)k«fi''wlttt tm
beans to chafe them when revelviiw, ssfiblenttf to' rratoys' tbs
m atBtilatajnndTtotowi^ t# a > Itiri l tm ill liU ti* m
184
THE INDIAN AGRIOULIJJBIST.
May 1, ll88.
U cnooa, planter* are Indiffereiit to utilisation of tho enormous
quantity oi saoobarluo contained In the muoUage, or think the
result will cot compeniat© lor the trouble, I atill think a mach bet'
ter and speedier way ol getting rid of the mnoUage may be liit
upon than tho slow and waitefnl ptooeai of fermentation. As
a imlf or three-fourths of the mudhuj^ can be removsd at once by
simide agitation, there is only tho fast coating to be dealt with—
tills oonid be tabbed off by some process or other. I obtained a
baantifttl sample of cocoa by rubbing the mucilage off with a rough
towel. However, I hav^no intention of euggesHug any particular
way of removing it, I only wish to say that I thfuk, for the
reasons given above, that termentation la a wasteful and an nn-
necessarlly slow prooeu. At present my interest in this portion
of the question is very inilgnlfioant.
I will now advert to the point in tho curing of cocoa, ln_ which
1 am particnlarly Interested, and that is, whether the principle of
my tea-dryer cannot bo applied to the drying of large quantities
of ooooa (which, like the produce of its t»lm namesake, contains
so large a quantity of oil as to render It very snsooptlble of mildew
in a damp atmosphorel until the whole of the moisture is
evaporated or dried out. I believe that my tea-diwer can be
advantageously used for the purpoeo of drying cocoa ui a manner
which would not injare or remove the outer skin or parch¬
ment, Tho result of ray experiments is to satisfy me that, in the
first initanoo, the drying should bo very, very gradual though
continuous, to allow of the watery juice to evaporate CTadually
and for the colouring oil to take its place, K dried too qufokly, the
parchment will split on the germinating side ; the watery juice will
evaporate, and the kernel become dry nefore the oil has permeated
the whole of the kernel; tho result will be that some of them will
dry white or mottled, and the parchment will crack in a way
that srill render it liable to become detached from the nibs In
transport or manlpnlation.
My advice then is, if my dryer is used, to spread the ooooa fresh
from the process of removing the mucilage on tho hot eurfaoc rather
thickly, say four or five inches thick, aud keep it there until tho
whole becomes warm throughout. I would then remove it into
bags, and let it stand for a few hours until a fresh charge is ready
to be put into bags; I would then replaoe tho first charge until it
again tieoame warm throughout; by thus alternating the charges.
to dry It in the ordinary way—Hz. by the heat of the sun, tins
method being obviously the oheapest one, though by no moans the
epeediest, and during tho greater part of tho year the oltmato of
tnc mountain sone of Ceylon renders it almost Impossiblo to sun¬
dry ooooa satisfactorily on the estates,
large quantities, a considerable area v
asoortain the cost by taking two and _ -.
fleial foot as the bans of osilculation. The heat generated by the
drying machines would. In a closed stove, with ventilators, hasten
tho drying ol half-dried cocoa, and prevent mildew and discolouva-
tion, , . T j •
In communicating the results of my crude experiments, 1 dosirc
only to turn your thoughts into the channels I have indicated. I
have not the materials for continuing tho experiments, nor can
1 ^ord cither to buy them or tho appUanoes for doing so. Yon
will, however, be able to continue them on the hints I have
ventured to offer.—Yours truly, ^ SHAND
P. 8,—As tho oil in cocoa beans llqiiifles at 120 degrees, ttic
E rocesa of colonratiou is hastened by drying gradually ou a surface
eated to 170 degrees.
FORESTRY.
Asimals asd Forest Tubes. —A con'cspondont writing
from Johiiaouville, S. C., incidentally njentiou.s a curious
instances of the influence of animals in controlling or prevent¬
ing forest gj’owtha. It appears that tlie fomlness of hogs for
the juicy roots of young pines loads them to seek tliem
assiduously, so that where hogs are allowed to ro.mi in that
region, one can hai'dly find a young long-leafed pine in a thou-
Biind acres of pine forest. There being no young trees to take
the place of the old ones used up by the lumbermen and
turpentine gatherers, that si)ecies of pine timber is rapidly
being exterminated.
FOBEST TEEE PLANTING.
and doorcase faster. Germany oqntalmi more forest oroa to-day
through careful plajiting thiia It did 25 years ago. Yat It did aot
save that country from the great flooda of iSw, the moot seven
on record.
The terrible flood of February la the Ohio, and oonieq^t
destruction of life and property, will long be remembered. T3»t
it was Intensified in its suddenness is undoubtedly 4ae to the
cutting away of forests on the western elcmee of the AUogluuues in
New York, Pennsylvania, and Weat Virginia. This rise exceeded
the great flood of 1832 and 1837 by onw a few inohes, bnt t^e
few loohesdropresent a vast entplneage of water H agailt medinm
and high water. It is idle, however, to say that the owners of
mountain lands hundreds of miles away from the principal scene*
of devastation, will be deterred from the cutting or timbw thet^P-
It is present profits they are looking to, as arc other men. Tm
great forests are gone, but the great area ii etiU covered with
underbrush, as valuable as mature trees so far as covered uiM ^
concerned. What the owners ehonld be made to understand Is thM
the planting of these slopes to valuable varietlee oi timber le the
most economical use that can bo made of snob rough leotliw of
country. This aocompllshed, the difficulty will bo obviated and
a fair preservation of timber will be secured.
Hoop poles are among the most neoeesary and valuable of young
tbnber growths. A phmtation made thiok enough will in a very
few years yield these by the natural thinning required. Aa the
years pass, tUelmhsequent thinnings are none the less valnabls, as
props to mines, that must he consWtly renewed, post*, railway
ties, Ac., until at length tho trees tor mature growth will stand two
or three rode apart aa the case may be, and of just the varieties
adapted to soil and situation. The differenoe between a piece ol
natural timber and a piece of planted timber lies in the fact that the
natural timber contains far more timber of low value than of timber
valuable in tho mechanic arts, Tho planted timber is all valuable.
Here la whore the profit comes in, demonstrated beyond doubt in
Europe and now capable of demonstration In this country. Let any
farmer figure for himself. He wlU acknowledge that a move will
pay for planting iu tho protection it gives. Lot him figure the
actual value of such a plantation at 20 year# of age, tho trees averag¬
ing 12 inolies through of black walnut, ash, oatalpa, black oharry,
larch, pine, spruce, or any of the valuable timber trees, standing
■ ■ ■ or 108 to the acre, half of which may now
It would amount to a
soufoe of Income to his
_____ __ary to follow the matter
farther. Any observing man may figure for himiolt that the profits
are not less than in any of the other branches of oommon
liusbamlry. ,
last US now figure what to plant and how to plant, If simply
. = -
» tl,a ri.irnn.n nf drvlnff lA!t US HOW UgUre WJIBC VO piOUV BUU UOW CO JJrno.,
rSicFrll Yo^oSu f*”' «''ade and roadside trees, elms, maples, and walnut among
FSnPB.’nor Buncr- slowev-grovring varieties, and cotton-wood, linden, oatalpa am
1-^quartoi rupees 1 Hm fnstnv orowhiff varieties. For shelter of bulldinES and wi
T he planting of trees for ornanionl and shade, as wind-breaks, to
preserve the natural area of forest, to ensure the bust resiilta
from the cultivation of farm crops (not less than one-tenth of the
area of a farm), or for the purposes of useful timber in prairie
regions, is now admitted by ail thinking men as among the indis¬
pensable industries connected with farm life. That forests do
modify climates there is no longer doubt. That Irolts and clumps
of trees largely mitigate the force of winds, and prevent the
roourrenoe of those disastrous storms imlled blir.eards, that peri¬
odically sweep over open districts of ooiintry, is capable of
lUmonatration, That forests and groves hold the water of rains,
giving it up slowly, is beyond oavll. That forests prdkent the
rsonrrones of our gnat river floods, however, is only true in a
TtMkiM^oftOMrtad^tBMiriiy floods. Ttiey riso iaotor
among
tlio faster growing varieties. For shelter of buildings and wind¬
breaks, Norway spruce is undoubtedly the best, though any of tho
evergreens may be used.
It ia better to plant the soocllings of evergi-ecns as grown by
nursGi-yineu for the purpose, Tho transportation is light and tho
soedliuga may be tliiokly placed—one foot by throe inches ia the
row. As they begin to crowd, take out every other plant, and
again every other one in a row, ond these will bo all right for wind¬
breaks, &o., while tho remaining plants now standing 12 inches
apart, will be available for single troos to dcvelopo into their full
honuty. The sood ol deciduous trees should be planted pretty thick
1 ly in rows four feet apart as early in the spring as the soil may
i)c worked. Nuts should iio kept in moist, well drained sand during
thn winter, and if they freeze slightly they are none the worse. As
they grow, thin out to about three inohes in the row, transplanting
to any weak places, and thin from year to year for planting out until
tho trees stand four by four feet. Hero they will make nice trees for
transplanting at the proper time, or for thinning out as roimired
for poles, posts, Ac. All small seeds as maple, linden, Ao,, should
not be covered more than one aud-a-half inohes, Nnts should bo
covered three inches, and these latter may bo dropped la the row
.about throe inches apart. All tlie nut trees should be planted
where they are to grow, liut with ooi’e in root pruning at one yeor
old, they may bo transplanted at two years. To plant large trees
the holes arc bettor made in tho autumn. Then when tho soil
will work friably, dig them with aa much earth as will adhere to
the roots ; do not allow the air to have contact with tho roots more
than can be avoided. Evergreens we have known killed by expo¬
sure to the sun or dry winds for a fow minutes. When the tree is
placed in the hole so that the collar will be little, if any, lower than—
as it horetoforo stood—tho surface, throw in the finest soil, paokiM
firmly about the fibrous roots; when the roots are well oovereo,
press all firmly with tho feet, being careful, however, not to scrape
or bruise the roots. This firming is absolutely necessary. If the
soil is dry, saturate with water, and cast over ali where it has
dried away tho remainder of the earth, levelling all smooth, and
stake if uocoBsary.
Mr. llohert Douglas, of Waukegan, Ill., who oortainly under-
ataiuls forest tree culture, in relation to planting forest trees over
largo areas, says :
“ In order to establish the fact that forests oau bo sueceesfully
planted rvithout tho aid of experts, we took three oontraots. Two
of these plantations are iu Crawford County, Kan. We have
already planted SOO acres on those two oontraots, aud will plant
500 more acres before tho first day of May next. These tr^
are planted by ordinary labourers, superintended by a man Clio
never worked a day iu a nursery. They are planted with spade*,
and stand four by four feet apart, the ground having bean marked
out tho same as for ootu. One man or boy holds trees for two
planters, and tho three together average 4,600 treei planted in
a day of ten hours. Wo plant 2,720 trsM to the Mrs > ow
wotiMt calls let 3,000 tiM*> they staad t/m3,S00i« the •«»,
May 1, 1883.
THE AGBICULTUKIST.
, 1H5
I
They ooniiat of throe-fifths Ctoofj:)® tpm'wsa luifi two-fifths Aifun-
thtu, Tho ofttalpM three yo»rs plaotecl stiuifi from six to tea feet
high and two to three inches in diameter at the collar, shading the
ground BO as to need no further cultivation. On the richest laud
they shade the ground after being two years planted.
As those trees are planted by farm hands and coltivatod with
common corn oultivators, it proves that any farmer who eon raise
an acre of corn is competent to grow an aero of forest.
ARTIFICIAL PLANTING FOR PROTECTION.
D r. JOHII a. warder, in a late number of the Amerhati
Journal of ForeHry, in an article detoUlug the work of plant¬
ing certain portions of a large tract of land in Iowa, under the
direction of Mr. Josso W. Fell, well known for his efforts in tree-
planting and tree oultare, at Normal, 111., concludes the article
with some general remarks upon the effects of tree plontiug
on climate, from whioli we extract the following Interesting
reading
“ With a tract of land of oven a few thousand acres thus plant¬
ed and thus sheltered by trees to check the tiying winds both of
summer and winter, who that has once soon and realized the bene¬
fits of these wind-breaks will doubt the influence of trees npon the
local climate, and their agency in producing and retaining the
humidity of the atmosphere so essential to our crops and to our
comfort or tliat of our cattle ? Let such planting become general,
and who con say that the olimato of a whole ro^on may not be
measurably reclaimed from the aridity and severity that now pre¬
vails; and who will say in advance that such a covering of tho
surface, if carried on over still wider and more extensive regions,
oaunot aud will not affoot the averagn annual amount of raiufoll ?
And yet, we are told, on high authority (Wm. Saunders, liorticul-
turist, U. S. Department of Agriculture), that “to plant one luui-
dred ooros in trees, with the view of inereasiug the ruin-fall on tlio
adjoining one hundred oorcs of arable lauds, seems to us a very
weak proposition.” Now, to many of us who have realized tho
benefit of wind-breaks on the pruirics, it l-s no longer a wfoh but a
•ery tlrong proponiHoH, that judicious aud extensive tree-planting
docs and must modify the focnl for our benefit, and that it
might well affect tlie annual rain-fall. Time may bo necessary to
eliminate the possible errors arising from cycles dependent upon
oosmlcal causes that are uot yet fully uuderstuod ; hut lot us have
credit, and let the jutlieious plantatious of trees have tho credit for
their influence in modifying the local cHmato of the farms, town¬
ships, counties, and states, whore wo do know that sucli ameliorating
influenoes arc sadly needed,—TAe (larden,
THE PURPOSE AND PROCESS OF GRAFTING.
I T Is not difficult to uuderetand tlio nature of grattiug. A plant
differs from an animal in several respects, niul ouo of theso
differeuoes is that a part of a plant can ho seiiaratod from the rest,
and, when placed under favorable conditions, will live and grow.
If an arm or log is cut from a mau, or au ear or tail from a cow or
horse, tho part separated from tho main body of tho animal dies.
package. Tho twigs thus out sliould bo put in moist sawdust
or moss, aud kept in u cool plooe until needed.
The implements needed in grafting aro a tine saw for cutting
off the limbs, a large knife and mollet fur making tho clefts, and
a small, sharp knife, to bo used In cutting the cions to pri-pcr
shape, A wedge will also he needed for opening tho cleft made
in the sawed end of the stock. Graftiug-wax, to proteot the
exposed surface from the weather, can be easily made from tho
throe substances in the following proportions s Beeswax six oniioBs,
rosin and tallow four ounces, melted together in a kettle, over
t fire. Old cotton cloth, torn in strips, is waxed with this while
melted and wound ou sticks ready for use. This cloth is bound
around tho grafts after the cions have bean sot, caro being oxer,
oised nut to move tlio cions in the operation.
It bos been stated abovo that it is uot diffioult to understand
the nature of grafting, ueltlier is it diffioult to perform the oper¬
ation. Any ouo with a small amount of tliat iiiduscriliahle
mental power called “ gumptiou ” can soou louru to graft. It is
largely a matlei-of praotico to do the work quickly and well,
after the simple prmclples involved arc once understood.
The time to graft » when tho buds begin to swell. Having
dotormiiiod upon the place to graft, saw off tho limb aud, placing
tlie large knife across the sawed oiid of tho stock, strike it gently
with the mallet, and thus make a cleft for the cion. With tho
imall, sharp knife out a piece from one of tho twigs in tho
luudle so that it will beoi' two or three buds, shapeii the
lower end into a wedge and iasort this end into the cleft (opened
by a knife) so that the growing layer will come against that of
the stock and be bound there. This is the all-important point in
grafting, ami If not done the work i.s lost. It th(! braiiob is larger,
bud grafts, ouo on e.ach side, nuw be set. Tho after-work of graft-
‘ng comes later in the season.— Clos.~F}i/-initrx' li'-t-ii /r.
TJIE GARDEN.
NOTES ON CULTIVATION OP UATNY-.SEASON
VEGETABLES.
M ost of the vegetables tiecnliar to the rainy season are rank
growers, and n'qiiire more room than tho average sized garden
can spare, 'rtiose not included aie not of muoh value, and unless
variety is an oljjeot, they may he safoly loft to the care of tho
native grower, if ever reiiuivud, ho will supply them as cheap as
one can grow them.
KIkvoii (oucumbei), Oi/ciimi>t mtiiiun.—Tlie rainy-soasou varieties
of this vegetable aro very distinot from tho variety with small
egg-Bha])ud fruit cultivated during the hot season. Two varieties
are oomnioii in India, although, as far as flavour is oouoeruod, there
is little to choose hetwoen them. AVIien iu a young state tho
colour of one is a dark green, and of the other creamy-white.
W'hon lull grown both are about a foot long, ami the colour changes
to a rusty brown. I’lioso two, altliougli not equal to the eommonest
varieties met with in Kngland, are not to bo tfespisod. They tluivu
with little care, and aro always sure of yielding ,a crop. I annu¬
ally try some of the Knglieli varieties, but have never been able to
ripen a single fruit. They sometimes form, but invariably rot
Imforo attaining maturity.
The gardener well understands, and when ho wishes to propagate
the geraniums or verbenas, ho separates small stems called cuttings
from the lai'gi' plant and sots them in moist sand, wliou the ends |
first callous and thou send out roots into tho moist mixture, and in
a short time ho has a supply of plants of tho same variety as tin
one from which the slips or cuttings were taken.
In grafting the process is muoh tho same, only a little mor
oompllcated, and therefore a trifle more diflicult to do sucuesfifully.
But by this it is not to ho tmdorstood that the process is one re
quiriug any greot amount of learning. In grafting, a cutting of
recent growth, called a cion, is shaped and fitted into a part of
another plant called the stook. Instead of being put in the sand
it is placed in tho living .siibstauee of a pkint, and derives nourish¬
ment for its growth from the stock. In order that this may bo
ncoomplished it is ueoessary that the growing layer of tho cion
and stock oomo close together. This growing layer, os it is termed,
la aitnated just below tho bark, at that point whore the bark slips
from the wood when a whistle is made of willow or other wood.
There are a number of important things to take into consiJor-
atiou in snooessful grafting. It is not enough to he able to
sot a oion and have it grow well, though that is very im¬
portant. Grafting is done for tho purpose of improving the tree
or shrai) thus treated, and therefore the quality of the cion should
always be superior to that of the stock tor the special cud iu
view. For example, au apple tree may ho all that could he desired
in thrift, healtlituluoss, &c., but the fruit is of poor quality or
smi^ iu quantity, or both. A superior sort is grafted upon
snoh a tree and all the strongtli and vigor of the whole tree is
nsed In making a good kiud of fruit. Therefore, after deciding
to fgtJt a tree to improve it, one should be sure that the eious are
of reoellent quality. A tioo may bo made poorer by craft¬
ing as well as improved ; in other words, there is no bene¬
fit to be dortvfld iu itsoif from tho process of grafting.
The cions may be bought at must nutseries. If cut at liome bo
sure that they are from well-known trees. Twigs of last season’s
growth only should be need. If more than oue variety are used,
lie up in bundles and keep separate with labels ou each
111 order to have them in use all through tho season, throe sow-
ings should be made—the first iu April, the seconil in May, aud
the third iu Juuo. Rich soil should be selected, and tlie seeds sown
hi lines fivo feet apart. When the young jilants arc about four
iuehos high, supports should ho given for them to elinib on. 'J’l
first Howlug should he regularly watered, until tho rains begin.
Afterwards none need b-) given unless a broak of more than tun
days' duratiiin should occur.
A'idi Tnrtii {Liifitt itnt'iiiiijuhi) ; Ohia Ttir/ii {Lvjfa ij’tjijjtt.icu ,).—
The.se two vegetables require the same mode of cultivation, anil
may therefore he described logelhcr. When full grown, the fmlt
of the fiist-namod is about .'I foot long, and of an angular shape.
VV'hcn cut for use it sliould never exceed four inches in length. If
cut when longer, it is quite useless for the table. I'bo fruit of
the second is about C inches long, dark green, and slightly
spotted with creamy-white. It must also he cut when quite
youug.
Two sowings of both wdll keep up a siipiily from .Tiily until
Ootobor. I he first sowing should bo made In A])ril, and the second
in the end of May or beginning of Juno. Tho soods should he
sown in linos at the same distanoo apart as cueumbers. 'I’lui goueral
troatmimt required is the same as described for tho latter, aud
need not he again detailed.
C'liarhitiil'i (Simke-gourd) ; Ti'iohonaiitIms aiimihui.—'the, fruit of
this vogetabU- is from ouo to three feet long, and of a very handsome
appearance. When young they aro beautifully atriiied w'ith wdiito
and green, anil when rijie ohaiigo to a brilliant orange. Tho young
fruit is used os a substitute for French beaus. B'hoi) cut up into
tliin strips aud boiled, they form a fair imitation of that vegetable.
Like the A'ufi aud GAia the fruit must be used wiien very
young. If out when more than 4 inches long: they often have a very
bitter taste.
Two sowings should bo made, tho first in April, ond the second
in May. »The distance apart and general troutmeut is also the same
as described for onouinbcrs, and ueeil not bo again detailed.
Kvrraili (Monivrdica cAurmifin).—This, although botauioaily the
the same species, is a different variety from the one grown during
tho hot seMOQi The natives of this district call (me hot-season
THE INDIAN AaRICUIlFURlST.
May 1. 1883.
ISP
variety /biriaila, and the roioy.season on« knrniili. The former
variety does not require any supports to oUmb on, but tho lat¬
ter does. The fruit of both is much alike : however, tho rainy sea¬
son variety la, on the whole, smaller.
One sowing is enough to make of this vegetable. If this Is done
in the beginning of June, it will keep up a supply all through the
rains. It also requires the same treatment as the cucumber,
Al Kudu{Lnoki]i LffynaamOM/parls.—The fruit of this vegotoble,
if out when qnttc yougg, is nearly equal to the vegetable marrow
In flavour. Its size ana shape variee very much. Some varieties
are nearly a yard long, and others are oompressed into short club-
shaped gourds, not above a foot long. The flavour of all are nearly
alike, and It is of little Importonoe whioh variety one may
possess.
It con be sown as early aa'February and as late os July, How¬
ever, for ralny-ieasou use, two sowings should be made, the first in
April end the second in Juno. The first sowing will be ready for
use in the begluning of the rains. Tho second will come In about
the middle, and keep up tho supply until the cold season. It can
be sown in nurseries and transplanted, or sown at once where in¬
tended to be grown. The latter mode is preferable, but if an empty
plot is not available when the sowing season arrives, it is better to
adopt the first named, tiian let the sowing season slip past. It
succeeds best in heavily manured sandy soil, but will thrive ordi¬
narily well in any. When sown or trausplantod, the seeds or plants
should be inserted in patobes 6 feet part. No supports are required
as it prefers to trail along the ground. It should be weeded when
necessary, until the patches Interlace and cover the ground.
Afterwards it will not require to be tonohed, as tho dense network
of branches will keep down the weeds.
Kudu (Tumpkin); Cnmirhila via,xma ,—There are several va-
riotioH common In gardens. The commonest one is a largo globular
gourd, and of a brown colour when ripe. If cut when about
a pound iu weight, their flavour resembles that of the vegetable
iriarrow. It is also very good if used wlien full grown.
The seeds should be sown from April to June. It is a gross
feeder, and requires very rich grouud. Tho distance apart and
general treatment is tho same as described ior Al Kndii, and it is
needless to detail it over again.
Bhuta, Malta, (Indian-oom,) Zoa Mniit.- Tho cultivation of
this plant requires little core. There arc 'numerous varieties iu
cultivation. It is a popular plant in Amerion, and of late .years
that country has raised a large number of improved kinds.
Although mncli superior to the varieties cultivated in this
country, they cannot be depended on to produce a crop on the
plains. For ordinary garden cultivation, and whore a supply of
corn-heads is the first coueidcration, it is better to grow the
indigenous varieties, and leave the American kinds to tho care of
the oxperimeutab'at.
In order to have a supply of tho green unripe heeds of corn
all through the season, it should bu sown at interv'als of a fort¬
night. The first sowing should be made about the middle of
May, and the suceeisioual sowings coutimied up to tlie middle
of July. The seeds should ho sown in lines 1.1 inches apart,
and 12 Inches between each seed. When tho plants are a foot
high, they should he (mrthed up like potatoes. If the soil is rich
and heavy, tliey will succeed very well without this being done,
but if poor and light, the ojwratiou is very beneficial. It
brings a greater supply of food within c.asy reach of the roots,
and also lessens their chauoe of being blown over during
storms,
BMudi {HihiscM tucidenlun). —This is a very wholesome, al¬
though not a palatable, vegetable to every one. The fruits,
wbou cooked, are very slimy, and for this reason many do not
care for it. Those who do uot consider this an objection, find
it palatable, and os it is easily managed, a few plants arc not out
of place iu a garden.
It should bo sown from April to June, One sowing is suffi-
oiont for keeping up a supply ail through tho ruins. It shonld
be sown in nurseries, and when three inches high, transplanted iu
lines two feet apart, and 18 inches Irotweeu each plant. It will also
succeed fairly well if sowu at once in tho plot whore intended to
bo grown, but succeeds bettor if transplanted. It should be
regularly weeded all through its period of growth. The oftouer
done tho better, as frwjuent weediugs keep the surface soil loose
and open,
Lohio enrionp),—This is an aumml plant with narrow
pods from 6 to 12 Inches loug. It is cue of the most useful of
the l)oau tribe for rainy-season cultivation. There are many
varieties of anim [Mu'hui] cultivated during the rains, but os
hardly any of them ore ready for use until tho cold season, I have
excluded them from this paper.
This species should bo sown just before the rains, and will be
ready for use about the middle, and onntinuo until the begiHuing,
of tho cold season. Tho pods should ire gathered when about six
inches long. If gathered when longer they are tough and stringy.
It should bo sown in lines four feet apart, and treated iu tho same
way 08 oucumbsrs,
— i'he Indian Forester.] \f. Cl.
NOTES AND OLEANINGS.
N ew EOSES,—Among now imes shown by Messrs. Wm. Taul
at tho May meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society were
four fine varieties named Mdllo, Mario Curnier, deep rose ; Violetto
Bouyer, blush ; Comoeai, fleshy crimson ; and Queem of Queens,
pale rose. All those had large and full flowers, except Camoens,
which was remarkabie only w its pretty oolour. Mr. H. Beouett,
Sheppertou, showed u i.-iv hybrid tea rose named Duchess of
Alwny, It U large and lull, of a pleasiag soft pink hue.
Pot Uosxs,—O n the above neoasion also, a grand display of pot
roses was mode by Messrs. Wm. Paul and Sons, of Walchom-oross
Nurseries. They oouslited of about half-a-hundred well-grown
plants, including some of the finest sorts, such as Marie Banmann,
Mdlle. Marie Rady, Francois Mlohelon, La France, Juno (a fine
plant). The snov^ whiteness of the fine blooms of A&bsl Morrison
contrasted beautifully with the rich deep vOlvety orinuon of tho
superb Duchess of Buford, a Waltham Cross rose, and one of tlie
best of new rosea of recent years. Among other roses raised by
Messrs. Wm. Paul and Sou were Mosterpteoe, bright roae-orimson ;
Lady Sboflield, a glowing oerise, the blooms large and fine iu simpe ;
Star of AValtham and Little Gem, a pretty new moss rose with
compact rosetto-liko blooms of a rosy oerise. This group of pot
roses was supplemented by balf-a-dozeu boxes of out blooms equal
iu quality to those which one sees in July. Among them a large
tray of alwnt three dozen blooms of Magna Charta, showing that
superb rose to perfection ; noteworthy among the others were Paul
Verdier, Princess Marie Dolgorouky, Beauty of Waltham. Duka
of Wellington, Crown Prince, and Dupuy Jamaiu, all of wnloh are
excellent for early flower.
PvRETHBCMS. —From time to time we have mentioned pyrethrum
as plants deserving the attention of colonial growers. One of tho
wild species is the source of tho Persian insect powder, but hybri¬
dists have expended much skill and time in raising a race of double
varieties, anil they have sucoeedod iu their task to perfection, At
their meeting on May 9 the Royal Hortioultural Boolnty awarded
the silver Bauksian modal to Messrs. Kelway and Sons, Laugport,
for a grand collection of these beautiful liardy flowers. " About 60
double kinds were shown, and about a score of single sorts. Among
the letter there wore some beautiful flowers, varying in colour from
pure white through pink to tho deepest crimson. A seleotioii
should iiKilude Romulus, Demo, Themis, Kustlous, Uelou, Dnmia,
Dyri.s, Docius, and Cavbo. A vepresoutativo selcotlon of tho doubles
are, among crimsons and pinks, J. N. Twerdv, Sefton, Nemesis,
Progress, Oloirc d'ltalie, Hobart Pasha, Duclies.s of Edinburgh,
and Captain Nares ; aud among light-colouted kinds, Nivciim
plenum, Album roseum, Mont Blauo, ^'anoo, Cleopatra, and
.Solfatterre.’’
L.vi'AdKniAs.—These finest of greenhouse climbing plants are to
some flxtont exceptional in their requireinodts. If grown in houses
where any warmth is used further tlmn is sufticiont to keep ont
frost they are excited to earlier growth, and under such oirouiu-
stances I have found tho young shoots and funves very impatient of
cxiiosure to the full force of the sun, whioh not unusually has the
effect of stopping the slmots from attaining thnir full gvowtii, and
onusing the leaves to be deformed. Any aspect seems to suit these
plants better than the south, yet if ill too dark a position they
rarely (lower, however strong they may be, so freely as when more
favourably placed in this respect. Now, whilst the young growth
is in its tondnrest condition, a thin shade of some kind should he
applied aud the soil should bo kept well moistened, especially if
tho plants are grown iu pots or tubs, and the roots fully occupy the
soil i but whore small or medium sized examples have been recently
turned out in beds of oonsiderahlo extent the earlli must not he
made too wot, otherwise it will got into n soddened condition, under
which the plants do not thrive. Syringe eve.iy afternoon, getting
the water if possible well to tlie under sides of the leaves ; if tliis is
attended to regularly, tliri|)S, to wUieii these plants arc so subject,
will bo kept down, an essential point, for though tlie hard loxturo
of the leaves prevents their Ijeiiig killed outright, still the insects
feeding ou tliem shorten tlieir duration—a sad mishap wlieu used
for covering hack walls and similar places in conservutorics, for
which purpose lapagcriaa are well adapted.
Liuacs. —Tile, varieties of tlicse are numcrou.g, but only about half
of tlie iiurahnr that have been named can lay claim to distinctness,
the shades of oolour, the chief distinguishing cliaraoter iu many of
the kinds, being remarkably alike. The majority belong to
tlio common lilac (Syringa vulgaris), and it is a remarkable
fact that there arc comparatively few varieties of _the^ Persian
lilac (8. persiea). One of tho very finest varieties iu flower
is called Prince Camille do Rohan, a kind whioh stands
out prominently from all the vest on account of its dense
pniiicles of blossom, whioh in the imd stage are a deep rosy-
crimson, but liglitei' in tho expanded state. A similar, but not
such a fine, sort is one called Sinonaia rubra, and next in merit is
Professor _E. Stockaert. Rosea grandiflora is a voryfiiio variety,
which has oxcoptioually fine panicles, lighter in colour than those
of either of the kinds named, but very pleasing. Tho foregoing
comprise some of tho most distinct of the dark-coloured variotios
Among those that are but little different from tho typo of S.
vulgaris aae those named Coliath, purpurea, rubra, coerulea,
and media. The major variety, called also Charles the Tenth,
is well known. It Is an oxuellent kind for forcing, and shonld
bo included among the best of the dark varieties, as should also
the double flowered sort, whioh possesses the advantage of
remaining iu flower longer than the rest. Tho best of tho
pure whites is Ville de Troyes, which is much superior to
the common white (,8. vulgaris alba), having larger flowers
and denser panicles. Another, called Jacques CaliSt, is but
little different from Ville do Troyes. The most noteworthy
varieties of the Persian lilac are the white (alba), now
becoming a scarce plant, oven in the best nurseries, and the cut-
loaved variety (lacmiata), an elegant shrub called also ptetidifolia.
Tho Rouen Iliac (8. rothiim.agensis) is an extremely pretty
shrub that deserves to be betti r Known than it is. It diS^ from
the Persian iu being neater and more compact iu OTOwth, and in
having narrower loaves. We found it here nnifer its synonym
S. duliia. There are a few varieties of It, the white (alba)
sanguluea and Glolre do Monlins being the most remarkable.
Among other distinct speoies S. Joisktea, a Hnngarian lilac, will
shortly be in bloom, and later on the Himalayan S. Emodi, also
very diitlnot from any of the couuBOuei liUoi.-^T^ Qafdm,
May 1, 1883.
THE INf)IAN AGEICULTURIST.
1-87
SERICULTURE.
A OOBBESPONDENCE writer ;— “ The oxtensiots of tuttar
s^icultore in North India ia not yet to be dexpairod of. It
is true that natives hero know nothing about tho industry. It
ia probable that no European has yet proved that it can be
niade successful commercially. But considering tho very in¬
expensive nature of the process of rearing the cocoon, tliat it
can be done by women and children, and that the worm is
indigenous to the province, it is certainly possible that the
industry may bo developed. In the Hoshiarpoi-e exi>erimenta,
the best plan of rearing the worm was found to lx; to put it out
when very young on the hori tree in the op en, and there to
guaj'd its natural enemies—crows, sparrows, and, worst of all,
wasps. In order that tho trees on which worms are put ni.ay
be properly watched, they must be kept of a moderate sixe, and
planted close together. The watching can bo done by,
children. Sometimes more than a hundred cocoons have bocii
taken off one small hari tree. The w orms strip the tree of its
leaves, but a young l>eri will send forth a second crop of le.aves
the same seiisou. The rearing of the worm could then be
conducted with almost no c,\peuso to tho cottager. But it
involves tlie trouble of careful watching, and the moths have
to be caged to ensure a supply of eggs. The conditions of
successful rearing have been .a))pr oxi m.ately, but not fully,
gauged. A large uumlxjr of cocoons arc annually reared in tho
jungles by tlie wild tribes in Central Iniliit. and -some parts of
Bengal. Uid Major CouB.sm.aker try rc.aring in tlie open, on
trees of moderate size plaJited together ’> It would be interesting
to sec details of his exjlerimonts."
I
SERICULTUllE IN NEW ZEALAND.
M e. william COCHRAN, wriliug to a oontomporary regard- I
the suitability of New Zealand for 8 ilk fanning, has the follow¬
ing :—Passing over the mummious verdict of the Proas in favour of 1
silk farming as likely to form a pleasant and remiiucralivo employ¬
ment for women and children, besides helping to add materially to
many a cottager’s inoomc during periods of commercial depression, I
come to a paragraph which must be (pioted intact:—“In the
United States, for tho introduction of new and valuable industries,
or the development ot any which already liavc a footing, there is a
lively public spirit, and as a consequoucc tlieroof the promotion
of such eutcrpriso.s is part of the l>uaiuoe 8 of Government. A
spcoial department ot State is devoted to tho purpose, and any¬
body Wishing to embark in this line or proffering suggostioua or
co-operation ia not snubbed as an cnthuaiasl, but can rely on
getting full and practical information for his gnidanee, and .State
aid also when nocossory and proper.”
Tho great Importaneo and value of the silkworm eggs li\ado
forms a feature of which tho Colonial Trees takes due note, i
amounting, os it does, in the case of .Tapau, to throe million I
sterling per annum. It is argued that as no disease of any kind has
yet appeared in the province of Canterbury among the rvorrns, as
last year’s harvest extended from Soptoinbor 1881 to Juno 188'2,
and as the white mulberry grows with great Uixuriaiice iiotwitli-
standing lato and sharp frosts, the serieulturists thorc should eon-
fine their efforts mainly to egg production. As an Illustration ot
the happy effect tliat oliraato exercises on imported eggs, it is
mentioned that cocoons, moths, and silk lately raised from 3 /afar
brought from Japan and Victoria admitted of no comparison witli
the foreign article. The Now Zealand-bred cocoon, to use the
language of the Colonial newspaper, “ is hc.avicr, firmer, and by
a great deal larger than either of the others ; the New Zealand
moth looks capable of swallowing tho little Victorian moth and
asking for ' more ; while the Australian and .Tapanese silk is far
behind ours in strength, evenness, and gloss.” Tho Press of
Canterbury, on January 20th, notioos “ some very beautiful speoi-
mehfl of raw silk prepared from cocoons, obtained this season.
HkTho samples aro intended to bo forwarded by tho Uov-
ernor to England, with the view of testing praotloally the capabil-
ities of New Zealand os a sUk-growing country. At the end of
March, Mr. Pederli intends to send home in the refrigerating
chamber of the S.S. BritUh KinJj some gnime, to London, for the
purpose of distribution in France and Italy, to tost tho health
of the worms raised In this country,”
! It is stated that ft requires 600 acres of oultivablc laud, or 5,000
I acres of bush land, to produce In wool as ranch value os can be
extracted from ono acre of mulberries in the form of silk ; and
it shonld bo remombered that almost on the threshold of tho
industry in New Zealand the cropping season, even in a frost-
visited province like Canterbury, has already been prolonged to
nine months, os against tho three months originally oaleulatcd
upon, or tho six weeks of Europe and ALsia. It seems to me that
those facts ought to dispose of the charge iif exaggeration and
blind entbusiasm brought against tho advocates of sedonlture in
New Zealand on more then one occasion by thoughtless persons
in this country and olsowbore, and by ono illnstrious statesman in
the Colony. It has been already Indicated in my former letter
that it is desired to promote a public company, with a capital of
at least 160,000?,, to purchase a tract of land ; for this purxHwe
an eligible estate of under 10,000 acres has been offered nt a rea-
Bonablo price and on easy terras. The land is situated on tho
Bay of Islands within three miles ot the rising town of Eussoll,
which promises to be, nt perhaps no very distant date, the future
first port of call in Now Zealand for tho steomera of the Pacific Mail
Company arriving from New South Wales and San Francisco.
Tile estate possesses a frontage to tho bay of about two miles ; is
bounded for about nine miles by a picturesque, tree-fringed river,
fordable in only three xdaccs along that distance ; and tho land
is intersected by several smaller streams, this promising abund¬
ance of water-power.
Such a desirable estate as this is desoribed to be and so evidently
suited for the purpose indicated, should not bo allowed to revert
to ordinary agricultural purposes ivithout careful inspection by u
(lualified commissioner, and an attempt made to effect its purchase
if found all it is painted. If these and former remarks recommend
tbomselves to enterprising capitalists throughout tho Empire,
tho period has evidently arrived when ouorgetic and speedy
measures should be adopted. The Now Zealand Government
is ceasing to bo lethargic over this matter, and doubtless an
influenUiti public company once formed would noeesaarlly command
that prompt attention to its suggestions or proposals which an
obscure individual need hardly expect.
NATURAL COLOURED SILK.
T he iirev.-ilciit colour of the r.'iw silk that meets the cyo of
the visitor to (he LimJon Docks is yellow ; hut there arc
other natural tints known, and tho number might be consider¬
ably increased were tho te.achings of careful observation better
learned and dige.stcd. Thus, wo already receive pure white
silk in its greatest beaufy from I’alestiiio ; an almost coloui-
less v.iriety from Uic haroo p<jloo worm ; nofudy white silk from
Uic >netniiivori‘ii insect ; ami a deliavte grey filament from the
at/icK grub—all belonging to India. China, Japan, Persia, and
Sicily export mainly the golden-yellow variety, and India ,a
similiU-ciitour in quantity in addition to those just .alluded to.
To thc,sc ni:i.y be mldcd the bc,antitul fawn-tinted silk of
Nortlieni China, obtained from a gigantic worm which foede
upou the leaves of tho mountain oak, but will not refuse those
of tho imilbcrry when ofl'ered ; and the jiearl-grey jiroduce of
the Attacus ci/nthia, fed upon the leaves of the ailaiitlius, and
now successfully reared both in France and p.arts of England.
If we eliminate tho pure white .and grey (which can scarcely
be regarded as coloui-a) fiom tills list, yellow in various shades
Is really the only decided hue at present possessed by tho raw
silk of commerce. With the knowledge ot the numerous suc¬
cessful experiments in the direction of obtaining other crilonra
ill a natural iniuiiier conducted some ye.ars .ago, it may well Ik-
asked if tho jivesoiit paucity is altogether creditable to the
Kcriculturists of the period. Ia 1876 M. Rouliii obtained pale
blue cocoons by slightly dosing his silkworms with indigo,
car.'fully mixed with tlieir mullieiTy-leaf focsl, shortly before
they began to spin. The leaves of (,ho Jiii/oina chiua, or
tnuniiet-tlower, of the river Orinoco—belonging to an order
yielding tho most gorgeous climbers yet met with ia the world
—enabled him to feed his worms so as to obtain beautiful rod
cocoons ; and, doiibtJoss, his investigations have since been
rewarded by tho production of further natural decided colours.
.About the same time another clever serieulturists, Ruimet dcs
Tallis, discovered that a magnilicent red tinge could be com¬
municated to cocoons by feeding the silkwonus for a time on a
variety ot vine, and a deep emerald hue by the use of lettuce
leaves.
It is quite likely, of course, that the long-continued silkworm
maladies of Europe may have interrupted those interesting
and emiiieiitly important experiments, and the cireuinstauce
may bo aecepted .as an excuse for Uu’dine.ss in following tbera
to a practical issue. But it is at the same time gratifying to
I leani that oui' countrymen wlio m e about to iutroduee tea ami
' ailk-farinitij,?as a eoinbiuod industi v into New Zealand intend
to prosecute this line of researcli with assiduity, as tho
splendid evergreen flora of those islands gives jiromise ot
unusual facilities for e.xpcrimciit, and points to the probability
of ft grand result.
188 '
THE INDIAN AGBICULTfrlHST.
May 1/ 1883.
TOBACCO.
rpHE total area under tobanco at the Ohaaipore tobaooo
X fawn has, wo observe from n report of the Agrioultural
Department in the N.-W. P. and Oudh, risen jFrom 404
acres in 1880-81 to 48'i acres in the year 1881-82, and
the produce from 270,0001b to 326,0008). The rate of
yn'oduoo per acre was for both years 6765) per acre. Of the
entire produce of 326,0001), 61,0001) were shipped to
England, 60,0001) were manufactured into smoking tobacco
for the Indian market, and 10,0001) were made up into
cheroots, 2,8001) into cigarettes. The shipment to England
realised 6(i per pound, and the prices realised in India
wore at)out G annas per jocund for cavendish and one
rupee for smoking mixture, 8 annas for cheroots, and
2 rujwos for cigarettes. It is proposed, we see, to extend
the area under cultivation, when a still better rate of
produce is expected.
SEEDING TOBACCO BEDS.
M arch and April are the monthe for making the tohacoo bed
or plant patch. At the South some of the planters make
the bed in the fail, and wu have known such caaoa here in the
valley. Usually the bed is selected in the fall, fertilired or ploughed,
or spadan in, then left until spring. When wanted for sowing, the
bed is first spaded deep and all turf stone, bits of grass and
rubbish of all kinds thrown away. In fact, the object is to make
tlic bed as moUow as it can well be. The bod is now carefully
raked, and made even, and rounding so that the water will run to
either side. The bed may now bo trod hord before sowfug ; some
omit this, until after the seed is sown.
In regard to the seed, whether wet or dry sued was sown [ if dry,
it should have been put in pan half full of dry saud so that the
seed will not come up in bunches, whioh makes the bed look bad.
If wet seed is to be sown, taka mould from about an old tree. This
mould should be quite moist; sift it, and mix thoroughly the
seed and mould together. Put It under the stove, cover with a
cloth so that it will not get too hot. If the seed is good, in 48 hours
white specks will appear. That is the germ of the tobacco
soodling. They should not grow too fast or too long, aiuoo they
may bo broken off in sowing.
The seed may now bo sown by the handful (small) or by what
one can hold between tlie fingers, As the mould is usually darker
in color thou the tobacco bed, one can tell whotlior he has sowed
the bed oven or not. Make, however, more than one bed ; some-
times it falls to ooinc. They may be poor, or, for some cause or
other, wo have no plants.
Wo Iiave been describing the process of making tobacco bods in
Conneotlont, and the method of making and sowing the seed is the
san)otho world o)er. Most growers sow too much seed so that a
good deal of pulling out is required. Havana and Yara plants do
not require as mnoh room in tire bed as soedleaf plants, since they
grow up like cabbage soodlings. lu a few days the young plants
will appear In the tobacco bod and In ten to twelve, if the bed is
full of weeds, the work of getting them out will come in order.
Wo prefer a damp to a dry piece of ground for this aud many
reasons. The seedlings, if kept moderately damp, are more apt to
gorminato tlian when sown on dry ground whore they take up but
little moisture, unless the watering-pot Is kept a-going most of the
time.
After the first weeding, wliicb should bo done woll, spi-inklo
the bed with plaster, and let the bed go until lil or 15 days more ;
by this time the seedlings ought to be quite large, the largest
leaves the sise of a silver dollar. From this time fonvard until
'• Bottling," the beds are tended in various ways, the weeds
pulled out, the small ones rejected, old trodden plants on the
Iwdor thrown away, and, if necessary, the bed given a weak
solution of Peruvian guano water. But don't give tlic eoedlings
too strong a dose, else they may be bijured and destroyed out¬
right.
lu Now England ami the Middle States transplanting occurs
frmn the 25th of May to 20th of Juue, but plants are " set out”
ns late as the 4th of July. Havana plants arc bad to “ sot” sinoe
tlieir roots oro long like a cabbage. Of seed leaf from 6,000 to
0,000 plants are set to the acre ; of Havana, 0,000 to 7,090, accord¬
ing to the seed. We sow seed six or seven years iu descent from tbc
imported, A fine crop of Yara tobacco was sold here late at 10
coBts, It produced aDOnt 700 pounds to the aero, at least the
two acres brought $400, so the grower said. Grow good tobacco,
-r-,j v If, 'iroStablo product. It Is in demand now the world
covtitMiisiit
oinsronoiT-A. B’sbbib’xjO'S.
A n efficient atiJiatitutc/or Quinine. 8oid by prine^poZ JBfaropean
and Native Druggists gf Calcutta, OiftjinaMe Awni
SujxrinfcHdent, liolankal Cardens, Oalmtta. Post fact, of im.,
Ps. 6 ; Sol,, ifs, 11; 16 oi„ Bs, SO-12, Cash with order,
1
PLANTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
XiinvdiiTsu,
UEBOHANTS Ain) OENEBAL AOEKTS,
Oal(nitta,-30, STRAND.
Central Manager —W. E, S, JKFFEK.soif,
Manager-
Agencies for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantageous terms.
Coolies recruited by our own staff of oxporienood Agents, with
DopOts throughout Chota Nagpur and at Dhubri.
Indontors and Consignees of all merchandise.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, and Private Agents,
Assam.—" THE EXCHANGE,” DIBBUGARH.
W. J. Whxatlev, Manager,
A. 1), Htuart, Agency Superintendent.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and European
Residents.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India General Steam Navigation Ck)., Ld. ; Agents for
Comniereial Union Assurance Co., Fire and Life ;
Agents for “>Sta)-” Lino Ocean Steamers,
Calcutta to Loudon; Agents for
Reuter’s Telegram Co,,
Limited.
London.— GREAT WINCHESTER-STREET, E.C.
E. G, Rock, Secretary,
Ajfencles at Birmingham, Bordeaux, and Oharente.
FRANCE.
coNTiNEmL & COLONIAL mm
(LICKNSBD ),
14, RUE OE OHABROL, PARIS.
Transacts every description of Commission, Merchant, aud
General Agency Business.
All Indents executed at Manufacturers’ moat favourable terms.
Uondifions.—Two and-a-half per oeut, Commission when Banker’s
Draft on London or Paris accompanies order. Special terms to
regular correspondents, All Discounts conceded to purchasers,
Original Invoices gout whoa required.
Produce taken charge of and roalised to best advantage. Cash
advanced on Consignments.
The Agency Represents, Buys, and Sells for Firms.
Public Securities, Estates and Properties,bought and sold. Loans,
Mortgages, Mines, aud Lidustrial Investments, &c., ncgoolatod.
Manufacturers nudProduoors can have suitable articles introfnood
to the markets on advantageous conditions.
Peioe List —comprehansive and rdiable—on application.
BANKERS.—Pasis : George Waters, Esq., 30, Boulevard dos
Italiens. Losnoiv : The London and County Bank,
8, ’Victoria-stroot, Westminster.
Address: The Manager, Conthicntal and Colonial Agency, 14, Rub
do Chabrol, Paris, France, 447
May 1,1688.
THE INDfAV AOBIOULTURIST.
188
SfBIES tMMAT WLMMWnt
FOR PRfCKLY HEAT, INDIGESTIOl READACHE. BfUOU^MESS. A NO FEVERS.
Tlie teaUmony of aUKUoul tWjUaman bM been unqualified iu prftlM of
UHFLOVBl’S PTEETIC
Olvwtaitent wJtef in HBADaOHK, HBA or BU,: _
quickly onree tfio vrumt {onus ct TrPHUS, 80AKLBT. .fUNU;
?SQPT.~!* Pnfoldtng germs of Immense benefit to ttauklncl.” " "1 Dr. SPARKS liJnrfirumeni IrtoiUool Imiwlor of.Bmljtru..., --- -
r XOS0A2f«—tumllaes Uia blooU with its lost wfiTie eoustUnents,” } writes: 1 Imvc an>nt plessuio hi iwiirlnq my cordhu,l«stlmouy t-'jtu©mosey.
OOMPiiAiifT8, ami various other
ants {rnm tlte Port of Luudon)
'as poBsesilnu elmnonts most ossoutial for the reitomtlon ami Uihlntonaunu of health with rictdiir of body unA min'd.
It Is Bffervesot&g and forming a most Invigorating, Vitalising, and Hefreshtng Beverage.
‘ —.. “•* lOtrs SICKNKSa, CONSTIPATION, iNDroKMTlON, hAaatTl'PB. IIKAHTPCKN, iind PKVKH18U .
. . )£k. umlullwr PBVBllS. HMa/.LPOX. MkAHLBS. fuid faHUl^lVK or iiKiN CXIMPLAlN’
altered coudtauns o^ihn
_ _ .. mankind/’ —. -
. . hlooU with Its lost wIlTie ooustUnents,”
OOTBOminT OmeULUB AVD puaresos o»ving Sw tlM wel&M of thdx empU^ should not*
valu6 ft0 A Bpoedne in T6T6r dnsos.
J>T. W. noWKElfa—*’ I used It in the treatment Of forty.twoonw^sof Yellow Paver. . BAWITL PrtrDM. PimJAITB. IKDIA.-“ We llmly l>eli-'ve that ihe use of yow
^ i imver lost a elDKlo oasa.** 3*rTr Hc Biul tte will iln morn loprevont fever than all the ljuininv »'i«r imporunj enii rure,
tri.—'*Stooe Its Introdnotion the Fatal 'West lartia Fevora are deprived Dr. tVrIjBY.—“ I found it art iw a six«?i!liMn my experieuoe wui family, in the worst
. __ _ 1 furms nf Reorlet Fever, no other medU’lue belnu rf'Qiurort.’*
, . KiaSBirX*# SJgBaamrTATIVS «» OV BMBBA UBONJI, nr. S. an^s Ifumwly m'lWmi to the IflUdou fi.JSpiW).-" Itt UMiuIuoM 1)1 the
4n ft latter of nqtwn for an sddroonal supply of the ryre^ir Saline, states—“ It la of j/ivni treiitinent nf dlseas<» biw Jon« boon fonflrnied by naedlCRl oxperienee.
talui, aod I shiCU rejoioe to hMKrit U bi tne houses oi au.Baropeatut vlslUu« the ’
*To be obtained of an 7 Ohemist or Drug Store, in Patent Olass-atoppered Bottlos, 2s. dd., 4 b. Od., Us., and 2Is. each. ^
rieaM note in oosineotion with the recently oheerved effects of the nee of Citrate and other jireparatioas
of SEagnesia that UASEFIiOXrCiZ’S FTStETIO SAUXSfE ia warranted not to contain any snbnanoe
which wou ld can se caloulons or other earthy deposits.
H. XjJtH/LFXjOUaS., 113, I-03frlD01!r, B.O..
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
“‘I know what it is,' ho answeredj ‘this honey is made from
euphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.’ This explanation made
me feel exceedingly unoomfortablo i but I elicited from lilm that there was
not much danger, as the ‘niaoss’ taken with it would neutralise the ofleot
of the poison. Directly he mentioned poison I dived into the packs, and
pulled out a bottle of ENO’S FRUIT SALT, and omiityiug u iiuantity
into two pannikins, fiHod them up w-ith water, and several times
repeating the dose, in a few liours we were considerably better.’’—
“ Zvliildiirl nml Oftfimyo," (p. 13')), f>!t Oaptam W. Jt, Ludlow, IH Balt,
It. 1'. TtojUil JI'amiidH/ui-L lti''iimnil,
VVlmt on earth slitill i lake to Zuiuland ?’ asked my friend Jim
Law one day at Aldershot, when lie had just received orders for South
Africa, to start ot foity-uiylit hours' notice. I replied, ‘If you take
my advice—and it’s that ot an old travellci—you’ll not budge without
n few iiottles of FAO, even if you leave half your kit behind. I
never am ulthout these Salts, n.nd, please the pigs, never intend to bo.’
On his roliirn I inquired, ‘ Well, how about KNO'S FRUIT SALT!’
‘My dear follow, it was tlie host adeice you eier gave; they saved
mo many an illness ; and when 1 left Tiisgla, I sold the romahilug bottles
lor ten times the orqdnn! price ! ’ ”— Lh’ut.-Ool.
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANGER OF DELAY.
V You can change the trickling stream, hut not the raging torrent.
.—IIow important it i.s to every individual to liavc at hand some simple, offeetivo, and palat-
' .SiLLT, to rherk disruse at the mitset ! l'’or this Is tlin time. With v'ery little trouble you
w able remedy, such os ENO'S FELUT to riierK disfuse at tiic (miser i j'or rms us tun time, tvitii v'ery iittio trouble you
can change the course of the trickling inoimtaiu stream, but not the rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I fool 1 cannot suffi¬
ciently impress this important infonnation upon all Householders, or Ship Captains, or Europeans generally, wdio are visiting or residing in
any hot or foreign climate, tVhenever a cliange i,s vouteuiplated, liUely to disturb tile condition of heuitli, let ENO'id FRUIT SALT bo
your ooinpoiiioii; for, uuder any nireiinistanees, its use is bcnoticlal and U' vvr eau do Iiarm. IVhen you feel out of sorts, yet unable to say
why, frequently without aipy warning you are suddeuly seized with las-iitude, diainelinatiou for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
sickness, pain in tlie forehead, diiU aeUiug of back and' limbs, eoldiie.sa of the surface, and often Bhivering, &c,, &o. ; thou your wliole liody
is out of order, the spirit of danger has been kiiidlud, but you do not hnciw where it may end : it is a real necessity to have a simple remedy
at hand that answer the very best end, with a positive .assurance of doing good in every oasa and in n.. cose any harm. The pilot ean
so steer oud (iii'oot as to bring the ship into safety, but im cannot quell tlie raguig storm. 'I^e coinnu.n idea when not feeling well is, “ 1
will wait and see, perhaps 1 shall bo better to-morrow i ” wlioroas, had .a sup]uy of ENO’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all calamitous results might have been avoided. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many awoct alliances,
blasts so many auspicious enterprises, as untimely death *
NO’S FRUIT SALT.—“ After suffering for nca rly two and a half ve.-u-sl riMIE ART OF CONQTTE.ST IS LOST WlTtloUT THE ART OF EAT-
E from severe headache and disordered sLoiuaLh, ami after trying almost
oveiything and aponiHng imich money' without linding anv Ixnuilit, I was
rei'ommondod by a friend to try ENO’.y FitU IT .SAL'l', and before I had
finished ono bottle I found it doing mo a ip’eat doal of good, ami now I
am restored to my usual health ; and otliers 1 know that luive tried it have
not enjoyed suoL good lioall.h fur years,— Yours moat liuly, ItuBT,
HuMPHBBYa, Post Oliloo, liarrasford.’’
1 ]N(h DINNER KNOAOEMENT.S.—.STI.MtthAN't’S. TOO HIOIl
FOOD. —I,.\'I'K110(,1R.S.—JNSUFFICIENTEXEi;(Jl,S>;.- K.Yt.'lTEMENT,
.Vo, — g,'tit]om.'in write, s : “ AViion I fool out of sorts, T tako a dose of
ENO'8 l■’^^f'i'I' SA I T ono iiour Iwforo dinnur or first thing in the uiornint;.
Tho otVoct i-i .ail I could wisli.” How to nnyoy go<jd food that would
otherwise c ause liiliousnoss, ho.adaehe, or disurdorod stomach—use ENO’ii
FRUIT HAl.T.
A score of abominable imitations aru
S uccess in life.-“ a new invention i.i brought before the public, and commands success
immediately introduced by the uusorupulous who, in copying the original closely enough to deceive the publie, and yet not so exactly
as to Infringe upon legal rights, exercise an ingenuity that, employed iu an original chauncl, could not fail to secure reputation and
profit.”—A dams.
C AUTION .—Lfgai riijhln are proMed in. rorry civilimt. cmmh-ji. Examine each Balllr, and sej" tlw. capgndc h marked" Vi^O'ii
SALT.” k you have been imposed on by worthless mdaHon.s. Bold by all Chemists, prke Ss. Fd, and Cth
OIREOTiONS IN SIXTEEN LANQUAOES HOW TP PREVENT DISEASE.
Prepared onlp at ENO’S FBUIT SALT WOBKS, BATOHAU, LONDON. S.E., by J. 0. ENO'S Patent.
190
THE INDIAN AGKICUt;TUBIST.
May 1, 1863,
PHCENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
Oivil and Meehanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
Ftyrgtd and Cast Iron WbrJk, BoUers, Machinery for Jute, Cotton and Rice Mills, Collieries, Indigo Concerns, Tea Cardens, <fcc..
Contractors' and Brick-making Riant, and every class of Iron and Brass Work made to order,
SOLE -A.a-E3SrTS EOE
Eobey & Co’s celebrated Portable and Fixed Engines and Machineiy, Gwynne & Co’s “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Gould’s
Kotary Pumps, and Eobinson’s Patent Steam Traps.
IMPORTERS AHD MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY OESORIPTION OF STEAM ENGINES ANO MACHINERY.
Robey & Go’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Eobey ” Seini-fixod Engines, Combined Vcrticid Engines and Boilers, Land
and Marine Boilers, Gould’s Eotary Power Pumps, Hand, Lift and Force Pumps, Taugye's “ Special" Steam Pumps, "Vauxludl”
Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Soorkee Mills, Pug Mills, Brick-making Machines, Eoad Eollers, Saw Benches,
Slide Surfacing and Screw Cutting Lathes, Drilling Machines, Punching and Shearing, Slotting and
Screwing Machines, Emery Grinding Machines, Spencer’s Hand Drilling Machines,
Chaff Cutting Machines, Kennedy’s Patent Bar Sheara, Selkii-k’s Boiler
Tube Beaders, Steam Pressure Eecorders, Electric Pens, «
Eiohai'd’s Engine Indicator, Gifford’s In¬
jectors, Cook’ng Stoves, Fire-
Proof Safes,
The following are the principal advant¬
ages of the “ Invincible” Pump ;—
1st .—It is arranged to swivel on the
bed plate, and may be placed at any angle
simply by slackening a few tmts, with¬
out interfering in any way with the lied
plate or tlie joints of either the auction or
discharge pipes.
Snd .—It does not require a foot valve,
being fitted with small iilr exliauator
and chmk on dischwgo which always
keep the pump charged reatly for
wora.
Srd .—The bearings are imuie on an
entirely new principle, and one Ijearing
will last out four of the old arrange¬
ments.
J. & H. OWYNNE’S
“ Invincible ’’ Centrifugal Pump.
4<A.—The form of the pump casing is
so arranged that one side can be taken off
in a few minutes for tlie inspection of
the whole of the disc and interior of the
pump.
M .—Hand holes are made on eacli
side of the suclirm pipes to enable nay
foreigJi matter which may get into tho
pump or disc to be easily removed. The
eirters are fitted with a bayonet joint so
that they ciui bo removed and replaced in
less than a minute.
oy/i.—The “ Invincible ’’ is 25 per cent
[lighter than any other Centrifugal Pump
in the rnai-ket, ami diaohevrges at least 10
per cent, more water for the power
applied.
Ranaome’s Indian Plough. Price, Bs. 16. Howard’s Ryots’ Plough. Prioe, Ra. 20.
These Ploughs have been expressly designed Bn<l manufactured for the use of the Kyots of India, whose special needs liave been
corefuUy studied in their construction. 'Diey embody all the qualifications for which the native-made implements have hitherto been
preferred, whilst being incomparably superior in strength, durability, and eltieieiicy,
MORAE'S PAtENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to throe times tho depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the dirtiest land
witlioiit getting choked with woods. Price, Its. 15.
IKDiaO AND TEA PLANTERS’ IMPLEMENTS AND STORES.
sasra-iiTEiLiRS’ ajetp stoksjs .alll boiitids.
Always ok hakd a laeok stour of Plate, Bau, Akolk, Tek akd Couruoated Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper Pio Ibok
Foundry Coke, fSMiTiir Coal, Fire Bricks, and Fire Clay. ’ ’
Catalogues on Application.
May 1, 1883.
THE INMAN AGRICULTURIST.
OOODALL’S
Household Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
Tbe Moat Delicious Sauce In the World.
Tliis cheap and ezoellent Sanoo makes the plainest viands palat*
ablC} and the daintiest diahos more delicious. With Chops, Steaks,
Fish, it is incomparable. In bottles, at Cd., Is., and 2s. each.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
The Best in the World.
Makes delicious pudding without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautifni light broad without yeast. In Id. packets, 6d., Is., 28.,
and 68, tins. _
QOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Best and most Agrecalle Tonic yet introduced.
Tho best remedy known for Indigostion, Loss of Appotito,
General Debility, &c. Restores delicate individuals to health. At
Is. lid. and 2s. Sd. each bottle.
THIS ILIUSTRATIOM IS A FAO-SIMILE OF THE UD OF
MESSRS. SUnOHS’ SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BEWARE OF IMITATIONS.
NOTICE.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER, "“ttom’s seeds & oataiocues
For malting Delicious Custards without Eggs, in hoo itina
ancl*ot hn!/ the price.
Tho Proprietors can recommend it to ilousokeepors goiiorally as
a useful agent in tho preparation of a good custard, Oivi! ix A
TaiAL, Sold in boxes, Cd. and Is. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
MakCK Three Cilallnus of the Best Bluger
Beer In the W'orld for Threepence.
The most valuable preparation for the production of a dclicioua
and invigorating bovorage. It is easily made, and is by far too
cheapest and best Ginger Beer over offered to tho puhho. Sold m
packets, 8d. and 6d. each.
COODALL’S ECC POWDER.
Its action in Oakes, Buddings, &c., Ac., resembles that the egg
in every particular. One penny packet will go os far as four eggs I
and one sixpenny tin as far os twenty-eight. Sold everywhere, m
Id. packets i 6d. and Is. tins.
GOODALL’S BLANCMANGE POWDER
MokoB doliciouB Blancmange in a few minutes. In boxes at GJ.
and 1 h. each.
Allthe above-named Preparations map he had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medici ne Dealers, a nd Oilmen.
Pioprlstors'. GOODALl, BACKHODSE & CO, L66ds,
FREEMi’S SYRUP OF PH 0 SPR 0 RU 8 .
Great Brain and Nerve Tonic and the most wonderful
Blood Purifier. The highest Medical Authorities say that R is tho
Spy oKr WastingDisea.es, Mental Depression, Loss of Energy,
^It^is'^MM™W the taste, and might Im takcti by tho^^
noi.Vaeplv constituted. In tho most onioobled it builds up a NEW
A^hLo.THT OON8TITUTIOS. OucImooI te. EMwdy ..
xf 1 .««« nt iriivvntAN'A 8 vbuf of Phobpboruh. May bo had o.. all
C^rostfcpnd Patent Medicine Vendors, in bottles at 2s. 9d,, 4s. b<..,
11s., am^Rs._ , --
BPXOIAIi AOSlSrTS;
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
WhKe SMWe mret4t MjeedOf BoglMMls
MA7 BE HAD OF DULY AUTHOBISED AGENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
INCLUDING-
Tlie Proprietors,/H-i/ifTO A'jrknllunst, Chowringhee-rond, Cal-
eutta ; the Groat Eastern Hotel, Company, Limited, Calcutto j
Messrs, Wilson, Moekondo Ac, Co., 18, Old Court House-street,
and 1, Maugoe-Ianc, Calcutta. Orders received by Messrs,
King, Hamilton Ac Co., Calcutta.
25TOTIOE!.
In ordering through London Shippers, purchasers
should be particular to stipulate for
SUTTON’S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
From S. .Tcniiih/fs. Es<i., lufr Vicc.Pri'xldtiH qf the Agri.
J£orl(. Soclclii of Ih.dUi,
“With roforonoc to jour mode of paokinjf wooHh for
export, r must hhv how lunoh I wa^ grntitiod with the j
syMt/eiu you worn so fiiK»<l U'l to sliow me. During the i
whole of my loug Indian cxjwrii-nco, it was my^ oouataut
regrvt that, ICiiglish pHolsOu ftoods wore ftlmcwt invariably
lower in germinating power than tho Amorioan. Aftor |
.‘iceing tho elaborato proenntionK you tnko in exocuting :
AHuth ordci's n* that of tho Agri-Horti ftocicty of
India, I am by no niuan.s isuqiriaod to hear that you bav^
l>een gratiJlcir by tUo receipt of »o much tostimony froj^
tho tropica aa to tbo condition of your floeds upon ar^val »
THS QXTEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
A.S'D BV arKCIAi wabeant to
H.E.H. THE PRINOE OF WALES,
AH conunnnioations firom the Tra^ should 1)0 address'
ed direct to Beading.
192
THE im)IAN AGFRICUliTTTRIST.
a 0WEN8 & (X).,
■WHIITEFRI-^R’S-STRIDHST, X^OITDOISr,
HVDRAUUO ENGINEERS AND MANUFAOTURSRS OF
PUMPING MACHINERY OP EVERY DESCRIPTION
FOR STEAM, WATER, WIND, CATTLE, AND MANUAL POWER.
Hydraulic and Screw Presses, Oil Mill Machinery, Hydraulic liilts,^ dtoi "
SOLE MAKERS FOR GREAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE’S PATENT DIRECT-AGTINC STEAM-PUMP,-MORE THAN lO.SOll lI VSiL
It will atftrt at aay point
of stroke.
It bos BO dead point.
It works fast or slow
with the same oortaiaty of
aotion.
It is cconomioaL Has a
lead on the Slide Talve.
It Is compact and dur¬
able.
THE EOLLOWIHO AEB SOME OP THE PEOHIEENT ADVAHTAOBS OP THE BLAKE PHSIP:—
ny point
{? KKsom&.'m "'OJ’kwig
It Is inteioliangeable In
all its working paitp.
It will deliver more water
than any other Pomp,
It is made of best mate¬
rials in the moat workmasr
like manner.
Can be worked at 200
siTokes per honr, or 20
strokes per mlnatd
THE
mDiAN A^RicTJurrmiST.
A MOSIHLV
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.]
CALCUTTA ;—FRIDAY, JUNE 1, 1883.
[No. 6.
GANDY’S P® COTTON BELTING.
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR AND PATENTED IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
PRIZES.
HAMBUEOH ... ... ... 1878 I C'lKCJINNATI ... ... ... 1880 PtoSBCfiO looi
BeBlin ... ... ... 1879 NewYobr .„ ... ... 18S0 At.Hanta ... imi
Sypnky ... ... ... 1879 1 MEumcnNK ... ... ... 18^ rrrT,sBnn<i ... lasS
Atai.anta ... 1882, J New 55ealan'd ... 1882, | K.\LMOirrn ... 1882. j TYN’EnrouTii 1882
jrat PBftniiiuu, Firsit Pmo, Hydiiey, 187.0. llumbmx, iiiubnnai.’
... 1878 I ClK-CJINNATI
... 1879 NewYobb
... 1879 1 MEXjmpr.NK
lliinibmXi
J bploina^
16 A.
New York, 1880.
Berlin,, 187 a
New Zc.aknd, 3882.
.^1879. Mellxini'no, 1880 . 387.'' .IJiuciiuiati, June, 1880
OVEB 460,000 PEET SOLD DURING 1881,
Ineliuiing ,1,S77 foel of iiinitt Drivinp; Belts, ofVidtLs i-anwiig fi-om 13 in. to
60 in., nre working in over 6,000 JlilJs luid Worlcs iu Europe and America.
The foUomwj Teels {hy NirhiMi/, <4 Lmchm) shm the iduhee airenijlh and mlw,
cumpityid with Leather,
104
THE INDIAN AGRICDLTUBIST.
Vtme 1,1883.^
City Line of Qteamers.
FOii LOKBON DIRECT vid SUEZ CAKAL.
• Ton*. Captain.
Oil;/ o/ Afaiirlir.-.irr ... ... 3126 A. Maodonalil.
Oily of Cnflhar/r ... ... 26.51 J. Mcl’herson.
City of Canlerhury ... ... 3212 ,T. Marr.
City of VcHico ..3207 H. J. Moffat,
Oily of London ... ... 3212 .1. Black.
City of Udinburyh ... ... 3212 W. H. Bavhiin.
City of Khioa ... ... .3230 A. Thoms.
City of Agra, ... ... .3412 J. Qonion.
Cdy of OalcuUa ... 3830 K. RIcNoil.
City of Ooford ... ... 4000 VVni. Miller.
City of Cambridge. ... ... 4000 D. Auilorson.
The City of Edmhnrgh will leave ahojit 2n(l June, and will be
followed about a few days later by the City of Cambridge.
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE & Co.,
7 Agents.
K-A.3srBE!a-i:jisra-E
FIRE BRICKS
AND
DRAINAGE PIPES.
AIT’LY 'I'O
BURN & CO
THE
‘south of qtdia observer,
PrSLISnSD 'WOKLY AT OOTAOAMUKD,
The Head-quarters of the Madras Government for
the greater part of the year. >
TERMS OF svnwnipHr'ioN.'
(ExCLCSIVK » POOTAOE.)
Advance. Airears.
Per annum ... ... Es. 20 0 0 Rs. 28 0 0
„ half-year... ... „ 10 0 0 „ 14 0 0
„ (juartor ... ... „ 5 0 0 „ 7 0 0
„ mensem ... ... „ 2 0 0 „ 2 8 0
NciJghcrry Press Co., Limited, Proprietors.
Agents in India:
Mes.sh.'<. HIGGINBOTHAM k Co. ... Mad.ras.
Agents in London:
MEsstts. GEO. street & Co. ... Oomhill.
F. ALGAR, E.sq. . S, Clenicnt's-lane, London, E.C.
MES.3its. BATES, HENDY k Co. 4i Old Jewry, London,
Mk.'^kb.s. GORDON & GOTCH ... Si, Bride-slreel, London, E.C.
Me,s.sh.s. RHODES & Co. ... S4, Nkholasdane, E.C,
14
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
A MO.S-TITLY
16
CALCUTTA.
Record of Information for Planters
or
GOVERNMENT
OHsTOHOaST^ inEBRIFTJG-E.
A n effieitHl enhstitute for Qiiinhir, Sold by the principal Enropfan
and Eatire jyrvggisix of' IJntriilin. Obtainable from the
Superintendent, Botanical Gardens, C'drutta, Post free, etl 4ot.,
Be. 6' ; Sos., Ra. 11 ; HI ot.. Its. 30-11. Cash with order.
1
FRANCE.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AOENCr
(LlClSKSETt),
14, RUE DE CHABROL, PARIS.
Transact* every description of Cominigsiou, Merohaut, and
General Agency Business.
All ludont* executed at Maunfacturers’ most favourable terms.
Condiiiotis, —Twcand-a-liaPpar cent. Commission when Banker’s
Draft oil London or Pari* accompanies order. Special terms to
regular corres]>ondents. All DUoounta conceded to purohn*ors,
Original Invoices sent when required.
Produce taken eharge of aud rualiseil to best advantage. Cosli
advanced on CoiisigHnieuts.
Tlio Agency Ropvcsouts, Buys, and Sells for Firms.
Public Securities, Estate* ami Propertie.s, bought and sold. Loans,
Mortgage*, Mines, and Industrial luvcstuicnte, Ac., negooiated.
Manufootui'Crs andProducor* con have suitable articles introduced
to the market* on advantageous conditions.
PeicE List —comprehensive and reliable—on application,
BANKERS.—Pabis: George Waters, Esq., 30, Boulevard dc*
Itailens. Lootmn : The London and County Bank,
-street, Westminster.
COFFEE, TEA, COCOA, CINCHONA, SUGAR, PALMS.
OTHER PRODUOT8,
iSidtnl for ciUtieaiion in the I'rojiics.
Published on or about the 1st of each mouth by A, W. ami
J. Ferguaou, Ceylon Observer Office, Colombo.
Price in advance yearly, Be. 10.
Re. 1 per copy.
10
FIRE BRICKS.
ANEEGUNGE FIRE BRICKS as supplied to Govorumenf ai
the various Railways, Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Slrr
Navigation Companies. I'rico—H«. 9 per 100.
E.vtraet from Official Reixirt of tests made at H. M’s JU'
Oah'utta, by Titjcouoku W. Ft, Udoiiks, Esq,, r.o.s., a.b.s.m., 0
jiating lioputy Superintendent, Geologioal Survey, India:—
“ The itre Bricks tested by me. loere. furni-shed by the Firm.
^frssl■s. BURE <t- Co. » • » The materials from which they are
are very refractory awL capable, of resisting high (.emperalvr, »'
out sensibly fusing. * ‘iff 'That compa/red with Slouibridgc 1
Brides arc somewhat superior."
The Bpeoimens were subjected to' a temperature of over
degs. FaJii’., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,788 ‘'i
Fahr. ^ X
Apply for the above, and for Raneogunge Salt-gla*bu .iuev
aud iuipciishable Drainage Pipes, to ^
BURN & 00.,
7, Hastings-stroet, Calcutta,
or Baneegunge Pottery Works, Baneegonge,
BJ.R., Ben*
t nev.cn,, 14, Rue
195
June 1, lff83. ffiE INDlAl^AGBiCtlLTURIST.
W« puUUlMh^ follmm§ paptn at this Office :—
THE ISDUH AORlaULTURIST.
(MONTHLY.)
Hates tf Subscription, including postage,
STRICTLY Ilf ADVjlIfOI.
For India
! Yearly . ... „. lu, 12 0
Half-yearly ... ... „ 7 0
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Single copies, He. 1; bach copies, Jls, S.
X^ertisetnents for (he. “ Indian Agriculturist ” should be sent in
not late r than the SUPS, to appear on the Ut of the following month.
THE TRIEND OP INDIA AND STATESMAN
(WEEKLY.)
Hales cf Subscription, including postage.
STRICTLY IN ADYANOR.
-.p. . , „ MofusM.
(■Yearly ... Rg. 20 q Tls. 22 0
•(mf-yearly ._ ... „ 11 0 „ 12
\.Quwtorly ... ... ,,6 0 7
The reduced rate for Miasionarics is Kb. 15 per anuum
::: ;;; “•?;
Single copies, As. S ; bach copies, He. 1.
A dvertisements for the “ Friend of India" sOotild he sent
not later than FS'iday, (0 appear on the following Tuesday.
For India
For Europe
THE STATESMAN AND FRIEND OF INDIA
(DAILY.)
Hates of Subscription, including postage,
STRICTLY IN ADVANCE.
Yearly
Town.
... Rs. 8B
0
K'l. 42
0
For India
1 Half-jrearly ...
„ 1!)
0
„ 22
0
1 Quarterly
. 10
0
>. 11
.8
Monthly
.. ,, .’i
8
„ 4
U
’ y early . .
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1)
For Europe
■
Half-yearly ...
Qiiarlorly
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0
cMouthly
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bdck As, jf an»} .<?.
Adrerlisements for the “ Statesman ” skouht be sent in not lute'’'
than 5 p.tn,, to appear on the following morning.
Intending Sulserihers will idcaK address the .Manager.
Subscribers should state distinoUy for witiuit pvi'eu remilhnices are
"Itndrd,
Agents in London for the above papers:
GEORGE STREET, Esq. ... Oornhill.
E. ALGAR, E.sq. ... ll h, li, Okmtnt's-hinr,L,ondou,Fl,G.
DATES, HENDY & CO. . . 37, Ifalbivol:, f.widon, H. 0.
D, J. KEYMERA CO. ... 1. Wki'efnarf-.ire':‘., Fled-strcel,
hiimdon, Fj. U.
BOLE AGENTS FOR THE UNITED STATES ••
THE INTERNATIONAL NEW.Sl’Al’KE AGK.YCV,
H. P. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.
HEALTH, STRENGTH, AND ENERGY,
DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE.
(Trade Mark-^Phosphodyne.)
TWENTY YE;VB.S’ PtTBLIC TEST, .iND THOU.SA.mS OE TK.STIMONIALS FROAf
ALL TARTS OK THE M'ORLU E.-'TABLIHIT
PHOSPHODYNE
08 the only Safe, Eoliahle, and Never-failing Plio.phorlo Rtinedy
for Over-worked Brain, Siooplessuoss, Haraasing Dreams, Worry,
Anxiety, Exoitomont, Epilepsy, Biiaincas IVcssmo, Wasting
Diseases, Nervous Prostration, .Stomaeli and Liver C'oniplaint.s, Ini
I povorished Blood, Premature Deeay, and all morliid eoiulitioua ol
the system dopoudeut upon the clolioionvy of tlic X'ital Eurevs,
I DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE PTOiriEa AND
I Enriches the Blood, Clears the Skin, thoroughly Invigorates the
I Brain, Nerves and Muscles, Re-euergises the Falliug lunctions of
j Life by supplying tlio Pno.sriloKto element which has been wasted,
and thu.s imparts Energy and Fresh Vitality to tlie ExJinustcd
I Norvo-Eleetrio Force, and rapidly Cures every form of Nervous
j Debility, Paralysis, Kidney, Nervous, Mind, and Heart Diseases,
I from wlmtevcr cause.
1 I’his elegant Phosphatic combination, tlio Wonder of Modern
I Chemistry, is jirouounoed by the most eminent members of the
! Medical Profession to be uutnuallod for its power in ropiouishiug
i nud elaborating tho A’itality of t!i« Bialy ; by its supplying oU the
essential and vitalising constituents of the Blood, Brain, and
Nf.bve ScuaTANOJS J and foi- rb-veloping all thu Powers and Funo-
tlons of tho .System to the higiiest degree : 'uy its being agreoablo
' to tho palate, and itmuceut in its autiou. While retaining its
I wonderful properties, it acts as a .S)ieei(io, surpassing all the known
I TUERAPlSOTIU .lUE.S’TS of tho PRKsUS'r .Al.'K, fOr UlO ‘ipiSEDV and
I'EKMA.VENT cvai, of the above disease.
Dr. LALOll'.S PilO.'^l'nODYNE is ,«old in Bottles at 4fl. (id. nud
lls. by all K.xnort, Wlioleeali, and iictall Medicine Veudoi'a
througliout the World.
IMPORTANT NOTIOE.-NONF, LS GENTlfNE UNLR.S.S the
name. Dr. Lalor’s Pliospliodyiie, London, England, is blown in
tlio Ghls.s of raeli Bottle, and every Battle bears the British
Government .Stiunp, wits tbe words Dr. Lalor’s Fttitsi'itODYNE,
Lomlon, England, i-nvnived tiieroon by Order of her Majesty’s
Uonouralilt! (JoiiimiMsiuiirrs : if Nor, rr m a fobokry, aNU yod
RAVE JBEE.N UirosUD nv A WilRTlrT,E,S.S IMIl'ATIO.N.
MAN-nPAOTCKED O.NLY at THE
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY
DK. ROBERT D. LALOR,
BAY HOUSE, 32, GAISFORD-STREET, LONDON, N. W.
(TlIU iSoLK I’K'il’UTKT.lR ^Nt) ORIOlNATiin OK PjIo.SPlIODTNK.)
THE AQRA BANK,
“ LIMIT Eh."
Capital £1000,000
BeaenreFund ... £190,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNTS arc kept, and
Interest allowed, when the Credit Balance j
does not fall below Ra, 1,000.
DEPOSITS reoaivod available at any time
for Rmnlttanoe to England In the Bank's
Bills, and Interest almwod thereon at the
raf' of 4 per cent, por annum.
DEPOSrrS arc also reoeivod for fixed
jf perii^s, on terms which may be learnt on
application.
DRAFTS granted at the exchange of th'-.j,
day on London, Sootiand, Ireland, and the
Bunk’s Agencies In the East..
CIRCULAR NOTES UsiTod, negotiable
"In tho principal places in Europe.
UfW'RNMENT and other .STOCK.'«,
.and Slsc.’s bought and sold, and the safe
custody of the same unds|tokcn.
' INTEREST, PAY, ouffliNSIONS col-
-Retod ; and_ every other description of
‘Banking Business and Money Agency tron-
,?u;tod.
1 All Remittances should bo made pay-
to the A^ Bauh, Limited, ^
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to KD^INSON and
CLEAVER, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Price Lists (POST
FREE) of their
‘ Tlicir Iiish Llucii Oulla,
yUlit.h, bfivc- llio liicPlt of
IRISH LINEN ■
Couri Cii'cvhir,
JiUfiluK' and
COLLARS,
CUFFS,
Chil*
. W
pur do-i. (icDtH’,
: 4-/oid, 4/11 to li/Xl
' pov doE.
For LadnjB, (ientle-
men, (wul CiiiidroiJ,
5/11 t*ilO/iipcr doz.
HurpJIoo
Linen,
8 id. pot
yard.
lUwl IriRFi Linen Shufttlng,
'2 yiu'flft wido, i/n per
yard.
Extra nonvvfatnoHt dur*
.vblo tu’ticlo) 2 ^ yards
■wide, U/I5 t»cT yard.
Rollov yft Inch
wide, pet yard.
Linen Dns*
IIHFHS
Ck»t!w, 4/<5pDr
Fine Lineus
’and Linou
Diapur,
lOd. \>or yard.
CAMBRIC
per (los.
Olindrun’n . 2/0
Ladiofl’ .. ;(/•{
Gentlcmou’s .. -l/lO
nK.H';rrTOHEn
POCKET,
per dm.
ndidA" .. 4/g
UquW .. an
HCli
LudloK, with 4-fuld
all lluun fi*oDtR and
eofla, 35/0 tho half
& SHIRTS.
Fish Napkins,
3/6 per dox.
Pinner Nanklus,
fi/a iior aoz.
T. hlo Cloths, 2
yds Mqnivro, 3/U;
2i yaidn by <
j yai^F 13/4 each.
& DAMASKS.
PURE
FLAX.
HAHOKERCHIEFS.
*Th® Irish Cambrlca of Mes^if.
Robinson dc Cleaver liavo a world*
wldo fame.’— 2 %« Qwen.
dot. (to Jiicasuro, 2/ extra).
Ladloti’ Uiuler*Clotlmnf, Biiby Lmon, Dross Mat-orlulu, Flanncli<, Irish and flwlss Kmbruldorles, Hosiery,
Oluvc.H, Undcr-Veatft, Fonts ; (dso Lace GoodH of every doscrlptlon, at lowest wholesale prices.
Manufacturers, by Spe«^ Ap*
Imperial Hig^MS
THE ROYAL IRISH LINEN WAREHOUSE, BELFAST.
!
196
THE INDIAN I.GEICULTUEIST,
June 1, 1883.
PHOENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
J ESSOP & GO.,
Civil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and,Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
Fwged and Gael Iron Wo^'Jc, BoUera, Machinery fw Jute, Cotton and Bice Mills, Golliet'ies, Indigo Concerns, Tea Cardens, (if,.
Contractor^ and Brick-maMng Plant, and every class of Iron and Braes Work made to orden\
SOLE ^GhElSrTS EOE
Robey & Co’s celebrated Portable mid Fixed Engines and Machinery, Gwynne & Go’s “ Invincible ” Centi'ifugal Pampa, Gould's
Rotary PiiiupK, and Robinson's Patent .Steam Traps.
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENCINES AND MACHINERY.
Robey & Co's Porfcible, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Robey " Seiui-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines and Boilei-a, Laul
and Marine Boilei-s, Gould's Rotary Power Puni]is, Hand, Lift and Force Pmui*, Tangye’s “ Special” Steam Pumps, “Vanxhall”
Donkey Piimjis, Flour Mills, Sooi kec Mills, Png Mills, Brick-making Machines, Road Rollers, Saw Bunches,
Slide Surfacing and Screw i 'utting Lathes, Drilling Mai liines, Puncliing and Shearing, Slotting mid
Screwing Machines, Emery Grinding Machines, Spuucev’s Hand Drilling Machines,
Chair (.■'iitting Machines, Kennedy’s Patent Bar She.ai's, Selkuk’s Boiler
Tube BeiuleiYt, Sleani Pressure Recorders, Electi-io Peus,
Richard's Engine Indicator, Gifford’s In-
jeetow, (.looking ‘'^*^’''^■'’1 Fire-
Proof .Safc.s.
The following are the principal advant¬
ages of the “ Invincible” 'Pump
i«<.—-It is aiTanged to swivel on tlie
■faed plate, and may be placed at any angle
simply by shmkeniug a few nuts, with¬
out intejfei’ing in any way witli lh(‘ bed
S late or the Joints of eitlier the auction or
iseharge jiipes,
SjKf.—It does not require a foot valve,
being fitted with smitll air cxluinstei'
and clock on dischai-ge which always
keep the yiump charged leady for
woA.
Srd. —The bearings arc nuidc on an
entirely now princijde, and one laaring
will hist out four of the old iu'rauge-
inents.
d. & H. QWYNNE’S
“ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pump.
Jfth .—The form of the pump casing i
so avi'anged tliat one side can be taken i ll
in a few minutes tor the iusjicction ><1
the whole of tile dise and interior of (In
puniji.
lil/i. -Iland lioic.s are in.nlc on c;ij
side of the suction pijic.s to unable .ue
foreign matter wliicJi may get into tie
pump or dise to be efusily removed. He
covers luv fitted with a bayonet joijil
that they c.-ni lie removed ajid replaetd i
Jess tlum a minute.
(ith. —The “ Invincible ” is 25 poi' (,i'i'
;]ighler th.an any other Geiitrifugal Finn
in 'tlio juwkot, and discharges at leasl I
l>er cent, more water for the pi on
ajqdied.
Howard’sEyots’Plough. Price, Es. 20.
These Ploughs have been expressly designed and manufactured for the use of the Ayots of India, whose special needs have I
carefully studied in their construction. They embody all the (jiialifieatiuns for which the iiativo-made ^-nplonionts have liilherto 1
preferrM, whilst being iaoompamhly superior in strength, durability, and etlicieucy.
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Btin up the soil to three times the depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the <*' Xsf 1
without getting choked with weeds. Price, Rs. ]5.
INDKM) AND TEA PLANTERS’ IMPLEMENTS AND STORES.
EiaiTa-ZlSrElESHS’ tools STOEDS OE a t.t. IECZDSTLS-
AiWats oh hahd a LAKoa BTOOK OF PLATE, Bab, Ahuij!, Tee asd Cobruoated Iron, Steel, Bbabs, Cofpeb, Pio Iie>
FouNDRr Coke, Siitiuv Coal, Fire Bricks, akd Fire Clay,
Catalpffwe m
S«gllit«r6d No. 161]
THE
INDIAN AGRIOPLI'lIRIS'r.
A MONTHLY
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTAFRIDAY, JUNE 1, 1883. [No. 6.
NOTICE.
QUBSCRIBERS to the .STATEaMAN, Fkisnd of I.vdia,
^ Indian A-OiiicaLTOuisT are informed that arrant/cnwiis have
,1010 been made by which theeejournals will for the future be piib-
liehed under the ffe>wal euperiiUendence of the widmiyned.
All conmunicatmis conoeriiiny the general bueinese of the
Statbbman and Fkiend of India Ofice, AdeertiaemeiiU, und
Subscriytimii to the, daily Statesman and Friknd of India,
weekly Fribnd of India and STATRaMAN.aiJii Indian Aoricdl-
tuuibt, should be addressed to the MANAGER.
All communications regarding literary matter should be txd-
dressed to the FuiTOU of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM IlIACH.
June ISth, 1881.
CONTENTS:
I’AOR.
I’Ai.K.
Af KNOWLXnaKMUNTS.197
COUngfiPONDFNDK—
Carbolic Acid anti Ilorailoia 197
'I'hu anpjily of fooil fcitull (or
l.ivo-Stock, and Vogetiiblo
Fuel, in Years of DrougUt
anil .Sciu-eity .197 |
liiiiigo rlonting .19^ j
LKADINO AUTIOLISS— 1
I’liiut Disoiujea .198
The Ciiwnpore Exporimoiilal
KiiOn Report lor the Kharf
Season, 11582 20O
Kfonomic Mnsoums.201
The Trade of Assam .. 202
Forest Ailmiuiatration in
Hyderabad ... 202
Cotton in Bombay .203
Cotton in Hyderabad ... 204
JJnjToiiiAn NoTKS .204
I'lantaiu Cultivation for
India.212
Agrlcnltural anil Horticul¬
tural Booioty of India ... 214
Offioiai, I'APKIia—
Note .216
Indian Trade witli AjUstralia 218
Bislkotions—
The Vitality of Seeds ... 217
Indian AgrionUnri' .. .. 217
Eoononiicid Use of Turnips
in the feeding of Cattle ... 218
Esperiinonts on the Kniplnto
Wood I’ulp Processes .. 210
Artilleial Manures .‘-'21
Irrigation Works in .Spain . 221
A Koto on Sap .‘223
Incubators rs. Hons.223
CTni'Hona —
Ciueboua: Yarrow T,oilaoi'.s'
Analyses ... .. '22-1
Calisaya Verde and Morada . 2'21
Atteiiil>ted Jlonol'Oly of
Lcilgeriaua by tbo Hiitcb 221
Cac.vii-
FohkbXjiy—
Trainuig for the Forest Ser¬
vice in I’riissm
SumcrhlDii); -
Note . 227
Silk Industry in Kashmir ... 227
Tk.t—
The Tea Trade ami Eastern
Hulks
Indian Tea
AOVBUTISKMliSTS
2'27
... 2-28
Our Correspondents ami Contributors will greatly oblige ^
tM if they will take the trouble, where the returns oj eultii’d-
lion are stated by them in ^tdian weights and measures, to
give thetr English sfjfuivalents, either in the text, in poren-
tlxesis, or in a foot-note. The bigali in particuhiv varies so
the difamt pi’ovinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to give, the, English of it in all cases. It woidd be a great
reform if the Government Uself followed the same course in all
the o fficial reports published by it.
Ail correspondence must bear the full ,Mnie and address of
die wi'Utr, not necessatily for publication, hut as a guarantee
of good faith. We s/tail take no notice of anonymous letters.
ACK NOWLEDU EMENTS.
Report of the .leyporc Exhibition, I88tl.
Ce.nsd.s of the Central Provinces, Vol.s, I. and ll.
Free Trade ami Protection, by 0. E. VVessbiu.
Report on the Caivnporo Experimental Farm fur the Kharf
season, 188‘2.
CORRESPONDENCE.
CARBOLIC ACID AND HE.MILEIA.
Sir,—-I n your issue of the Jst May you refer, in an article on
IfemUeia, the coffee-leaf disease, to tbo measuras that have been
i-ecominonileJ for the mitigation of the rav.ago» of that post, and
you say “ proiuiucutly the. proce.sa of Storck appropriated by
Schrottky."
Surely there is a misprint in this : the names ought to he re-
veriocl. For in January, 1881, I recnminended, as the result of my
experiments, the application of cm bolio acid acting as vapour
as one of tJiu best means fur checking the spread of the disease.
'i’Jie process was tried with some inoasnri* of sueoess at several
coffee estates in Ceylon during the same month, and public atten-
ion was drawn to tlioin in the Ceylon Qhservrr and Grylon Times,
It was not for several months aflorwards that we iirst heArd of
Mr, Sturuk working in the same direction in Fiji, and rccoiumeudiug
similar process,
EUGENE C. SCHKO'rPKY.
Mozullerpore, May 21, 1883.
.ViiI'E. -in the j'e.if 1.871 the fuinos of carbolic acid were used in
Heylei) imUio mintu-, of the Uv.i (.Inffec Oi , bd , ami Springvaliey C'offco
Co , bd. Wi! lire mil. alone in bolioving that Mr. Schrottky was, to jnit it
mildly, coii.-tideral'ly boluiid oHicrs in parading eiirliolio ocid fimie.s,
Mr. .Sturek, in llio colnmim of tbc ('lyhin Uln,, ,<,i, elainm.i the pnicoss
os hi-,. Wo niYitu Mr. SuUrutlky to settle his little difference with Mr.
Storck.-Eu., 1. H.
THE SUTTLY OF FOOD-STUFF FOR LIVE-STOCK,
AND VEGETABLE FUEL, IN YEARS OF
DROUGHT AND SCARCITY.
to TUK EDI'IOR.
Sir,— The causes of short or inadequate supply of food lor the
live-stock and fuel for burning are mainly the following i—fl) the
distances of centres of consumption from localities where tliey are
produced; (2) the unromunorative character of these supplies
which prevent the populace from producing them ; (3) the treaobor-
ouB character of Indian rainfall; (4) the paucity of agri-liortioul-
turoi produce of the country which prevents the livo-itock from
receiving their share of food ; (.5) the enormous consumption of
wood for the railways j(8) ^he rapid increase of popuiatiou which
use wood fuel for cooking and sundry iiiaunf.ioUircs ; (7) tlie want
of adequate knowledge of growing such kinds of plants, agri-,
horti, and arliotI>cultnral, which possess idgli value as fodder or
198
THE INDIAN AtocULTURIST.
Ju^e L 1883^
fuol, benee unsuitecl plant* badly grown rosnlt In unramunerative-
ne»s which, after a (tiuglo failure, are ^rsn up by tho grower* a> no
purchaflere would care to pnrehaae ttiem,
1. In sniall nirul Tillages, tlio number of Uve-stook, in ordinai-y
yearn, is rory small: tlio villager* always try to carry their
surplus prodiici' to such ceiilros of consumption and trade where
they may find ready sale of their produce at remunerative prices
’J'hc cai'riugo adopted by them is their heads, and the backs of their
plough or any other nettle, ponies and asses (rarely). Carts arc
used, but very limitcdly, owing to tho extreme hadnoss of the
internal district roads, which are entirely hacha, and rendered un-
communicable for heavy oart-loads by the travolliug of foot passen¬
gers and that of animals of ail kinds during summer and winter
seasons ; and during tho rains these roads ore the “ slough of
despond '' to carts of any description, largo or small, heavily loaded
nr othorwisc; bec.ausc the wheels stick fast into tho mud and
cannot be extrioated unless the carts are uiiload«<l and mnoh
hdioiir and time wasted, for titeir stock in trade having much bulk
and weight and little value. From what I have said it will appear
that carriage of fodder and fuel from niral places is by very costly
means to the distant centres of consumption; but tho prices
offered for these commodities are very small, which prevent the
villagers from carrying those articles for sale. The subject to be I
hero dealt with is whether sufficient fodder is produced for the
cultivators’ cattle, and whether any surplus is left for live-stock
of other people who do not jn oduoe food but buy and feed.
An ordinary ryot of India, os a mlo, cultivates C acres of ruhljra
(winter crop) and 5 acres of f Afcrec/(rainy-wcalhur crop.) The
minimum ])i'oduco of these 10 acres, only cue crop in a year to a
given area, is as follows :—
Ji'iiOhtx .—.'■> acres of wheat, barley, or any other Grain. Straw.
cereal or pulse crop at 10 mds., of Mds. Mds. Wds,
grain, and 20 niaunda of straw, per
ucre ... ... 60 4 100=.in0
acres of maize, millet or any other
fodder yielding crop at 20 maunds of
grain or seed, and 50 maunds of stalk,
per acre ... ... ... 100 + 260— 360
Total prodnoo ... 130 -I- 850 — 500
For tho eullivatioii of these 10 acres, in two seasons, the cultiva¬
tor ha.s two pairs of bullocks or 4 aiiimali. These receive an
B.llowaiicc of 10 seers of chaff or stalk (f/AooS'i or fititi/it, li.) each
daily during the summer and winter ; in the rains they arc allowed
to graze and receive no stall feeding. So that tho nine months’
stall feeding ri'piesonts a whole year's feeding for those 4 animals
is (10 - 4) X (30X 0) 270 loamids, which snbstraoted from 350
(fodder produce) -80 maunds siujilus of straw reduced to chaff and
dried stalk availal>lo for sale to non producers of fodder who rear
live-stock. The feeding allowance is the niaximmir because tlie
ryot effects economy in feeding by mixing grass, oil-eakc, &c., with
tlio chaff or chopped stalk, thus enabling him to save and store
fodder for some mouths long n- for the ensuing year. My daily
allowaucu to a milch cow of the Jiimnttparec breed (large size) was
only 5 seers of chaff and oil cake, and cabbage and turnips. If the
ryot Im a good cultivator, he oan certainly double or even quadruple
bis grain and fodder produce. The above estimate (a voi'y close
one) refers to the most ordinary unskilled ryot.
Here there are two causes,—distance and want of proper road
communication which obstruct tho free circulation of fodder and
fuel--nuimals of one quarter starving and those of tho other having
more than wanted ; so also there is plenty of fuel in one quarter
and in anotbor none at all, or a very inadequate supply.
2. Indian cultivators do not raise fodderaud fuel plants separately,
Theaesubstaucesaro derived from produceobtaiued which were grown
tor other objects. Kor instance, the wheat plant is raised for its
grain which series as food for mau, also for animals if given, and
its straw serves as provender for the Uve-stook ; the same might
be said of trees wbicli are grown for fruit, gum, bark, timber, and
in rare cases flowers and leaves, and the branches serving as fuel.
But nowhere will nu Indian cultivator grow, as in the oivilizod
countries, and as the primary olqect, any plant os footl
for live-stock or for fuel, 'rhe reason is no rcmuiicvative
market will bo found for fodder or for fuel if plants are exolimivcly
i,ii.s d for each of these two purposes. 1*0 tho existing state of the
Indian markets, therefore, if loss is suffered by the cultivators
for these ai-ttclea, they have other parts of the plants to fall back
upon for profit. Thew facts and uuprsssioifi are so strong in the
minds of tho cultivators that nothing short of well established
profit will iadnoe them to grow plants ipedalJy for fodder or for
fuel.
8. Tits paucity, ^unoertainty, and in rare instances total oessa-
tion of rainfall are the main causes which have induced the Gov-
erument of India to take in hand the very laudable object of
supplying food for live-stock of all kinds and fuel for cooking food,
the railways, and for manufactures.
4. Tho consumption of vegetable fuel by the ridlways is dahy
becomiug so very oxteusive that unless immediate measures bo
adopted for keeping up tho oouCWuity ofUfood supply, it is not
possible to meet the demand—the supply must {afli No statistics
of the quantity of wood the State and other Railways consume
in firing their engines, and in smelting, shaping, manufacturing,
he., in their workshops, per dlsm, have been gathered ; and it
is not known how much wood they annually burn. Theee require
to be known to arrive at the data on which to bass tbs estimate of
area to be under fuel-supplying plants. It should be borne in
mind tliat wood fuel demand by the railways, unless coal takas
its place, will continue to increase as new railway linee go on
opening and to be opened,
6. The demand for wood fuel for cooking food is daily
increasing by the increase of human population of India, It
is said the average uf human population of India is 8(K),000,000
whlcli number multiplied by 8, the average number of pouudi of
fuel burnt daily per head, .glvei,the largo quantity of 2,800,000,000
H>= I,2.')0,000 tons of wood burnt dally In India, and the lait
number x 3G0 (the number of days lu tho year) = 466,250,000 tons
of fuel couiuiiiptioD for cooking food per annum. The above
figures should be taken as approximate average of auuual fuel
consumption of India for cooljiug food only ; aud It includes fviel
burnt on festive occasions and sweetmeat aud other edible manu¬
factures. It is not known what quantity of wood the mills and
mamifacluriug engineering estaiiUshmeiits, ho,, use for their
rngines, smeltiugs, boilings, ftc., no statistics having been gathered.
Charcoal being tho compound carbonaceous residuum of wood,
obtained by artificial moans, is included in wood.
The approximate estimats of wood consumption under tills
paragraph, plus thatoi para. 4, will give the total fuel requirements
for the whole of India. In computing for the area to be under fuel-
supplying plants, maximum should be taken.
I'lic inference of the whole described above is that the land-
bolilois ami tho cultivators having failed to achieve the objects
wliiob lead to the prosperity of the country, the Uovornment of
Imlia proceeds to supply fodder and fuel, apart of other wants,
which is very good indeed. 1 should surmi.so the proviso equally
reipiiie to be extended to all parts of India under the sway of the
I IJrititsli Government of India, and not confined to small tracts of
llir country wliicli li.avu shown s^'inploms of collapse ; because the
I paucity of fuel is very greatly felt in (bidli, Bengal, and other
pioviness whore trees are fast disnppoariiig to supply wood for
I binning.
It uill not be out of place here to suggest that the reserves for
fodder ami fuel should be as close os possible to the osutres of
consumption, riz., large villages, towns, and cities, and with
due rogiird tn good road communications, existing or to bs
constructed.
By riijIU of eonqutst. the British Govemmeut of India has full
riglits to appropriate any area, and of any situation of laud without
any payment. But the Government of India promises to pay reason-
irlitr linrr for the land it Will apprujirfate, which shows how great a
condcscciisiuii and leniency (t lias towards its subjects.
0. L. BRYCE,
Agri. Analytical Chemist,
Late Supdt,, Agri.-Hortl, Socy. of Oudh Gardens.
Itabraich, Omlli, April 26, 1883.
INDIGO PLANTING.
TU THE KWIOB.
iSai,—I have been some time In search of a work on indigo
planting aud mauufooturo, but have not been able to find one.
Will any of your uumorous subsoriboi-i be kind enough to give me
the name of such a work, and from where it oau bo procured?
ENQUIRER.
199
Juno 1, 1883, THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Jitdisit
CALCUTTA, JUNE 1, 1883.
PLANT DISEASEa
I N onr laat iasua ■wejjndeavourod to show that the origin of
disease in plants was due to an ereesa of hyper-organised
matter, notably albuminoids, consequent on the reckless ad¬
ministration of certain fertilisers. The clmmioal composition of
mildew fungus in a manner supports this assumptiou. Two
specimens of ^ mildew generated from solutions of sugar and
gelatin, and sugar and ammonium chloride, analysed by N. Sieber,
(J. pr. chem, (8) 23, 412-421) gave re*i>ective)y the following
results •—
1 II
Substance soluble in ether ... ... 18’70 1T19
., „ „ alcohol ... C-87 3-3C
Ash ... ... ... 4-89 0-73
Albumen ... ... ... 29'88 28-9.t
Cellulose ... ... ... 39-60 55-77
Total ... ... 100-00 100-00
I’he substance soluble in alcohol and ether was crystalline, but
its composition was'not determined. We have however in the one
mixture,or soil, producing the mildew, gelatin, and in the other
ammonium chloride, substances boUi of which will yield
nitrogen on decomposition. From the plant albuminoids
therefore it may with strong reason bo inferred that mildew,
such as the hemUeia springs. There can Ije but little doubt
that this pest, and others, such as the Tylenchus llamistiriii)
found by Kilhu in lucerne and red clover, the ccplius pi/ymm/.g,
and C. Iroylodytes found by Brumnier in rye straw, and wliich
is the cause of its blanching ; the contagions fungi, telletia,
caries (stinking smut), and t. calvis of wheat, the lul/eda mai/dis
of maize, the plasmodipfwra hrassica of cabbage, tlie (iijaricus
iiiellms ot the mulberry, aiui the pltytuptem in/estans and
saprophyte of the potato, are of like composition and like origin.
Tlie phytoptera and saprophyte are presumably the direct
effects of foi-meutatiou, for Eeiake and Bertliold have found
in phytoptera infested potatoes, bacteria, bacilhis suhlihis,
and bacteriim nevicida. Potatoes having a maximum of starch
resist the disease most energeticjilly, while those grown oii
moist soil contiHuing much organic matter, such as skiljle
manure, are most liable to attack. Tlie reduction of the amount
of sugar in the roots of tiie vine when attacked by phylloxera
points also to a like internal disturbance as being the cause of
mildew appearing on the roots, la the case of the vine, how¬
ever, the fermentation may be induced by some diastatic body,
or it may be the result of hydratation. The sugar (.saccharose)
appearing in the stalks of some plants is cousidei-ej to lie a
direct product of the elaboration of chlorophyll. Glucn,se is in
most cases not found unaccomijanied by saccharose ; it is tiiore-
fore a product of the hydratation of the latter. When there¬
fore there is an excess of chlorophyll-forming substance in the
soil,!, e,, organic nitrogenous matters, saccherose may be changed
to glucose, which, under certain conditions, will ferment and
yield fungi, harmless perhaps at first, hut which might Jileinl with
other germs, and after several transitions give rise to fungi of a
virulent type.
Diastatic fermentation ..in plants ma)' with })ropiiety lie
ascribed to an excess qi.albumiiioid8, and the fact that diseased
vine leaves contain more nitrogen than the healthy leaves renders
it,!g;;obable that phylloxera may have originally been the result
ortl'iastatio disturbance : at any x-ate, the fungoid di.seases of the
vine may with atrol^eosou be ascribed to this cause. Tli«
fact that the seeds of the vine, which resist the attacks of
phylloxera, are stronger mid more regularly formed, iwiulja
either to a draining of the sap by this jxest, or to a fermeiitativie
disturbance following exliaiution. The vine, like coffee, is ja
huge feeder on jiotnMh, but it is questionable whether it gets this
either in the shape or quantity required. In this connection it
lias been proved tluvt clover sickueoe and the disease of the
horse chesiiut are due to the want of this element in the soil,
and that they are remedied by its introduction—thus incon¬
testably proving tixat clover sickness cannot be due to tlie par.asite.s
pi-oper found thei-eon. 'We therefore with reason argue that
phylloxei-a is due toa like want, bime, it is understood, is as
necessary to young plants as it is to jmung children, but We do
not recognise this necessity—that is, generally speaking, for had
we half attended to the wiiiita of plants in this respect, many a
plague familiar to ns to-day would have been iiiilieax-d of,
A judicious use of it now will, we venture to predict, greiitlv
modify existing plagues, and avert others.
I In all solutions containing bacteria, sa,ys Wernieh, “ a time
arrives when they cease to projiagate, and after a longer
time, tliey lose their power to iiirluee further life in fresli
nutritive solutions.” From this fact it is argued that the
putrefiictioii induced by bacteria jiroducea substance
which are ]ioisoiioiis to tliese orgauisras. Borne such i-eactioii
may take place when hemileia is at a low obb, and its rc-
appe.ai'aiice may be due to the development of neic haeteria.
If this be so, it remains for ns only to withdraw and witlilmld
from the soil material conducive to fresii development, if we wish
to render extinction permanent. B.acteria have betMi found in
airdi-awn from the soil ; whotlxer, howevei-, tiiey lind their way
into ])lants .and communicate disease direct is douijtfui. It is
more reasonable, knowing that putrefaction m.ay be either a
diastatic or a purely hydratic change, to 8 np|) 0 .se that they
result iu the usmd way from the putrefaction of albnminoi(l.s,
and that by the suceeeiling fermentation peculiar to their presence,
substaiiceB are developed -w-hieli arc de.adly to themselves.
Indeed, cxjiei-iinent prove.s that subsuinoes most disposed to
putrefaction ra.ay be preserved from it by means of jjheno!,
ikatole, and indole— pro<lurts of ptUrefaHion, These exixeri-
ments,” says a commentator on Wornich’.s views, “ lead to tlm
.solution of a liiglily intero.stiug problem in pathology." And
the author himself says that tlie same or similar oiwnitioiLS are
carried out in the progress of septic diseases, .and that the
xnp])oaitiou that the organisms which are the cause of infectious
.liseases, give rise to products which eventually cause their own
oxtinctiou, is the only way iu which the pi-ogreas of these dise-osos
■an be pro]xerly compx-ehciided. Hero the idea of inoculation
)cciu-s, whiiili, with respect to coffee plants, has already been
worked on, but not completely. If we. admit, iiowevcr, tliat in
the re.aclions attending the iip]jearanco of hemileia, and other
fungoid growtiis, their own distinctive antidotes are produced,
we would still have to withhold from the soil the casenlials to
fresh grnwtii before any such disease could “ bum itself oiU."
We tlierefoi-e repeat, and we cannot be too clear on this point,
that the use of these antidotes externally, or even by iiinocul.a-
tion, will avail us iiotliing while the oonditious iiece,s.savy to fre.sh
'rowth remain. Given, we say, the conJitious necessary to
’ermeutatioii projier, hydratation, or putrefiiotion iu the jilaiit,
ind we have not far to seek for the origin of diseases. We have iu
lyper-orgauised a.ap a ready nidus for disease spores froui with¬
out, and all the conditions for their actui'l evolution within.
Agriculturista up to the present tixne have taken a cei taiu
nterest in chemistry, the atmosphere, and tlie we.ather, in the
food of plants and their value ; they have noticed the occurrence
if disease, and the peculiarities of its recurrence; they have been
alwa 3 'a ready to try any uostrura forced upon their attention ;
iiud still foster the vain delusion that these plagues will lie
removed by God, or that some genius will discover the remedies
approved by grace. The custom of attributing these visitations
.0 God is weak and puerile in the extreme. The fault is with
lurselves. We neglect to study the physiology of the pkants
ive cultivate, and when by liapbazard means we fail to
remove the evils attending this neglect, we come to the
xonclusii.n that the Great Geometrician of the Univex-se has
luspeuded locally, or checked, wlxat wo may appropriately term
the great fundamental law of nature—vegetable growth. If we
admit this assumption, surely coffee-planters and growei-s of
.he vine are a peculiarly tricked people. The mere fact that
these diseases vary in intensity with the alternation of-tte
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. June 1 , 1883.
scjMons ; Uiat, like tlie plautw which constiUito the noil in which
they flouriah, they arc subjected to iirecisely similar laws, with
I'ORard to climate and temperature—is indicative of their origin,
and not only iioint* U> tho truth of Wernioh’s remarks about
each producing its own antidote, but to the means for tnaking
the eflfeota of such permanent; and that they are no raoi-e indica¬
tions of liivine anger limn are common weeds. It is true that
we do not a,', yet know the precise canaes of the bulk of the
distases cfisually alludod to, but knowing the causes w'hich have
conjointly cumluced to their developtncut, it is in our ]X)wer to
extirpate tlicm. That this end may lie easily attained we
incline to believe, even in the absence of nnaniniity, bnt in
cases of this kind, unless nnanimity is guaranteed, individualt
will not work ; they will naturally argue that, when they have
banished tho disease from their own iiosscssions, it may
again be communicated from without. We are firmly couviucod
that u’ere the essentials to hyper-organisation wiUidr.aw'ii and
witlihehl from an area of soil, no such rocurrenoe w’ould result;
but we are unable to say whether and hqw' far we are right, so
long ns we are deficient in a clear and definite imdorstandiug of
the penetrating power of atmospheric disease germs on healthy
lilnnts. We are certain, however, that such could not originate
within healthy jilants. We w'ouhl, therefore, fur ourselves
adopt measures for the restoration of a healthy state of
things, without fear of sulToriug from tho apathy of our
contemporaries. We can well imagine that we would be
idone in this respect, or nearly so, but one such example
would be sufficient to show the wisdom or folly of our
argument. Tlie whole question .seems to us very simple.
These diseases grow, ripen and cease. They grow again
and ripen and cease : consequently it seems logical
to aim at stopping their growth, and folly to simply
kill them before their lime. In the one ease we attack
the cause, and in the other the eft'ect. We are far from
saying that it is hyper-orgauisation of tho sai) is due directly
to neglect, fur we know that certain e.8culeiits suffer
from a sudden fall of temperature, and we have seen coffee
at high altitudes suffer from the same cause : the opidev-
mis cells become rui3tured, ami the circulation of the saj) i.s
impeded, and this effect alone omtld, we know, result in fungoid
disease, and be followed by parasitic attacks. This .susceptibi¬
lity, however, of the plant to suffer from cold is in most ca.ses
we think, due to some defect in tho soil: to the want of some
essential jn tho plant; therefore, consider them as we may, we are
instinctively led back to the belief that hyper-organisation, if not
the direct cause, is the primary effect of that cause, anti tho
•ffeot fi'om which all bad results spring.
THE CAWNPORK EXPERIMENTAL FARM REPORT
FOR THE EHABIF SEASON, 1882.
ITROGEN, it seems, is still the element to conjure with
and swear by at Oawnpoi'c. Mr. Puller has been trans¬
lated to the luippy hunting-grounds of the Central Provinces,
and Major Pilcher planted in his stead in the nitrogenous
deficient soil of tho Cawupore Experimental Farm. Major
Pilcher, the soldier', has beaten his sword into a lot of plough¬
shares, and his other implements of war are exchanged for
crucibles, retorts, re-agents, soluble phosphates, bone dust, and
other interesting substances. We have no knowledge whatever
of Major Pilcher. Ho may be the most suitable man in
all India for the ]X)Bition he has been phrcod in at
Cawupore; bnt this square-mau-round-hole bu.siness of
placing soldiers and warrior judge, in charge of Experimental
Pormu eeeimi to us about as wise us placing ploughmen and
pig-drivers in command of I'egimente, and giving district
«nd divisional commands to growers of big cabbages, super¬
lative turnips, and gigantic gooseberries. The Cawupore Farm
may want nitrogen, but it has now got a Major, May wo hope
tiu»t the presence of the one will counterbalance tho absence of the
other ? Major PUeher, however, is probably better known, at
all events in Lucknow, as a Small Cause Court Jndge, than as
•itber soldier or an agriculturist. . On the authority of Mr.
Bennett, the Director of Agriculture of the North-West Pro-
Tinces, Major Pilcher has also a practical knowledge of
chemistry- On the whole, what mpre does Oawnpore want?
IjBt it solaos itself for its want of nitrogen. It seems to ns that
Major Pilcher, with all his vai .nd e*|ierienoe8and acquirements,
speaks with a leaser power of aamrtlon in his report than the
Director of Agriculture does in the resolution on the refwvt.
“As far as they go,” says Mr. Bennett,” the trials of varioiis kimls
of manure confirm the main resuHa of previous yeai-s, and point Ui
niti'Ogen as the element in which the soil of the farm Is deficient.
On four sUndard plots the average produce given by uitrogHn-
ous manures was 2,1381bs. par acre, while that gi^St by
phosphates and manui-es not rich in nitrogen only averngol
l,3371l>a. On the duplicate plf^the avg:ages were l,fififilb8, and
l,014lb8., respectively. The increase in outturn was 00 per cent
in the first case, and nearly 70 per cent in the second."
Major Pilcher, on the other hand, while recording the
superiority of yield from nitrogenous manures, says, with
becoming caution, that little is to be learned from experiment
which have little continuity.
“Nitrogenousmanures," we are quoting Major Pilcher, “as may
be seen, maiulaiu a very marked superiority in yield as against
raannres yielding little nitrogen; and the duplicate plot
corroborated fairly the results of the standard plots save in the
case of the saltpetre standai'd plot, which shows a variation due
Ijrobably to unexhausted pondrette. There is little to be learnt,
however, from exjverimetits which have as yet so little oon-
tiimity; and patience must be exercised until a suflicieut
number of annual experiments have been carried out to enable
us to assert positively that, by a certain expemlituve on any
particular mianure, corresponding increase in produce can he
obtained, returning a fair profit on such expenditure.”
The truth appears to iis to be that in India, where officials are
changed about from “ pillar to post,” continuity in agricultural
experiments seems impossible ; and even were continuity of
experiments insisted ou by the Government of each province,
and officials of the Agricultural Department appointed to work
out certain experiments under the natural variations common
enough year by year in rainfall, sunshine, heat, wind, and all else
tlrnt make tip climate, the initial difficulty in our estimation
would be to got men capable of conducting such experiments,
and deducing general results from them. The power of
observation and exporiitienls is not by any means so common
as most peojde believe ; in fact, so uncommon is it that when a
nuan rsally capable of accnr.ate observation and exhaustive exjieri-
ment does appear, he hakes the very highest rank in those
subjects he lias devoted himself to. Of all tlie fields of know¬
ledge in which men have sought to bind the forces of nature
to the chariot wheels of scieuce, probably none are so difficult
and intricato,with constantly changing conditions and unexpected
results, that baffle all chance of eliminating as the experimental
study of agriculture. It requires no Indian Exiieriraental
Farms to prove that the application of certain manures under
certain conditions results in a heavier and better jiaid crop.
It is possible to produce the most aatonishiug results if crops
are treated in small patches, horticultural rather tlian agri¬
cultural, and it seems to us that there has been a tendency
in certain quarters to give agricultural experiments a horticul¬
tural twist. At all events, experiments are conducted at Experi¬
mental Farms under conditions that place the reproduction of
them by the ordinary ryot entirely out of the range of possibility.
The cliauging of officers breaks the contiuuity of experiment, even
supposing they wore capable of oondneting experiments that
would result in something moi'e than mere commonplace, or
the reproduction of the ill-digeeted opinions and assertions of
pretentious men.
Perhaps the most interesting part of the report is that
devoted to the attempt to manufacture sugar from the sorghum
plant. The advantages which sorghum possesses ore, “ that it
can apparently be grown os an ordutary hJiarif crop on poor
land, year after yew, witliout irrigation, and does not require
the great labour, expense, and capital requisite for 8ugi'”(e!Mie_
It only occupies tho ground four moutlui. and con be grown in
places where sugarcane cannot be grdwn at all. If too poor a
crop for sugar, it is still a most nutritions fodder for cattle, the
seed being also good food. If fine enough for sugar, it keeps
the mills going for a month earlier. Cattle oat the intgass
greedily, while they will not eat that of mgarooue. The leaves
jrurie I, 188S.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
201
and tops also go to the cattle. Trom fermented juice alcohol can
l,e distilled, and from the skimminge of the boiling-pan, vinegar
can be manufactured. Sorghum may therefore be said to have
potentialities.
The following is what is said regarding sorghum sugar
ill the report under notice ;—“• The attempts of last year to
niRnufsi^^re sugar from sorghum were renewed this year- air
with ISetter success. Two fields were sown.
“Wa$ divided into three sections, which were respectively
planted with Minnesota .oarly am>j5r, acolinmtised red sorghum,
and acclimatised black sorghum. The field was manured with
farmyard manure at 100 mauuds to the acre.
(2) “An unmanured plot in which sorghum was planted for
cattle-food.
Contrary to expectation, the unmannred plot gave a better
crop than the manured plot. This may have arisen from the
fact that No. (1) lies lower than No. (2), and was waterlogged
for some time in July. In America the general opinion is in
favour of a sandy upland soil well drained, but not freshly
manured. A professional sugar-boiler (kindly procured for the
[.nm by Messrs Thomson and Mylne) could make nothing out
of the juice at first, and pronounced it impracticable. One of
the farm apprentices, accustomed to sugar-boiling, then tried
his hand on it, aud by the use of lime succeeded at last in
making goor of fairly good quality from the early amber and the
) cil varieties, but for a long time failed with the black variety :
eventually succeeding with that also by adding a very small
quantity of carbonate of soda, aa well as lime, to the boiling
juice.
“ S-amples were sent to Carew and Co., Limited, to Messrs.
Tliomsouaud Mylue, aud to the Agrf-Horticultural Society,
Bengal. A sample was also submitted through a native
gentleman to a committee of sugar-brokers in Lucknow, the
manner and place of its production being carefully concealed.
The following opinions were received : —
Mbssrs. C^ahew asd Co.
“ ‘ I have now the pleasure to send analysis of your sample of
sorghum, and to remark—
“‘1st.—It is very acid. Having no e.vpericnce of sorghum
juice, I do not know how far this is duo to delay or accident in
nianufacture.
“ ‘2ik 1.—The amount of glucose is large and is probably due
(o the acid, which has the effect of converting crystallizable
tugar into glucose, if present in a healed solution,
“ ‘ Srd.—Each part of glucose present is held in reliiiiug to
convert another part of crystallizable siignr, and this with the
allowance for ash reduces the available sugar from your sample
to 24 per cent.
“ ‘ As a rule, wo would decline sugar with so small a
result.
“ ‘ My valuation is of course for rotiuing purpo.ses.
“ ‘ It is pronounced here less sweet to the taste than c.inc
goor ; hut it seems to me that, in small quantities, reacliing the
market early, it should bring top prices, I'i:., Us, 3-8 to Us. 4
per maund.
Sugar analysU.
Sample received—November 13tb.
Marked Amber Sorgho Ooor, 2oz.
Description — Goor.
Colour, &c.—light yellow— Very acid.
Composition.
Cane sugar... ... 0100
Glucose ... ... ... 23'85
Ash ... . ' ... ... 3T6
Itisl. matter ... ... 0'23
Colouring matter extractive ... 3 78
Water ,,, ... ... 7'!t3
*ToUl ... ... lOO’OO
“ ‘ Avfulable sugar a4'6 per cent.’ ”
Museiis. Thomson and Mylne.
“ ‘ The sample of goor you sent us is of the kind made for
eating, and i* not used for making sugar ; the present highest
tatss for eatable goor aud goor Ivt making sugar are 13^ and
15 seers per rupee respectively, aud the value put upon your
sample is 12^ to 12j( seers per rupee.’ ”
It may interest our read cm to know that the Americans
have succeeded in prodiicing samples of the very finest sugar
from sorghum ; 24llj(i. of iliy pure crystallised glucost', closely
resembling loaf-sugar, has been obtuined from a biisbel of com
which can be sold at 2 to 2jf I’cnhs. In attempting to introtluee
this plant, the. Cawnporc Experimental Farm has done good
work, aud it is niticli more pleasant and a good deal more profit¬
able to read iii Cawnporc Farm Reports of the sorghum plant
and its “ potentialities ” than of the second-hand crudities of
Lille about nitrogen.
I ECONOMIC MUSEUMS.
rilHR Bengal Economic Mnaoum is closed, and its collec-
JL tions arc about to be removed to the Imfiorial Museum.
For all pnicticnl purposes, it might, almost ns well never
bavo existed, and wo imagine that very few people in
want of particular information about some industrial
product of the country over went to it to obtain what they
wanted. This was not for want of specimens. Of some
products, there was a bewildering superabiindanoe of
specimens. It seemed as if every specimen that came
in Lad to be bottled and labelled, and every new bottle
was siipjiosed to add a new variety. This W'as not the
fault of the gentlemen in charge—bnt it is useJoss now
to enquire wlioso fault it was. Lot ns rfithor follow the
old collections to their destination, and enquire whether
there is a future life for the defunct Economic Museum.
It Nooins that there i.s at le.'ist n hojiofnl jirospcct before
it. Wc gather from a resolution of the Government of
India, which, though not yet jiublished, has chanced to
come under our notice, that larger and mure liberal tlioughts
on the subject of the museum arc at preseiit .struggling
to the birth, and arc really likely to shape themselves into
a grand practical result. Though the resolution referred
to is at present but slowly working its way through the
hands of the provincial governments and administrations,
we believe that the general idea of it has already met with
a large amount of official approval. Uu the scope aud
probable utility of the idea, wo may have more to say
afterwards. But some gonorul features of the proposed
sclieme and some considerations more or less closely
coimectod with it, and with the fortbeoming lutcruatioual
F.xliibition, may at the present time be profitably referred
to. The new scheme may be briefly descriiied as one for
the consolidation and centralisation of all mii.seura.s of
whatever description and wherever located into ii. complete
iiid uuifonn system, or into what, from the official point
tf view, might lie called a, single Imperial Department.
The central administration of the museums would naturiilly
h-volve upon the Revenue’ aud Agricultural Department.
The living idea pervading the scheme is to make known
and utilise to the ut.most the indnstrial re.sotirces of India,
riio moans eiujdoycd will !>o to collect, to compare, to
,\liibit, to make everywhero easily accessible to every
enquirer, the best procurable si>ecimcus of whatever nature
imiii have boeu able to produce in this peninsula. The
c.siiU, it is to be hoped, woulil be the revival of decayed
ir decaying iudiiHtrics, the stimulation and improvement
of those now existing, and probably the creation of now
jiies. To come down from goneralitiu.s, however, it is
loped to attain tlieso great results through the agency of u
.•.torn of museums, under trustees aud local committees,
ml also uiulcr the centrid control of the Revenue and
Agricultural Department. In each prosiileiioy or province,
ero would be a central museum, and in Calcutta the
groat Imperial Museum, lii each division, or at any rate
wherever a largo city or town exist.s, tliorc would be a
iivisicnal museum, and every important district throngh-
Mit India would have its local museums. Thus in Bengal,
.here would bo the central or Imperial Miisciiin, and
lohabiy divisional museums at J’alua, Dacca, and Cuttack,
,\liilo such places os Moughyr, Krishnaghnr, liorhamporc,
viul many others would *have local museums. IVherever
,ny important industry was associated with a certain
^lopulation, there would be a local uiusoiun, and the smaller
museums wcmld of course act naturally as tributariss or
202
June 1, 1883 ^
THE INDIAf AGRICULTURIST.
fouJors uf llie larger. The oolleotions kept in the local
mnscniu wouM bo confined to articles procurable in the
district it,self, together with samples of a better kind, if
such wore obtuiuable, from other parts, so that local art
and iuduHtry might be taught in whet it was defective, and
stimulntoil to competition and improvement. It wonld also
lir important to keep all spocimons in duplicate, so that the
doraiiudts of Foreign and International Eshibitions might
.he met without any special labour on the part of district
oliicials.
A very good cxamplo of a district museum may be cited
ill the neat and beautiful Monghyr museum, next door to
the zilla school. This unique collection was made by Mr,
Lockwood, a former magistrate and collector, now retired
from the serviuo, and is a standing memorial of the
intelligent interest betook in his district, and the thorough¬
ness with ttliich he studied its oluiracteristies and resources.
By !i glance at tlic coloured map, a visitor to lhi.s museum
can see at once wliorc and to what extent eacli product of
this district is to be mot with. If such museums sculd he
established at all importuut centre.s, and attached in some
way to uur high schools or ailla schools, they w'ould supply
a great want iu our system of education. They would
Htford the means of imparting soicutifio and industrial
knowledge, and wight be also so used as to stimulate
amoug the boys a love of natural history, and give a
useful turn to the boy’s natural desire of making colleo-
tiona Our system of education has been siuily deticicut
in any effort to .shako off the apathy of Indian yoiitlis, and
to train tlieir powers of observation aud their interest iu
natural objects. It does nut appear iu the llesolutiou
whether this idea of associating tho district museums
with tin) high or zilhi schuols has been suggested to the
authorities, aud wo therefore commond it to their oousidera-
tion. While tho museums might he made of the greatest
USD in the training of the young, the activities of tho
youth might bo employed in euriehing the collections.
They must, of course, be uu<h>r the superiiitcuJcuce of
district committees, and tho district officer would be
lu.'-rjih'rio chairman of cominittco. Specimens of all tho
pi'odnotM of the district would be forwarded iu duplicate j
or triplicate to the divisimud museum, and by it to the
central imiscum of tho province, and tlienec to tho Imperiid j
Museiim of Calcutta. Each specimoii would hear a cerluiu
rogistci'oil iiimilici' pcnuaiieiuly affixed, vhich would he
the same in all museums whei'c the article was exhibited.
Thus the Imperial Mnsetim would have specimens of all the
important jirodiiets of the empire, and each jiroviucial,
divisional, and district musemn would have the s])coiiuoi)S
of its own province, division, or di.striet. Tt, is also iu
contemplalioii that du|)lic,ito specimens should be scut to
the chief Eurupeaii mnseimis, c.icli Imaring the registered
number whiciiitbears iu the pi.ice of its nativity.
II will be seen that t.lie ido.i i.s a largo one, and yet, if
systematically carried out under zealous supervision, it
does not appear that tlierc should he any iusu]ierahlc
difficulty in the way of it.s realisation. If would lie a work
of some time, but if once the main lines of tbe scheme were
practically laid down, stc.idy aud gvielual progress towards
completion might bo secured by iulelligont .siiper-
iiitcudeuco.
’I’HE TllAUE OF ASSAM.
W E Icaru that tlie total river-lionio trade of As.saiii, for
the year reached a value oflis, ],9.i,61,!)fl3
forimports and Hs. 3,G2,><6,fi91 for exports The trade of
the Brahmaputra \'alley with Bengal and the trade of the
Surma Valley contributed to these results in tho following
proportions; —
Imports, Exports.
Its. Ks,
Brahmaputra Valley ... !)7,4.'!,704 2,2(i,2I,],tt)
Surma Valley ... 1)8,17,889 l.tiOiH'i.ojri
Compared with the results of the year 1830 81, the
trade of the Bi'uliiuaputvu Viilloy with Bengal shows an
iucrease iu value of lls, 17,38,002 under imports, and a
decrease of Us. 3,.5T,S40 umlor rxpmt.s. The increase iu
iin))orts occurs chiefly under piece-goods (European), gram
and pulse, rice and liquors, A more extensive demand is
gvmlually springing np for piece-goods of European manu¬
facture, and the trade, it appenrs, is being pushed furtk,
and further into the interior by the Marwnri mcrehant'
The largo import of twist and yam proves that the nativ
weaving industry still survives in many places, iqj
of tho liquor imported is consumed on the tea garden,s, atnj
during the year under report there was an increase of
little over half-a-lakh, The decrease under expnrf,
appears only under tea and oil-seeds. Comiiareil wiili
1880-81 there has been a fulling off in value of
Us. 8,91,300 in tho exports of ten. Wo obscrvcj^ihuwcve.r
that the local Administration is inclined to doubt the
nocuracy of these figures. Tho tea report for 1881 showo^
a crop of 23,725|02GIb, vh' taking the maund at 8211) 2i)^
2,88,889 maunds. In the previous year 1880, t.he re'.
port showed only 21,493,6391b, or 2,61,718 maunds
while tho export returns showed 3,03,609. It is heliovod
that the crop for 1881-82 was greater than that of the
previous year, not only from special tea roturua, hut also
from figures furnished by tea-brokers, which give an out.
turn of 24,390,7323) in 1881, against one of 24,021,3755,
for 1880. As rcgniris the other articles of export, wo s«
that there is a considerable increase during the year under
report under rubber, and that the jute export has nearly
doubled, while the export of lac has more than doubled, i
satisfactory increase also occurs iu tho exports of silk.
The trade of tho Surma Valley shows an increase m
value imder imports and exports of Rs. 9,08,215 ami
Rs. 7,91,246 respectively. The increase occurs chiefly
under cotton piece-goods, the value of which camcii
up-stream has risen by 9 per cent; tobacco which shows
an advance of 56 per cent over the impoi-ts of 1880-81; sail,
the increase iu which exceeds 23 percent; and oils, uiuln
which there is an iucrease of 113 per oout, and is aaoribeil
to tho more extended use. of kerosine oil. Tho export tradv
shows an incroaso«mder tea of 16,050 mamids, or 1)’.7
per cent, and under paddy the exports amounted to 10’
lakhs of mniinds against 1,63,260 maunds. There is alw
an increase of .5,17,690 maunds in tho exports of limr
diii'itig the year. The monopoly which formerly existed lu
t.liis important business, has now been broken up by the
local Administration, and the policy is stated to he nt
length l)caring fruit in inci'onscd production and wiilor
markets. It appoars that limestone was never before
cheap as now sit the m.ii'ts on tho Surma river, where it is
delivered from tlie quarries on the Khasi hills, IhJiuil'
last limestone is said to have boon sold at Rs, 135 per
1,000 raauuds.
Some iutorcstiiig information is given in tho ro])ci'l
regarding tlie coal-fields of Uppe)'Assam, and we learn tlinl
those sitmalcd ou tho northern face of the Naga hills from
the Dehiiig oast of Maknm, westwards to Uessai, are t"
become avail,able as a store of force in the dovelopmeut
and industrial i>rngro,sB of t.he province,' Iu tho Makmii
hills we sec it .stated that the coal-measures, iu thickness
and ipiality of coal, a)X> among tho first in the world, mid
are jiractinally iuexlianstible. It is also stated that the
coal iu the neighbourhood of the Dikhn river in Sibsnngor,
west of the Dobing fields, may soon bo brought under
profitahlo working. The report goes on to say that “ou
the side of .Sylhot and Caohar there are, it is true, coal
deposit.? ill the Ehasi and Jaiiitia, and possibly in the
North (.'aehav hills, while a flue field exists iu the heai't
of tlie Darn hills on the Bomoswari river, up which one of
l.he projected lines of mil wonld lie carried, hut so much
as is known of the Khasi hills coal, which is for the most
part sit Hilled in places diflienll of aocoss, and occurs in
‘ ]iockets ’ or hollows, with seams whicli rapidly die out,
each pocket, covering Imt small area, does not ranio it
probable tliat coal from this souroe could compete with
tho massive, casily-workod, and almost inexhaustible
coal-measures of Maknm, and as Eaneoguuge coal can
undor-sell that from CheiTa at Sylhet itself, there seems
no reason why Maknm coal, if conveyed across the hills,
.should not imdcr-soll at tho same place coal from Ranee-
gunge,” ^
FOREST ADJIINISTRATION HYDERABAD.
rpHE report of forest admiaistratiou in the Hyderabad
-L Assigned Districts for the year 1881-82 shows that good
progress was made during the period iu re-clossiMng
the dietriet forests. Tho ferest area of tho provisoo
June 1, 1888.
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTURIST,
203
4,424 square miles on tire Slst March lSd2, or an
iacreaso of 168 square miles over tho total area of the
preceding year. Tho chafes which occurred during tho
I'Oftv under notice ore exhibited a8 follows ;—
of the previous year are given as follows, for the several
divisions of the presidency:—
PBeOBIPTIOSI.
Akka in .S<4U*rr Mii-Eb.
Added i Excluded I Ou 31et
Oil l.t -uauea
lAprlllssl,
SUte RcsoryM
060
126
4«.
1,080
HMorvM
4U6
8
13H 1
m
jiiRirli't UurMerres
2 ,firo
260
100 1
a,8;K)
Totnl
4,256'*
304
■->21) 1
4,421
The transfer of 120 square miles from the district reserves
to the State reserves, and tlie addition of 260 square
miles to the district unreserves, wore tho chief modifications
(luring tho year. We observe that the demarcation of the
State reserves is stated to be almost complete now.
There were 369 prosecutions for broaches of forest rules
during tho year, of which 309 resulted in convictions. It
is said that new rules have been drawn up for the province,
luul that the ForestAct of 1878 will no longer apjily to the
Berurs when they have been once introduced. .Compared
with tho preceding year, the results of fire/protection
during 1881-82 have not Iteoii so sucoessl'iil. Tlio urea
attempted to bo protected was 599,304 a(;ves, while tho
urea iietually protected was 552,931, resulting tlierofore
m u failure of 46,373 acres. Wo see it stated, however,
that tho injury caused by fires was not very great. In
four eases, they were caused by lightning, while in niue,
they wore tho work of iucondiaries. Tho Conservator
of Forests brings to notice, as one of the effects of fire
conservancy, the enormous increase 'tx insects—an evil
which, it is said, is beginning to be felt more and more
every year. Among the insoots, ho mentions a caterpillar,
whicli, in tho first break of tho rains, especially if it is u
long one, attacks the teak tree in swarms, leaving it nlirio.st
li.ive of foliage, and thus checking its growth to n Ncri(.>ns
('.\lcut. Teak seedlings, too, it is rotnarkod, suffer groat
injury from an insect which buries its eggs in the latest
growth. On the prodncliou of the lurvte, liirgo c’\(n’OB<’enoes
arc raised, and the leading shoots ultimately killuii.
The finaueial re.siilfs of tho year have not, it appears,
bueii very favonrable, and tlio State and district reserves
both show a doorcase iu tho rovenne. Tlio receipts of the
year have amounted to Its. 2,33,815, or a falling off of i
lU. 32,741 compared with the rovenuo of the ]>rucediiig !
year, while the expenditure, wdiicli has been Rs. 1,51,693,
sliows an increase of Rs. 22,724 over the charge.s of
1881-82. The deoroaso iu revenue c<f the year is due to a
falling off of Ks. 8,103 in tho sale of timber of Rs. 4,280 iu
tlio sale of bamboos, and of lls. 22,437 in tho stile of grass
and grazing fees.
COTTON IN BOMBAY.
M r. PRITCHARD’S report on cotton for the Bombay
presidency, for the official year 1881-82, bits earned
the thanks of the Local tTOvernmout for tho interesting and
valuable information which is supplied in it. 'I'he cultivation
of cotton is extending very satisfactorily in tlmt presidency,
Us will bo seen from tho following figures. Tlio area sown
with cotton during tho year is shown as 4,811,1 I (i acres us
against 4,19.3,154 acres in 1880-81, wliile the (’.stiniativl
outtiirn has risen from 1,929,772 cwts. iu 1880-81 to
2,578,565 cwts. in 1881-12. Altliough these figures may
I'o capable of improvenrent, the Local Coverninent tiiinks
that they may be safely taken to prove that cotton ciiltiva-
tioii is making great progress. Tho increase iu tlie area
sowni is most apparent in tho central division and
particularly in Khandoali, wliere more than oiie-tliird of tlic
wliolS^jtton produce of tho presidency (cxcbisive of native
states) was grown. wo observe that a nmcli l.arger j
area was devoted to cotton than in tho previous year, ^
hooanso the prices of food-grain,s had fallen low. Dliiirwar, ,
Khaladgi, Hyderabad, and Kuttiaw ar all sliow good increasos j
in the area sown during tho year. The average yield jior I
acre of land sown with cotton, compared with tiic results I
1880-81.
1881-82.
tbs.
lt«.
Northern Division ,
61
72
Central „
, 20
63
Southern „
29
,38
Sind
205
165
Native States, Novtliorn Group ,
, 70
72
„ Southern Group ,
, 53
30
Total
52
CO
The total estimated value of the cotton crop raised in
the Bombay presidency during tho year under review is
shown ns Rs. 5,49,18,350, against -t crores, the value of tlie
preceding yeai’’s crop. 1’be average retail jiricos of cotton
ruling in tlio different districts during the year varied from
Rs. 11-4 per maund (Indian) in Surnr: to lis. 23 per raaniid
iu Broach, while tlie wholesale ju'icos ranged from Rs. 9 per
maund in Surat to Rs 19-3-7 per mainnl in roona. Wo
observe it stated that 90 per coni- of tlie total production
of cotton was indigenous cotton and tlie romainiiig 10 per
cent exotic. Tlio latter variety is cliicfly grown iu tin;
I Kliaiidesh and Dharwar districts, wliere tliero lias lieen an
incrouse over the preceding year botli in the acreage sown
with exotic cotton and in tlie iiggregtite outturn. The
production of tho year of this variety amoniited to 282,266
cwts., or an increase of 104,298 cwts. over tlio outturn of
tho previous year. Altbougli a good deal is being dune to
induce cultivators to give up tho oultivation of the inferior
indigenous variety of cotton iu Kliaiidesli and to take to
tlie exotic variety, we see it remarked that as tiie Deshi
variety—one of the inferior indigenous kinds—requires
less rain than tlio exotic, people ni'O induced iu seasons
of insufficient rain to favour tho cnRivation of tlio former
ill jirefercuco to tiiat of the lafter, Tho produce per acre
of exotic cotton iu the distnoi. in wliieii it is grown
varied from 19 Jb to 104 lb.
Tlio cotton trade is reported to liave lieen unusually brisk
during the year. Tlie total (piantity of cotton iinjiorted
into Bombay by sen and mil was 6,325,6 18 ewt.s. as against
t,279,535 cwts. in tlio previous year ; wldlo tlio exports
from Bombay and llie ports of Kiirraciiue and Karwar were
5,IG2,8oI cwts., or an inciease of 2,319,929 cwts. over tlio
exporU of 1889-81. Of tho imports by sea into Boinliiiy,
wliicli amounted to 1,902,204 ewts., wo find that 43,764
cwts. came from Persia, 30,880 cwts. from Madras, 63,619
cwts. from Sind, 710,876 cwts. from British ports hi Koiikaii
and (Juzorat, 152,234 cwts. from Ciitcli, 929,937 cwts. from
Kattiawar, and 23,085 from foreign Konkaii ; wliile
ipiantities, varying from 3 to 1,600 cwts., were also import¬
ed from certain native slates, and from Bengal, Burmiili,
(roa, Uiu, .Miisent, Hnez, Hoiig-Kong, Genoa, and Venice.
Of the imports by rail—4,364,414 cwts., tlio Bonibaj',
Bavoda and Goiitral India Railway liroiiglit into Bomliay
1,266,920 cwts., and tlio Great Indian renin,snla Railway
3,096,524 cwts.
The export trade with the United Kingdom, Belgium,
Greece, Austria, Russia, Italy, and China sliows a great
improveiiieut over that of tlio previous year, while tlie
exports to Germany, France, Holland, and Spain liavo
fallen olY somewliat. T’ho ouiiiitrioa whiyli took tlio lai'gost
iiuantities during tlio year ivero—
1880-81.
1881-82.
Cwts.
t/wts.
Uuiteil Kitigdoiii
... 1,0.32,098
2,902,100
Itl'Ii'iulU
62,975
224,085
Greece
1,750
7,210
Austria
... .507,094
13,7.50
000,0.38
Itus.sia
16,115
1 taly
558,743
780,868
(ffiiiia
... i:jO,932
186,983
In regard to tlio trade with tlie United Kingdom during
tlie year, it is remarked tliat tho exports were the largest
recorded for many years jifist, being voiy little less tliaii
tlio aggrcgn.te of the exports to the same country in tlie
past throe jears. Tho increase, it is said, is partly due to
tlie disturlied state of Kgypt, whicli caused n heavy falling
off’ ill tlie exports from, that country to tho United
Kingdom, and partly to the abundance of the Indian crop
and the consequent fall in the market rato.s. Tlic report
204
THE INDIAN AGRIOULTUBIST.
June 1, I883'*
»aj« " that the ralae of Indian cotton imp^ed
into the United Kingdom during 1882 was 86 per cent
higher tlian the value 0 / the average annual imports of
similar cotton during the last five years ; and represents
24 ])ercent of the total value of nil cotton imiwrts during
the same pernMl." Tho report goes on to say that “ the
prices for cotton ruling in the Liverpool market in 1881-82
were slightly better for the Hinghunghat, Dharwar, and
Kumta varicticH than, in the preceding year, and compared
favi)uraiil 3 ’ witli tho pirieoa ruling for the same varieties in
tlie lionibay market, which wore somewhat loiver than tho
average of the prcccditig year. Broach and Dhollera. cotton
roiniiiiiiided ihe same average prices iii Liverpool in 1881-82
,a.s in tlie previous year, though these varicticLS were quoted
at a somewhat lower ligurc in the Bomhuy market tlnin in
the previous year. Neither market Wiis cpiito as firm for
Amroati and Sind cotton as in the preceding year, the
quotations for 1881-82 being helow those for 1880-81.”
There were 49 cotton mills working and in course of
construction in the Bombay presidency at tho end of
Juno 1882, against 42 in the previous yonr. Tho mills,
it is said, find employment for upwards of 37,000 souls,
and machine spinning and -weaving is one of the most
thriving industries in the presidency. Tho number of
cotton presses working in 1881-82 was 247, of whiob 90
■a'ero worked by stcani power and 157 by manual labour.
Tho number of hales pressed by tbo cotton pi’csscs in work
in the town and island of Bombay amounted to 500,274,
against 359,724 in 1880-81.
In regard to certain remarks which Mr. rritchiml makes,
to tho eifect tliat adulteration of cotton is increasing since
the repeal of the Cotton Frauds Act, tho Bombay Govern¬
ment observes that “the repeal of tlie special Act for the
prevention of cotton frauds was forced upon Government,
uii its enactment had been clenmiKled l)y what was nndor-
stood to be a general consensus of mercantile <jpinion, and
Government cannot be expected to ro-consider the question
except on the strongest proof that the repeal of the Act has
led to frauds so extensive that, in tlie public interest,
renewed interference is neccssai-y and is demanded by tho
general opinion of tho morcuntilo body interested in the
question ; but a question of such vital importance to the
tende of the presidency will not bo oousidurod dosed, while
there is room for any doubt -(vhether tlie mercantile com¬
munity was right in pressing for a repeal of the Act.”
COTTON IN IIYDEEABAl).
T he cotton report of the Hyderabad assigned districts
for the year 1881-82 shows that the area under cotton
cultivation has risen from 1,767,851 acres in 1873-74 to
2,189,688 acres in the year under report. (bmpareJ with
the results of 1880-81, the area in 1881-82 shows an
increase of 433,742 acres. Tho great falling off in the area
of tho preceding year is, however, explained by the fact
that the fields had to bo re-sown two or throe times, and
even then they arc stated to have sometimes failed, owing
to the light rainfall at the beginning of the inonsoon. The
area of 1881-82 is distributed in tho following proportion
between each district :—
Amraoti
Akola
EUiehpore
Boulduua
Woou
Basiui
Acres.
489,917
590,107
258,520
3U,(>U
297,664
247,876
cotton diitriot* varied from seers in Basim to 89 seors In
HVoon. The total production of the year in uncleaned
cotton is shown as 5,637,652 maunds, and the total outturn
of cleaned cotton as 1,40;'. 4l3 maunds. The local adminig.
tration is, however, inclined to think tliat the production of
cotton has bean under-estimated. Tho total expoi-ts of the
year by road and rail amounted to 1,672,052 maundg, und
tho total imports were 66,844 maunda Of the totfd
exports, Bombay took 316,940 bales of 3J owt., the North-
Western Provinces 4,083 bales, and the Central Provinces
3,214 bales. The stations from -which cotton ynts chiefly
exported during the year were Ainraoti, Murouiapore
Akola, Sliegaon, Khangaon, and Malkapore, the exports from
these places amounting to 323,2^7 bales. The average
ruling price of cotton varlSd from Us. 15-5-0 to Rs. I 8 - 5.0
per maund of 40 seers. The average rate prevailing dunu'.
the year was about Rs. 17 per maund. It is remarked tlnu
it has not been possible to ascertain to what extent the
villagers seU their cotton at the large markets, and to wLat
extent they dispose of it to village buyers. It is believed,
however, that the latter course is being more and more
adopted every year.
Tho cost of cultivation, including rent, is estimated to
bo about Rs. 4-8-8 per acre, and the total value of cotton,
including seed, to be Rs. 19-8-8, thus leaving a net profit
of Rs. 15 per acre to the cultivator.
Tlic imports of rubber only amounted to 959 mauuda
against 1,228 maunds brought down in 1880-81, and
-was valued at about Rs. 40 per maund. The hillinen
arc said to have nearly exhausted the supply by reckless
tapping of trees. The trade with Muniporo has fallen oil'
considerably during the year under notice. The imports
reached a value of Rs. 28,812, against Rs. 26,110 iu
1880-81, while tho value of the exports was only Rs. 33,9.''>1,
against Rs. 1,26,038 in 1880-81. 'I’he decrease iu ike
exports occurs almost entirely under cotton piece-goods
(European) and cottifli twist. The falling off in the de¬
mand is, it is believed, due to tho fact that tho largo
quantities of cotton goods and twist which were exported
during 1880-81, must have also have been deemed sufficient
for the requireraouts of 1881-82. It. appctirs that Ike
A 1 uuij)ooris, in order to save the cost of conveyance, whick,
owing to -a'ant of proper roads, is not small, take Itu-go
rjuautitics of articles at a time, and keep Ikom in store fur
future use.
We observe that sixteen steam cotton iiresses woi'e at
work during tho year, tho number of bales turned out by
each press being as follows :—
Volkart United Press Co., Ld.
Mofussil (foiiipauy, Limited
Now Rural- (.'ompauy, Limited
Uarvuy and Saljap.athee
West Patent Press Company
Mofussil Company
New East India Company
Akola Press Company
ITarvey and Saliapathee
Froneh Press
Graham and Company’s Press
Mofussil Company’s Press
New Berav Company’s Press
Hidyert’s Hydraulic Press
Ridli Brothers’ Press
New Berar Company, Limited
Bales.
... 2.5,9.31
... 21,109
... 22,133
... 11,434
... 13,468
— 126,511
V.’. 16,056
... 4,000
... 25,903
... 14,323
... 23,127
... 16,301
... 20,864
... 30,000
... 7,643
EDITORIAL NOTES.
The proportion which the area under cotton bore to the
total area under crop in each district is given as follows ;—
Ammoti
34-2
Booldana
.. 26-3
Akola
44-4
Woon
... 28-9
EUiehpore
41-7
Basiui
.. 23-0
Of the ditTercnt varieties of cotton cultivated in the pro¬
vinces, wc find the ordinary dam' oeeiqiying an area of
1,483,80.3 acres, tho ordinary yurt an area of 673,408 acres,
the KhandoiHh cotton an area of 17,743, American cotton
an area of 13,592 acres, and Hingungbat cotton an area of
142 aorea 1 lie quality of the crop is reported to have
been above the average, v\ bile the quantity was also ordi-
oftrily Iturge. The average eut-tUi'u per acre for the six
T he Government of Madi-as has recently published a re¬
port of the visit of a party of ryots from Villupuram
in South Aroot to the Government Agricultural Farm
at Saidapot, wliich is very interesting, as illustrating the
impression derived by the ryots from a personal observation
of tlio working of the different kinds of ploughs^ the
various kinds of machinery, and after a careful inspcdition
I of tho several exjieriiueiital crops gmiMi on the farm. Of
I the several ploughs which were triou before the visitors,
they fancied three kinds, viz,, tho Ransom wooden stilted
(one stilt), the improved country plough wooden stilted,
and the Swedish plough (oue stilt), and eousider that the
Jane 1, 18ff3.
THE INDIAN A(fRICULTUBTST.
205
]«gt named works much better than tlie one of the same
class that has double stilts. They have askod to bo suppliec
with a specimen of each of the three ploughs referred to,
together with a light drag harrow which was shown them,
and which they are anxious to try. It is their iutentioi
to have a number of ploughs manufactured of the thro,
specimens which have most pleased them; these will h
madaiif country wood and iron, and turned out by thei
owe'^tlllage artisans. Of other agricultural implements,
the ryots have expressed a wish to be supplied with two
“breaking moohinos of ground-nut cakes.”
Amongst the live-stock of the farm, a good bred ram.
with the longest tail and big Bflad, has been asked for by
some of the party for purposes of breeding. Others have
taken a fancy to n Koixy cow, and a bull brought forth by
it, and it is perhaps likely that they may 1)0 sold to tb
lyots wishing to have them. As regards tlie experimental
crops on the farm, we observe that a quantity of guinea
grass, which was shown to the ryots as being fit f)ddcr for
cows, has been asked for with the view of planting them iu
reserved tracts of their holdings. A number of trees of the
manilla hemp is also to bo supplied for purposes of experi¬
mental cultivation. A crop of the New Orleans cotton, wliioh
was inspected by the party, has also takeit the fancy of
some of the men, and they have asked for seed in view to
try its cultivation in Villupuram. A water lift, drawn by
a single bullock, was fiincied by two of the party, and
they wish to have it manufactured of country wood by the
aid of a skilled person to be deputed from tlie farm to Villu-
liuram. The ryots, it is said, were also anxious to try tlie
cultivation of Chinese sugar-cano and tho amiicr sugar-ciuio.
Some of thorn are of opinion that these two varieties, more
or loss resembling a choltm crop, will bo best suited for
cultivation in South Arcot soils* although otliers are
doubtful on tho point. The following were selcoted by tho
ryots from the botanical portion of the farm, as the most
fitting objects for trial in Villupuram :—
Trkbs.
1 . Eucalyptus bieolor.
3. lid. rostiata.
3. Do. siilrophlio.
4. Do. gouioalyt.
I’andanus otloratissimus.
6. Acacia jiroslaiithcra.
7. Mahogaiii.
8. Auogeissus Rcuminalus.
Klowbk Kisus.
1. Boug.iinvilleo’ H])ectabilis.
2. I’oraiia I'olubilis. .
The Madras Covernmeut, in its nuiiarks on flic iTport
of the vi8it,trust that this will induce others to i-oine and
see what the fai-m is doing, and to adopt it.s improved
methods and accumulated ex])orience, to their own and the
country’s very great advantage.
PaoFKSsoR Comstock sn.ys the most, s!iU,sfacf<>i-y i ciucd v for
scale insects is concentrated lye, one pound to one gallon
of water. It does not injure the fruit, buds, and most
etfeotually destroys the scale insect. Whale-oil soaf and
sulphur mixture is a good remedy in summer, iu the
proportion of one pound of soap to one gHlloii of watei-.
The applioation of the remedy to small trees is an easy
matter. S’or largo trees a bamhoo lot! ton feet long, with
spray-tip nozzle, has proved of great value, Tliia rod may 1"-
attached to a force-pump. Infighting scale insects on shnib-
and trees all eflforts to destroy them by poisonous fumes and by
powdered substances bave proved unsuccessful. I’yrethriim has
done more liarm than good by killing useful parasites in Large
tnimbers, with no appreciable effect on the scales.
At the Iasi meeting of tho North Auierieaii Dee As.s.K i.ition,
a committee was appointed to gather slalistics. U i-beli'.'t)
that full statistics as to the number of colonies of bees an.
the pinduct from them will surprise everybody, aud lead apicul¬
ture to be better appreciateA »» one of the important industnes
<A dM Muad7.
From a paper upon “ Breetls of Sheep aud their Origin,"
read before the State Wool Growers’ Association, by the Hon.
Robert Mitchell, of T’riueeton, Ind., we gather that the
original importation of merino sheep into the United State.s
from Spain, inclndcd ,all t.lic mo.st pvominont Cabanas of that
coitntry. But, tvs a general thing, the different families, even
when preserve.! pure from foreign admixtures, were ert^ed
promiscuously with each other. The Saxon, French tiinl
Silesian merinos were of later importation. Of the original
Spanish slock but two are 7iow represented by distinct fanvilies,
namely, the iufaaitado ;iud the pauhvr. These sheep, origiimlly
imported by Colonel David Humphreys, of (lonnecticut, have
been preserved pm’e to the present .lay. They are a fourth, if
not a third, heavier Iti.an their Spanish anoestora, and are llie
largest family of American inei-iiio.s. It nitvy not be out of
place here to give a short hi.story of how (he first Spanish .sheep
were brought nito the Unitud States. The following i.s from
the pen of Mr. William JiirvLs ;—
“ Iu IBOl,General Humphrey, being then minister ploiil|S)teii-‘
tiary at the court of .Spiiiii, purchased 200 of those shiM'p in that
country and shipped them for their place of di>.stination. They
amved in the spring of 1802. It seems to have been a custom
at the Spanish court, when a foreign minister was recalled, on
taking leave, a present was made to him of fiva. or ten bars of
gold, e.ach bar weighing a pound, or thereabouts. But, ivslhe
law of his own country' forltids any minister taking pre.s(‘nts
fi'om a foreign government, he declined this overture, and
sugge.sted to the Spanish minister that royal license bo grant-
I od to take out of the kingdom 200 merino sheep, which would
be a great grati(ic;ition to him. This the Sj)ani.sh minister stated
could not be done, but internuted to the geiier.il that if he
wished to toko them out, no obstruction hhould be thrown
n his way. Tho sheep vcie accordingly procured and
forwarded."
Altuougk great efibrts have been made, snys the F’o.'nte)'*’
dui’ing 111 .’ past few years to iiu,Teiu.e the supply of cattle
foi market, ,auJ large amounts of capita! Inive been invested in
■anohos, and stock cattle in the South-west, Norlh-wo.st, and f.ir
I West, oxtetidiiig fi'om Texas to Oregon, from winch we are nlrciuiy
receiving liberal I’cturns in the slnipe of fat beef cattle, many
f which compare well with the grain-fed stock of the oldei-
,State,s, the demand Inis responded so closely to the increased
mpply, that there is often cause foi' oomplaint in regard l,o the
'.arcity of dcsivihle stock with which to .supply the demand.
I'his sc.ircity of fat cattle is largely attributabl.! to the rajiid
.{rowLh of the pop-.ilation of the coiinti’y, in coniiHction with the
.s’ondcrful dcvt!lo)imcnt of onr foreign evpin-t trade in ilressed
)oof ivnd live cattle during the p.vst few ye.irs. The business
if eanning fresh beef, which was scarcely’ known a ileoadc since,
s now It prominent faetor in the cattle market, tho takings l)y
Ihicago c,timers being e.stimatoil 4,000 to 0,000 head pe.i’ week.
The goods thus put nit find their way to all the leading countries
if Fairope. They also constitute the chief article, of meat nse.l
11 tlie far Western and South-western mining camps, where it
.votild be impracticable to hamlle fresh beef, even if it
:ould be had, and iu many localities it would be inipos.sibIe
0 obtain it. Tlie mining camps of old Mexico are al»o
argoly supplied witli canned mo.ats from Chicago and other
:ities. Canned bee.f is rapitlly .sn])er»eding the salt junk which
'or ages li.as been a lottding factor in vessel .supjihes. It will
liureforc be seen tbat the steaibly iucretising oullots fur fresh
teef promise to keep pace w Ith the proiluction, heiiec there is
itlle cauae to fear lliat the efifoi’ls now being made to in-
reasc tho supply of beef will, iu the near future, over-stock the
narket to such an extent as to cause price.s to di op to figures
hat will not only, as some predict, render the business of raising
loeef avttle unprofitable but involve those wiio engage in it, in
fniancial ruin.
Tilb islanil of .Icitsey, diaviiig a nurface of .seven ludes each
(vay, keeps 12,iX)0 cows. The breetling of cows has made the la
iiuid very fertile ■, B» tire aniuialb arc kept in stables all the yeu
Wild, every particle oi tUc wanviw 1» eaved. lu Vmtet they
206
THE INDIAN I^GRlCTJLTyR^T.
Jwe 1, 1883.
are largely feil on parsnips, which hag probably helped to
duveioj) the buKev sni»eriority of this breed of cattle.
Ma -T T. A Li.R.v, of Omaha, has presented some large figures
ah to ihi- 1 attle-iMi'-iiig capacity of Nobrasltn, It appeal's that
dnviitg the p.'isL Year itO.OOO steers had loeen Bhip]ied East from
there, and 1 hat there were now .100,000 head of cattle grazing in
the wosf.era )':irt of the Shite. He estimates that the lauds west
of thn Missouri river would support 6,000,000 cattle and
10,000,000 sheep, and suyiply foi shipment yearly (>60,000 cattle,
1,600,000 sheep, and 60,000,000 pounds of wool. He stated that
Uic expense of raising a 1,200-jxnmd steer was $6, and that the
entire cost of the .animal delivered in Cliicago was $11.
Mm. llvair Cmemunts, writing on the cost of cultivation in
England, says :—From the average cost of the various items
making up the total cost of the proiluction of tho several crops
j'aisod, which 1 hai’e calculated, it will be found that the
expense incurred in tho cultivation of the land is exces¬
sive in m.any jiarts of tho country, and does not produce an
extra return nt all proportionate with the increased expenditure.
In England the average cost per acre for gross rent for the
growth of wheat is about £l 18s. 7(1. ; for seed, 14s. 7(1. : for
manure, d>l I4s. 8d. ; for cultivation by hand or steam power,
including h.arvesting, £2 3s.; for labour, including thrashing
and m.'irkaliug, 17s. 8t/. ; and for sinulrie.s, iiiclnding tradesmen's
bills, &c., 4s. 5(1. —niuking a total of nearly £7 133.
In Eincolnshire, farmers can a]iply 30.s. w'orth of manure per
acre, .arid raisi* wheat at a oo.st of £7 2s. lOti., iuolu<ling charge
for iutci'est a( TJ jier cent,: in north-west Suffolk the samo can
be done for £Ci 12s. 3<l. ; at Darlington, Torks, for £5 10.?. 7<i. ;
and the fallow crop in lluntingilon costs £7 Is. llrf., while that
at Darlington amounts to illO l.s. 2c/. : but tin's latter estimate
might economically be rcduccil by 20s. on ploughing and
h,'mowing, 16s. on iimnui'c, and 5?. ou gi'o,ss rent, bringing tho
hum down to i!8 l.s. 2d. Taking £7 as tho fair charge
for the cultivation of wheat in rotation, I find that the
small proportionate amount of fallow wheat shouhl only
raise that average to £7 12?. (Id., which is virtually equal
to the sum of £7 12.». lOd., the average obtained from
the aclual cost iiieiirred in every part of the country. At
AVoodbi'idge, in Suffolk, the cost is i!10 7s. on a mixed soil, and
only £7 6s. on heavy land, tliere being £3 more mauiu-e apyilieil
in the former case, as well as 5s. more for seed, and nearly
ilouble for labour. Including that of thrashing and marketing
At Ilcigafe, in .Surrey, £ii li'. ('d. is sjient ijer acre in the
pi'oiliiclioii of fallow wheat on cl.i.i l.uiJ, being £G 13s. 8d. above
tlie genei-al average, £4 being readily accounted for by excesso.s
of at lea.sl il2 7s. in manure, 17.''. in cultivation, including
harvesting, and Ifi.s. in gi'Oas rent, £10 6s. 6d. being amjile for
the production of wheat on the soil referred to. .
The average cost of th,- production of barley per aci-e is aliont
£6, maile up of £l IGs. 7d. for rent, including r.atea and taxes,
12s. ll(f. for seed, 15.s. 9d. for manure, £l 14.s. 7d. for cultivation, |
16s. 3d. for labour, and ds. for sundries. But 1 consider this '
average about £1 too high, there being no additional return
at 11.11 erpiivalent to the increased oxyieuse. In Dui'h.am a good
flea! of barley is raised at from £3 l'2s. to £4 12.s. pei- acre ; in
Abuk, from £4 to £5 ; in Butlaud, from £4 10.s. to £6 ; in
Lincoln, from £4 to £6 ; in Hants and Dorset, from £3 10s. to
£4 10.S. ; but in many parts of Yorks, Lincoln, the other eastern
and southern counties of Englaml, the cost mounts up to £0,
£7, and £8, and in soino cases to nearly £0, the average charge
in Kent being about £8 3s. 4d. per acre. The average spent in
manure per acre is about 16s. !)d., but we liavo in some
cases in Durh.am, 30s. and 60.?. ; in Yorks from 20s. to OOs. ;
in Lincoln, from 20s. up to even 80s. ; in Wilts, 15s. to 20s. ; in
Kent, from 2js to 10s. ; in Hants, 20s. ; in Devon, 25s. to 40s. ;
and in Cornwall, from 10s. to ,60s. There seems to be great extra¬
vagance in manuring for barley, and a.s far as this crop is con¬
cerned, the results, as sliown in the yieul, ai'6 not SO flppafeht
as might bo expected, for it often happens that the produce is as.
nmcb, if not more, without the misapplication of manure. The-
luanure may be and doubtless is often, beneficial to succeeding
crops, and in keeping up the efficiency of the soil : but from an exi
amination of the table given, it would appear that a large expendi-
ture on manuring for barley is not justified by the reeults, There
is little or no application of milnnre to barley taken after turnips,
but there usually is when following a wheat crop, Ou a farm in
Lincolnshire £1 10s. is spent in manuring after turnips, and £4
after wheat. Again, the amount spent in cultivation and kboiw
might in many instances be reduced from iOs, to 20s., and even
£2 per acre without seriously impairing the result.
The average cost for tlie production of an acre of oats nfiflasds
up of £1 14s. 2<f. for rent, rates, and taxes, 12<., 9<f. for se^, 16s,
6d. for manure, 31s. 2d. for cultivation b.if jiaud or steam power,
including hoi-vesting, 14s. Oif. for labour, inoladiug thrashing and
marketing, and 4*. 3d. forsun&ries—giving a total irf £5 13s. 6c/.
With regard to the table for oats, much the same may be said
as to tho extra expenditure incurred in raising the crop as in the
caso of barley.
Gbain Expobt from Nbw Yoek.—T hegi'ain export from New
York during the year 1882, the returns of which have been pub¬
lished, present some remarkable features. The steady deoliuu
of Hhipment by sailing vessels in the last few years is mast
noticeable. In 1880 the-exports by sail were 63,376,000 bushels,
by steam 49,996,000 bushels. In 1881 the export by sail were
19,007,000 bushels, by steam 68,662,000 bushels. In 1881 the
Amoricaii wheat and corn crops were both short, and as a conse¬
quence, the exports of 1882 were thereby materially afi'ected.
The wale shipments for that year were 6,284,289 bushels, whils
those by steam were 39,878,449 bushels. After making dun
allowance for tho shortage of 1881 in ito eflfeote on the exports
of 1882, the conclusion is evident that steam will expel the
sailing vessels from the grain trade. Another important fact to
he noted is, that not a sitigle bushel of grain was shipped to
Europe from New York during the year 1882 in a vessel under
tho Americmi flag. Out of a total of 46,162,738 bushels,
26,691,840 were shiiqied in English vessels iu 1882.
TiiR ux])ort.s of wheat, .and wheat iu flour, from all Americ.aii
port,» to foreign countries, from Sept. 1 , 1882, to March 31, 1883,
inchisive, being the first seven months of the export year of
1882-83 (crop year), aggregated 02,740,000 bushels, an nvonige
of 13,248,571 liu.shels per mouth. The .wnie ratio for the re¬
maining live months ending Aug. 31 would give au average for
the year of 168,982,862, bushels. It Ls more than likely, how¬
ever, that the exports will average much higher during the last
five uiuntlis of the year, as such is usually the case, especially
iu ycai's when, lus is now the case, the estimates place the grow¬
ing crops of Europe as likely'to fall below the usual average, as
millers and dealers there take the timely (irecautioii to secure
good supplies in advance.
I’uoi-B3.soB W. A, Henri", of the University of WiBCOusiujlia.s
made the following report ou a sample of sorghum sugar
submitted to him ;—
The sample was mamifactured from amber-cane growu 011
the expurimeiitid fanuiii 1882. The data of the largest plat of
cane made into sugar tin's year, is as follows ;—
Area of plat
Weight of stripped cane
l\>r cent of catie sugar in juice
Per cent of glucose in juice
Amount of sugar sejiarated :
3 3-6 .acres.
70^262 pounds.
9'89
3-96
First crystallization
Second crystallization
2116-^ pomids.
830 iT,
ToUil amount of sugar ... 2,8464 pounds.
Syrup drained from tho sugar, .116 gallons.
.S<'od obtained, 76 bushsls of 61 ponnda-each.
The cost of maiuifacturiug the unrefined siigoi' Was, for all
expenses, iuoludiug the cost of the caue, excepting the pay
of the chemist in charge, 44 cents i«r pound. The value of the
cane seed is not taken into account in the above estimate.
As the means of refining were very imperfect, the samples
sent out vary greatly iu color ; some are nearly equal to light
“ ITsllew C ” in color, and appeannoe, while a»st are brow« iu
Jane 1, 1883.
fitt INDIAN AGRIOtrLTURIST.
207
color being but little auperior to the unrefined as first manufac¬
tured.
Detaile of the experiments will appear in the Second Annual
Eeport on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders, now in the
hands of the State printer.
W. A. Heset, Professor of Agj-iculture.
Magnus Swkn.son, Chemist.
.University of Wisoonsiu,
fiiaddison, Wis., Mar. 17, 1883.
Thk Farallone Islands, s.ays nn American coutemijorai'}’, are
about thirty miles from the mouth of San Francisco Bay, and
they are the home of innumerable sea-fowls. Wlien Sau Fran¬
cisco first began to be a city its constant cry was for eggs. To
supidy the lack of eggs the project of stealing those of the gulls
and the muhi’s of the Farallone Islands was imdertakeii, and it
proved successful, and has ever since proved successful aud been
maintained. The birds are too plenty to count or to estimate,
as may be inferred from the fact that the egg gatherers bring
in often, or used to gather 500 dozen in n Jay ; aud a groat
many of the nests are inaccessible, a great mauy othoi-s de¬
vastated by the rivalry of the hird.s themselves, aud, of course,
a large part of the birds at oue time aru not laying, The egg
season is from May to August, and if even 400 dozen is the
rule, the harvest would be pretty near 500,000 eggs. The qu.ar-
relling between the gulls and muhrs leads to the loss of a good
many muhrs’ eggs, which the gulls at every chance destroy.
The egg business is conducted by a company which has the
right. It pays egg gatherers five cents a dozen, aud sells them
in Sail Francisco at a considerable advance.
The annual report of beef aud pork packing in Chicago
shows the number of cattle slaughtered, for the year ending
with February 1883, to have been 774,528 he.id, of which
351,003 were taken by city buLchei's and packers, and 420,.52H
for shipment to Eastern aud European markets as dressed beef.
It was only in 1874 that the fii-st experiment wa.s made of ship¬
ping fresli beef to the soa-boanl in refrigerator cars, and the suc¬
cess that h.aa attended tlie efibrt is shown by the above, but
rapid .as has been its growth, it is Irelieved safe to say tliat it
will show oven faster strides in the future, as the iiiosl e.xteii-
sive preparations are being made for its exjian.siou. The firm of
Armour and Company have recently contracted for the ooustruc-
tiou of over $000,000 w'orth of refrigator cars, to be used ex¬
pressly for their business, and the time is not distant when very
few live cattle will be sent East for beef.
On the subject of English wheat imports the SurtU British
Ayricuhw'ist says ;—Statistics relating to our wheat imports
for last year show that no fewer than 1,180,578
quarters came from the United States. Kussia, which used to
occupy the first place as regards our foreign supply, came next
with 3,233,238 quartern. In the former case there teas a great
increase in the imports over previous years,aud in the case of
Bussia a considerable reduction. India last year sent us an im¬
port of 1,^78,078 quarters ; Germany, 719,681 quarters ; Cana¬
da, 626,460 ; Australasia, 677,630 ; Chili, 386,484 ; Turkey,
122,836 ; Eouniauia, 45,404 ; Egypt, 40,801; Firuice, 1,721 ; and
from various other countries there came a total of 46,404
quarters. The entire aggregate of the wheat imports, includ¬
ing flour reckoned as wheat, was 19,044,219 quar'ters of 480 lb.
each. For the year 1881 the importation was only 16,860,084
quarters. The value of the combined flour and wheat imiiorts
for 1882 was .£44,869,032, as compared witli X40,672,G11 for
1881. The arrivals of wheat from Eussia at the port of Lon-
dODj in 1882 were larger than those from any other country,
rtiS^iiig 824,603 quarters. India occupied the second po.sition
at this port, and tftWJnited States the third, mauy of the car¬
goes from the latter country going, of course, to Liveri)uol aud
the northern ports. The large suiqilies which uuox|)CL'tcdIy ar¬
rived from Eussia aud India had the effect of kee|)ing down
the prices, and of forcing the hands of the holders of grain in
the United States,
PaoPE.W)n Wai.i.ac'e, of Oirenoester CoHepe, in a U'Uer on
the making of silos wrys ;—Silos are usually holes sunk in llie
ground, lined with a concrete bottom, 6 inches to 1 foot thick,
and wall 18 inches and 2 feet thick, of concrete <ir of Iji'ick or
stone faced with cement, nunle perfectly air and w.arer-tight,
and well drained nudcrneatli. They .are .altogether sunk m
half sunk. In the l.iMer c.i.sc the earth from the inside is pack¬
ed up against the ont.-siilc of the walls. The entrance is ;t door
at one end from which is ,a ro,ad slanting up to the surface, A
coiTUgated iron root (which runs on wheels and iron rails, and
can be lifted off at will in division,s of 10 feet) is jiul. on the
walls, which are 1,5 to 20 feel high ; oi posts m.ay be plaocsl on
the walls and the roof slated in the manner of an open Imy
shed. The silo may be any length, ae.cordiug to rciiuirtnients,
but sbould be at least 18 feet wide inside, so that it can be used
as a byre, Ac., when not full. Tn this case the shed above
would liave to be lineil round wu'tii ln>ards. The walls must bo
peri)Biidioiilar, .and smooth inside. Althmigh often ni.adn with
square comers, these .are better rounded, making the interior
slightly oval. This admits of firmer packing at the oiid.s.
There is no advantage g.ained by sinking Ibe silo umlergruund,
except that thinner walls serve when supported by earth outside,
and .also grass ettn be tipped over the walls from cart.s in filling.
The disadvajitages are—the steep incline rmt. and the cost of
excavating. Old b,arns have been used snccessfiilly with the
walls strengthened and the floor relaid.
The leas fermentation l.hat goes on, the less loss there will be
and less heat. The way to secure this is to exclude air which
contains oxygen, as fermPiibation c.annot bp spt u]) uidea.s oxy¬
gen Ixt itresent. It is for tlii.s pnrjjose tlmt the heavy weights
and earth or bran are put on ensilage. As much ah- as po.ssible
is pressed out, aud as soon as tlic little which must rein.ain, how¬
ever much grass be jiressed, is p.xhausted, tin- action .stops, and
no further change tokes plae--; the temiierature remaining about
60 degs. Fahr. until it i» remnvetl fnv feeding. Then on ex-
po.surp to the air it again heats and sme!l.s more strongly of
alcohol. The sugar Vjroken up into alcohol and carbonic acid is
more than the actual emouiit of loss of v.iliiable digestible sub¬
stance, .as part is made uji for by so mneb of the insoluble and
indigestible woody-tihro becoming digestible, ainl so preventing
it from forming a woody ease round some of the already soluble
substances, which might flias be carried away and not .assimi-
fited by the animal. I'lius subsUincos containing much indi-
festiblc matter are best for ensilage. The groat thing in
storing ensilage is to get Uiu process of fermeiit.ation stojqiod
as wo have alnanly desciilieil, not only to pre.servc substanee,
but also to iirevont other fermentations taking plue,e wbie.li
would injure the quality. It air is not proi>ei ly shut out,
acetic acid fernieiitalioii sets up (r/;., vinegar i.s formed), and
the mass has a .sour stasle, which, however, is not disitgroofiblc
t not too much developed. The dithculty is, it does not rest
there, but butyric fermentation and putrefaction follow, giving
bad taste and smell. These latter are more easily developed
wdien the grafw has been too ripe aud v ithered at the roots,
The next stage would be moulding .a.s the substance co<Dled
.and dried. This does take place in a few inches on the top
aud at the corners or sides if the silo was not properly packed
ill filling. It will now be seen how necessary it is to have the
walls perfectly air anil water-tight.
'* In the year 1842, says a writer in the Farm and
Garden, I was an overseoi- on a Eoyal Prussian demesne
11 the Province of Pomerania, tlieii held in rental b) oiio
Emile BIclilke, a geutlemaa of great exirerieucc in all brunch¬
es of agriculture. There I first saw a silo. It was a circular
cistern, built by a master oooper out of pine pUiiika 2^ inches
thick, and put together like the fermentation vats of breweries
aud distilleries. Dimeu-sioiis ; depth, 30 feet; diameter, 20 feet,
the whole sunk into a hill. This silo was used exclusively for
potato \iiies. Those were brought from the fields ,'i.- bdoii as the
top leaves began to .show jioints ; were thrown into the silo un¬
cut, mid in layers about six indies thick, wlicro over about :v«
much common salt wa-s spread as is used in uialuuj- siiiir-kraut
out of cabbage, in proportion to the vegetable to be cured.
When the silo was full, the lid, consisting of eight sections, fit-.^
tjng into the silo parallel to each other,[and made of strong plank,
203
THE INDIAN AeRIOULTURIST.
June 1, 1883.
was put ujioii the stuff to he. cured. Upon this lid two timbers
4x8 inches think, and long enough to reach across, were jilnced
upon the same parallel to each other, and each about four feet
distant from the centre Over the centre of the.se two timbers
WR.S laid a be.uii 8x12 inches thick, and a very strong lever
jji'ess WHS imuie to bear down on the centre of this beam, great¬
ly and ceascleesiy c<)in))res,siug the moss to be cured. In about
liner vj'ecks the mass w.as considered ready for use. The press
.and one aecLiou <at a Unic of the lid was leinoved, the now sour
and nearly homogeneous mass was cut out with sharp spades of
the kind tised by jieople who .uc in the niarshea of Ireland tind
the European (jontinent, digging and curing turf (peat) for fuel.
Theu the stuff, cut in a machine and mixed with chopped rye,
wheat, oats, or barley straw', was during the winter fed to milch
cow.s, ewes suckling their lambs, and fattening cattle and sheep,
with the effect of good, green ))a8tnre.
At the time when T saw lhi.s done, 1 .ascertained tliat not
only in ronierania, but nearly all over Prussia, the tiling was
fast coning en i-ogue. As there w.as at the time, and, for all I
know, is yet, an enormous quantity of potatoes raised in the
localities mentioned (have seen potato fields of 500 acres in one
lot, and belonging to one knight’s danesne, ns they call them),
wliich were manufactured into alcohol, and as the vines thereof
had formerly been, ns at present in this country, entirely wasted,
the silos proved to be the means of great saving.
The Superintendent, Botanical Gardens, Salmmiipove, has
furnished the following information on the subject of the
cultivation of the mulberry tree to the Agricultural Depart¬
ment :—
Varietiet of Mulherri/ under oultimlion at fiaharunpore ,—
At present, of the several varieties growing in this garden, the
following are the most suitable for affording silkworm food
in this part of India, viz., M. tmdth-mdu, M. chinenm, and a
variety with large leaves received from Lahore. I still consider
th* iV. muliicaidis to be the most nseful, ns it comes into leaf
earlier and is move easily propagated than rhiMmie. .1/.
chinemit, however, has no donbt a bettei' (pialily of leaf and
very possibly the variety receive.d from Lahore will also be
found to be somewh.at superior in this resjiect to M. midil&iafie.
I hope this season to be able to test these and similar
questions. It is w'oll known that the varietie.H of mulberry do
not thrive equally well iu all localities ; the results therefore
which obtain at .Saharunpore must not be oonsidered iiuco8.sarily
as applying to a country like Burmah, for iusUnce, wliere the
climate is so different ; the quality of the leaf also is liable to
alter in different climates.
Cultivation. —Pro])agatiou by cuttings has been found to be
by far' the best and most convenient method for the cultivalion
of tlie mnllwrry ; seedliugs also iwoduce good plants, but tlicy
take longer to develoj). Seed, liowever, is useful for de.spatch
to a distance by diminishing the cost of carriage, ami the liabil¬
ity to injury, such as cuttings might be exposed to ea route
through a trying climate. The mulberry is a deciduouB-leaved
tree, losing its loaves for a few weeks during the depth of
winter. At this time the cuttings should be made. The fol¬
lowing instniotioiis are liere given for their treatment, which
is very simple ;—
Select a plot with sandy soil ; if the latter Ls not to be bad,
select it where it is loose and open. Trench it to a dejitli of ] 8
inches, ajid after levelling lay it out iu nui-series 12 feet broad,
and any length that can be conveniently irrigated. Insert the
cuttings to half their length in the ground, and in lines 18 inches
apart and 9 inches between each cutting. If the ground
cannot be imgated, the distance between the lines may be ifi-
duced to 12 inches, and between each cutting 6 inches. This
will reduce the size of the plot, and also the <iuautity of
water required. It irrigation is available, one watering i>er
week will be sufficient during the hot weather. If it is not avail¬
able one man ought to be able to hand-water them, if water
is obtainable within 400 yards. No shade or manure i.s
necessary for the cutting bed-s. If thej” are regularly watered
all through the hot weather, they will be ready for planting
•at by the middle of July ue<t, When planting out in the
places where they axe intended to be grown, old manure of any
kind will be very beneficial,
Cuttiugg can also be made and planted at other times of the
year when the trees ore In loaf, but if water is available during
the hot season (and not much need be necessary considering
how closely they may be planted in the nursery), this plan
cannot .be recommended, Begarding the planting out of the
cuttings I find the following remarks by Dr. Roxburgh, in a
letter of which extracts ai-e quoted by Mr. Geoghegan ip hLs
work on Sil^- tn India, page 7 :—
“ I doubt if standard trees would yield so many or such good
leaves as iu the cut state iu which the nativiaj keep their planta¬
tions. I rather think not, and believe no better method can he
thought of than what is in general practice, if liberally conduct¬
ed. A little more space to the plants is the only improvement
I can suggest. A more abundant supply of light and air to the
leaves would, I think, render them better food. However,
thi.s is only my own idea, and may not stand the test of experi¬
ment.”
The continual renewing of the plants every three or four years
is likely to ju'ove n very much better plan than that of allowing
them to grow into trees, for in the first place the foliage of
young trees is more luxuriant and juicy, and by being kept
dwarf ill the furin of a shrub, the leaves can be collected with
greater e.cse and with less injury to the jilant. I believe that
this treatment would be certain to succeed both with the
Lahore v.ariety and M. imdticaulis, which latter, as its name
implies, has a natural tendency to assume a bushlike character
by the production of numerous leafy stems at difiereiit heights
from the base.
At a recent meeting nf the committee appointed by the
Minister of Agrieiilturo to report upon the ooridition of the
French vineyards, M, Tisseraud, the Director of Agricul¬
ture, it appears, gave some very interesting inforrantiou
as to the ranges of the phylloxera tip to the present
time. It would appear tliat nearly 2,000,000 aore.s of
vines have been destniyed, and that 1,500,000 acres more have
been attacked, mid are more or less affected in their yield.
About 50,000 acres have within the last year or two been re¬
planted, mid tlie young vines dosed with sulphate of carbon,
while ,"10,000 acres newly-planted have Iieen protected by su}>
niei-sion ; 40,000 acres more have been plauteil wiili American
vines, but though there has within the last year or so been a
slight iiicrensG in the area of newly-planted vineyards, the toUl
is very trifiiiig compared with wliat has been destroyed. M.
Tisser.'iud meiitious, however, as an encouraging circumstance,
that viiiegrowers are forming iliaiiy associations for tlie jnirpose
of conducting experiments as to the beat mode of combating the
]ihylloxei'a ; that lliese as.sociatioii3 now have 12,338 members,
and that they received last yenr subsidies amounting to i‘43,000
from the Ooveriiineut. The committee has decided that no
remedy has yet been discovered entitling the inventor to the
jireniinm of £12,000 offered by the Government some yeare
ago, but recommends the use of sulplio-carbonatos and the sub-
iiiei-aiou of the vines as palliatives of the disease. Tlie culti-
v'atiou of the American vine is authorised in twenty-three ar-
roudisseiiieiits, and it wiva mentioned incidentally In the course
of the pieeting that seventeen fresh districts wore invaded last
I year. Tlie committee has prepared a Bill which will be intro¬
duced into the Chambers this session, for guarding against the
iiivaHioii of the Algerian vines by the dreaded insect.
The Ceylon Obeer-ver remarks Of the value of farmyard
manure, especially if composed of the droppings of animals fed on
liighly nitrogenous substances and well protected from the
weather, there never was any doubt, we suppose, amongst either
merely practical or scientific farmers. The Rothamstead experi¬
ments of Sir J. B. Lawes, indeed, resulted iu proving that thr
beneficial effects of a liberal application of^od farmyard dung
could be traced iqi to a period of nearly a quarter of a century
after the date of application. So muck has farmyard manure
been valued iu English farming tliat the reserve of a portion
of each farm for grazing purposes and the growth of hay has a
recognized practice iu orthodox agriculture as well as tho
;taii6 1 , 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST,
209
cultivation of turnip# and other root#. The feeding and the sale
of stock, in truth, i-eoeived in many oases as much attention ns
the growth of corn crops ; for in a meat-eating counti'y like
England, and so long as cattle-disease was absent, the feeding
and sale of surplus stock paid well. So much importance,
was attached to farmyard manure by proprietoi's of
land, that it was, and we suppose is, an almost invariable
condition in leases to tenants, that all straw is to bo eaten or
used on the farm : none sold away from it. Farmers suffered
specially when epizootic# apjieared; and the chronic objection
to farmyard manure was its enormous bulk and the propor¬
tionate cost of application. Here, in Ceylon, all the difficulties
were aggravated. The mere growth of guinea or swamp grass
was very expensive; oil-cako and imported gram, paddy aud
cotton seed were still more costly ; cattle were sjwcially liable
to disease, and even for fattened cattle and pigs the market
WHS neither steady nor remunerative. In 1879, therefore, when,
with a great flourish of trumpets, Mr. Crookes, F.E.S., intro¬
duced to English readers the plausible and seductive work of
the Frenchman, M. Georges Ville, we, amongst tens of thousands
of others, were taken captive by statements which ni)peared to
be the legitimate outcome of carefully conducted experiments.
It seemed beyond doubt, for instance, that certain plauts derived
most of their nitogen directly from the air. But Sir .T. B. Lawes,
who has unsparingly unmasked the sophistries of one who
is now declared to be neither a practical farmer nor a scientific
man, has shown that M, Ville’s conclnsions were arrived at by
taking into account only the nitrogen in the manure .applied
to the soil with reference to a partiinilar crop, while the nitrogen
in the arable soil itself, from 10,000 hi 12,000 lbs. per acre, was
entirely ignored ! This is but a specimen of the fallacies which,
according to a notice in the Field of Sir ,T. B. Lawes' articles in
the Agricultural Cfacetie, pervade the whole book, aud readers
who have seen our elaborate review of M. Villc's work, with a
summary of bis conclusions in favour of artificial manures rersas
p.'iaturage roaervuig and stock feeding for farmyard dnug. will
correct their impressions uccordingly. The sober t'iew of the
matter i.s that foi’mers in Europe should continue to use fai'm-
yard inamiro and good artificial manures as well, taking special
care that the farm manure is rich iii fertilizing matter as the
result of the food supplied to the cattle, aud that it is reduced
to as portable a form as possible. For us, in Ceylon, the discus¬
sion is not of much practical importance, at present. When
planters are able again to resort to manuring, most of them
will only be able to add pulp an?l jiruiungs and ravine stuff to
good artificial manures. In ,a few cases the keeping of cattle
may pay even now, there being a near market for suiplus stock,
and the day may come when stook-keepingand mnimring estates
with cattle-dung (the best arid most lasting manure of all)
will pay.
Mr. T. JAMissotf, Fordyce Lecturer on Agricultme, dolievered
the third of the special lectures ou the “Laud (,Question” in the law
clais-roocn of Marisohal College, Abcrcleou, the particular sub¬
ject of lecture being Analyses of Manures, and guidance in jndg
ing them. The object of analyses, he said, was to provide ac
curate information of a certain kind. .Strict accuracy w.as the
first essential of chemical analysis, and simplicity of expression
might be said to be the first aud greatest virtue. This accu¬
racy was not, he went ou to say, always attained ; aud
when analysis by different chemists brought out various results,
it might be supposed to be the result of error arising from caro-
lessneas or from incapacity on the part of the analyst. That
supposition, no doubt, was con’cct ; but he feared neither farmei-s
nor manure merchants were sufficiently careful in the selection
/ jf the samples, forgetting that in analysis only minute (piaiitl-
ties could be ust^ and therefore a small variation between one
part and anotherTliight mean a great variation when multi¬
plied by 100, as had to be done in order to express percentage
quantities. Sometimes, again, one chemist would reject stone
in the sample, aud include too many elements of bone ; while
another would reject lumjis of bone because it would take too
mucli trouble to file them down, both pevforinances with the
view of increasing future fees by giving his client good ana¬
lyses. It was humiliating as detracting from Iho supimsed digni-
niary temptation was only too common. Mr. Jamieson then
proceeded to show the inacurracy of the general method of
analysis, known as the high an.alysis, whioh iu regard to phos¬
phates brought out results from 1 to 3 per cent too high in
pjhosphates of lime. ICe then, went on to give some details of
the essential vliavacteristics of analysis, in order to enable
farmers to make a C(>mj)arisou of manures in a much safer way
than trusting to a few laudatory woials that had another inten¬
tion than that of simply giving a knowledge of manure. In il¬
lustration of this he gave particulars of an anjilysis of a
sample of maimi-e sent by a manure merchant, accompanied by
the analysis of other si.v Ghemist.s, With the sample a request
was made that a laudatory notice should be given of tho sub¬
stance. The manure wa.s in a floury state, so that tho mas# wae
quite uniform iu texture. He refused to give any laudatory ex¬
pressions along with the analysis, and ho stated a# tlio result of his
examination that the analysi.s of phosphates by the six chemists
was too high—and that from 1 to 3 per cent of phosphate was
a modest expression of the extent of the inaconnacy. He then
proceeded to show that accurate methods were quite well known
though they bad not been generally adopted in this matter, and
stated that ho had incurred considerable odium in con#e-
quenoo of his advocacy of a method which, though bringing
onl lower results, was really the moat satisfactory. He said that
iu a very large number of c.ases, manure analyses having got
into something like a trade, the amount of phosphates wa# really
too high. Next, he proceeded to aay th.at tho kind of phos¬
phates that manure was representeil to contain, and the farmers
uudoi-stood they were supplied with, woiv, phosphates of lime.
No other phosphates sold as ninnun; were of any use, but he
pointed out that there wivi few phosphates jiundiased but
what contained at least traces of thc.se useless substances. The
more jiresenoo uf those jihosphateM was not very objecl.ionable,
but wh.at he objected to was tlnit these useless phosphates
were spoken of and iiicliide.l as phosphate of lime, Snbse-
(luently, Mr. Jamieson referred to the lulsrepregeutation a.s to
the quantity of soluble iihosph.ite contained iu niaimrc, and
spoke in favour of tho subuitution of tho term phos|dioriis instead
of pliosiihatu, iu order thal. there might Ik‘ no vagiicn.sss
as to tho ingi'edionts of the matiuro. Anothei’ reason foi
adopting the expression of phosphorus was what might be
called tho happy accident iu the easy calculation that en¬
abled them to leap from lowest expre-s.siou of pho.sphorn.s up to
the the highest expression of phosphate of limn, which was
arrived at merely hy multiplication by 5. He then referred to
nitrogen and jiotassinm, and .asked why they should speak of
ammonia when tho plant, did not need ammonia, but only its
nitrogen. Ammonia had become a familiar 6xpre.s8ion, and it
formed a temptation to the manure merchant, to represent am¬
monia, becansod it enabled him to put the quantity by a changed
figure, the difiVrence represented lieing that of Id to 17.
Anotlier niisle.adiiig exiiression wa.s tlmt of using the word pot
assium for potas.s. Afterward-s he urged upon the farmers to
assist ill tho adoption of a uniform system of plainly stating the
analysis of manure, for which thei'e was so much need. He
said a plain way of stating tho .analys’s was as follows ;—Useful
matter—nitrogen, pho.sphorus (a-s soluble and insoluble phos¬
phate of lime,) aud potassium ; matter of little value—lime aud
magnesia ; probably iiijiirioiis matter—sidphuric acid ; useless
matter—oi-gaiiic substances, sand, water, and phosphorii.s,
united with iron and alumina.
The Atheiiccuiii has the following on insects visiting flowers ;
—The scientific writings of Darwin, Lubbock, aud Hermann
Muller relative to the part played by insects in their oft-recur¬
ring visits to flowei'S, have of lato years attracted much atten¬
tion. Tho subject, iu fact, has created a taste for observation,
and an incentive Im been given to watch tho frequency of visits
of v.arions species to certain flowers and espooially the insects’
choice of colour of flowers. While the mere regi.stering of
vi.sils may seam comparatively simple, tho reason why insects
show a preference to alight iifion flowers of a certain colour, or
on certain sfiecies of plants, is a luiii'h more coiiiplic.ated problem
than at first sight it wouhl ajipoar. Sir John Lubbock has
shown by experiment that blue is the bee’s favourite colour ;
H. Muller avei-s that in the Alps bees are attracted to the
210 THE INDIAN ^AGRICULTURIST. Jane 1,1833.
yellnw raihcr ttau tiu-while ihnvei’S. Howev-ei' this my he,
oi'i’laiii i) i,, Uuii a rnni U l.ugcr jiuiuber uf obsiirv-atimir< are yet
iii'iniuil cri' a jiositivi- uencral law cau be deduee<l. Two paper
read .it the luoulhr,' ot tin- Liniicaii Society (March lHt)~
um-by M'- A., W Ihimeti, “On the (Joiist.'uicy of Inneote iu J
their \ hii." i.u i'diM.'-'i-.,' aud tiiy uttier jMr, it. Al. idifrinty,
“ Uij tile rli'tiiodi" ili(i)i(h of luiccts when v-iMiliii^f r’luwei'a”—
elihV- 'Jiai t etrici watt'h and W'ard it. being ke)>t on the luove-
jjshi'i.- hi' tile buay bee auJ iLa kindred. Air. Jteimett statiw
Oi.ii iHitieidieH allow hut little uoirshincy iii their vinits, citing a
few UiKtaiKMS oiJy to the cnntr.try ; hut according to him. to a
cerhuu extent, they Hceni to have ,a choice in colour. The Dip-
tern exhibits greater constancy, thougli by no means abaolutu
The Apidaj, especially the hive-ljec, manifest still greater con¬
stancy. From these data ho iufer.s that the r.atio of increase is
in proportion to the part jierformod h}' the insccU in thoii'
carrying pollen from dower to flower. As respect preference
of p,articiilaiv colours, in a series of observations Mr. Bennett
has noted among the Lepidopteva that 70 visits ■n'ero made to
red or pink flowers, 5 to blue, 15 to yellow, and 25 to white ;
the Jliptera paid *J visits to red or pink, S to yellow, and 20 to
white ; Hymenoptera alighted .‘103 times on red and pink
flowers, 120 on blue, 11 on yellow, and 17 on white flowers.
Mr. Christy records in detail the movement of 70 insects, chiefly
bees, whan engaged in visiting 2,400 flowers. lie tabulates the
same, and concludes therefrom that insects, notabl)’' the bees, |
decidedly ami with intent confine their successive visits to the
same sjieciea of flower. According to him also, butterflies gene¬
rally wander aimlessly in tlndr flight, yet sumo sjiecies, inclu¬
ding the fritillunes, are faiily methodical in h.ibit. lie believes
that it is not by colour ahme insects are guided from one flow'er
to another of the same species ; and lie suggests that the sense
of smell may be brought into play. Bees, he avers, have but.
j)oor sight for long distaune.s, but see well at short distances
Of f)5 bumble-bees watebed, 20 viaiteii blue flowers—12 were
methodical ill tlieir visits,!) nearly NO. and 5 not ; 13 visiteii ,
white flowers, whereof 6 were mctliodiial, and M the reverse ;
II visited yellow flowers, of which 5 were methodical and 0 not ;
28 visited red flowers, 7 appearing methodical, 0 nearly fio,
while 12 were the eonlrary.
This fact, aaysthe T/iomw/hhnd that there are .
so many inferior horses in the eouiitiy' i.-, not to be wondered at •
when the judgment of the imijorily of bleeders i.s ciinsKlel'i'd
More than half the horses that are [iroduced are lin’d by men I
who h,avo but little idea wliat the l esult will be of coupling then
mares w'ith the homes which they patronize. They do not
breed to improve the. ela.ss of horsc.s in the country, but merely
to add ajioLher to tliy li.st. They do not .seem to realize the fact
that 810 added to the ])rice of .sorviee of a horse wiH ui a few 1
years add more than ten times that amount to the. value of
tho coll.
The following note on divi-divi appears in a Ceylon con¬
temporary as from the pen of an “e.xpoiieiieod planter in
India” ;—
“ I am in x'oeeipt of your lettoi' regarding tho cnltivatimi of
' divi-divi.’ There are so many aji])lie,atl()ns for the seed of this
tree, and each application reiiuiring full instructions as to the
]>roi>tjr method of its cultivation, I find it ditticuH to keep
jiaco with tho demand, and us it has lieen so strongly
recommoniled by tho Oovernor-treueral of India, 1 think the
least tho (loverumeiit could have doiio would have been to pub¬
lish a jramphlet explanatory of tlie modes to bo adopted.
“ TfiK beyinrJiiD is of tin; utmost importanee, .ae with a false
start the ending will be sure to be disastrous, and t feel very sure
fiom mformalion I have received tliiit many of the speculators
in this eiiterpriz" will look on their Hjieoulatioiis with dismay.
The first thing to be very cautious about is the selection of the
seeds, which should comt; from mature trees, und nuiture trees
alone. I he seeds which 1 liac c used have been taken from trees
niiwards of twenty-five yews of and upwards of thirty feet
in height, the result being that the young trees in the planta¬
tion from six to seven years of age show thsmaslres in suoh
fine condition and’ have given such bulhper crojui for the
years 1882-83.
“ Now about tlie preservation of these delicate seeds ; tliey
must on no account be exposed to the atmosphere until the
ninseriiw are ready to receive them. Kept in hermetically
.scaled pods they are perfectly safe, but in sending theax up,
country to save extra charge for carriage, I send thorn in cle.au
dry iKittlcs well coikod atid well dammered to protect them
from the atmosphore. Ixi sowing them in the nursery^ittlo
holes Tiot more than one quarter of an inch deep and seven Inches
apart have been universally followed by me. They are not
•sown deeper than a ijuarter of an inch, as the sun would not
have the necessary power to force their germination, and ux point
of fact, when I have found some of the seeds fail I have had
thfiiii dug up halt-inch and three-quarters of an ino.h deep, and
have usually found that they had germinated at that depth, but
had been smotlierod by the extra moisture, and the little seed¬
lings, w’hich are of so delicate a chai'acter, could not penetrate
the extxva soil above them. The reason for setting them seven
inches apart is that when rc.viy for traxisplantation they can bs
cut out with a ball of loam without iujui'y to the taproots, which
will bo ill about six months after sowing, when they will be
from two to tlii-ee feet in height,
“ The plan adopted by me in plaxiting out was to have pits
dug three feet squiire and at least two feet deep and twenty-
two feet apart ; the pits wore then filled in with a little manui’e
and sand mixed with tho loam. Channels are then cut from
pit to pit, so that water discharged at the higher level would, os
a natural ciromustauce, run down to the lower. This watering
process I have found to bo necessary during two or three of
the hottest months in th^ year. Plants under unusually fa¬
vourable circumstances have given small crops in the second
year ; they nearly all blossom after the thinl year. Tho pro¬
duce, however, would not bo suitable for prop<agatioa, but some¬
what suitable in the. industries, dyeing, tanuiiig and making ink.
“ All iiuiu'iiof tile surd, if properly attended to at tho begiii-
iiiug, should j icld on an average 1,250 Beudlings : at least, that
lia.s boon my average. For the first two years a little attention
should be given in cutting away the tiidc or spring bi'.aurhi;.s ; in
the third rnr tho lower brauohe.s, especially the weak ones,
•should be pruned away, mid tliejiliut made to assume as much
Uir appuar.'uieu of a t.ree as possible. In some instances, this has
nul been accomplisliud under four years.
“ On the '.abject of proserviiig them from tho .atmosphere
until read.i to Ir' s"Wo, there is a very curious fact xvhich I have
omitted L.i lUeiitroii. In each seed there is the spawn of a
maggot which iicgius exidoratioiis after 3(1 Iiouiis’ e.X]iosure to
the air. In throe days tho maggot will b« I’ouml to emurge
at tho apex of the seed totally dostroj'ing the germ which
runtains a good ileal of saocharine matter, and hence it is useless
lalsnu' to sow such seeds, although I hear it is commonly done
lliroiighout Soiitherii India. A native young gentleman who
has been working with me as accountant and auditor for the
last 1.5 mouths has taken grc,at interest in tho cultivation of
the divi-divi, and, if suflicieiit inducement offers, he says he
is willing to proceed to (leyloii and superintend as ixxatiy planta*
lions as may be within an easy distance.
“ 111 no case mu.sL the bottle bo openetl until the nursery
is ready to receive the seeds, as I have known the borer to
•MLart when .seeds have been exposed barely one hour.
“ I may mention that ‘ divi-divi’ will not thrive at a higher
altitude than 2,000 feet.”
The following Notices have bcoii issued by tho Government of
India, regarding a trial of fibre mnehinery and a collection
of agricultural inacUiuery, iu coiiuoctiou with tho Calcutta Inter¬
national Kxliibitlou
It is intended to allow experimental trials in ^2 extraction of
fibres of all kinds to be made at Calcutta during the the ensuing
luiiiB, in connection with the luteruational Exhibition to bo opened
next Ueoonibev.
2 . Steins aud other fibrous portions of the fibre-bearing plant#
or trees, and, as far as possible, motive power, will be provided by
Government for the use of intending exhibitors.
Juno 1> 1883,
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
211
3 . Mochmoa oJ applianOM rilould arrive iu Calcfitt'i about tho
15 th July or 1st August at latest.
4 . Persoua desiring to perform experimental trials should have
tbair names registered at the Office of the Jlcvenno iiud Agricultural
Department of the Government of India not later than tho 30th
and should state on what fibrous plauta they wish to
cxpei^r&ent, and to what extent, In order that arrangements may
he made for providing sufficleut quantitioft of material to be operat¬
ed on.
5. A list of plants suggested for trial is appended.
b*. These experimental trials will bo open to tho public, and are
iikoly to afford a favourable opportunity for inventors vrho may
wish to make known their imfcchines or processes, or to take out
^tents.
7 , Any Inquiries or oommunloations relation to tile contemplat¬
ed trials should be addressed to the Exhibition Branch, Kevonuo
and Agricultural Department, Ooverumentof India.
Dt*'<ignation of Im-
piemont. 1
‘Kpoci.d ftdvimtaLniw
I or insti^ictiont. '
plough ... .i'or pb.tn ii i h ;• J’ho'ij.'n-'H-i :tud of-j
i hr.avy ^oiI-5 (c-pc { woik iii}
i cmlil ftO-C2fc I I i' dj ntJOliu I
I black ■'otfdii M’l'.-i )j
iCiLi-Mir plough'* ’F*'r ploci.;ldii;.; ]4(ht-j
licht scjJ,;. i no-v^, jm<l Kiiuph-i-j
! f y »»1 .'<‘UKtrncti<'ii|
I (WoliriiT. 18 BviiT}' ,[
! oa tiu
builucUn, b'iHcors.)
I *
Winnowor'*^ I /rbroe inun worlciiig
tcflh OHO of tho'io!
! wina'i’ivor h c « Uj
ch'.'Ui 40|
tuituiidn of \\hcal
til .1 -l.i; t'f
Ih it
Hm. a. Ih
]5 0 * 0
d 0 0
30 0 0
APPENDIX.
Scientific Names. English jinmOf*,' Vernnculai Homarks,
1 nnmcM.
Cawnporo c h n i ii jPor rnin'np, %vatoi AToro liumj \\ 0 0
pniu}*'' ... ' foiu lil feet, :u\y luditUi w;ilcr‘«j
' I lift this thjpih, i
Biho.'i cane laill ... iKor oxtra'-tiui-’ thvjChcnpnc >s poriidn-j SO b o
! of tlic --u-.u--! bility, clh 1 1 i v < ^
' ••alio. I working.
.Atwiinosohus osculentus lOkro
1
. Dltiu'li
bonntl nl)
lufiia.
. ficuIneoiiM
Wild Okro ..
iian Dlicnras .
■Bonirai, Soul li
1
1
JufU.u
,, nioschutuM'M umU M/Jlow Musk Dauit
nitt.i.
1
:A1op Fibre ..
IMhI Kaiubaf .
' DiUo.
AK’ftve Amorican.i
. Hathi-rbinnur
AW O' or Indi i,
viviprti'a
i
1
'Aii.aftas
i
\nHnA8n sutivn.
Pino-apTilti
1
SouU
fiuli'
-Uioim rctiouUtcf
‘ Nuttcii uustfUhl Nou.i
Bc-nifrtl. BurtniUf
Iki.*hmeria m'\e{i unJ
1 appio,
; heart
i
South ia'iii*.
'('uieiien
IKhaa .<
poi „f
\ ^>^11', Twai,
Bituliiiiia rnceimiRri
1 .
Baki
n NOiintiuus
, .. ..
Jiakl
}y vahlii
froutloHfi
1
Pala», DiaiU
Ah Ihilui.
MUpcJ’Ba
1 ....
i
I ••• •
Hi ''aiayari fm*.
Al.ulrtr y''r-
o\ci' fnih.i.
1
' < iim
C'anuaktH indiu.'i
iHeuip
Bh<ti43‘
'•I’ll ik’tJL'ai.
1'ai'o.Vfl arborurt
iKuinbi
r..re-.t-
UOL'US liUOlfcM . .
|CocoauuL
;Narikol
B'lj’JM.ih,
Sicuh !)h!i 1 .
Coroliiirus olitt'Hus
Pat,
Hon -ih
( rocolai III juncea
ISunii
'Man
N')ril)-\Vr-.t c I* J}
I‘io\iiiCcs jtrtd
I bciunl.
Growin olastit'ii ...
1
i
•nii.uiiiii
1
‘ 1 htiial.i ’ 'IS nfiil
Souin 1 M'ji.i f,))
[
iSiMitli India.
I'.Vatrai 1(1.i' 1
;N0l H»-U ■ 1 . ' .
1 Pr.jctht'-
HarJwickm binata
Kehotres isova
ilihicbis caunabtub
i
j
j \chii
'Muponihali
ii’atjiai'
1
Hibirfcn*'
UnuTU u«tat.i"^uiium .
!
KI'IN
■.I.iIm
\ i i
1
, .|Hciu .a
|.Vurfh ^*r i)*l e p h
< '’l ‘1 > P. t . Utt'l
Miirsfluiiin UMmci.-i-iuiia
I'hufi.iiu
'Uab.'il .1 il
Kaia
.1 • ''1 lixha.
i< -'p’.Li, {bnuinh,
1 lUJ'l Spiitb ft.diii.
SanHonera zeylanica . .
iuiy Fibre
■'i ■■ i.t
' rn.Uu-
Urtica hetaropliylJa ...
Yuoea gloriosii
{
'Nik’iri uol l !c
'V'i'->-;i bl»i-
.-'-.'Util Jiidia
! Hi
Jt ie desired that a largff collsctiou ef agiK-uI',;; ' .. . ,i . , .
suitable to this country, should be oxliibited at ths JiiutuiiUonul
Kxhibitiou, which “will be opouedal Caicuita ou the Ist Dooeuiber
next.
2. The uiauUiueiy or iuiplbmeuts for which there is likely lu he
most demand are those which cau be rvorked without steuin p.wer-
eitier by hand or by small end somewlmt weak ;utlle.
3. The implementsNl the appended list are mentioned «s illu.
tratiog the kinds required.
4. It is requested tliat any exhibitor's who may wish tlieir
machines tried should scud intimation to the Exhibitiun Branch,
Revenue and Agrioultmal Department, before tho 1st August.
Maohines to he applied to Indiair- corn, rice or auy other rain crup
must be put up in Calcutta by the 1st September next., 11 il is
desired that any experimental trul (ihould ho made with it. Olbcr
-.-n—-I? bv the 1st November,
* rriutc'l doscriptiotis in Rngit.U end Vern.''jeulnr can be furnished
on npplieni.ion tniliy I)e|i,(rtmcut of Agrioultdco and tVunnioreo, Caini-
porc.Iry whom it wss issued.
I The f;ii'-sin;litrt<l pclii'.y Ilf tho laihvny iidiniui.slr.ttioits in tho
ITtiiltul Shilns htis il n»oniK had very iiiiidh iinloed fodo with tho
iiifi'rtirto in tiro vnliio of the donie.elic (’xporls from ,'t vnlm! of 442
millions of doll,'US in 1,870-71 to 1102 millions in 1880-81, Had
the It.iilvviiy Companies i)(.'!',sis!:ud in ictaiiiinr; the rates m t’orca
in IHfjK, the [ivodnct of the vnuntry would liiive liopu no handi¬
capped in the race of comjretiuon witli tlic prodnets of other
lit'UU of Inhour l.liat Amm i< an larincrs ii. l•cn)ol<! districU wottld
h.ir e hiM u nn.i1)ii; to Old llnircrops to tlic co.'rsl, and Kiiormous
.iii'.i,s in tlic States, now iimb'r whvat, would still be waste laud.
iJiit norv, ai'cording (o an nii'i-uioii. caleui il loip the “ frcigdit
chai-ocs foi llie mocouioiil from i 'hieago to Boston, a distance of
i0,0(X) mile,-., of one yc.ii’a uiilisiHicncc of oraiii and meat for an
ailnlL workiiin man auionnt.s to but Idol, dhc,, which sum i.s
only one day's w.ii'c.s of a eoniinoii labtnircr, or half the daily
wao'.'s of a c'lui.i c.ii'pend '• oi niahou.’ Tim (iompauics have
been stinml.ilcil lie nv.ilry Lo adopt a v.iricty of economic
l■oll.■^ll■ucl 10 ) 1 .'‘ijiiipincut, ,uid iiian.'igcment, wnth tiic reanll that
(hell wmkii).; O'.fieii.'-i.'s b Ivo“ been impoi L.oitly rediieod withont
a .s.ai'rdi' c of, l.m; wilh an iuerea--' in, elliricm y If ilm Iitilian
(t.iit'Vays Were snlijceied lo the bra.ciiio .stimulus of a light, ti.,i
■ \ o'I'in ", and 'vere relieved of (lie Jireeliiiii.it miiit.ny euqinfer.s
'.'ho, .'.msiiltine .1,1,1 (Jiintrolliiig oliicer.s, are u.r tisli out of
w.ilei. weslnjid.l ,:"i'tainly see mori'sjiirit, more breadth of view,
and mort! am lefy f i aalie.ipa.te .im! meet pnblie rcqiiircruents
than is noW'111" e.isOr, e'-en il' tlic warrlor.s wliieh arc nn-
.'Uiitahly L'mp!o\.>d m iMuiieetioii 'vitli the rallwaya, were
[laid in aceord.uicc with tho linaneiai renilts of tho fines, thero
j would be le.ss vcg<‘tat,inu; on tlie hills, .and ncire good work dons
j in the plains, 'I'lie miernal e.smmeree of Hu’ United Mtates has not
I been fustere.l by !4tafc-p,!,iii oliti'er.s, milit.iry or civil ; yet il has
I ,|, vcIoped I u.i)m,m'.l', .'uiil it i- i-till liei'cloputg The Skite gives
■ 'Cl. |,•,l,onabie eneoura.cemcnt lo private enterprioe, but does
nut insiat upon taking tlic , eius into il. I Own hanth. .ft leaves
private enterprise to di.soovor for itself what is the wisest and
mewt paying policy in the l.mg run ; and it reserves to itself no
moro than a right, to fake a p Ucnial interest in tdi that gous on,
Itenee it has resulted that tho .Stste.s have become a vast grana¬
ry, -whicu gave tho following results in 1881
Pio.Ulce.
Bushels.
Yield.
Acres.
Value.
Corn
. 1,191,915,OrJ
|8
Ill,2'!.’,'12,7
759,482,170
Wheat
. 380, .'S'l 9'.l 1
10 1
;!r,7jo,o2j
453,790,427
Oats
410,-Wl,Olio
24 7
10,831,1190
193,189,970
Barley
41,101,330
20 0
1,907,510
33,802,513
Rye
20,704,950
11'6
1,7,89,100
19,327,415
. Buck'.vbent
9,480,200
11'4
828,815
8,205,705
This rc[>resouti '
yield of farm
produco valued at
about 1,470
loilioiis of dollar-', from au .area of about 129 loiUi^lU of acrosi
212
THE INDIAN ^RICULTURIST,
June 1, 1883.
It would 1 k‘ vain fo! fh.,' yr'iims of American Railwnyh io '<iiy ;
■’* Aloiio 1 did it I'ut t)iu! wiiiip genius may fairly lie credited
v/iUi bftviug I'ontriliuied t he hou'b share ill Ihe.se grnnd i esui(n.
In India, the Ifailwiiv Oi>iiiu.i is*' cribh’d, cabin’d, .ind l•r>MtIn’d’’
at every turn In the liidl hearted, the half-iuformed, the too
often siispieiouH or ICO viMi-(iiterference of the .Sute ; and we,
therofore, hail as a aleii ai the right diroetiim the reeoiit indie-
ation Ilf ft disjaintioii ,m the jiort of the Oovenimeni to give
railw.-ivs fairer )dfty flaai h.t, Iteeii their lot hitherto 'With
eraiimmcat and numerous ex tensions to ad as feeder.', to tlic
trunk lines, with aftiinplificUioii of tariffs, and with n reduction
to the lowest minimum of the freight .and |)is.sengflr charges,
the railways of India, may yet, taken in Iho aggregate, yield
WSultitheGovernraontmay annually review with coni[iluceitcv,
I’MNTAIN CTLTIVATrO.V FOR TNOJA
Class, Mo3tocoTri,EDOirEa: ; Natural Order, Mubaceo:,
'Musa Oamndishii, Lambert.
Purutlisiiira, Litne.
,, tinfneiitum, Linue,
fJcientlflo typical j „ Tnylodytariim, Liunc,
names : ,, dimiarnm, Buiiiph.
hiviityatonia, Kirk.
husetr, Omelin.
. Conticiil/ila, Linne,
English general names ... Plantain and Banana,
Benaalea „ ,, Kola gsidi.
Hindustani,, „ ■■ Koyla ka per, n / ilarakht,
iNTnoUUCTtON.
T he name of the plantain plant is quite familiar to every ont
in India j and every one know,s tfait variety of thh pltint
which grows where he is located, and valuc.s it accordingly I,.,
instance, the people of lower Bengal, Boiubtiy, tiiid Madias
(in India); and Burmab, China and .lajian, on tlie other side
of India, will bail the plantain plant, boenuso they know it is
an excellent and very useful fruit plant. The ]jeople
of other parts of India, and other countries, meaning
the masses of the people, however, where ]iliiiutain is lut-
known, or where an inferior variety exists, which does not
fruit well, whose fruit is in.sijti(l or nnpalatable, and not so
nutritious and ohea)) as other fruits are, do not and cannot
appreciate this highly-prized plant. As applieil to India, thi,9
remark is applicable to such places as Oudh, N.-W. Provinces,
the Punjab, Sind, Central Provinces, and some other jiarts of
India,—whence the unequal appreciation of this very vaUialile
plant all over India.
Classieication of Peantaik.
The foregoing, at the beginning of this article, is the general
classification of edible plantains ; the following are the names
of the principal species and vtnieties of plantain I have
cultivated, and which are found growing in Lower Bengal,
Madras, and Bombay. All of those have been introduced in
other parts of India, chiefly in the government Botanical
Gaifdens and those of the Agri-Horticultural Societies ; but
have not as yet been disseminated among the masses of the
people owning gardens, orchards, &c., easily known by there
being not a single good variety of phmtain fruit in any of the
markets of India, other than those of the i)lnce.s where the
plant, which bore it, is indigenous, or where the pUnt is in
extensive cultivation from a long lime.
Musa Camndishii; the Chine.se banana; chemae ckampa,
Ben. : Heuara keyla. Him (so called from profuse fruiting of
this plant, the word hatam being derived from hatar, meaning
thousand)’.—This plant is extensively cultivated in Lower
Bengal, and in the South Sea Islands. The stem is pretty
thick; height not exceeding 0 feet. The flavour of the fruit is
excellent, as every one in Calcutta, and other cities and
villages in Lower Beugal, who hns oaten it, can certify. Baron
Mueller states that so many an 200 to 300 vijte fruits are
obtained from one spike {kandi, Ben. ; yhoad, Hin.). In the
present state, however, of this plant in Bengal, the ripe and
fully develofted fruit-yield per plant or ^pike is very small.
I have examined several fruit-spikes of this banana lx>th on
the ])laat» and in the markets of Calcutta, but found no more
f then SO to 800 fruits on each spike. This diminished number
of fully developed fruits per spike or plant is no doubt owing
to want of proper cultivation and the fertilizing elements in
the soil.
Musa pnraditiaea. — This apeeios is that which supplies the
varieties most extensively cultivated all over Lower Bengal
and v.arious other parts of India. The Bengalee names of the
varieties are ;— Champa kola, moftoman kola, and chatim kola ;
and the variety found in Madras called madrajen kola, BeJT;
/tin, Hin. Tliese are the principal cultivated varieties. M.
puradisinea is believed to have originated from M. sapientmn.
(Bavnii MncllBr.)
ifusn uipiowtum. —This species, which uniloubtedly fa the
typi- from w'hich have sprung moat of the cultivated edible
piRiitaiu.s ol India, furnishes three well known varietie.s
Oi.f 111 Bengftl called lanial! kola, so named on account of the
smell, taste, and flnhbineas of the fruit of litis plant resembling
tho.se of the jack fruit {kanUd, Ben ) ; the second variety is
to be found in the Bombay presidency, called lu Bombay gree.n
Bomhay plantain, owing to the green colour of the riml of
the ripe fruit ; the third Vftriety, named deasher kola, Ben. ulasre
holla. iVm (common country plantain), i.s found in many parts
'if Tiiclift—nl) ovei Bengal, N.-’W. Provinces, Oudh, and the
Ptinjiil), particularly. Tliis last-named plant i.s also c.alled
kawh kola in Bengal, owing to the extensive nae of the nnri)io
fruit ill cookery. In Bengal huirh kola is never allowed to
ripen, hecaiiae the fruit is in.sipid, w.tnting lu the gralcfnl
jirnruii, itnd the middle part of the tiuit is seetly, which
render it very inferiot to other planfains enltivate'l in Bengal •
tiut in other provinces in India, being tlie only phititain
wliich can be grown and fniy.ed in hottest and ilriest iila.i;es.
it is grown extensively by the nalives irnd otliers, and the
frnil allowed to ripen, the ftiiit being '.'onsidered .is oltr of
the indisfiensable. decorative, if nothing more, fruits of the
fruit-garden.
Musa tro;ilodi/tarHm.~'V\i\ii plant, supplies the variety found
ill Bombay, Ihf're called red Bomhay plantain, lal Boiitbaua
kela. Hill. : Ird Romhaya kola. Ban,, so named from the red skin
of the ripe frnil. The ripe pul)i of this plantain h.as gamboge
yellow colour, 'n'atiling in the grateful aroma found in '
oheemv. ehnmpa, ehanipa, and mortoman planfa.iiis, is also Jeas
sweet than any of these. This I s,iy after eating extoiisively
all of these. In Bombay the red plantain fruit is soM from a
quarter unna (o one anna for each fruit, iiceording to size and
quality of tlie fruit,
T.i.sffis.
The phautain jilant has many uses. Having intimate know¬
ledge of tills plant, by extensive nse, trials, and obsorvatioiis,
I am prepared to snlijoin a description of them which will be
serviceable to persona aimoquainted with the industrial value
of iilantain in aU its bearing.s.
A.—Fbiut.
It i.s highly nutritious and consumed in India (Bengal In
particular) in two states—(1) unripe, and (I) ripe,
(1) Iinripe frnit.—The consumption of unripe plantain
fruit is exclusively confined to the natives of Bengal whether
located in Bengal or elsewhere where the fruit -is available.
In other piarfa of India, I have nowhere observed nnripe
pl'iiitaiii fruit used in cookery by any other than the Bengalee
people. In Bengal the mirijie fruit fa cooked in various ways as
described below.
(d) Kold bhdya, Ben.—The fruit is fint cleaned of the thick
skin by means of a knife, cut into round or oval (according to
the shape of the fruit) slices about J inch thick, washed with
water, mixed with turmeric, chillies, or red pepper, ground in
water, s,alt, and fried in mustard oil or ghee. It is eaten with
boiled rice.
(5) Koldr bJiortd, Ben.—The fniit fa cleatj^, of the skin,
washed, and boiled in the same vessel in which rice is boiled,
and always with the latter. Since rice occupies a longer time iu
being cooked, and the plantain fruit less, the latter is taken out
some minutes before, is then washed, a litide mustard oil, salt,
and sometimes black round pepper or chillies, added ; and
served. This is always eaten with boiled rice.
June 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
213
(c.) Kol&r cliarahori, Ben.—TLo pl.'vnt.'vin fruit (skin cletired),
brinjal, doomoor, Ben., fruit of Ficus nhmorata gooUr Hiu.,
and potatoes, are cut into slices of any desired shape and size,
washed in water, and kept in a suitable vessel till w.mted for
cooking. This finished, a brass, iron, or earthen l-omi Ben.,
Hin. (pan) is placed on a chooio Ben. : c/toolha Hin.
(oven) in which mustard oil or ghee is put and heated to the
lioiling point. On ascertaining this, turmeric, chillies or
black round jiepjier, and fennel, grounded in water on the stone
.slab called Ben., Hiu., are, more or less, according to
taste, fried in the oil (mustard or any other) or ghee (only when
intended for rich people) in the Lorai, well mixed wKh the
fried spices ; and salt and a little water is added. The i-ui-ai
IS then covered over with a t/uii Ben., t/m-ga Ilin. (brass
plate), to allow the ingi'edients to digest on .a brisk fire for
(iboiit Kmniuutes. The brass plate is then taken out, the <‘oii-
tents of the ))aii examined, and if found snflicipiitly eookod, the
watei, if any, is evaporated, and the c/iondioW served out. Most
people like fishes to be added, for wlioui fried fishes of any
kind, large or small, mixed or numixed, and of any species,
according to taste, ai-e fiuf on the 1,o]i of the fruit ami vegetables,
a s)>rinkliiig of water given, the pan covered again, and 10
minutes more, alloweil for the fish to imbibe and ae<)uire the
(l.avom of tlic soluble ingredients (»f the chorrhori. The pan is
I,ben uncovcivd, and the contents served out. The hittei form
of cookery is termed mnnehen rhorchori. ChnrchoT) is generally
eaten with boiled rice and htldt or mnsii hthto rr dill Ben.,
mds/i flin. {Phascoliis radiatiis) ; is also sonietimcs eaten willi
chagittis, Hin. (gr/htir, Freiieti) made of wbeaten flom.
The Bengalee word chorchon, i.s used to denote the kind of
cookery made in the manftei deseribed above, ft is derived
fiom the Beiig.alee word chorrhov (cracking), on .account of tlio
sound produced in the pan in the jiroeess of cooking. It
always retains its name with the prefix of the name of t.he
predoniiiiatiiig fruit or vegetable used, Kor instance, when the
predoniiliatiug vegetable is brinjal, it is called hcgoon-rr-
cKiirclioi'i, if potatofi, filon-er-t'liorchori ; and so on, But when
fish IS added, whatever the predominating vegetable or fniit coiii-
position of this kind of cookery niay be, the niime of fho U.sli
will alwa.vs precede the word chimdior! ; thu.s we have hhrtl-i —,
inngni —, /vs*—, hchg —, itesh—^ rnoe —, or chingri —, nmc/i-cr-
/•hori'hori. From what I have said it will he seen that the word
('/(orc/nin’, like dol, is the generic name given, in Bengal, to
dishes having various kinds of compositions, but cooked in one
parth'uhir way as lUwcribed above. ITncooked pulse is also
called (hd. provided the, pulse is .s)tlit or broken.
The dishes dosoribed in the foregoing headiug.s a and h
are also generic teiins. Dlaija means fried, and hkorta tliat
which after boiling is mashed ; so that anything eatab
.such as all kinds of flshe.s, vegetables, tlesli, fruit, etc,, migbt
be fried or mashed, and in Bengal termed hhrtjfi or hkorfa.
(2.) Fipe fruit .—This is e.aten raw and singly as many other
fimits ; such as ripe mangoes (maiigifcnt Judira), Uechres
{uepMium Htchi), pears (/g/rus cominiinis), &c. ; but like ripe
mangoe, it is also eaten peeled, m milk, sugar, iiiul boiled rice.
This composition tastes very nice, provided the plantain fruit
is of good variety, satiating the eonsnuier fully well. The
ingenious Bengalee also cooks ripe iilaiitain fruit. Here is the
process :—
(o) Koldr bora, Ben.—A number of thoroughly rijio, but
not rotted, plantain fruits are taken, the rind removed, mashed
and thoroughly mi«'d with fine wheateii flour (>roida, Ben.,
tnaida, Hin.), a suflicient quantity of sug.ar, little pounded
cardamom (mixed or omitted, according to taste), kneaded with
milk and little water, and formed into small lumps of any
desired shape ; and fried in ghee. This tastes excellent and
is highly nutritious.
B.^-Undevelopeo Fruit Spike.
a.—Mo^r gkanto, Ben.—This dish is made from the
lower part of the fruit-bearing spike cont.iiuing a large number
of undeveloped fruits. This part of the spike is cut out at the
time the fruits of the upper portion are developing and
the lower portion does not apjiear to develope more
fruits, but must remain in embryo. It is called mocha
iu Seogal) and has foediog value in it, both for man and cattle.
First of all, the fruits are taken out of the spike, cut into small
bits, wa.slied, and boiled for about 20 miiinles.
The hoik'll fruit i.s then taken out of tlio vessel,
water thrown away, and squeezed to separate more w.ater.
It is then kept in a Ihdl (brass jd de). This finished, a bras.s
ve.ssvl i.s next jilaenl m, the oven in wliich ,a conijjosition of
ground fennel, black-pejiper, c.sulamom.s, ciniiamoii liark, and
water are )iut and boiled. After tlio boiling i.s over, the fruit,
uiiHhelleii grain, steeped over night, sliced potato and brinjal,
1 salt, cows milk, and little sugar, luldi'd ; and the vessel
covered over. The coiapositiou is allowed l.o boil and digest
j foi 10 minuic.i. This tiiiislied, the vesstd is uncovered and
i a haglutr . uIho danominated .shOMiann, Ben. (a proee.s.s which
consists of a brass or iron .spoon in which ghee or oil is put,
and a few oiove.s, black iTuind pepper, cinnamon bark,
iMrilamoni, or aipy other spi-c.-i or cDiidimentH, accoi’ding to
t.'iste, aiided, boiled a few n.iiiufi -. till the spice.s or condi-
nieiit.s oi both have atiained biowu enlour, then the whole is
thrown into the oooherv) ipvii. The ,li-ti is imw ready to be
served out, AJwav.s e.deii with boiled ii "
(-I'sTKM
When the fniit-.spike of )ilantain has m.atured its fruits,
it JH removed from tho stem, and with it the idaiit also ;
because idaiitaiii m ver bears fruit twice—hence it i-.
useleits to allow it staiul. When the pl.int i.s denuded of
the outer hiver.i or slieatlin, hiicIi beiipg the i'oiislru>
tion of fids succulent plant, the inner stein, which cuds
in the fruit spike, i,s extracted. Thi.s stem, which is dull
white in colour, and of glassy lustre and smoothness
in the exterior, i.s a fuod-aiticle in Bengal, and Iheie
denominated //„;,• The cooking jiroce'-.s of thor i,-- de.scrihed
below.
(ff) Thor-ir-iluhnf Vicw. — 'l'li'ir is cut ill siil.dl bits, washed,
and salted. It if, then boiled in water, taken out, cooked with
till! same mgredient- a- for moilutr ghoii'o, with this
diflerijiiee llial ghoilto has no watei or grav,\ in it, whereas
diilai'i. lias. The rooking jirocess does not differ. Always eaten
with hoileJ lice.
(h) Thor-ifilKu'i-liiiri, Bon.- A.-, in the prccodiiig. th'o' i.s
boiled ; and eooked in the saiiie way ,'is i'liUi-n'-rhiiri/t'irl —
vegutable.s and fisli added, aoiloriliiig to taste. E.lteii xvitli boiled
rice or with •h'ljigatis.
D.—.Mw<.' 15 i,l.\xeoi.-.s oil Otukii TIsbs ok VaRiors Farts op
THK I’l.a.X'TAlN Pr.ANT.
(u) J’l’in'/ I i/til. —7’liis i.s greedily eatini by all miitiner of
Uve-.“tock. Ailmiiiistered with .str.iw, oil-cake, and other
iugreiiieiils made into Ji'diiid, Ben., sdiil, Hin, (mixed meat),
ripe iilaiilain fruit-rind is valuable food, Udiig both p.datablo
and mitrilioiif.
(h.) Zeuivs.—-The.se serve a.s plates and diHlRcs in the home
of every Hindoo-Bengalee, rich or jioor, e.speciHlly the halter,
and on all festive occaaions. The leaves sIho find other uses—
ill packing articles by tlie native shop-keepers, for bedding
and covering of ddlcrs of fniils. vegetables, and floweis for
niaintaining natural freslmess by not iiiidcrgoiug dryage.
Ibeveby relaiiiing original llavour and appearance, and for
covering of cigars smoked by the natives of Orissa, especially
by the Oon/a bents in Ciileulta. 7'he diy ribs of leax'es are
twisted ami foriiieil into bails of striiig.s used by the native
shop-kecjiers iiiiii aitf/fees (iiatii e gardeiierH) for tying huTidles
of articles sold, a*’d the sticks of dttices (a kind of shallow
baske.t), also for tying balls of eiiith attached to plants
intended for carriage and transplantation to near or distant
places,
(c) Stem Lately discovery hna lieeii made by
paper manufacturers, naturalists, and chemists, *that excellent
paper-pulp can be made from tlio stem-sheathes. Owing, how-
ever, to the large percentage of water, this jiapcr iiiateiial can
only be made available to couwieree and m.uiufiietuio where
plantain is extisnsively cultivated.
{d) Rout-bidh .—1 have ascertained it to contain slaivh,
useful for technical purposes ; exiiei iineiits, to be yet ni.ule,
will determine its intrinsic value, ami whether w.I! pay the
cultivator aacl manufacturer.
214
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Juri'^ 1, 1883.
of the fumfotivi. —Tii<- jiriucipal <>( the
jilfiiitaiii )>lai)t is its fruit, » food articlp of the tirat order ;
the other I'j.'irts are of sMeoiithtry inthislrial value. As a yvhole,
the plantain uiidouhtedly i-.me of the moat useful, industrial
ami flecorative plaiie> in Hju vrhule range of the vegetable
kingdom.
O, L. BRYCE.
{Tohf, eoi<tii>.v)d.)
AGRICULTUIIAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA.
T he usual Monthly Meeting was held on Thursday, the
10th April 1888.
W. H. Cogswell, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The prooocdlnga of the last meeting of 21st March wore road and
cotifirnidd.
Mr. C. A. White, Assistant Engineer, P. W. D., Hazareebagh,
was elected a member.
The names of tlie following gentlemen were submitted as desirous
of joining the Hociety
II. J. Haynes, Esq., Manager, .TatOokea Garden of the Meleng
Instate, Assam,—proposed by Mr. .T, F. W. Smart, seconded by
the .Secretary.
K.. B. Yates, Estn, Deputy Conservator and Harbour Master,—
proposed by Mr. 0, L. Kemp, seconded by tlic Preeideut,
A. Campbell, Esq., Assistant Conservator oi Forests, Goruekpore,
_proposed hv Mr. F. W. Tytlor, seconded by the Secretary.
Dr. J. Milliano, Civil Surgeon of Ilhnbri,—proposed by Dr.
/. A. Alimed, seconded by Mr. ,T. E. MacLachlau.
Manager, Moouoo Ton Estate, Darjeeling,—proposed by the
.Secretary, secondetl l>y Mr. MacLachlan,
Captain .J. G. Morris, Cantonment Magistrate, Saugor, C.P.,—
proposed 1)V the President, seconded by Mr. R. Blechyudon.
W. L. 'Plioinas, Esq., Merchant, Calcutta,—proposed by the
President, seconded l)y Mr. R, Blocl)yndou.
J\‘eJohiid—C<3\. 3, Stewart, R. A., Cawupore.
Amebicon SuuAOH,
Submitted the following letter from Cokmel J. Stewart, R.A. i
.Siiperintondent, Harnoes and Saddlery Factory, Cawnpiwe, regarding
tile divi-divi, in response to certain enquiries :—
In answer to your letter of 19th ultimo, I beg to say that the
pods of the divi-divi contain a very large proportion of tannin,
far too iurgo for it to he used alone for the tanning of leather. Tlie
<Iivi-divi Bicrefore is used only as an auxiliary in tanning, and
ii is vuiy effective when mixed with babool bark or other tannages
at tile rate from 3 to 6 per cent only.
“ The divi-divi is also used for the finishing of leather, in the
currying process in lieu of sumach, as the liquor obtained from
the pods imparts a good colour to the surfooe of the leather.
“ It is iiost to mix divi-divi lu tho proportion of 3 to 6 per
cent, with all tan liq^uore in a tannery, and thus it is used for
tanning ail kinds of loathor—buSaloo, cow, bullouk, goat, or sheep
skins.
“ Tho oldest trees growing in the grounds of the fantory here aie
25 feet in height, and they spi’ead out uutU they cover ground to
the diameter of 86 feet.
“ Ae muoh as 30th of dry pods are colleoted from each of the old
trees. The pods fall to the ground in March or April, and are ool-
li rtnd and stored, and when required for use aro ground to a
powder iu a di.sintegrator mill,
'I'ho old' i- trcf.s continue to produoe pods profusely year by year
up to the age of 20 jenrs at least; beyond this there is no evidence
at present to go by.
“ The tauuh from divi-divi Is of a vary powerful class, but It
cannot bo said to be euperior to any other because only a small
proportion con be used, and it is only good when used oautiously.
" Some trees planted out in 1862 arc still iu a flourishing condi¬
tion, and yielding pode well,
" Tlie pode are very curiously tivisted and curled up, and there are
only a few very small seeds in each pod. 'i'he weight of the seeds
is very insiguifioaut compared with tho weight of the pod.
“ 1 have mucli pleaeuro iu sending you about 10 Ih of seed, and
will bo aide to send any larger (junntity you want as tho pods are
ground down for use. The divi-divi is a gre< t suceess this year.
I think we shall gather over ten tons of pods, ”
Iu connection with the above, the .Secretary read a note from
Mr. .S. S, Jones, C.S., of Dooglmr, forwarding six largo bags of
divi-divi pods, from which he had extracted a quantity of seed, and
sent the halauce to Messrs. Montelth & Co. of this city, for trial
and communication of tho result, Mr. Jones writes as follows ; —
CONTRIBCTIONS.
1. Memoirs of tho Geological Survey of India C^’a^trontologia
Iiidiea), Ser. X, Vol. 2, part 4, from the Director.
2. The Ti'opiital AgrictiUiiriiit for March and April, from tlie
Editor.
3. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, January 1883,
from tho Society.
4. The Inillan Tihrefter, No. 4 of vol. IX, from tlie Editor.
5. Six large hags of divi-divi, from •>. Jones, Esq.
G. Ten pounds of divi-divi seed, from Col. J. Stewart.
I, Sundry speeluiens of maize from Ajmere, from A, Parsons,
Esq
8. Five cobs of maize raised iu Purnoah from American seed
obtained for tlie Society, from R. C. Walker, Esq. Some of these
have maintained their eharaetcr, but others have degenerated.
9. .Seed of tho “ Early Ambor-Cane,” from Captain .1. F.
Pogson.
10. A large qnaiitlly of acolimatizod flower seeds, from Colonel
.11. R. Wiutlo.
II. Several capsules of Mahogany seed, from 1). Coohrane,
Ewp —These seeds are gathered from a tree iu the garden of the
late Mr. John Marihmau at Serampore. There are several trees
in the garden, hut one only appears to be a seed-bearer, and
that not every year. This year the tree has been laden with fruit.
It is an old tree, planted probably at the commencement of this
century by tlie Rev. Dr, Marshman,
12. A lai'ge quantity of palm seeds of four kinds from the
Royal Botanic Garden, MnuritiuB, presented by the Director.
The President announoed that in ocoordanee with tho resolutions
passed at mootings held on the 22ud February and 2lBt March last,
the Council had authorised certain clianges being made in the
e'xeeutlve of the Society. That in consideration of his long and
valuable services, extending over a period of 47 years, they had
sanctioned a retiring allowance to Mr. A, H. Blechynden, who,
iiowever, will still hold office as Secretarv, acting on behalf of the
Society in England In all matters reqnii mg at t* ntinn. That of the
randidates they had appointed Mr. 11 i'.luclij iiUcu, junior (who has
liad considerable niotutstl experience) to be Deputy Secretary, to
conduct all offiee duties, and to be iu charge of tne gardeu (which
latter has been vacated by the resignation of the former
Superintendent). The services of an experienced native propagator
for the garden have also been engaged. These arrangements,
which take effect from4he ICtli April, will not entail any uilditional
expenditure.
GaSIiex.
A reiiort from the Garden Committee was read. The object of
the meeting was to inspect the gardeu and see to i(s, general
condition on the Deputy Secretary takiim charge, and to instruct
him generally as to Its future working. The C'umuiiltee then state
tlie work to be done in certain portious of the garden, wliiuh had
been neglected, and other work to be undertaken. The Committee
add that the plant-house has been completed in a good, substantial,
and satisfactory manner, and at the moderate cost of Rs, 1,520.
The dimensions are 60 feet by 00 feet, and it is tqlerably well
“ Can you toll me whether there is any one in Calcutta who would
make a remittance of tho pods to England ! I think J could promise
at least Iialf a ton, and should he very glad to know ou what
terms I could dispose of them, Is there any local demand for
them
Maizk or iMmA-v Coii.v.
Biibniittod the following oorrospondonco with Mr, A. Parsons,
Agricultural and Garden Superintendent at Ajmere, in respect tc
tho culture of maize, exotic ami indigenous ;—
Mr. ParaoiiD, Utith Marrh 1883.—In ooutinuatiou of my letter
of the 20tli ultimo, I am sorry to inform you that from enquiries
made in Merwara, it appears that the cultivation of the rnaizo
introduced by Col. Dixou was abandoned, in consequouoe of the
cultivators being nnahle to secure good croiia froip it.
I can reailiiy believe this to havo been the ease, both from
acquaiutauee with the people and the result of my own oToi ts in
this district.
The ivhole of my own experieuoe, and all reported cases, I have
met with, have boon to tlio effect that it is quite usoless to make
over exotic seed to native cultivators. T'ln- invariable report is
that the seed either did not gerininato, nr that it was unsuited to
the climate.
Two days ago I sent you a pocket contniuing samples of tho
following kinds of maize ;—
1. Peunsylvania yellow flint corn.
2. Golden dent corn.
3. Tuscarora oorn.
All three kinds are imported from Amerioa.
Also a packet of each of those kinds one year acclimatized from
the above seed.
A packet of maize grown in the Ajmere dlstrlot.
Ditto in the Merwara district.
Ditto which I Iiave grown liere two seasons from seed obtained
from Jounporc, N.-\Y.P.
You will observe how much the American kinds have lost in
size by one year’s oultivation in this district. Of the first
mentioned kind, 40 grains as imported weighed down 63 of tho
Boolimatlsed onee. What the eeoond year’s results would be it
is not possible to say, but probably a further decrease iu size.
Now this corn has been grown ou laud far batter than the
generality of natives possess, eo that it is uot dliflcult to foretoa
what the result would he in their ease,aud the upshot in Co],
Dixon’s time wa') no doubt uof.ivouiuble and very rapidly
developed.
The experiment seems very muoh ng.uiist u.s, but the outt^n.
cost of production, and value of the crop in Amerioa would hgve to
be compared with the same thing here before a correct estimate
oould be made of the extent of our failure.
It would be possible no doubt lu many parts of Iiidbi to do
better then we have done hero, but my own opinion is that Amerioa
is not the proper market to go to for our maize for soed purposes.
I The same thing happens, I havo been told, with potatoes
I raised in England from Amerioan produoe. The crop with many
I kinds deteriorates in Uie oomse m a few years, until.i;he ou-ltl)''
" ation is'nltlniatoly abandoned j
T)i* i^mtary, 30tA March 1883.—I havo just received
vour
June 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST,
215
have aUo received the various specimens of maize therein referred
to. "I note your remarks in respect to your experience of the
deterioration of crops raised in this country from American
maize.
'The- object of the Society in importing steadily such seed for
the last 46 years has been the hope of gradually improving on the
country varieties, or rather introducing better kinds, and where
attention has boon carefully given to the culture, this appoaun to
have been effected. Wo received, a few weeks ago, specimens
raised in the mwden of the Durbnngah raj, from Ainsrican stock,
fully eoual, if not superior, to the original, but it was carefully
manured, (See our Proceedings for Ist March.)
Only yesterday, I was informed by a visitor that he had seen
cobs raised in a garden in Chumparun from American seed
obtained from the Society, 18 inches in length, which is much
larger than the imported kinds of 14 mches. The manure employed
was “ slttee ” from indigo vats.
ATr. Parsons, 5th Ajml 188.8.—With reference to your letter
datad 30th ultimo, I wish to 'offer the following' remarks, as I
appear to have conveyed on impression I did not intend.
In writing to you on the 26th March, I was thinking more of
agriculture than of gardening, and had no thought of daprecating
the attempts your Society has mode in introducing superior
varieties of garden and agricultural products.
The success you refer to at Durbungah is, I presume, strictly
a garden one, aud obtained under special advantages which very
few natives possess.
You remark that it was " carefully manured,” and this strikes
at the whole root of the matter ; it is hopeless to expect _ My
improvement In native agriculture until the people are in a positiou
to impiove their land; and until they have the means of doing this,
it is perfectly useless giving them improved seed, which they are
compelled to grow under conditions not at all conducive to success.
If the quality of the maize grown at Durbungah can be main¬
tained under oonditions such os a good cultivator could give it,
then indeed a great step will have been gained ; but if, on the
contrary, it deteriorates until It becomes like his own iudigouous
produce, nothing will have been gained except a knowledge of
what to avoid.
The maize which we import from America is no doubt grown
under oonditions of soil and climate which cannot bo fully imitated
in this country on a large scale, and if it could it would not pay
to do it. I think more would bo gained for native agrioiiltiiro iu
the long run by steady attempts to improve many of the crops wo
rarely have than by importing seed troni America.
At the same time ottempts need not bo neglected to try what tlic
produce of seed obtained from the Capo aud other places would
result in.
Many of the cobs I grow here were over a foot long, and largo
in pro)virtiuii ; but as the samples 1 sent you show, the individual
grain bad considerably fallen off iu size.
The crop was grown on land more heavily inanmod than natives
could afford, hut the experiment does not justify any expectation of
future eiiooess ill the district even under such improved conditions.
It is no doubt impossible to lay down a liard-and-faHt line ns to
what will answer ill different districts, but to improve agriculture |
among the mosses a good deal more is required than giving them
good seed. They do not appreciate our well intniitiooed efforts,
or if they do so, their poverty compels then) to grow sucli kind as
they have prov'od by experience will yield fairly romiiuerativo
crops, readily saleable iu their own locality.
The CiiuFAs—CvrERn.s Ksci'us.stu.s. |
Read extract of a letter from Captain I’ogsou, suggesting the
introduction of the “ Oliiifas” into India :—
I wish to bring to tlie notice of the Council of the Society, that
the Chufas” or " Cyperus esculeutue ” grows to pcrfcctiou in
Spain where tlie yield varies from 200 to 500 bushels iwr acre,
according to the nature of the soil, and manure used. In
America the yield is not so high. But tlioso nuts are in America
reckoned to afford superior fattening food for pigs, and as sheep,
cows and oxen would thrive on them as well, their value ns
food for man and domesticated animals is very considerable
(vide Pogson’s Manual of Agriculture, pages 222 to 225).
The wine merchants in Calcutta who have correspondents in
Spain might be able to assist the Society, as w'cll as the
public In general, by arranging to Import some tons of these
nuts which I am pretty certain would meet with immediate aud
profitable sale, and it is possible that the Agricultural Department
would purchase and distribute some of the seed uuts.
The cuts should be sent out peeked in casks, chopped straw, or
chaff, or a mixture of botli, being used as packing material. The
cask to be air-tight, so as to keen out the sea air.
It would be advisable to obtain information as to the time
of soaring and harvesting these nuts in Spain, and then private
enterprise would do the needful.
^ KABLY AMBEB SnuABCAh’E.
In another communication Captain Togson refers to the Early
Amber Sugar cane of which he has sent a small quantity of
S66d S'—
TJfiMli^or your last letter, and in reply I have to advise you
of the diMtatob, by this day’s banghy post, bearing, of a tin
canister containing I8-ounoe oi “ Early Amber Slugarcano seed.”
I have in it fotwanted the paper of direction, but did not receive
the sample Of whtt* sugar made from this oauo.
The ;plant may' be a conneoting link between the sugarcane and
sorghum,or it may be a oroes between the two. The seeds differ
Intom trom those of the blaofc sorghum, and the photograph of a
roup of the plants shows long joints like thosa of the “ imphoe.” ,
'hs didnanio ^ng reports that the seeds I sent him last [
month of the Early Amber Sugnreano have germinated freely,
and tile seedlings woro making vigorous growth.
My surviving plants have made good growth since the w'arm
weather set in. 1 put down more seed yeetenlay evening.
Tlie best plan to utilize the seed will, I think, be to divide it
into 72 papers of I of an ounce each, and to send some to tho
northern shitions of tlie Punjab, i,e„ Ourdasporo, Hoshyarpore,
Wuzeorabad, Jtielum, Rawiil Piiidec. and Aboottabad, Mr. Poppe,
of Goruekporc, the .Secretary, Bijnor Agricultural Society ;
all or any Tea Planters in Dehr.a Donn who may bo incniborH of
the Agricultural and Horticultural Society. The Hozarcebagh or
Chota Nagpore Tea Plauters should try it. Then for Bengal
Proper, two sowings should be tried—the lir.st at once, and Hio
second as soon ns the rains arc over. This experiment would
determine tho proper time for sowing in Bengal. My idea is that
tho proper time will correspond with tho time for sowing innwirt.nd
nuiize seed in Bengal. But os the jowar (Dnodhau of Bengal)
•r holciiH sorghum grows well in Bengal during tho rains, the
Early Amber Siigarcaiie may <lo tbo some : each paper of seeds
should be acoompsjiied with a printed copy of the pajior of
directions.
The Catalpa Trek.
Lastly, Captain Pogson offers some remarks in reference to the
•' Catalm tree ”—and the dosirahihty of attempting its Introduction
into India:—
“ I have enclosed a cutting from tho Tasmanian Mail of tho 10th
February 1883, w'hioh please submit to the Council of tlic Agricul¬
tural and Horticultural Society, and if approved pubiislied in
the Proceedings, so that steps may be taken by tlie Forest Depart¬
ment to introduce this valuable tree into India. The Baron von
Mueller will no doubt on your requisition send a quppty of seeds,
which oould be tried by the members of the Society, and some in¬
formation as to climate best suited to the Catalpa tree should be
sent you.
“ Our Lauds Department, urged by Sir.rohn O’Shannassy, says a
Victorian paper, is proposing to iiitroduee the cultivation of tho
Catalpa tree. Report from Baron von Mueller and Mr. Guilfoyio
show that these trees aro practically imperisliable, and arc fre¬
quently 4i feet in diameter. Trees of tin's w'ood tested after a
century of growtli have been found to bo perfectly sound, railway
rails of it liave been used for 48 years without exhibiting wear,
Posts 20 years in ground show no decay, and logs lying ii
swamps, used as hriilges for a hundred years, remain unchanged
The wood is liglit, of u greyish white <!oloiir, tine in texture,
capable of roceivmg a brilliant polish, and tho bark is tonic
stimulant, antiseptic, the houcy from tlie flowers being poisonous,
It is recommended for fornsL glailus iu sheltered situations, grows
00 feet ill heigiit, flowers lieantifuUy, and for mluino purposes,
especially below water, sliould prove invaluable. About 230 of
these trees have been rneoiitly grown at Loiigerong .State Numory,
and their aeclimatisatiou will be watched as an event of national
Importance. ”
Japan'esk Dry IIioe a.nd SiNaLB-ButLOCK Plopoii.
Read the following letter from tho Uuder-Socretary, Goverunient
of India, in respect to tho above
“ in acknowledging the receipt of your letter of the 27th ultimo,
drawing attention to two notices by Captain J. F. Pogson in tho
proceedings of the Society for hlurcli, regarding Jaiianese Dry
Rice and Single-Bullock Plough, I am directed to state that this
Department will bo glad to be furnished with any further infor¬
mation that may be at the disposal of tlie .Society before taking any
steps ill tho tUrection desired by you. It is not considered
cxpi'diout to trouble the represeutatives of her Majesty’s Govern-
nioiit iu foreign cmiutrios with siioli requisitions unless they aro
cloarly shown to be to the public advantage.”
Letters were also read from tlie Assistant Director, Department
of Agrieulture aud Comnieroc, N.-W.P., applying for a quantity
of secil of the Minnesota Early Amlior variety of stn'if/tum aud for
seed of the Red Grass of Natal, Tricholatvi rosea.
The .Secretary mentioned that steps hud been taken towards
meeting both requisitions.
Mr. 0. F. Manson, Deputy Coilcctor and Deputy Magistrate of
Doonika, forwards a note on the Sal tree {Skorca rul/ustn) of
tho .Sautal Porguunalis. (Transferred for Journal.)
OFFICIAL PAPERS.
T he following correspondeuca regarding the production of
sugar from sorgho is published by order of tho Department of
Kevonua and Agriculture, for general information ;—
From J. E. Reid, Esq., Offg, Secy, to the Govt, of tho North-
Wastorii Proiinces audOudh—To the Secretary to the Govern¬
ment of India, Revenue aud Agricultural Department,—(No. 777,
dated Camp Lucknow, 28Ui March 1883.)
In reply to your letter No. 8fl-34-IA, dated the 23rd January
last, I am dir&ted to submit, for the information of his Excel¬
lency tho Governor-General iu Council, copy of a letter from the
Director of Agriculture and Commerce, North-Western Provinces
and Oiidh, No. 403A, dated tlie 17th March, containing the re¬
quired report on the production of sugar from sorgho.
216
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. June 1,1883.
From tlio Director of Agriculture niul Commerce, Norbli-Weetern
I’roviooeB ami Oudh, to the .ScoruUr.v to tlio Goveramcnt of the
Nortii-AVestorii i’roviiicee ami Oudh,—No, 408A, dated Allah¬
abad, 17tii March J.SSlh
1 lin»e (hr hoiior'to .aclniowladgo raeuipt of your letter No. 312,
dated dtl) Kubrum v IdbS (Reveuuy Uepartmeiii), calling for a
fipoeial report on tiio eorgluiin eugar experimente of this depart-
iiieni,, and in reply to rejairt as fnlTowa :—
The field selected was manured with farm-yard inauuro and
eultivated in the. ordinary manner. It was divided into throe
hcctions, in wliicli were resyeotively sown—
d*/.—Early Minnesota aiubor cano received from the Govern¬
ment of iodia, a variety whieh bears the palm in America.
■iiul .—Amber cane or red sorghum, from seed of lost year’s farm
e«op.
Black sorglmni.
In every way these crops ware treated like an ordinary crop
of ffuiiil/'i, 'i’hu field, however, proved to lie too low ; and with
water atanding on it for some time in July, the crop proved a poor
oss, and not nearly so good os another crop of sorghum grown for
fodder, only on land highar and unmauured. The low-lying crop
also was much damaged by the “ makai” grub which does so muon
injury to maize.
The experiments were direoted solely to procuring the best
possible aamplo of crystallised sugar in the compost form (goor).
ISo far as could be understood from tlie reports received from
other parts of India, no saleable goor Iiad yet been made, and even
in America the manufacture of anything but syrup would seem
to date from about 1661,
BxperimenW were tried witli various re-agents for defecting and
clarifying the juice which is iutensely acid, nmeh more so than
that of sugarcane,
CuuDB were cut at various st iges of growth to ascertain the must
profitable period.
Canos wore ground with the leaves on to economise the labor for
stripping.
The worm-eaten cauos were excluded. So a great deal of the
crop was used to gain exporieuco, and soarcoly as much was used
in the manufacture of the best samples a.s would warrant tlio
building up tliereou of u commorcial suhcmc. For tliis another
Boason or two must be awaited.
The best results were anivsd at by stripping tlio eaiics in the
field, carrying them straight to the mill os cut, putting tliem
through a Bihiu mill at once, and boiling the juice in one jiau,
ns soon as removed from the mill. Tlie best lime foi cutting
the canes is wtioii the seed is in the dougli stage. Tiie head of
seed is cut off witll the top short, and loft in tlie sun to ripen, the
yvholo of the seed being saved. As ecuiiom;^ is a great point, a
portable mill that can be carried to tlie field is a desiileratum.
Kernieutation converts orystalisable sugar into unerystalisablu.
Bo dues the acid in the juice ut liigh temperatures. Fermenta¬
tion is sot up in tlie juice on exposure to tlie air ; lienee the
necessity for gettiug the canes pressed and the juice neutralised
as quickly as possible after cutting. To prevent fermentation
also, tlie mill, builiug pan, and vessel for bolding tlie juice as it
comes from the mill wore daily fumigated witli a few sulphur
luatolios.
A few'drops of castor oil were sprliiklcd on the juice ns itap-
proBclied boiling point to aid iu olarificatiou, and at boiling point
milk oi lime wasudded carefully to a iioint clo.se on neutrality.
The scum, as it lose, was carefully removed and the juioo ooii-
centratod down to the proper eonsiateucy for goor. A small rpiaii-
ty of “ rab" was made from wliicb drained crystals were obtained j
as a sample ; but atteutiou was chiefly eouceutiutod on making i
goor.
The above details sliow no diffBreni e from those of the process
of maiiufacturiiig goor from sugareauc, as now practised by many
manufaeturers. It is only given in detail because, altliough
goor may be made from sugarcane juice, without using lime, a
skilful native sugar-boiler entirely failed in operating on sorglmm
juiec without lime, and (or the black sorglium the failure was
maintained even with lime, until a small tpiantity of carbonate
of soda, or sujji, had been added as well as the lime.
Taking an average, tlie result was as under :—
Oiilluni per acre.
1 .
5!
4.
Mds.
Weight of plant
... 125
,, of cleaned canes ...
... 5*-27
„ of goor
4-44
,, of grain
. 3'00
CoHf 2 >tr acre.
Cultivation,
Mds. Rs. A. r.
Manure
Floughings
Crushing clods
Bowing
Seed
Weeding (once)
Cutting
Kent (kharif)
Boiling juice (S' Re
100
1-12 per maund
0
8
4
12
4
0
8
0
14
Total
i aiut eif jn-oduotpir acre,
IU. A. P.
Goor (9. Rs. 4 per maund ... ... 17 12 0
Grain @ Ea. 0-12 per maund ... 2 4 0
Tops and leaves of fodder 0 10 maunds
per rupee ... ... ... 0 8 0
Vinegtti' ... ... ... 1 00
Total ... 80 8 0
The analysis, by Messrs, Carew andCompauy, Limited, of aoam-
ple, was as uniJer :—
Cane sugar
... 61‘00
Glucose
... 28-85
Moisture
... 7-90
Asli ...
... 315
Unknown
... 401
Total ... 100 00
This analysis shows for refining purposes an objectionable amount
of glucose and a larger amount than waspresentin a sample of sorghum
goor manuiootared this year, alio,
at the Aska Sugar Woiks* in
Madras. The sumr would clearly
be more suitable for brewing pur¬
poses than for refining purposes so
far os export is oonoerned. But a
peonliarity of gliiooie sugar is, 1
believe, its similarity in taste to
honey, a taste wliioh was very
marked in some samples of the
sorghum goor, and which seems to
be to the liking of the people.
Coming ns it does out of season
and forming a good eating goor,
there ft testimony from both
Carew and Company and from
Messrs. Thomson and Mylne tlint
it would fetch a top price in tlie market. It may possibly then
lieconio at least os popular for eating as sugaroane goor, and so free
a largo yuantity of the latter for export, jiartioulany, if, os may be
hoped, further exporieuco will lead to furtlier improvement.
Sorghum rciiuircs no irrigation nor does it require much manur¬
ing. It can he grown on high liglit land which grows oriliiiary
kharif crops, and has in America been cultivated year after year oti
the same soil without deterioration. The seed is all saved and is
good food for man or cattle, while the tops, leaves, and begass are
all eaten greedily i>y eattin. It is woi-tii then the closer attention
of Indian agrieulturists ; and a large supply for distribution should
bo iiuleutcd for of tlio liest early smuor variety from America
against the cuming kharif season.
* Cane sugar. 74'00
Glucose . 9'42
Moisture . 4'52
Ash . 2 26
Unknown . 9'8
Total ... 100-00
Note. —In the original Aska
analysis, ” salts ” and “ ash ”
are given separately. Not un¬
derstanding how the analyst
arrived at such a rosuit, I have
put the analysis in the form
usually used .abroad.
INDIAN TRADE AVITH AUSTRALIA.
Tut tollowiiig note, drawn up in the Revenue and Agricultural
Department of tlic Government of India, has boon published by the
Government of India :—
'I'hc active cc-operuli ui of the Government in the promotion of
Iiulo-Australiou trade, comnieneed at the Melbourne Exhibition of
1880, iios now alinust been Iirought to a close in the despatch of a
filial cousigmneiit to .Sydney of Indian goods likely to meet
Colonial requirements, Tliese are consigned to the late Commis¬
sioner at the Melbourne Exhibition now resident at Sydney, the
capital of Now South Wales. The sueoess of Indian exports in the
market of Victoria, of wliiuh Melbourne is the capital, bos been
uudoubted. Before 1880 the trade with Melbourne consisted
mainly of raw jute, jute goods, oastor oil, and rioe. Exclusive of
these aud of tea, which then, however, formed a very small portion
of the exports, the Indian consignments received at MeUraarne
were valued at Rs. 1,61,678. In 1882 their value was estimated
ut Rs. 5,43,3SS, or Rs. 3,81,677 in oxoess of the value of I860.
The goods exported through the Exhibition Agent, who after the
Exhibition remained in Melboiiruo for tlie purpose of pushing the
iudo-Australiau trade, were alone valued at Rs. 1,67,086 iu 1882.
A very large increase is taking place in the current year. The
impetus given to Indian exports is to no small sxtout due to the
success of tea, in the wake of which the minor ortiolee of
commerce have followed. Tea exports rose from less than a lakh
of pounds in 1880 to over two millions in 1882. Other lines In
which suooess has been prominent are soft goods, mytaboloms,
skins and hides, unrefined sugar, Ao.
The demand fur hides and skins iu Australia, a country iu
which cattle aud sheep abound, appears remarkable, but is due
to the fact that Australian hides are too good for mei^parpoeM
for which Indian bides are required. Tfie Utter are used, for
iiistanoe, in making the upper parts of boots worn by the middle
and lower classes, for which purpose also they are exported in
large quantities to Europe. “ Spices aud Condiments ” IS not on
entirely new line of trade, but has been extended by the Exhibi¬
tion. Tanning materials are likely to find an inoreaelng market
in oonsequeuee of the exhaustion of forest products in AustralU
itself.
Certain of the cotton goods which the Melbourne Cuinmisaiouer
took considerable trouble to place before the Australian houses
have found favour, and some oUases of the Bombay mill hosieries
217
June 1, 1883. THE INI^AN AGEICULTURIST.
itfe Uk«ly to meat with oonaldertble Mle, A valuable market
haa aleo been found for a new claie of juto goods, to meet wliich
new machinery hae bean set up in more than one mill.
In oouequence chiefly of the magnitude of the trade in jute
bagi, in which the Auetraliane pack tboir wheat and wool for
export to Europe, there hag always been a very large exoese of
ezporta to Anatralla over imports from that colony, xhe increase
in export*, therefore, however satisfactory, is not likely to assist
in leMing to the increase in direct shipping communication with
Australia, unless some return trade is tlioroughly oetablislied.
The Australians do not send much to India now, except horses
and metale. It is doubtful if there is anything else in the colony
which they can afford to send to India in any quantity, exoepf
perhaps timber and ghee. The high price of labour precludes thoii
competition in India to any manufactured article, or any produc
tlon in which human la^ur is on important element. On th(
other hand, wool is at present not required ; while frozen moat,
batter and preserved fruits would only meet a small demand from
the European population, and perhaps of a few wealthy sections o'
the native community. Timber miglit, however, be taken foi
public works, while the whole native population is a customer foi
ghee.
The quantity of ttie tatter article consumed in British India,
axolustve of Katives States is estimated by tiie proviuuiai
authorities at oonsiderably over five milliou owts. per annum, the
value of whioh is about fourteen millions sterling. The price of
ghee is gradiiully rising, owing to the uoutiunoas decrease of graz¬
ing land and the greater prohts derived fioiu ttic cultivation of
produce. There is, therefore, some hope that the import of ghee
from Australia, if once introduced, will meet a coustantly rising
market, and become more and more profitable.
The price now ranges between Or/, and Id. a pound ; but first
olase ghee eonietimas fetches in the Bombay market os mucli as
Hid. a pound.
The attention cf the Government of India is noiv confined to the
import question. Unless a return trade from Australia cuii bo
found, the shipping rates will do muoh to handicap the extension
of the export trade and curtail the Australian demand for Indian
goods. One experiment has already boon tried for the purpose of
solving the ghee question. Two ghoc-inakers were shipped to
Victoria ; but the landowner to whom they were consigned found
the adjacent butter market at Melbourne to be so lucrative tliat
the ghee-makers’ labour was quickly confined to the manufacture
of butter. The experimAt is now to lie repeated on the condition
that the labour of the gheo-mokers shall not be diverted to other
purposes. But it is in Now South Wales, in that part of the
country to which emigration is likely to be established, iv;., in
the tropical regions on the north coast of Australia, that the
industry is most likoly to take rout, and further experiments will
be tried therefore on this occasion in the northern tracts of
Mouth Australia, In the meanwlille, it is anticipated that some
samples of Australian ghee, with statistics of the cost of production,
will be forthcoming at the Calcutta Kxhibitiuu.
SELECTIONS.
THE VITALITY OK SEEDsS.
A TJTUMK is the natural season for the study of seocU, But
most of U8 have our attention more particularly <lrawn to
them in the spring ; and in the mouths of March aiul April most
amateur gai'denora got^their only personal knowledge of these mys-
tories of creation. -Among the f|uostions that are pretty sure to ciop
up In many an amateur's garden at this time of year are, whether
the remnauts of lost spring's 8oe<l packeU will do to sow tliis year,
aud how long may acedfl he kept before losing their vitality. 'I'iiiy
opens up rather n wider flold for invefltigatioii than would, perhaps,
be BuppoBcd by those who have never given unyatlcntiou to matters
of vegetable physiology. As a rule, no ilouht, most of the. Huedr^
which amateur garucuers arc likely to have wliould be last
autumn’s. But seeds vary imiurnsely iu thoir vitility. Ksory-
body has beard perhaps ralhor too much of the mummy wheat,
which iioe boeu declared, seemingly on gooil authority, to ha^e
germinated after having lain iu the palm of a uiuuuny ever since
the body was embalmed, perhaps 8,000 yours ugo.^ That idea,
ho\vever, has now been vo’y generally exploded. 'Ihetc can be
no doubt that there was some want of care in the observa-
tlous which seemed to establish it. This, however, is not the
only observation of the same kind that has been adduceil in
proof of the Indefinite vitality of somcaooJs, Dr. Liudloy, for
uistauoe, the well-kuowu botanist, says in one of his works, “ 1
have at this moment three plants of raspherries before me,
which have been raised in the garden of the lloitioultural >Society
from seeds taken from the stomach of a man whose skeleton was
found thirty feet below the surface of the earth, at the bottom of
a barrow, which was opened near Doichester. He^ had been
buried with some cohis of the Euiporor Iladriau, and it in there*
fore probable that the seeds were sixteeu or seventeen hundred years
old.’^That statement also has, we believe, been veiected as the result
of observation not sufticieutly guarded, and it may, wo suppose,
considered tts generally improbable that seeds ever have the cai^abi*
lity of germinating after tlxo lapse of any such period. At all
eventJi^e have no well authenticated proofs^ of anything ot the
kiedituough Buoh alleged facts aa that to wUlch Pr. LiwUey te.-3ti-
flss have had the support of vory credible wituosses. ” The pre¬
servation of vitality,’’says uu authority, " depeuds upou the stabi-
lity of tho ohemioM compounds of whioh they consist, TIds appears
to be tho hinge upon which everything turns." A further truth
seems to be tlmt the process of ripening is one which rosulta in
titii itabUity, Oxygen is the great agent of change, whether of
germination or deoay, aud a ripe seed Is one whioh has been
fortified against tho action of oxygen. In some s eeds this process
appears to be more oomplete than in others. Even when fully ripe,
nuts aud acorns have a greater affinity for oxygen than corn, or
peas, or holly berriea. Nut and aoortis, therefore, lose their
vitality more rapidly than any of the latter. In some seeds the
ripening process appears to do very little towards fortifying
against the all destroying oxygen. It U said that coffee berrtee,
for instance, lose their living principle if not immediately planted,
when they become fully ripe, aud the same thing has been affirmed
of magnolia seeds. Ou the other hand, all iciuds of cereals appear
t<j perfect their ripening process very oonipletely \inder favourable
conditions, and hence preserve their power of germination for a
longtime. Maize has boeu grown after lying by for twenty-five or
thirty years ; rye for forty years ; and wheat—fearing out of oou-
sidoration tho gift of tlie mummies—has been known to yield a
good crop after considerably longer than that. Dr. Llndley says
that tho seeds of the sensitive plant will keep for forty years, and
kidiicy-beans for a hundred years. It has been recorded tliat, after tho
great fire of I.ondon, the ground cleared by tlie destruction of tho
buildings soon became covered with plants of a kind unknown, or
very uncommon, in London previously ; and prairie fires iu America
have been observed to have boon followed oy a similar pheno¬
menon. .Some have e.xplained this—though there certainly appears
to be no great probability in the theory —by supposing it duo to
the fact that seeds had Ihjou overbuilt or overgrown, aud thus shut
away from the vitalising action of the air, and that, when the
ground was cleared above them, their-suspended animation re-assert¬
ed itself, and they started into life. There would seem to be more
probaldo ways of accounting ftir such a pUonoineuon, though it
seems to be indispiitabie that good reason has occasionally been
found to believe that seeds have been thro>wi up from a con¬
siderable deptli in the soil, aud have at once germinated,
their vitality having apparently been suspouded by burial.
Amateur seed sowers should make a note of this. A very
common mistake la that of buryhig seeds too deep in tlie soil.
'They get moisture, but they got too little son and air, and fail to
germinate. Usually no doubt they die, but it may be that some of
the more enduring kind.s may start into growth ou being subsequent¬
ly turned up to the surface, and it may be that the plentiful crop
of weeds that will often overspread a newly dug plot of ground
within a very short time, may be accounted for iu tins way. A very
ourious fact was vouched for many y^ars ago, whioh lias an addi¬
tional interest now, that electricity seems to bo invading every
department of activity. It vi'as found that a galvanic currant hod
a (lecidod effect in the geriniiiatiug of seeds—that seeds at the nega¬
tive poleof a batteiy germinated muoh more freely than tlmse
round the positive pule, But what is far more singular than this is
that, according to very respectable authority, the radicals
of seods made to germinate at the positive poles grew up¬
ward instead of dowiiivard—the current made them gi-ow bottom
upwards. Brofessur Hunliey, wlio mantious tiiis, refers to a number
ol experimonU carried out aitli tho definiUi object of ascertaining
hoiv long seed may be kept with a probability of their growing.
Out of fids species tosted by De Camfollo, there wore only seven¬
teen that grew after a lapse of fifteen years. Out of 18S genera
tried under tin- auspices of tJic British Assuciution, it was found that
the majority had lost then vitality altogether at the end of ton
years. Thirty-four species retained a capability of gcrmiuatlug
lifter ton years, twenty species after twenty years, and only two
after forty years. As a general rule, there can be no doubt
that Nature knows pretty well what she is about in shaking
lowii hot seeds as soon as they aro ripe. They dotoriorato
jy being keiit. -So far os the ftorienlturist is oonceruod, however,
tiicrc would seem to be some exceptions. Balsam seed, for
instance, is thought by many growers to produce more doublo
Ijlos.soms by being kept foru time. Asa rule, however, old seeds
slioiiM not be relied upou, and, thongb it is to bo feared tliat most
)f file seed packets have a certain proportion of old stock, wo
iiippo.se that many dealers will satisfy any little qualms of
'ouscienee with the rcficctiou that most amateurs are given to
•sowing their seeds too thickly.— GIoIjij.
INDIAN AGRICULTUHE.
rN what manner shall a rapidly increasing population derive
!_ suffioiout sustenance from a deteriorating soil ? To the solu-
ion of this problem Lieutenant Frederick I’ogsou, H. M.’s Bengal
Army, has applied hiiiiaelf with much iiitelligenoe aud assiduity.*^
lo is cucouiitorud, however, by two enemies -the apathy of the
fovenimeiit, aud tho prejudices of tho people. Again and again,
le has placed important information at the disposal of tho Goveru-
iiciit, but only to find his warnings neglected, his good advice
.reatc<l with iudifforeuce. The value of a rich opium crop, one
ivonld imagine, must be pretty well established by tliis time, and
yet no attention lias been paid to a pamphlet published in 1871 by
Mr, Bliilli pa, a landholder iu the distriet of Fyzabad, iu which
were pointed out the groat advantages ho had derived from the
USB of a particular manure recommended by Mr. Pogson, who
iiail oifioiuUy communioated his formula to the local Goverumant.
Exparienoe also has shown that tho poppy is far more vigorous and
hardy when grown ou hills, and that Himalayan opium oontains
twice as muoh morphia as the best produce of Bonares and Patna.
Novertbeloss, the cultivation of tho plants is virtually coufiuod to
the plains, where the requisite iron, pota.sI), and uitrogou ari in-
adeijuately supplied by the soil, and to provide which was tiio
object of Mr. Pogson’s slighted receipt, lii like manner, no
* Marmal of Aufi/'ultureJov India. By bicutonont F. Pogson, il.M.’s
Bengal Axiny. Tliaeker, Spink k Uo.
218
THE INDIAN AGRICIILTUEIST.
June 1, 1883.
Offioiol atepe hftve been tokon to encouraffe tbs oultivatioa of the
Cbufaa, or Ot/verus emv-lentua, which, although inportad by the
Agrl-Hortlpuitural Society so far iKick aa 1887, does not yet
possess a Hindoo name. It Is the well-known ground nut,
so popular in the United States and in Spain as food for
human beings, as well as for siiaep, cows, oxen, and pig*.
It is dcBoribod os extremely prolific, a single nut yielding
from two to four hundred. In fiavour it resembles a coooanut,
with a taste oi almonds when the tubers are ripe and dry.
A still more striking examplf of imreauoratic supercilious¬
ness is to be foand'lu the stupid neglect of the immense deposits
of fossil hones in tire Hewalik range. The natives who, if Hindoos,
can hardly be prevailed upon to touch bone-dnst, do not object
to handle tlic phoephutixed hones dug out of these mountains,
probably from not uuderetaading tlieii' real character and origin.
The one thing needful is the coustniction of cart roads, but
hitherto Government has apparently had no time or thought to
bestow oil such vulgar details. The Hindoos are equally averse
from using nlglit.eoil iwd liquid manure, and thus abstain fi-om
employing the means immediately at hand for the regeneration
of theu' exhausted soli. Mr. Fogson is severely logical in rebuk¬
ing the Hindoos fur their laudation of the oow as a universal
purifier, and yet refusing to make use of the animal for the
purification oi bone-dust and other artifloial manures held to be
*'oommon and unclean.” His advice, however, may be profitably
followed by both native and European agriculturists, for it is emi¬
nently practical and devoid oi empiricism. His little volume,
indeed, etiilHidies teaohiuge of a large and varied experience, and
deserves to bo wai'mly supported by the Government.
The food question, inde^, is heglnulng to cause anxiety in al¬
most every region of the globe. Even the Americans are watching
with disquietude the rapid absorption of culturabla land by iinuii-
0 ants from Europe. The present system of agricnltura in tlie
United States, if such it can be called, where the soil is left to it¬
self, is excessively wasteful and exiiausting. So long as the virgin
soil will go on yielding spontaneously, the danger oi dimiimtioii in
the supply of cereals cannot be iiiiniiuent, but as soon as niaimre is
wanted, Hie decline wUl become visible to all men. Tito American
fanner is not geiieraliy a stock-keeper, except on dairy farms,
which, of course, produce little in the way of corn. But without
stock It will be neoossaiy to have recourse to the artifloial manures
which need to be applied with thought and discrimination. There
is a very general belief that the prevalence of plouro-piieumonia is
partly and even largely due to the excessive or injudicious
use of aitificial manures, uneducated farmers taking no hoed
of their component parts, or of the nature of the soil or crop to
which they are to be appEed. The Indian agriculturist who is
wUliug to be gnldeJ_ by Mr. Pogsoii's advice, incurs no risk
of the kind. He is not invited to purchase this or tliat
compound, but is told in simple language, to be understoud
of all men, what ho is to do for each particular crop, whether
--ppy or tobacco, inalsse, wheat, or barley, or any other form and
'aaiuon oi field produce. He cannot go wrong unless be chosos to
follow his own judgment. In England the outlook is very dis¬
agreeable, alike for those who own, and for tlioso who occupy land.
Lmnb for the present is tabooed, wliicli deprives the farmer of his
spring resources. Even mutton is growing scarce and dear. Old
mutton suoh os onr fathers loved has lung been unobtainable. It
is seldom more than one year old, and is consequently pale and
flabby. It has deteiiorated as much ns the cinret with which it
was waslicd down. Gtiorles the Second may congratulate himself
that he lived at a time wlien sheep were graBs-fed, and suffered to
complete their fourth or fifth year. He would never liuvc baoii a
merry monarch, hod he sat down to alternate conrscs of beef and
pork, the one out from an animal dying of coiisiiiiiptiou, unci the
other from an unclean beast swarming with trieliiine. Tlio very grape
refuses to make glad the heart oi man. Phylloxera is a long ami hard
word for the uiiluou, but the disease appears to be as incurable as
yonng love, and much more fatal. Tiie vile ooncoctious of Spauisli
and Australian wines comliined with slow poisons, that are now
shipped from Bordeaux, mark not only the deterioration of the
French vine, but also, wliat is fai' worse, the deterioration of the
French character. Man must live, however, or tliluks that he
innst, nor will he live on bread alone. With the diifnsion of sound
scientific knowledge, tlie earth will once more be compelled to
yield her kindly fruits in due season, and in sufficient quantity for
the inoiotouance of mankind. The period of trial and tribulation
is generally brief, and is usually suooceded by long coiitiuuous
happiness, especially in three-volume novels. Lot us liopo, tliore-
fore, that man will not be starved olT the face of the earth, at least
in our time ; and in the meanwhile we may perchance postpone the
evil iiour by a careful study of Mr. Pogson’s treatise .—Madras
Mail.
ECONOMICAL USE OF TURNIPS IN THE FEEDING
OF CATTLE.
M r. BllUCE, Colllthie, read a paper on tliis subject at the last
meeting of the Strallibogio Farmers’ Club. After a few
Introductory remwks, Mr. Bruce soid ;—If the same piojiortiou of
the acreage of the fariii is to continue to be devoted to the growtii
of tlie turnip crop, I would suggest as an iinproveinoiit on tlie
present inode of its consumption that tlie whole of tiie crop
b* drawn for sheep, and the numlier of drills loft to be
regulated ooeordlng to the qnality of the soil and its need of the
manure of sheep. A groat drawback, and it is a serious‘one, to Uie
consumption of tnruipa by sheep in this district, is the heavy raiii-
iall and stormy natui-e of the weather generally. Owing to such
Adreris oUmatic oouditions as genendly prevail here in winter,
S rices for dravni turnips must be oonsiderably lower than in other
istricts where a milder climate is enjoyed, r.iu\ where the etook
arrives sooner at maturity. And as the turnips are not worth so
muoli to the flockmastor in this loaallty os In many others more highly
favoured, owing to the same reason—the heavy rainfall and frequent
snowstorm—it Is highly probable that in even an average eeaaon
the succeeding crops do not derive so much benefit from the drop¬
pings of sheep as tliey do in the more favoured looalities. As
pricH.s os n rule may ho expected to remain low—la laot seldom SO
liighas sufficient to cover the cost of production, Wmere liave not
tlie same encnuragomciit to consume a part of the tnmip crop ou
the ground by slieep as the farmers have, who live in (llalriotB
where a dry olimate is enjoyed, and which is so neoesinry to the
speedy fattening of the fieecy flooks. However, If it he aseomed
that the manure left on the ground by sheep lie worth to the suc¬
ceeding crops about 30s. per acre—wliloh I lielieve it is—wheu tha
turnips uie consumed on ground in suitable condition, a little
eiicouragemmit appears, and it might be worth the attention of
farmers to try the system on a more extended scale than has hither¬
to been done in tliis district, and carefully watch the results. For
rooiiomical reasons the present system of consuming the turnips is
ripe for uhaugo, and an alteration is due at an early date, but owing
to a spirit of apatliy, which uiiiortuiiatoly prevails in farming olroles,
Olid vvliieh is altogether hostile to agrlouftaral progress, I fear the
iiBocs.sary n-forin wlilcli agriuultural enterprise should achieve, will
only be aouoinpUshed by stern necessity. Turnips could be much
ocoiwiiiizoj by pulping and mixing witli elioppod straw, but as
this modo of preparation cannot be oonveuiautly adopted on every
farm for want of water power, and, as In too many oases a prejudice
prevails against the method, it has not had suoh on extensive trial
as it do3orvi'.s ; bnt, ns the projiidica U not born of personal interest,
it would doubtless be removed by a oloaror knowledge of the sys¬
tem and its attendant results. By pulping turnips and mixing
with cut straw a considerable saving can be effeoted i in sliort, the
supply of roots o.in he n-dneed to one-half tlie ordinary quantity
(or from 150 lbs. to 75 lbs.), along with cake or meals to a feeding
blillouk per day, wltii a similar reduction to young and growing
aniinal.s Such a saving is a groat consideration, and pulping is
.surely a modo of preparing food worth giving an Impartial and ex¬
haustive trial. Some people have aliaudonad the system of pulping
roots in despair, on account of their stock not making satisfactory
progress upon tlm prepared food ; hiit upon inquiring into the whole
system of feeding pursued in sncli cases, it^ppeara that the animals
Were not supplied with water, and as water is requisite when the
allowance of turnips is Iirought to suoh a limit, it would bo a matter
f surprise if the results in such cases were entirely satisfactory,
seeing that nearly two-thirds of the weight of the animal’s body is
coniposeil of water. When roots are dirty, as they frequently arc,
when lifted in tlio winter months, it is neoassary to wash them be¬
fore pulping, not only to save the iiiaoliine from iiniinoossary tear
and wear and to prevent its dostruotiou by small stonus, Init to
pro.'ioiit the fooil to the stork in a clean .and p.alatable form. During
tlio last few years the lalioiir and expenditure of the Uuabaudiiiau
!mvp not bsiiu rewarded by full crops of turnips, and extensive
re.sort lias necessarily been had to nrtifici.it looil, and it is probably
during such seasons, wlion farmers arc oonipBllod to use artificial
food, that its ndvmitagoB bocomo mojt apparent. As we must drift
with the stream as oircmnstaiioua direct, probably tlio best thing
would ba to somewhat alter our stereotyped rotation, and pul a
smaller breadth under what in this distriot we may call tlic ' sorry
crop,'and roly toagreater o.xtenl on extraneous assistauee in the
foortiiigof slooU. I advocate the more extended use oi artificial feed¬
ing stufi's for throe ronsous. First—Because, it you pay for them
you are snro to get tlioiii, whereas you may b\i at the trouble and
expense iu endeuvouriug to produce a crop of roots, and have a par¬
tial, aniountiiig at times to almost a total, taihiro of the crop. My
second roaaoii is that 1 cousidor by a moderate use of concentrated
feeding stuffs, and a limited allowance of roots, flesh and fat can be
laid on the bones of onr animals in loss time aud at less cost than
liy the common system of allowing them all the turnips they can
oonsnmo. My thinl reason for advising the use of suoli substances
is, because 1 believe tiio fertility of onr fields can bo considerably lu-
ornasfld liy tliu extra quality of the farmyard manure, in which a
judicious mixture of the richer varieties of food has entered into
tlie dietary of our stock. And I also believe that this extra ferti¬
lity can bo purcliased at a loss cost indirectly by the use of suoh
fooii amongst the stock than by directly applying to th» crops the
exponsivo ammoniaoal and pliospliatic manures. Of course, it has to
bo lioriie ill mind that in order to obtain the full benefit from the
ooiisumption of artificial food no waste should be permitted in the
courtyard, and iu order effcotnally to prevent waste, tiie manure
heap necessarily roipiires to he covered, aud the wash of the byres,
without being coutamiiiated with rain water, should be oaretnlly
ooiidiioted to the heap, and there priserved so far as can be
absorbed by the manure, Iu the most ocoiiomluol feeding of stock,
a knowledge is required oi the exact relationship that exists
between an animal aud its food, aud of the analysis of the various
kinds of food. An acquaintance with pliysiology, together with
the resenrehes of chemistry, have given the necessary informa¬
tion, and by tliese lights which Illuminate the otherwise dark
paths of agricultnral knowledge, I shall briefly consider the con-
stitueiita of food, aud refer to their relationship in the animal
economy. ’I’h# various couatitnents of food are divided into two
distinct classes, the nitrogenous and the noii-ultrOBouoiis^Tlie
nitrogenous portions of to<Kl are albumen, casein*, and fibrlSwf and
are called flesli formers because tliey form the blood and tissue
of the body. I'he flesh-formers are present to a limited extent
in the straw of cereals, but mostly abound iu tbe seeds of Imsus,
pease, lentils, oats, and wlie.it, while the seeds of cotton and
flax are jiortioubirly rich in thcni. The iiou-iiitrogeuous portions
of food ore of two- principal kinds—the oils aud the carbo-hydrates,
or starch, sugar, pectin, aud gum. In the auiinal sohaomy these
June 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBI$T.
nuJatikln the heat, promote respiration, and form fat. In Indian
oOm, in the straw of ueraali, and in the dry matter of potatoes,
•tarah w pwMut in lorge quAntitiefl, Sugar and peotln aro com¬
mon ooMfe^ents of mangolds, carrots, turnips, aud other roots.
In th® animal system, oil sorv^es two purposes, nis., for the
maintenance of heat and for the atorage of fat. For
the purpowe of respiration, oil has two and-a-half times
as much valne as the carbo-hydrates, Iwcnnse it contains that
exeess of carbon ; and that portion of it which is digested goes
for the storing np of fat in the system. Some of tiie leading
physiologists fiaye reoentiy ohangoa their views, and tiiey now
regard the carbo-hydrates as being nsefal in ttie animal economy
only lor the purposes of respiration and for the maintenanee of
heat. Formerly snoh substances were looked upon by all as being
useful for the produotlon of fat. However, it matters little ; for
were it not for the oarbo-Iiydrates, the animal heat and force
would neoeisarily require to he supplied by the albumenoids and
oil present In the food. Scisnoe snows tliat the animal body is
composed of the following four proximate elements -1st, wate. ,
2ud, albuminous tissues, represouted in tht^ food Iry nitrogenous
matters or flesh-formers; 3rd, fatty tissues, being represented by
hydro-carbons or fat-formers and hoat-produuars; 4th, saline,
having its oorrsspouding representative in salt. It therefore
follows that, in order to maintain the animal system in lioaltli,
it must bo supplied with food containing ail the constituents of
its oompositiou, Piiyaiology has given well-defined principles,
sufiBoient for the purpose of properly regulating tlie diet
according to the intention of the feeder. Thus young and grow¬
ing animals should be supplied with food best adapted for the
buildiug up the lean part of the body, or for giving them bone and
musole. For this purpose glnten nr albuminous matters are
absolutely uecossary, and should oooinjy an important place in the
oomiKjsitiou of their food. The amount of flesh that can be derived
from food depends upon the quantity of albuminous oonstituonts
present in the food. For the full development of musole, animals
should have plenty of exercise, and they should also have ncooss
to salt, whiob is necessary in the animal economy. Feeding
animals, on the other liaud, should be supplied witli food moat
conducive to the production of flesh and fat, aud for that purpose
the oleaginous food, or substauoes rich in fat and oil, should be
mixed, in suitable proportions, with tiie albumenoids or flesh-
formers—f.«., albumen, caseins, aud fibrine—and liie ourbo-hydratos
for heat givers—f.r.,—Aarch, sugar, peotiii, and gum. ffaviiig
oousidered the various constitnonts of fooil, and their rospsctico
uses in the animal eeuuoiny, 1 shall now hrisfly refer to the analysis
of the oommou varieties of food produced on the farm. By analysis
w* find that turnips contain fully DO per cent, of water'; it
oousequautly follows that tliere is searoely llli. of dry feeding
mattor in evorj; lOlhs. of tliom, and in that small quantity of dry
matter there is no oil for the rapid aocuumlatiou of fat, and
only IJtb. of albumouold.s or flush formiug oonipounds ; they
contain, however, about lt)S. of the carlio hydrates or non-
uitrogenous uonstituouts of food, the uses of which havo just
been explained. The cereals oontuia a much less proportion of
water, but still the moisture present in oat-straw in good fondition
is as imieh as 11 percent of its entire weight. Kvery 100 lbs. of
oat-straw contains ilb of oil, li!h. albumen, and 37 lbs. of the
earbo-hydrates, and as a feeding substance it has a greater value
than is generaliy accorded to it. Tlio guiin contains -IJlbs. of
fatty matters, Olbs. and dllbs. rospoctivciy of the albumenoids
and carbo-hydrates. The feeding iifopertics of clover liay grouHy
depend upon the mixture of the lurious gr.asses and the ammint of
olovor present in the mixUu'u. Before tlie crop is nt full matuiity,
or before the seeds bdgin to ripen, the nitrogim is most abnndiint,
and as ripening proceeds, the nitrogiiii diminishes, uljile tlie ju'o-
portioii of the carbo-hydrates increases. It will tlius be seen that
the analysis of hay must vary greatly aocording to tlie stage of m.atur-
ity the crop has attained when cut, and tliu condition in which it
is secured. Theoretically iu the feeding o! cattle, hay and turnips
should produce results equal to a supply of good oat-straw aud
turnips, alone with several pounds of lins' Cil cake, ft has been
estimated that, as an auxiliary to the ordinary food, 71b.s. of oats
and 121bs. of clover hay are equivalent in value, and should each
make lib. of live increase. In the mo,aiitimp, oats at 20s. per qr.
of 3201bs. ropresonts £7 per ton ; au.l according to the above scale
of comparative values, hay should be worth us an article of food
about 82i!. per ton, wliorcas it cau be pnrobased in the luuikct at
about 60 per ton. The analyses which have been giicn clearly
(bow that there is an enormous loss in the convorsimi of the
natural produce of the farm into meal, and many theoretical men
arc astonished how cattle thrive and fatten as they do upon such
food. But still, oven those who pin their faiiii to chomistry and
its teachings, if possessed of oxporiuiicc gaijiod in tliein’actic.il school
of nature, will readily admit that tho results arc much bettor than
can bo expected, aud especially is such tlie ea.se when the iiaturai
food has beeu produced on good soil, and iu high manurial condition.
The reason why such substances os straw, turnips, mnngolds, ami
patatoes, which contain little but water and the carbo-bydrntos,
fatten animals at all, is because, us has already bi yii explained, the
latter maintain heot in the animal system, and, by assimilation to a
limited extent, they may bo transfoi-mod Into fatty matters, and
therefore beooraostored 08 fat in the body. In these days wlicn
the turnip ci’opis a very uncertain one, and from its uncortaint.y the
expenses connected with tho production of beef are high, farmers
oannwafford to lie in tlie arms of Morplieus, but must lie ready to
take advantage of all tho benefits will ;b flow from an Incrc.xsed
knowledge of soienoe, and the lessons wliicli practical exporicuoe
teach. Soienoe teaches us that tlio food generally served to fatten¬
ing animals Is not of a nature capable of producing the best results
in tiie least time, and it also shows us tliut if wo are aiming to
produce flesh Md fat at the least cost, and lu the least time, it is of
pamapKaiimpertMe* to bave the md of the re^uielte nature
for those purposes, Seeing that in the natural produce of
the farm, oil is scarce, iu artificial food it hMomes the more
neoessary ingredient for the early maturing of stock, and it
also bectpinos necessary so that the flesh of our animal bo well
mixed with fat. In linseed cake tUo proportion of moisture is only
about 10 per cent, or one-tenth of its entire weight, the remain¬
ing uiue-tenths consisting of substauoes of more or less value
as food, and contains from 10 to 12 per cent, of oil, about 28 pec
cent albumenoids, and from 30 to 36 pur opnt of tho carbo-
liydiTitos. fjiicb analysis clearly shows that linseed coke is a ve;^
valuable feeding substance, and from its better digeatlbiUty it
possesses a value above tlni-t of decorticated cotton ca&e, although
the latter possesses on aualysis 60 per oent higher than the former.
The value of any food greatly depends upon its digestibility, and
practical test.s have shown that as a feeding substance, de¬
corticated cotton cake Is inferior to linseed cake. From the
ludigostiblo nature of decorticated cotton cake, eminent authori¬
ties have given it as tlicir opinion that as much as seven-eiglithS of
its albuminous constitnonts pass through tbs animal without being
assimilated. Decorticated cotton oake oontains a half more nitro¬
gen than linseed ojiko, or nitrogen equal to 8 per cent ammonia,
oouscqucntly its manurial value is very great, aud if that be taken
into consideration, wliioh it deserves to be when estimating its
value, then it is worth considering whother it is not susceptible
of improvomont by grinding and mixiug with other substances of
a loss concentrated nature, and tlioroby enhance its value as a
feeding suhstauce, Tlio preparation of food is a mattor of oon-
siderablo importance in counoction with the oconondcal consumption
of the tuvuip crop and the judicious feeding of cattle. The system
of cutting straw and pulping roots, which a few advanced feeder*
have adopted, has much to recommend it, inasmuch as whatever
meals are used can bo readily mi.xod with tlie prepared food whioh
is given in a more presentable form, and not ottended by the waste
whioh takes plaoc umlor the ordinary system ; the animals
also can the sooner take their food and consequently have more
time for rest, lu tho fattening of cattle generally in this
district, 1 believe tho praotico of most farmers is to allow
a bullock l.Xltbs. of roots per day, along with straw aiC
Uhihitn. If sncli a quantity was given along with a very
Uboral nllowanoc of coiiceutmted feeding stuns, cattle could
scarcely bo c,xpcct«d to pay for their faro. But if the supply be
roducod to nearly one-half, or a quantity not exceeding lOOlrn, per
day, along witii 4 or 51l>.s. of cake or meals, there is a gi'eater pro¬
bability of a roturii for both, the natural and artifloioT food con¬
sumed. In m.aiiy c.ases when very large quantities of highly oon*
oontrated food are given, J am afraid that a direct profit from its
consumption would bo too much to expect. It is desirable that
whatever Is given in fhr- form of ai'tifloial food, shonld be given
in good condition, nnd suitably balanced, containing the proper
proportions of iiltniinenoids, cai'bn-iiydrates, aud oil, an that the
process of fattening sbtmld be as much hastened as possible. In
the msanthne, various substances, such as oats, barley, and linseed
can be coiniKnitulBil by the farmer in proportions to show an
analysis similar to liusced cake, and at less expense than oake j
hut as farmers generally mix their meals with cold water, a
considerable amount of tho untriinant is destroyed by that
rough nnd ready process. Meals should ho always given dry,
nr mixed with boiling w.ater, wUieli would bo the means
of at le.ast parthilly cooking the fond and making it more
palatable and more oisily digested. In preparing a meal It it
ilcHtrublc to draw tlio coiistitnenta from a variety of souroee,
hccHUSc tho oats end barley ground into meal, being comparative¬
ly pniiv in nlbumcnoids and oil, would never do to ne given alone,
lu order to increase the feeding value of such substances, it is
iH'cca.sury to add uitrogenous constituents, which can be dope by
adiliitg lirnised linseed or decorticated cotton oake ground into
meal. It is to bo rememboroil tliat the nutritive value of a food
d.ies not dcpcinl altogether upon the uitrogenous elements or the
supply of albuminous compounds presout in the mixture, but
to a certain extent upon its digestibility^ aud palatability. In
oumpoundiiig a meal, care .should bo takeu not to have too ranch
oil pixscut, as a snporalmndauce would have an injurlons effect
upon the niiimal’a digestion, and for a feeding bullock jiosBibly
lib. IS .as much as can be .assimilated in the twenty-four hours.
As ruminating animals require a certain amount of bulk in their
food, it would not do to feed them upon a highly concentrated
food alone without a supply of t' c bulkier kinds, such as turnips
and straw. In reference to the comparative values of natural
and artificial fowl, I may mention an experiment which
was carefully conducted by Mr. John Milne, of Baitbers,
d'urrilf, and rocordevl in the last pnblishotl volume of tho
Tmiituclionn of the Highland ,aiid Agricaltura! .Society of .Scot¬
land. The lesiilt of thu experiment clearly showed that 4ibs.
of limsued cake and . 51 !)a. of cotton cake or maize were equivalent
to lulbs. of turnips. .Seeing that by analysis cotton cake is 60
per cent bcttc" than liiHoed cake, a directly opposite result
might have hcon cxpoctod. There are many other important
matters connected witli the feeding ami fattening of cattle which
claim atteuticii ; hut, n.s I have already occupied too^ much of
your time, 1 shall hi icily allude to only a few of them. The most
important of thc-se 1 consider is regularity in feeding, whiob is
tliu nicans of picvcnting rcstlessuos-s, and is therefore of groat
consequence, tfleanliucss of the byres, aud animals should be
carefully attoudod to, aud their litter shonld receive attentum. A
suitable and even temperature, together with properly veatilated
buildings, aud an immunity from draughts, are none the less
desirable, yen, essential to satisfactory progress. It is unneces¬
sary to nicntioti that iu order to secure satisfactory result* in
fattening, jmliclous cave and treatment are neoessary from the
day of the animal’s birth to bring satisfactory resulto iu £ s. d,
—iforlh Bi'U’mk jtjfrU’iiltiti’liti
220
THE INDIAN AGRICuEtUHIST.
June 1, 1883.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE SULPHITE WOOD PULP
PROCESSES.
A CONTRIBUTOR to the Papier Zeitwng publishes in the
number of that journal for the 15th ultimo a oommunioation
of which the folio wiug i« a tranelatiou : —
Laat week we had a visit paid us by a gentleman who had been
several days with 5dr. Ekmaii at Bergvik, and with Mr. Francke
at Molndal, Sweden, for the purpose of experimenting; and we
are now able, owing to bis friendly ouistanoe, to state exactly the
result of his visit.
We must in the first instance correct our previous statement
with reference to Mr. Franoke’s boiler, so far that the taps are now
different. The taps are not made as usual of oast-iron, but are
merely a continuation of the oylindrioal boiler with egg ends
indeed the boiler is merely tapered off at the ends, and is con
struoted without any sharp corners or angles, so that it can be
thoroughly well lined with lead ; the ends are closed by sorowing
on brass plates. At each ond of the cylinder, just about where
the tapenng off into ogg shape commences, two broad iron bands
about 8 inches wide are placed, wMoli latter are carried on two
heavy cast-iron rollers 18 inches diameter ; these four rollers are
supported on cast-iron bearings, and the cylinder rovolves slowly
on these rollers driven by cogs.
The boiler fnlly lined with lead weighs quite 40 tons ; the lead
is not attaohed to the boiler in any way, but forms a boiler of itself
inside the iron cylinder ; on the inside of the oylindor at distances
of about 8 feet apart are introduced brass rings of liuoh thickness
by 2 inches wide in the shape of wedgos which keep the load
against the outer iron shell.
Kkman’f mill at Bergvik, near Soderliam, 3.50 kilometres from
Stockholm, only proparos unbleached stuff, which is worked up
by Thompson and Bonar of Ilford, near Loudon. The boilers used
here are only feet diameter and 12 feet long, and arc construct¬
ed Uko Laliousso’s straw-boilers. Bkman’s mills arc worked exact¬
ly on the same principle as that described in his American Patent
No. 21 of 1882.
On the other band, while Francke and Mltschorliuli use lime,
Ekroau uses magnesia, which he procures in the shape of carbonate
of magnesia from Greece and Germany ; this magnesia is burnt in
the same manner ns chalk, by wliioh process it loses Us carbonic
aoid, and is converted into magnesia ; this is placed on shelves insiclu
a leaden tower lined out with wood so us to protect the lead, and
salpburous acid gas is introduced passing upwards, water being
allowed to trickle down over it, which is partly absorbed, so that
at the end of the operation moroly a slimy muss remains ; the boil¬
ing with the Bulntiou of magnesia and SO'J is uouduutud as describ-
cd.
We think it iniprohablo that Ekman obtains bis 802 from
Sicilian sulphur instead of from pyriles.
It seems of importance that Ekman doos not cut iiis wood into
pieces Uko Franuke or other cellulose manufacturers, but that he
first saws it into planks, ami oarofully bores out every kuotaftei-
wards i it is very easy to distinguish the imperfections iu boards,
whoroaa in the small hauked-up pieces thoso are very difficult to
detoot. 'I’liese boards ore split up still smaller, and then oruslicd
We are indebted to this costly iircparatiou of Kktnuu’s stuff for
the following results, cit., that bis stuff works up quite clean,
without nsiim any knotters or strainers. Our iuformaut brought
Samples of Ekinau’s and Fraucke's raw material, and samples of
the stuff at all different stages of tlic proco8.s, and tlie result proved
that Ekman s stuff boiled (not bleached) is cleaner and nearly ns
white as Francks’s hloaohcd stuff.
The paper made from Ekiiiau’s uiihloaohod stuff, and which we
wo have seen, can be used for the best writings, and is superior to
paper which was made from Franeko’s stuff whioh was only fit for
news ; we have also scon paper made from Ekiitau's bleuehed stuff'
whioh is quite equal to paper made from Hue linen.
The priuolpal theoretical dlfferuuee botwoou the lime and magne*
Bia process is that the gypsum (lime process) is not easily dissolved,
and remains in the stuff, whereas the sulphate of magnesia is readily
dissolved, and is easily washed out, none of it remaining iu the
•tuff.
We do not know whether the magnesia has any other advantages
over the lime, but it would bo very mterostiug if this could bo prov¬
ed by a trial. The cost of Ekmau’s iinbleaehed stuff' at Bergvik is
£13 per ton, but the selling prioo is £20 per ton. It has lieeii prov¬
ed that, aooordiiig to the price, Ekman’s stuff is better than cither
Franoke’s or Mitscherliuh's as it comes into tlie market; we aie,
however, unable to say wliothcr this is owing to the method of
manufacture or to experience.
The French paper manufacturers who visited Borgvik gavo a
detailed account in the French language, which we now repeat,
translated and oondensed.
Result of experiments made at Bergvik iu tlie presenoo of the
undersigned manufacturers, on the 2oth and 2Uth du^, 1882. The
wood, white pine, was foiled iu the spring of 1881, and sawn up in
autumn into planks weighing 4,39u kilos
kilos.
There was a low during storage ol planks of 260
Doi tlirough cutting ... 233
Do, trough cleaning, dusting and soA-
ing ... ... 332
idaklng in all a total Iom of 82S
835 kllM Iron 4,895 kilos, IsAves 8,578.
This lot of 3,570 kilos was put into 4 boilers, and after bdng
washed in the ordinary potchers, was put up into 18 bales weighing
nett 2,875 kilos, (moist weight); on being drisd this was rsdnosd to
5r30 per cent dry stuff ; another trial, or test in the ttme way
only yielded 48'70 per cent—the last trial seems more correct,
Taking the yield at 50 per cent, by splitting the differsnoe, the
weight of the dry stuff obtained in 1,487 kilos 32'88 wr cent
of the raw wood which contained 21 per cent moistnre,— .Bergvik,
27lh duly,’82, signed by 12 gentlemen whose names wo cannot
decipher, and therefore omit,’’
The yield of 32‘63 per oent boiled unbleaohed etnff seems low, but
if we consider the 21 per oent moisture which it contained, the
diy weight would oome to more than 40 per oent, but even then the
yield is smaller than Francke’s or Mitsoherlicb’s ; when, however,
we consider that the stuff is perfectly clean and free from dirt,
impurities, and gypsum, the yield is not really eo low in com¬
parison.
Mr. Krainor uses the MitsoUerlioli cellulose advantageously for
printing and lower quality paper.
Mr. Kramor prefers tho Mitioherlioh oelluloso to soda boiled, and
says it is tougher ; Mr. Pottermann, of Wangen, has compared
several samplos of paper made from Mitsoherlioh stuff, and is of
the same opinion as Mr. Kramer.
Mr. Kramor washed some of the Mitsoherlioh stuff in a five-
centner engine for two hours, after which he says it worked up
very well ; and Dr. Doru confirms what Mr. Kramer says and
states that he washed some with muriatic acid three quarters of
of an hour, tnr which operation tho gypsum entirely dlwppoared,
and this stuff then takes the colour very well for papers.
Paper made entirely from Mitsoherlioh stuff without the admix¬
ture of rag is not good, and calenders very badly (that is, a bad
surface); Mr. Petormann holds that it is very advantageous to
wash the cellulose with hypo-snlnhito of soda, which materially
assist tho siziug; Mr. Kutter would prefer that the Mitsoherlioh
stuff wore washed and free from gyiwum.
Another article appears in the same journal of the 22nd ultimo on
the subject of sulphite wood pulp and soda cellulose, as follows :—
A great deal has boon written lately about sulphite wood pulp,
but few figures have boon brought forward by disinterested people.
Tliorci is, however, iu No. 8 of the Pupier an interesting
description of the sulphite wood manufactory at Rfirndal, near
Gottenburg ; and os the figures seem to bo given by a disinterostod
authority, they may bo assumed as correct. No doubt a compari¬
son between these and those of tho soda-hoilcd cellulose will prove
iuterosting.
The boilers at Korudal are 7 feet diameter by 40 feet long, ond
cubical contents of each 1,500 cubic foot ; the weight of sulpliito stuff
(dry) produced from a bulling is 1,800 kilos. These figures do not
agree with the patentee’s, rr.., that the weight of tho manufactur¬
ed orticle is much larger than that of the soda treated article, for.—
Lee’s boiler, 4 feet diametrr and 40 feet long, oontonts 500 culiio
fert, yields for each boiling 650 kilos, dry rollulosu.’,—1,950 kilos
for 1,.500 cube foot.
.Siuclaii's boiler, 600 cube feet, gives 800 kilos.’.—2,000 kilos
for 1,000 cube feet space.
Spherical boilers give about the same result.
Now, one can quite well surmise that thr tho sulphite manufac¬
turers till their boders as full as they oonvouiontly ean, and that
in every boiler a eubie foot holds about tlic same ((uantity of wood:
from this, it would appear that the sulphite process eaimot give a
greater yichl than tlic soda process, and it st'cuis, therefore, that
this great suriug doos not exist : tho high yield the patentees
assumed owing to their basing the same as clioiuioally free from
water, wdieruos the soda manufacturers take their w'eight as it is
producoii in tho process ; ami this largely assumed yield will bo
yet more difficult to iindur.sLand when the result of M. KuoseTs
ixpcrimeut i)ro\-ca that by washing and hluaehiug 25 per cent
nore wciglit is lost.
The number of boilings at Korudal in each holler iu 24 hours
a It to ’2 ; but as with the soda process three to four boilings are
aceomplishcd in 21 hours, so ono is enabled to Ijoil double tho
iniount of stuff in tho same boiler in tho same time ; and as the
loilcrs hypotbctically euiitaiu the same cubical contents, thus for
joiliiig with suda only half the uuinbor of boilers is uocossary,
therefore the cost for soda boilers will ho lower, aud they stand
wiec as much strain, as they require no costly lead lining
lud no expeiisivo arrangements for revolving, 'i’lio wear and
tenr iu tlie sulpliitc process seems oonsiderablc, as the lead has
to be icnewed yearly alLhoiigli of 5 in.m. thiokness, and this
0,000 kilos of lieary lining uocesaitates many otlior expenses for
soldering and repairs.
With the soda process the boilers last for ever, os the soda ley
preserves iron ; and we iiavo even several instauecs of boilers whioh
were not tight at first liccoming tight after use, as the leaky places
become filled up in time with luno and silioa incrustations.
Cost of Cliemioals. —X much regret that this point is not alluded
to in the No. 8 Papirr Zrituop, as it is of great importance. I
u'ill not repeat Mr. Catclioside’s figures from No. 4 Papkr Zeitung,
08 other lignrcs emanating from tho iu rental’s vary more than
100 per cent. (See notice iu tho Papkr Zeitmig, that an English
mil whioh was to _ have oost £8,000 cost £14,000, and then only
urtied out two-thirds of the stated or promised produotloiil—n
MitsoherUch gives the cost of ohomicals at 82 marks pe^,0(X>
kilos sulphite pulp; whether this is correct I do not know,
although it has been proved that other ealoulaUons of
MItsohorlioh’s have been too low, yet I will assume bis fignres
to be corroot j then from these figures It has been proved that
the sulphite prooett has no advantages over the soda prooess, for
if one recovers 02 per oent of tho soda, the obarges for 8 per
06 nt of 0 oda with liinOi ooa 1» and labour lov the reooveir would
anMOBt to 32 marks par 1,000 kU«s el weed palp, and time is
June 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRI0ULTUBI8T,
—— ' ' '■
ftito th« »dr»ntua of mine the waite beat given off in the
bnrnlsg, but In the eulphite proceia this rtooverable matter,
which , oomtltutee half the weight of the wood treated, ie totally
loit.
Thera ia no account In No, 8 of the recovery by burning in the
lulpbite proceae, but in the loda thle hai Been reduced to euch
a minimum that it can hardly be so little with the sulphite.
Manufacturers who hnow nothing of the eulphite proceae ain
trying it, but they will find out in the end that the soda process
is the best.
This also holds good for E.'iparto grass j and the well-known
authority in this matter, Mr Routledge, in alluding to a resnind
of Kuosel’s views on the sulphite process, surmised that it pro¬
mised more than could be realised,
Lee’s and Sinclair’s soda processes wore also very promising, but
we know how their results have been carried out, and it is only
after ten years’ experience and ccstly experiincnts that they have
been accomplished.
In Sweden no one has followed fikmau’s system, and on the other
liand lately several eod.u oellnloso manufactories have boon
erected,— S,~Paper Maker') Monthly Journal,
AETIFICIAL MANUEES.
A S fur back as 1879, a work on Artificial Manures appeared in
this country, written by a French cheuiiat, hi. Ueorgos
Ville, and translated aud edited by Mr. Crookes, F.K.S. hew
works on ogrioultural matters have caused more interest. The
writer gave his opinions witli so much oonfideiioo—(luoting experi¬
ments m proof of the concluslous ho had arrived at—tliat the
publio were very mnoli carried away, and disposed to take M.
Ville at his own valuation. Tlie work was favourably and largely
notioed, and we think that the Fkhl, amongst other papers, callod
attention to the remarkable results said to have been obtained by the
use of artificials, and also to the statemeuts as to the power of
certain plants to obtain Bupplio,s of nitrogen direct from tho
atmosphere,
Quite reoe'utly Sir J. B. Lawes has published in tlio pages of the
Agriailliiral Uazetle a series of seven articles wliich will ho found
in the numbers from January let, 188S, in which ho subjects M.
Ville's statements to a critical examination, and exposes their
utter unreliability. Jl'ho farniiiig public, who are interesteil in
this question, are much beholden to Sir James B. Lawes for
having detected these fallacies, whioli as their principal object
was to discredit farmyard luuuure and to exalt tho virtues of arti¬
ficials, and especially of certain receipts whioli appear at the
end of the book, might, if accepted by Unglisli turmers, have
led to great losses.
Artificial manures, suitable to the particular soils and crops,
are valuable supplements to fariiiyanf manure. But this, as
containing all the materials retjuired in plant food Ihougli perlmps
not always in the exact proportions moat necessary, and being
made, as a rule, at much less cost tlian w liat we pay for artificials,
should be for nine-tenths of ns our main resource, instead of our
being led away by a will-o’-tlic-wiap in tlio form of patent manuie,
and so induced to eouliutie the wretchedly wasteful metliods of
manufacture which still too fre<nicutly prevail, wo sbouhl be told
how w« may improve our practice, and how, by making ami keeping
our manure under cover, wc may seen re a concentrated aud port¬
able material, whicli will, if wn only have euoiigli of it, render
us to some extent iudepemleiit ot artificials. The more we can
replace the outlay now made in artificial manures, by outlay in
feeding materials viliich eniicli tlie droppings of aiiimiils eating
them, the more profitable will bo our operatioms, because we Hliuil
get back muob of our outlay in the animals, and we shall Imve n
much more permanent manure ; for, ns the reviewer points out :
“ If there is one fact more than auothei upon whicdi all practical
farmers in Groat Britain are ubsoliitcly agreed, it is flmtof the
lasting properties of farmyard dung us compared with artificial
manures ; aud I may add that the general rusult of tim Itotlmm-
stead experimeuta lias not only been to confirm llic experience of
practice, but even to extend the operation of the dung to a tar
longer period, than tbat generally a.saignod to it.”
'This sentence waa nprojim of a statement to the effect that the
idea that the farmyard inanure in an experiment of a M, I’onsaid
had not been exhausted in one year, wdiereaa tiio chemical manure
hod been exhausted, was “ eoutrai'y to all tho known facts.” It
may be as well to give the quotation from tho preface to the Kreueli
edition referring to this same experiment, ae an iliustratiuii of the
delightfully vague way in which matters, whose value depends
upon oxaotnesB, are treated :
“M. Pousard, President of tho Agricultural Chamber of G’Ourcy,
in Champagne, made two parallel experiments on a pioov of waste
land in one of the most barren districts of a proverbially barren
portion of that province. Ho manured one-half of the gi'oniid
with about 32 tons of farmyard manure per acre, and the otlier
with about haU-a-ton of cliemioai manure per aero. With tho
farm manure he ubtaiued about 14 bushels of wheat, whereas with
the choniioal nuinnre the land yielded about 36 busbcls, tbero
beiug a loss of £19 in the founer case, and a gain of £17 in the
latter.”
If the figures as to profit indicate tlic general accuracy of tho
whole, we may pass over M. Pousard’s experiments as absolutely uu-
reliMeseeing that, whilst M. Ville tolls us that the cost of glow¬
ing wheat (which, under the present sy-stcni of agriculture, is 5s.
fid. a bushel) may be reduced to Ss. 9d., he yet would have us be¬
lieve that thirty-six bushels of wlieat realised a profit of £17,
equal to 9s, a bushel; aud this is, of course, supposing no value for
the Uad, And no expense in its cnltivatiou,
As regards the Important question as to the aouroea of the
nitrogen of plants, M. Villa’s statements as to the power Of plants
to derive a portion of their supplies directly from the air is blown
to the winds by a mass of foots, the result of actual experiments,
M. Ville states that nitrogen is assimilated by plants In three
different forms, oit., ae ammonia, as the nitrate of some base,
and as nitrogen gas; and that it has been assertained that
" crops always contain more nitrogen than the manure supplied
to them, ami this excess is derived not from tho soil, but
from the air.” Such a positive statement is proved by
Sir J. B. Lawes to be absolutely erroneous in every instance.
Wheat most nearly, of all our cultivated orqps, accounts for the
nitrogen sappliod in manure. In every other instance where ox-
oess of nitrogen above that contained in the manure is said to
bo derived from tho atmosphere, the very opposite is the fact—,
the manure ooDtaini more nitrogen than appears In the crop, aud a
considerable loss occurs. In tho aualysis of tlie soil in which his
experiments were carried out, though made with the greatest oara
no mention is made of nitrogen, but he refers to it as similar to
that of Kothoinsted as to the nitrogenons matter. Sir J. B. Lawes
states that within reach of agricultural crops, ths arable soil oontains
from 10,0001b to 12,000tb of nitrogen per acre ; hut, appa¬
rently M, Villo leaves this out of calcnlatiou altogether; and,
because he finds more nitrogen in certain crops than was supplied
in the manure, jump to the conclusion that the balacoe was
derived directly from the air. In tiie case of wlieat—which, as
has been sliuwu, nmkos tim best use of the nitrognn supplied—It is
shown by the reviewer that lewt. nitrate of soda furnishes 17Ib
or 18tb of nitrogen, and that if every particle were taken
up this would suffice for 11 bushels of extra wheat, and he thinks
farmers would be satisfied witb 6 bushels on an average ; aud
that even in 180,3, the year ofmaximum produce at Kothamsted, the
amount of nitrogen in the iuerease of the experimental crop was
considerably less than that supplied in the manure.
As rogard.s beetroot, M, Ville’s statement that there is an excess
of 114JIb. per acre over that furnished by manure, which is
derived from tho atmospliero, appears to us wide of the mark ;
aud this ie actually proved from the experiments he quotes. Thus
certain manures without nitrogen resulted in a yield of 14 tons
14cwt. of roots per acre. By adding to theminerals sufficient sulphate
of ammonia to supply tlio respective amounts of 176tti 2201b, aud
2(i4tb, of nitrogen per acre, a respotivo iuerease was obtained
of 4 tons 6 owt,, !> tons 14 cwt., and 9 tons 2 owl. per acre. Now,
ns tlie highest increase could not have contained more than 7215.
of nitrogen per acre, and the smallest appUcatiou of that subttaaoe
was 1761b, it is evidont tluit, iusteacl of a gain, there Is an
enormous loss of nitrogen. Another most remarkable statement
is thill the jirn/it on an'applioatiiin equal to 12 cwt. of sulphate
uf ammonia, which caused un increase of 9 tuus 2 cwt. of bcete,
was €9 'J.i. 6i/. Numerous othci gross blunders, inaccuracies, and
omitradietimis lire pointed out. Thus, in one place, We are told uf
experiments in which iirtiliuial manures proved more permauoni,
and in iiiiotlivr Icetuie tlial farmyard duug, “ owing to its nature
uni its bulk, niieessarily acts very slowly . . . and becomes
till- f'tiuivalent of a largo amount of aciniircd riches.”
I’orliaps the most amusing part of M. Ville’s book—which must
be really coiifidered more in the liglit of a romance of agricultural
seietiuo tlian a work dealhig in facts -is that in whicli he criticises
Boiissiugault’s farming operations and balaiioo sheets. Discover¬
ing n iiiaie’^ nest as respects the value put on tho manure, he
makcH out balance slieot No, 2, which, with the correction os to
the value of tile manure, turns Boussingault’s modest profits at
Itecliolbroiin, shown in his balance sbeot, into a loss. Next by
till' iiso of certain artificial manures, crops are to be trebled, and
the hnlauce put on tiie right side to the tune, of £626.11-2.
'I'lms is developed hainneo slieet No. 3 ; and in a fourth balanoe
slieet tile profits are aotuully inereosod to £U35-4-10.
Sir ,1. B, Lawes points out many other errors which our limits
will not allow us to recognise. Enough has been advanced to act
as a wariiiug to our riiadcrs not to lilindly follow the advice of one
wlio, liowflver woil-iutentioiiod, is not a farmer, nor soieutifia
mull, hut is nvidently profoundly ignorant of agricultural practice,
'The season is coming on when artificial manures will be in use,
Tliey arn, when composed of geuuiuo ingredients, suitable to the
crops and the soil, valuable as additions to the manorial resouroea
of the farm ; but, wliilst we venture money in such aids, lot us
take rare that wo get as much as wo possibly can from our homo
materials—F’iWd,
lEEIGATIOX WOEKS IN SPAIN.
T he broobui'o by Sr. D. Andres Elaurado^ from which was trans*
luted the accouut give2i iu a preceding number of the
Journal of Forattj’y, on irri^ution Worku xa tho ttoutli uf franoe, was
iioticyd iu tlie Journal Forestry at tiie time of its publioatiou,
It hat BubBequeutly been printed txttmo iu the SpauUn Remta dt
MonttSf aud it iiat thua again oozno under uotioo.
lu a paper which waa published in French In the Amyxleidtt
FonU H and whicli wai mbsequcntly reproduced in Gar*
man, liohemi&n, Italian, Portunueae, aud Kugliab, and in fCuea—
the laHt'Uieatiouod tranilation having by direction of the Govern*
ment at St. Petersburg appeared in all tliu official agriouituml
jouruttlH of the Empire—Sr. E. had sliown that extenaivo irrigatloa
nudertakingn ojui only be e.'ieculed with proht to tho promoter*
and bvaniit to the general ioterests of the country when aid U given
by tho State, uiid when iu addition to llie duvft returns autic^at-
ed by the Ifroasury, there is taken into account the direct reiunil
brought tu^t by the thoaaaud*uud*oue hscal meshes from what may
be called sedimentary wealth produced from a thousand transfor-
matiooi ol the pioduee aud wprhti epoueeted thtrtwiths And iu
222
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
June 1, 1888.
view of the Oovemme&t having announced the contemplated in-
augaration at a legiilative company, organized for the development
of the material iuteroeta of the oouutry, and tho MiuUter de
Foment! having iutimatad a rvoloome propoaal to submit soon to
the Cortes a draft bill likely to stimulato the execution of sxtemilve
works for the utllizatlou in agriculture of rvater now running to
waste, Sr. Liaurado deemed it opportune to bring under tho con-
■ideratiou of the Minister in the first instance, and in befitting
time under the Ordoal of pulilic diseuseion, soino general estimates
euggested by his friendly interest ui the scheme, and sundry facts
and^important documents wiieroliy lie hoped might be supplied
some aid in ocijuirhig n correct knowledge of works already execut¬
ed in connection with irrigation and sanTtai'y and agricultural im¬
provements,—and thus to supply evidence of the urgent necessity
there is for doing what both the Oovemnieut and publio opinion
admit tliat both tlie importance and the justice of tho measure
required should be done in the matter.
rauittg over, for convenience, details of arrangements of a logia-
lative character, which liad successively been required and made
In the oountry, the author sought to stimulate the spirit Of tlio
projected association by giving detaiJs of what had been realized
In oonneotion with the greater work of cuiials and work of
irrhmtiou in Franco.
The author then states in regard to .Spain “ Neither the
arrangements which were prescribed by Arts. 8, 11 and 12 of the
Law of 20th February 1870, nor tliose modifying these which
were presoribed by Arts. 195, 197, and 198 of tho now Law of 13th
June, 1879, havo been able to do anything conducive to the
realization of the purpose of tho legtslatnre, as without boldly facing
the dltfioulties of the ease, they only present opliomerol and inade¬
quate provisions, establishing at the same time antagonism between
Interests which it should be tho business of tho State to reconcile.’’
The Qovernmont has estimated tho imperial Avagad Canal has
cost, and will yet cost, the Public Treasury—and altiiongli at first
sight the balanoo drawn, presents many of the features of an enor¬
mous burden—it is impossible to avoid perceiving, lieu we proceed
to analyse it a little, that the result satisfactorily repays witli
usury the groat saorifices imposed upun the .State by tlie execution
and maintenance of that work.
“ A short time since, while the the Count of Terono was Minister
do Fomeutl, there was submitted for the consideration of the Cortes
a draft law relative to subveutlons to canals and reservoli'S, lu wliich
the Art. 2 determined that tho aid to be given by the Statu siiould
be the third part of the estimated expense of ttio nudert^ing
ooroprising the digging of princpal and secondary aqueducts for the
convenient distnoution of the irrigation. The project was
relegated to the keeper of tho Archives, and abandoned in despite
of the intelligent desire of the Minister being stated and supported
by a reference to the umpires for its bsiug tlioroughly discussed,
and we oaiinot at present secure for ugrioulturo waters which uro
now running to waste in tho basins of some of our riiors, wliile crops
are manured and diminished, if not entirely lost, tlirough protracted
droughts.”
Sr. Llaurado then gives the details of observutions made by bim
in France, to whioli referonoo has been made, and goes on to sny, in
regard to what he considers practicable ami dosirablo in Spain ;
" What we should do is to combiuo with our own practice, the Frcuoli
principle of giving aid to enterprises conneotoif witii ugi'ieultural
improvemouts, including amongst theso the construction of canals
and reservoirs for irrigation, the improvement of moist aud uuheal-
tliy grounds, the draining of marshes and stagunut water, aud the
submerging even of vineyards as a means of combating the plague
of tlie phylloxera.
“ lu doing so the aid of tho .State, hi accordance with conditions
which we shall state immediately, should consist of tenniuablc loans to
bo repaid by Instalments along with tlie annual interest. Guarantees
of interest ami capital invested in sueh undertakings, direct subven¬
tions in money, or it may be the entire construction at the expense of
the State of works presenting exceptional difficnltios. TJie advances
within a fixed limit detenninsd by law made from a special charter
or credit established in the Ministry of Public Works, should liear,
in tho moautimo, an interest of 3 percent, and be repaid in a period
of thirty years. A special regulation should determine the orgnui
zation and practices of this fund, so as to avoid difficulties presented
by a law of 17tU July 1856, relating to draining, and modifying
this in the newproject, so as to make more accessible to agriculturists
the benefits which tills offers. To tlie associations or companies
which with the authority of the Governmout may lio organized
with a view to tlie oxooution of works such os have been referred
to, there might be conceded by the State, under conditions which
will be stated presently, a mtaranteo of interest on the capital wliicli
they Invest in the works. This guarantee of iutorost should ho con¬
ceded through an order given by tlio Minister of I’uldie Works,
after oonsultatiou with tho Council of .State, confirmed by tho
Minister de Hociendo.
In the constitution of tho Company siiould bo embodied a stipu¬
lation to make a special contribution aimually for tho cstablisli-
ment of adequate amounts to lie exclusively employed iu payment
of the interest aud annual iiistalmonts towards the ropoymont in
thirty years of tho capital specified iu tlio proposal appruv...d by
Government, wbioli contrilmliou must be altogetlior ind..pendeiit
of what may be required to cover the expenses of admiiiistraliou
and of tho mainteuaiioo of the works.
If, in the course of •xecuting tlio. works, ns frequently Deciirs in
works of this kind, it shall boooine manifestly the eoso that the aiim
sauotloucd is inadequate, the State guuianluu may be so u.xteiidod
to an excess, if justified, of not more than half of the amount iir.st
guaranteed. This new loan, whicli tho .Syndicate may procure in
excess of that at first granted, must iu like maimer be repaid u itliin
thirty years.
“ In any case in which the contribution for meeting tho expenses
oi the first establishment of the Company, and iu wiiioh the other
reionrces reckoned on by the Sradlcate Independent o( those des¬
tined for the administration and use of the water and the maintenance
of the works, may prove insiiffioient to carrry tho normal interest
and repayment of the authorised loans, the state may give to the
friends of the Syndicate in the form of advances preferential termin¬
al loans the amounts ueoessary to oomplete the annual provtsian for
the afoiomentioned paynionts ; and these preferential loans grant¬
ed by tho .State should boar a simple Interest of S par cent.
‘ ‘ For seunrity of repayment of these preferential loans together
with that of interest ou them all, the reaonroes which are available
for meeting the oxpouses of administration and mainteuimoe, together
with those for the first establishment of tho Company, should bo
devoted entirely to the repayments of those advances made by tUe
State, until the Syndicate obtain a full discharge.
“If the eutire completion of the works require an outlay exceeding
the maximum amount of tho loans guaranteed under the conditions
which havo been stated, then, but theu only, can the Syndicate
obtain from tlie State a supplemental guarantee under an obligation
to appropriate either through an increase of tho nonnal ooutribu-
tioiiB, or by some other means, sufficient funds to pay the interest
and liquidation in thirty years of tho new loan, and without pre¬
judice to tho provision made for the payments of the previous loans.
“If at the expiry of the time fixed by the order, a decree whioli
ooiieoded tlio guarantee of Intorcst, the work be not entirely com¬
pleted, tlie M mister of tho department may order them to be com¬
pleted at the cliarge aud expense of the Company ; iu whieii oasa
tlic State shall reimburse itself tiio expense iuuarred by it in excess
of the expenses specified iu the original proposal limit and tlie
Minister of Public Works, after hearing the Syndicate, fixing the
correBpomliug increase of contribution to be made.
“ With respect to companies, tho Concessionaries of works, which
wo liave suggested siiould be comprised iu the law of State aid, we
would ostabiish tlie following basis ;
“ Coucossionariee may obtain from tho Stato a guarantee for tho
interest of tho capital xvhioh they invest iu the works. The gua¬
rantee shall be in force for fifty years, and should comprise in¬
terest and repayment of capital in that time—for which purpose
tliere should bo specified in tlio decree of conoession the capital
actually invested in the works iu excess of subvention for work
executed—aud for legitimate expenses incurred by the Company
obtaining tho oonoessioii. Tho guarantee should in no oircumotonoo
exceed 4-66, inclusive of repayment of the capital invested.
“When the whole of the clear proceeds olAalned through tho
execution of the works shall oxocood 6 per-cent of the capital
actually invested in tlio works—after deduction of the whole gross
amounts of tlie subventions of every kind granted—the excess, at
what time soever it may occur, shall bo appropriated to tho
repayment of eapilal and interest at 3 iier cent of advauoes raoili!
under title of guarantee of iuterost, And wlienover the State ha.s
been repaid its outlay, tlie excess shall lie divided in equal parte
between the publio Treasury and tho Concessionaries.
“ A si>eciut regulation should dotermiini all that relates to the
gnarnutL.e of iuterost eoliooded liy the State to tile repayineut of
the advances which it may li.uvc made—to the partition of the
benefits seouivd —and to tin; form in wlii. o the Concessionaries
shall meet witli the iiitervoulioii of the Govorumont. 1. 'J’lie
burden of tho expeuse of first establishment. 2. The annual
expense of tlie inaintenauoe of tlie works, ami tho exploitation of tho
enterprise. 3. Tho diiu.s and taxes. There must not bo oompris-
od iu tills ammal expenditures for interest any repayments of the
loans which tlio Concessionary may have obtained for tho comple¬
tion of tiift works—iu case of the iiisulficieucy of the capital
guaranteed by the .State, Ou tlio other baud, tliero must be includ¬
ed in these annual oxpeuditures tho interest of the security which
tho Concessionary had to give when such a deposit had to be
niodo.
The cenoral question of tho first establishment should be
determined provlsiuDally at the time at which tlie works are
completed, aud definitely five years thereafter, without which
being done, in no cases can the Concessionary pretend to any argu-
meutatiuu of tlie maximum capital guaranteed by tho State in the
deed of eonoossiou. 'Whon tlie period of five years lias expired,
notwithstanding they may not have made any application, the
(Concessionary may be authorized by means of a decree, the infor¬
mation having previously been given to the Council of Stato, to
add to this account ail the expenses iuoiirred in tho cxocntion of
the works wliich have been acknowledged aud declared as pertain¬
ing to the firat establishment, it being understood that this aug-
mentatiou can only iiave reference to the calculation made of the
unforeseen excess of which mention lias iieon made.
“ We would likewise have it determined iu the law of State-
granted assistance, that tho .State would grant subventions to under¬
takings, and associations, giving themselves to tho cxeoution of
works such as iiave liecn indicated, without prejudice to resources
whicli may bo appropriated to tlie same object by provinces ami
municipalities interested in tho execution of the work. Those
siiliventLoiis miglit bo conoedcil by tlio .State in tlio form of
works of equivalent value c.xecuted directly by tiie public
admiuistratioii.
“ If there lie occasion for it, the declaration of publio utility
miglit oiiiliody in it aiithinity for the oxooution by tho State of
the works spoken of in tlie suiiposcd law. This authorization should
in no ca-so lie carried into eifeet until llioso who are interested
iu tlie work liavo subscribed in due form a promise to organize a
responsible Symliiavtc to seciiro the maiutoimnue of the works so
executed, and to make to the publio treasury an auuual pig¬
ment sufficient to cover the interest and repayment of tho
portion of the expenses wliich would devolve npon them and
tlic final completion of the project.
“ The deed of declaration of publio utility should fix the
amount and duration of these auuual payments aud settle at the
same time tho proportion In which should be paid by the
June 1,1883.
THE IKDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
223
Syndicate and by the State tlie annual dues till the comple¬
tion of the time in which the whole amount advanced must be
Tefunded.
“ Finally, the State might concede pecuniary compensation to
proprietor* of marshy lands, whicli, under n declaration of inealu-
biity, in the terms proscribed by law, have oompletod works
within a time prescribed in a legal ininnotion to proceed to the
draining and healthfnl amelioration of tlioso lande,
“ Such, in conclusion, are the proviaioui which we consider tiie
French Government should make in the new law which it is prepar
ing for the settlement of this duanclal participation of the State iit
undertaking oonuocted with agricultural improvements. But
before olosW our remaks it occurs to us to ask the Minister do
Foment!, In Spain—are srrclt works connected with agricirlture of
less importance in our cunntry than in that of an adjacent
nation ? Withoirt fear of mistake wo have no iicsitatiou in bcUev.
Ing them to be of nmoli greater importance here ; and though we
admit that the SnariisU treasury cannot undertake such sacriftoes
os may easily bo norne by tiro French treasury, we firmly believe
tliat It is evrdently uccessary that they should advance on like
lines, slowly If you will, but without turning aside from the object
or losing sight of tire end wiitcli leads to the prosperity of our
agricultural districts. Projects of tho nature hero treated of
cannot be elaborated impromptu, or carried out without eonsidnra-
tion, and in order to adapt thorn to the roquireraenta and conditions
of a country, they re<iuiro the concurrence of much intslli-
genoo, with tho aid of much action. If the Minister de Fomeuti
takes the work in hand, lending to the initiation of it his weight
and influence, and if political changes do not prevent Sr. Alborada
seeing from liis miaistorial department to tlie carrying out of the
romotion by this means of the prosperity of our agrieultural districts,
e may rest assured that he will in all time coming possess a just
title to the glory of the work Initiated in these regions by tbs Gov-
ormnent of whlclj he is a member.”
The ti-eatlsc is dated 6th January, 1882.
Jou.N 0. Bhow.v.
Journal of Foreiiry.]
A NOTE ON SAr*.
By P»ori£a,soB AiTriELn, F.H.S.
jENEATJi a white birch tree growing in my gulden, I noticed,
_ yesterday evening, a very wet place on tlie gravel path, the
water of whicli was obviously being fed by tho cut e.rtrcmity of a
broucii of tlic bircli about an inch in diameter and some ten foot
from the ground. I afterwards found that exactly fifteen duy.s ago
oircumstanees rendered necessary tho removal of the portion of the
branch which hung over the path, four or five feet being still left on
tho tree. The water or sap was dropping fast from the branch, at
the rate of 16 liuge drops per minute, coch drop twice or tlivicc tho
flise of a “ minim," and neither catkins nor leaves had yet e.\pauded.
I decided that some interest would attach to a determination both
of the i-ate of flow of tlie fluid and of its clieniical composition, espe¬
cially at such a stage of tlie tree’s life.
A bottle was at onec suspended beuealli the wouiid so as to catch
the whole of the exuding sap. It caught nearly five fluid ounces
between eight and nine o'clock. During tlic succeodiiig eleven
hours of the night forty-four fluid ounces wore collected, anavci-
age of four ounces per hour. From 8-l.r to O-l.) this morning veiy
nearly seven ounces wore obtained. From O-ifi to 10-lS with
bright sun-hiiio, eight cunoos. From 10 l.'i until S-1.) this ovoning
the hourly record kept by my son Haryey shows that the amount
during that time has slowly diminished fiom 8 to a little lielow 7
ounces per Iiour. Apparently the flow is faster in eunsliiue than in
shade, aud by day than by night.
It would seem, thorefore, that tliis slender tree, with a stem whicli
attbogroniid is only 7 inches in diameter, having a heiglit of .89
foot, Olid before it lias any expanded leaves from wliosc united sur¬
faces large amounts of water might evaporate, is able to draw from
the ground about 4 litres, or seven-oigliths of a gallon of Uiiid e\ cry
twenty-four hours. That at all events was tlie amount flowing from
this open tap in its water system. Even the topmost hrandies of
tho tree had not become, during the fifteen days, abnormally flaccid,
so that, presumably, no drainage of fluid from the upper portion
of tho tree had boon taking place. For a fortnight, therefore, the
tree apparently liod lioen drawing, pumping, sucking -1 know not
what word to use—uoai'ly a gallon of fluid daily from the soil in
the neighbourhood of its roots. This soil liad only an ordinary
degree of dampness. It was not wet, still leas wiw there any actu.
ally fluid water to be seen. Indeed, usually all tlic ailjacunt soil
is of a dry kind, for wo are on the plateau of a hill 20.) feet above
tho sea and the level of the local water reservoir into which onr
wells dip is about 80 feet bolow the surface. My gardener tells me
that the tree has been “ bleeding” at about tlie same rate fur
foui-toeu of the fifteen days, the first day the branch becoming only
somewhat damp. During the earlier part of that time we hud
frosts at night aud enusliinc, hut with extremely cold winds lUiriug
the days. At one time the. exuding sap gave, 1 am told by two
different observers, icicles a foot long. A nmch w anner, almost
summer, temperature has provailed during tho past three days and
Tills morning the tuniperntiiru of the sap as it escaped
was uoustaut at 62 F,, while that of the eurroundiiig air wa.', vary¬
ing oousldevably.
The collected sap was a clear, bright water-like fluid. After a
pint had stood aside for twelve hours, there was the merest trace of
* B«a4 anMsIiog of Dm FharaMemik*) Seinetys
a sediment at the bottom of tho vessel. Tho microscope showed
this to consist of paroiiciiymatous cells, witli hero aud there a
group of the whecl-liko orradiating cells which botanists, I think,
term sphero-crystuls. The sap was sliglitly heavier than water, in
the proportion of 1,006 to 1,000. It had a faintly sweet taste aud a
very slight aromatic odour.
Chemical aiialy.sia showed tliat tills sap consisted of 99 parts of
pure water, with 1 part of dissolved solid matter. Elcvon-twolfths
of the latter was sugar.
That the birch readily yields its sap when the wood is wounded is
well known, riiillips, quoted by Suwerliy, says
“'Even afflictive birch
Cursed liy unlettered yoiitli, distils
A limpid enrront from her woiindod bark,
Profuse of nursing sap.”
And that hireh sap contains sugar is known, tho peasants of many
countries, espocially Russia, being well acquainted with tlie art of
making birch wine by fermoiitiiig its saooliariue juice.
But I find no lioiirly or daily record of the amount of sugar hear¬
ing sap wliicli can bo drawn from the birch, or of any sap Irom any
tree, before it lias acquired its great digesting or rather developing
aud traospiriug apparatus—its leaf system. And I do not know
of any extended chemical analysis of sap either of the birch or
other tree.
Busidos sugar, which occurs in this sap to the extent of 616
grains, nearly an ounce .and a half per gallon, there are present a
mere trace of mucilage ; no starch ; no tannin ; <8.1 grains per
gallon of aiiiniouical salts yielding 10 per cent of nitrogen ; 3
grains of albiiiniuoid matter yielding 20 per cent of nitrogen; a
distinct trace of nitrites : 7'4 grains of nitrates containing 17
]ier cent of nitrogen ; no chloridos, or the merest trace ;
110 sulphates ; no sodium salts ; a little of potassium salts i much
pliosphate and organic salts of calcium ; and some similar mag.
iiesiau substances yield an asli when the sap is evaporated to
dryness aud the sugar and other organic matter Burnt away, the
amount of this residual mineral matter being exactly 60 nains
per gallon. Tlie sap oontainod no peroxide of hydrogen. It was
faintly, if at all, ueid. It held in solution a fermsut capable of
converting starch into sugar. Exposed to the air it soon swarmed
with liactcria, its sugar being changed to alcohol.
A tcospooiifulor two of, say, apple juice, and a table-spoonful
of sugar put into a gallon of siicii rather hard well-wator as we iiave
111 uiir clialky district, would very fairly represent this speuiinen
ef the sap of tlio silver birch. Indeed, in the phraseolo^ of a
water-analyst, I may say tliat tlieeap itself iias 26 degrees ^ total,
]>ci'iiianeiit, lisrducss.
How long the tree would continue to yield such a flow of sap
f cannot say. i’roiiahly until the store ut sugar it mauufactured
last siniinicr to lend its young buds this spring was oxlmusted.
Eicii within tvicnty four hours the sugar has sUglitly dimlulsUed
ill proportion in the fluid.
Whether or not this littio note throws a single ray of
light on the much deiiatcd question of the cause of the
ri.se of sap in plants, i must leave to hotaiiists to decide. 1 can¬
not hope that it does, lor Julius .Sachs, tliaii whom no one appears
to liave nime caiefnllv considered tho subject, says, at page 677
of the recently published Englisli translation of his toxt-book of
botany, that “ altliough the movenioiits of water in plants have
lioeu copiously investigated ami discussod for nearly two hun¬
dred years, it is noverthcless still impossible to give a satisfactory
and deductive account of the mode of operation of these inove-
meiita in detail.” As ii chemist and physicist myself, knowing
soinetlung about capillary attraction, exosmosc, oiidosmose, at¬
mospheric pressure and gravitation goncrally, and the iiiovemeiite
caused by clicniical atlriiotion, I am afraid I must concur in the
opiniun tliat we do not yet know tlio real ultimate cause or causes
of tlic rise of sap in plaiits.
INCUBATORS FN. HENS.
W ifhTI'HKR tlicrc is move profit ill artificl.vl hatching tliau by
the soiviccs ol scttiug-licne is an usettled ixiiiit, for cvcrytliing
depends on the mamigemciit ..i i.ither case. That tlioro are good,
reliable inoui>ators is a fact, but that ” a cliild can manage
them,’' us is claimed for some, is not estabU-shed to the satisfaction
of many adults who have engaged in such work. Tlic advantages In
favor of incubators arc that cliicks can ho hatched at any season, the
danger of vermin is lessened, and cleanliness is facilitated by tJie
method. By early h.-itohing, chicks come into market to sell at
high prices aud the pullets that may be kept over will Jay in tlie fall
and tliroiigh the winter, 'I’lie disadvantages are, the possibility of
daugcr from' il-lamps that arc kept continually burning, and the
liability of accident, or liTegularity of heat, which may destroy all
the eggs, A slight aeciiicut to an incubator holding several
hiiiulied eggs, at It time when eggs are scarce, occasions a heavy
loss, ami one or two oecnrrcuces of such character rather weakens
the faith of the operalor. It is better, thorofore, if large numbers
of chicks are to be hiiteliiHl, to use several small iucuhators, in pre¬
ference to a single large one, for then an accident to one incumba-
tor will not occasion an entire loss. No matter how well tliey may
bo regulated cxpcrimoiitors will have to watcli them carefully, as the
weather, turning tho eggs, and providing moisture call for regular
aud prompt attendance at certain periods. Some Incubators ore
heated by»gaa, some by projeetioue of the stove-pipe, and others by
Iwge quantities of hot w'atcr. Nearly all of them will hatch,
by aUetUiou ani mawgtmnt, nut that they bring forth
ninety per «<»t, a* eloinrcd, cauBot be dep e n ded ea. After the
224
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
June 1, 1888.
eUolisttre hfctohed Uiey are teawd <n brooders, which arc boated iu
Oerarat ways, generally with hot water, tno hent i)eiug appreciated
by the ohioka when It ia above them, as few sni^dve w'heu the heat
cornea from below.
In reauaging tire hens, however, 'the nests should be placed in
warm locawons in winter and cool places iu the summer. If the
fitiok Is hu’ge. the hens ill coinmmioo Betting at differeat periods,
and an advantage may be taken of hatching by using the following
Ian; .Suppose, on the lat day of April eggs arc placed under a
ozen hens, as all can Ijo set at one time by keeping those tliat got
broody before the others a fi.w days, and suppose after the lapse of
ten days, a second dozen are set ; and we will further suppose the
breeder to oontinuo the practice by plaoiiig eggs under all the broody
hens on the same day, when a suffloiout number is ready. Now,
we go back to out point : when the first dozen havo finished
batAfng, g^vo all the ohloks to as few liens as can properly carry
them, and take epxH that are under the second lot, and placo them
under the remaiung number in tho first lot. Then reset the
veoopd lot with fresh eggs. We can by tiiat method keop
oaoh hen at work four and half weeks, and two hens will baton
throe broods. We givO the above as a supposition. It is entirely
practioable, and also profitable, aud ndth the same care and manage¬
ment as Is reijuired for inourabators will give much better resulU.
The hens and Inoubators may ho managed together by placing
eggs in the incubator every day or two, and when the chicks are
batched give them to the hen to be oared for. This will save
valuable tirae on tho part of hens, and will enable the hroaders to
raise a large proportiou of chioks. We have no doubt that many of
our breeders dread the care of the chicks more than the fear of bad
hatches, but the hens will assist tho incubator iu that respect.
—Neio Southern Poultry Journal.
CINCHONA.
CINCHONA; YARROW LEDGERS’ ANALYSES.
learn that the last mail brought out the results of further
analyses of Yarrow ledger bark from 5J-year-oUl Irocs
by Dr, Paul of London, and we feel, sure our readers will agree
with us that they are simply especially No. 5—'.id per
cent of crystallised sulphate. The iiiuporintendeut of Yarrow has
sent down 100 lb. of lodger bark from trees thinned out, and, as a
test of what it will fetch in the local market, Messrs. Somerville
& Co. have been iustruoted to sell it on Mr. Symons’ aremijr
analyses of 5’7 per stem and 4T7 per branch bark. Tho result of
Rale will be duly reported. With Br, Trimeu’s report aud such
ODCOnraging results as we ore now able to place before tho public,
there should be no hesitation about exteiuliug the oultii ation of
Udgers. The analyses are os follows
Akalyses as Yabbow LKuaEii Bark from C-J-year-old trees,
Number of Crystallized
tiamplcs. Sulphate of Quinidino. C'inuhoiiidino.
Quinine.
1
12‘30
Nil
Nil
2
7’04
1 )
3
11-82
If
-03
4
11‘90
ft
-76
5
14-50
1 )
•20
6
12-60
i»
0
7
C-iO
-83
•40
8
S-60
0
•75
0
10-40
0
0
10
11-40
-15
•10
snpleslO 107'3U
10 ’73=avernge of 10 samples.
Analyzed March 1S83.
CALISAYA VERDE AND MORA.DA.
W E are very glad to hear of the great b\ioccss that has attondc<l
the introduction of this valuable seed into Ce>lon from two
such different altitudes as our two coi respondents roitT to, one
bring situated at 5,2''0 feet the other ot u very muoli lower olova-
tion, and we trust that the plants will ooutinue to thrive and grow
into largo proportions. If tlioy have the great robnstnoA attribut-
•d to them, together with imythiug like the high percentage of
quinine that ledgeriaua has, they will indeed prove u mine of
wealth to their fortunate owmers. As Mr. Ffouihawo says, a tree
thftt will thtirt At ft low clevattm With » rich bftrk is the thing
wanted, and Verde seems to supply that want. As regards its
piobable size iu Ceylon it ia impossible to draw Inferences froid
i wliat takes place in Amerioo. Tho whole of the Calisaya triba
I grow to far larger proportions iu their nutnral homes thau they do
witli us, uud the probability is that the same things will occur with
Vt-rilr oud Moradu, Markham’s roferenco to these varieties nlay
not be uuiuterestiug to our readers. He says :—
“ Giroud aud Martinez told me that there were three kinds of
Calisaya trees, namely, the Oallmya, fieut {0. Oalieaya, avera
Wodd.), the Caiinaya mnrada (C, Sofirfana Wsdd.), and the tall
CaZinaya verde. They added that the latter was a very large tree
without any red colour in the veins of the leavee, and generally
growing far down the voUeye, almost in the open plain,
“ A tree of this variety and yields six or seven quintals of bark
while the Calitaya Jina only yields throe or four quintals ; and
Girouda declared that he had seen one that had yieldedjten quintals
of faMa or trunk hark alone.”
A quintal is more than a hundred pounds, so it will at once be
•eon that these trees grow to enormous proportlous iu South America
aud wo cannot possibly expect such results hers. If they grow to
twdcc the size of ledgers at the same age, and thrive as they ap¬
parently do equally well at 5,200 ft. as at very low elevations, they
will unquestionably prove themselves by far the most valuable of
all the varieties of oinohona .—Timee of Oeglon.
ATTEMPTED MONOPOLY OF LEDGERIANA BY THE
DUTCH.
T he Duteii, os everybody knows, claim the credit of having been
tho first to introduce and acolimatise in the East the variety
of oinohona now known as Ledgeritina, tile bark of which is
believed to bo richer in quinine than that of any other. Seeds
obtained from Bolivia woi’e carried to Java, and planted in the
Government gardens there under the oare of Mr. Van Gorkom.
After the plants had been thoroughly established there, seeds and
cuttings obtained from them were not only distributed amongst
planters in Java, but also, with tho oourtosy usual amongst botan¬
ists, they were sent to tho Snperintnndonts of Botaniool Gardens
iu India, Onylon, Jamaica, aud other tropiwil colonies, os well as to
the Royal Gardens at Kew, aud tho result ii.ts bceu, as our columns
have testified, that this vahiablo speoios has boon successfully
ostablished in almost all Britisli possessions where cinuhoiia is
growing, and iu Ceylon, at any rate, thoro is no difliculty in obtain¬
ing an ample supply of “ Lodger ” seed, locally raised, as the
following from ouc of tho latest papers to hand suffioieutly
proves;—
A planter doclarc.s hi.s proferenoe for so 'ds taken from selocted
trees in the neigliboniiioo<l, some of winch are nearly six years
old, anil explaini'd it thus: ‘‘There appears to be a general
belief that ledger plants raised from seed cannot he relied upon to
come up true to type ; however true this may bo iu regard to
imported seed, our experience certainly is, that with soed carefully
harvested from selected trees of tho true ledger type, the plants
may be relied upon to eome np true to type.”
Moreover, Messrs. T. Cliristy aud Co. recently received from their
ngeut iu Bolivia a eousignmeut of Icdgerinna seed taken from tho
same district whore Mr. i.edger obtained his original supply, and
those arc iu course of distrlhutiou tliroughout the East aud IVost
Iiulies, Under these circumstanoos, the policy enuuciotod ia the
subjoined paragraph from tho IJiUat'Hi DagUad is not only oliurl-
isli, but it Is ultoily iutile, and amounts, in fact, to ” shutting
the stalde door after the steed has been stolon but, at the same
time, the action iu question is omiuoutly charactcristlo of tlie
Dutch Colouial Government with its old-fashioned tendency to
monopolies. Our Java coiitemporai'y 8.<iys :—
‘‘ 'L'he Hchomo of selling by auction Ledgcrlana cinohona seeds
at the Guverumont plantations here to British India planters, for
whom they have more value than for those in Netherlands India,
taking into account the fact that tins variety of cinohona, tho belt
xisting, is most common hero but is very rarely met with in British
India, li.is justili.ibly drawn forth protests against It from all
qiiartoi'rt. The schemo is objectionable iu the interest of botKk'ths
Government and the Java cinchona planters. By carrying it out,
the Goveriimout would bo killing tho goose whioh laid golden
eggs. Every catty of these seeds distributed throughout Java
represents a future cinchona plantation, yielding a permanent
revenue, direct nud indireot, to Government. Every catty of
them forwarded to British India yields only a handful of coin,
B«AndAlosR misaso oi tba liberality of Oovenuneat by a few of
Jane 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
225
the plenten here, who lold in foreign eonntrleg the leeds supplied
them gratie for extending their plantetlone, hea, in addition to the
needs qf the Treasury, caused the Uovemmeut to hestitate on the
good road hitherto followed. It strikes ns that to prevent misuse
of liberality, nothing would be more effeotnal than to give away
see ds only on condition that if the latter cannot be accounted for
by a certain number of seedlings In each nursery on a liberal
percentage, Uie applicant will iiave to pay a high price fpr seeds
not thus accounted for. So long as private estates do not yield
seeds, and are neither extensive nor far apart, such control is not
impracticable. We have since heard with pleasure that the scheme
for selling oinohona seeds by auction has been postponed for the
present.”— PUmUrs' Oaxefie.
CACAO.
COCA.
T he medicinal properties of this remarkable plant have lately at¬
tracted considerable attention. Its well-known property of
stimulating tiie action of tlie heart and digestive organs has recently
been turned to account in the United States in the treatment of
dipsomania, and of the habit of opium eating, laudanum drinking,
or sub-cutaneous injection of morphia. There seems no reason,
also, why it should not be used to cure the habit of taking chloral.
In all these oases it is a stimuiaut action which is required, and
this coca possesses, rvhiloit does uot produce any deleterious after¬
effects. Some remarkable results have been obtained by its use,
more especially in oases of indigestion, which are entirely cured by
this drug, and whlcli lead to the hope that the loaves may soon be
in extensive demand. A few cases illustrating these results we
quote from a pamphlet moeutly Issued by Messrs. Christy and Co.,
of 156, Feuchuroh-street, who are the importers of the coca.
These are genuine cases, taken from various medical juuruals of
good repute, and not mero advertisements ;—
‘‘Cuauiii Uijjsomania.—l have employed this drug as a tonic
stimuiaut lit conditions of exhanstiou, regardless of the cause. In
a case of exhaustion associated with consumption, Its effects are very
pleasant; it prolonged life, and made it more tolerable. But it is
in the alcohol habit that I notiued most rcmarkedly its benefits.
It is on invaluable aid to the unfortunate who honestly desires to
refrain, but wtio lias uot sufiiciont strcngtli in liimsulf to do so.
There are cases in which the entreaties of wife and cliiidron, super-
added to tlio exhortations of the physician, are of no avail in
strengthening resolution. It is in these tliat coca is most effectual,
It Is jiur txt'ellence the remedy in dipsomania.—E. A. A.vriERHo.v,
M.D., Wilmington, N.C.”
" Coca in Ofjiuni habit ,— An unmarried man, !ut. 27, contracted
the opium liabit five ^ears previous to using the coca. Had Ijecoine
a great slave to morphine. June 1K79, 1 put liim upon coca. He
ordered throe pounds at the beginning. In October following 1
met him, and he assured me that lie was entirely relieved ot Uio
habit and hod one pound of his medicine left.
“ One word os to my mode of using the coca. As stated above,
it is capable oi stinmlating to any given extent. Now my plan
has been to begin with a drachm dose of the tiuid extract, juit
when the desire for the opium or whisky is quite urgent, giving it
in a little water. If tliis iloes not produce sufficient stimulus to
take the place of the accustomed drug, I repeat in thirty minutes,
and so on. In this way I soon find the required dose.—W. II.
Bxstlet, M.D., LL.D,, Valley Oak, Ky.”
'* AUow me to call your attention to tlio fluid extract of coca
leaves as a painless antidote to the opium habit. I liave been a
victim of it for twenty-three years, and was always on the look-out
for an antidote. Finally, my attention was called to the above
extract by W. J. Chenowotli, M.D., of this city. I commenced
taking fluid extract coca ; I kept myself under its influence for about
two weeks, at the end of whieli time I found 1 could not take the
smallest dose without it making me sick, and to my astonishment
found myself entirely cured. My only object in writing this letter
is to oali the attention of the profession to it as a painless anti¬
dote.—Oeo, Leforger, M.D., Uaoatur, III.”
“^ILT.P. bad for several years taken large doses of laudanum
several times a day for what he called * disease of the stomach. ’
Was always complaining, and was low-spirited, sallow, poor, and a
dejected lifeless-looking creature generally. He often took as
much 0 * a pint of the tincture of opium per week, and suffered in-
teuely when without it even lor a short tiiae. As be said. Us _
disease returned as soon os the laudanum gave out. I told .him I
at Isat had found a cure for bis ' stomach dlsoaso,’ and ordered the
coca to be taken in drachm doses as often as he felt the dlseoi^c
returning, or whenever he fdlt that be could longer do without the
laudanum. He used it frequently for two or tliree days, but
gradually lessened the dose and frequency until oured, Sinoo his
cure he has rapidly improved in health and strength, both mental
and physical ; in short, ho is a new man.—D b. P. K. Hbn' 1 >B}U) 01 i,
In LouifvWn ifctlkal Neica."
'• A lady who had taken xvl grs, of morphia par diem, reUnquisii-
ed the habit, but within two days suffered {nteuely from insomnia,
restlessnoBs, vomiting, and prostration. After the second talile-
spoonful dose of fl. ext. coca, the pulse fell from 116 to 86, and dll
her symptoms wore marvellously Improved. On the following
day she ate, digested, and felt well. The coca being oontinued in
smaller dotes, within a short time she was entirely cured.—gf.
Lovia Clin. Record, Oot. 1880.”
Mr. X. Y. hod been addicted to the habit of taking sulphate of
j morphia for about five years, commencing with cnie-eighth of a grain
I for lumbago, changing it from internal to external appUeatleu
(hypodermioally over the lumbar region), and gradually inoreaMng
the quantity until be reached the enormous dose of twenty .five grains
as a mnxlmum, three to four times a-day. .... I started him
witi] tite allowanoo of three twenty-grain doses of morphine, to be
taken with a drachm of cooa. In a week his morphine allowance
bad decreased to ten grains a-day, and his dose of coca increased
to one-lialf ounce, and now, three weeks after commencing this
treatment, the morphine has been entirely suspended.—U, F.
.Stimmel, M.D., Chattanooga, Tenn."
Thu only obstacle that seems to stands in the way of the extensive
«se of coca, appears to he the diflloulty of obtaining the leaves in
the frosii state, since, unless veiy oarefully dried, they lose their pro¬
perties in six or eight months. Those who grow coca will therefore
find It advantageous to employ some method of preparing an
extract, or tincture, or beverage of tlie leaves from the fresh plant,
as preparations so made will keep the properties of the jiiant
unaltered for a very considerable length of time. When the leaves
are exported tlioy should bo picked os soou as fully devsloped,
dried carefully and packed in hermetically-sealsd tliM ; dryness
and exclusion of air during the voyage being absoiutely necessary.
FORESTRY.
TKAININO Foil TIIE FOBE.ST SEIlVJCE IN
piiuasiA.
O NE of the first utterances of the Journal of PoreHnj was in
advocacy of the organization of a School of Forestry in Britain.
Six years have passed ; but this has not yet been effected. The
subject has, liowcver, been formally brouglit under the aonsldera-
tion of the Corporation of Loudon by the Superinteu dent of Epping
Forest, and before tlie India Council by the ,Society of Arts ; it
iias engaged tlie attention of the Principal of the Koyal Agricul¬
tural College of Cii'eucester ; and it has, for upwards of five years
engaged the attention of the Council of the ArboiicultiiralSooiotyof
Scotland. Of the uiembei-ship of this Society, numbering well nigh
800, tlie great majority appear to bo foresters and assistant foresters j
of seventy candidates admitted to msinborship at the lost general
meeting, fifty were assistant foresters ; and inauy of the members
of the English Arborioultural Society are practical woodkeepers.
With the iutcTOBt thus manifested in forest management, some lu-
forniatiou in regard to the course of training followed by forestqrs
in Prussia may bo acceptable.
The following details of the roquireraents for employment and
promotion lu the forest servlco in Prussia, are given in the Beitim-
mnngen nber auahilduHij and Pi'ufu.ng fur den PrnwichtA SUmUfiirat
vern'ol tiint/adiitnal (Requirements for the Education and Examina¬
tion of Offiuials ,11 the Prussian State Forest Sorvloe),
No one can be received into the Forest Service if he does not
satisfy the following conditions
1, *' He must have obta ined a diploma of completed study In a
gymuaslam of the Gertnau Empire, or in a realtchule. 2. Be not
above twenty-two years of age. 3, Have no bodily infirmity which
would unfit him for the forest service, 4. Bo of good conduct. 6.
Give proof of possessing sufficient means to meet the expense of pre¬
paration for the work.
' This preparation oominenoos with praotloal work dotie in the
forest under the direction of an OberfiivHer during at Uaat sovon
moDtii* geaenlly from October to April. i
226
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Jtmc 1, 1883.
"The' dkriga bf thMe pnllmimiry exerdtet is to m&ko the wpiraut,
Mqmintsd with work of exploitotiou, and, with the priuoijtaf kina
to ntnko him practlaally aociuaintod with syjvioultur*,
1WTO the sutVeliliuioe of woods^and the police of the chase,, and at
tae'iame time wHhland'SUrvoylnji, all of which are things which
liO at the fomulatlonof his snb^nent theoretical stoiliBs.
" To be appointed a forsi br intent/■, or forest>aspirant, au appli¬
cation must ho made to tho/hr.hAfwter, or to ths consarrator of
the administrative cii cuit; tliis application must he transmitted
by the to whom tl>e pupil desires to he attaohod.
“The papers to ho supplied are five in uumher.—1. The di¬
ploma of atudyjiipm a gymuashun or rtnUehHlt of the first class.
2. CdrtlficMte of birth oroaptism. 8. A medical certificate, 4.
■Tf this ntpirant do’not pass directly from the gymnasium to the
ssrvfo*, a oettlAcate of good coudnot from tlie Hme of liis
lesTbag ths gymnasium. 0. An engagement by the father or
jroardian of the aspirant to provide for the inaiuteuauce of him
anrl^ at least seven yean.
“ ftrthet the ffber/Otter must supply special information lu
tega^-to the faaWy and person of the Sli^rant: and if there he
nothing to hiikder tlio aspirant being accepted, lio receives
Wh Mjpointment from the inspector or tlie oousorvntor.
These have a reseid-ed right to appoint the aspirant to anotlier
than the one he has chosen, and even to remove him
daring the time _ of ids preparation, after liavlug referred the
matter to tiie Minister of, Agriculture, Domains, and Forests.
“ If the aspirant on trial prove not quite sotisfactoi’y in tha
triple point of view—pliysioal, iotellectual, and moral, the vber-
fUrt^ef' addresses a report to the eixter, and to the oouser-
sator, who judge whether tlie aspirant should continue liis studies :
to case of a duferouoe of opinion between Uiem, the minister
decides.
“This'stagepasted, the nbeifBrtter delivers to the candidate a
otrllliOBte testtfytog to the time spent in this stage, and to the
WQik done. This oertlfioate confers on the aspirant tlio title of
fOrtt-ebvt, To continue his etudies, the forest pupil sliould
follow for at least two years and-a-iialf tlio course of study of a school
of forestry, of of a forest institute aunexed to a university j tliosc
-who may desire to follow that pursued in another sohool tlian those
of Eberswald and Munden, ehould previously assure tliemselves
from the, office of the minister that tlie time spent by them at this
scliopl shall be reckoned equivalent to the studies prescribed by
the reghlatlons j and further, they are required to study all tha
nbjolte comprised In the programmes of tliese said sohools.
“ Those foreetal studies completed, and, at latest witliiu six
years after the commepoemeut ot thejpreparation, the pupil address¬
es to the mtnistor au application' to bo admitted to tlie examina¬
tions, and attaches to this the following papers:!. A eumVafitm
*ilm, or history of his previous course of life, entirely in his own
bandwii^g. 2. The diploma of study in a gymnasium or rail.
Mehnlt. 3. The certificate of being a forest pupil ; 4. Tlie cortifioate
of hU having attended the course of study in a
sohool of forestry or in a university. 5. A certificate that
the pupil hiui taken the required part in works of
land surveying and the preparation of charts at tlie schools of
forestry, or at the university. 6. A chart prepared Ijy the hand of
the candidate of some royal forest of at least .500 liectares, on tlio
scale of and this chart requires to be accompanied with an
attestation that the work haSboen done entirely l)y tlio pupil.
“ The design of the examination is to make it he seen that
the pupil possesses the general instruction retiuired, and tliat he
has made with supooss the teclmical studies proscribed ; and to
dstormlne further that the pupil is fit to continue his studies.
“The knowledge required at this examination is -
“A. Bpecial soienoe.
“Exploitation, managomout, estimation of woods techno¬
logy, protection of state forests, and forcstal history and liiblio- 1
graphv. I
“ -Auxiliary sciences.
“ 1, Mathematics ; Glemeutary brinciples of statics and matlic-
matios.
‘2. Natural History : principles of the classification of animals, ’
plants, and minerals. A. Zoology:divisions of tlie auimai kingdui
mammalia, birds, and insects, lonked at from a forcstal point of
view : entomolorfcal uomenclatnre, structure and habits of iii-
tsets In general, and s^ial study of those which are useless or
hnrtful to forests. B, Botany ; classification, dvsoription, pliysio-
logy, and structure of plants, and special kuowlege of those which
are useful from a forestal point of view. O. Mineralogy : general no¬
tions of rooguosy and geology; genera! idea of the formation and tlio
upheaval of mountains ;iiifluuiiue of the subsoil on vegetation, and
|»oiM study »f the minerals and rooks useful to the Inroater. 1).
!nysios ana cbenilitry ; general properties of- bodies ; notions in
regal'd to light, heat, uiaguetlsm and electricity ; carbonization,
r^ln, and tannin.
*' 8. Legislation and jurisprudence ; history of Prussian law :
notions of oivU and penal law as applied to forests.
“ The examhiatian takes place In general once a year, in Septem¬
ber or October, before a coramlssion appointed by the Minister of
Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. TldB examination is lield, one I
■ part in dobrs and another part in the forests ; if ft prove satis- I
iBOtoryi the forest pupil receives the title of FBnt Vmuthlat.
*‘111 case of faiinrf he is allowed to re-coinmeuce Ids trials, in
whole or to part.
“ To continae kia preparation, the forest-candidate slionld devote
blboself to personal studlse in the forest, and, moreover, take qu
aptive part in all forests works, in order that he may acquire under
oberjBrittr ali ‘ praCllCal kaowledg* relating to foreut economy,
'Sfid foTset administration. In the first tostMl'cs, be is free to choose
the circuit to which he wishei to prosecute his studlss ; bat
I the minister reserves the right to send him officially to Any Speol-
j fiod circuit,
“ The ober,(6riter near to whq^ the forest-oandidate is sent is bis
immediate superior ; and , the oaniUdato |ih6ald .
for his gnldauoe lu his sorvloo the inStHfotions issued
, to forest overseers. The -duration of the 'stage - IniMed
on a forest-candidate is at least two years. He should
pass eight suocessive months, which should alwiMs comprise
j the interval between Dcceffiberaud April, In dtsoharging the duties
of a forest-guard in the samS otroult, and in k partiontar part o1 the
circuit. This part is chosen by the oherfOrHer acoerdiug to indi¬
cations made by the iuspocter, and the oandidatp should give him¬
self entirely to all the works of the guards, engaging in tbe .eurveil-
lance, as well as in the exploitations, estimates, measurement of
tress, sales, and tlio cultural operations going on.
“During these eight moutits he cannot be employed lu the office
of the oitrfOriter. ^
“ 'i'heu the candidate ought to visit different uircuUs : tiie design
of tliese visits lielng to make lilm familiarly acquainted wltli all the
kinds of trees growing in tlic forest, to give him explicit conceptions
of different modes of exploitation and management ; in fine, to
give him practice in all kinds ot forest business by making him take
part ill all the oporatloiu of au oherfOrtter.
“ During this stage, the candidate is required to keep a journal.
This journal oiiglit to indicate the circuits in which lie has had a
charge, their situation, their soli, and the exploitations and works
of culture in which he has had to take part, Ac.
“ It ought, moreover, to contaiu uotioes of remarkable, fawts
which have struck the candidate, and the observations whioli have
been suggested to him by tlie study of the forest, and by the works
wliloh lie has had to do in the office of tlio oben^riter.
“ The journal should bo scut to the oherfirtltr on the first of
every niontli, and submitted to the superior agent present In the
circuit, if such there be.
“ In fine, when the candidate leaves the circuit, the olfrfBrstor
should ludicato the date of his departure, and give testlmchtals of
his oonduct; if there be oeoasloii for observations lu regard tofaults
of want of puiiotnality and obedience on the part of the candidate,
or especially if lie have shown a real incapacity for the work ol the
forest service, he is bound to make his report of it to the FSrtt
Meittfr inspector, niid to tlie conservator.
“ The Minister of Agriculture and Forests can exclude from the
service overy-forest candidate who may have manifested notorious
miaoonduot or negligence, or any candidate whose progress may be
considered unsatuructory,
“Every nierJOrsttr ought to send to the inspector, at latest on the
fith January in eaoU year, a statemeut of the opinion of the candi¬
dates who have passed in tlio ):purae of the preceding year more
than four weeks in liis circuit. The inspector adds to this his own
ob8ervation.s. When tho candidate has discliarged the duties of an
overseer, tho inspector should give tho result of the examination
which he lias inado of the district entrusted to the management of
the candidate ; those doeuinents arn sent by liim to tlio General
Direetovy licfore tho Ifith January ; they arc oollatod and com¬
pared witli those furuislied by the conservator, and are then sent
to tlie Miui.stor to form tlie file of paperslrebiting to the candidate.
“ W'hon the candidate has coiupieted his course, done all tlio
prescribed works, and satisfied tlic roquiremeuls of tlie military
service, be may aiidross to tlic minister an application to lie allowed
to pass the State cxaniiiiatiou : tho time granted for tliia is five
yeai-s from tiie passing of tho last examiuntion,
“ To tills application are attached tlio following papers;—1, A
curriculum vitie. 2. Tlie diplmna of study at a gyuinasinm. 3. The
diploma of Forest pupil. 4. The eertiUeate of diligeiiee in the course
of a school of fore.stry. 5. ’I'lie joHrn.al. G. Lastly, for candidates
who belong neither to tlio corps of J'flfljiitjer, nor to the battalions
of cliasaeurs, a document attesting that tliey have satisfied tho mi¬
litary service.
When there is nothing to hinder tho autliorizotioii being given,
the eaiidiilate is sent before a commissiuii, wlio iusoribe It, and fix
for him the date of his examination.
“ Tills examination is oondneted according to tho instruotlons and
regulations of tho minister, partly indooi-s and partly in tlie forests.
Tho l.atter is by far tho more Important ; It determines whether the
candidate lias aeijnlred practice and knowledge of administrative
questions.
“ Tho examination turns on all parts of forest seionce and of forest
economy in their couneotion, on the application of special law and
common law to forest letters, and on tlie polloe and administration
of the chase.
“ The candidate having been subjected to this examination once,
rcceivoR from tho oorainlssion tlie title of ‘ caiulUlat-ober/iireter,’
and is inscribed on the roll of officials going through tlieir course
of training.
“ If tiie candidate do not pass the examination with suooesa, tho
commission ileoidcs if lie sliall reoomineiioe his trials in whole or in
part after a delay which oannot exceed six months.
The eaudidat-obeifiinter is employed in the royal administration
so far as tliis is praotlcabte until he receives his appointment, and
lie is bound to apply himself to the forest works wnloh tiie minister
may cutrnat to him.
“If the anulidaL-oierfliriter undertake the administration of com¬
munal forests, of public establishments, or even of private persons,
lie ought to communicate tliis to the minister; and this undejf^aklug
is not in any way a reason fur excluding him from ths Royal ser¬
vice ; but it is clear that the years spent thus are not reckoned to
him M years spent in service.
“ And ill case a oandldhte, after a certain latiea of time msaed
that beyond the Royal servlcei .should refnse a work wbiph the
administratiou wonld give to hiin, he may, on the propoitUoq of the
Jvm 3, THE INDIAN AGmKJULTDRIST: 227
nlinutisr, i^oyed,fropi til* XoU ol .olflciaU going tlirough thoix
count,tn^Uiug.
" EiiuL oan<U4€U-«ba'/6rtttr it bound to make known, througlt the
ebf.r/0viter, hie prtataoe to the inepeotor, and to the conservator of
the ciroht |n wliihh'he, ^ndt blmieU, that whetlier he belongs to the
itoyedsw^loti or that he be adounisterlng private forests. Likewise,
on eaoh ohauge of residenee he should make a similar communica¬
tion to the .same agents.
“tn order to acquire a more extended instruction, and. perfect
himself in the general practice of business, aspirants to the
forest services hould, beyond their teohniool studios, go through
a coarse of law and of political eoonShly at a miivarsity. The
candidate is free to make choice as to the time at which to puraue
these studfoB, and that which may best suit Uim while prosecuting
his pruparatioq. But it is profei-able that ha should take them up
while be is a eandidai-ober/tirster.
“ The caiulidali-ottti'/Oratef who, besides tlio ordinary prescribed
forest studies, give themselves for at least two half-year sessious to
the study of these poUtiuat sciences, can, after having been attacii-
od for one year to a directory of finance, address to the minister
an application for permission to submit to an examination on tUe
matters spoken of ; which apylicaticu should be aocompauiod by a
certificate of his haring followed a course at a university. This ox-
Binination is conducted before the superior commission of forests, l>y
the Ministor-adjuiict to the special examiuers for legislation and
political sciences. It turns ou the application of civil law in
Prussia to the administration of forests, and principally ou the
administration of liw and political economy.
*• The trials ought to show if the candidate possess the know¬
ledge necessary to enable him to discharge iu a satisfactory mauuer
the functions of a mrinbo' of a forott diroolory, I'ho a mdidatf-obtr.
fdnUr who pass this trial successfully ruueivo from the miuiater
the title of /bi'nl-asirixor. The Luspectors of JbrH-meislert are
chosen from among the obe^Ofiters w'lio have most distinguished
themselves in their service, and preferentially from amongst those
who have passed the last ineutioued c.'camination.
A translation ot these extracts appears iu the Un'an dtv Eaux ci
Forfis for last mouth, which indicates somewhat the impnrtaucc
wiiich is attached to them.
.Tohn C. Bkow.v.
—Journal (if Foretlry.]
SERICULTURE.
fl^flK pi’iixiG i*oius(»u, sa.ys the FtiUoiuoloffist^ why the
JL mulberry silkivorm must ever iie the silk jiroducer of coin-
mcroo, aside from the suixorun- (piaLity and quantity of its silk,
i.s, that it is a douiestichted iiisocl, and th.at tho worm can 1)0
fediu large (piaatitios in i)avtial cunlinenieut and unJor control :
further, tli.it while enduring the artilicial life it shows no dis-
jiDsitiou to escajK) from tho shallow tray-^ upon which it is foil.
All the other worms sull’er more or les.s when brought together
in large numbers, or when confined or sheltered, ruel in this
fact, luoi-e thiiu iu any ditlieulty in u-sing the silk, lies the secret
of tho failure to substitute any of them for imri.
SILK IK DU STB Y“ IN KASUMlll.
^ EUICULTUBK is not a new speculation among the Cashmcrccs.
O It is known to them from very early period. It is said, that
a Chiuoae prliioeas first introduced the silk in Cashmere by secretly
putting some eggs of .floiaJyv) d/ori under her lioir lock when she
was leaving her father’s roof fur her husbaud ui Cashmere, as llieii
there was a groat restriction aud heavy penalty for takiug out
tho silk eggs off tho walls of China, aud thus she introduced it in
Cashmere, her husband’s kingdom. Since then it has been a very
favorite industry among tho Cashinorees who wore rearing,and
spiuuing tho silk in n juvoiiile rude system which is generally
known under tho name of “ home spun.” Filature was not knouii
to thw until Baboo Nilamvar Mukherjoe, the renovator of the silk
iudustly iu Cadimere, introduced tho system of high culture ami
machine reel, and succeeded in harvesting the crop of cocoons
yielding silk aud floss of value not less the £15,000 annually. But
In tho course of few years it showed its tendency to foil, and bye
and-by it auffewd so UeavUy, that a grain of eggs was not loft.
This sad failure was duo to some unexpected natural phenomena
t« wUsIl ^ titttb «S Catboerelaoifaie Um- A plague spreaded
among man and beast, the worms . were not eccoeptodt'and ti>M
ended the golden era of the silk industry in Cashmete,
His Highness the Maharaja not liking to allow this fine
industry to disappear from his territory, oanssd the silk worms of
Franoe, Italy, Bokhara and Japan to be acoiiniatitod, and ao-
oordltgly M. Ermens, the Superintendent of his vlnety and
dlstlllory, was instructed to import somo eggs of silk worms from
Fronoe.and Italy. Tho consignment reached us in the April of 1880|
but they all proved a total failure. The next year Mr. fienrey,
then the' officer ou special duty, Srluuggur, kindly undertook to
import somo eggs from Japap. The eggs reached Srlntlggar in cards
very sound and healthy, and yielded a crop of oooocmB in the pro¬
portion of 02 . of eggs to 2 lbs. ot cocoons all the cocoons thus
obtained were breeded, and eggs were kept for tiie next season.
This is the origin of the second era of our Ooshmere aericaltarSi
From this little beginning wo now expect to harvest a consider'
able crop of cocoons, aggregating the value of £9,000 in round
numbers, and by this change of eggs we have succeeded in renoiving
and imparting a healthy and fresh impulse to our long-cherished
industry of Cashmere.
S.
Jununoo, May 20, 1833.
Note.—T he above note on silk ii written by a native gentleman, whose
Ciiglish wo have doomed it best to leave untouohad,—Go., 1 . .1.
TEA.
THE TEA TRADE AND EASTERN BANKS.
t T is, wo loam, widely foared in tho city of London that Eastern
Banks have sustained irrecoverable losses by the tea trade of
China. That trade is being rubied by the rival that it finds in Lidia,
yot each season finds tho British, Australian, American, German, and
Kiissian merchants at tho treaty ports as intent os ever on oompet'
big against ouc aiiotlior, and still prepared to pay " that heathen
Chinee” prices far boyoud the range of quotations current in
I'hirnpQ. The Cbiuoso have a faculty for combining agaiust the for¬
eigners, and as they have not yet experienced difficulty in obtaining
old prioa.s for the tea that they bring to market, they do not allow
their minds to bo exercised by tho more or loss vagtfe stories about
Indian tea that reach them. Their customers at the ports ore
none too ready to credit aU that they are told, or read, about thO
tea trade of India. They cannot yet bring their minds to believe
that tho day may not be distant when India will be the death of
the tea trade of China. They hope on, season after season, thail
there will be a change for the bettor in the home market, and thaii
a Ininipur year will more than oompensato them for the heavy
losses of sevei-al years. They romembor that years of scanty pro*
fits have iu former days boeii followed by years of grand returns i
and they cheer thouisolvcs with the belief that the history of tho
tea luarkot will repeat itself. And jiroliably it would do so if China
uontiaued to possess the monopoly of tho world's tea trade. Uiu
fortunately for her tea growers and tea merchants, but fortunately
for tho world, she does not now retain inoro than about two-thirds
of the world’s custom. India has, in a dozen -yoavs, carried off the
I other third, and year by year will she obtain a larger slice of tho
I trade. It may be that at the eluvouth hour the lea shippers in
China will be constrained to oftor a unitorl and irresistible opposi¬
tion to high prices aud low qualities, and thus succeed iu compet¬
ing ou somewhat equal terms with India. But as yet prices rule
obstinately high in China, and qualities get worsc'and worse. Indeed,
wi' 1'0 it not for the ready ability of Indian tea to blond with and
raise the character of China tea, much of the latter would go out of
consumption of E.iropc, the United States, and Australia. The
Indian teas arc now very largely, yot still uncouaciously, consumsd
by tho tea-drinking world. The ordinary house-keeper has no idea
that tea is grown aiiywlioro else than in China, and the Indian
product does “ good by stealth,” by buportlug a much needed
Savour to tUo abundant shipments of China tea of low quality.
Blit the palate of tlie tua-driukor is being adnoatod to like tho charao-
tevistic taste of Indian tea, and dealore find it increasingly difficult
to palm off tasteless China stuff. In short, the " one-eyed barbari¬
an” of the fur West is acquiring a oaprioioua palate, and the
Chinese niusf either contrive to sell good and relatively cheap
tea, or retire from oompetitiou with India and the Indians.
Meanwhile, the tea trade of China is failing more and more into the
hands of mea of straw supported by leoal banhs. The eld firm whose
223
Jdtt$ 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
tuMAM are aamee to conjure with in Mlncino-Iane, have, to a great!
extent, drawn aloof Iron any other than a lafu oonimieeion trade, and
lefjb the field to plnngere and epeaulatore, who are believed to be,
in very many oaecsTInextrieably in the books of Banks on the wrong
side of the account. The latter oontinno to draw up to the hUt against
bills of lading, and the banks, to keep thorn going, negotiate their
drafts hoping that sooner or later the market will recover, and that
losses may be rceonped. And the Chinese themselvss lend a help¬
ing hand to Shaky firms, which as^t in keeping up prices at the
oiling Of the tea leoeon. Thns it happens that last season’s China
teas an SeUidg in Bnglaud and Bussia at wretohed prices, showing
a loss of Sd. to 6d. per Ih. on their cost in China. A Loudon corros.
pendent of the Tisna considers that
“ The one remedy for the present condition of things Is that the
great balk of toe so-called fine teas should bo bought in Chins at
their pioMnt valne on this market—vis., at about 6(2. to 6 il, below
the prices given for them in recent years. With the largo acoumu-
lated stocks in Russia and consequently reduced orders from that
country, the yearly.inoreasing supply of Indian tea, and the present
prices here, one w(>uld think that such a course would at once be
Copied. Unfortunately, however, so much of the toa is bought
on commission, and the Russiau agents seem so reckless as to the
prices which they give, that any such prudent action can hardly be
hoped for. It would, therefore, oe wise for holders ofsharea in East¬
ern banks as well who have- been in the habit of intrusting
orders to buying agents in China to ponder the foregoing facts,
whi^ oan be easily verified by a reference to any of the trade circu¬
lars, lest their money should oe lost la the crash which must certain¬
ly take place If the past policy of tea buyers in China be continued.”
It seems probable that India will obtain with her toa a potential
oompeniation for her loss of revenue from opinin. Major Baring
takes a desponding idcw of opium, and believes that the trade
wlU show yearly a tendency to fall off. India’s loss in this direc¬
tion will be China’s gain, for it will be attributaVde to the incroased
cultivation of the poppy in China. Similarly in regard to tea,
China’s loss is India’s gain. But wo do not like the pvospoot of
having some day to seriously eousider how to make good the _ loss
of the seven millions sterling that India now realises from opium.
The vMue of the tea exported from ludla in 1881 was less than
half this sum. Obviously, however, our toa is doing India a good
turn, and promises to do yet more for the laud to whose soil it
takes so kindlv.—JItufras Mail,
INDIAN TEA.
T he gi-levancos which the Indian toa-plautprs have laid before
toe Secretary of State are not wholly groundless, though the
remedy shonld prolrably be sought iu nuotlntr dircoliou. The
most formidable matter of ooniplaiut is that ludiun teas arc
bulked” by her Majesty's customs—that is say, each cliost is
opened and emptied, in order to asoortain tlm exact weight of the
tea and of the package. The planters say, truly, that this process
greatly injures the quality of the tea, by exposing it to the liumul
atmosphere of London, and it destroys tlio air tight load lining of
the chests, which never oan be, or, at all events, never is perfectly
reinstated. What the planters claim is that one or two clmsts
only out of a “break” shall be opened, and the tarn so found apply
to the whole. The answer which tho petitioners arc likely to
receive to their prayer Is that the customs are not to blame for the
bulking of Indian tea hut tho trade, who will not buy tho tua
unless it is bulked, for the perfectly sufficioutly reason that tho
weight and taro of the pcmkages.os well os the (juality of the tea,ai-e
so irrogular.that no average can ho taken. Undoubtedly the hulking
of Indian tea inflicts a serious burden on tho trade,iiot only through
the expense, hut tho destruction of the chests aud their eoutonts.
The time, moreover, required to prepare the tea for sampling
keeps it for a week or ton days out of the market after arrival. The
remedy for this state of things appears to he to take aiiollicr leaf
out of that great Chinese book from which Indian planters have
already taken so many. Chinese ton comes to market so pcrtcctly
packed, that in a break of 600 chests you will find an absolute
uniformity of weight, both of package and contents and of quality,
BO that no repacking ts needed, and the whole can he sanipled and
sold the moment the steamer breaks bulk. The reason is that
toe Chinese carry on their tea husiuess on true eommcrclal
priuotples, while the Indian plantcis are still iu tho wasteful stages
of a half-developed industry, and have not yet learned the full
advantage of the division of labour. Tho planter in, or trios to be,
merchant, oavpenter, and eugiucer, as well, and one moots wit h
persons holding shares in tea estates who harbour the dolusi-m
that they cam not only send their toa to Caluutta for sale, hut
siiip it to Loudon, aim, passing over the machinery of Mineiug-
lane, follow their pounds of toa Into the consumers’pot. With
such crude ideas of oommoroc, it is perhaps hardly to ho
wondered at that the Indian tea trade hods itself under sonio
disadvantage.
The number of gardens iu India is, according to the iduutera,
2,700 or 2,800, soattcrod over a wide area, and in very \ nviod situii-
tions, and it would be aiisnrd to look for uniformity or even reason,
able siiiiilarlty either iu the product or the packages. The gardens
are individumly very small ; yet every gaideii possesses a riorc or
less elaborate plant, consisting of tiring-liousos, rolliug-muchiues,
Ac., and each has to keep up a staff of bandiornflsmcn to manage
the maobinery B«d to make the tea chests. The enterprise is thus
severely handicapped at tho outset, much a small former would
bo who kept his own steam plough and reaping machine. The
men and machines are necessarily naif their time idle. Tho only
true remedy for this is to organise a market on the Chinese method
for tho groon leaves in the districts. Darjeeling is admirably
situated tor snob a market, and there are several stations in Assam
which would make most oonvenient depots for the pnrohase of
toa. What is wanted is safficlcntly strong oomponies or private
capitalists to establish themselves at tboss oentres,and setm all the
necessary machinery for maniifaoturiug and packing the, leaf.
The planters would then, like the Chinese, sell toelr baaketsful
of leaves as they picked them from tile bashes. They wonid
be plantors, and nothing more, aud tne better pUnters
for being nothing more. The tea-buyer, filling the funo*
tlons of the knng in China, would collect the leaves in largo
storehouses, sort them out acoordlng to qnality and kind, and
manufacture the tea on a large scale wuh the mamtmuM of skill and
nii/timum of cost. The hong wonid pack the tea id large breaks Of
uniform quality, in chests of uniform size and weight, and snbll
teas would never require to be bulked again, either in London
docks or anywhere else.
The advantages to the planter of such an organisation as this
would bo manifold. In toe first place, he would be relieved of
tho groat load of financial anxiety which he bears at present. He
starts the season under a mass of debt to the Calcutta agents,
which has gradually to be worked off during the producing season.
These advanoes cost very dear, and the repayment cannot be
made till the tea has been gathered, manufactured, packed, and
sent down by slow transport to the Calcutta market. Whereas, on
the system, the planter would require very little advance
at all, seeing he would need no maohinery nor any expensive staff
to work it, and he would reoeivo hts money as fast as ne gathered
his tea, instead of waiting two or three months for it, as at pre¬
sent. The chief difficulty iu the way of this innovation would bo
the strenuous opposition of the Calcutta agents, who make good
revenue out of the tea-planters, not only in the way of interest on
advances, but commission on sales of tea and on supply of stores
and machinery. For once a toa concern is under the protection
of a Calcutta house, it is an understood thing that it is nearly
Impossible to oscoape therefrom. The emancipatom of the tea
planters from this thraldom would fill them with new energy, and
probably enlarge their intelligeuoe,
Calcutta is at present tho mart fur Indian toa, mainly beoause
under the present reginw the tea has to pay toll to the finance houses
there. Calcutta will always ho tho great shipping port for tea,
nor is there any reason why it should not continue to oe a market
also ; for the tea-buying establishment which I have been supposing
at_ Darjeeling, (lowhatty, &o., would Have quite enough to do to
liring the toa down to Calcutta in a state tit for the London market,
w’ithout following it any further. There will always bn plenty of
buyers for the London market in Calcutta.—C’orm/djadeMf (if/Ac
TtlHIS.
PLANTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
XalJVriT'ElD,
MEKOEANTB AND GENERAL AGENTS,
Oj^cuttaj-^30, STRANTD.
Gcncrnl Mauruja' —W. K. >S. .J kkkkukun’.
Agcucice for Tt'a EatatuH uutlerf'.akcn on the luoat
(i(l\-autttgeona terms,
Cooliurt rocruited l»y oiir oavii Bttifl' of cxpencuoffl Agoiits, with
Dup'its tlirougliout Chota Nagpur aud at Dhubri.
lmlcntoi*s ami Gonsigimcs of all mcrcliandizG.
Army, Navy, Civil Sorviop, and Vrivatc AgeiitSs
Ausaam. THE EXCHANGE,” HIBRUOAKH.
AV. J. WuEATLEV, Maiiaijn\
A. L), Stc?.\ut, Aij<'iiry SiiiH'i'hifcHihnt.
Diivct Importers of evory requisite for Tea Ktttatos aud European
Ho«i«lcutH.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India (Jciieral .‘-itoam Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agents for
Commercial Union Assureuee Co,, Firo and Life ;
Ageuts for “.Star” Line Ocean .Steamew,
Calcutta to London ; Agents for
Keuter’s Telegram Co., ^
Limited.
Loiidon.-CtBEAT WINCHESTEB-STREET, E.C.
E. Q. Rook, Sicntary.
Agencies at Bixmiugliain, Bordeaux, and Obarente.
6
Jane 1,1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
229
THE CIl^AT BEMEDT
FOR PRICKLY HEAT, INDIGESTION, HEADACHE, BILIOUSNESS, ANO FEVERS.
The teettmony ot m^dtcal Keutloruon Iwou iitTiinHlUiul in proieo nl
LiHPLOUGH’S PYRETIC SALINE,
As poswirttug olnmenlH most PHscmiTal for the rc‘*l<»rRll<m aud niHliiwnau-XT of heiilth \Tlih perfect vigrouv of hoity unit mind. W
' It is Uffervesolng and Tastoless; forming a most Invigorating, Vitalising, and IletVoshmg Beverage.
OtTMta»,«nt relief til HHACAnHB. SE,\ iir BILIOI !, SIOKAFSS, CONSTIPATION, INPTfiKSTION, l..ASRmUll£, IIF. MITHI'H.V, lili.l,
Iliaukty ourei. the worn turlM u( Tfl-UVS, SCAIil.KT, JLNOLE, nliti I.tiu'i' PEVKIiS. SAIAlCidX, MiOVStiJ.S. Mill BKtri nU .,1 SKIN CU.«P1.A1NTH, amt vsriuui citUer
ailcrcu Cf>mUUwj« of tiio hifxKi. ^ ^
Dr. BPAJIKS Ateitlonl tnxpi'Ptur of P.tuJtfranti fro* tlij Purl of London)
i huve jrrcTit pKvi.huri' la tK'Hi’Uij< in,\ coiUinUlytttiioojLy to U« flillomv.
Dr. PSOUT.—“ Viifoldinif wriu* of immonBO twieftt lo raaiikUid.'
Dr JtOBOAN.—** U fitrnisjips the hh)yU u'llh itx Ji)St srtlliifi cTjuatljaent^.” 1 wiilos;—’* i have jrrerit pKvLhun' , .
OOVEBHEtSVT OFFICLAXS AES PSAETSBS caring for the welfare of their employee ehonld note
its value as a specific in Fever cases.
Dr. 3 . W. DOWSIWa.-" I uwd U In tlictroAtweBt of fort,v-llvoww»,if Yellow Peu-i, , HAWDX, PTNDSi!. PtTNJAVB. IKDIA.-" W.i IWnly liellrn, thilt l[i« UW Of jour
1 ,, illto r..\yr thmiflinhv QiihilHi-Fvei-impof Oil oaa cure,”
^ '•JllKhl rxKO.”
Dr. W. BTBVTCfa.—" Sbioeitii Uitrvcluctlon Vhc ratal tUMNl Indlu Fevers aif* tlt'pihed
o* their terror^.*'*
Him MAJHBTT»S BSPBJBSHNTATIVE the GOVEUNOtl OP BISREA LEONE,
in alolUirof mmfi«lfor»{i addltJnn»} Bu«p)v of tlm I’yrolic ShIIh*', atatyH—'• ii i« of (trt'nt
’ ' T ihAu P6]<hoe tultear It Is in Ine hotisps of uU Kuj’oixhuis Mtjiilntf tlm
"br. TirRLBF —“ I louml it ae« as ahp<»rUie. m my «xwrifu<+ ruaJ fniliUy, in iho worst
h<rril», of Sew Jill , ncitihci'iiimln-im tsutiK
Dr. fi. f+IBBON (formciiy I’Uvaliiimi t" the hiiadiin ilospltaJ) iin uarfuLuOfih Ju lUo
tioatiooat of (hsufioc lini John lasm ooulli laoti b) laadicut
vaif(f, and I ih^ reFiloe tultear it ii in Ine hoiiMrs of uit Ki(j‘o)xmiis MoiUittf tlm itopl/.-
To be obtained of any Oh’emist or Drug Store, in Patent Olass-stoppared Bottles, 28. Od., 4 b. 6d., lls., and 21s. each. _
Please note in connection with the recently ohserved effects of the use of Citrate and other preparations
of Kognesia that lAJKPIK>vaH’S PTBETIO SAZiIEE is warranted not to contain any suhstaaoe
which would cause calculous or other earthy deposits. __
n. Lj^nid:i=£ioTj&ia;7ii~3r:H:b£i:BOs:^i^ siXj'ij/xjOiT E.O..
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
" ‘ I know what It is,’ he answered; ‘ this honcj’ is made from
euphorbia flowers, whioh are very poisonous.’ This explanation made
me feel exceedingly imoomfortable ; hut I elicited from him that there was
not much danger, as the 'maass’ taken with it would neutralise the cSeot
of tlie poison. Directly ho mentioned poison I dived into the iMwiks, and
pulled out a bottle of RNO’fl FEDIT ,SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pnnnikiiiB, filled thorn up with water, mid Bcveral times
ropeuting the dose, in a few hours we were considorahly better,”—
“ Xxlnhwit uiitl Oi'tni'dj/o,” [p. T.T.'f), hy Ouptain W. 2/, Liullvw, lul Ball,
H.V. Warwii l.<h(r<:
“ ‘ \Vliat on envtti shall 1 take to Ziihilaud f' asked my friend <Tim
Law' one ibiy at Ald. i'sliot, w'heu he had just received orders for South
Afriea, to start ai forty eight lioiirs’ notii-e. 1 replied, ‘ If you take
my adviee—and it's that of an old travi.lh'r -you’ll not budge without
a few botth’s of MNf). el on it yon leaeo half your kit liehind. I
never am w'itbont those fialts, and, please tin; pigs, neve!' intend to i»e.’
On hi,, retnni 1 iiii|uirid, ‘Well, how about EMtl'S FRUIT SALT?’
‘My dear (•■How, il, was the best, adviei. VOU nvi'v gnvu . th»y saved
me many an illness ; and wdien 1 left Tuogla, I sold llic remaiuliig bottles
loi ten lime!, tile original priee ! ’ ”— LiriU.-Col,
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANCER OF DELAY.
You can change the trickling .stream, but not the raging torrent.
W HAT EVERYBODY .SIinOLD TiK,Al)----Hovv important it I, to every individn.ai to have at hand some simple, effective, and palat-
ahlc remedy, siieU as KNO'.S FRUIT S.VLT, to olieek diHeat;,' at the outset ! For this is the time. YVith very little trouble you
can obangc the course of the trickling mountain stream, but not Hit rolling river, it will defy all your tiny efforts. 1 feel 1 cannot suffi-
U out of order, tlic spirit ot danger li.-is lieeii Uitidloil, but yon do not know ulicrc it may oml ; it is a real necessity to have aflimplc remedy
at hand that \^1 answer the Vkuy (le.st end, w ith a positive afisuraiiee of doing good in every case and in no ease any harm. The pilot can
BO steer and direct os to bring the .shiji into safely, but he cannot (|ui'll the raging storm. Tno common idea when not feeling welt Is, “ 1
will wait and sec, perhaps 1 shall bebet.tei to morrow ; ’ w'lierea.s, had a supply of FNO’.S FRUl')' SAL'J' been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all calamitous results might have been avoided. M’hat dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many sw'eet alliances,
blasts so many auspioious outerprises, as untimely ilcutli?
E NO’S KUniT HA.LT, -■ .■” ■ ‘.' ■ ..
from soToro headache ...
evervthuig and spending nmrli money witli.mt lindiug any iienoUt, 1 win ! l••OOD.--b.^TF HoUUS.—INHilFFICJENT EXEltCl«E. -E.XCl'J'EMENT,
’ *'ly a friend to try EyO’.‘^; Fll” i i..r „ , , , .
After sHlTuriii^; tor iron riy two an,! .1 liiilf years THIF, AltT OF FONQUEHT 13 L03T WITTIOUT THF.AUTOB'EAT-
0 and .liMordored si,oiuavli.iui.t after trying almost I IS(! --DINNER ENDAO EMIiNTH.—STI MUbANTd.—TOO ItICfl
reconmiomled by a friend to try ENU'.'^i I'TtC Tl'.SALT, .and liofore f laid
finished one bottle I found it doing me .i <iroat de.al of g'o.jd. ami new I
am restorod to my usual lioaltli; and olliors 1 I.ii.r.v that imve tried il. h.ivo
not enjoyed such good lieallli for j'vars,~Vours mu.st truly, Itonr.
HuMPHiavs, Test Oflico, BiiiTasforil.''
Success in lifk.--“a m
• A new invention i.
■tc.—.\ gnmtlenian writes ; Wliun I fool out of sorts, f talio a duso of
ENO'3 FJtUlT .d,\LT one hour lieforo dinner or first tldng in the luorning.
The olfeef is all 1 eonld wish.” How to onjoy gmiil food tliat would
olfiorwiMt viiu.so Iiiliousuuss, lioad.ieho, or di.sordorod storaaeh —u.sc ENO’3
t FHDiT.SAl.T,
bi’ought hefore the puhlio, and coiiiinands sueecss. A score of abomiuablo imitations are
S UC(JR33 l-W ijrrr..— new iiiveiiiaoo oi ougiiu oei'jro Liie puimv, aim eommauus suoeesa. A score OT aoomiuauio iniitaiions are
immediately introduced by the imacrupulous who, in eojiying the original olo.ely euougdi to doeoive the public, and yet not so exactly
as to infringe upon legal rights, exorcise un bigeuuity that, employed in an ongiual channel, could not fail to secure reputation and
profit.”*^ A damh.
C * AUTION.—Zrtifd ri<)/t/s am praNrhd in retry cir'd'wd conn*nj. ATirtmi/ir tu'/i/io«h , reim! see f/ir raywide is vaartrdENO’S FRUIT
SALT." Without it you hum hmnuiiimcdon by tvorChlmt- htutiV.ionn. i%ld by all Oh'MkU, prim da. .'id, and 4^, 6‘d.
DIRECTIONS IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE.
Frepared only at ENO'S FRUIT SALT WORKS, HATOSAAI. LOKOON, S.E., by J. 0 , EKO’S Patoat.
THE IHDIAH AGRICULTUEIST.
;rmi« 1,1B88.
m
T. E. THOMSON & GO.,
O, KSFIltA.lT-A.XJES-IlOW,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
ALL KINDS OF IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TEA PLANTERS.
Griffin’s Patent Kodallies, all sizes.
Griffin’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Cast Steel Digging and Border Porks.
Potatoe Forks,
American Spades and Shovels, all stool.
Pickaxes, Double ended, diaiiKjnd points.
Sickles and Reaping Hooks.
Betts’s Tea Tjead,
Tea Sieves.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Cast Iron.
Switchizig Bills and Hooks.
Assam Daws and Jungle Cutters.
Garden Shears.
Tea Garden Pruning Sav's.
Pruning and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Irons.
Chubb’s W. I. Fire and Thief-proof Safes.
Plain W. I. Chc,sts for holding large quantities
of Silver.
Point de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoop Iron and Clout Tacks.
Portable Weighing Machines with English and
Indian Weights. i
Beams and Scales fitted with Teakwood Pairs
and Iron Chains.
Salter’s Spring Balance,
Garden Spades, Shovels, Hoes, Rakes, and
Syringes.
Garden Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines.
Hand, Lift .and Force Pumps.
Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized NaiLs, Screws, Ridging and Gut*
teriniT.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN’S
Patent Swift and Sure Transplanting Tools.
^^1J0 1, 1&83.
THE INDIAN i^qiRIOHLTUEIST.
231
GOODALL’S
HonsMd
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TOXlsi«XMB~&EXiXSB.
The 9io8t Sauce In the World*
This cheap anti excellent Satico makes tho plainest viands palat*
ahlo, and tho daintiosb dishes more deUciona. With Chops, Steaks,
Fish, &C.J it is incomporablo. lu bottles, at tJti., !«., and 2«. etich.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
The Best in the WerJiJ.
Maken delicious pudding without oggs, pastry without butter, wd
beautiful Tight bread without yeast. In Id. packets, Od., Is., Zs.,
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Best and most Agreenth Tonu: yet introduced.
The best remiedy known for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
General Debility, &o. Eestoros delicate individuals to health. At
Is lid. and Sis. 8d. each bottle.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
For making Belieious Custards without Eggs, in less time
alic’jttt half the price.
The Proprietors can roeommond it to Housokoepors generally as
a UBofnl agent in tho preparation of a good custard. GIVE ll a
Tbiai. Sold in hoses, Od. and Is. each.
THIS lUUSTRATlOH IS A FAC-SIMILE OF THE IIO OF
MESSRS. SUnONS’ SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS-
BEWARE OF IMITATIONS.
NOTICE.
SUTTON’S SEEDS & CATALOGUES
MAY BE HAD OF DULY AUTHORISED AGENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
INCLVDINO
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makes Three Gallons of the Best Ginger
Beer In the World for Threepence.
The most valuable preparation for tho prodaotioii of n dolicions
and invigorating bovoroge. It is easily made, anti is by far tho
ohoupostVd best Ginger Beer ever oftorod to tho public. Sold in
packets, 8d. and Od. each.
GOODALL’S EGG POWDER.
Its action in Cakes, ruddings, cic., &c., rescmbloa that of the ogg
in every particular. One penny packet will go as far as lour eggs .
and one sisponny tin as tar as twonty-oight. Sold everywhere, lu
Id. packets j 6d. and 1«. tins.
COODALL'S BLANCMANGE POWDER
V.VOQ delicious Blancmange in a few minutes. In boies at 6d.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations map be had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers,^ Oilmen.
Proprietors; eo¥ALL;ilCKBODSB"a^^Leeds, Englanil.
FREEmS ifl? SiPHORUS.
Mental Depression, Loss of Energy,
and StomMh Complauits. ^ ^ ^(^ 5 ,
It is pteMWt Xl enfeebled it builds up a SEW
Ind UEAimiV CUNSTITUTIOS. One dose of this Romody is
lla., and 88e. _ —
BPOOIAL AGENTS:
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & GO.,
wMte Mini*
The Proprintor?, Aorinilturkfi Chowrlnghce*roatl, Cal*
cnttB; tho On>.at EaRtern Hotel, Company, Limitod, Oalcntta;
hloBferd. Wilson, Mackenzie & Oo., 13, Ola Court House-street,
Q.n(\ I ManKu<’-lauo. Calcutta, Ordora received by Messrs.
King, Uaniilton & Co,, Calcutta.
I nsroTioE. ,
iln ordering through London Shippers, purebaaerfl
Bhould be particular to stipulate for
SUTTON'S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
From fS'. sTriini.njs, fixe/., late yirc-PiYMi'firgti pj fkc
' ilorti. oj India.
‘‘With rofoivnoc to >our nuhie of pjuakfnp w>o(Ik for
cxpni-t, I inu«t Kuy how much I was gratified with the
syHtrm you wore ho ufood to «ho\v mo. During tho
wFiolw of* my Indian oxj^xsrioDco, it wius ray^ constant
regret that Enijflit^h pHukud woods Wf'ro almoHt. invnmhly
Tow or in jicmnuntiny: power than the American. After
ei'oinji' ilH' elalioraic precautions you take in oxocuting
such orders as Uiat of the Agri-Horti Rociety of
India, 1 am hy no monus mirnriHOfl U> hour that you havo
heon tfraUfiod by thv. reroipt of so mneli toaiimoiiy from
tlio tropics a,s to thj coalition of your HtwflH upon arrival.”
^Uferu^m
THE QUEEN'S SEEDSMEN,
ANll EY RPECIW. W/iRHA.N-T TO
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OP WAIJ5S,
READING, LONDON, pf?,,
ENanANU. rnni«
All Mnunimlctlons froia tho Trado Bboflld bs Addrus-
282 THE INDIAN AGRKJtJLTURIST. Jane 1, 1883.
S. OWENS & CO., '
■WECITEiB’IlIj^E’S-STIlBBT, Xi 03 STI> 01 T,
HYDRAULIC ENQINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS OP
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERY DESCRIPTION
FOR STEAM, WATER, }]1ND, CATTLE, AMD MANCAL FOWER.
Hydraulic and Screw Presses, Oil Mill Machinery, Hydraulic Lifts, &c,
SOLE MAKERS EOR (iREAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE'S PATENT DIBECT-ACTINC STEAM-PUMP-MORE THAN 10,000 IN USE.
Tub following aius mmb or tub rnoMiNiENT auvantaobs or iue blake pump;—
It will start at any point
oi stroke.
It hae no dead point.
It works fast or slow
with the same certainty of
notion.
It ifl economical. Has a
loa<l on the Slide Valve,
It is compact and dur¬
able,
Band Power Lerer
I>eiucbcd.
, BLAKE’S PATENT '
Dtreot-Actisg Steam Pump and Boiler Feeder,
It is interchangeable in
all its working parte.
It will deliver moro water
tlian any other Pump.
It is made of best mate¬
rials in the most workman,
like manner.
Can bo worked at 200
strokes per hour, or 20
strokes per minute.
DonMe-tiarrel Ooulraotore’ Pumpi,
lor IlamI or Btoaii Power.
Improved Sloam Boring
Apparstiu, eleo
'borinc Tooea.
Borins Toole of every downiptlon, for Artesian Wells,
testing lor mlneieU, Fonndatlons, Ato.
psftTfHT
rirc Englnw.for Towns, EuiW'ay Force rtunps oo
Stutious, &CI. Sorrow.
Wt't>ii«Ut-lroQ
rortabie VumD«,
.1^
I’ciUnb OenlrifupRl pnmps, for Contraotors
use, or Irrigation Work,
Ciwt-jrori noiTiKf*
orGnnlon Enuip^
rorlabit' Irrlffators for Hot**
or Stoani l'owcr«
BLAKE'S PATENT DIRECT-ACTING STE.AM PUMP AND VERTICAL BOILER
FILLING 'I'ANKS, WATEr.-HlU’Pl.V TO PLANTATIONS, S.MALI, TOWNS Oil ' ILLAOEH.
Whitdftifff’s Ironworks, Whitsfriaris-street, Pleet-stroot, London.
Cat<Uo(/ues and EstimaUs Free on Ajiplication.
ffBWJMA * rnmEMO Wft SEW PBOTRBBWBS, BF w, B. UllAWB, At TBB “ S'fATMMAS ftFUiiSSU OF lltWA ” OnWSy OALOOttAv
BwMffed Vo. 182.1
THE
JMJAN iGBICULTUEISI
A HOKTSLT
■ jommL OF miAfi aqrigulwre, mineralogy, and statistics.
VOL. vii3f;| Calcutta :-monday, july 2, lesa.
GANDY’S COTTON BELTINd.
SPEOIALLY SUITED FOR AND PATENTED IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
PRIZES.
HAMBIJROn • ...
Beruit
SYDNBir
Atalahta
Firtl Premium,
... ... 1878 ClNtlNNATl
1879 NkwYork
... ... 1879 , Melbocssk
1882, I Nrrt ZlALASt)- 1882, | Falmodth
Fii-st Prize, Svduev. 1879.
... 1880 PrrrsBuso ... 1881
1880 Atalanta ... ... 1881
... 1880 PiTtBSURO ... ... 1882
Jin ... 1882, I TrsEKOOTn 1882.
Hamburg, Diploma,
Sydney, 1879.
Now York, 1880.
Berlin, 1879.
New Zealand, 1882.
Mfillxmrno, 1880. 1878. Cincinnati, June, 1680'
OVER 460,000 FEET SOLD DDBINO 1861,
Including 3,877 feet of main Driving Bolts, of widths ranging from 13 in. to
GO in., .are working in over 6,000 Mills and Works in Europe and America.
Tk fulhwinfj Tall {hy Kirhaldy, of Lrmdon) nJww tk retaiM itrmgth and vodue,
oiimpared m(h Leather.
Best Double Leather 0 In. Belting
Oandy’B 6 in. x 8-ply Cotton
Breaking Strain per Siiuate Inch ol Seotiou.
3,572 lbs.
6,811 lbs.
Price per foot.
'/ ...,k. iv,r..n)r.,.'u.ai..^M»>(j
■ \. .,1
' i ;■
30 ih
steifi
44 ,
'-.fe
GANDY BELT.
Anj/ Lciiiith or Wictlh
for Main Driving,
It is the best bolt
ever made for all j,iirpo»-
es. Much Clieapsr and
Stronger than I.«ttther,
Tlna-oughly Waterproof,
RUii tuil affected by tom-
(Kirature, clings well to
the pulleys, runs true,
and can be made any
length without jointa.
This Serio.s of Belting
{tie (I>ifm»ingi) was siip-
pliod in One Order to
Messrs. ,Tohn Crowley
and Sons, Halifax, May
1, 1880, and continues to
give entire satisfaction.
f^ANDY'0 Patent American
THE „ " <3--A^3D'3r ” BEXiT..
lean Cotton Belung oan claim a aupui'ionly over leather boUa ii
Ita in. ovary ^particular; its cont
■ftiw ot>vifttin|f tlio neuofiaily of having two belts ou tho p«iU)y, a -aj’ntem of drirtu^ wliigh ia aovor witiijfectoryj
as it is Imposstblo to havo bolts of exactly the same tonsioa ; hence ono or the other is always cansiuj^ a sioiipago.
Theso stoiipa^ros oro nvoMod by using' Gandy's Patent Belts tii one wiilth. Thoso Gaudy Bolti are niatlo of the finest
Aierieaa Cottou Duck, apwmuy proparoti at Baltimore for the pnriioso, and thou put toother and ftm.shed by Gaudy's
MAURICE CANOy,
Aiperieaa Cotton Duck, apoomuy proparoti at Baltimore for the pnriioso, and thou put together and ftm.shed by Qaudy'i
patented special Maonlaory and procoea to proTont stretchings and i-ortBor tbom impondoua to aLmoapheric influonoe,
I roisotisod of advantages suoh us those, tUo iimyemi adoption of Gandy's Belts cui only be a question of time.
A BUBStAJHmi. OHAEAIJTKE GIVEN WITH EVEEY MAIN DEIVINO BELT
ai&inV Patentee and Manufacturer, I nUfinU WOKKS ; Liverpool, Bnglaad ' 11 Q i
UAllill} IW, Queen Yiccocia-stroet, LUnUUn» and Baltimorij UiVina
234
THE INDIAN AG](’IOULTURIST.
July 2, 1888,
City Line of Steamers.
FOR LONDON DIRECT t.'wt SUEZ CANAL.
THE
CUy Miwrhruh r
City !>/ Oarthwj<'
City <if CaiUa-hnry
Oily (ij Ven-ire
Oily of London
City of Edinburyk
City cf Khioi
Oily of Afjra
City of OalctMa
City of Oxford
City of Candiridgf
Ton*.
3126
2651
. 3212
3207
3212
3212
3230
3tl2
3836
4000
4000
Captain.
A. Maodouald.
J. McPheruOii.
J. Mare.
II. ,T. Moffat,
,T, Black.
W. H. Barham.
A. 'Thoms.
J, Goriloii.
R. McNoil.
AV'm. Millor.
D. Anderson.
SOUTH OF iroiA OBSERVER,
PDBLI.SHfiD WeSKIiT AT OOTAOAMUKD.
The Head-quarters of the Madnw Oovermuent for
the greater part of the year.
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GLAD,STONE, MTfLLIE k Co.,
Agents,
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
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R-A-ITEECa-TJITa-E
FIRE BRICKS
Agents in London:
MBS.SRS. GEO. STREET & Co. ... Comhill.
F. ALGAR, Esq. .8 , Olemrnt’s-lane, London, E.C.
Messrs. BATES, HENDY & Co, 4 , Old Jeiory, London.
MBS.SBS. GORDON & GOTCH ... St. Bride-street, London, E.C.
Mbssrs. RHODES & Co. ... 34, Nicholas-lane, E.C.
14
DRAINAGE PIPES.
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TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
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CALCUTTA.
Record of information for Pianters
GOVERNMENT
oi3sroia:o3sr-A. FEBiiiiFTja-E.
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1
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Prick Li.st — cumfnY.henstur and trliahle ~on itypUcation,
BANKERS.— Paris : George Waters, F.sq,, 30, Boulevard des
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3, Vlotoria-streot, Wot tminstcr. r
Address: The Manager, Oonlincnial and Colonial Agency, 14, Rne
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COFFEE, TEA, COCOA, CINCHONA, SUOAE, PALMS,
OTHER PRODUCTS,-'
Suited far cultivatism in the Tropics.
Published on or about tlic 1st of each month by A. M. and
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Price in advance yearly, R«. 10.
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10
FIRE BRICKS.
ANEEGUNGB FIRE BRICKS aa supplied to Government and
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Kxtiuct from Official Report of tests made at H. M's Mint,
Calcutta, by Thkoj>okk W. H. HtjaRKH, EsQ., F.O.8., a.b.s.m.. Offi¬
ciating Deputy Su^rinteiidout, Geological Survey, India;—
The Fire Brum teskd hy me were fvrmshed by (ho Firm of
Messrs. BURN <0 Co, * • * The materials from which they are made
are ce.ry refractory and capable of reMstthj high lemperalnre taith-
out sensibly fusing. » * * That compared with Stourbridge Fire
Bricks arc somewhat superior." •'
'I'he speounens were subjected to a temperature of over 3,000
degs. Fahr., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,786 decs.
Falir.
Apply fur the al>ove, and for Kaneegungc Salt-glaaed Stoneware
and liupcrisbablc Drainage Pipes, to
BUBN & C£^..,
7, Hostlngs-stroct, Calcutta,
or Raneegunge Pottery W'orks, Raneegunge,
E,I.B,, Bengal,
July 2, 1883,
THE INDIAN J^RICULTUREST.
23,5
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I HEALTH, STRENGTH, AND ENERGY.
DR. LALOR’S PHOSPHODYNE.
(Trade Marh^Phosphodyne.J
TWKNTV ITK-iRs’ PUJUJC TRMT, VVr» THdRS^VDS OF TRSTIMONIALfi FROSI
ALL PART^' OR THE WORLD RSTARLISH
PHOSPHODYNE
an the only ,Satu, Reliable, and Ncvcr-fuUiug I’liosphorio Remedy
for Over-worked Brain, SloopIoBenoss, Harasaing Dreams, Worry,
Aiixiety, E.'ceiLomoiit., Epilepsy, Busiuoss FrcHsiiro, Wasting
Di8oaso.s, Nervous Prostration, Htonmcli and Liver Complaints, Im
povorished Blood, Promaturo Decay, .-ind all morbid coinlitions of
the ayatem dependent njwu tlv d.'tii ii'ii, \ ,)l Llic \'ititl Forces.
DR. LALOR'S PHOSPHODYNE
ITKIFlE.-i ASIi
Intending Stibscribcrs will please a<lilrcs'i the Mun'igcr.
Subscribers should stale disliuclly I'or wuicu pavkh reiaitluiices n. <
intended. , ,
Agents In London for the above papers.
GEOROE street, Ehij. ... CornhiU.
F ALtiAR, Ksy. ... ll &, li, GUiucU's-lune, London, S.O.
BATES, HENTT¥«4,C0. ... 37, Wulhrook, London, M. C.
D J XEYMER& CO. I, WliU'frMr,'-s:r...l,, FleH-slre, t,
^ - London, R. O'.
SOLE AGENTS FOE THE UNITED Sf A.rE3 ;
THE INTERNATIONAL NEWSPAPER AGENCY,
H. P, HUBBARD, Proprietor,
Ncio Haven, Oonnceticul, U.S.A.
Enriohos the Blood, Cloar.a tbe .SUiii, tlinronvlily Invigorates the
Brain, Nervea and Muscles, Rioiiucrgiaus tlin Failing Functions ol
Life l)y supplying tho Pno.si'Homc element wliicli has been wasted,
and thus imparts Energy and Fresli Vitality to tlie Exhausted
Nevvo-Electric Force, and rapidly Ciiroa every form of Nervous
ilebiUty, I’aralysis, Kidney, Norvons, Mind, and Heart Discaaes,
from whatever cause.
Tills elegant Phosphatic combination, the Wonder of Modern
Chwnisti'v, is prononneed liy the most cmiiumt lucmbers of the
Medical Profession to be nmsinallcil for its power in replenishing
and idaliorating the Vibilily of the Body ; b.v its .supplying all tho
essential and vitiUising constitiieiils of the Blood, Bnvt.v, uiid
Nnitvi; SniisT.wcK : mid for dcvelopiiif; all ttio Powers ami Pune
tions of tlio .Systcin to the highe.st degiec; by its being agrcoablc
to tbe palato, and iiino nuit in its-iu'l.i.ui. While retaining its
wonderful properties, it mOs ns a Spiwifie, surpassing all the. known
Tni'.TaemtTti; aiii.m.-. ol the I'liitsKNr tor the senmiv and
ri.nit.ssKVTOimi; of tlie ab.n,' diseas.'.
Dit, 1‘iroSPHODVNF. is i>ol,l in Botth's .at C. (id. and
II. ir,' all Export, \^'ilolLsa-U', iiml Uetuii Medicine, ^^endors
thi'oiV'.'iout tho Woild
IMPORTANT NOTICD.- N'lNE IS (IKNUINE UNLESS th.
n.a'oe, Dr. LalorV Phi.siiii., h ne, London, England, is lilown it.
tlni ("tlnss of e,vili Bulth', and every Ititth' beai-s the llriti.sli
tiineinment .St:i,mp, will) tlio worils Dr. Lsnon’s J'lioseiiony.xK,
fsindoii, Eiigluid, (iiigr,iv<!d thereon l>y Order of her Majesty’s
flonourulile Commissionoi's ; It' not, ir Is .v t'oin.'KUY, .t mi you
II.WK llLt.X IMI’OsKl) ueon UY A WoRTHLL.'ls IMIT.ITION.
Makuk inritEi) only at the
PHOSPHODYNE LABORATORY
DPv. ROBERT 1). LALOR,
BAY HOUSE, 32, GAISFORD-STREET, LONDON, N. W
( Tdk Sole Pkoprietoii a.nd Orioinator of Phosfuooy.xe.)
THE AGRA BANK,
“ LIMITED."
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ReBerveFund £190,000
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DEPOSITS received available at any time
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CIRCULAR NOTES issued, negotiable
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INTEREST, PAY, and PENSIONS col-
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Banking Business and Money Agency tran¬
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Kcal trl»l. Liii.m , ClifWi'c., ',
r-C CAMBRIC Scia.,.
‘ TiieJr IriMb Lhu-u UDUiirfl, Cufts,
Slilrts, havt the lucilt of
IRISH LINEN
cIkmihicah.'-
Coui I Ciratlar.
COLLARS,
(III/.
1,4 fhil
',Ul 1, 11
Gum**
Siiinflloo
idnun,
-1 f-.ji}, -l/U to 6/U i p’ev
CUFFS,
• per dor..
For Gentle*
men, and Chiklron,
r./l I tolO/y per <loz.
f.u!i & SHIRTS.
Boat L
Bodies, ....
fill nnuii fp<>nr«ai«d
cufl.’s‘^^y. iboli.df
(lo7,. (tf) imNiHure, 2,
extra).
yard.
I^Lvtv.i Hoavv <11 iiD»4t d‘iv
idilo avtloU) iai’d-i
wide, 3/Li ]>rr y.trj.
IIoIImv TowoIUuk', incli
wide, 3jf/. peryani
Llnon Dim*
Join, .'i/'i pci*
df».L; G J :i H s
C’lotliN, 1/0i>ov
Ho/.
Fine Idueu^
iiud Linen
Oiap'ir,
10<L por yard.
2/0
8/.i
4/k
LINENS
Fish NapUitiB,
3/(i per doe.
Dinnor NapWiwff,
(i/0 per aoz.
Table Cloths, 2
ydH square, 3,dl;
24 yard* by <
yarilA, I'A/i each.
& DAMASKS.
HcMaTi iiMit'o
POCKETs
(Juuts‘
do/
. 'I.'i
. fl/I
TURK
FLAX.
HANDKERCHIEFS.
‘Thn IrWl Carnbrii'* "I M.W'irx
Ui'l.luBun i Uloxvev luiv.- ii worU
wide fame.'—r/iti (Jm.oi.
I.idiu..' Uudor-ffliUhlng, HaLy Linen, l)i'w» ,M,itort.il«, FImn-il'., 1
ll an 1 Swi-ti Knlbr.UUorma, Ifualury
til /'/*Unaei'^'/c»t-.,''p.u"^^ "iao^Isice lio'oi of every desevlpLioii, aL i..wo.rt wlmloaato i.n.'os.
a, A.®
the drown Ibrlncess of Germany.
' THE ROYAL IRISH UNBN WAREHOUSE. BELFAST.
236 THE IND1AN(JAGRICULTUEIST. July 2, 1883,
T. E. THOMSON & CO.,
0 ,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
ALL KINDS OF IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS
FOR
TEA PLANTERS.
Griffin’s Patent Kodallics, all sizes.
Griffin’s Work Kodallies, all sizes.
Bengali Pattern Kodallies.
Cast Steel Digging and Border Forks.
Potatoe Forks.
Ainorioan Spades and Sliovels, all steel.
Pickax,o.s, Double ended, diamond points.
Sickles and Reaping Hooks.
Betts’s Tea Lead.
Tea Sievo.s.
Tea Pans, Wrought and Cast Iron.
Switching Bills and Hook.s.
As.sam Daws and Jungle Cutter,s.
Garden Shear.s.
Tea Garden Pruning Saw,s.
Pruning and Budding Knives.
Solder and Soldering Iron.s.
Chubb’s W. I. Fire and Thief-proof Safe.s.
Plain W. I, Chests for holding large c|uantitie.s
of Silver.
I Point de Paris, or Wire Nails, all sizes.
Hoo]) Iron and Clout Tacks.
Portable Weighing* Machines with Engli,sh anc
Indian Weights.
Beams and Scales fitted with Toakwood Pans
I and Iron Chaiirs.
' Salter’s Spring Balance.
: Garden Spades, Sliovels, Hoe,s, Rakes, and
j Syringes,
j Garden Rollers.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Garden Water Pots.
Lawn Mowing Machines,
j Hand, Lift and Force Pumps.
I Brass, Iron, and Galvanized Iron Wove Wire.
! Galvanized Corrugated Sheet Iron, Bolts and
j Nuts, Rivets and Washers.
Galvanized Nails, Screws, Ridging and Gut-
terinof.
PEICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
Manufacturers of and Agents for Sale of
JEBEN’ft
Patent Swift and Sure Transplanting Tools.
Sei^Md Ka 1:62.]
THE
INDIAN
i. MONTHLY
^li JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.]' CALCUTTAMONDAY, JULY 2, 1883. [No, 7.
NOTICE.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
qUBSCRIBERS to the Statbsman, Friend of India,
^ Indian Aoricultdeist are informed that arraiu/ements have
now been made bi/ whieh these Journals will for the future he pub¬
lished under the general superintendenee of the undersigned.
All communications concerning the general business of the
Statesman and Fuiend op India OJkc, Adncrtiscments, and
Subscriptions to the daily Statesman and Fiuend up India,
weekly Friend of India and Statesman, aati Indian Auricud-
TDRIST, should be addressed to the MANAGER.
All communications regarding literary matter should he ad¬
dressed to the Editor of the paper for which it is intended.
WILLIAM MACH.
ISth, ISSJ.
CONTENTS:
The Indian Forestcrr (or June.
Imperial Census of 1861: Operations and Results in the Presidency
of Bombay, inoludiiiK SiuJ, by J. A. Baines, P.S.S , of the Bom-
I bay Civil Sorvico. 'Vol. I. Text. Vol. II, Tables.
A Collection of Papors on Beo-Kceping in India, published under
the orders of the Government of India in the Kevenue and Agri-
I cultural Department,
Report on tho Meteorology of India in 1881. By Henry P,
BlanforJ, F.B.S,, Meteorological Reporter to the Government of
I India,
Rkuobds of the Geological Survey of India, Vol, XVI. Part 2, 1870.
©Ill} Jttdiait glsriiiullitrist.
CALCUTTA, JULY 2, 1883.
Taob.
Acknowledomenis
227
hKADiNo Articles—
Agricultural JIaxims
... 227
On the iinjioverishnicnt of
tho Berar Soil: with Sng*
K‘<'Stu>nH for its Romody ... 2^9
few of tho Bombay Corwiw
Kiffuros . 211 j
Tlio Central Provincos ... 241 j
I'ho Artosian Pondi¬
cherry .. .,.^P2 I
HenculUiro in tho Boon irr
Euituiual Noxsa ... 214 !
Planttuu Cultivation for
India ... ... 248
OFFICIAL PAl’KnS—
Aloe Fibre .250
Rust and Mildew .251
SKLaCTlONS—
Agricultural Hcliools in the
WoBtern Tropics ... ...252
PauEs
i)r. Aitkeu on Turnip
.MunuroK .259
Cultivation of tho Poppy in
jvouinolia .. . 254
Tiiui>or for 'Pon Boxots .. 254
vVlieal Mildow .25U
sSulphito Wood Pulp Pro*
coHso.w ... . 251:!
Tho “ tierm Theory ” uf SilU-
worni UiMuaBc .259
Cin:chosa--
Cinchona ('.disiiyn ... 260
Cmcliona thiltuMthm : iu
Finaucial Axpoi-U .. y>‘2
The O.MtuEN--
Cinerarias by or
Offsets .
... d.'.L'
lllNEU.Vl.OOV —
Iron Ores .
... io-i
SKinOliLTL'llK-- ,
Sericulture in ilungal
s. ‘Itif)
Adyertisenknts
.. 268
Our Cormpomlenis and Contributors wi// greatly oblige
us if they wUl take the trouble, where the returns of fidtira.
tion are stated by them in Indian weights and measures, to
give their English equivalents, either in the test, in panm-
thesis, or in a foot-note. J'hr bigah in juirticulai varus so
much in (he different jn'ovinces, that it js absolutely neerssary
the English value of it in all casts. It ivould be a gruti
refofni if the O^vernment itself followed the same course in all
the official reports published by it.
All cerrrespondence must bear the full name and address of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee
of good faith. Wt shall iaJtt no notice of anonymous letters.
AGRICULTURAL MAXIMS.
I T does at first ajipe.ir (isUmisliiiig that HiuJoos, eswuntudly
aji agricultural jitMijilv, sliuuld be so ill-provided, if at all,
willi works on agriciilmiv ; but the suiprise is to a great
extent ivinuved, when we ivfleet chat the great miiss of Indian
agriculturists are illiterate, and are well [irovnled with instrue-
tive maxims and tales wliieh may Iss supposed to supply the
place of books very fairly, with the superior advantage of
being suited tu tho capacity of the j^Oople. These proverbs,
generally in rhyme to render them easy of tecolleetiuu, are
obviously of great antajuity', and, haiing stood the U'sl of
generations of practical agrienltnrists, may reasonably be sup¬
posed to be of eonsiderable value.
What we wish to suggest is that these rythniieal proverbs,
as Well as sot phrases and tales, sliould Ijc colleeted by some
means from all parts of India, and after revision ivitii
tlie (dijeid of expunging indecent expressions wliieli. willi a
little ingeuinty, may rea<li!y be replaced by more parliii-
nienlarv ones, a book should be cojiijilied from the informa¬
tion cimt.uniid in tiieiii, due allowa'ice being made foi
tlie ni\tlu<x\l and marvellous which ])ervade all Indian
literature, and, as in the <‘ase of Indian history, must be col¬
lated before tangible euncluBious can be arriwdat. .Vgriiad-
Inre, however, is such a |iraetic.dsubject tliala condition iiivolv-
iug an entire dependence on marvellous fidiles could mo or
exist, and Llii.s difticulty will no doubt be isisilv ovcicome. 'I'tm
thoroughly picictieal tenor of llie tolioiving proverbs, whicli f
give In the llirj Bhesha (the l.atiguage of the .sacred eireuit of
Muttra tile purest Hindi spoken, I believe), will siiow that
oultivatoi^j themselves recognise the absurdity of dependiiij^ on
mvsterious omens alone ;—
(.bar me. saroswarchi, anrtina he sikh Saran gai handUiin lino
mango bkik .—
which, translated, means You will go begging should you do
either uf the following three tilings,— 1st, sit at home idling with
your able-bodied relaWves (brother-in-law in the iliymie) ; 'kind,
take the advice of women, and Srd (whicli is to our purpose),
go ttfurehing lor osieus m to the proper time to «ow your Med
2,38
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
^■2, l«9t.
after the month of .Savan (betffeeu 12th July and 19th August
1883) has jmhKed.
Karftni hout Jai kkot na foii'/e —
Ulnch really means, Jjci fortune desert me, provided I retain
uiy manure.
Ijfiri 1116 hiji kar/(n hhnff mCxliini
Sow cuttou in a held that hjwl cotton in it (the previous
senann), and yon put your good lurk to (a severe) test.
jiiese proverhs clearly advise not to depend on omens and
Inr.k, hut to -woik hard, following well-known and substantial
JirarliceH.
Setting aside the value of it to uninformed people desirous
of following agrionlturo in India, the book rvould surely be of the
giraiest n.se to oflicer.s of the Agrionltural Dc'i>ai’tment. It would
fin-ilitiitt’ their endeavours to introduco improvements, as it
woidil give in a very accurate form the opinions .and practices
of (he nia.s.s of the jioople in various parts of the country, ob¬
viating ill a measure the possibility of erroneous impressions
bring loMiied, and perhaps very often save the expense of ox-
jK'iimenls : as thase ancient jiroverbs cau only be looked
upon as eoiiclHsions, the results of experimeuts of the highest
order. It would also shew seienlilic men clearly what is known,
and u'liat remains to be known by natives,
Dietiouary form is perhaps the very worst for conveying in¬
formation of this sort, and it would probably be best to combine
in the stnne book witli a list of the maxims, which should bo
numbered, a treatise based solely on information contained in
them.
For instance, the following jiroverbs, numbered from 1 to 6,
have reference chiefly to cotton :—
(/.) <Sr(ii fjlmno—linn Iji^ro—nAlHpkamll Jndrp&n p&npnr
ne hi'tr.
Hemp should be sown clo.sely. Cotton sc,altered. Juar about
the jump of a sniall frog (a spaii)aj)art, and should bajra he sown a
pare (.I k'ct) ajiart, the eobs w'iil be hs long as the axle of a well
\\ IlCrl.
( /t'hi nil' /iitii fill'll III lihm/ mnhiin pani
Sow rodoii after cotton, and we will ascei'tiiin the ipiality of
your luck.
(,1) Do pnttt ckeon na luxn'ic aur hlmt rhvii paitCui.
\ on did not weed your cotton when it shewed but two leaves ;
310W why do yon repent while picking 1
(.).) Jo hnrsiapi Smhiti niithil eVode na Idnth
.Should i( rain in the zodiiu'id sub-sign of Suant (between
2i!iid ((rtoher and ,"ith November) neither
cotluu he,Tier’s how will work.
(.. )• jnulo'i X'nhat I'iiCm n,’ hni ki hf,
f/ui' tfi’y nui' bkiilUi ra/iUliifii 1/o rot tu khnwatln. Ban ke
hill' t! i,:ut, hhfj Ii'it Mil teJiiru/iii. Lil knhraf-? Lil kaJhiUo
,;/(oy;'o nin- kahe (HrJ/utr kahrde c/n'indpar Mjojiito,
Joiikri says to the cultivator—Sow and weed me well, plough¬
ing over me with close furrow's (when a few feet high) and
1 will gh 0 you ear.s lint will bend with their woiglit and
feed .you with bread. ,Sow cotton and I will pay your rent
with the produce of the pods, but as for indigo, oh, poet !
it, is a mistaken busines.s, and says (Jirdlnar the poet, shoe-
blows w ill re.ionnd on your head (for your folly) in writing
alimil this product.
These could bejmt in the following form, giving the numbers
of the proverbs—
(No. 1) Cotton should never be sown alxscly but as far apart
a.s [ osi-ible, (No. ,1), and should lie weeded while very young and
bidore lb... plants have thrown out more than two proper le.aves:
without this early weeding, the produce is certain to be very
iiiddlorciit. (No. 2) .Sowing cotton in a field that baa h.ad
cotton 111 It the preceding season, is found by exiieriance to be
very had ; and umler ordinary condilioua no hope of a good
croji can he ciiterl.uned where this is done. (No. 4 ) lUin in
the days contained in the zodiacal sub-sign of suanth (betw'ceii
22iid Oi'tol.ier nml utb November) is ruinous to cotton and
n* luces tlie harvest to a mere nothing. (No, 5) Cultivator.s de¬
pend greatly on cotton as 11 menus of paying their rents, and
make it a principle of looking upon it tU a crop set apart
specially -with this object. ^
Of course, with more maxims, &c., to refer to, reasons could
be given and pages of valuable instruction ■written.
Perhaps It would be aeoessary in preparing the book to de¬
vote a few pages to astronomical matters, siich as the IS signs of
the zodiac further divided into 27 parts, called Naiohattras,
the names of which are continually in the roiatf^ nf cultivators
and others interested in agriculture, as all cadj^iations w(th
gnrd to time of sowing, ploughing, &o., are regulated by
periods. Each zodiacal sign contains Sj^ of these subsigns
or Naichattrns, meaning 9 canopies, I,presume, there being 9
In each 3rd section of the year. The foUo.wiiig table doin|)iled
from the Hindi almanac, published monthly at Agra, ■will
show the English dates for the present year on which the sun
passes through tliese signs. The hours and minutes have
been omitted ;—
*12 84 s 0 7 8 8 tll)
Naichlaithah
12tU 2.’>th Oth
i It
23rd 8th 20th 4th 18th Ist 16th 20th
Zodiacal
callod RAd
Mf^kh
Ham
1
j Biiv
1 Iliill
Mithnn !
Karak
Bingh
Twins ;
Crab
Lion
*' :
“ !
4
6
1^1
32th
13th
13th
13th
Uth
March.
1883. 1
April
1833.
1 j !
June.
July.
August.
S4th
28rd
23rd ai«t 2lHt
Month Qiudl
» 1
\
C'huit
1040 Humlflt.
Bolsfih. 1 J4t
Aaftr 1 3.1 van.
I
10th
Bhitdour.
11th 12th lyth 14th I5th loth 17tli 18th 10th 20th 2Ut 22
N.ut'hivUr.ih
of tho
Zfidiuo
s
—
1
r
1
1 s
1-^
Is
'i.
t
ja
.9
rt
3
f
A
£
1 ^
£
w
Ch
(S
a
rs
S u 1
12th 25th Oth 22nd Hh Ifith Ut Uth 27th Oth 22nd
Kanta
Vii'Kin.
0
Till ’ DrlBphak i Dhan MftKar Hoa-Ooat
Braids. Boorpion. i Aj'ohor. prx)|>orly Crocodile,
7 80! 10
I i
I ’U 14 ’ 12
the cotton gin or
j
™>ent«mbor.
October.
November.
December.
iiaraii, iiafini nnhni
1
i
January
1884.
17 th
I7th
16tli
16th
18th
Hindi mouths ..
Kuar.
Katik.
24
A|;han.
Tus.
Motr.
Naichattraa
Signs of the Zodiac
English months
HLudi months ..
'6
1
A
s
1
1
s
s
i
1
i
a
A
£
P
4th
17th
15th
28th
Kunih
Min
Walor pot.
i run
i
11
1 12
1
f
nth
lath
February.
March.
3
i2th
13th
, • -.—«
1 FhAgUU.
11 days of Chstt
Bambat 1941.
The following proverbe will show how thsir Naiohattnw are
■pokeu of I—
Ohmut Ohittra Ckangw* tWHUhtm gtkMn hot.
My 2, 1688. TOT INDUIN|A.GRICULTUEIST, 2^0
Gnun aovn m Ohittra (14) will be four times more fruitful
(than if aown at anj other time), but wheat grows best when
sown in Suanth (IS).
Pii Pwnwbas baiyidhin Atlilbd hodon. pariiuTii MagM matino
baiyd phdr aur fl» hdr&n har dijio jhtlr.
Daring ]^k (3), and ’ Punarlas (7) sow rice, in Astckha (9)
at the very kodon, after this in Magha (10) sow
(or mu^^jush and mot vetches) ploughing tiieae iielJs
Jo bandgS, Uttrd n^j na ktMm> hUlril.
Should it rain in UttrS phaldgunS (12) the very Jogs will
turn up their notes at'ln-ead (grain.)
iiirgnr na Mi na bddidn, PoltM ncUap^ na Jet.
Adrd Jo barse nakin to lami ki nA.
No heat in Eohna (4) or in the month of Jet, no high winds
in Mirgsir (5), and if added' to titis there should bo no rain in
Adra (6), the season is ruined.
Jai din JA chaU Punvai, tai din Silvan mWioJiii,
For every day you have an East wind in the month of Jet,
you will have a dry day in the montli of S;tviin.
Though these proverbs having reference to the naichattraa
may not be quite correct, they must bo somewhere very near
the truth to influence, as they do, thousands of practicid agri¬
culturists.
It may be mentioned that it is by no means an easy matter
to collect these proverbs ; people cannot readily recall them to
memory when called upon to do so, and further, a man may be
an excellent practical agriculturist without knowing more than
n very few, though this does not appear to throw any doubt
on the opinion expressed here that those proverbs, to the
illiterate cultivator, really answer the purpose of a treatise on
agriculture, for we know, judging from analogy, tbit one may
be an excellent practical man without having read and studied
any books treating of his profession. It would of course bo
far easier to get iuformatioii from cultivators in the ordinary
way, but Europeans have, and with justice, such an indifferent
reputation for being able to procure correct information from
nattres, cliiefly on account of the great disregard for ti'utli
displayed by the latter, and no doubt in some measure because
of their not mixing with them, that bare assertions will always
be received with doubt. IIow ofteu do wo flii<l e.u'efully
written notes on agricultural aubjeots, rendered useless by the
writer being obliged to acknowledge his own doubts as to the
accuracy of statements lie has made, because of the t.endoucy
manifested by his native informants to suppress the truth 'i
The aiii>por t_of ancient adages or maxims wovdd, no doubt,
be generally regolvJed as ample testimony of the correctness
of statements made regifl'«U«g Indian agricultural matters,
and prove very interesting to re.adera, ])articiilarly those in
search of information wanted for practical purposes.
There are generally a few old cultivators in each village or
clump of villages with the reputed tivleiit for romembering jiro-
verbs, &a, and collectors could iirocuro a great number
from them. It would also be advisable and facilitate mattors
to record reputed facts, and thou search for nia.xims snpporling
them. For example, cultivators tell one that rain immediately
after weeding injures and blights a ci’op, pai licularly cotton,
and that a few days’ dry weather intervening is benelieial. The
knowledge of this palpably renders the scheme of securing a
maxim supporting it much stronger.
W. C.
ON THE IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE BER.Mt SOIL;
WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS REMEDY.*
T he Indian cultivator has a very good idea of the v.alnc of
manure in ina'easing the amount to be got from his land, in
the shape of a crop ; but his ignorance of tlic value of available
iftljpuiajs, and tlie inherent productiveness of the .soil,
liiuder the tactical application of this knowledge. Tho
manures which he believes in are cowdung and ashes, but these,
owing to certain economic considerations, such as cowdung
being used as fuel, can only bo applied by him in limited
amount. The garden and irrigated land solely get the benefit
of ft, none being available for the Ordinary fields. Tiio
mutual relation between animals and plant,s i.s disturbed^
and the rule which makes it necessary that the waste prodneU
of animals should Ik- returned to tho soil for the nsi' of the
vegetables is continually violated. Owing to the shoriev life of
plants, cultivated for tho food of animals, either directIv or
indirectly, any such breaking of this law is more ipiickly mani¬
fested by them than by animals : but sooner or later fh^se latter
suffor also. The stunted forms of the (tonds tiud Koorkoos arc
good exiunples of howa whole race maybe redncetl in size by
insuflieient food, and what h.as hajipened to them in their less
productive soil, will overtake tho inhablUviit of the plain.s who
is reducing lii.s land to the same powerless state by withhold¬
ing from it its natural food-manure. The carlKmic acid, duiig,
and urine must bo placed near the plant for its use, but in.atead
of doing this, the cultivator takes no care that they can be so
utilised, and there.siilt is that year by year plants tind less food
in the soil, and become sm.-dler and smaller each successive crop,
until they cannot be grown with iirotit al. all. ^Yllen tills
happens land 1ms to be thrown fallow, and .a cert.aln port ion
of the food-prodneing surface of tho earth is lying idle and
inactive.
The question is, what aro the best means at our disposal for
averting this result ?
Before going to the question of manure, we may consider one
I means by whicli this state of exhaustion may be dolayed. If
grass seeds were sown al some regular interval of tinie on these
plots, the land would obtain a rest, and it has been ascertained
by Baron Liebig, that by growing gross on the land,
not only is it not exhausted or merely rested, but the grass
contributes to the nitrogenous supply of the soil, .storing up
ammonia in it for future use, I think that one great stcji
would be taken if one of the nnmorons Indian grimses
were selected, as rye-grnss has liecii at Iiouic, and grown
as a crop in a certain rotation. The jirodncfion of this grass
crop leads to a consideration of an easy mclhod of l■xten'bng
I the maiuu'inl resources of Tndia. It is customan for a, wot wlr
wishas to manure his field, to induce a .shepherd to bring his
flocks .at niglit .and herd them on it. Thu .soil gels the bcindit
of the ilroppings and tho urine. This herding is done for three
or four nights, and tlio alu‘|ihcrd is ji.iid for it ff the euili-
vator sowed some grass seeds on his land he could turn the
matter to his own priif'it by getting the shepherd to piv for the
grazing, and got the beiioiU of the inaiiuro im well.
By adopting this course, some practical UKCisures might be
evolved which would be of use ; but of coiir.se the subject
needs to be thouglit over and worked out, as no one coiihl at
once produce a system of rotation of crops which would be
applicable to a whole province, or even for many coiit igmui.s
portions of it, as the soil varie.s so suddenly and so much. The
rotation of crops is so iiitiiu.itely connected with iimi-exhaiKlion
and Imsbaiidiiig the resources of the soil, that manuring and it
must alwaj's be coiisidored together, when any iiractic.d .sclKmie
for the iiou-iinpoveiisation of tlio laud is being drawn up. i\.(
farmyard manure practically does not c.xiht in India, this plan
of e.ating over a crop, seems one peculiarly siiitable, .and worthy
of some trouble lieiiig o.vpondod to secure if.s adoption. By it,
the whole of the uilrogenoiu materials of m mure are aecuroil
for the soil. The urine that is voided on the earth is lixeil in
the soil IIS ammonia and remains available for future n.se. ft
is surprising how little of it o.scapes into the iitmosjdiere, even
on tho top of a dunghill litllo iimmoiiiu is giecii off, tiiongh
it is being formed in it to a large amount. Much less
escapes from the earth which has the fiower of absorbing
and retaining it. The droppings should not be reinove.i from the
soil, but allowed to remain on it, the r.aiu will wash their
iiiitrieiil properties down into the earth when they become
convevteil into nitric acid by tho rootlets of the croji, and are
tbuii stored for future use. Tlie crop which should be grown
after the land has been thus treated will v.avy in diflerciit c.mes
according to the character of the soil, but as a geneml rule, it
may be laid down that the b#st jrayiiig ruii or epriug crop
cultivated in that *iin't of the country will bo the one to
Byff,
By Surgeon T. Hiuno, M.B., Amraoti.
240
THE INDIAN A^miOULTURIST.
July 1888.
With referoHco to fce«h nightsoil m a mauure, I hare made
some experiments, and find that in certain instances the result
has Ixsen most satisfactory ; the cases in which it failed, I will
also mention ns they may be of benefit to others. I liad a
largo ftniomit of nightsoil wherewith to experiment, vii., the
daily outturn of a central jail containing fiOO ]irisoner». This
liad ahvii,y.s been thrown into deep ]nta in inorhum, and was thus
quite unavftilat)lc for all present or future use at the place where
it was buried. Natirea could not be induced to try it as a
manure, and l>esides the almost insuperable objection they had
on the score of caste, they insisted that it burnt up all
crops, that it was too strong, &c. Despite these representations,
I ordered the nightsoil—which had heon mixed with about
twice its weight of ilry cartii iusiiie jblie jail—to be carried out
into the garden, and there buried in trenches, from
one foot to fifteen iuches deep. Tlie amount of tlie iioiidrette
WHS six inches deep in tlio bottom of tin's tieucli, and over
it a small basket of liuio rubbish to each running yard
W;is thrown. Tlie whole was then covered over with the
earth that had been e.veavated. In a month or two,
I began cropping the ground, and raised on the tii'st
trial a beautiful crop of radishes—the large country radi.sh,
which are almost equivalent in bulk, I should say, to a garden
turnip. I also tried it witli beiulikai willi a like good result,
as far as the expei'ieuco of the jdaiits was conoerned, but
the outturn of poils did not sliow sucli a marked improve¬
ment as the enlarged size of the plants would have led one
to expect. The next crop 1 tried was c.ari ots, and this was
an unqualified success. Onions did remarkably well on this
trenched ground ; cabliages and cauliflowers were very luxuriant.
Now for my failure—cotton ; the trees grew to a great
height, some of them being 6 and 7 feet high, but the croj)
of cotton fi-om tliem did not correspond with this growth.
The number of flowers was large, but the cotton while in
the boll was attacked by an insect (a beetle; which lived on
the seed, ate it out leaving nothing but tlie shell ; and in-
ditt'erent or destroyed cotton fibre w'as the result.
I am sorry that the above experiments were undertaken
without any idea of their ever being reported, and that the
crops have to base their claim to excellence on my opinion
and testimony iirsteiul of having liad their actual weights
registered. Improvement to tlie crop and the utility of the
manure there cab la* no doubt, as it was remai-ked by every one
who saw the crops.
The point gained is the use of fresh manure.s, and that
manure of the strongest nature. There i.s im doubt that this
was attained by the lime rubbisli which was buried witii
tlic l.atriuc oftal. I have seen tlie experiment recorded of
some manure or putrescent substance which was treated with
Kolutioiis of diilereiit kinds : one contaiiicsl lime, one of the other
was perchloride of iron. The substance to whicli the lime was
added deconipo.sed willi the utmost r.ipidity. There is no
further proof needed than this, and the testimony of cx-
porience that lime is the key by which the farmer opens and
liberates the stores of nitrogen contained in manures, and
in the soil. It serveil this purpose most efTcctively in tho.so ex¬
periments of mine. While approving of the use of lime when
applied to the soil, it is evident from wliat I have already
said, the move you apply it the greater is the necessity to
supply manures for it to work upon. I know of no more certain
rapid exhauster of iiiiiimmired soil tliaii lime. If therefore aiiv
attempt is made to utilise fresh nightsoil one indispensable
conooniitant is lime. I may here note an ancient belief with
reference to lime which holds sway in the be.st farmed eountry
in tlie world, tliat lime rubbish, t.c,, old mortar which lias
■been in a building for some time, is the best suited for such a
purjxise as 1 liave descrilied. T supjKise tliat quick-lime is to,>
rapid in its action, and overdoes the deromyiosing, fm-min;.'
cheinicid t-oinponnd.s not hsneticial in large uneaint tu plan!
life. Here. Hn'ii. is an iinnsod and i .ilmilile aid In nianonne :
it it is not .t ni.'onirp, but ihe lime of ,tl! tthl imlldings is of
,eivice when pni on liunl wiih inaiinre.
'Vnother lesson which these experiments imight mo. or rather
foroeii on my notice, is tliiit those, crops wiiicli itome to maturity
as a cro)) before they flower and seeil, tire much boiiefltted by
this abundant and readily available store ef manure, anil
that thoie whoM utility depended on their fruite, as bendikai
and cotton, were not so braefitted. The orer-luxurianoe of
the crop in the Initial stage predisposes to premature decay
whenever the period of growth Is over, and hence the inability
of those crops whose eoonomio purposes begin to be developed
after flowering, to resist the downward iten^enoy. Manures,
more intermixed with the soil, and more iHlIttPsed, will suit
those crops better than the fresh i)uuuui3|H^' next I
have no doubt that this ground which hM^failed nov_|jji'’
grow very fine seed crojie. Small seeded drops, like radishes,
caiTots, mangold and cabbages which require in a short space
of time tu increase to a large size, require that there should
be a large store of available manure to assist them in their rapid
growth, while it is not so necessary in the case of slower
growing, and smaller growthed plants like grasses, cotton,
wheat, &c. This is the reason of the practice followed at home
of giving manure to a green crop, such as turnip or potatoes,
and not to a white crop such as wheat, barley or oats.
I have tried the eft'ect of urine buried in ti-enches on a jowari
crop, and found that it improved the crop, both straw and corn,
ill a iimrked degree.
The plan I can recommend for farm-yard manure and field
refuse is a simple and efficacious one, which I commend to al
who own stock and have fields. I dig a pit in the hard mor-
lium four feet deep and about thirty feet square ; into this I
throw all the stable litter, cowdung, and the rank green vegeta¬
tion that I can cut down in the couipound till the collection
reaches the top. I sprinkle over the whole of this a few baskets
of lime and old mortar and cover it with a foot of black cotton
soil. Of course any other good soil would answer the pur¬
pose just as well ; it is put there to catch any ammonia that
may be disengaged, and also to absorb any possible malaria
that might be given off by the fresh vegetable matter during the
surly stages of decomposition. In less than six months the
whole is as decomposed as manure need be, and fit for apydi-
oatioii to any soil, or for any crop requiring it. There is no
loss of liquid draining away the soul iiiul siibstanee of the
manure as it is retained in the rocky basin during the rains,
and absorbed by the solid niaunrial subsfaiioe during tin-
cold weather. This iiieiui- of converting tlie rank vegetation
and weeds into a modification of one of the best manures we are
acquainted with, cc., leaf moiild.isone that should be extended.
By it the whole nitrogenous matters are pra.sorved, whereas
by the native plan of burning, only the saline matters are
retained and given to the soil : the nitrogenous are dissipa ted
by the heal. . -
I have not attempted hereto give a dissertation iin agricul¬
tural chemistry, as that has aheady been done by men who
are much better vei'se.il in the subject than lam; the whole
aim of tin's jiaper has been to Ire practical, and record what
I have done for the giiiilanoe of those who may be inclined
to try similar expei imeiits.
There are mmicrous substances which if utilised as manure
would be of immense benefit to the soil ; but every one
of these apparently availables ubstauees haa some diftiouity
connected with it, in the way of its being employed.
For exanqile, tlie luimeroiis deiul carcaaes of aiiimids could,
when made into compost, lx: used as manure. At present
they are devoured by pariahs, kites ami crows, and are not
ntihseil nsmauiire at all. But the rights of maliais (or pariahs)
prevent this means of fertilising the soil being carried out.
The hereditary privilege of eating carrion, the proscriptive
right of gorging on animals that have died either a natural
ileath, or from disease is not to be interfered with unless the
pleasure of these liiseioiis repasts can be made up to them in
some other way. Dead animals covered up with e.arth and
left to decomjxisc would be perfectly sanitary, and from them
: a large aiiioiint of nitrogenous nmnuiv, a-s well as |)liospbates,
1 M'ouUl be obtained.
I The money '.due of Ihi-- afoiviiieiiti.uie.l yj/tn of ft‘‘,,^ilirt
j at ion i.s (piite iin.'ertaiii ; it nuist v.iry niiicli in iliffeieni
I bs idii le,... lio'eninicnl is the latidloi'l, it must be from
it tbiil all) regiilalions about rotation of i riqis iim.it emanate.
It can do this with all eijuity when it has ascertained what
rotations are suited to various localities. In England no
loutllQl'd W9uld Ivt Uk Inud witbqut a d«iliUte agreement about
242
THE INDIAN AaBICULTURIST. July 2, 1883.
4
past throe years, the crops whic.h show the largest increase
during that period being wheat and oil-seeds. The area
under rioo which, during 1881-82, is shown os 4,039,5.55
acres, has been almost stationary during the last three
years, and that under the ooaraov grains has declined a
little.
Tiie chief iniiierals of the proviuoes arc said to bo coal,
iron, and the stono and limo of tho Jubbulporo district.
Tlie dutjmt of coal at the Mohpaui mines, which arc
worked by the Nerbudda Coal and Iron Company, Was,
during 1681, 10,4r)-i tons, tho royalty paid to Government
for that period amounting to Rs. 1,819. The coal beds
at Warora are, however, of more importance, the output
of during coni 1881-82 having been 68,15fi tons against
25,GOG tons in tlie preceding yean Wo see it stated that
extensive oonl fields liave j'oeenUy been disoovorod at Mnaria,
in Uewa territory, .34 miles across their northern boundary,
and arc believed to extend into the northern portion of
the .lubbulpore di.striet It appears that, the Botul district
bus also been credited with coal bods which have been
the object, of extensis'o boring operations during the past
two yoai's. The Geological Department selected three sites
for the sinking of bore-holes to the depth of 100 feet ; the
work has cost Ils. 11,09G, but the results are rojiorted
to be unpromising. A fourth sito has, it scorns, been
selected for deeper boring in tho hope of striking richer
strat.a.
Iron is not 3 'ct worked on an extensive scale. It is said
that there are about 48 snnill iron mines in the hills to
the north of the Jubbulporo di,strict, while several minus are
also to bo found in places in the .Saugor district, which, during
the year, yielded .30,80.3 maunds of ore. Referring to tho
iron of tho Chanda district, which was formerly a native
industry of some importance, it is rojiortod that the ro-
sonvees of the district have recently’ been investigated by
Mr. Ritter von .Schaartz, a gontloinaii of considerable ex¬
perience in iron working in Austria. His report 1ms, it
appears, been a favourable one, and is now under the eon-
sideratiou of Government. Mr. .Schwartz thinks that “with
the construction of proper furnaces, there would be uo
reason to doubt the possibility of Chanda turuiug out a
very largo .puiutity of iron or steel, and that nu export trade
to Europe might even be opened in certain articles now
imported from the continent, such as ferro-maugnneso aud
Brescia steel.”
Tho amount of stono quarried in the J\ibbulpore district
during the year is returned as 391,050 cubic feet, particu¬
lar moiition being made of a quarry which j’ields a stone
of some vabio for the maniifm'.ture of ehoeolatc paiut. We
oh.sorve that the lime excavated at Mnrwara is said to fetch
a high price in tlie Caloultii market; the amount quarried
ilnriug the year was 160,416 cubic feet, for whicli ns
much as Rs. 48,125 was realised.
Turning to the mamifactares of tho provinces, we sec
that the cotton mills occupy tho most prominent place
therein. During the year under report, tho amount of raw
CMitton worked up was .33,895 owts., the amount of twist
m.anufactured 1,804,530 lbs., and tlic amount of cloth
manufactured 1,491,945 Ihs. Tho value of the cloth ami
twist is put down at Rs. 1,593,804. The Nagporo aud
Iliiighungliat cotton mills arc reported to be in n very
flourisbing condition, the outturn of the former having
greatly increased during the last two j'cars owing l,o the
iiitroductiou of the electric light which allows work to be
carried on iroth night and day. Cotton mills are also about
to he established on the Nerbudda, whore it is intended to
utilise water-power for working them. Among tho handi-
craft.s of the provinces, weaving, metal woi-kiug, carpentry,
and the maiuifactiirc of gold lace and silk goods, appear to
he tho most important. Tire report says that “ tho cloth
of Chanda is reported to have been of oxtraordinoi’ily good
quality,and at tho commencement of tho century was ex
^jorted 08 far as Arabia. Similarly the brass-work of tho
town of Bliuiidara, of Lodhkiheiu in Chindwaro, and of
Hurda in Hoshungabiul boro an excellent name, and the
Chanda and Jubbulporo districts were noted for tho mann-
fiioture of durable uteusiJs from tho iron which is found
within their limits. It is nuiversally reported that both
the weaving sued tMtai working ut^tries Wo suffered,
severely from the competition of European goods. Cotton
cloth aud metals constitute the principal return which
England mokes to these proviuoes for the grain and oil-seeds
which she draws from them, and the value of articles
included under these two heads amounted to 40 per cent
of the total value of the imports by rail during the year
under report. It is not therefore surprising that from
every district there should oomo the same account of deoliu-
iiig profits, of the emigration of the ‘aattisans to p^os
further from tho railway, or of ruin only avertedT^a
ohnugo of tradn The decline commenced “ with
stitution of English materials for those fashioned by native
craftsmen. Thus, rolled sheet b^s come into use in
Bhundarn and Lodhikera in place of that beaton out of by
hand, and English cotton yam was preferred by native
weavers to that locally spun.” A curious and interesting
feature in tho manufacture of laoo at Burhanpore is the
drawing of silver-gilt wire of astonishing fineness from a bar
of silver, called a pasna, which is lightly or heavily gilt as
the occasion reqiiires. The report says that '* the pti^sa is
of n \miform w'oight of 60 tolas, and its manufaoturo aud tho
preliminary process of wire-drawing are oonduoted under
municipal supervision, and made tho source of a small
income, a duty of Rs. 1-8-0 being levied on each passa. Tho
w'eight of gold-leaf to the patsa varies from 4 to 42 madujs.
A pngsn is often drawn out into a wire 72,000 yards in
length, and tho length of wire per tola of weight varies
betwocu 500 yards (for gold lace sold by weight) and 1,200
(for spinning the thread of mixed silver known as
krUiifmfkc .)”
Tho following figures will give an idea of tho extent and
value of tho trade of tho provinces diiring the year. The
imports by railway amounted 39,97,667 maunds, valued at
Rs. 3,58,89,598, aud tho exports reached 1,64,93,192
mauurls, valued at Rs. 4,75,11,826. Tho imports consisted
of coal, cotton goods, fibres, metals, salt, spioos, sugar, aud
tobacco, while among exports we find coal, cotton, fibres,
wheaf, linseed, teelsood, aud other grains. Tho rail¬
way traile is distrihutod between the East Indian, Great
Indian Pouinsnla, Warda Goal, Nagporo aud Chuttisgurh,
and Hajpootaua-Malwa Railways.
Tlio total w'eight and valno of the trade wdth the adjoining
native territory is shown as follow ;—
Hftuudft. YiUvto.
Hh.
Imports 10,41,778 46,.37,041
Exports 7,82,2.37 49,52,338
The principal items of import, are cotton, grain, opium,
f/hec, and oilseeds ; aud the export trade is ooijlined to cotton
good.s, grain, metals, spices, and sugar,
THE ARTESIAN WELLS OF PONDICHERRY.
rpiHE Government of Madras has recently published some
interesting notes by Deputy Surgeon-General Fumell,
the Sanitary Commissioner for Madras, on the artesian wells
of PoiiJieherry. Dr. Furuell’s visit to Pondicherry was to
make himself acquainted with the artesian well water-sup¬
ply, as well as to ascertain the extent to which tho cholera
epidemic of 1881-82 had affootod tho settlement. Dr,
Furucll tells ns that, in his capacity of Sanitary Commis¬
sioner, he is chiefly interested in artesian wells os aflfordiiig
a water-supply for domestic use, and that whether they
are useful for irrigation purposes or not, is a question which
does not concern him, oxcopt indirectly. We observe,
however, that their inutility ns a means of irrigation has
been conclusively settled by tho local Public Works De¬
partment.
It is stated that there are now about 14 artesian we^t>-.
scattered over tho town of Pondicherry and ittf’ neighbour¬
hood, and that in different parts of the settlement fountains,
with water laid on from these wells, give an ample supply
of good aud pure water for the use of the people. In his
remarks regturding the diSkrent strata eneountered in the
July 2, 1883.
THE INDIAN^GBICULTUEIST.
243
constnwtioa of these wells, Dr. Furnell says that at the
Sarapa Cotton Milk, he was shown a number of sectional
diagrams of the borings which were “ ingeniously construct¬
ed, blowing the actual strata in position, not drawings,
but the sand, laterito, argillaceous sand, &o., themselves
in siiu," and that he was much struck with the various
and dissimilar strata of the different borings. In some
wells he observes that the “prinoipol strata are alternate
lMi^j)f gravel mixed with clay, lumps of black .plastic
cill^Y joarse blackish sand, mixed with black clay, iko.”;
wmreln the one situated in the town itself, which he inspect
ed, “the strata were alimore or less of hard, almost im¬
penetrable material, thus described—quarts, argillaceous
sand, coal, sable gros grains, guorteuz, lignites, debris des
roches primitives, minerais-de-fer, laterites gris fercugineux,
Ac.” This particular well is said to have been commenced
on the 16th August 1879 and completed on the 97th
September 1880, at a cost of only Rs. 1,000. It was
bored to a depth of 82 metres or 338 feet, and the result
is said to bo an abundant supply of good water. Dr.
Fumell’s remarks regarding the nature of the water oi-c
interesting. He says that “it is warm, clear, with a
distinctly ferruginous taste. It is used by the natives for
cooking and drinking, and its slightly ferruginous taste
comes to be liked after a short time. It is in high re¬
pute medicinally; skin affections arc said to disappear
under its use, and many natives of respectability come from
English territories to drink the water for diabetes ; iudoed,
lately at Madura I met a highly iutelligent Brahmin
gentleman, who informed me he had boon residing in
Pondicherry for some time to drink these waters for an
affection of the kidneys, and had derived much benefit
therefrom.” The analysis of a sample of the water from an
ai-tesian well has been given as follows by the Cliemical
Examiner to the Local Govornm*nt -
Total solids, grms. per litre
Volatile solids, do.
Sodium ehlorido, do. ,
Total hardness, Clark’s soalo
Permanent haj-dness, do.
Free ammonia, ralgrms, per litre
Albumenoid Ammonia, do. ,
Nitric acid, do. (as ammonia).
Remarks.—A good water.
0-43
0'12
0'047
9“-8
2°'8
V/7.
0-02
1'2
As regards the cost of tho wells, it is staled that those
at the Sorana Cotton Mills have cost about lls. 2,000 each;
others have cobLRh. fSOO, while it is added that “ a native
iu Pondicherry is voy .^willing to undorlako sinking welts
on a salary of Rs. 150 foSlTtiswaelf per mimtb, tiuding the
machinery, but of course not paying tlic coolies, the juiy of
whom must bo defrayed by tho person employing him. ’
In tho report on artesian wells fnrnislied to tlie .Mtidras
Covommeut by his Excellency the Governor of Llio Freiicli
.Settlements, the notes collected in counecliou with tlie
most recent borings made by tho Govorumout, as well as
those made by the Civil Engineers, are also supplied. It
appears that seven artesian wells have been lawcd since
August 1880. Wo select one which was coiistructcxl in
1881 at the Sarana Cotton Mills; it was bored botwooii
the 26th March and,the 27th April 1881, and the following
notes, recorded by the cngiueci’ who executed tlio work,
may not be uninteresting to our readers :—
Height of the soil above tho mean level of
the sea... ... ... ... 3-20 metres.
Depth of the well in tho soil ... ... 2()’20 „
Diameter of the orifice at its outlet ... 018 „
Discharge of water per minute at 0‘20 centi¬
metres above the soil on tho 20th April
1881 ...
Temperature of water at the orifice of outlet
H^^^^rical degi-oe of water
Hydrostatic levSb of the spouting sheet of
water above the soil ... ... I'OO metres.
Hydrostatic level above the mean level of the
sea ... ... ... ... 4'20 „
During the execution of this work, tho sounding lend met
with a eeries of the following Inyors ;—
200
32'’
10 '
hires.
oentigi’ade
14
15
10
17
18
19
20
2l1
!&
S ®
Composition of the
ground traversed.
|.§‘
3 'S
C
’st
S'a’
Beuarks.
p
n
M.
M,
1
Ground lately em¬
•
banked
0-27
0-27
2
Vegetable earth
0-25
0-52
3
Brown and blue clay
0-25
0-77
4
Clay marbled with
reddish, j-ellowish
and gi-eyish spots
witii a mixture of
saud and carbouato
of lime
0-55
1-32
5
Sandy clay with
veins of yellow,
hi-own and some
garnets
' O'lO
1-72
1
6 1
Large si2e sand.
1
m. 2-20
HOiletl with brow-n
level of
clay
0-30
2 02
sheet of
wali’r of
.surrouiul-
ing wells.
7
Large size sand with
clay
2-50
4-.52
8
Largo size bluish
saud, mixed with
small pebbles aud
refuse of rotten
wood,pieces of plas¬
!
tic clay, rolled up '
pebbles, basalt, and
1
amphibolo
2-08
0-00
9
Grayish fluid sand
and mica mixed up,
agglomeration of
bkek clay, h.'usalt
and amphibfdo ,..
0-50
7-10
10
Grayish nlack thin
1
saud, black spots,
(titanate of iron)
agglomerations of '
hliick clay, basalt
i
1
and amphibolo ...
0-60
7-60
11
Black plastic eltiy,
j
1
broken up shcll.s,
refuse or rotten |
wood ... 1
■1-70 !
12-30
12 !:
Medium size sand and j
ji
hst ascend¬
1
also tine, soiled by-
ing sheet
j
black clay, bits of ^
1
of walei-.
1
nIk-U.s, refuse of
1
1
Ist April
i
f
lotteu wood ....
1-00
1.3-30
3881, at
■(
Bluish earth, large
and medium bits of
shells, refuse of
rotten wood
Black plastic clay
Black sandy clay
Black phvstic clay ...
Medium size sand
with mica soiled
with black clay ...
Medium sand, mio;i,
soiled black clay ...
Largo size bluish
sand (biisalt and
amphibolc) shells,
broken pieces of
bricks, bits of shells,
refuse of• rotten
wood
3-90
5-30
0'50
1-50
050
0-00
17-20
22- 50
23- 00
24-50
26-00
20-60
o'clock
moniing;
hydrOHta-
fic level
of sheet
of w'.atcr,
m. 3-20
of the soil.
2iul UHcend-
iiig sheet
of water,
in. 0-35
above the
soil.
3i'd ascend-
I iug sheet
I* Ilf ivatoj',
I level of
the soil.
0-60
26-20
244
T^. V838.
The Bpouting sheet of water was met with at the depth of
m. 26'20 ia a Itjer of bluiah large-grained aatid mixed with
pebbles, some small shells, and rotten wood Its hydrostatlo
lerel rM6 to m. ItDO abcfve the soil, and its; disoharga of
water on the 2t)th April lS8l of 200 litres per minute.
SERICULTITJIE IN THE DOON.
I N the last administration report (1881-82) of the Agri
cultural Department of the North-West Provisoes and
Oudh, some interesting information is given regarding the
prospects of sorionlture in those provinces, ' We learn that
the entorpriao is now in the hands of Messrs. Lister and
Co., of Bradfoi-d, whose manager, Major Murray, has al
ready done a good deal to push on operations on tho lands
which have been granted to the firm in Dohra by tho Gov¬
ernment of the North-West Provinces and Oudh. It is
stated that 50,000 seedling mulberries and four acres of
cuttings—of both the sinensis and multicavHs varieties—are
now on tho Song grant, and that a canal measuring 4J
miles has been dug for the purposes of irrigation. It is
pointed out, however, that one of tho chief draw-backs
which Dehra offers os a centre for sericulture is the want
of leaf. A very small supply appears available at present,
and it was owing to this deficiency that a good portion of
tho silkworm seed put down by Major Murray during 1880-81
had to bo throwu away. During the year 1881-82, “12
ounces were put down, and even then there was not enough
leaf for night feeding, though the trees wore stripped for
three miles round. Moreover, the roadside trees, not being
manured or tended, threaten to give a continually diminish
ing supply.”
Cottage oultivatiou docs not appear to have been very
sucoossfuL Tho production, of silk by villagers during the
official year 1880-81 amounted to 12 maunds 24 seers
green, for which they were paid at the rate of Ra 40 per
green maund. In tho Punjab, it is stated that the same
qi^ntity obtains Rs. 16, lls. 20, or Rs. 24, according to
quality, while in Calcutta a maund of drv silk fetches from
80 to Ea 100, and is really equivalent to throe green
maunds. In the face of these rates, the report goes on to
say, that to pay Rs. 40 for a maund of green silk must
result in a loss to the purchaser. During the year under
notice, the price offered to the villagers by tho firm was Ea
20 per maund, but ouly two cultivators wore found to agree
to these terms, the quantity of seed taken by thorn amount¬
ing to 4 ounces, which gave a produce of ton seers of silk to
tho ounce. Notwithstanding the obstacles wbiob tho firm
have had to contend with, it is satisfactory to learn tiiat
they hold the opinion that “ Dohra offers a very fine field
for the cultivation of healthy seed, and that if a remunera¬
tive pi'ioe wore guaranteed, an almost inexhaustible supply
might be depended on.” In connection with this matter,
an important question suggests itself to the Agricultural
Deportment, which seems deserving of attention. It is wlio-
ther the importation of healthy seeds by silk-growers in tlie
Bengal presidency, while helping to augment tho supply in
the Doon might not also servo to revive the silk industry
of Bengal. The difficulties which, it appeai-s, at present
obtains in the way of providing supplies in the manner indi¬
cated, is due to tlio fact that Messrs. Lister and Co. are at
present the ouly silk-growers in the Doon, and it is tliought
that they might not care to undertake tho enterprise. It
is stated, however, that the matter has been brought to
their notice in view of eliciting their views thereon.
What is chiefly wanted to moke sericulture sneoessful in
the Doon is mulbeny trees and reai'ing accommodation.
As regards the first, tho report says that “ the initial! diffi¬
culty is that trees to be of any use must bo within a short
distance of the rearing sheda It hardly pays to carry
them three miles, and certainly not further. The land near
Dehra is already taken up by crops and gardens, aud is so
extremely valuable that it is doubtful whether to plant it
with the mulberries, which might after all never be used,
could be justified. To plant trees in the jungles is to anti¬
cipate on insufficient gi'ounds the locality which a future
silk enterprise might select The forest department, who
were addressed with the view of establishing mulberry plan¬
tations, offered the sites of two deserted vniages at a dis¬
tance of about 24 (piles froin Nynee-TalJ! and not nearer
pay other possihle oonuneroial centre. The cost would
hare been Bs. 7,00C^ and the trees ^ould have, beep of no
tiBe'whatever exc»^ for siUt wdri^ag. T|iie ofibi^we see
Was deblined by Meefirs. LiBter «^ Oo4 «idt^ pj^eot was
abandoned. Arrangements, however, it'appe^rsj have been
made with the Superintendent of the Dooh'that a sinall
garden at Dehra rfioffld be planted out with trees, and it
is stated that further propo^ are under the consideration
Of Government, which involve both the growth of mulbotries
and the provision of proper rearing ah^s for Cottage ' oul«-
vatloa' The report mentions a second slllf oonoebh riddKl
has been started Ih the Doon by Colonel Utterson; bat 1447
at present it cannot be depended oh fbf seed. '
EDITORIAL NOTES.
B EE-KEEPING in India has never gained a footing among
the paying industries, and the Government of India think
there is no prospect of its being made an important source
of remuneration to the labouring olasses, even If they take
up the matter seriously, and place fkoilities in the way of
encouraging the natives, who alone could undertake
bee-culture in this country. Tho chief obstacle to givin<>
bee-keeping an impetus is the want of a sufficiently'largo
and influential stafl’ of officials competent to instruct the
natives, and interested themselves in the matter. Perhaps
tho only practical bee-keeper in India is Mr. John Douglas,
of the Telegraph Department, who is not unknown as such
to both the Home and Indian Governments. Bee-culture
is not quite unknown in tho upper provinces, and in some
small tracts of the southern presidency of India. But tho
mode of keeping boos here has been of a most primitive
type, and not oaloulated to encourage the extension of
the industry, for the retufps for labor are small ; and
only suoh as have had time aud little trouble have
interested themselves in it, and have utilised tho, outcome
of their labors mostly in home consumption. Tho same
may almost be said of tho bee-keepers of the Himalayas,
who, after providing for homo use, retail the balance in the
bazaars of our various hill sanitaria In Cashmere, however
we may accept it, on the authority of Mr. Moororoft, that
tho beo is domesticated, and its produce calonlated upon as
the harvest from nu acre of laud. There, its domestication
appears to be complete, and in some parts of the territoi'y
a provision is made for beehives during the coustniction of
the houses of tlie people. According to the system in
Cashmere, the hiving and abstraction ore done iu tlie
simplest form—tho latter by the smoke of a smouldering
wisp of straw iutroducod into the lii^yiVj'-^auJ so well
{uxivided for are tho inmatos___of^hc hives in tho matter
of accommodation, that shor'tly after being deprived of
their hoard they are induced to return and commence
collecting auotl^' store. It is a common thing for the
same colony of these insects to produce honey year after
year in tho same hive for several generations. Having
been literally domioilod with man for so very many yeora
the boos of Cashmere have tho reputation of being “ mild¬
er in their manners than those of any other oomitry " (sg
the papers of the Agricultural Department tell us)
although tliey are said to have “ a most villdnoua sting
and Mr. Moororoft tells us that their produce is “as pure"
clear aud sweet as the finest honey of Narboune,” The
Indian Govcmmoiit, under the guidance of the Agricultural
Department, secs enormous obstacles to the introduction
of the bee industry into this country, stating that there
e.xist no natural resoui-oos for tho subsistence of the bees
on tho plaiua But one would ask, why a Live depdt opuld
not be established at eaoh hill station iu India where there
is always a large growth of indigenous flowers, Jso., and bv
winch the objection of the Government would be removed,
ik. Buck expects to have some important information
afforded him on this subject at the forthooming Inter
national Exhibition in Calcutta, and till then the question
has been shelved. As other more important subjects wf^.
occupy the Government at the Exhibition, it not likelv
this wiU bo given a thought to, especially os it was received
from the first in a half-hearted manner. Mr. Douglas went
to much trouble iu oolloctiug information on tho feasibilitv
of establishing bee-culture in India, and os an expert in the
matter is hopeful of its sttooess : but tha
Jrfyia, IW. . ?45
Ii»iiftr*'i)9p:foctly nflaMuwp^d with ,the subject—finds
niitnerous objeothsw, whjch, if it were disposed to favour the
iudustiy, cotdd easily be,removed. But the Agricultural
Pepartmen^ apparentlv knowing nothing of t^ matter,
disoountenanoes the soheme, and it, therefore, receives no
support from the Qovenmient of Indio.
j The bulls should bo about three years of age and the cows
I not over 4 , each witli her first calf which should be a bull-calf.
Frefsrencs should be given to animals suited as dairy stock.
The importation should not, I think, be made until the south-
I west monsoon is over. 11 would, I think, be best to send two
farm laborers to Aden to receive and look after the cattle on
_ ^report of forest administration in the Central Pro-
vilGioef‘during the year 1881-82 shows that the forest
area at the disposal <n the looal administration, at the close
of that period, was 19,719 sguore miles, as against 19,666
squai^ miles at the end of 1880-81. Tho total area is
divid^ as follows:—
I^rst oloM, reserved ... ... S,58B
Second „ ... ... 16,842
Unreserved forests ... ... 289
The total number of forest offences during the year is
stated as 9,228, or almost double that of tho foregoing
year. The report, however, explains that “ it must
not be implied that there has been any iuoroase in the
number of offences, or any greater tendency to disregard
tho forest law, but there can be no doubt that the
record of cases reported bos been more complete, and
that, on the whole, the arrangements for watch and ward
have been better.” In the first class reserves there were
451 coses of breach of forest rulea In 21 oases prosecuted,
18resulted in convictions; in 3 cases the offenders were
not detected, and in 427 oases tho persons were allowed to
compound, in the second class reserves tho offences
amounted to 8,779. The cases prosecuted were 777, of
which 716 resulted in convictions; in the remaining cases
the persons oonoerned were allowed to compound.
The results of fire protection do not appe.ar to have
been very satisfactory. The afea attempted during the
year was 004,582 acres, as against 924,380 in 1880-81,
while the area actually protected was 773,893 acres, as
compared with 869,828 acres in 1880-81. The proportion of
failures to the area attempted was, therefore, 14 per cent
as against 6 per cent for the preoeding year.
The cultural operations of the year have not hocu very
extensive, having been confined to two divisions prin¬
cipally; for one, tlie minor division, tlie expenditure
amounted toRs.4,137, while tho different works uudortakon
were the cultivation of a stock of fruit trees at tJirgaou,
the raising of evergreen trees along the boundary in the
Kandwa reserve, the maintenance of the Uirgaou nursery, i
and tho pitting of laud, and planting out The plants put 1
the voyage hero ; tills comse would not be more expensive
than that followed on tlio last occasion, when two Arabs nccom-
pauied the cattle here, and afterwards retiU'iied to Aden.
Numei'oas applications have been received ft-om different parts
of the Presidency for the loan of Aden bulls for use in im¬
proving looal dairy stocks. It seems very desirable that these
I applications should be met. We wiE shortly have some Aden
bulls available at the farm for stationing in some of the dis¬
tricts, but the number is small.
If the foregoing proposals are approved, I suggest that
the bulls available at the farm next cold season should then
be distributed. The bulls to be imported should, I think, go
to the Saidapet Farm until they have recovered from tho effect
of their voyage, when such of them as are then fit might
also be distributed for use. The cows I would keep at the
form until the up-country Experimental Stations ore opened,
when one cow and a buE also might be sent to each statiun.
The endorsement on the above, submitted, through the
Boai'd of Revenue, for the consideration and orders of Gov¬
ernment, is as follows :—
“ The Aden breed of cattle has been much admired by the
deputations of ryots who have visited tho farm from different
districts. They are peculi.arly docile and good tempered, whUe
possessing every quality that c.an be desired for purposes of
draught. They are of medium height, and tho bulls would
therefore servo admirably for the improvement of the small,
imd too often poor,breeds that are to be found in many districts
of the Presidency. Mr. Robertson's suggestions ai*e, therefore,
recommended for sanction.
The Farm Budget for the current year provides only Rs,
1,600 for the purchase of live stock, and the required funds
would h.avo to be provided by supplement from the Agricul-
tm'al reserve. Passage for cattlemen to and from Aden and
the cost of fodder and freight for the cattle from Aden must b«
added to the estimated price of the buffs and cows ; the pro¬
bable amount of these items will be ascertained and reported.
smallproportio’H’IsAXgaacceedcd well. In the Sanger divi¬
sion the exp6uditurer>rtM^ amounted to Its. 2,071, was
spent on maintaining uurseno^, the protection and cnltiva-
tion of a field of 60 acres sown in tbo provious jear witJi
bamboo, the fencing of bamboo previously put out, and tbe
juitting out in tho natural forest of 67,000 bamboo oliunps,
of -which 27,600 aro reported ns successful.
Tho financial results of tho year .show, wo observe, a
great improvement as compared with the figures for tho
year 1880-81. The i-evonuc doriv'ed Ims aiuomitcd to
lls. 11,72,884, against Rs. 8,50,139 in 1S80-81, wliilc the
expenditure was Rs. 4,97,01.3, or only Rs. 1,500 moro than
it was in the preceding year. Of the total revenue,
Rs. 3,10,176 represents tho receipts on account of the
timber operations of tbo year-.
The following letter from W. R. Bobertaon, Esq., Agricultural
Reporter to the Government of Madras, to W. Wilson, Ksip,
Uii-eotor of Revenue Settlement and Agriculture, Miulnu, dated
Saidapet, 15th Apiil 1883, and endoi-semeut by the Director of |
Revenue Settlement and Agriculture, has been printed by the
Madras Government:—
I have the honor to suggest that the undermentioned Aden
stwk^pight with advantage be imported :—Fifteen young buffs ;
ii(S'j’‘'-fws, each with a bull-calf at foot Our last importation of
this stock in iSSl consisted of—Two bulls, four cows, and four
calves ; and the entire cost of the importation was Its. 900-6-3.
The average cost per head would thus bo per bull Rs. 160 :
per nuloh-CQ-w, with calf, Bs. 160, At the foregoing rate the
Mtiauis I sow propose sl^ld be imported would coet here
j The following is tho Government i-esolution on the subject
of Bee-keeping in India :—
I In November 1881. tho Goveniment of India was furnisheil
[ by the Secretary of .State with copy of a correspondence with
1 Mr. .lohn Dougl.-w, of the Indian Telegraph Department, then
i on le.ave in England, on the subject of bee-keeping in India.
I Mr. Douglas, who had studied the industry ns followed in
Europe with a view to its introdnetiou into this country, do-
sii-ed to be supplied with informal,ion regarding the varieties of
honey bees indigenous to India, anil the results of past efforts
towards their domestication, cxlent of the demand for honey,
the quantity produced, and tho prices realised. In forwarding
the papers, the Secretary of State remai-ked that the subject
appeared to bo of sutticieut practical iuterest to engage at¬
tention. Local Governments and Administrations were ac-
cowlingly requested to furnish such information as might be
available on the subject.
The replies received comprise a large number of interesting
reports by Forest and District officers and other persons who
have paid attention to the subject. As tho information may
lie useful to the naturalist or the bee-keeper, the reports have
been printed, and will be made available to the public. The
broad conclusions to be drawn from their perusal are—fl) that
several varieties of honey-bees are found in every province of
India whei-e there is sufficient forest of jungle, and that the
[ honey of some of tho varieties is good and in considerable
demand ; (2) that efforts have been sacoessfally made in the
hills by Europeans to domesticate Indian bees, but that beS
culture is only practised by natives in the very rudest way ;
4») dwi h » VM-y dmbtfui wketitM- the bee sould W deoMiti'
246
THE INDIAN ipRICtrLTUBIST. J^y 2, 1883,
(•ateii in the plainB owing to the dearth of flowera during the
three or four months preceding the rains ; (■!) that in
Sonlhcm India persons (Mr. (^fornioht of Bombay and otiiers)
have given up all ath'inpta to domestioate the most common
variety of liee found tliore on account of its intractable
nature.
TJie industry is unlikely ever to be one of great importance
in Iiujiu, It can only ho followed in the hills,' where flowers
ahouiul throughout the greater part of the year, or in forests,
where food is erptally plentiful. In the populous country of
the plains, bee-keeping as a general industry seems imprac¬
ticable, Under these circnmstaiioes, there is little or no call
for action on the part of fTOverimlont. Such action could only
assume the form of improving the system of bee-culture iu
tile iiills and foiest region, hut the Ooveimment of India
docs not :rt present see its way lo hiking any practical
steps in this direction. Opportunity will, however, be taken
r(f the ttalcutta International Exhibition to make some further
cnr(uirio.s in the matter. With this oliject. Local Qovornuionts
and Administi-ations are invited to authorize their respective
Agricultural Departments, &c., to forward to the Exhibition
specimens of honey, naming, if possible, the variety of bee by
which it is produced, and the spooiraeus will be submitted to
exnmiuation by experts.
From tbo experiments that linvo boon made on
the (laumporo Farm, there is some hoj)c of sorglio super¬
seding the cane at some future period. The plant pos¬
sesses tliree advantagos over cane. The first is, that it
yields a grain tit for linmau food ; second, it makes oxocl-
lent fodder for cattle ; and third, it oconpies the land for
only four months of the year, while cauc takes it up for a
whole year. Thou, in addition to this, sorgho rociuires
snarcoly any mauuro and no irrigation. Every one will
admit those as considomhlo advantages over tho oauo ; but
tho difficulty with sorgho is in the manufacture of tho
sugar, nud this is where the experiments of tho first year
were unsatisfactory. Throe varieties of the plant wore
tried during last year, the atuher and tho rod descriptions
producing a somewhat loss proportion of juice and ,/nor to
the whole ])lant than uneleaued sugaroaue; hut rathov o
larger proportion than tho cleaned caiics. The //nor mann-
faciured from tho sorgho, though it had a peculiar acidity,
was well-flavored, clean, aud eoinmnudod a higher price
in tlie market than that produced from caue. It appears
to have a good future before it for eating and various
manufucturing purposes. When the farm officers procure
inijiroved machinery and have taught the natives how to
cuUiviite the phmt, to manufacture r/onr, and put it to other
paying uses, then perhap.s the expectations of the Agricul¬
tural Department of tho N.-W.P.aud Ondh may he realised
in regard to the superiority of this plant over cauo ns a
sugar-producer.
A VERY large trade is done iu the Central Frovlnces
in wood, principally teak, which is so plentiful in Nag-
pore and adjoining towns that it is used even in the moat
common caipeutery for the most trivial w'ant. I do not know,
says a coiTespondent any reason wliy the Central Provinces
should not supply a great portion of this wood to the markets
of tlie world, and why Bnrmah should have the monopoly of
supply, when there are hundreds of aipiare miles of teak wood
available in these territories, size and quality equal to the best
Moulmein. Thousands of squared loeams are brought in from the
outlying forests from 1 to 2 feet sipinre ami sold at an average of
from 8 annas to 12 annas per foot, and as the cost of cari’iage
from hero is dear, arc wasted priucipally in supplying sleepeis to
the railways. Biuh misuse should bo nftleially prohibited at
once, more especially ns gre.at forests of the other strong and
durable woods exist, chiefly uil, more convenient to the railway
lines than the supplies of teak. Besides the supply brought
to his doors, the railway contractor has the pernicious habit
of selecting the most convenient trees from 10 to 12 inches in
diameter in forest tracts—those that will split up into 4 or
mote longitudinal sleepeiv—which, it left, would rapidly
acquire dimensions of five to six feet m depth. So ruth¬
lessly is his work prosecuted, that whole forest areas, irbidi
are generally of one age, take only a few seaeons for the
tree to become totally extinct; If the ttiilirayB reduced
their rates for the carriage of this wood, I am positive
that at once sufficient qnantities would be transported to
Bombay, and that the high prices ruling for Burmah wood—
the monopoly of one or two firms—would at once have a fall.
When the through railway is a fait OGOOmpU, your market will
certainly be supplied. I think it is the imperative duty
Government to stop, aud at once, the ruthless destmctiou'i
tree, and take all forests, whether feudatory or otherwise, under
their protection j conserving them, and at the some time making
their wejvlth available in an intelligible and imperial disposition,
not treating these forests and their produce in the spirit of petty
peddling and huckstering prevalent in this province. A certain
amount of large trees should be felled each year at the different
forests ; or contractoi’s, on paying the authorized demand,
should be allowed, under direction, to fell for themselves and
take away the logs ; and for every tree thus cut three seeds or
seedlings should bo put down. I would venture to state that
were this advice systematically carried out by the State, the
Central rrovinoes alone would for ever supply the wants of
the world iu this wood. There are, say, taking a low calculation,
from 3§ to 4 millious of large available teak trees on British and
feudatory territory, in Fanuabanus, Bustar, iu the Baepore aud
Chanda districts and at Allapillay (in the latter the most superb
trees have been viciously destroyed by some Forest Department
officials iu their zeal to supply sleepers to the Nagpoi-e State
line) ; aud if, say, 20,000 logs were annually cut down, in a
hundred yeai's half the useful wood will have been felled, and
iu the meantime a supply would be ready from the systematic
sowings. But besides Government have at this time well select¬
ed reserves, many square milfs in area, in which teak trees of
all ages, from saplings to 10 to 30 year old trees, exist in inex¬
haustible numbers, and before tho hundred years we have
allowed, expire, these would be available to snpplement the
recognised store ;—such is the source from which, I say, if
judiciously conserved, an annual supply of teak can be drawn—
practically unliinitod.
The results obtained last year, says the Farmer'll Ranur, in tho
production of sugar from the sorghum plant on a commercial
scale, ami affording a pi-otit to both the grower and manufactur¬
er, were such as to practically settle the question in favor of
sorghum os a profitable sugar producing plant. These results
were but the oulmiuation of long series of experiments and care¬
ful study, which luivo extended over a .seriiieut years in various
parts of the country, during w'hijJl-tviiS^the character of the plant
and the influence of climate, soil and cultivation upon its
juices, have been carefully studied, and its juices, subjected to
careful analysis, at various stages of its growth, to determine
the particular stage iu which tliey reached their maximum
saccharine quality, and also to discover those properties which
hindered the crystallization of the sugar contaiued in them, and
how they can be effeotvially removed.
All these )jroblem.s seem to havo'been solved, as shown by the
success atteuding the sugar production from sorghum cane at
Rio Grande, N. J., and Champaign, Ill., during last year. It
had already been demonstrated that syrup of a superior quality
and of a high commercial value could be produced. But success¬
ful sdoa/'production on a commercial scale had never been achiev¬
ed until last year. Previous results in crystallization, which had
l>eeii common, were accidentat, aud could not be relied upon.
The importance of this iiuestioii of domestic sugar production
to the country, and especially to the farmer who must be relied
upon to grow the caue, can hardly be appreciated. Its economic
im[>ortanco cau best bo shown by tho araoiint and value of the
•sugars annually consumed in this country and the proportion of
Ilium we are dejiendent upon foreign supply for. The consump¬
tion of sugars in this country is said to ba 44 pounds per oapj *'
of our entire population, wliich by the census of. 1880 was m
round numbers 60,000,000. Estimating our present population
at .66,000,000 and on this basis our yearly consumption of sugar
reaches the enormous amount of 2,420,000,000 pounds, or
1,210,000 tons, enough to load 80,866 railroad cars of 16 tone
each, which, if stood in a line on single track, allowing 8S foci
July 2,188S.
247
THE INDIAN ^AGRICULTURIST.
to OKT) would form a Qontiiia<ms line of 622 miles. This, it was omitted. The omission of snlphiu' and of magnesia
will be imdeKstood, includes sweets of all kinds, having a sngar was attended with little or no decrease in crop. The commercial
as a basis. Of this amount, our total domestic production, import of this subject may not be obvious to the general
including Southern oano sugar and molasses, sorghum sugar and reader. If, howev'er, sulphur hie not essenthil, not only may
syrup, and maple sugar, does not exceed ton per cent of our we avoid using uuuiurc* iujurioua to plants by containing sub
yearly consumption. During the fiscal year ending June 30 phuric acid, but we need not insure the presence of thai sul>-
1881, the value of our imports of sugar, molasses, melado, stance by adding sulpliate of lime or suljihate of inagiiesiit.
confectionery, &o., as shown by reports of the treasury depart- Further, if so miiuito tiuces of magnesia and lime .-is ai e m
amounted to J94,782,104. The duties collected upon Hassocks soil be sufticiont, wc need not apply these subats uces,
the mamounted to >47,986,041, makiug the total cost of the but safely ti’ust to tlie soil and t j impurities in ninnurfi to pro¬
importations for the year >142,768,146. Of tlus amount, nearly vide all that is required. Practically, tlierefore, manuring wouii!
one hundred million dollars was paid to foreign sugar pro- be limited to the provision of three sulwtauces,-I’i'r., niti-ogun,
duoers. The eoighum question involves nothing less (if satis- phosphorus and potassium (pota-slij. It will, no doubt, lie under-
factorily solved) than the saving of this amount to the country stood that this doctrine imjilies no disregard of the beneficial
and transferring it from the foreign grower to the American action of lime, but would cause its action to be regarded and
farmer and sugar manufacturer, for, as we shall show in future
articles, the work of domestic sugar production from sorghum
must be divided between the farmer who grows the cane and
the manufacturer who converts it into sugar and syru]).
Mr. Thomas Jamieson, F.I.C., F.C.S., chemist to the
Sussex Association for the Improvement of Agidcultuvc, h.as
published a full and exhaustive report, giving an account of
experiments conducted last year. The first part of the report
deals with wheat-growing, the noteworthy facts elicited in
connection with this being, that a moderate increase in the
yield followed from the use of farmyard manure, and that the
profit is nearly doubled on the plots judiciously treated with
artificial manure. Artificial manures containing nitrogen were
found to give a great increase, and Mr. Jamieson holds that the
use of these need not exhaust the soil. The following mixture
was found to give the best yield of wheat in Sussex last year.
In autumn, before sowing and harrowing in the seed, a mixture
was given containing per acre A cwt. sulpiiate of potasli, f cwt.
sulphate of lime (these might be substituted by 1 cwt, ground
kaiuite), cwt. ground coprolite flour (not gritty nor brownish),
4 cwt. steamed bone floiu- (as fine as wheat flour, nr nearly so),
li cwt. nitrate of soda. In spring, say Maich, ^ cwt. sulphate
of potash, 1 cwt. mineral superphosphate, .A cwt. steamed lioiie
flour, 1^ cwt. nitrate of soda. Mr. .lamieson strongly recoin-
nteuds farmers not to purchase these siibatance.s mi.xocl together,
nor indeed any mixture (under the name of wheat manure,
mangold manure, charapiou mauiire, &«.), but to purchase the
ingi’edients separately, and mix them for theuisclves. Experi¬
ments on roots brought out results similar to tho.se of tlie Aber¬
deen Agi'icultural -Aagociatioa, namely— tliat un(li.s.solvnd
phosphate has proved eqiulr^'s—lly; dis-solvcd ])ho,s|)hati‘. The
manure recommended for roots is coufiainud in the following
mixture for soil assumed to bo very doficieut in .all the c.saontial
ingredients :—2jt cwt. ooprolito Hour, 2 cwt. .slearaod bone flour
—to provide phosphorus ; | cwt. nitrate of soda, A cwt. .sulphate
of ammonia, ^ cwt. horn dust or dried blood— U) provide tiiit o-
geu ; 2 cwt. kainite, ground—‘to provide, potash. Under th -
division of analytical plots, the report says ;—
“ We now come to what I regard as the most iutorcHtiiig )iart
of the work this year at this station—to results that may nlli-
matoly have an important bearing upon tlie economy of manur¬
ing. It will hai’dly be possible, howev'er, to err by an excess of
oautiou in forming oonolusious from tho.se resulls, until they are
well confirmed. Briefly—but I state it under rosei vc—they
imply a reduction of the essentials of plant life ; they appear
to show that the mineral ingredients doomed essential to plants
may be a much simpler group than the seven-sided one at pre¬
sent accepted; that the whole subject of manures may be sim¬
plified ; and that much useless expenditure in manures may bo
spared. We have all—^agricultural chemists without o.xception,
I believe—accepted as fact that a complete )>buit cannot bt
formrl iu the absence of any one of the seven mineral ingve-
iHii*'j|i('/_uitrogenj phosphorus, sulphur, lime, magnesia, p itash,
and iron. In^rder to inform ourselves iu regard to the char¬
acter of the soils in the field stations, and also to show farmers
the essential character of plant food, aualy'tical or deficiency
plots were formed at each field station. Tlio results of last
year were reported, and these indicated that full growth was
interfered with only when nitrogen, or phosphorus, or potash
due chiefly to mechanical and decomposing action on tho soil.”
The followingaro the proposals Mr. ./anue.son jn.akes for 188.3;
1. To continue the analytical jdot at tho field stations. The
longer they arc continued, tho more decided .should bo the
diflfereuces iu the crops from tho various plots, and the more
reliable the information. 2. That tho root ))lots should be
cropped with mangolds, without manure, in order to show
the lasting effects of tho different m.anure.s already applied.
3. Th.at wheat should ag.aia be grow'ii with manure on
the wheat plots of last season, iu order to show whether
profitable crop.s may be grown iu soil from which heavy crops
have been got, by treating with what arc doomed soil-exhaust¬
ing manures. 4. To ascertiiin quantity, and ns far a.s jiossi-
blo, tlie quality' of the produce from various grass seeds. A large
number of new plots have been opened u)i, and sown with
this cud ill view. The various gra3.s seeds to bo sown in
spring. 5. To oontinuo and develope the e.xpetimeiife at Has¬
socks Gate, mainly to furthur eliicid.ate the question of the
mineni] ingredients absolutely' ea.scntial to plant growth.
The Victorian Government stotlst has issued his quarteidy
abstract, .showing tho estimated population of Victoria on
December 31, 1882. Tho uuniber of births during the ye.ar
was 20,741 ; the ai’rivals by sea were .'>3,401 ; making a total
inerenso of 80,14.5. The Jeatlas were 13,030: tho ilcparturoa
by soa, 48,524 ; making tho total decreaao of 62,151. Tlie not
increase during the year was thus 23,991. Tho populiition, on
December 31,1881, was 401,222 malo.s, and 418,010 females ;
and on December 31, 1882, 477,607 milc.i, and 428,710
females, or a total of 000,22.3. The apparent, incroa.se of popu-
hition 111 1882 (2.3,001) wius greater than that in 18S1 by 1,820,
and although less than in 1880—the Exhibition year—by 2,100,
wa.s greater Lliaii iu any other year since 1871 ; tho increase
by e.aeesM of recorded arrivals by soa over recorded departures
by ,si'a (10,880) was exceeded in 1880 by 780 ; but was greater
by 3,,5.58 than the same i-xcess in 1881, and was also above that
in any other yeai since 1870 ; the inoroa.sc by' excess of register¬
ed births over regisloreJ dcath.s (13,111) was, with tho exception
of that in 1870, the .smallest in tho la.st 11 years.
The agricultural returns published by the/S'oat/t d mtrciftVoi
Iie;;isler show that tho late wheat harvest has been the worst
ever exporiencod iu South Australia. The total produce was
8,273,000 bushels, giving an average of 4 bushels and 3211)8.
per acre, which is 211)3. less thau tlie yield of the pioeediiig
your.
Tue United States Cousul at Auckland, writing on tho trade
and industry of New Zealand, says it U estimated tliat
tlie forests of New Zealand cover on area of not leas than
20,000,000 acres, tho forests on tho Crown lauds alone being
estimated at 10,000,000 acres; about 5,000,000 acres are the
private property of the white or European population, and the
remainder of tho Maori, or native inhabitants. Among the
many deaoriptions of timber grown, the kittirt pino is considered
one of the most valuable; it is foimd only iu tho province of
Auckland, and iu that district it docs not exist further south
tluku tho East Caps,,and like tho cedar, it is confined to the
vioinity of the sea. The kauri forests cover about 60,000 aorei
of crovu Ifvndi Wd about 120,000 awes of private property.
248
TSB INDIAK AtRIOTTLTtmiBT. Mf 9, tm,.
Hie tnn often grow to a height of SOO feet, and meatnre frhzh
12 to SO feet in oiroutnfetetlee j they are dlfoovered oooMion&tly
with a rugged eurfaoe, and on being oat, the grain l« found to
be mottled. The kauri ie exported largely in what is called
“Junk,” the logs being equated with an axo, thus wasting a
quantity of good timber. The annual output of kauri timber
is about 110 , 000,000 feet, and the highest estimate of the amount
of timber loft in the kauri forests U 23,000,000 feet. The subject
of oonlserving the kauri forests is at the present time attracting
considerable attention throughout the colony, not only on account
of tho excellent timber It produces, but on account of the gnm
which exudes from the tree, and which for many years has formed
the most valuable article of export of tho province of Auckland.
Kext to the kauri, tho Ktihikaita, a species of white pine, is the
moat highly prised, It grows la the low lands in the vioihlty of
rivers. There is on immense forest of thole trees between the
Thames and Piako rivers, thirty or forty miles in length, and several
miles in breadth. The kahikatoa is found in tho kanri districts,
and but little attention is paid to it, notwithstanding the fact that
Its value, as a timber for building purposes, is becoming very
generally known. Tolara, a hard close-grained wood, is largely
used in the south of New Zoaland t it is a good sound timer, reddh^
In ooloor, and very durable. It is largely used for telegraph poles,
and has attracted much attention daring tho last few years from
the foot that It will withstand the disastrous ravages of the Teredo
navalU, a sea parasite, common to tho islands of the Western
Faoiflo. Puriri is another hard durable wood ; It is largely usod
ia the construottou of railway trucks. This wood is said to make
excellent furniture, though it is not muoh used for this purpose.
Another very valuable timer tree Is the Muire, a native olive. It
is hard, oily, and olose-graiuod. Pohvlahctjva ia a coast variety
of a tree used for ship-building. This tree is one of the best
known in New Zealand ; large branches of it, bearing beautlinl
brush-Ilke red flowers, are everywhere cut at Christmas
for the purpose of decorating houses and ohurcbea. It
affects rooky cliffs, its leaves are large and thick, of a greenish
blue colour on the outside, and the inside perfectly white. The
trunk is gnarled and twisted in every direotion. The inland
variety of this tree is called the "rata," and there is a curious
growth clinging to the rata, whloh has been tho cause of much
■peculation among scieutlfio men. It has not yet been decided
whether it is deposited as a seed in tlio forks of high trees, or
whetlier it creeps up from the ground like the ivy, It is found as
a mere thread on the trunk, and tfalckons and scuds out side shoots,
and Intertwines, os the ivy intertwines tho oak. lu time, the
large tree perishes, and the frail slender growth stands alone with
its arms outstretched, embracing tho circular space where its
■upporter formerly stood, and the stems that have grown around
and about tbs same supporting tree will unite and form one hollow
rate tree, with bark inside and out. Among the other better-
known New Zealand trees may be mentioned the Kanaka, Mntai
Tenekaha, Paiiriai, Matuiat, Kotohai, Miro, Hinau, Tiloki, Haro-
pita, Manuka, Pakautea, Tawai, The number of saw-mills in
the colony is steadily increasing, and it is estimated that there are
SBO at present in operation, while in 1879 there was only 204 ; and
at that time Mr. Levy, in a report to the New Zoaland Oovern
ment, estimated the yearly supply from each of these mills at
1,000,000 Buperfioial foot, or about 200,000,000 superficial feet as
the total annual product. It appears, from the statistical returns
of the New Zealand trade, that tho value of timber exported in
1881 amounted to £77,000, against £o3,600 in 1880.
PLANTAIN CULTIVATION FOR INDIA.
(Communicated.)
Cliuate.
HE real dimate for plantain is the one which has moderate
cold and beat ; and which has the atmospheric air
loaded with moisture,—in other words, humid climate. In
Kch a climate plantain will grow, shoot and fruit very
fredy ; and mature its fruit altogether well. Muoh cold helps
to retard and make imperfect the processes of involution and
ttvtdviwn, thereby stunting the growth of stem, leaves, and
fruit: and partially or wholly, according to the degree of cold
withholding the maturity of the fruit. On the other hand
xauch heat, by the rapid exhalation of'moisture, so greatly
exhausts the plant that it has scarcely strength left to grow,
Mssequeutly gets perfftcfly aebrehed of the lekrw add outer
layers of the etem>eheathes. In iUusbation of this aabjeot
I might here add, in many parte of India, tueh as Korth-West
Provinces, Oudh, and the Punjab, most parte of these pro¬
duces, where the summer seaeon is fearfully hot, I have
ibserved the plaiutaln so severely suffhr daring this season that
during the rains, so to speak, it has to oonunenoe life afrerih ;
and when the winter sets in, growth being imperfect, it has
no powor to muster suffloient strength to send out 6«dt-
spikes : after the winter it has again to embrace the^^j^i-
nier season whioh, as said above, serve# only to destroy it,—
thus, I have seen plantain growing and snflfeiingi again grow-
ng and again suffering for a number of years, and never,
or very imperfectly fruiting, whioh fruit never fully develop-
ng and ripening, but getting eitiier scorched (if in the sum¬
mer) or stunted (if in the winter).
Time of PtASTiira.
The best and most inexpensive season for planting plantain
ia when the rains have thoroughly set in, i.e., from the end of
Jnne to end of August. This applies to drier parts of India,
such 08 N.-tV, Provinces, Oudh, the Punjab, Central Provinces,
&c., but in Bengal, Aesam, and British Burmah, in addition
to these two or two-aud-a-half months, February to April
will be equally suitable to plantain planting. Being altogether
a succulent plant, having much water in its composition,
the rainy season has peculiar advantages for the growth of
this plant, which no other season, in Upper Western India,
in particular, can supply. In Lucknow and Sitapore, both Oudh
districts, I have planted plantain in all parts of the year,
and grown it successfully, but by resorting to the costly
means of artificial irrigation. I would, therefore, in point of
economy and on chemico-phyaiological grounds, recommend
the rainy season to be the lOjst for planting in places wanting
in the natural advantages of humidity in the soil of Bengal,
Assam, and British Burmah.
Geoorathical DistniBUTioif,
Plants of the N. O. musaceee are natives of various parte
of the world j but all of them, on close exataiuation, will be
found to flourish under the same physical conditions of
the atmospheric air and soil. The following is the natural
geographical distj'ibutive scheme of ail important cultivated
edibie species of the plantain and banana order os
established by tho researches of Professor Baron P. von
MiieUer, K.C.M.a, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. The wording
and arrrangement are my own; but tlie subject-matter
(from a. to 17 .) partly belongs to thi.s distijjgitiahed natuialist
and doctor, and partly to various emjjwsTbotanical authoritie.s
of older times.
(ct.) Musa Cavandishii.—Native of China j has been translated
to the South Sea Islands, whore it is now extensively grown*
J/. Cavaiidiskii has been found to succeed in Madeira and
Florida (artificial).
(l>.) Mttsa paradisiam.—luHia. is the native habitat of this
moat extensively ctiltivated species, whioh ia said to have one
hundred viirieties.
(e.) Mtisa Insular India, extending to the Indian
Arohipolagoea.
(if.) Musa troglodi/tamm.—Older botanists mention its
nativity to bo in India. Baron MUeller, however,'has ascertained
it, in addition to India, to be indigenous to the Fiji and
other Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
(e.) Mitsa simiarum, —Indigenous to Malacca as for as the
Sunda Islands. This plantain, with ite varieties, fifty in
number, are also to be found in the Indian Arohipeh^oes.
(f.) Musa Native of African mountains of
Sofala, Mozambique, and the Niger regions.
(y.) Musa This plantain, the most magnifioeat of
the order, ia a native of the mountains of Sofala to Abyssinia
In North Africa. I may add it is unknown in India
the messes of the people, existing perhaps m the Botaitlal
gai'dens. Very eligible for introduction in India. The edible
p.art of this plant is the inner stem,
(h.) Muea oomioulata,—Native of TTuniiitv India.
Soil.
Zoamy soil of the ealoarem order, of the species Laving more
and less
July .8, 1883.
THE INDIAN AORftJULTURIST.
249
Composition of Soil.
Clay ... ... ... 40 parts.
Lime ... ... ... 3 „
Humus ... ... ... r< „
Sand ... ... ... 62 „
100
Pliinta^^ Jl grow in any soil, even in the most sandy. In
such a soil, in the Lucknow Agri-Horticultural Gardens,
many species and varieties of planhiiu are growing ;
hut are productive of bad results, since they neither
fruit well nor are the fruits so palatable and nutritious
as those of Lower Bengal, Burmah, China, and other
places. Plantain requires good percentage of clay and
/nnnus in the soil without which, as a plantain grower, I can,
from personal observations, testify that it is useless to cultvate
this jdant ; especially where quality as well as cpinutity
of the fruit are objects points undeni.ably every cultivator
<lo and should aim at. Much lime in the soil is bad
for plantain ; in moderate quantity, it is highly
bcuellcial. This I say from my failing to obtain fruit
from plants grown on highly calcareous soil, in which slender
stem and stunted appearance (sure signs of not fruiting) of
']ilauls of three years’ standing, were the results. During these
three years they never fruited ; h.ad, therefore, to be rooted up.
but ill soil having less lime, more humiis, good percentage of
clai/ and sufRcient sand to keep the soil loose and friable, 1 have
ill six months, calculated from the time of planting, sucoooded
to grow off shoots two feet high of the tall vaiietios into almost
full-gi'own size, measuring twelve feet high to the ajiex of the
leaf, ready to throw out fruit-spike by tie end of the rainy
.‘^rason. The off-shoots were jilanted in February, and the above
height .aciiuired bj' the end of .July.
CuKMISTRY op the Pl.iKTAIN Pi,ANT.
The centennial comiiositioii of the plantain plant in a green
Of fresh uiulried state will apjiear from the following table,
being the mean of 7 analyses ;
Water,
Organic
matter
other
Inorganic
matter
Total.
Loaves
SO'1.5
than
water.
l.R-flO
or ash.
3'0.5
100
iStoui
81'5
140.5
3-.5.5
100
bruit, including rind ...
75-SH
21 17
3'25
100
Total
2.37“z3T««,
^02-02
——
10-7,5
300
('entcunial chemical composition of the inorganic or asli portion,
being mean of 7 analyses :—
Loaves.
Stem.
Fruit in¬
cluding
rind.
Oxide of Iron
1-00
1-SG
Oxide of potassium . .
wm
18-.30
20-15
Oldorido of potassium
15-43
14-43
10-.52
Chloride of sodium
7-58
5-25
3-75
Oxide of calcium
10-97
11-25
15-26
Oxide of magneiinm
2-06
3-28
4-75
Vliosphoric acid ...
2-95
8-52
2.5 00
Carbonic acid
7-27
,5-07
2-05
bulphurie aoid ...
1-76
1-52
.5-15
Oxide of silicon ...
25-54
25-15
7-05
IVasto, i.c., earthy matter,!
or oxide of oluminum ,../
5-25
6-23
•2-90
Total
100-00
100-00
10000
The foregoing tables should be taken as approximate data
of the chemical constituents of all species and vaneties of
the plantain plant. The tables have been constructed fitim
analyses of seven different edible varieties of plantain in
general cultivation in Bengal, and from there diaseniinatud
in otherJiV'\ij*-fof India.
’Ihe ^^auic principles the plantain fruit arc starcli in
abundance, and protein comiwunds, hence, the fruit is nitrogo-
uoua and excellent food. The pith of the stem and root bulb
contain stai'ch. These principles exists in different proportions
in the same plant, and in different species and varieties, cultiva-
tiiiu and fertilizing matters in the soil having also much in-
flucuco in augmenting nr lessening them.
PARTirioNiKo, Tkenchino, and Manurinq or Soil.
The soil, measuring COO' x 00', or one acre, should be partitioned
off breadthwi.so into .3 partil.ions by 2 water channels, allowing 2'
for each water channel; and having trenches 4' eacli wide with
intervening sfwce of 6' from border of trench to trench :—thus,
we will have 660-i-(6' intervening space from trench 4-4' widtii of
each trench)=66 trenches in each partition .ami (66' 66’-i-(2' space
occupied by one water channel + 2' space for the other water
channel=16—6"=longtU of each trenc]i,or length of each ti-ench.
These trenches, 330 in immber, 26—8 long and 4' broad each,
should be marked and prejiared, two months before the planting
time by digging .3' ileep, one foot of earth of which should
be thrown on two side-spaces on both sides of each
trench. This finished, suitable manure or comjrost should be
thrown in the trenchas, thoronghly iucorjwrated with the sod,
and irrigated with bbiuid majiuro, if available, or with water.
The irrigation is required for inducing physical changes in the
soil by which the manure and soil .are rendered eminently fit
as plant-food ingredients. It might be omitted if natural
irrigation by the fall of rain bo available, otherwLsc it i.s i!idi.s-
punaablo.
1 Utilization of Blank Spaces.
In the first and sulwequont years of plantain planting much
space is available, both in the trendies and in the space in¬
tervening them, which certainly can bo utilized in various ways,
for raising of seedlings and cuttings of various kinds requiring
sheltered positions, and for placing pots, ilic., containing stoch
for budding, inarching, and grafting.
Selections or Off-siioots, Plantino, and the Number
KE otniinu FOR Planting an Acrk.
The best size of ofl'-shoolK for pl.anting is 2' u[) to the apex of
the highest leaf calculated from above, the bulb. Smaller
plants do not succeed so well being so very tender, and larger
ones sutler from transplantation owing to the delay of springing
out of fresh rools witlioul which the plant cannot establish,
itself, also for I he rapid and groat exhalation of water from the
stem an<l leaves.
Young |)lanlaiii jilauts should he planted one foot deep, in
the middle of the trench, j)rocedod by a hoeing of the .soil if
possible, six feet apart from t’lant to plant in tlie same trencli,
and immediately irrig.ited. But it would be very desirable to
so time the planting time, as to full on rainy day or days, and at
the time when it i,s fast raining j as the planting at this time
would ensure economy and remarkably facilitate the establish¬
ment and growth of the plants.
From what I have said in this and previou.s headings it will
a|)pear there are 4 plants in each trench and as the) e are 330
.such trenches in the acre, the number of pi,ants )>cr acre will bo
330 X 4-= 1,.3'20 pl.ants, each of which oventu.ally growing into a
group of from 6 to 15 plants of various sizes.
ImiiuATio.v,
Where natural advantage of humitlity of the soil does not
exist, irrigation for pi,mtaiii is very important. In such phiee.s
the soil (trenches only), in which plantain plants aro growing,
requires to be coustiujtly flooded with water by urtillcial means,
in the summer and winter ; and during the rains also if thn falls
of rain be .at long intervals and scanty. When, however, the
friut-sjiikes have been .sent out, total withdrawal, or in moderate
quantity accoi-diiig to the nature of the soil and condition of the
season, of irrigation shouKl bejmade, to allow the sap to eoii-
ceutrate for the formation of iiowsub.stances for the fruit, to be
again apjdied when the fruits have established themselves ou
the spike.
After-culture.
This consists in the elimination of weeds from the trenches,
hoeing round the phiuts, not leas than six inches deep, and
manuring once a year during the rainy weather.
Tiunsflantation.
Every third year plantain plants require to be rooted up, tho
root-bulbs deprived of the stems, «ej|^ated, and only the
healthy off-shoots or young plants planted out in the same
tronch which lias been well hoed and mamu'ecl. By doing this
freijh vigom' ia imparted W the yoimg plants wliich had to
wuujr Mf *ppo.
niggle for exut«nce betweeri the mtemioing net-work oi row
' old plants, ripened, fruited and removed. ,
IlABVJSSTIltO AND STOMifO OF FaniT-BPIKIB.
When one or two fruits on the spike have ripened, the spike
lould bo removed from the plant, and the ^lant, also. The
'uit-spike should be stored, hung from the ceilings, in a
farm air-tight room, to allow all the fruits to ripen.
Yield.
The yield of plantain plant is very various owing to various
auses, Again, two varieties or species not producing alike in
ho number, size, and quality of its fruit. The minimum, per
pike or plant, is 80 finite, and the maximum 600 fruits, of
trions sizes,
« >. 1 j . UK Y (JK,
Agri-Annlytical Cliemist,
Ate Supdt., Agri-Hortl. Socy. of Oudh Gardens.
>FFICIAL PAPERS.
lLOE FUiEK.
r HE following translation ot extracts trom mons, Kvenor ue
Cbazal’s lecture regarding aloe fibre and the recent improve-
nents efleoted In the process of extraction, read before the Memliers
>f the Chamber of Agriculture at St. Antoine, in the Mauritius,
in the I9th January 1882, has been printed by the Madras Oov-
irumont :—
The attention of the Chamber of Agriculture of Mauritius has
leen lately drawn to a now Industry which is already being
jarried on, on a large soalo, in that colony, vis., the extraction of
doe fibre, A method has been lately disooverod of extracting the
ibre of the plant in question in a most economical way, and this
iisoovery has carried a new element of prosperity in the colony.
The first idea had been to employ, for the extraction of the fibre,
.he mills used for ornshing the sugar-cane, and on this suliject Mr.
Liosiiguy writes as follows in his remarkable work entitled •' Means
of Improvomonts proposed to the inhabitants of colonics.” lii the
f/ita aloes, the Negroes, to their great advantage, find the mateiial
necessary for making cords and ropes which are useful in tlie
Colonies, where they are substituted for hemp and flax ropes.
This fibre serves to make up oil that is necessary to liarm'ss
tnimals of drought and burden. Threads of pUri aloes are employ.
3d in Manilla for making pretty strong stuffs whieli are dyed iu
blue, and with whicli tlie inhabitants elothc themselves. I do not
know whether at St. Domingo, or even at Manilla, they steep the
loaves of aloes to separate the threads. I'liis operation does not
seem necessary when the leaves are employed for tlie making of
ropes, but in the manufacture of stuffs, the stoepiiig process would
make the threads softer and stronger. It is apparently for want of
this operation that tlie fibre is generally so stiff ; tho juice of tlio
leaves should, therefore, be squeezed out by beiug passed through
the cylinders of a sugar-mill j afterwards they should be left "to
soak for a few day* in stagnant water, which, aided by fermenta¬
tion, would dissolve the gum contained in them, after which
they might he washed in running water. AA’^e do not make use
iu the Isle of France aud Bourbon of our pita aloes, which grow
very readily in all sorts of soil without any cultivation. Besides
tVivpita aloes, wo should also cultivate tho aloes of Socotra to ob-
'aIu thegummy-resinouBcxtraot.which they contain, which has a
great consumption in India and in Europe. The Dutch Colonists
practise this industry at tho Cape of Good Hope. Besides hemp
and flax, we have iu our Eastern Colonies several plants which
produce fibre. I shall mention esiicoially tho two speoios of aloe* ,
which ars to ho found in the Isle oi France and Bourhonaud which
grow in the most dry and unproductive loeolities. Starting on tho
aacamptlou that the leaves should be bruised in order that
they may bo more easily steeped, they at first made use of sucar
mills, but It was soon found out that the cylinders out the threads
and the system was abandoned. So was the steeping owing to the
want of water. Later ou» they made use of roeohauical boaters
imit^ng the h^d of man. At last tho scraper was introduced
tho d^very of which is cUlmed by several inventors and cannot
possi^ ^ attributed to any one in particular. Tho presontinodo
of oxtraotlon oonsUts of a pulley or wheel nearly u hiv as »
common cart-wheel. This wheel U surmounted thfoughoiit its cir
uumference by oonntres, or scraper,, incrustod in the woodrand
kept firni by means of pegs There are 14 or 16 of those upon the
whole oircunffercnce. ^f the wheel is five feet In dia^to? wU^
about 16 scrapers so arranged, it follows that there will hT a
space of one foot between ea<h scraper. This pulley which Is tht
essontlal part of tho apparatus, la fixed upon a stand, and is put in
motion like evorv apparatus of this kind by a propeller Infnai^^
now, In frorntofthCi pulley, which turns four o^ five hunf™i
times pormmutc.a table lilw thatswhich is found in front of
oame-miiu, only narrower, and atthU table a piece of wood amliJrt
whioh the scrapers of too pulley press. This piece ^ wo^‘^
oaUodthe sentewtfe. It is regulated by a screw fixed ]^htod“and
p ye e vety inmomat per® u» toe v- -xr---i — •
a lorcUttgae tt uliootIgMoir too tom, wefimee are either out,
0 not snSdently ewapt^ There ong^ to be between this
s tuatie and t^ tcrapeni a vei^y oareftiJlyi4efineo spaoe, as every
t ng depends on the way in tmto the mvmte Is regulated.
STou have now beioro yon what mASt^aoturers oi fibres have
s reed to call the graUeute (scraper). This gratuiut is not perfect,
l t very nearly so, and, on seeing it work, one is snrartsed to
( serve what little power it requires and into what small particles
i breaks toe fibres. The man who works it stands in f^nt; ho
1 ores toe leaves rapidly one after another point foree^Kk The
i if, oorried away by the rotation of the fluted oyllnderl^i^h ore
1 ider the hand of the workman, is scraped along its greatest
: agtb and returns the same way in toe state of fibre, with the
I .oeptiou ot a small portion, varylim {rpm 6 inches to 1 foot,
hlch is called the talon or the tiquiK end of the leaf, that is
I say, the thick end whioh adheres to the trank. What shall
ley do with this talon ? Must it bo out as rsoommondod by some,
' must it he sorapod 7 But this second operation Cannot be per-
rmed with the same apparatus. Which apparatus then should
3 adopted 7 We now come to a new apparatus called the catu-tetc.
i Is composed of a wheel identioally similar to that of the grnt-
tuf. aud surmounted like it with the acrapers.wlth this differouco,
3wover, that, instead of taming against a fixed torvemte. It turns
i a movable wooden slipper IStuches long whioh forms a lover
r pedal. It Iiaa already been said that, after having passed the
'•aeUeuae, tlie aloe leaf, reduced to fibre for the greatest part of
a length, still retains a thick end, called the talon. The workman
'ho performs tho second operation fastens the scraped portion of
10 leaves by bundles of 6 or 6 at a time to a book which projects
'om the wooden slipper open under his feet ; then, plaefng his
lot on tho pedal, he sets it in motion from bottom to top iu
ringing it near tho pulley, so that the scrapers, turning with tho
vpidity already mentioned, take away what remains of the uou-
irjipocl portion of the loaves, vis., the talon.
The aloe, all varieties of which are not equally useful to our
ulustry, is composed of a trank around which are grouped s^ir-
lly leaves varying in length from 3 to 7 inches. When looking
t the leaves attentively, we observe that the part which touehes
10 trunk is tho fleshy part, the heavisst and tlie strongest. Tim
laf ends iu a point writh a solid thorn. All fibres necessarily come
-om tho trunk, but thty ail do not reach to a tarminal point
B may bo ascertained by tearing a leaf lengthwise. Those of the
liddle alone reach so far, those of the sides stop midway,
'he oonsoquenoe is that wlicn a loof of the aloe is out at any din-
nice whatever from tho trunk, suoh distance varying from (i
icbes to one foot, all tho fibres have boon cut at onu aud the
lie same point. If wo now suppose that it is this end that will
0 first scraped, all the fibres will necessarily bo scoured at Ihoir
erniinal point, wlieu the loaf is turned for a second scraping,
lut this was not tho way in which they went to work former!).
'hey ntffirat placed the loaf before the apparatus rtf iff tri-minn!
oint ; then when throe-fourths were scraped, it was tuniod hank
gain to place the l/tloii Imfore the In this second
peration the longest fibres alone are retained at tho hook ; tin;
thers aie carried away by the rapid rotation of tho pulley, and
re lost so that tho result of tho second operation will be that
ftcr having scraped a talon o( 6 inches or 1 foot in length, it
.-ill have spoilt at the same time a portion of the work turned
ut by the first mocliiuo by t.aking awuy the fibres already c.\-
racted by it, because they were not long enough to bo secured in
he hook. But in the new process .Wfeltve dosorlbod, this defect is
emedied to a groat oxten j:. a nd tlie chief Improvement iu it is tlin
loiug away with tho muo-ti'to. It is original in this way, vh.,
hot the talon of tho leaf is scraped before tho poiiU. Tho xcroiM'
* considerably used in tho improved system ; its regulation, the
lew form that has been given to it, tho new materials with whioh
t is made, constitute os many improvements In the manuor
if presenting tho leaf of tho apparatus and contribute to increase
ts yield.
It is gouorally admitted that the loaves of aloes give an average-
dcld of 2 per cent, that is to say, not 21t>. of fibre for lOOlbs, of
eaves, hut 2 Ib. of fibre for 100 leaves. But since tho recent im
irovemonts the same loaf gives a minimum yield of 3 per cent, or
iftcn more, without inoreassd expenditure, but on the contrary
vitli infinitely less propelling power. The following is tho result
)f experiments made at “ Palmyra ” -witli tho new apparatus :—
Finlly. —Fifty loaves of average size, 4 feet long, weighing
50 lbs., propuoed lbs. 1-75 of dry fibres, or lbs. 3'SO per 100 loaves,
31-n. 3-12 porlOOlhs.
Seiioudlij. —Five leaves of malgaoho aloes, 7 feet long, weighing
HU)., produced lb. 0-49, or lb. 9-80 per 100 leaves, or lb. 2-OS
|)or 100 ib.
At Mount " Cholsy,” in tho apparatus of Mr. Cazotet, 25 loaves-
weighlng 42 lbs., produced lbs. 1-28 of dry fibre, or lbs, 6-12 pci
100 leaves, or lbs. 3*06 per 100 lbs. The present average realized
by Mr. Cazotet with the new apparatus is to 3t lbs. per IIH,
loaves. In other places they hove realised up to 4-16 Iba. per 10(
leaves on a week’s average work. These figures are mnoh abov<
those realized hitherto, siuee they represent an average of from 3 tt
lbs. of dry fibre per 100 leaves, whlUt with the old appara
tuses the result was hardly 2 per cent.
Dr. J. Forbes Boyle, i« his work entitled “ Tho flbrois ^Intiti
of India suitable for cordage, olotlung, oCd paper,” says :-«»*hi
Ayaof (aloe), a native of America, has become so naturalized ai
to appear to be indigenous in Africa, iu India, and tho South o
Spam. Tho Agave plants, to which the name of American aloe,
is BO frequently applied, resemble the true aloes in their sword
shap6(il loaveB with pai’aHut veins, which however jrrow to *
oigantm size—that Is, from 8 to 10 teat in length—in a oluste;
from the root with their margins Uioally armed with short thorn*
and fchelr points with a hard thorn. This makes these plants s*
251
Jwly 2, 1888,
nsef 111 in tbs oonsttnottoil^ fta<) -«nolcniar«s—jv uss to-wMoh
they are applied in Ztsly tod firtotlf. The plauto oomo tO;B«teo-
tion ia abwt S yean, tboogh they do not flottor for 8, ana some¬
times perhaps not for 90 ysarS, -srhen they throw up a flowerdike
stalk. It is the leave* of toe*e plants whiob abound in £bres of
ci'eat length and of oonaldwalde strength. Being also tough and
durable, they are aeutfated for tbs purpose of making string and
rope found to be Of great valtM. The juloe which flows from
them i« sometimes suhstHutea for soan. The ilhres of these
Agae»^'e oonverted into oordoge fn Mexico, and this cordage
is oltc^w 1 lo Mine* and on boaidship.
BamDotUt gives a dsaortption of the bridge on the river “ Cham-
bo ” at “ Quito " about 181 feet long, the priuoipal ropes of whloli,
about 4 Inches in diameter, wen made from aloe fibres. It is said
that in the West ludies the Negroes make ropes, flshiug nets, and
hummooks out of the aloe fibres. The preparation is os follows;
—At first the longest leaves of the plant are out, and afterwards
arc soraped with au Iron bar wbioh u held by both hands until the
whole of tile juice and the pulp are removed, and tliere remains
ouly the thread. Stedmauu gays that the fibre is like silk, and
that ropes made from it are oonsidered in England as good as any
other, out that they rot more easily lu water.
In Portugal this fibre is called “ threads of Pita," and is used
for various purposes. In Spain it is called “ Pita,” and,'as the
plant la abundant in tliat country, it serves for making ropes of
all sizes on a taroe scale.
According to Dr, Balfour, in Sicily, the fibre is oalled “ Zam-
baroune,” and serves to niako ropes aud inats, ami in Soutli
America the fibre of “ pita ” ia much used for making ropes of
large sizes.
Ttie fibre and rope of j?ita are artiolea of c.omraorco in the south
of Spain. Mr. Roman do la .Sagra recommends the iutroduotion
of some new speies from Gnatemala and Coliunliia, where they
am known as “ Cabulla ” and “ Coraiza. ” These are Hpeeies of
“ fourcroya ” which produce cxoollent iiiima. 'I’hu “ fonreroya
gigaiitea ” is e.ominon at St. Heloua, and 1ms boon introdiieed into
Madras. 'J'be island of Madeira sent filirea of “ pita " to tbc
Exhibition of 18cl. Mexico also scut thread and paper made
from the American aloe.
The name of “ pita ” scorns to have been given also to similar
fibres obtained from Bromelia and Ynooa. Dr. Hamilton says tiiat
this iilire weighs less than hemp by oifo-sixth. Ho considers it
more resisting and durable than hem]) and 'prefers it for caldes,
fishing nets, &c,, on accouut of its resistance to damp. luun ex-
pi'riinoiit made on board her Majesty’s Ship Port lam! , a log line
;i(X) feet in length aud mads of fil>rc of “ pita ” shrank 13 feet
only, whilst a hemp line of the same lengtli sitraiik ‘21 feet. B>
sides, the oontraotiou of tlie “pita” ceased on the third day.
whilst that of the hemp rope coutiuiicd to shrink,
Labillardiere relates that at Amboyna the aborigines obtained
from the hybrid aloe, commonly called Aijaw bieipara, a long
and handsome fibre egual tc that of our beat hemp. The nln'v
grows well iu the north of Africa, aud the Preneh, since tlu-ir
occupation of Algeria, pay great attention to it. The re.snlt of
some oxperimouta made in Paris shows that the aloe rope from
Algeria will bear a weight of 2,000 kilogrammes (about 4,180Ib.),
w hilst filanilla hemp of tho same thiukness will uot boar more
than 400 kilogrammes. At Toulon fibres w'ere stcoiied in soa water
fur six mouths, after which the aloe bore a wuiglit. of lbs. 8,810,
whilst lu'iiip only bore 2,538, leaving a difl'ercuee of lbs. 1,272 in
f.wur ot the former. * I.astly, according to e.xperimeiita made by
Mr. Hornsby and reported to‘^iXi<Soci»ty of Agriciilttirc of India,
aloe ropes have always been found .sU'po.ior, uot only on account of
their resistance, but also on account of durability, to ropes of
other kinds, such as jute, Manilla hemp, abaca, /tc.
The chapter ends with these almost prophetic words :—
“ Tho fibre ia suffioiontly good to furnish an article of noninn-i i
of the first order, aud is destined to aoriuire in the future a cnii.
siderable value, capeeially slnoo the prejudice against wluti-
cordage aeems to bo disappearing. It is to ho hoped that impoi taut
e.xperiments will bo nnderlakeu to ascortain wb.at urc the best
couditiuns iu wbieb the leaf should be eut, aud also wlivUicr it is
not possible to extract the fibre by mechanical means. ('art' should
also be taken, when preparlne the ropes, not to cut, the fibres
when tni'iiiiigthem ; tills isadelicntR ojieration wliich should be
entrusted to profeaaioual ropo niakera, I
“ Tho aloe grows where nothing i-lst* \\ ill grow, wdtlioiit cultiva- *
tion, without expense. No injury wUatover can bo done to it
either by drought, innnilations, cyclones, or anv of the iumimer-
able evils which often prcjtidiciully allcct tbc cultivation of
ordinary crops.” ,
As already explained above, tlie aloe prodtico.s at pro'.'-at in j
fibre, ttu average of about 8 per cent of its weight, w him o. iihttii j
old apparatus 2 per cent was hardly reuliaod. 'I lu; lilirc ol aloes
packed in bales was sold some tims back in the London market at
an average price of from £30 to £32 per ton, but recent accounts
show sales at £38 and £40, or an advance iu price of £8 to £10
per ton. Those figures prove groat stability iii the price of the
article, and are explained by tho following extract from Dr. Korhea
Hoyle’s work already mentioned above :—
“ It has often been said that the only moans of knowing tlie
va’.U'- fibre or of any other produce is the price wbiob it loaliscs
This is wry true as regards known aiticlos, but, if a
new produce bo sent to a market, few persons will liny it, because
it requires now machines, 1 have liooii tolii that many yvais must
elapse Iioforo a new article eon draw the attention of purchasers ;
this is likely, for it ia one of the laws of oommeroe.”
As regards planting, much need uot be said. Tlie aloe may be
planted iu all seasons, and from saplings of one year, or two, or
oven throe years old. It Is beat however to plant from seed. The
older the aloes are when transplanted, tho sooner the stem is
formed. Aloes planted from seed or from saplings of the first
? 'MU''tolM five yekrs to attain their full devdlopment, whilst, if
raosplanted at a height of from 18 .to fifi ifiohoe, they are lolly
developed in three years.
In the Mauritius may bo seen growidg spontaneously the follow¬
ing specie* of aloes i—
(1) t* Agave Americana ” (American or blue aloes).
(2) “ Agave Augnstifolia ” (aloes with small leaves).
(3) “ Fourcroya Ctigantea ” (green aloes).
(4) “ Fonreroya Gigantea, Var ” (cabbage ot Malgaohe aloes).
The species known in the Mauritius as green aloe came originally
from South America and the Antilles.
RU.ST AND MILDEW,
RcAb tho following letter from W. Wilron, M,A., Director oi
lievemio Sottlemoiit and Agrioiilture, Madras, to tlii- cieeretary
to Government, Revenue Department, dated 5tli May 1883,
No. 540.
I have the honor to submit, for tho coimideration of Guveiiimt iit,
remarks on rust and mildew i-h
* Letter No. 670, dated Otli ceived froiu tho .-VgriciiUiiral Rupoit-
April 1883. Cl- * and Mr. Benson,+ Hpecial As
f Letter No, 192-85, dated sistant to tliu Goliector oi tho
20th April 1883, in origi- Nilgiris, to wliom and to Mr. Co.x,
ual, to be rotnriied. Deputy Director of lieveiino .Scttlc-
liiont, G. D., No, 327, dated 5tli
March 188.3, was referred for report.
2. Mosers. Boiison and Gox seem to liavc tliouglit the scope of
the iiiqiiii-y confined to wheat, but I do uotmiilerstaiid this to liavo
boon the intention of the Government of India. Wheat is grown
but to u small extent in this fVesidency, and the common cereals of
the country would, it i.s Itoiiovod, bo found to bo quite as subject
to attack by rust when tho conditions aro favourable as wheat is.
Mr. Cox lias sunt no report as owing
to wheal uot being grown in tho part
of tlie country whore ho is now work¬
ing, lie liad no opjiortuiiity of Ivarn-
iiig anything aiiout “wheat miidoiv,"
The aro,a of wheat in this 1‘rosidoncy
acoui'diiig to llio retiii-us for tlio
1,-itest nvailaljlv year, 1881 8‘2, was
only ni'rea '27,758 distributed among
twelve districts ns marginally noted,
Mitstiii'd wus griiwu oil 2,847 ocruH
in eight disti-icts, but in only fenrot'
them Bvllary, Godavari, Sulciu and
Ixistmi ~\vvrv wheat and mustard
,,101111 ill the Biimo district : time iu
ill. iid.iriiiatioii as to whctbi r tbe,v
Mi-i'. gi own iu the same fields, and
no iiitiiniiatiiin so fur us iiiqiiiiy lias
goiiu as to «lictlior, wliou rust attacks
curoal.H, tlio attack is worse wlieii
uiustai'il is grown iu tlie same fields.
The burberry is not fonud in tlic
plains, but Gouerid Morgan, whose
unto on the subject is enolosed iu
Mr. Benson’s report, scouts the idea
that rii.st 111 Nilgiri wheat has any
uouiioxion with the liarborry, scvc-fal
Mirieties of which are very comiuou
on the hills aud iu the immediiito
vicinity of fields tlie wheat on whii-li
is tree from rust. This alone would
uot disprove the eomiexiou, oon-
teuded fur by Mr. Oai-rutbei-a,
for tlio necessary conditions for the
germination of the spores may uot have been present in tin-
instances referred to. Tho conditions necessary to rust on the
Nilgiris, as dcsciihed liy Mr. Benson and General Morgan, are
siniilar to tlioso iiiidei- which it apiiears in England—coiitiuiieil
damp and moisture-. “ the ouly check to rust,’’ Mr, CarrutUers
says, “ Is a bright sun and a warm dry atiuosphero.'*
3. Tho Agricultural Reporter on the otln r hand states his
experience in India to bo that nist and other fungoid diseases are
invariably the i-c.siilt of a audib-n tlrntitthl following a fine growing
season, and that the best cure is tlie “ restoration of tho conditiens
of luxuriant growth,” in otlior words, a good downpour of rain
itn.irn-i.-il irrigation freely applietl. This ia altogether opj>oi.od t
tlie i ii-wa ot AJr. Garnitljors, ucoordliig to which rust is quite doi
maut in drought, and is possiblo only wlien tho fungoid spores e iu
ubtaiu n sutficient supply of moisture to enable them to germinate.
4. As a preventive, General Morgan suggests tbc saturation oi
the seeds for four-and-twenty hours before sowing in a solution of
tile sulphate of iron : Mr. Robertson states that saturation in a
solution of tho sulphate of copper has prevented “ smut” at the
farm, but has bad no efl'oct in preventing “ rust.”
5. I have in conclusion to make the following general re
marks On the supposition that tho conditions favorable to mat
are lu India similar to those described by Mr. Carrutbers for
Englii’jd, Bis., a coiitiniianoe of cold damp weather, it would
appear that the crops in tliis Presidency ciui but seldom suficr
seriously from it. “ A few bright sunny days arrest tiie progress
of the fungus, aud vigorous plants oveicoiue the attack without any
real liijury.” Wo aro neeev bore very long without “ bright
sunny days,’’ and tko only crops that on it pnurt eonsidurutions
might bo expected to bo attacked with rust aro those which arc
sown after the first burst of tlio S. iV. Mousooii, aud they would
siifi'cr seriously ouly If the luunsoou wore uuusURlly protractod* tod
Diytriotfd.
Area,
Karnool
Acres.
(i,(>29
N cl Ion'
3,99!)
Krlntiu
3,87."
Nilgiritt
riclmry
;i,8’s5
3,ti(i()
Coimbatore
2,8-12
Anaiitapiu'
1,080
<'n(U1n)>ah
1,502
Siib'tH
l.'iT
iMaihiiiv
12(1
N'd Lli Art oti
J,-
CiHluvan
•
Tafcfil ..
Mn-ifurd,
DistrioU.
Arosi.
Ganjam ...
Acros.
OS.'i
Hellary
7y*2
Godavari
!.
.South An“oL
..
iSahun
.. 100
Kistiia
20
N'ixagapatam
.. 20
Malabar
7
Total ... 2,847
252
THE INDIaI^ AGBICULTURIST.
July 2,.i883.
unrelieved by frequent intervale of bright sunny days, an event
whioh vre have not often to deplore.
ENOLOSnitEg.
Letter from W. 11. Bobkbtsok, Esq., M.R.A.C., Agricultural Re¬
porter to the Oovernraent of Uadras, to the Llreotor of Re¬
venue Settlement and Agriculture, Madras, No. 070, dated
Saldapct, 6th April 1883.
1 have the honor to reply to paragriyih 2 of the Government of
ludia’s Gircular, No. 11-A of the IPtn February last.
2. Wheat is grown on a very limited area of laud In this Presi¬
dency. Our cropped area varies from 22 to‘i.'i million acres, yet
we seldom, in any single year, have more than 30,000 acres under
wheat. The variety of wheat generally grown is spelt Tritwum,
fjielta, the husk of which adheres to the grain. Ordinary wheat,
gativa, is grown on a very small soole. The wheat is pro¬
duced chiefly in Kumool, Cuddapab, Kistna, Coimbatore, and the
NOglris.
5. Mustard is almost nuknown as a Hold crop in South India.
It is grown on a small scale in Oanjam, Qodavari, Nellore, aud
the Nilglri districts. Except in the last-mentioned districts, I am
aware of no place in South ludla where mustard and wheat are
likely to be grown on the same land. In England, light wheat-
soils, in some localities, are occasionally cropped by a catch crop
of mustard, which Is either cut aud used as fodder, or is eaten on
the land by sheep.
4. According to my experience in South India “ mildew,”
Pimdnia fframMi, Is not nearly so prevalent as “ rust,” Trico-
onbign-ncra, ; though it appears to be generally admitted that
the two parasites take their origin from the same spores. Tlio
majority of our uuirrigated crops, and it is those that are most
liable to be attacked by parasitic disease, are very short-lived,
usually maturing in about “il months from seed-time, and probably
this is tho reason why tbo disease aoldoui passes beyond the
rust” stage wbeu attacking tlieso crops.
6. My experience is tliat tlieso pamaitic disonsoa usually show
themselves when a tine growing season is suddeuly stopped aud
followed by a drought. A sudden ciiook in luxuriant vegetable growth
is almost invariably followed by an attack of the fungoid diseaso—
“ rust.” I have found at sucli times that a good shower of rain iias
restored luxuriant growth, and enabled tho plant to throw off the
disease ; and 1 have seen tho same result produced when tho soil
has, at sneh times, been freely irrigated. I believe that when
the. plant is attacked, when young, tho best means to take to
combat the disease will bo those which restore or secure luxuriaut
growth.
6. We liave sucoessfully, at Saidapet, kept in elicok the fungoid
diseases known gouerally os “ smut” by dressing all the Roed-uoru
with a solution of sulphate of copper ; but. this dressing has iiad no
olfeot in preventing “ rust.”
Letter from R. S. Bkv.son, Esq., Special Assistant Collector in
charge, to tho Director of Revenue, Settlement, and Agricul¬
ture, Madras, No. 192-85, dated Ootaoamuiid, 20tli April 1883.
I have the honor to report the result of inquiries made by mo
regarding rust and mildew in wlioat in this district as required by
your endorsement, No. 377, dated 28th ultimo, on G. O., No. 327,
dated 5th ultimo.
2. I append a momorandnm on tlio subject kimlly supplied to
me by General Morgan who perhaps knows more about agriculture
than any otlier goutremau on the Hills.
3. lie thinks rust is not common here or in tlio plains, iiut says
that it is sometimes found where the soil is damp ami stiff, and if
tho weather is wet aud cloudy. Ho considers that neither mus¬
tard nor the wild barberry have anything to do with tlie disease.
Ho says it may be prevented by pickling the seed-grain in a solu¬
tion of sulphate of iron, a remedy found effectual also in the case
of ooffee-leaf disease j and adds (in opposition to Mr. Oarruthers)
that it is more common with some kinds of wheat than with
others,
4. According to inquiries made ftom native cultivators it seems
that-
(1) Damp weather and damp soils are conditions precedent
to rust in every case and that the disease is much more
common than General Morgan believes. They call it
“ Sarvamari noyl."
(2) Rust has not been observed to be more common in wheat
grown near Mustard ortho Barberry, of wliioh latter
two kimis are very oomniou on tho Hills—(«) the
Jie.fbHi-is Le.achtnuivUi or Nilgiri holly which grows on tho
edges of the evergreen sholans, and (S) Berberis Asiatica,
very common all over the district in the neighbourhood
of cultivation.
(3) The affected naiu is covered with a grey osh-llkc ap¬
pearance, and v^eu squeezed, is said to leave on tlio hand
a gummy white deposit “ like tho blood of worms.”
(4) 8ome say that the ashes of cow-dung sprinkled over tliu
grain Is said to be efficacious iu checking disease ; others,
however, know of no remedy.
6, 1 regret, owing to tho rooalpt of your reminder on tho 10th
Instant or days after receipt of the original order, I have not been
able to make more extensive or satisfactory inquiries into this
somewhat abstruse subject.
Memorandum'from Major-General* R. H, Moeoan, Ootacamnud,
4th AprU 1883.
1. Borne kinds of wheat rust more than others,
2, To prevent rust, pickle the wheat seed for 24 hours before
sowing'; Otto of tho best pickles is a sulphate of iron solution.
3. The cause of rust is generally an nndralned stiff clay sell,
coupled with damp and cloudy weather,
4. There is but little rust in wheat on these hills or in the low
I country as far as I have seen,
5. I should say, so far as my experience goes, that mustard has
no more to do with rust than has we harbeiTy,
6. Rust is not only in the straw but in the grain : henoe tlie
neoessity of soaking the grain ina strong pickle.
7. The ooffee-leM disease has also bew propagated by seed. The
only to way to destroy the fungus is to soak the seed in^ jKcklo.
8. Barlierry bushes are very common in the vioint^^^Burgtier
fields, but 1 have not noticed rust in the wheat. v*'
SELECTIONS.
AOJilCULTUJRAL SCHOOLS IN THE WESTERN
TROPICS.
T he consldoratiou wo have of late given to the enoouragemniu
of now industries in the colony 1^, in a measure, been tin;
means of directing our attention to tbo neoessity of establishing a
School of Agriculture. There is little good in telling oven the
more iutelligont of tho small landowners aud labourers that tiiey
can, by cultivating the many and various products this colony is
blessed with, make for themselves and their children, not only ait
easy livelihood, but an ever-inoroasing soiiroo of wealth and com
fort. Tho fruits they know and undorstaud, which grow, wu may
say spontaneously, requiring but little care and attention, thi-y
will, no doubt—a suitable market offering—oultivato and attonil tu
iu the mauaor their forefathers did before tliom. But wc all
know what on uusatisfactory system this has been. No care taken
iu tlio collection of plants, no attempt made, by grafting or other
wise, to improve those already kpowu to all, and no trial given tu
now varieties. As wore the fruits of British Guiana—with the
exception of a few plapts gut from India, Jamaica, and Trinidad,
by the proprietors of one or two sugar estates—so are tliey still,
aud with this serious drawback—the natural dcterioratiini due tu
old aud worn out trees, and coiitiuiiousiy planting from the same
class of seeds, The cousequoiiuo is, our oranges are striugy, our
limes are reduced to a size not much bigger than a walnut, and
other plants have doguueratod in like proportions. In fact, it is
the unanimous verdict of all old colonists tliat none of the fruits ul
the colony liave oiie-half of tho o-xcellonce they possessed iu tludr
younger days. The reason for this is not far to seek. 'J'lie
cultivators, few though these be, know nothing of the good results
tu be ubtaiuod from grafting or from ehaugo of seed, and have ac
cordiugly been satiafled tu go along in the old grooves.
An ounce of ox'aroplo is worth many pounds of precept, and fin-
tnuutely for the colony and its future well-being, that exainplu eaii
now be obtained. In the Botanical Qurdons, under the able ad
ministration of Mr. Joiimau and his co-adjutor, Mr. Waby, colonists
have an opportunity afforded them of wituesaing tho results tliat
can be procured from scientific cultivation. The difficulty that
prosenta itself to our mind, howei or, is that due advantage will not
be taken of the opportunities tlie'-sWi'tt'ordod them, by farmers and
small landowners, who .ituuW'niore particularly benefit from the
study of tho work in the gardens, It is hard to move them off tin-
beaten track, and wo fear tlio gardens to them will only be a name.
Were a .School of Agricnltuio associated with them this would not
long remain so. Our creoles, no matter of what colour or race, arc
not wanting in’ cuteness or adaptability ; and [larcnts, aware of tlie
good they would derive from their ohiulrou attending such a school
as that indicated, would, we fuel certain, gladly send their larger
boys there. The example which would be set them of coutinuouM
industry, and tho knowledge they would obtain of plant life—its
conditions aud proper mode of treatment—could not but have
tlio very best effect on the agriculture of the colony. That
tide is true has alveaily been shown by the advaiioement which
has, within the last few years, been made by several of the villages
in cane cultivation. The fields cultivated there are, iu tho great
majority of instauoes, quite as well tilled and maintained—tin-
item of mauiico only excepted—as any on the best sugar estates, and
the return per acre has been good acoordiugly. Here we liave n
notable iustauco of the foroe of example, and it it but a natural
dcduutioii to add that, givon a like pattern, like results would follow
iu other directions.
The Botouioal Gardens are being, presumably, formed for tlic
agricultural development of tho colony, and for its ultimate benefit.
Before they are completed throe or fotirhniulred thousand dollars will
have beou expended on them, aud frpm what we have seen ws have
no doubt that amount will have been spent judloiously. But when wc
consider tho iutolllgence of the vast majority of the taxpayers wlio
have contributed iinmurmuringly to this large outlay, we are iu
dined to ask out baiio f Only a few hundred of the inhabitants are
intelligent enough to take advantage of lessons being taught them,
or to appreciate the results to be derived from thorn, dfiout an
Agricultural School iu connection with iRe gardens, the o'dloiiy,
tsAeu as a whole, will for many many yoais to oome derive no
recompense from the oxpeuiutare. But given the school—the
pupils, we maiutain, would shortly be forthooming—their benefits
would be open to all, and the lessons they are meant to teach would
be, in a few years’ time, spread through the length and breadth of
the colony. Large reduorions have year been made in the
estimates for ednoatlon, and this beoause the Governor and mem¬
bers of the Combinod Ooiurt considered tbcio wm no adequate
July 2, 1883,
253
THE iNDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
rauh beioB obtained for the money expended. In this we have
no doubt they were right. In a purely agricultural colony such a.s
this lx, we want the onildren to grow np to be useful niembors of
the oonminnity, and this is the end that should be aimed at in their
early tnlning. Our ohildren must be taught that all cannot be
“ pnaohen, teaohers, or stump orators. ” Agrloulture is our solo
malntenanoe, and the teaching given to the children should bo
auoh as would ooutributa to its advanoement. Tho ostabllshmont
of Ml Anloaltaral Sobool would gradually have tlio way to this
desirable end, and to no better purpose could a portion of the
aavlngs which has been effected in our educatioual system bo de¬
voted, than in fonnding a public school for iustruction in purely
A^cnltural affairs.
The thousands of people who visited the Botanic Qardeus yester¬
day afternoon were struck with tho vast improvement which lias
lateiysbeen effected in their appearance, and the more intelUgcut
amongst them were keenly alive to the value of work which had
been, and was being, done ; andsliowod an eager inquisltivouess as
to tho names and nature of tho various plants. The worm interest
they took in these limply shows that the plan we urged a few
months ago, of establiehibg an Agrioultural School in conuootiou
with the Garden, would bo a perfect success ; and its benefits would
be highly appreoiated by the bottor-to-do portion of the working
olasses. In many of tho purely agrioultural dependonoios of the
British Crown, these sobools are ^ready successfully established,
and we can see no reason why, if tho idea was properly taken up
by the (lovernment, a like success should not attend their ostablisb-
ment here. In Jamaica, for Instauco, quoting from Mr. Morris’s
report, referred to last week, although an actual School of Agri¬
culture has not boen established, still a system of employing
cadets, and apprentices, under tho trained managers and superin¬
tendents of the Government plantations has been begun, and with
the happiest results. He reports that the oadets, who aro received
without salary for Hie purpose of being taught the details of the
cinchona cultivation, and with the view of fitting them either to
open plantations on their own account, or to act ns managers of
oinobona plantations, arc “ devoting thcmscives with seal and
energy to their work, and taking a keen interest in all that cwi-
corns the value and ^management of labor i details of nursery work ;
the mluutla. of planting; and tlio various methods adopted for success¬
fully hurvestuig ciuchoua bark. The knowledge and experience thus
gained will doubtlass prove of great sorviaa to tlicm in after-life,
and I look forward to a groat impetus being given to cinchona
planting by tho introduction of men of c.apital and education,
who intend to devote thomsolvos to this important in¬
dustry."
Mr. Morris is quite aware of the fact tliat the plantations in
Jamaica arc being worked for the future Iienetil uf tiie islaud, and
he knows full well that tlio lossous lie is striving to teach by
lectures and pamphlets, will be still more effectually taugiit hy tlic
praotical ti'aiuing of tlic young. Hence tlin encouragement iie
holds out to the sons of men of some capital to attend at the
plantations and learn the details of tlicir working. But lie docs
not restrict Iiimscif to cadets only. Jio is quite well aumro that
skilled guides also require tho assistance of skilled laborers, and lie
has accordingly engaged a number of ajipronticcs ‘‘ in order to
train tho liottor class of uativo workmen in tlio details of mirsery
and propagating work cbnnooted with cinchona cultivation, where
they undergo a systematic course, BO as to fit them ill duo time to
take charge of nurseries or act as foremen on private plaiitations.
* Tile g^eriment, so far, has worked satisfootorily, Tlie ap-
proutio?Sȣq( tho first tlireo inontlis receive only a nominal rate
of pay, wliiclrii.nvcvor is gradually increased as they beconu'
more cliiciont. When applications arc received for men to take
charge of nurseries on private plantations, tlio best of tlioso ar
rooSmmeuded.” Such is tiro system Mr. Morris is purauing in
Jamaica, and who eon doiiiit that it will be Idghly beneficial to
tile colony, as well as to the large class of young men it is specially
designed to benefit, and who liavo been witliout tlie means of
lucrative employinout,
If an Agricultural School is ever to bo started in tlio colony, now
is tho time to eommenoo it, A large portion of tlie Botanic Gardeii.s
is still unroolaimod, and tlie lessoiiB taugiit to students tliero now
are much more valuable tiiou these would bo wlicn the gardens are
completed, and initiatory work fiuisbed. 'i’lio cultivation of tlie
smaller industries wbich the gardens are speoinlly dc.signcd to
encourage must first be undertaken on land in much the Bamc
condition, viz,, undrained and abandoned. To put those in a
fit state for the reooptiou of young plants must be important
work, requiring special knowledge, and that could never
be better explained than by tlie practical iliuslratious tho
boys or others would now receive at the liaiids of Mr. Jenman,
In Can^a,Australia, some parts of India, Ceylon, Ac., these sciiools
under thoroughly practical trainers are doing a great deal of good.
It seems rattier an anomaly here, when compared with otiior
colonies, that tho only section of tho community being deliberately
trained to agrioultural pursuits are those jiueniles who qualify
themsalves by some grave offeucc against the law for a longtbcucd
period of confinement and teaching at the industrial scliool at
OndemseniiDg. In some respects, therefore, the lot of those is
preferable to tho law-abiding boys who do nothing but play
Irbies, or ^ kites until they resell man’s estates. This suiijaot
b an important one, and well worthy tho careful consideration of
Hi puwt,—Royal QatetU, British Uniaua,
DR AITKEN ON TURNIP MANURES.
D r AIXKSK, who had attended the meeting at tho
reqnest of the Gaiawater olub, delivered a lootnrQ on of
Turnip Manatee," It was now 120 years since Daweoo, ol
Frogden, introduced the tuniip to this country, and its cultiva¬
tion had been rapidly devolopbd, Among itH advaiftagos were
tliat, wlicn once grown, it could be stored, and afforded an
independent food for cattle; it enabled the land to bo much
better cleaned ; and it obviated what was a very ruiiioii.s kind of
agriculture, bare fallow. The turnip crop had, iiowcver, its diH
advantages also, and tlieso were being experienced more now
tlian in the early period of its history even long after tlio
turnips were sown, thorn was still ’ a oonsbiorabio fallow
break, wliicli only few lauds coiild stand, as it liad the effect
of decreasing tlin organic matter in tlie soil, and tliat is ftii
important constituent. It was also a very expoiisivc crop, even
tliough useful for succeeding crops of cereals, and it was liccoming
year after yoar more liable to attack from disease. Timiins wore
uot BO niuoli ueedod as formerly i tliey were too much grown
nowadays, and in many oases on land which was butter suited for
iiasture. Btlll they were a very Importaut esculcut, and would
continue to bo so. The question they had to consider was -What
is tlio host kind of manure for turnips ? Althougli wu had grown
turnips for upwards of 100 years, tho fact that wc wore still
asking that qiiestien showed that there were conditions to iic
fulfilled wiiieli made it very difficult to answer. It was a wide
sulijeot, and wo were far from having aiiytliiiig like a definite
idea of a special manure for a ccrtaui crop, a groat doai doneiid ■
ing on tlic soil and oliinatt-, by whicli the cliaraotor of the
manure was dctcrniiucd. It ivus thought that if tho crop were
analyr-ccl, and its coustituniits u.'.i’crtnincil, they would then arrive
at tlio best manure for tmiiips ; liut liiat was a moat erro-
DuouB idea. If they analy/nd tlic turnip asli, it w'onld give a
great deal of sulphuric noid, an extraoulinary ainount ol potash,
much nitrogen, niicl cmnparativoly little pliosplioiic acid. 'I'hc
plant assiiiiilateil most easily that wliicii there was an almndanco
of, blit what was wanted was to cuablu it to take up tliat
whiob it had most difllciilty In doing. Ho found iiianuies
being put forward in the maikct for turnijw, whoso great reenm-
inoudation was that tlioy coiiLaiucd a largo amount of sulphtuic
acid. 'J’liat was a case in point, wlierc inaiiufivctuiurfi wero
working on a wrong principle, and wore nutting into the manure
that wliiuli tlic plant i'ui|iiircd least. To grow turnips properly
they must, in tlic first place, bavu suitable laud, which sIioulJ
lie tree, porou.H, warm, deep, and strong—not BtifV, and the
situation aliould not bo too steep. They had next to consider
tlic availalili! iioiirishmout in tin- soil, which would depend on
the maimer in which it had heiui cultivated and maiiiu'ed. .B'arm-
yard inamu'c was very ricli in potasli, and poor in pliospliorus
and iiilrogeii : wliile bones wore ricli la pliospliatcs, poor in
nitrogen, and coiitainod almost no potash, lii the case of turnips
on land to wliicli farm-yard mauuro was applied, tlic probability
was llmt no potash would bo required, as tlicre w'os pleuty in
till’ muimre ; but if lames were being used, the addition uf potash
would ill all probability inoroose the crop. 'Ilie system or ouiti-
valing tlio turiiiii was very severe ou the young plant. Tho
seed was sown so tiiick that it ii»d to struggle witli Its neigiibuiir
for existi'iicn ; and in the process of tliinning and hoeing, its
routs were fnvtlicr iiiterforou with, the only roots left in nndis-
turlicd possession of their original ground being tlioso wliloli
liiiu grown straight down into the soil. Tli'-y liad next to eon-
siller tile kind of tillage, and they iiiuHt not apply iiiaimros
ii they were easily washed away. Turnips grow for a poriod
of six 01 '^ night moutbs, so that they must bo guided
by till) cousideratiou that tliry may apply manures whicli will
take some time to dissolve, but whicli tlie plants arc sure to
get later on. 'J'hoy liad learned a good (leal about turnips tliroiigli
tlio_ expoi'iiiiouts oanied on nndur the Highland and Agricultural
Sueiety. Phosjilioric acid in some form was most CBsential. It
was lliB constituent whoso want w'os first felt in tlie gromnl, for
almost all tlie other crops of the farm carried off' pliosiiliates
Inrgoly, leaving very little boliiiid for the turnip. Altliuiigh
tliorc was great diversity of opinion as to tile best form of
pliospliatcs to apply, dissolved pliospliates were, as a rule, quickest
and surest; but as tlie turnip took a lung time to grow, it
was able to make use of insoluble pliuapliates better tliau other
plants of quicker gruwlh, and certain kinds of land were
specially suited for those pliospliatos. Moorland, or laud ricli in
organic matter, possessed tuc conditions for dis.solving pbospiiates,
and on such luiida uisoliilile pho.spliatca were found very bcue
fieial to tho turnip crop. On clay land, on the other hand,
iiisoluljlo pliuspliatvs had proved a failure, and siiperphosnliate
was tliere required. One peculiarity brought out tiy the lligli-
laiid .Society’s experiments was limt siipoi'phosphato produced
a larger, cvciisr, and riper crop than iusoiiiblo pliospliatcs.
Tile insoluble phospliates supplied in the market varied so muoU
that one eoiild never iie siiro of getting the best kind, but
witli 8uper|)liosphale tliero was greater security. All kinds of tlio
latter wero of equal value to tlie farmer, no matter what their
source might liave boon. Nitrugen also existed in sovcrul forms,
but the most soluble was nitrate of soda, wliicli was a rich and
powerful manure. It required to bo used witli groat oautiou, being
cosily lost, and it was wasteful to apply it before tho plants wore
present to receive it. There were other uitrugoiious inaimres, iiow-
ever, which could be applied as soon as desired, such os bones,
which took a long time to decompose. Hriod blood was another
form of nitrogenous manure which was very rich, and it would lie
for a month of two before being useful to tin; plant. Tuttiug in a
slowly dlsBolvixig manure along with tlic seed, meant that tho plant
would not get it until it hod arrived at a oertahi stage of maturity,
but it was necessary to apply also some more quickly-acting iiiauui'e
such aS'nitrato of soda. Potash, when applied to turnips alon*' with
farmyard manure, so far from iiaving dona tlie crop good, hud
actually done it harm ; but wlicn applied with bones It did good.
Ha was therefore in favour of withholding potash from tho turnip
manore, and applying it for the cereal crops after tho root crop
li)4
THE INDIAN AGRICULT'CTRIST.
July 2 , 1883.
IB ott the ground. All kinds of compo*t wore oxooUeut propamtion*
tor the turnip, not »y much for the sake of the aotual food which the i
turnip rimuirod, but hueauBo they prepared the land for the delioate
roow of the plant, d'here was not much doubt that a good crop of
tuinipB conlii bo grown from faimyard niamirc ; but a more reason-
able nuestiou to ask was if suoh a ealuablo inamire was used to the
tannerfl hostadeantsgn fu applyiog it to turnips? Perhaps the
best way of cTOnurnizIng farmyard manure won to put it first on
gcuM, so that its laluable nitrogonoin ooiiBtitueuts might not he
lost, oud thou to spread on the fallow, Pending stock on the land
was, periiaps, the most cooiioniical and thorougn method of troating
the laiid, so as to improve its iieart and texture, but some might
think It rather slow. In concluding, Dr. Aitkeu said the average
tuinip manure contained 20 pet cent of soluble superphosphate, 10
per cent insoluble, 3 por cent ammonia, and, perliaps, potash also,
i ho farmer could, however, doterminc his special wants hy a very
simple experiment. Having asoortalued the relative need of his
son tor phosphates, ammonia, and potash respectively, he uuuhl
easily satisfy himself in what form each of those thioo constitiiouts
was most advantageously applied. He intended this year carrying
on a sot of o.xperimou ts as before, but with a scvon-plot instoad of a
live-plot test. Plot No. 1 will bo manured w-lth phosphates ; No. 2,
miosphates and potash ; No. 3, phosphates, potash, and ammonia ;
No. 4, ummoma and potash; No, 5, ammonia only; No, 6, phosphates
and ammonia; and No. 7 will got nothing. Ho had prepared
schedules with iustruotious, and he would bo glad to supply thorn
to any one who would be willing to make the experiment, whieii
uould be done at almost no cost. He thought the Qalawator Club
should make a fresh start hi that direotion.
are then turned in so os to prevent it being silled If while
the opium is being ooUected, the film be nfisM with it, it has
a bonefieial efifect. The work Of outting Itaei In the pods of the
popples is gouerally commenoed early In the afternoon, and
oontinnod until nightfall. As the opium must be ooUected twenty-
four hours after this operation has been oonoluded, the labourers
oommonue on the following day, soon after twelve o’clock, to
collect the opium from the pods which were out day before,
and also to make incisions in other pods. Any pods which are
nut quite ripe, are left until they become thoronghly ripe and
fit for outting. In order that the exact season for oollmting
the juice may not be missed, the whole work must be performed
in eight or ten days, and the proper time for marking the pods
must be accurately ascertained, for If the pods be oat before
or after they are quite ripe, there is no yield of oplnm. Great
care is taken not to out the pods while a high wind is blowing,,
or when it is raining, as in tbs latter case the rain w-ashes
away and destroys the juice as fast os it exudes from the scams
that have been out for it. After the opium crop has hi-t-n
gatliered in, the pods change their previous Imu, of oitln r
green or yellow, to rose colour ; when this change takes place, the
plants are taken up by the roots, one by one, and collected in
small bundles. Each bundle is thou bound by a young green
withe, and so placed upright in the ground that the roots of the
plants arc covered, In wliiuh position they remain for a few
days, until the si-od oontainod in the pods becomes thoi-oughly
dried and iiiaturnd. The pods are then threshed with a stioa
until they hieak open, vmen the seed is collected. Another
method which is often employed, Is to sever the stem of the
plant at the knot which is found close up to the pod with the
finger and thumb, and after oolleoting the ends so severed, to
eprend them out to dry lii some open place, and then to break
them open by threshing, or else to pull them to pieces, and
after sifting the seed until it is quite free from extraneous
matter, to collect it. At Kara-hissar, most of the pods are
burned to reduce thorn to ashes, and a fluid is extracted from
them, which is used to bleach cotton, as it is oonslderod more
ofireativo than the water which is strained off from ordinary
ashes. After extracting tho oil from the poppy seed, there
remains a sndlmont teohninally esUed hymehe, on which buffa¬
loes, oows,_ aud black kiue gouorally, ate fed, on tho ground
that suoh diet increases the amount of milk giroa.—JoKrnnl of th<‘
Sm'itty of Arts,
CULTIVATION OF THE POPPY IN liOUMELIA.
H M, fONSUL atSalouioa mentions in his last report that there
_ are few industries in Kuropoaii Turkey, oortninly none in
Roumolia, that have been so sueoeasfullv introducod and proao-
outed as the cultivation of the poppy. Tlie first attempt to grow
the plant In the provinoe of Roumelia was made aWit sevontoeu
years ago, by a Turkish farmer at Istlp, with a handful of the
poppy seed, which he had brouglit from Kara-hissar, in Asia
Minor ; the experiment proved a complete success, and was re¬
newed ou a larger scale iu the following year, ISfitl, since which
the iiroduotion of opium lias annually increased and flourished
in Istlp, aud the adjoining districts of Eadovits, Kotohan,
Stroumuitza, Tikviah, and Kinprulu-Velos. Tho Roumoliau
opium, especially that produced in the district of Istip, is very
pure, and contains about 11 per cent of morphia, wUilo that of
Smynia coutaiuB soarooW 9 per cent, and is considered equal to
the Malatia produce. Iii the year 1882, the production of tho
province amounted to about 135,0001b8. of oiiium and 6,600,OOOlbs.
of poppy seed, most of tho drug being exiiorted to England, and
almut 4,000,OOOlbs. of the seed being exported from Salonioa
chiefly to Germany and Prance. Tho Turkish Oovorument, with a
view to encourage tho devolopmeut of this industry, remits the
tithes on opium and poppy seed for one year, in the case of lands
that are sown for the first time with poppy seed, and diatributos
in the agricultural districts printed instruction on the process of
cultivating the poppy, and extracting aud preparing the drug
from the juice. It appears from these iusti-uctious that the
I'/w-i/i-Iuji, or poppy seed, is sown from the month of September
up to March, in localities where there is mj hoar frost iu spring
autumn but iu places wlicre there is hoar frost, the seed must be
sown ill the month of September, and in the spring, after tho
chilly weather is nasaed. The soil selected is generally light, rich,
and yielding ; if the seed is sown in cold, clayey soil, or in damp
localities, the yield will be small, and tlio opium of an infovlor
(juality. The ground is always well manured, and experience
has proved that if a field which has just yielded a crop of opium
be Immediately sown with wheat, the crop resulting from this
last sowing will be remarkably good. Tho soil of a field to be
sown with poppy seed Is ploughed two or three times, and
well broken up. The seed is then scattered about with the hand ;
after this, the soil is again thoroughly stirred up and mixed
by a rake, or a row of bushes bound on to the hack of a harrow.
As soon as the young poppy plants begin to appear above the
surface of the soil, and to boar three or four loaves, in places
where they ai-e too close together they are taken up, and planted
again in such a manner as to have a spaoe of a span between
each plant, and tho soil hood two or thi-eo times to remove
any weeds that may appear. Opium being a substance which is
extracted from the pods or outer shells of the poppies, ea soon
os these pods beuome green iu colour, uml have reached their
full growth, tho green hue chaugi-s to yellow. A few days
before this change of colour takes place, there forms over the
pods a thin watery film of a light greon hue ; this film is called
couyaTi. If it be wiped away with the finger its place still
remains visible, and if at this time the pod be squeezed between
tho finger aud thumb, it becomes so far streiigtliom-d that it
cannot be easily crushed. It Is at this time that Uio juice
which forms the opium is gathered. In order to gather the juico
or paste, an incision is mado in the pod, heginaiug from the ™., __ ,m„-
niiddlo and going round the edges, at tho sauio time leaving tatlons of this fast-growing timher-treo ought to pay well by-aod-
a space of about a fingers breadth, with a knife made expressly bye. Mr. W. Ferguson, with all Ms study of troes and tneir
for the purpose, being small and sharp-pointed. Immediately ' " . . - .
this cut is made, there appears a white milky fiuid of a bitter
taste. This fluid gradually increases iu ecasistenoy,, and its
colour becomes darker, uutll, iu twenty-four hours, it is coffee-
coloured, and os thick as paste. This la scraped off with the
edge of a somewhat large aud blunt knife, and put into a
TUniER FOR TEA BOXES.
O NE of the great benefits which railway extension, when com¬
pleted, will coufer on tho rising tea industry of Ceylon, will
he that of placing suitable timber, cheap, while suificiontly dtirablo,
at the dis^sal of planters. Boxes of proper sizes can he trausport-
od in shocks, the parts so prepared that unl.i putting together,
hooping and nailing, wilt bo reiinirod. An establUlimeiit purchas¬
ing, seasoning and working up large quantities of ehcan timhor
ought, it appears to us, oven now to bo able to supply boxes in
shocks, which after bearing railway, cart and cooly carriage, would
bo cheaper than those made on estates by ordinary carpenters. Iu
any case such boxes ought to bo loss liable to warp, and so bettor
suited to be easily and rapidly put together. Premising that soitjo
estates may he entirely destitute of timber, the whole qjjgstion in
the case of properties possessed of reserves must _be-' one of cost ;
the fact being kept in mind that the market valuo'of rosorve timber
ought to bo approximately calculated. Wishing to linve reliable
data for compariaon between estate-made boxes aud those ^taiu-
able in Colombo, wo have been making pieraoii.al eiuiuiries. In one
cose we found that hnl and mango timbcis were employed.
Against the latter there is a good d™l of pn-judice owing to the
supposed acrid quality of Its juices, w hile hnl, unless very carefully
seasoned, would also be objectionable. The price quoted for au
80 lb. box was Re. 1 '80, with 5 por cent discmiut for a quantity.
At another establishment wo wore shown some woll-soasoned
luaiiiiK'dilla timber which in appearance and texture seemed all
that ceuld be desired. Our only fear was that this really nice-
looking timber was open to the same objeotiou as the white and
red cedars of India, that of boiug too good for the jpurpose. For
it is not part of the function of the tea planter in India or Ceylon
to supply tho buyer of bis tea with timber which can be advantage¬
ously utilized iu England, unless he is certain of a price being hid
high in proportion to the value of the timber and ita cost to himself.
If the boxes are made of well-seasoned timber, free from corrosive
juice or offensive odour, not liable to attacks of dry-rot or inicots,
and able for a period of four months or so to resist exposure and
knocking about, that is all which can be desiderated. The price
quoted for an 80lh. box of this really superior timber woe B«. 2T2,
tliirty-two cents, or nearly one-third of a rupee, dearer than the
previous quotation. We cannot help hoping, however, that ftinii-
mtdilla can nntimately be obtained at prices which will lead to its
utilization for tea boxes. It grows mpidly to a groat height and
sends out so few horizontal branc-hr-s that n very large number of
trees could be grown on an aero of land. As the tree is said to be
fit for timber purposes in its tenth year, it seems obvious that plan-
poppy leat, and this is done until about twenty or thirty drachms
«t ppium tevo Uon ooUooted on out lettfi tho edges of which
properties, is of opinion that of all the timber trees of Ceylon this
IB the best suited for the manofootars of tea boxes ; but it is so
useful for many purposes, espaoially of boat-building and house oon-
struotion (it makes bsautlfiu oeUliigs), that we fear it is too ex-
psuslve to be converted into tea boxes. As there ts not much
spare capital in the island, and few persons who con afford to wait
ten years even for a large return for weir money, we commend tho
, cultivation of this tree empbatioally to tho attention of the Forest
July 2, 1883.
THE INDIAN AaRICTTLTUEIST.
255
officer! of Ceylon. The tree Is eapcoinliy a free eeeder, ao that |
bandredi of ouabeU of the seeds oould bo obtained at once. An
allied tree, what in Ceylon wo call popularly “ tho Persian Ulac ‘
(from Its sweet-smetling lllao-like blossoms) has tho same property
of producing a large crop of soods. We saw a specimen In Mr.
James Henty's grounds at Kew, a suburb of Melbourne, and found
that it was known io Australia 08 tho ** white cedar.” We have
never heard of Its attaiulug the dimeusions of a timber treo in
Ceylon, but it ought to bo moro pn^ed than It is as au ornamental
dwarf*tree. Mr. Brace, who wrote an essay on tea cultivation,
which was published at the office, gave a list ol a dozen
and'Odialf timbers which he knew or supposed would bo suitable,
and noticed the iwinmidilla thus “ Melia oomposito. Pid*
baUly an exoellent wood for this purpose. Beddome remarks * It
is common In Ceylon, and is known by tho native name of lunu-
medillai and Mr. W. Ferguson of the island says the timber is very
light and oedardiko, and In use for outriggers of boats and ceilings,
and that it is said whiteanta will not attack it. This probably
might take the place of our cedars, not only for boxes, but for most
of the items of furniture needed on an estate.’ ” Mr. W. Forgusou
DOW writes
make a return is by supplying ns, for the benofib of those interest¬
ed lu the now industry, wlthinforinatioa os to the kinds of forest
trt;e6, iu the low country and at high elevations, which have hither¬
to boeii found best suited for tUo boxes, tho provnleucc of such
timbors, and tho comparative cost at which they cun be foiled,
•awu, Hcasouod, au<l worked up on catate». It is of much Im-
povtance tiiat the ueo of tea driers will save the ncoeasity of con-
verfciug hojuc of the beet timber on estates ipto cliarcoal, because
such timber can now bo utilized for tou lH)Xf/a or other purpoeos.
With railway extousioa, indeed, it is possible that coko nuiy br
found a cheaper and better fuul for the tea-dryers than firewood,
tho smoko from w'bioli might bo objectionable. As the supply of
really good timber iu the hill forests of Ceylon is, after all, very
scanty, information regarding tho Ixjat tro‘^s to grow at various
elevations will bo vuluaWc. Wo do not forget tholists of low airl
high elevation trooa issued by tho lato Dr. Thwaites, but they
were prepared without any reference to the (j^ucstiou now being
diHcussed. Wo fear the lunufuadilUt is specially a low-country
plant, but probably trials will show that this and other suitable
plants have a pretty extensive range as regards altitude.
Our present enquiries were started by tho receipt of a letter from
Hal is so inferior and so full of resin that it is only used for Gamble, wliom we had tho pleoanrc of meeting In British
cq^ftg, Ufango wood is considered an inferior wood, but has boon
a good deal used for coffee casks.
The is no doubt about tho best tree and timber for
tea-boxes iu every respect in Coylou. It is of very rapid growth,
U still an abundant treo In the island, easily procurable, being
floated down the rivers. It is used for the outriggers of Ceylon
canoes ; for kattumarams ; is the best Ceylon wood for ceilings
because it has a slight look of mahogany and can be varnished or
because it nas a BiiflUi iooK 01 manocany ana can oe varuimiou ,
polUhBd, and is said not to be attacked by whiteanta j la very light y®'! take mo to tiwk for not giviog the soioutific imniiw of tin, ti i
Eut not strong, eeasons very rapidly. It was described nudor winch I onumoratod by tboir veTOaoular outs, as producing wo(
several botanSal names and Wally as the Melia compodta ol ! .W *1'! "m"
_ _ . I generally
Willdenow, hut Mr. P. Hieru, who has worked out this order in
Flora Brit. Ind. 1, p. 64C, restores its first or oldest name, Melia
liuliia, Cavanilles, and gives the £olIo«’ing synonyms for it:—M.
Buperba, Bo*., M. robusta, Kox., M. australasioa, Adr. Juss., M..
mthiopica, Wolw., M. Bomlwlo, Wolw,—and M. argentea, Hb.
Hsm. I feel eure that it is also tho Auletoa Javauioa, Gaert.
1,277, t, 08. f. 2. ,
Seeds about the sizo of an olive, aud very like them! can he had
in abundanoo iu thei*soaBon. 'J'roe tory high, loaves tripinnato
vory largo, on tops of branches, not a good sliado troo, because it is
quite leafless at times.
I saw an aJvortisement iu tho Olmreer from tho Madras
Railway or Harbour Dopartmout some months ago, calling for
tendovs for a supply of this wood, as d/ofiry iitisOu, if I vooulluot
aright.
Mr. W. Ferguson and others will, liuwevov, like onrseiver, navn
to review their opinions in regard to hal, iu tho presonoo of a
specimen box of this wood sent to ns by tlio manager of tho Ceylon
Company, Limited. Tliis Company has had its experlonco of bad
as well as good woods, and tho Snal oonohisiou is in favour of good,
woll-eeasoucd hal lor tea-boxes. Tliis was intimated to us in
answor to a letter ol enquiry wliother materials for tea-bo.xes pro¬
cured and proparod in quantity could not be sold at a price
cheaper than tho cost of boxes in many onsos made on ostates.
Copy of a oircular was sent to us, in wtiioii wo wore told we
should find our suggestions anticipated. In this circular, amongst
information in regard to the loading requisites for packing tea, we
ti«d tho following i
Tka The company have a large stock of throrougliiy
soasoued/wf Wood opt up for chests, only requiring to be put to¬
gether.—The chests are dovetailed, and tiieir outside measurement
18 24 iu. by It) by 19 in., so that ten eliosta make exactly 1 ton of
50 feet cubic measurement.
They hold 85 Ih. Pekoe .Souchong,
00 1 !'. pekoe,
110 ft. Broken Pakoo,
Sikhim in 1870, and who is now at the head of the Madras Govern¬
ment Forest Department. To tho Indian and botanical iiajnes
furnished l)y Mr. Gamble, Mr. W. Ferguson has, at our request,
added notes indicatiug whether the trees are iuJigouous to Or to bo
found in Ceylon. Hero arc the IctU r and the notes
Madras, April 3rd, 1883
iSm,—At p. 720 of your March No. of tho Tropical Asrhitiliiirixl,
trees
woods
names
perfectly correeted as to spelliug. The misprints wore ehiofiy
made hy tlie Imlian ForeaUn', I see. For ' Cliuta Kagpur ’ please
read ‘ Chota Nagpur.’
Yours,
S. Gamm-k.
Boiaiiieiil Name*.
1. CedrcTa I'oona, microenrpa or glabra («)
2. Dui'liouga soiinoratiodpB (h)
,3. Bombax malabarienin (r)
4. Carinriiiin beugalousu {d)
3. Autlioeaphalus Cadamba (r)
fi. Aeruciu'pus fraxinifolios (/)
7. Totrameios imdiilota (p)
8. Storeulia villoSB (Ixid) (A)
9. Auer CamptiulUi or Iievigatum (•!
10. Kugelhardtia sploatu (y)
11. Kohinociirpus daeyoarpue (4)
12. Nysaa scsailiflora (0
13. Maubilus vdulis (»i)
14. BeilsuhmieJia Koxburghiaua (»)
... 1(5. Boswellia tUurifora («)
Mr. W. Ferguson’s Notes:—(«) Not a native of Ceylon,
trodueod in Peradoniya. (//) Not in Coyluii. {, ) Katu-Imbul.
flowered silk-eottou Use. Gf) Not in Coylon. (r) Common Ceylon
tree. (/) Not iu Ceylon. Legumiuosoie. (;;} la Ce.ylou liills rare.
Detiscueeoi. (h, t, and J) Not iu Ceylon. (1) Not lu Ceylon,
Bliooton, Sikkim, Kosteni Himalaya, {/) Sikkim 6,000—7,000 ft.
Martaban, Java. («<) Nativu of Northern India. («) Also
Northern India, (o) In nothorn part of Madras fVesidoncy, and in
ricugal J this and No. 4 closely Billed. Wo have in Ceylon the
Ka:kuna, Canarium Zeylanicum, Thwaitos,
Mr. W, Ferguson adds detailed remarks os follows
Notes os Mb, Ga.«ulk’s List of Timdek Tsee.s Fit for Tea
Boxes.
I have put notes opposite to Mr. Gamble’s list, and I shall liere
Ihiliaii Haxiee.
Toon
Lampatia
Somul
Ooguldhiip
Kadaui
Maudania
Maiuakat
Udal
Kabos hi
Mahua
Gobcia
Gliikauni
Ijopuhapbal
Tarsiug
,Sa1ai
in
Red
and can be supplied in shooks dolivovod at tho Colombo Railway ^ is no use in repeating tho native
Station at Rs. I'30 each (without nails), or made up (with nads) ^nd botanic names :
at Rs. 1'40 each.
A chest rofiuircs about 70 to 80 wire nails (1 ft, = about 380 nails.)
(i ft. tea load.
,, ,3 ox. solder,
not quite 4 1''- hoop iron,
about 70 rose noils for fastening do. (1ft. =
about 660 nails.)
Now. provided the 7in! wood teacliBst turns out to bo good and —•‘’■.•■■ 7 , 7"” .\7 r 'I’lnvaltna Son
sorvioeib^lc-^nd wo can affirm that it look, tiro right thing, wMle We ‘S Sc fnTber of tll^e would
the Company s Manager says tho chests made of Ian me gooti and no. in ot same mm y.
1. —Introduced to Coylou and in tlio Poradeniya gardens.
Same family, Meliaoeie, ns tlio Lunumedilla.
2. —Not yet in Coylou. D, moluecaoa, lu tlio Peradeniya gardens.
See Morris 8 list. It is f the same family os tho lugeratrmniia
flos-regimo, tho Murrtu. , , > -n, ,
3 __Xlio rod flowered silk cotton treo. Kattu-linbul. Wood
too weak and pcrisliable, 1 should think.
4 ,—Tho family that produue the aromatic gums of tho hole.
compare most favouraiily with Indioii tea boxes, of wbioh a large
nuDibor has passed through his hands, wo have bore a box of
superior capacity at a lower price than those previously quoted
(m^o up with nails Rs.1-40 each) and construoted on auoh soientifio
principles as to size, that ton siioh lioxcs make np exactly the
measurement ton of 60 ottbie foot by whioh freight ou tea is
ohargod. If, in addition, the (Tompaiiy could monngo so tliat each
box should weigh exactly the same, so as to save the injurious
necessity of bnlki^ in tho London Customs, they would deserve
to bo regwded as speclul bonclactors to the tea interest of (Jtfylon.
Verfectly soasonod wood, if uot exposed to wot, ought uot to alter
aftreciablv iu weight, and the wojght of uails, tea load, solder and
hoop Iron should bl uniform. Wo surely are within hailing dis¬
tance of tho time whou the quantity of tea of each kmd in boxes
can bo ao entirely relied upon, even by men so accustomed
to tU© shady side of human nature as customs officers, that
there may he no occasion to open boxes before sales, except for
the purpose of taking samples. ... , -
AU tea planters are grateful for having the above information
pUoed prominently before them, the host way in whioh they can
bo good for tea boxes.
5 ,_Ceylon tree, large, and a quick giwvcr. I know it well,
but don’t know much about its timber. It i« so close au ally of tlie
Bak-mi, which injured some Ceylon Company’s tea, and about
which Mr. Horsfall wrote to tho Obmnvr, that they used to bo in tlie
enus, R.ubiaoca'.
Au Indian tree. Don’t know much about
•amo gei
6 . —Not iu Ceylon
it. A large troo.
7. —A Coylou tree,
____ The only ono of tlio order Datisoc.-v. I have
never seen the tree, and failed to got a spBoimon of it.
8 . —Not iu Ceylon. Several of the family m Coylou, I do not
tliiuk any of them will bo good for tea boxes,
9. —None of this gouus iu Coylon,
10 . —Not yet iu Coylou, .
11 . —Not in Coylou. Allied to tho Woralus. Bbooton, Sikkim,
^” 2 ?—N^^^^ylon, An nbsevn-e family. irhU tre© 60 foct high ;
Sikhim at 5,000-7.000 feet. Martaban, ^va,
13 —Ono of tho lauryU. Nutiva of Northern India, ijudu-
Dawiilu, a famous timber tree on estates In Dimbula and eUowhorc,
256
THE INDIAN AGBICULTDEIST.
July 2, 1883.
a ulose ally, but soiiiB of them aro likely to have aromatic wOode.
Xhc famous Ytivcrni, Asaodapbne KPtnioarpifolia, of the Bostcru
J’rovinco, A good wood. Same funiiiy ciiuiamon, camphor, &o,
14.—Not lu Ceylon. Northern India. .S.amc i-onily oa No. 1.3.
lf>. -- Not in Ceylon. In northern part of th>' Madras proHidoDoy
and llongal. See my nolo on No. 4.
' !c No. i;t, p. 33, “Tea Cnltivatiou in S. India and Ceylon,"
so., and W. B’a “ Timber Trees."
As lightness comliined with just sufficient strength to carry home
a load of tea safely are the desiderata for tea box timber, it is quite
jioflsildc that cxpericucc! may decide in favour of trees which th*
writer of the notes docs not estimate highly. For Instance, the
NffWnar, uKiirtha/vVttni, or scarlot-fioworcd cotton tree. Wo do not
know about its rapidity of growth, but such trees as this and
AVytAriaa'iTuffcn, and oapeoially the common green cotton tree,
could be oraniniod in great numbers into a limited space of ground.
We do not wont valmlilv timber for tea-boxes. If It Is light, so
much the bettor, provided it will season w<dl and stand knocking
about for a few mouths. Objoetiouable aroma, juices and gum,
could probably bo got rid of by judicious seasonings. Fire heat or
steam, properly applied, can effect wonderful changes in the nature
of timbers.
U’e add some general remarks with which Mr. W. Ferguson
acuomimuied his notes ;—
Surely by this time you and the other tea planters of Ceylon,
Taylor, Eiphinstono, Armstrong, Jones, Blackwood, Ceylon
Company, Owen, and others, have found out the ckvapeH and }>ett
kind of boxes, native or foreign, fer packing tea in, and, if made of
native woods, there ought to no a list of native nomes—at least of
those found best ffttod for the work. [Details regarding the
timbers used on Abbotsford will be forthooming immediately.—Ki>.,
V. 0.1 t do not think there is any use in attempting to introduce
aud grow any foreign tioe for tills purpose, as 1 believe we have
abuudanoe of trees which will answer equally well.
Mr. Owen suet ino a list of trees some time ago, and asked me
to say which of thorn were suitable for tea boxes. I met him in
the Observer office, and said ; “ Trust a groat deal to your native
carpenters, who know the qualities of the different native woods.
Don’t use those that have wifi, gum, qt acrid juice, rutin,, kc., In
the wood. Don’t use heavy wood, uor ono that will perish very
soon, and don't let the wood have any smell of any kind, if
possible.’’
But I fear the great bugbear is the want of proper seasoning in
the log, and after it is sawn, before it is eonvertsd into tea boxes.
Tiiere was a regular sot of saw-inills at work in tlie forests at
Awisawella some time ago sawing timber foi tea boxes aud
other purposes, and the gentleman in charge whom I met at Mr.
Ward% house at Uonwella some time ago, promised to send me a
list of the good and had trees. 1 made a selection of 113 of the
best timber trees of Ceylon, when I made the notes to Mendis’s
list, but 1 shall now include all the recti trees of Ceylon, itmi duish
their uses, or wipe them out as utterly useless. How in the tneau-
time con we get lists from the different tea planters named, shew¬
ing the host tea woods they have aotually used ?
Wo cannot doubt that the information desiderated will be sup-
pliod, so that ere long wo may have a reliable list of the most
suitable timbers for tea-boxes and all the purposes ccuuectud with
the tea indnstry.
Meantime we quote from Mr. Brace’s list :—
Acbocabpc.s TB,vxi!srvout7.s : Rkd Cedab.—“ The timber is
dosh-coloured and shrinks in seasoning ; it is light and much
resomhlcB that of cedrela tooiia and has a cedrelaceous smell;
it is known to planters by the name of Shingle Tree, Fink Cedar,
and Rod Cedar, and is called maUay here in Tinnevelly, and kihnyi
by the burghers on the Neilgh'ortios ; it is of rapid growth and
well worthy of cultivation by the Forest Departmeut’’ (Bedd.
Flor. Sylv.). I have used this timber more perhaps than any other
for tea-boxes and tea house furniture in general, and if it lias been
well seasoned it is as good a wood as conld be procured for the
purpose. 1 am not aware if this tree is found in Ceylon, hut as it
is readily propagated from seed, I could suggest its being in¬
troduced. I cannot urge on planters too strongly the advisability
of planting up odd ooruers of their grass-lands, Ac., with useful
timber trees, the cost of so doing is a mere trl&c, and the addition
mado to the value of the property, say, iu ton years’ time, is
very great.
Alstomia SonOEABW.—“ In Ceylon it is called rooknllaim, and
the wood is therefore generally omployod for making coffins.
« « ♦ • « This wood, which is very bitter, is white and light,
and is used for making packing cases, Ac.” (Bedd. Flor. flylv.)
This would probably be found on exocllout wood for making
boxes.
Artocarpos niRaOTUs,—“ This tree yields the nnjely wood so
well known on the Western Coast for bouse building, ships, frame¬
works, &o. The tree attains a largo size in the forests on the
Western Coast, whore it abounds. The fruit is the slso of a largo
orange, and abounds in a viscid juico, which freely flows
from the rind if toaobod-, this is manufactured into birdlime.’’
(Drury, Id.). This too U an excellent wood both for making
boxes, buildings aud estate farnituro generally, and like its uou-
geuers as ornumeutal os it is useful.
Artocaupus iKTEOKTifOtlA.—This Is perhaiw the beat wood for
box-making of any ; and is easily propagated and of rapid
growth.
Beddome remarks that this tree is only found In Ceylon. ^I’ro-
baldy the timber is very similar to thot of the other varieties aud
might be used for the same purposes.
CBiiRishA Toosa 1 Warts Ceuab,—C alled on the Neilghovries
ked kUingi, Drury xemarkj), '* The wood is dense, bard, red, close-
grained, capable of high polish, not subjeotod to worms, nor liable >
to warp, and durable.’’ Boddomo says that " it is qurloualy ab¬
sent from Ceylon.” (Flor. Sylv.) This is a splendid wood, m iW
opinion, aud as it is readily raiend from seed and of rapid growth,
I I would strongly advise Ceylon planters to introdnoe it. I never
use any other w'ood when I can procure this at a moderate rote.
There is h.ardly n purpoBo to which it may not bo supplied. I
employ it for leaf rocks, rolling tabic..., &o.
LiTH.t.A Eevoantca.—" This tree is most abundant on the
Neilghorrios at fl.OOO to 7,000 feet elevation, and is found through¬
out eur Western Qhats at elevations about 2,000 feet, and it is
equally common iu Ceylon where it is callod Hawerl kooroottdsjo,"
(Bedd. Flor. Sylv.) ’This is perhaps the best wood when well
seasoned for boxes that ono can meet with at the higher elevations,
quite equal to the red and white cedars.
Maohilu.s Macbantua.—“ Called in Ceylon wUaln ; the timber
is often used for building purposes : it is light and even grained,
and would answer as a substitute for deal.’” (Bedd. Flor. Sylv.
This is probably a first-class wood for box-making.
Tkotona Ubandw : Teak.—T eak is an excellent wood for boxes
when it has been well Boosonod, and cun bo proourod cheap.
Though heavy, it can safely bu sawn much thuinor than other
woods. 1 am not aware if the tree is found in Coyloa.
Tkbmijjaeia Bbeekbica.—“F ound in Coy ion and there oallod
Mil. It answers well for packiug-oosos and coffee boxes.” (Bedd.
Flor. Zcylan.). This would probably answer well for tea-
boxes also.
It would thus appear that there arc trees indigenous ..o Southern
India, which would bo valuable if they could be naturalized in
Coylon. The jack tree and the del (Artooarpusi nobilis) aro, of
course, too valuable for tea chests. So we sho-ld say ef teak,
unless it could he obtained in ahundauoo and sa.vn into very thin
laraiiiEO. If Mr. Brace is correct, the liawnl htrtindii ought to bo
found uiofiil at high elevations. But the railway it a great leveller,
even of altitudes, and the time is probably coming wiieii nearly all
tea estates will be supplied with tea-boxes from the “low country.’’
A correspondent of the local Timber writes os follows
“ The owners of tea estates would do well to begin at once the
growing of suitable timber trees, as it will greatly enhance the
value of their properties. Even where there is a forest reserve,
it is chiefly valuable for its fuel, ns the evitable timber trees form
but a very small percentage of the forest. There are unraoroua
kinds of Indigenous fast-growing timber trees that would thrive
hottor than the Australian gums on high estates. Jack is too
hoavy a wood and is not of very quick growth. Teak is as heavy,
but is a baixler and bettor timber for ohosts, if sawn in thin pieces,
and exposed for a few months iu a dry place or shed. It grows
foster tlian jack after the first year. Hallmtlla, Boramel, Suriyah
(tulip tree), Catta imbul are very suitable, aud are very fast growers.
The tulip tree wood is little used, lieing scarce, as all is bought
up by carriage builders. It is light, strong, pliant and suited for
tea chests, Iming free of resin and acids, &o. On some coffee
estates, wiierc no timber trees are grown, fuel for coolies has to be
bought and carted to the estates, and doled out pound by pound.
This will occur on tea properties when the reserves aro exhausted,
or planted up, oa they will ho, when the old clearings look seedy.
For many more reasons the early planting of timber trees is a
uocossity oil tea estates, aud they who have omitted to do so
should begin at once.— Cci/lon. Observer.
WHEAT MILDEW.
(By William CABunTutni., F R.S., Consulling Botanist to the
Royal Ayrindtnral /Society of England.)
fE.xtract, Irimi the Society’s Journal.]
T HK minute fungi which live on omcr plants, and produoc blights
or diseases, Imve received spocia, nttoution in recent years,
because of the sorious lOBseu which they bring witli them, and
because of the roniurkublu lacts iu the economy of vegetable
life which tholr study h.iB illsclo.sed.
The hop, the vine, the potato, aud the different cereal orops arc
equally liahlc to great injury, and soinotinics to destruction,
from the altaeks of thesi parasitic plants. And none is more
wide-spreading iu its attack, and imirc auriouB in its action,
than the mildew wliicli attacks the wheat crop in summer or
autumn.
The desire to discover some moans of preventing or alleviating
the malady caused by mildew, lias loti to the frequent careful
study of this plant. In the second volume of this journal
(pages 11 and 220), Trofesnor Honslow, in a paper on tho aiseasea
of wheat, gave a carufnl desuription of tlic mildew, and reasons
for believing that rust and mildew wore produced by the same
fungus. He also investigated tho prevalent notion that the
bai'ncrry was in some way connected with the mlldow, and
recommended that experiments should Im instituted with tho
view of testing tho matter. He was not himself prepared to
accept the opinion, thongh ho records a case whioh he found
it hard by any other explanation to understand. A farmer In
Oxtorilshire had a field whioh, when sown with wheat, was
generally Infected at ono portion with mildew. This part was’
in the immediate neighbourhood of an old hedge, in which
there were several barberry bushes. The blight did not ex¬
tend farther than twenty yards from tho hedge, khd it was
most abundant iu tho fniinedlato nei^bonrhood ofoaohoftho
somewhat widely-separated bushes. The farmer had all the
barberry out out of tho hedge. Ho i^ok ono of the largest
bushes, and placed it in tho tnjddlo of the field. Before reap¬
ing he found the straw, for some yards round the bnsb, tnjurSd
THE INblAN AGRIOHLTUmST.
m
9, ms.
by iiiUda< tUongh not to th« same extent as on tbs side of
tbt field nigh to tbs hedge.
A later vmtune of the Jonmal oontaios an able and luoid expost>
lion of the paraaitio funn of the British farm, which had been
delivered as a popular leoturo by the lb ■. Edwin Sidney, and
among: them is Ineladed the mildew fungu ,
Until the Investigations of Tulasne and DeBary, nothing was
added to the knowledge of the mildew beyond what was contain¬
ed in these papers.
The belief hold by Henslow, that mat and mildew wore produc¬
ed by the aame fungus, was demonstrated to bo the case by Tulasne,
who proved that tho rust was an earlier stage in the life-history of
the plant which afterwards proiluctd the mildew.
The relation between the berberry and the mildew was estab¬
lished stIU later by DeBary, who discovered that the olnater-cup
or JEeidiuDi ou tho leaf of the barberry was a still earlier state of
the mildew thou the rust.
That a plant might spend some stages of its life in ooiiditions,
and under a form ditl'ereiit from its perfect state, was in harmony
with obvious foots In the animal kingdom. Tlio development of
the grub living in the earth or swimming in ‘'le water, into u fly
or beetle Inhabiting the air, made one fumiliar witli great cbangc.s
in the Mfe-history of an organic being. T'lo perfect state was
easily deter' ' 'J, ' .use only m that stale had the animal tlic
power of p)'odu.-ing eggs, and so providing for the coiitiimaiiee of
Its kind. t in . cse parasitic fungi, eacii stage ended In tho
production of spores—that is, of bodies equivalent in function to
the seeds of dowering plants or the eggs of animals, and capable
of .leveloping fresh individuals.
The structure of tho fungus in the difl'oront stages of its existence
as the jEcklium on tlio bH.A(’i’ry, and the rust or mildew on the
wheat, Was so very difforeid, that hotnuists could not entertain
tho notion tliat »;.y organic relation existed between them, and
those most iutim.atcly acquainted with these parasitic plants were
most deoidod in tliwr views as to tliu absurdity of entertaining
Buoh a notion. Especially did it appear improbable that tho plant
grown from a spore should have no resemblance to the parent pro¬
ducing the spoi-B, but that instead it should belong to a group
which the scientitlo student had widely separated from the parent.
Within the last teu years oui first authority in England wrote:
“ There has been a very unju.st charge brought against JSridium
hfrberidin, a beautiful ap^ies wliioh attacks the loaves, flowers, and
young fruit of tile barberry as if it were tho oause of mildew in wheat.
Dreat, however, as are tho ohanges whlclt fungi uudergu oocasioually
in pasting from one ooudltiou to another, there is not the slightest
reason for imagining that the Jstendium is a tranaitorial state of
wheat mildew, It has its own mude of propagation and passes
through nearly the same phases of vegetation as tlio mildew, wlliiout
affording a susplclou that it is nut a perfect plant. The whole
story has no doubt arisen from the JCiMham being common ou the
barberry in hedges surroundiug wlieat fields ; and there is reasun
to boliove tho report is true, that wheat has been especially mildew¬
ed in the neigliboiirhood of tlio .flndiitm. Tlie poeuliiH' situation
may, however, be equally favourable to cither parasite ; and it is to
bo observed that mildew is peculiarly prevalent in diatriota where
the barberry is unknown except as a garden plant,"
The careful investigations and expurimenta of DeBary, corro-
hoiatod by the subswiuflut disooveiY by other botaui.sts of similai
pheuomeim in the lilediistory of other fungi tlmn mildew of
wheat, have, however, determined beyond all quesUmi tiiat the
jEcidmm of tho barbeny, the uist and the mildew of \riieat, are
only stages iirtliejife of the .same plaut, lliough eaoli stage presents
the phenomena we have ieuu aceu.stoiucd tu eonsider eharavtorisUe ]
of a perfect plant—tliu producing iuuuiiicralile. sjiores or seeds eapalilo
of giving rise to now iiidivieluals. DeBary luis indeed juodin-.ed
•ach stage of the jdaut Irom the spores iivuduced by the previou.s
stage,
het us now trace tho history of the iungus tiirough it.s diirereiit
forms of life. , . .
fl'he first stage in its life, after the rest of the winter, is that
w hioh H passes on the barberry. In the spring the lea\ e.s of this
plant may sometimes be found with ewolleu yellowisli spots, ivliieb
m a short tinie burst through the skin, and foriii little bordered
oupi ^led with a reddish powder. Uiuler tliis form tliu plaut is
known as ribVitli'Uni ^‘^n’h<ndi . 'I'he goTuis ^d^cidvim. was, till le-
ceutly, believed to ooiitaiu a clearly limited and natural group of
species, of which nearly forty were found in Britain ou the leaves
or stems of tho boi'Uerry, gooseberry, buttercup, anemone, spurge,
nettle, tic.
That on the barbeiTy occurs cluofly on the leaves, but soinL‘tiine.s
attacks tho loaf-stalk and the fruit. It may be detertod in May
or June os a bright rod spot on the uuder-eido of tiiu leaf, which,
when carefully examined. Is found to boa little eup full offi'ce,
round, and very minute bodies, A still more minute cxaniiuatiou of
the leaf will show that tho fungus has auotlior form of fructification
on the upper surface of the loaf, where one may detect some scarcely
pereeptibie pustules, through tho central pore of which protrude a
small bunch of minute hairs. In section aud under the niicroscopo
these pustules ore seen to bo the openings of small ttusk-aliapod
bodies filled with the dolicate needle-like hairs wliioli protrude
themselves through the opeiiiug. Towai’ds the base of the flaak
taay be detected numerous vei*y minute round bodies, the function
of which has not yet boon clearly ascertained. The larger cups
opening on the lower surface of tlie leof arc found to be ^nally well
defined, and to bo enolosed in distinct oovering. At first appear¬
ing as little spores, they increase in size until they burst through the
lUn, the apex breaks in a more or less regular manner, forming
a mai'gin to the oun, which Is filled with miuute_ roimd bodies oi
a redmsh colour. These are the spores from which tho next stage
of the plant is developed. , ^ ^ j
&th fottni of ftuoafio^on grow on very delioate fungal threads,
myoeliuiDi vrblGli poActrote the leoi in every duectien, hud
withdraw from It the food required to the life and growth d the
parasite. , , . .
The quantity of spores prodnoed Sn the oups on a slfifie barberry
leaf is enormous. It is impossible to realise the myriads Of fimgal
spores which are floating in tho atmosphere during the
greater part of tlie yoai, ready, whenever the fitting physical
conditions arc present, to germinate. No place is free from their
presence. They are so minute that we see them only as motes
dancing in tho sunlieam. But thougli so miuntfe, they are mighty
agents for good or foi ci ii, bocauso of their extraordinary quantity.
The spores of fungi are limited to some oxtout in their operations
by tho fact that each spore can germinate only ou riis speoieS of
plant that is proper to it. If the seed of a flowering plant be sup¬
plied wirii suitable heat, moisture, and air, if, will germinate in any
soil, and inainlain a vigorons life or otherwlso, in aocordaoce with
the character of the soil. But happily the spores of these fungi
must not only have tho necessary physical conditions required by
tho seed, but they will fall In establishing themselves unless they
further find thoso conditions asaooiated with that particular speolos
of plant with which their life-history is aaiociatM. Were it not
so, tile spores produced in a singlo season would be more than
sullieiont to elotlie every inch of tho surface of the earth with a
dense mould.
The rod spores of the barberry fungus will produoe a myotlhim
only when they gerinluate on tho loaf or stem of wheat, or of stune
other grass. And they can germinate there only when they can
obtain a suffleient supply of moisture.
It is a very general notion tliat mildew aud other blights are “ in
the air,” or are produced by fogs or mists. To some extent those no¬
tions are true. Tlie fanner has observed tho atmosplierlo oondltions
favourabio to the growth of the spores, and without Doing aware how
they quickened into life tho everywhere present spores, they give
the physical oondltions the credit of being tho emclont produeers
of tho hliglit. But just as dry grain remains for any length of
time in the barn without germinating, so tho spores of the potato-
fungus rest on tho potato, or those of the barberry-fungus On tho
wheat without germination, if there be no free moisture aooessihle
to them. A slight reduction of temperature, when the warm air of
summer or autumn is saturated with moiature after ruin, liberates
some of tho aqueous vapour which had formed an Invisible ingredi¬
ent of the atiiiospboro, and a mist is produced. This mist supplies
the spore with tlio moisture it needs, and germination be^s j
a sniall tube is pushed out,.and, finding its -way to one of the minute
openings or stoiiiates of the leaf, it passes through Into the tissues,
where, finding snitablo food, it rapidly grows. In a week or ten
days one can dcLoettbo proseuee of the fungus in the wheat by
linear reddish swellings on the leaf and stem, When ripe, the skin
iiursts, and innumerable oval rod eporos are exposed and dispersed.
When thesuitahls conditions represent, ttteso spores germinate
ou wheat or ou ethoi grasses, the growing tubes pass through tho
Btoniates, produce mycelium iu tlie cclhilai tissues of tho lord, and
In a week, more or less, a new crop of spores hursts the skin of tho
plant, ami is scattered in the air. .Several generations of this form
of tlio fungus may he produeod iu the course of a few weeks, In the
older patches, and from tho same myuelium, another kind of frjilt
is produced, at first among the red spores of tho ni.st, and theu
entirely liy itself when the production of tho rust-gporoa ceases.
'J'hese art the spores uf the niildow. They are oblong, and taper
towards oacli end, and are composed of two cells, the division
being iiciuss the middle of tlio spore.
A.s ill the rust, tlie delicate threads or tnyeeliuiii of the mildew
pciietrato tlie ccllulai’ tia.sue of tlie loaf ur stem in every direction.
'I'lie spores arc produced under tho skin. They form long
miriuw 8wclliiig.s of a hiowiiisli eoloiir. Wliou tho swellings burst
the .skill, a mass of dark spores tills tho opening. If tlie diaoase is
viu) bad, the plaut is so completely covered with tho dai'k spoi’es
that is has the uppearauco of liavuig boon soorched.
'I'hc active life of the fungus closes witli the production of tliii
iiiildew-aporce. These spores do not germinate aud propagate tho
mildew ou otlicr wheat plants. Tliia is done only by tho spores of
tlie nust. 'J'ho mildew-spores remain ou the loaves and straw tiirouoh-
out tlie winter, and show no signs of life till the spring, when, uudor
favourahle conditions, they begin to geriniuatu. Each of tlio two
foils of wliicli tile spore is composed sends out a short filament, that
lerluiuutes iu tlirae or four bru.ioUos. Tlie tips of those branches
swell, and another kind of spore is produced, after wliieli the
filamniit dies. These minute and delicate spores develop a my¬
celium only when they germinate on tlio loaf of the barberry. Tlie
gonniuaLiug filament does not seek admission to tho leaf throngh
a stomuto, but is has the power, like tho spores of the fungus which
causes tlie notate disease, of pcnctraliug the skin where it ger¬
minates and passing directly into the tissues of the leaf. There
it rapidly grows, and in a sliort time produces the two kinds of
fructification v hioh have been already dosotihed.
Tlie injury douo to the wheat liy the rust aud mildew arUea_ from
the fungus appropriating to its own use the elaborated iaieo.s
oi the wheat. Puiigl are plants witl out tho green colouring matter
or clilorophyl, wliicfi exists in otlier plants, and they aro_ eon-
seqiicnlly unable to separate the carbon from tho carbouie acid gas
of the air—that is, to manufacture plant-food from tliu raw materials
ou which plants live. They therefore depend on the already
prepared food of the plants on which they are parasitic. The
fungus in its rust-stage takes possession of the growing plant,
aud weak cna it so far as it appropriates material which waa
iutondod to build up the growing wheat. But as the wheat at the
time of the gittack is very active iu assimilating food, the
rust rarely iniurcs to any serious extent the crop, umosa In an
exceptionally wet season, when the ubinidanco of uiolsture swures
the gcrminatlou of aucoe.ssive crops of spores. A few bright
sunny days arrest tho progress of the fuBgus, and vigoroM plants
overcoiao tfio attack withgnt any teal ininry.
S58
THE INDIAN AGRIOlkiTUBIST.
July 2, IMS,
When, hewtvw, th« mildew appean at a later etOM in the leaf of
the wheat, the oon^^ni are eatirely ohonaed. The period of
active oMirailation of food le poet. The piaut noe laid up etorae of
food in various parti of its itruoture, oud the prooeeies of dowering
Wld fruiting, which use up these stoi*es, are proceeding. The
altered etaroh is being conveyed from t!ie cells, where it was tem¬
porarily located, to its final destination in the seed. The fungus
orresti it in its progress, and oouverta it to its own use. The wheat
is sot able to cope with the parasite as in the earlier stage of its
life when the fungus was present os rust. It cannot start agaiu
thpprooess of assimilating food, and cousec^usutly the seed is more
or leti imperfectly Ailed, in proportion to the time at which the
fungnt attacks the plant, and the extent of the attaolc.
^e sto^ of the fmigus susgeets important considerations to the
fanner. First, it is oertolu that the brown spores of the mildew
whioh rAnoln attached to the straw after harvest, are the means
by whloh the fnngns retains its vitality tbrongh the winter Con¬
verting the straw Into manure does not destroy the spores, but
n^er provides in ths spring the conditions fitted for their germina¬
tion, It may be recommouding a serious destruotion of property
to suggest tbs burning of mildewed straw, but fire is the only agent
tiiat ^lelTeotualty destroy the spores.
Then it should be noted that even the brown winter spore produced
by the mildew will be barmleu, unless the spores formed at the
Uw of its branches in the spring rest on the leaf of the barberry,
^s farmer should not permit the barberry to have a place in hU
hedge, or in plantations on his form.
Further, tut while nut may in Iteelf be injurious to the crop.
It is more dangerous at the earlier stage of the mildew, and as the
prodnoer of the crop of spores whioh produce mildow. The only
check to ^ rust Is a bright suu and a warm dry atmosphere.
Prom tire history of the fungus it is manifsst that at do stage
Is It under our control; and though we can take steps whioh may
prevent at different stages the uuuooessary inorease of the spores,
we must be boffied in any attempt to prevent the appearance of
the disease, whether In the rust or the mildew stage.
I have never observed any variety of wheat that has esoaped
mildew at a time and to a dletrlct where mildew was prevoleut.
SometiUnes one field may suffer less than another In the same district,
and at the harvest may yield a heavier aud better field-grain, but
this 1 have found to result from the time at which the field was
attacked W the disease, Some of the prepared food of the plant
may have been stored In the seed before the parasitic robber iuter-
fered with its transmission. An early field may conseqnently
snfier leia. But when the atmospheric oouditious have beeu pre¬
sent for ths germination of the spores, I have failed to detect any
■Ufferenoe in liability to blight, arising either from the variety of
the whwt, or from the method of oultivatiou,
SULPHITE WOOD PULP PHOCESSES.
T he oontrovemy on the wood pulp processes is likely to nocumu-
iate a considerable teohuioal literature of its own. 'I he Pajiitr
ZHiwtg has just reproduced in a free translation an artlole on the
iubjeot from a French paper-maker’s point of view, whioh appeared
in the Monitmr de la Paprterie Fmru;aise of the lat April, written
under the technical authority of M. K. Itourdiiliat, and eutitled
•‘Etude comparative sur lea piltus aux lilanlfitos." This article,
which contains muob that is iustructivo, may be iuterostiug to our
readers.
M. Uourdilliut tells us that sulphite pulp will very soon make a
revolutiou in the manufacture of paper-makiiig materials, aud will,
it U to be hoped, load us out of a dilemma into which we have fall¬
en through foreign competition. lie says ;—
The patents ou sulphite experience sinee 1866 are suliloicutly well
known, and there Is no difference from first to la-st between them ;
It is supurfittOtts to discuss their value. On the other hand, it may
be interesting to show the different stages of this uow industry, to
prove its advantages and disadvantages, iu fact, to show every-
thing which earnest htudv of the question iias taught us ; aud it is
importaut to know the different methods and improvements which
have boen made iu this chemical operation, aud wliicb by our oxpo-
rleuoo we have found to be effective.
rOKrAEATION Ot lUE SULYHITE.
The bi-sulphlto oompouuds may bo regarded iu the liglit of sul¬
phurous acid combluatious iu lolutiou, aud ore collootivoly more or
UtB Bolublo. \Ve will examine the bi-sulphito oompouuds which
have os yot been brought boforo our notice, viz., those of lime,
magnesia, and soda,
^phurous acid, whioh is the most important of oiir new loys,
oon be produoed in several ways. By burning sulpiuir iu contact
with air; also from iron pyrites, and from the calcination of the
mixture of sulphate of Iron with lime aud saw-dust, which has
bwu used, for purifying gas, coutaiuing about 4U per oeut of sul¬
phur.
The purest sulpUiirous acid is obtained by burning sulphur; that
fiiads from pyrites eoutaius sulphuric acid and arsenic. The purest
pyiltes coutaios from 45 to 4H per cent of sulphur, of which from
40 to 44 per cent oaii bo converted into sulphurous acid. In ornde
sulphur there is 95 per ceut of Mulpluir : so VOO kilogrammes of
pyrites is equal to 100 kUogiummoa of crude sulphur, Bulpharous
ooid drives off carbonic acid from its uombiuatlons, therefore
oon combine with the carlmnatos of Urns, magnesia, or soda, os well
os with the respeetlve bosas.
K-sulpbite of lime con be produced in large quantities by intro¬
ducing sutpburoua acid gas (obt^ned by one or other of the before-
mentlaued methods] Into the bottom oi towers 20 to 30 metres high,
in which UmMtOBc os it comes (rom the quarry is plied up; water
is allowed to trickle down from the top of the
smell streams i^oh is then conveyed Into rivers. Thesu p ur
ous acid must drive off the carbonic ooid the llnw btforeit
can combine with the latter, and the towers are built nigh t® pht-
pose to give sufficient time for this operation to take plooe.
ordinary lime, hr., burnt lime, could be u»?d
would take place much more rapidly, and a height of 6 to 8
would thou be auffioient; the water, however, falling on it would
slake it aud inorease its volume, and the oonsoqueaoo would be tnat
the tower would get blocked up, when the ooid would only pass
through with diffloulty, or not at oil. Tho some difficulty, only in
a worse form, would teko place with ohalk. .
As sulphurous acid is necessarily Impute tiirough oontaMng an-
phurlo aold, it results that some sulphate of lime is formed, whioh
la very difficult to dissolve, and, therefore, covers the Itoestone, so
that It impedes the sulpliuroiu add acting upon it. To got rid ^
this sulphate of lime it u necessary to wash the limestone from
time to timOi and in order at any time toatart working a irean tow-
er, several are built together with obannels oouneotlng them
through which the sulphurous add oou be introduced into any one
of them at pleasure. , . . ... „
The towers are built of brick or wood and lined out with 8 imm.
thlokness of sheet load, the joints of whioh must be iroted by
burntug. In addition to tho heavy cost of the towers there ore
drawbacks to ooutend with, viz. , irregular piling up of the lime-
etoue occurs iu the tower, os It has to be Introduosd at tho top, wd
thereby the passage of the eulphuroue odd is impeded. In
to preserve the lead liuiug and to avoid reptirs it is advisable to
wall over the inside of the towers with sllioious bridu, slmUor to
the “ Glover ” towers for oonosntrating suiphurlo add.
Bisulphite of lime could also be produoed without towers by
means of an apparatus oouveyiug the sulphurous acid gas into a
chamber filled with milk of lime. , un.
Bi-sulphite of magnesia la produoed in the some way as bi-siilpnlte
of lime, only with the difference that the maguesia is first odciued,
and tbe towers oaii, therefore, bo used of a height of from five to
six metres : as tho oarbonio add has been driven off by the burning
of the magnesite, tbe magnesia is in s proper condition to combine
very quiduy with the sulphurous add, ond os sulphate of n^-
noBia is much more soluble than sulphate of lime it Is much hotter
washed by the folliug water. • »i„
Bi sulphite of soda oon bo produoed direct by substituting o solu¬
tion of sods for the water lu the tower, which is packed with some
neutrol material sudi as coke or brides. Simple os this operation
is, it is not to be recommended ) It Is aotuslly cheaper to produce
bi-sulphito of lime aud to decompose thU with sulphite of soda.
From this is obtained soluble bi-sulphito of soda, which is used,
aud Insoluble sulpliato of lime results, wliidi still oontaming some
sulphite of limo can be used as antiohlor or for filling up. I ho
advantage in this last process consists in sulphate of soda costing
only six to savou franca per 100 kilos., bi’t soda costs twouty-one
to tweuty-tliree irauos.
Use of Bi-.soLPHtTE.
Tiio properties of sulphurous add can bo read up In any book on
chemistry. It is sufficient for us to know that Its solutions have
an eiiorgetio effect on extractive matter, aud that it affects the
colour of materials by abstrootiug acids from them or makes
colourless combluatious with tli6m,Tu whioh case one can doteot the
presence of sulphur. .Sulpburons add works as a reducer or add
extractor, whilst eoda ou tlio contrary dissolves the rosiuouil matter
attacking tlic fibre by oxulatiou, so that it is_ cvMUut that we can¬
not use Bulpliurous acid hy itself, but duly iu combination wltll a
base, and for tlio following reasous : —
1. For a obomical to act properly ou a material like wood, tho
latter should be sullidcutly soft aud spongy for tho ohoinioai to
tliorouglily poiietrate it. In order to effect this tlie wood is boiled
iu coutivot with the ley at a high temporaturo. Now tho solutious
of siilpliurous acid ai'o very nustablc, not only in ooutact witli tho
air but particularly allboted by a higli temperature, and cannot
therefore be kept instore for any length of time : the sulphurous
add iu solution would bo convertod in largo quantities into gas, and
the wood would bo only iu water, wiiile the gas would oolloot in the
upper portion of the boiler ; in addition to this sulphurous add at
00 dog. C. is a vapour.
2. Bulphurous acid does not attack gums and reslui so strongly
or vigorously that they can be washed out afterwords.
,3. Wo know by oxpovienoe that siilpliurous noid by Itoolf, oven
If it Buffldoutly decomposes the wood, gives it a reddish odour,
espoeUlly if it has combined with it in a gaseous form or with
steam. In presence of a baeo it is possible to prej^ro the loy
beforehand, whioh moderates the volatility of the sulphurous add
at a higher temperature aud hinders the formstiou of sulphuric
acid, aud also the colouring of the material under t^tamut.
According to the present estabUshed tlieoiy, whioh really lias to
do with tho deoxidation whioh ohemists ascribe to sulphurous aoid,
there ie produced during tho boiling large quantities of sulphuric
acid, which more or loss interfere with tho euergotio aotiou of the
bUulphito bases. Wo do not believe in thU roootiou, and tiiCTe-
fore ^roo with Lioud that If sulphurio add, and also aeoessarily
sulphates ot lime, magnesia, or soda are formed, ro those oombln-
atioiis would be found iu the ley, eipeolally if they are as soluble
^The^iysUo'f M. Joseph de Montgolfier, Assistant in Chemis¬
try at the College of Fvmioe, gave the foUowiag results as regards
there is not the slightest trace of sulphurio ooid oombln-
ationa, therefore, that no sulphario add is formed,
2 b?hat the fresh unused fey of bisulphite of soda ooutalns 180
grammes of sulphuront add per Utre, whereas after boliUg these
remains still IW gronmes. The diffennee expltins the IWj to a
July 2,1888.
THE INDIAK AGRICULTURIST.
259
oartadn extont^ wUob resalte from boiling; and, on tho other hand,
that a certain aowtity of the enlphnront acid remaiue In combin¬
ation with the tnomstationfl and reamou* matter in the wood, or in
the state of reduced anlphur: when the boiling is effeoted by direct
firing (without steam), there Is a greater loss. To prove this analy*
sis, sulphite pulp, which had Been prepared with bisulphite of
lime, wae burnt, and only contained 1 '6 per cent of ash, so could
not have contained any mineral matter.
The theory of the presence of sulphurlo acid is, no doubt, in-
correo^ as in the spent ley almost all the sulphurons acid is re¬
covered ; there must, therefore, be some other explanation of the
chemiaOl effeot prodnoed.
We must hero, however, mention that tho ley had been used to
boll 26 kilos of wood, and that it was produced from nearly pure
sulphurous aold. In manufacturing sulphurous acid on a large
scale from pyrites, sulphuris acid is always formed, oonsemiently
with the prodno^ blaulphlte, combinations of sulphate of lime,
mogneda, and soda will also be produced. Id such a case an
analysis of tho spent ley would show the presence of these com¬
binations with sulphuric nold, and a test would prove whether the
ley contained any before being used.
We are not credulous enouf^ to believe that we have arrived at
the true theory in the process of boUlng, for very oareful investl-
^tlons, which are beyond us, would bo required to prove this.
We only give our views on the subject that su^hurous acid separ¬
atee the exuractive matter of wood under the innnenoe of heat, and
bleaohee the oolonr in the material, whilst uncombined sulphur is
driven off, and that finally the resin, which is hardly attacked by
the sulphurous ooid, forms soapy compounds, more or lose soluble,
with the bosee of the bisulphites. It Is even possible that the sul¬
phur and the soaps may form gummy combinations which adhere
to the fibre, inoreasing its weight.
According to these foregoing remarks, especially to the olroum-
stanoe that no sulphuric acid is produced in tho boiling, it would
seem that It would suffice to use a boiler made of such metal as
would withstand the bisulphite combinations, and by the use of
such a metal dispense with the lead lining. Wo merely mention
this improvement in passing, as every experienced man will know
that not only tho oonstrnotion of the boiler would be facilitated,
but also the cost of retire reduced, the boiler nould last longer,
and a groat many difficultids which now appear to be In the way
would be removed. The sselal that would lAirhaps be best suited
would be a sort of copper, wiiich M. Lioud not long ago patented.
Kxperimente which are now In progress will put us in the position
of judging whether this metal Is fit for the purpose.
All manufacturers were astonished at tho immense yield
obtained by the sulphite process, as it was much larger tlian that
derived from tho soda process, aud eveu much greater than most
cellulose, whioli, according to ohomical analysis, is contained in
wood. This additional weight, however, is not obtained by tho
addition of mineral (load), which may be determined by analysis,
but is owing to the sulplmr and resinous combinations which burn
oQ' without leaving any residue.
CoMPSBISON BBTWKBK THE DlFFEBENTLY WoKKEb BISULPHITE
Pulps—Boilino, Ac., Ac.
We will now explain the respective syatems l>y which the
sulphite pu^ is produced, ru., by bisulphite of lime, mamosia,
oud soda. The sulphite of lime pulp, as it comes out of the boiler,
is hardly fit for better-class papers than news and ordinary
printing I if it isj:equired for hotter sorts it would be nooessary to
thoron^ly waan it, aud then bleach it, by whicii it would lose
according to M. Kndsol (NoT 47 of the Papier Zdtmig), 28 per cent.
We bod the opportunity of mentioning tliis to one of the most
important Swiss papor manufaoturors, and he confirmed tliat the ^
loss was considerable in washing and bleacliiug. j
We recommend manufacturers not to work largo quantities of J
sulphite pulp without having wosliod it beforohnud ono or two i
hours, as it contains sulphurous acid, wliiuti attacks tlie metal of
the eugiues, as the above-mentioned manufacturer has found out j
by experiouoB. The washing may be accelerated, and tho sul¬
phurous acid driven off, by adding muriatic acid. Tiie loss
which takes place lu tho washing is not fibre, l>ut tlie combiuatious
of sulphur, resin, and lime, wliich are sot free tlirough the action
of the roll, and it is this which is lost, being washed away by the
drum-washer.
The boiling process seems to be simple enough, and one has
only constantly to renew the inner lining of le^, which suffers
more from the expansion aud oontraotiou of th e Imller plate tlian
from the notion of the bisulphite or gases whicli are generated
during the process of working. Great importonee seems to be
attached to the lise of the boilers, as they are built 4 metres in |
diameter and meti'cs long. We cannot understand, iiowevcr, i
how the slue of the boiler affeots the boiling when the trials made |
ih an experimental boiler oontaiuing 25 kilom-ammes of wood did j
not vary in result from those done in a mauutacturiug boiler bold¬
ing 1,6W kilogronunos.
We will not dispute about the cost of production of sulpliito
of lime pulp as wo have not got the figures concerning keeping j
the holler in repair and duration of same, wliich really constitute j
a oonsidetable portion of the cost. Moreover, no ono in France }
has yet been able to eetimate the cost of produotion. j
Sulpbit* pulp made by tho magnesia process appears to be better j
suited for orunary and finer paper as it is cleaner, and contains
less heavy matter, it washes well, and the best rags do not bleach
better. We do not know whether this result ie owing to more
careful treatment of the wood, or whether it is owing to the use_ of
magnesia instead of lime, bat will merely state the facts which
explain the resnlts.
The Mler is Jacketted, and is heated by blind steam, so that
the Uf buM* daw oot MWma weaker (more dilate.) monvm.
os the ley Is used in a mwe oonoentrated form than In tho line
prcoosa, and the combLuatiou of enlphurous acid with magnesia la
less stable than with llmo, so the chemical effects must bo greater
in the same time and with the same temperatare. Wo may assume
that indirect heating from without is indispensable.
During tho process of boiling, the pressure in the boiler and in
the steam jacket varies a good deal. In the l^Ilor the tempera-
titre is more elevated, whtoh goes to prove that sulphurous add
in the gaseous form is given off, which, os before explained, takw
a higher tension than steam at the same temperatare. During the
boiling, care must he taken to let off constantly the superfluous
gas, so that tho pressure In tho boiler and the steam jacket does
not vary more than two atmospheres. If these precautions are
not taken, an over-prossnre might readily cause an explosion. The
method of boiling with biaulpliito ot magnesia with Indirect
heat is well founded. It will be noticed that snipbito pnlp pro¬
duced by this system contains charred portions, which goes to
{irove that some of tho wood which has not hesn covered by the
ey has been in contact with gaseous sulphurous acid. To connteroot
this, it is not sufficient to cover the wood in tho botlsr with a
perforated plate of lead in order to keep it Under liquor, os in
oonseqaenoo of the constant evaporation of the liquor the time
must come towards the end of the boiling when the wood Is not
entirely covered, aud as the boiler la stationary so necessarily this
part of the wood which will be uncovered is acted upon by the tt»M,
and becomes charred. One will now cumpreband that the boiling
with bisulpite of magnesia must be very carefully watched to
regulate the pressure and keep it even. It is necessary to have
two men constantly iu attendance, os It would be do^erous to
trust to one man on account of the abundant amount of gas given
off, and the oousequent smell. It is not difficult to detect imper¬
fections In the lead Uuing In tho boilers daring both prooeasss.
Magnesia pulp is more exxienaive to produce than lime pnlp ; lew
on aooonnt of calcined magnesia being more expensive than Qmo os
on account of the loss through washing and bleaching—this may
be the case, but we are not fnlly Informed thereon. It may bs
assumed that sulphurous acid is ^ven off in both processes in the
same way.
Tho additional price of 7 to 8 fraucs per 100 kilos of the magne¬
sia over the lime pulp, may to a great extent be due to its being
of a better quality.
Soda Sulphite Pulp.—Wo have already explained above how
bisulphite of soda is produced, but have no practical experience In
the matter which would be of any value, rt the equivalent vslne
of the pulp. Tho first manufactory which will be worked on this
system is now being built, and we iffiall be able to learn the result i
wo have oonoluded that the ley has a similar effeot to that of the
magnesia, and that it is in any cose better thou that ot tbs
lime.
At first direct steam is employed for the boiling, and afterwards
boiliug is effected through a serpsutine pipe (PateutKudelski).
For boiliug a revolving boiler is used ; by tbis the charring of the
fibre is avoided, and the process aooolorated. The whole arrange¬
ments of tliis process aptwor to deserve the attention of mauufac-
tnrors, but we will reserve our opinion upon it until it proves
Itself to bo practical.
We will conclude by putting together a few facts which appear
to us correct:—
1.—Lime sulphite pulp will be used for new and common print¬
ing papers, or to all sorts ot paper wiiloh will not necessitate tho
washing and bleaching of tiiu pulp,
2,—Magnesia and sulphite of soda pulps will, on oooount of their
cost of produotion, ho used only for bettor and finer sorts of paper.
3.—It appears clear that copper, bronze, or some other metal,
wliich will resist the action of too sulphurous acid, must take the
place of the steel-plated boilers lined with lead.
4.—That the towers, which, on account of being 90 feet high,
cost at least 90,000 francs, will be superseded by a less costly
arrangement.
5.—For cleaning tlie boiled pulp, similar strainers to those used
for removing tho knots aud unljoilod portions of straw will be used,
by which moons the pulp would be cleaner and freer from sheaves.
THE “ GERM THEORY” OP SILKWORM
DISEASE.
Iff 1866 the weight of the ailk-oocoons produced iu Franoe
was 8,000,000 lb, Barge os this amount seems, wo may bo
able to discover the enormous falling off which the 1866 crop exhi¬
bited, wlion wc learn that in 1833 the weight of silk produced was
62,000,000 lb. In a single year—that of 1865—the foil produced
a loss of 100 mUliona uf francs. In 1853 tho rrreiitui was 130
inilUous of fraucs ; and wu also learn tliat in tho twenty yean
prior to 1853 the revomie from silk culture had donliled itself.
Thu vast and uverwliclming nature of tlie oatastropbe, which
thus threatened tlie oommormal prosperity of Prance, can be fairly
judged from tho foroguiug figures. During a period of fifteen
yearn the silkworms (or catorpillara of the silk-moth), had died
off by thousanils, smitten by a disease which appeared mysteriotte
alike in its origin aud In its spread, Ko such calamity con befall
any nation without attempts being made to stay the progress of
the disease. As m the case uf the existent vine-diseaae, remedies
were proposed by the score. One author, writing in 1860,
remarks that the miUfi'M mediea of the silkworm is now as
complex as that of man. Oases, liquids, and solids have been laid
nader ooMtribiitiei). ffrem ^oriM to sB tpkk aaM Mid, itoia aitrta
2fl0 THE nmU-N Aj&EItJf J.ily
tetd to runi. frooi augw to aulpliate of ijuiiUno—all havo been
inro^ed on belmli ot this unhappy luscot,'’
to taoh a pasJ had matters come in ]fj63t that the Minister of
Agtloattnre. as Mprasentlng the French Qovornment, stj^nedan
agreement, binding himself to pay 600,000 franca to the happy
dtacoyerer of a remedy which waa aaid to be anooeeaful in arreatiug
the diatsae. the remedy waa triad, but without auoceaa. Iteaa
at ,thtB juiiotnro, hi June 1S63, that Faateur appeared, prepared
to ufldettahc a thorough and acionttfic tuvaaUgatiou into the
myatoripua plague whion, ao far, had ravaged the inaect tribe
uDcheolied and at will.
Prior to the appearanoe of the dread diaorder—which, by the
way, waa hnotrn aa peMnt~it waa noted that an affeotlon named
mwitardUu had attabked tbe ailkworma. One Boaal bad abowu
that the “ mnaoardme ” waa undoubtedly oauaed by the growth
within the allkwormt, of a '.minute paraaitio plant. In due time,
th^ae dlaeaM-iilaata gave origin to their mlcroacopie “ aporea,” or
aeedt. The aporea, oonveyed by the wind, carrind the aiaeaae to
regions in wh(oh ft had been unknown. " Pebrine,” however, was
a far more fatal malady ,than " muaeardine.” The former caused
blaok apota to appear on the bodies of the worms, and from thla
fact the name of the affection was derived. It affects the growth
and nutiitiou of tha little aplnuera of tbe silken tlireaa, and
finally oausoa their death. Doubtleaa the prior disoovory of the
paraaitio and plant-nature of "muaoardine” aaaiated Pasteur
somewhat In hie aearoh after the cause of the “ pebrine” ; and be
wga aimeil likewlae with other items regarding the nature of this
plague, wbioh proved useful in guiding hie footsteps towards its
true spat and origin. So early aa 1849, ourioua rounded bodies,
ah .-wing apparently independent movements, were known to ocour
in'.tho nlood of the silkworms. These '* oorpnacles ” multiplied
in the inasot’i body, and, undoubtedly, aa waa proved by Cornalla,
oauaed the diaegee of the insect. Later on, those myatorions
" oorptuioles " were seen to Inhabit even tbe eggs laid by the
ailklnotbi, and from which new silkworms spring. The egg was
thus apparently inteoted from the parent, and in turn, the infoo-
tion, of course, grew with the silkworm, and thus became a
hereditary oompkint, propagated from parent to offspring,
A silkworm enSeriim from disease of this nature, seoms to be
af(egted in every pm of He frame. The''corpuscles" literally
reign over its body. When the diseased iuaoot begins to “ spin ’’
its attainpta are in vain, for the silk glands, instead of providing
the flnid material, as In health, are filled with the corpusoles.
deplete dleorganiaation of the structure and life functions of the
unhappy i&eeot prevaili, and it ultimately dies, vanquished by
the niaaen anemtee th«t have thus multiplied in its blood.
Taiteur, at the outset of bla discoverlea, drew attention to one
voty Important point. The corpusotes, ho saw, were small, and
oomparatively undsveiopod iu tbe egg. In the young worm oven
they might escape notloe. Bat with the luaect’s growth its “ un¬
bidden gueeta”aIao increase In number and alee ; while, lastly, in
the ohryasUa, and in the full-grown moth Itself, the corpuscles are
large and readily seen. Henoe appeared clearly enough the reason
why the old methods of teeting the eggs waa fallacloua and
untrustworthy. The egg might apparently be healthy, and yet
contain the germs of the disease fully represented In its consti¬
tution. But it is different with the moth. ^ naislug the egg,
the diseaae waa liable also to be overlooked. By beginning with
the diseased parents, or moth, in which tho presenoc of tho
oorpuaelea could be fuily traced, no ditfiouUy was experienoed in
pronounoing an opinion regarding the probability of the disease
being reproduced.
Like all reformers Pasteur experienced great difficulty lu
persuading tbe aUk-growora to aooept his diota. They Ignored tho
fact that a fine-looking cocoon might harbour a dlsoasod moth.
The egg, as we have seen, gave no bint or prophecy of wliat tlie
moth might become ; and aa often aa not, tlie diseased eggs, cbosen
by tlie growers, produced bad moths. So convinced was Pasteur
of the surety which lay in taking tlio moth as the fulcrum upon
which to move tbe lever of thought and research, that in 18GU after
tn^peoting fourteen parcels of eggs which had been selected for
batching, he wrote and deposited in a sealed packet his view of
tbe promble Teaults which would follow tho development of the
eggs. In 1867, the growere told their story. Paetour’s letter
waa then opened, and his prediction was ao far verified that iu
twelve out of fourteen oases the results agreed exactly with his
views. He had said in his letter that many of the worms would
perish completely, whilst othei-s hod woll-uigh been oxtiuguished
by the disease, and the result was as he had predicted. Bad the
moths of 1866, from which the ops liad been taken, been iuspect-
ed, as Pasteur advised, none of the fourtoon packets of eggs would
^v« been allowed to undergo development. Two packets of eggs
ha prononnoed In 1866 to be sound, and born of healthy moths.
These paokata bore healthy caterpillars and thus iu a reverie way
verified tho correctness of his viowa.
The result of Pesteur’a labours In connection with peMiie may
be predicted from the foregoing acoount. By rearing liealtby
eggs, and by the doatrnotion of all nuhealthy and diseased
motiia and worms, Pasteur restored to France the wcll-nigti
ruined iodnatry of the silk-growers. Ue elaborated his methods
to such an extent and perfection, that he was enabled almost
to predict the exact extent to which tiio disease would prevail
in a ^ven case. He showed that infection was oonvvyod by the
wounds wbioh the WOtme infiicted on one another with (heir claws.
He proved the infaotiona nature of tho disease by infecting a
mnlberry leaf with tbe dkeoaed matter, and by showing that tho
healthy womu which Jiad hut once thereon, in due time
became dlaeaied. He damcnatrated that only by destruction
and isolation of affected wotme oonld the dleeaee be stamped out,
tnl A Slew and healthy braed aecnred. In a wovdi Paatenr
rtwwyd that mbsiaa v;ie o ae to a plwst-gtowtb tad ptopaga*
OINCHONA.
CINCHONA CALISATA
A t the meeting of tho Linntean Boolety, on Thui;w!lay, tbe 3rd
nltimo, a valuable and intereetiog paper waa read Vi- d-
Elliot Howard, F.L.S,, the well known quinologiet upon Cinchona
“ Caliaaya, var. Ledgeriam^ How., and 0, Ijtigadano,^ Moena,”
and in ihuetration of hU remarke there was a magnificent diqjlay
of Cinchona plants, bark, seeds, dried speolmens, Ao., broni^t to¬
gether by Mr. J. Elliot Howard bimsnU and by Mr. HSionaa
Christy, F.L.S., and Ihe keenest Intereet waa taken in tbeee by -the
niemboreof tho aoclety present.
Mr. Howard commenoed bis paper by reealilag the fact that in
1866 he hadt io a paper before tbe Botanical Oongreee, quoted Mr.
Markham’s statement that at though tha Cinchona Calleaya not only
wae the most famoue of ail tbe S. American bark trees, and in Its
native foreaU the moat beautiful in appearance and the rloheat in
quinine, it had not proved a euocaaa in India. Mr. Markham de¬
plored the stunted, ehrubby appearaaoeof the trees growing In
India three or for years old, with a height of leas than 6 feet, and
6 inches girth ; " aa different aa passible,” he said, “ from the
glorious Callsaya of tho Caravaya.”
At tbe time Mr. Howard ventured to express a hope that, nover-
tholeu, the time would oomo when Calleaya must, in India, assume
its rightful position as tho queen of all qainiuo-growing species,
and this hope, he said, had been now realized by the introduction
of mixed seeds of the very best kinds of Caliiaya by Mr. Ledger,
a service very ill requited by the Hutch Government.
In the Journal of Botany, of November, 1881, Dr. Trlmen pub-
lisbed an account of a cinchona whfch he called OaXioaya
Lr.dgeriana, Moons, being a tree that had been found growing on
estates in Ceylon, five or eix years old, tho obaractet of which was
not known until Mr. Moens’s visit to the island lu 1880, when be
pointed them out as Ledgerianas, and Dr. Trimen thereupon gave
them the name of C. Ledgeriana, Moens, but, os Mr. Howard
showed, they realised tbe description given by Markham of the
Indian Caliaaya as stunted and shrubby, and prematurely
decayed.
There was nothing, however, to show that these trees had been
raised from seeds brought by Mr. Ledger, and in fact their iden.
tifleation rested upon tbe botanical accuracy of Mr. Moene’s
dosoriptiou,
Mr. Howard seemed inclined to believe that the plant figured
and described by Dr. Trimen is the male form of Cinchona Jlfic-
rontha, var. Oodioayoides, the female plant of which is figured in
Curtis's " Botanical Magazine” os 0. Oal^aga, vkr. JotepMmut, by
Sir J. D. Hooker. It also bears some resemblance to the plant des-
nibed by Howord as 0, Forbesiana,
Mr. Howard was emphatic in his opinion that this Uiorantha
variety ought to be avoided in cultivation, and he mentioned that
lie was more free to indicate tho mistake committed by others, be¬
cause ho himself bad been deceived into growing and distributing
as “ true Lodgerioua” seeds forwarded to him as such by Mr. Moans
as Ledgeriam, but wlilcli turned out to be nothing of the sort, as
was fully proved when he cut down one of the trees and analysed
the bark, coiupariug it also with bark sent to him from Jamaica
grown from the same seed. He had been misled by tbe name
fjtdgcriana attached to the £.1. seed which bo raised, and was
now sensible that the “ Miorantha like aepeot” of tlio treee noticed
by his Indian frionde more correctly Indicated their true
character.
It was evident, Mr. Howard continued, that none of the low
varieties of Calisaya would repay cultivation, and that no relianea
con be placed on any dascriprion unaccompanied by careful observ-
atiou.
He called attention to some plants on the table, grown from seeds
'om the Yarrow estate, Ceylon, os taken from trees that yielded
7 to 12 per cent, of quinine, and he pointed out tbe rich velvety
appoarance of the leaves that is so highly oharacterlitio of tbe
glorious Calisaya of tbe American forests.
With the exception of Mr. Ledger, no one had received from
South Amorica true Calisaya seeds except Mr, T. Christy, who had
contributed a valuable coUeotlon of apeoimens grown from this
seed, Mr. Howard explained how he had planted seeds given to
him by Mr. Christy, at tbe same time with those reo^vqd fran
Ceylon, sod thsy grew npsida by side, evMintty ooning boa Mw
(NWWatookfMit'Mr, (Ms^'asMAiniiMMittMr mf fifmm
261
THE INDlV^ AGRIdlJLTUBIST.
JtUy ?, Jflsa-
•n^ |)Mir«d41it6wt)]r the tvo vairttiei ot Oatita^ Verdt mi O,
J^ora^,
When Isdgtt'a Med* were in tbU ooantry, be (Mr, EowMd
WM QCiaialtwl byMr. Money regarding them, end gere a favonr-
able judgment from tbe appearanae ol tbe oapenieii aa being
of tbe Mierowrpa variety ol Calieaya.
Dr. WeddoU’e JKieraoarpa differ*, bowever, from I/td^triatta in
tbe oharaoter of tbe under aurfaoe on the leave*, but Dr, Weddel^
gave bim ipeoimen* of CalUaya bark* obtained in hla eeoond
journey, wblob oloeely reeembled tbe Verde and Moradaof Mr
Obriety,
Nothing can be more ImportHit for the olaaelfloation of Oinohona
than a oloee examination of the barks (said Mr, Howard), and be
banded round branohe* ol both O, Oalitaga var, of Ledgtrianai
How., and of. tbe 0, Ltdgfiiana, Moeni, to abow tbs differenoe
between them, whiohi wa*, in fact, very marked.
Ho then went on to quote from Mr. Van Qorkom’* recent book
to the effeot that in Java the 1/edgtriama were easily rooognised by
tbe peonllar nnUonnity of their bark and tbe small white flowers,
and he said that in that island great care was taken to preserve
the best trees, whereas in India he was afraid many of the
best trees of SucdnAta Officinalis bad already been out
down,
Mr. Howard then went into tbe question of hybridisation, and
remarked that there had been more imagination than fast Intro¬
duced into this controversy, fl* lamented the great loss to solenoe
in tbe early death of Mr, Mclvor, who had gone into the matter
orltioaUy, He had received from him carefully selected speoimeus
of hybrids, but they did not snfHoe in his opinion to establish any
theory. He would not deny hybridisation, but ho thought it was
very local, and quoted letters from Mr. Lodger to the effeot that
whilst trees on the outer fringe of tbe plantations deteriorated,
those in the Inside continued to give tbe best quality of bark, and
though differences still appeared in their foliage at the time of
flowering, they were visited By thousands of humming-birds and
bee*.
He stated that the wrong species bad beeen onltivated fu India
and Ceylon, tbe Sucoimlra having there taken the place of the
superior Callsaya, tbe Succirubra being inferior for both pbarnia-
ecutioal and manufacturing purposes.
Mr. Howard exhibited a bark which had been sent to him by
Mr, Mulvar that had boon taken from a tree raised from seed
sent out to India, and in whiob owing to cultivation, the produce
of quinine bad increased in about fourfold ratio. In Mr. How¬
ard’s opinion it Is not unlikely the same result may occur with
X,edgcrlaua.
Mr. X, Christy said “ that specimens of Cinchona had been
sent to bim from Bolivia by a botanist who bad been in his
employ bgre for some time, and for whom ho had obtaiuod
an appointment witli a geutluinan leaving for La I’ar, tins owuer of
large plantations. Mr. Christy Impressed upon him, before ho
wont out, the extreme Importaiiee of gutlioriiig the flowers, leaves,
and the seed pods of all the varieties of Ciuohou;is cultivated ou
the plautatious, and that gave the best results, and ho had very
fairly followed out these wishes. Mr. Uluisty then drew attou-
tion to tliP, dried specimens of the various varieties which were
placed before tbe meetiug, aud ackuowlcdgud the groat asaiatanco
he has received from Mr. Howard in classifying these plants, and ho
said the result was, that after a groat many Icttois pa.ssiiig, and
a great amount ot inform.ttiou br'ing thus diffused, that planters
in Bolivia had found that it was to their advantage to grow tbg
Oulisagu verde, a very large tree, aud which they f ouud answered
their purpose the best of auy. It did not yield quite aa much
quinine os the C. iforada,hat the growth was much more rapid
and the yield of the bark waa vary much greater. Taking into
acoountthe twenty days’mule journey which this extra quantity
bark bad to support, it still paid batter to oultivate than the richer
variety of Oalisaga morada, on account of the larger yield. To
show the value of such a Society as the Linusean, and of being
able to compare living apeoimens,” Mr, Christy eoutinuod, •'since
oomlng into the room, one of the plants hero had be eu resogniaed
by Mr. Howard and Mr. K. M. Holmes os idoutioal with the
■peeimeus of bark sent homo and named Bubravinada." Mr.
Howard had informed him that the plant was raised from the seed
he (Mr. Chilkty) had sent him. He had been able to idoutify this
plant of Oaliaaga Rubravetutda with the dried specimens by the
appeantuoe of its foliage and marking.
Another fact wanted ventilating, and that was that they had
tried in every way to explain to friends iu Bolivia, who are on the
plantations, that what was particularly wanted wa* the Calisaya
known here snder the name of Ledgtriana, It was explained
thoroughly that what was wanted was the variety with the
red stem* and red leaves oaUad Boja by the natlvs*. Tbty re-
pUsd, seed specially marked had been feat home asvetai times,
and different journeys were made to tbe mountains for specimens,
but that they really could not And tree# with this peodliar red
marking.
Mr, Howard, when reading his paper, renutrkad thgt he noticed
that the leaves turned red at a certain time of year. -
Mr, Christy remarked It was ourhms that only that morning he
had taken from a Caliaaya plant in his hot-house a bright red leaf,
which he thought was dead or diseased. If he had br(>^gbt it,, it
would have been seen at onoe that it was of a brighter crimson than'
on any other plant pro^noed. There was no doubt that the leave*
did change colour at certain time* of the year.
They seemed to notice out fu Bolivia that the Ga^lsaya Momda.
seed was thinner and n ore pointed than the 0. Verde.
On looking at the dried specimens Mr. Howard remarked to Jfr.
Christy that a change was fast taking place In the dlstlnotive mark*
and shape of tlis leaf; some leaves wer* getlng quite pointed,
like 0. Morada, and in the Bolivia dried speclmeua. they oallsd
them lanceolate shaped, toa,, Ac.
Mr. Christy said he had brought with him the Cnlisaga Zedgeri-
ana obtained from seed sent from Java, and it agreed pretty nearly
with tbe plants brought there that evening, ris,, those of the
Calitaga rerde. Mr. Howard's eonoluslons were, it seemed to
him, that the true Zedferiana giving 7 to 12 per oent of quinine
agreed exactly with the plant* raised from Bolivian seed. Again
the cinchona planters agree with Mr. Howard lu stating tlift the
only vaiiotie* worth growing is the Calisaya, aud they ssleot the
Callsaya verde as giving them the best return for their capital
sxpended.
Mr. E, M. Holmes asked if Mr. Howard had seen Dr. Trlmsn’a
recent paper in the Jonrmlof MoUnm for May 1883, in whloh Dr.
Trlmen stated that there are no ZedgerUma% in the ^t which have
not descended from Ledger seed. If he understood Mr. Howard
rightly there were several forma passing under tbe nemf , of jr
Lfdyeria»« which were not the true plant, but that^am^ pf the
plants raised from Mr. Ciirlsty's seed were ideutiool with the tn»a
Lelgci-iana, aud that these were distinguished by the velvety gloss
and the oiliated margin ot the leaves. He could now understand
how it was that the Bolivian planters did not reooguisis tlie rq/a
variety because it was obvious that the colour was only temporary,
Mr. Christy’s seed, judging from the plants exhibited, evidently
Inoludss not only the true Ledgtriana but also the Morada aud
several forms of the Verde, such as the livlrravenada and
Albovenada,
Mr. Howar-d replied that ho had not seen the article alluded
Mr. Howard made a few remarks In reply, but os wo were
unable to decipher, satisfactorily, the notes of those made by
us at the mooting, we voutiired to ask Mr. Howard to trausoribe
thcjii himself, aud ho has very kindly favored us with the
fuUuvi iDg ; —
My rovciw of tho whole auhjoot is briefly as follows ;_T)r.
Trimeu and Mr. Moons, wiahiug to dcserihu (as ft uow sp'eoios)
the very BuuiQ Zedgeriauatveos, of whiohi had glveu descriptiou
and oualysos of the bark, witli plates drawn and colored by our
most able artist, aud whioU 1 had tlius published as a variety
of Ciuchoua C'allsoya, took for typical speoimou of tho same a
tree found iu Ceylon, derived apparently from teed glveu by
Mr. Melvor, ol uucertaiu origin. I thiuk it will be evident
to any botanist comparing tbe plates and description, that they
differ very widely, and on Mr. Moons’ own authority I claim that
min* alone are authentic. I believe tho tree figured as C
Ledyeriuiui, Moeng, to be no Calisaya at all, but either a true
species standing Intermediate between Calisaya and Miorantha
or a mere variety of Micrautha. Compaiison of plants manifest
this still moie closely, and also shows the very close resemblance
between tbe Ledgeriana and the Morada and Verde varieties
of Calisaya, all perhaps standing under the var. Microcarjra of
Weddell. The real Ledgeriana Is not the Verde, nor the Moratla,
but that which is known iu its native habitat as tho roja or red,
from the leaves turning a bright red (under oircumstonoes), os
noticed by Mr. Ledger lu Bolivia, and by Mr. Christy mid
myself iu our authentic plants. The loaves of these seem to m*
more sensitive both to tbe tufloenoe of light and tunpetaturo
than the others named. The roJa seems to be a more delimte
tree tlian the Vers/e, and is (perhaps oonsecjusntly) not leundin
patches, but isolated ; neither ha* it es yet been cultivated, I
haveaotiosd various points ol difference, from .the Rttuia-Zed-
geruma of Xrimen wbioh would no doubt is iwrt dlNqipsar,
262
THE INDIAN AGRIOdDTHBIST,
July 2,1888
thioagli the rough lufluenoe of ollmato and weather ; but the
glorloue Oatieaya ot the ^BoUrlan foreit osimot pennaaently be
confounded with the micraMkcid variety wlMi wbioh it hae been
enpposed identlaal. The bark alone, ae uotioed by hir. Yon
Oorhom, i* a euffloient dUtinotion .—Ciylon Oitervei'.
CINCHONA CirLTIVATION : ITS FINANCIAL
ASPECTS,
A FLAKTBB, 8 , % AYynaad, wrttee There hae, within the
laet three yeare, been quite a rage for olnohona planUng. Every¬
one hae taken to planting olnohonai, to a great or leu extent ; and
we all have, or have had bopu of making fortnnee out ot the bark,
and being able, notwithstanding the fickleness of our old love of
coffee, to retire, some of us, after many years of exile, to England,
and those home comforts which memory paints for ns in the
brightest hues.
The olnohona mania has some raison d'ilre. Money has un¬
doubtedly been made, and is now being made, from cinchona ; and
estimates, drawn up by authorities on the subject, show us what
handsome profits are still likely in their opinion to be derived from
the oultlvation. But, looking at the rapid extension which has
been made In olnohona oultlvation ot late, the question naturally
arises, will the demand for, and consumption of, the bark keep up
with the supply, so as to insure paying prices some years hence,
when treesjDDW being planted will have reached the producing
stage T FhUanthroplsts may rejoios when “ the bitter blessiug” is
brought within reaoh of the poorest in the laud ; it will bo well for
the world ganei^ly ; but will it be altogether satisfactory for the
individual planter ? Though be has his fair share of the milk
(unadulterated) of human klndneu ; it was not philanthropy alone
which induced the planter to spend his but years in fostering the
fever-slayer j cela ta tans dire. Neither was it revenge on the
malignant godden. Malaria, for a shattered constitution.
I ealottlate that there are now growing inFykara, Noddlwattnm,
Ouohterlony Valley, and 8- B. Wynaad, 6,000,000 olnohona plants;
10,000,000 may bo put down for North and South Wynaad,
Ootaoamund, Coonoor, Kotagerl, Kartary, Koondabs, to,, giving
a total ol 16,000,000 plants for the Wynaad and Nilglris, Wo
have besides Mysore, Coorg, Travanoore, and other districts in
Southern India, and Sikbim and Darjeeling in the North, whore
cinchonas, have been extensively planted ; and 1 do not think 1
would be far wrong iu putting down another 15,000,000 as the
number of plants now growing in these parts ; giving, witli the
oultlvation In Wynaad and NUgirls, a total of 30,000,000 plants
for the whole of British India. Daring the next two planting
seasons, 1888 end 1834,1 believe a larger number of oiiiohonas will
bo planted out than In any provions years ; and by the year 1890,
there will be in British India not less than 40,000,000 cinchona
trees (yellow, crown, M>d red baiksjnone of them less than 6 yeai-s
old, with an annual producing power, allowing ill) per tree, of
10,000,0001b of bark, that U to say, more tliau half tlie amount of
the present average annual outturn of bark in South America, from
all Bouroes, Then, tiiere are Ceylon, Java, Jamaica, Mexico, and
other countries whlcli have gone, and are still going, in largely for
this oultlvation j and though it lias been reported that the Sontli
American olnohona forests, owing to the wholesale harvesting, are
rapidly decreasing, it is difficult to get reliable information on the
Bubjeot, and it seems nnlikely that Soutli America will cease to be
a large produoer ol bark for several years to come. 1 do not think
It would 1» too much to pnt down the production of bark, in 1890,
yi countries other than British India, at 40,000,000#), which would
bring the whole world’s production to the grand total of 50,000,000fb
, n""»l ly ; or, as far as I have means of looming, more than doable
tbs pcpsent tmnual consumption, and, even allowing for a large
yearly increase in the demand for bark, far more than is likely to
bo required to supply the world’s wants at that date.
At the present time, inferior bark (twig and branch) is not worth
shipping J being “ a drug” In tlio market the druggists will have
none of it j and if the German brewers want to make use of it in¬
stead of btq^ for their beer, one would naturally suppose that
they would be -wllUng to give for it what would at least pay the
grower for the freight and charges, especially this year when the
supply of hops was reported to be short. It remains to be seen whe¬
ther the price of a graattieal of our stem bark will not, within the
next few years, fall to a point at whVk it will barely pay us to
grow it. There is scope fer tile extension of the cousumptinn of
quinine of course, but It is not unlimited scope. Tboee oountrloa
lavottied with cheap labcur, andsoitable sffil and oUmats, may be able
todvirsitir'prtdltsfroin ctnohoQM for some years to come i and
amongst oinokona growers, fat who is most oatstnl In the seleclifob
of his seed, and gets a stroag.growing variety with rich back’to
fiourish on bis land, will be beUer off than others. Bnt to those
who may contemplate going In for olnohona onltivatioa, I would
point out that the grand results talked of as having been obtained
and being now obtained by some in this branch of agrionlture may,
as far as they arc concerned, be relegated to the limbo of past
poBsibilitios.
THE GARDEN.
CINERARIAS BY CUTTINGS OR OFFSETS.
T he cineraria, ae is well known, is so apt to vary whan raised
from seed, that no two plants in a thousand can be relied npem
to turn out to be exactly alike. Yet one often meeti with a sort
among a batch of seedlings that it would be desirable to perpetuate,
Bnt os this oannot be done by means of seed sowing, the grower
must adopt the only known metliod of propagating the characteris-
tlos of any particular sort of this or any other kind of plant which
has the same peculiarity of varying from seed ; tliat is, by means
of cuttings or oiisets. The difference between a cutting and an
offket is that the former is a shoot or piece of growth without roots,
while the latter is a shoot with roots more or less, and always to
be found proceeding directly from the underground rootstouk of
plants of the same charaoter of growth as the cineraria. True, out-
tings are not often to be had from our present subject; but If rightly
treated, the plants will throw large numbers of offsets. When it is
intended to increase the number of any desirable variety in this
way, lot the stems bo out over close to'the ground when they have
finished flowering. Water sparingly till they start into growth,
and keep them in partial shade, in suoh a pciition as that they will
not be exposed to the bright rays of the midday sun, but may have
the sun morning and evening. The best place for them is a spot
behind a wall facing north, not overhung by trees, but protected
from the meridiau heat and light only by the wail. They should
not be placed here till all danger of frost is past, or if they are,
means must be taken to protect them at night. They succeed best
when planted out; iiiileod, they sliould not ba kept iu their pots,
because they will not freely form tlie offslioots that are wanted ex¬
cept tiiey have ample room to ramblo au.l push their roots in. Nev¬
er allow them to become dry, but see also tliat the drainage is sncIi
hat they oannot possibly bouome stagnated with moisture. The
compost must be light, rich, and open ; the best that can bo made
is composed of light fibrous loam, old, well-rotted stable manure,
and leaf mould, along with plenty of sand to add to the porousness
of tlie mass. The offshoots may bo taken off when they have at¬
tained suoh size as that they may be liaudloJ freely. They should
ho removed witli a sharp kuife, after clearing the soil away fro in
them witli a blunt-pointed stick, i’ot tliom in the same charaoter
jf compost a>s that already described for planting the parent plants
11. Lot tile pots be small thumbs, and place them when potted iu
a close frame, whioli must be kept close and shaded for a week,
after wliicli they may be gradually inured to air and light, but the
latter they sliould have only in the morning and afternoon till well
on to autumn, when tlicy will do without shade. After the plants
are well rooted they may be potted into pots a size larger than those
they Verc put in to strike root, and in every way afterwards they
require the same treatment as seedling plants,
I.'OLYANTUUSKS.
These are very deservedly increasing In popularity. They
are found to be amoug the most beautiful and free flower¬
ing of spring flowers. We are speaklug of the fins stroios
of sorts that may now be obtained from seeds—not the higb-olass
but more diifioult to manage kinds, as florists’ flowers. These lat¬
ter are not of muoh use for mere decorative purposes, but the former
arc beoomiug indispensable to flswer gardeners, and to all who wish
to have a long period of beautiful floral display In their gardens.
When they have finished flowering, all the flower stems should be
cutaway, except those wbioh may be wished to bear seed, Only
the very boat sorts should be kept lor the purpose of sesdc«vtug j
those with the most clearly defined colours, the largest and best
formed flowers, and which also possess good substance, only a,re
considered the best. Another point to be regarded as strongly
desirable is the strength of the flower stems ; If they are weak the
flowers never show up to advantage, therefore , it la desiraUs that
the seed'kearing parent should have stou,t stems, papaWp of
July 2, IS 83.
THE INDtLN AGRIOULTUBIST.
263
bMring iwAVjr liMd* of flowers erect. After they sre done flowerings
the ptwts swnld be. moved to It somewhat shady poeitioni where
they wil) b« exposed only to the morning and afternoon or evening
sun. Strong sunlight soorches the plants and weakens them, om
they die from sheer exhanstion when fully exposed to the sun's
meridian ray*> They may be divided before being planted in their
new quarters, and should bo woU watered tiU they establish
themselves.
MINERALOGY.
IRON ORES.
On Iron Ores, end Subsidiary Materials/ ot' the Manufacture oi
from i» the North-Bastem yart of the Jubbnlpore Olstriot j
F. a. Mstisr, F.G.S., OcologicM Surety qf India.
FaOM'time immemorial the Jubbulpore district has held an Impor
tant plaoe amonMt those centres where the smoltiog of iron has
been canried on in the native method. Plentiful ores, extensive
jungles for the supply of charoosl, and proximity to thickly popula¬
ted i^uvlal tracts of oonntrv, combined to give Jubbulpore a com¬
manding position in the olu days before railways hod brought the
native hearths into an unequal struggle with the blast furuaoes of
England. Even now iron u made on what, from the native point
of view, must be considered a large scale, numerons furnaoes boing
scattered over the iron-beariug portions of the district
The advantageous central position of Jubbulpore, now that It is in
railway communioation witli the richest parts of the surrounding
provinces, is too great to have escaped notice with reference to the
manufoo^re of iron on European principles. As far as was known,
oros and flux were to be had in abundance, and the means for
distributing the manufactured iron to the surrounding markets was
at hand. But the often-exporienoed difficulty of keepiug large
furuaoes in blast with charcoal, and the abseuoo of any available
coal, were a deterrent to any deolsive action.
Within the last year or two, however, the disoovery of workable
coal by Mr. T. W. H. Hughes, in the immediate neighbourhood
of the Jubbulpore district, has given the question a new aspect. A
line of railway from the now-coal-iiela at Umoria to Murwara
(Katnl]), on the East ludiai^ lino, has been proposed, and the
preliminary surveys already executed.
The question of fuel, then, being in .a fair way towards a satis-
actory solution, it became important to ascertain whether the
fenorally reoelved opiulou as to the abundance aud oxocllence of the
ubinilporc ores was fully borne out by fact, I was coiisoquontiy
directou, in the early part of this year, to visit tho more important
places where iron was known to occur, with a view to forming an
opinion os to tho extent of the deposits, and the feasibility of
working them, and to collect samples for subsequent aualysis.
The question of flux and other subsidiary materials was also to be
looked into. The following paper, tlieu, embodies tho results of
my work in the flold and laboi-atory,
The iron oros, for purposes of description, may be regarded witli
reference either to their mlnoralogical characteristics, their geolo¬
gical distribution, or their topographical position. Tlio accompany¬
ing map, the geological work on which is mainly, aud indeed, with
referenoe to the area witli which we arc more immediately ooiicern-
od, exclusively, due to surveys executed by Mr. C. A. Hacket in
1869-72, shows the distribution of the different series of rocks. It
will be seen that between tho great spread of Viiidhyan samlstoues
on the north and Decoan trap qji tlie south, both of which forma¬
tions are almost barren of any metallic wealth, there is a belt,
some 30 miles wide, where a very varied aud intricately disposed
assemblage of rooks ooours. It is just here that the baud of iron-
bearing transition strata, which stretches eastwards for more than
200 miles through the Son Valley, comes iii contrast with the
thickly populated alluvial belt throiigli wliicb the Norbiidda
flows westwards for about the same distauco. Hence one of tlio
most important advantages which the irou-smeltcrs of Jubbulpore
have enjoyed. Hematite ores similar to those of Jubbulpore are
kuowu to occur largely in the wild country to the oast; but there
are not the some faolUtles there for disposing of tho maniifacturod
product.
The formations just mentioned include—
Alluvium.
Rook laterite.
Deooan trap.
Lameta group.
Upper Gfoudwaaa.
Coal measures.
Tolchlr group.
Upper Vindbyans.
Lower Vindhyans.
Bijawur or transition series.
Gneiss.
The Bijawur series and the rook laterite arc those with which
we are more immediately concerned now, for it is in them that
nearly all ihe iron ore is ooutained, (1) By rofevenco to the map,
then, one sees at a glanoe tho general lie of tiie iron-bearing tracts,
rhloh are those coloured respectively purple and burnt sleuna,
'' jSithough It laouly In certain portions of those areas that the ores
are found. The Bijawur ores occur more especially in the Pergunnas
Khumbhi and Qosulpore, while tho Pergunna Bljerogogurh contains
the greater portion of the lateritio ores,
(1) Some ore also ooours in the Gondwaua bods, but it is “very ImpurB
and roquires muoh seleotlwi and cleaning," and Is “ very rarely worth
worl^ ” {i. Qt MecUe^ Moinoirs, Geol^;foitl Survey of ladia# V, U,
Mineraloglcally considered, the iron oros are almost oxolosive-
ly varieties of hematite and iimonite (or red and brown hematite),
the former being espeoially obaraoterfstic of the Bijawurs, and the
latter of the newer formation. They may be olassined thus—
( 1, Hematite
Limouito.
f I, J/imnite
Lxisbite oaKs-
, Hematite.
ISohistoee hematite.
Mioacooua iron.
Jasper-hematite. (2)
Bemi-oohreous hematite.
Manganiferous hematite.
Pisolitio Iimonite, breaking with
smooth oonchoidat fracture.
Pisolitio Iimonite, breaking with
tough uneven fracture.
Ordinary laterite, tome parte of
which contains a high per-
centago of iron.
Magnetite has been found in small crystals disseminated
through the hematite bods of Sebora, but I am not aware of its
occurring anywhere in such quantity as to entitle it to be inolnd^
in the above list as an ore.
Buawcb Obes,
The Bijawur series has been subdivided by Mr, Haoket thus (in
descending order)
Chandardip group,
Lora ,,
Bhitri „
Majbauli „
It is in tho inferior strata of the Lora group (so called from the
Lora range east of Sehora) that all the moat important existing mines
are sunk. (3) “All the iron-workings,” says Mr. Hacket, “are situat¬
ed near the base of the (Lora) group, where tho quartz bands (4) are
absent, and the rooks consist almost entirelyof mioaoeous iron, or
mixed with a few bands of clay, Tho Jauli mines ore so situated,
as also those of Mangela, and at Agaria in the Majgaon hills,and also
in tho hills west of the ' marble rooks.’ This band of rioh iron
appears to be very constant in the section, but, being softer than
tfie rooks above, is mostly worn away, aud covered by the alluvium
or debris from tho ridges of tho harder rooks j but that the band
exists is shown by the pieces of rioh iron strewn along the
lino.” (6)
A few workiugs in tho Majhauii hills (uear tho western edge of
the map) are situated iu rocks of the Bhitri group, but these are of
very scooudary iniportauoo. (6)
Probably tlio most extensively worked cluster of mines in the
distriot are tliose situated in the group of low iivegular hills aoutb
of SarrcU and Majgaon (8 miles soutli-east of Sehora), and as the
iron-bearing strata are exposed there more olearly, and on a larger
scale, than in any atlier localities tliat I have visited, it will be
convenient to take that neighbourhood as a starting point in any
detailed descriptious.
The hill half-a-uilie south of Agaria (4 miles west-south-west of
Sarroli) appears to be formed entirely of iron ore. The strata
have a low irregular dip towards the south. The highest
beds, i.e., those on the south side of the hill, where there
are nnmorous pits, are of evenly laminated mioaoeous Iron,
interbaiuled with oooasioiial argiliaoeeus layers. Tlio rook is so
soft tiiat it can bo powdered botwoeu the fingers, and is simply dug
out with ordinary iodalis. But tho greater portion of the ore,
constituting the lower beds, is sohistoso hematite, which is harder
than the micaceous iron, altliougli oasily worked on account of its
hssilo character. Humorous pits have been sunk into it
also. There is a thin skin of latei ito on tho top Of tho hill, which
is, in great part at least, and 1 believe wholly, due to alteration
of the ii'ou-sohlst »a situ.
As this hill is about a third of a mile long, Sat-topped, aud wide,
and not far from 100 foot high, the quantity of ore available by
opeu workings, wjth free drainage, is enormous. As a very rough
estimate, tlie cubic coutouts of the hill may perhaps be taken at
100-1.0)- '“-ij-nijout four million cubic yards (7) which is equinrtent
to about fourteen million tons of ore. Even then if a liberal
doduution be made for posslblr concealed bands of useless rook,
A sample of suiiistosc hematite from
hill yielded ou analysis—
the northera side of tho
Ferric oxide ...
97‘154=Iron 68'28
Phosphoric acid
.Sulphuric acid
•12
trace
Sulphur
traces
Loss ou ignition (8)
•89
Ignited iiisol'iblo residue
l'2i
Alumina and undetermined
•24
100-00
Iu tho low ridge whicii runs westward from Agaria a baud of
hematite schist, several yards thick. Is visible along tho crest.
{‘2) Vttie p. 100.
(3) Here, and subsoiiuentty, iu i-oferenco to native operations, 1 use
tho word ‘ mine ’ to express an excavation whore oro is extiucted, irres-*
poctivo of its form. Underground workings ore rather the exception
thou (ho rule, tho majority of the exoavatione boiug irregular open
pits. a
(4) 1 idem ICO.
(6 k 6) IftS, report, 1870-71.
(7) The product of the dimensluns of tho bill U divided by 2, to allow
ier the ilepw Mid iiregularitles.
264
felMwliero tlio j-ock U obisoovod by tiiltiB, *o. Except, kowever.
Bom: tlic bwo ot the aouthorn atope, where pieoM of ferrn^noui
Mndatone <Wis itreWn, the debrit on the ridj;e eatirely ijf benie-
tite achlit, so that eoniiderably more oretday euetthail i> aotUDdly
■een. The ridee ie perhape 40 to 60 feet high, and comparatively
wide, with gentle elopee. Even if the hemaSte band U not thicker
than the ezpoeod strata, a large amount of ore fs available in the
ridge. The dip, as seen about balf-a-mlle wait of the village, is
to the echtth at 40*—*60*,
In the hills south-east of Agaria, I observed 'mns of ore in two
or tfarm plaoes, bat nothing of much importance. At the western
end of the Jhlti ridge some limonite lonist is seen, dipping S. 20'
E. at40*, bnt no good seotion is exposed. This, as well as other
Bijaurur HnKmlte ores, wfctdt areof rather unfregnsnt oooun-enoe,
may pOeklMy be due to hydration of bematitio strata near the
svlrfaee. At the aoutfaeni base of th# hlllook just west of
Kommukur, ^pery qaitrts soblst interbanded with mioaoeons
iron is seen. The hlllook is capped by laterite, and similar rock
is to be seen in some of the hills to the north-east of the same
village. These hills are low and featureless, with little or no
^ber rook visible. It is not at all improbable, however, that the
laterite is due to snperdoial alteration of iron orei, and that there
is a considerable, perhaps a large, quantity of the latter in the
hills in question.
There are two low hillocks close to Sarroli, one three-quarters
of a mile somewhat south of west, and the other a pxile south-
south-west from the town. The former of these is composed of
schistose hematite and micaceous iron, the beds of which have an
irregular strike, corresponding on the whole with the direction of
^oniU, and an unoertaln dip at high angles. There is a skin of
laterite in plaoes due, 1 have no doubt, to superficial alteration
df the ora.
The northern part of the other bill is also composed of iron
ore, wbiob has an Irregular dip, apparently towards the sooth as a
■wbiii. The southern part of the hill is formed of hornstone.
The lower Iwds of ore, i,«., those in the most northern part of the
bill, are of hard mioaoeous iron passing into schistose hematite,
whUe the upper strata are of soft, crumbly, finely laminated
mioaoeous iron, with some interbanded argillaceous layers. It
will be observed that the seotion here is similar to that in the hill
half-a-mlle south of Agaiia—soft ommbly oro above and harder
beds beneath—and I do not think there can bo much doubt that
t^ strata in the two localities belong to the same Iiorison. There
aro two rather large excavations in the upper beds ; that to the
south-east is known as the Sarroli mine, and that to the north-west
ae the Partabpore mins (from a village close by which is not marked
on the map).
As a rough estimate of the amount of ore available by open
workings, \ntb free drainage, in the Sarroli hills, the oubic contente
of the northern may perhaps be taken at-^^\^^^®Dr about 500,000
oublcyards, and that of the iron-bearing pai't of the southcra at
—or about the same amount. This Is equivalent to about
1,700,000 tons of ore in each bill, or say three and-a-half million tons
In both together. In this estimate, as in that for the hill south
of Agaria, no aeconnt is taken of the ore wliicli would be raised
from open workings beneath the level of the surrounding country.
From suoh worktnge an immense amount of ore could bo
obtained,
A sample of the erumbly micaceous iron from the Fartabpero
mine, taken as it was being loaded on to buffaloes for transmis-
siou to the uoighbouriug furnaces, yielded—
Ferric oxide ... ... ... 92‘21 =
Fhospborio acid ... ... 'U7
Sulphuric acid ... ... trace
Su^hur ... ... trace
Boss on ignition ... ... 1'86
Ignited insoluble residue ... ... 4*60
Ume, alumina, and undetermined ... 1'36
100 00
The harder ore from the north end of the hill gave—
Iron 64'S5
Ferrio oxide ...
Loss on Ignition
Ignited insoluble residue...
Undetermined
. 97'16i;
. 1'30
. -89
. -66
100 00
Iron 08’02
The largest iron mine in the district is that near Juall, some¬
what lees than a mile south-east of the village (3 miles south¬
east of Sarroli). The oro Is a semi-oohreons liematite, in which
a slightly schistose structure Is often apparent. Hematite witli
metallic lustre also oeours, but is quite subordinate to the more
oebrey kind. The ore is interbanded witli quartzoso layers,
which in some places greatly exceed the ferruginous part of tlie
rock. In other plaoes they are comparatively rare, and in the
best ore they arc still less commOn. These layers vary fruin a
fraction of an inch to several iuolies in thickness. The beds
are vertioal, the strike, where iiost seen, being N. 40° E. A
rough measurement showed the beds exposed to bare a thicknees
of about 150 feet, but in estimating the thickness of ore, a deduc¬
tion must be maao os an allowance for the quartzose portion just
^ttdsd to, K
The ore has been very Iwrgely worked, the mine being ttwtrJy
100 yards long by 50 yards tmiad, qad p- rhi^ SO feet deep,
I was infonned by Mr. Olpherts' agent in charge of th< fntae,
that it Is not flooded in the rains j it is a sort of deep trenoh
(the length of which Ooinoidea with the strike of the rhek) in
whleh water would aoonmulate if it did not, soak away sabtev-
rancously, or evaporate, quicker than it entered. The snrrottnd-
ing country is an undulating one, and without aotiial levelling,
it would M Impossible to say to wbat extent iTes drainage
could bo depended on for more extensive opnatlons.
It is from picked ore from this mine that Mr. W. G. Olpherts’
' motallio paint ’ is mode, by grinding to an Impalpable
powder.
Some distanoe, perhaps a quarter-of-a-mile, to the north-east
of the above mine, thore Is an old abandoned one. The ore
exposed Is not as rioh as that in the mine now wwdied, aad
uatucally so, as previous to abendonraent all the beet ore exposed
would be removed. The beds dip B. 30° S, at 00% the strike
therefore being nearly the tame as in the newer mine. Mr.
Backet ocusiderod the ore in both mines to belong to the
same baud, and one can scarcely donbt that such i* the fact;
but the ora is so soft that it makes no show at the snmoe, and
hence cannot be traced along tbe outcrop. If the band is
continuous, however, for eyen a quai^ter-of-a-mlle Only, with
anything like the thickness it hfs in the present mine, a very
lai-ga amount of ore is bidden beneath the surface.
An average sample of tils Jollipore, taken os it earns, and in¬
cluding the interbanded quartz yielded on analyeie—
Ferric oxide
Phosphoric acid
Sulphuric acid ...
Sulphur
Loss on ignition
Ignited insoluble residue
Manganese oxide, lime, and undetermined 'SO
75‘69 Iron 62*98
•10
traces,
traces.
1-62
22-32
...100 00
(» This and the other ^ analysed wereafr dried. 1
tiMvifore, includes hygroeoopio oe wsU
M Se hydrous eiesr shssiMaDy eombinea ba(*r<
The low on ignl,
is theeeee
By the aid of some picking, however, a much purer ore can be
obtained. A sample assayed by Mr. A- Tween gave 96'86 per
cent, of ferric oxide 68'50 of iron, and some of Mr. .Olpherts’
paint gave 07'10. *
Before leaving tho ores of this noighiwuthood, I ought to men¬
tion that tho hematitn of dauU and Agaria, as well as of tho hills
close to Sarroli, is most distinctly a budded rook, having generally
(except at Jaull, whore it is loss strong marked) a highly schistose
character. Locally indeed tho rock is crushed and re-cemented,
and this crushing may have taken place along lines 'of faulting
(probably merely local slips). But except in snub very limited
sense tho oro is most certainly not a fault rock. The point is ouo
of prautical importance with reference to the probable persistency
of tho ore, and is alluded to, as tho reverse has been previously
stated.
Tbe most promlnont rock in the Lora range (east of Sohora) is a
ferruginous siliceous schist, composed of altei'nating layers of mioa-
ooous iron and quartz, which is usually of a red jospery type. Tho
layers ore of IrreMlar thlokloss, varying from a small fraction of
an inch to an iuoh and upwards. For want of a better name, and
to avoid oiruuiulouutiou in referring to it, this rook may perhaps
bo called jasper-hematite sohlst. If it wore marked as on iron ore,
the Lora range (os well os many other lines of hil'i) should be
streaked with gold from end to end. But a large proportion of the
rook contains too great an amount 'of silica to allow of its being
smelled 'with advantage, more specially when ores practiually free
from silica are to be obtained in abundance. Only those places,
therefore, are marked with gold in which I have myself seen good
workable oro.
At tile termination of tho range north of Mangota, a baud of
jasper-hematite is exposed ia fiiic along the crest. Lower down
tho slopes there is a talus of tbe same ro^, amongst which pieces
I of miuaceoue iron 2 or 3 inches thick, or mote, and free from
siliooouB layers, are not uncommon. But the beds are not exposed
BuificiButly for one to form on opinion as to wbather there is any
lonsiderablo quantity of ore,
Tho hill haif-a-mile north of Clogra is formed mtdnly of jasper-
hematite, Kear the base of tho southern slope there'ore a number of
shallow oro pits, but they are only in talus, not in the rook in tiiu.
The miners seek fur the small bits of ore which can be used at
once in the furnaces, and leave the large lumps, which would
require tho latrour of breaking up. The ore is a mooganiferous
mioaoeous hematite, oontainiug a varying proportion of uiterband-
cd jaspery qum'tz. It Is a siliceous ore, althongh not very highly
10. A* the uianganiferous baud is entirely oonoeoled beneath the
talus, no estiniato can be made of its thlokness. Judging,
however, from the large amount of debris, ft seems probable that
tbe thickness is cousldorable. As the loose ore must either lie,
lirectly over that in situ, or else have come down hill, and os the
pits extend 20 or 30 feet (vertically) from the base of the hill,
probably a large amount of ore is obtainable by dry open workimgs
whether these be through a deep mass of talus or into solid rook.
Tbe proportion of manganese varies much, as oaa be seen from
the outward appearance of tbe ore. In some specimens of th^
micaceous iron, the presence of manganese is soarflely apparen/
to the eye; in others, the ore shows by its dark colour that it
contains a large amount, and in the highly manganiferous por¬
tions psilomelwe occurs in Irregnlar sagregationsr A oaiefully
(9) Memoirs, Qeol, Burv. of Indio, Vot, II, p, 278-
(10) Those to the west being to title viBsoe dognq and tboss-to tb« east
^ Banwii.'
( 11 ) -m.
fHE tm>fLN AORlOtJLTURIST.
July 2, 1888.
285
ohM«tt A'^erase Minple mtKic up of a large number of email pieces
talun from different pits, yielded—
percentage of phoephorue) is to be obtained from it. It yielded on
analysis—
Bento odde. ...
Manganese (with iraos of cobalt)
OxygOA
Phoo^oric add
Bd^urte add
SttlDhnr
Imlted insoluble residue
Lime, alamiua,water, and uudetennlned
86'88>pIron 46'48
i2-26
6-83
*27
■03
trace
0-65
4-70
' Ferric oxide ...
' Phoephoric add
Snlpourio acid
Sulphur
Loss oil Ignition
Imited lusolnble residue ...
Lime, alumina, and undetermined ...
81‘37=“Irou 67'10
1-69
O'OO
traces (10)
J0'91
4-08
17.7 .
Total , ,
100-00
KIO'OO
—Sfcordt qf the Geological Svrvejf of ItiiUa.
The manganese exists, in largo part at least, in the form of
psilomelane, ooourrlng in irregular segregation, or minutely dls-
semlnatod through the took.
Thh Oona miners told me (and Mr. Hacket mentions the same
thing) that the ore from theee pits produces a liard steely iron,
used for mokina edged-tools, <ko., while that from the mines in
the Sarroli neighbourhood yields a soft iron, used largely for
itarruis (shallow basins for making la &c.) The differ¬
ence is no donbt to be attributed to the manganese in the former.
The ridge running eastward from Kuthola (1 mile south-east of
Sehora) is formed mainly of jasper-hematite. At tlie gap where
the railway posses, tne strata clip at a high angle towards the
south, lu the low hill just west of the railway station (Sehora
road), the beds ht which seoni to be higher in the seotion, as the
rocks actually lie, tliau those just mentioned, manganiferous
hematite schist, with peilomelauo, is visible. Thcr rock is more
earthy and impure-looking than that at Gosulpore, which will he
described presently, and contains a considerable amonut of inter-
banded jasper and quarts. No great tbiokness is exposed, but the
outcrop IS of some importance, as indicating the position of the
ma^aniferous baud.
wliere the Deocan rood passes the end of the ridge, jasper-
licmatito with hornstoue is visible in nitu, and pieces of psilume-
lane, Ac., are soatterod about.
On the northern slope of the liilloek, about 300 yards N. 15°
W, from the Ohk Bungalow at Uonulpore, a strong band of manga-
niferoiia micaceous Iron outcrops. In a little nulla at the foot of the
fiill the following section is exptiaed :—
e
Feet,
Clay-slate, seen about
... 60
Somewhat ferruginous quartz schist
... 5
Obscured
... 20
Manganiferous micaceous irou
... 16?
,, quartz schist...
... 6
,, micaceous irou, seen
... 35
The total thickness of ore aotiially seen being about 50 feat. The
* seotion is given in descending order, as the rocks lie, the dip being
about (3{)° to N. 30° W.
The hillock just mentioned forms the eastern extremity of a low
scarp, running from Oosulporo to IV. ,WS. The scarp is capped
by several yards of rook laterite, hut lower down tlie slope (which
facen to N. 30' VV*^.) the mangaiio-ferniginous lioud outcrops in
several places. It is fairly soon at intervals for about a tliird of
a mile, and reveals its presence more olisouroly, by occasional
small outcrops, and by loose fragments, for at least a quarter
of a mile more. As in the first third of a inilo, the outcrop
is well affovo the plain (averaging perhaps 30 feet or so), there is,
uiiloBB the band thins out considerably jnnncdiately westward of
Gosulpore, which is not likely, some luiudrods of thousands of tons
to be had by dry open workiugs, and probably some minions
by going deep enough,
'riie appearance of the rook shows (as at Gogra) that the propor¬
tion of manganese is very variable. 'J’lic greater portion of it, at
least, exists in the form of psilomelane, occurring partly as linings
to small cavities in the rock, and in irregular segregations and
niassea, some of which contain some cubic feet of mineral. I am
somewhat iuoHned to think that the psilomelane is most ubniulant
where the schist has crushed and ro-cemeuted, psilomelaue
being the cementing material. A sample of the more man-
ganiiorons part of tlie schist afforded bS-02 per cent of manganese
(with oobalt), while the psilomelane gave 83'20 per cent of avail¬
able peroxide.
Reviewing the above details, it will be seen that maugainferous
micaceous hematite has been found in several places along the
southern side of the Lora range. One can scarcely feel much
doubt as to there being a continuous baud in that position. It
is highly probable that the Gosulpore ore belongs to the same
horizon, but whether it is a direct ooutlunation of the same
outcrop or not is more doubtful. The strata in the Lora range
have a general dip towards the south-south-east at high angles,
wliilo tho beds at Gosulpore dip N. 30° IV. at about 00°. I'his
may be a mere local feature, or it may indicate that the Lora and
Gosnlpove outcrops arc on opposite sides of a syncliiml flexure.
There does not appear to he any reason why the tiosulpore and
Lora msnganiferous ore shouhl not form a suitable material for
the maiiumiturc of Hplegcloisun. Although part of the nmnganeso
oconrs in distinct HCgrogationr-, u large proportion of it is iidmilely i
disseminated through the ore. |
On tiie^ope of the idlluok at Gosulpore abo\e mentioned, .a
little below the outcrop ol the maiiganifeions ore, theie is a band |
ot linionite not less than l.’i feet tbiek. it cun be tihi-ed west- I
wards for about the some distance as tlie other ore, to wdiieh it j
runs imrnllKl. .Some parts aie lery masshe, the loek-lying about J
in large blocks ; others prosout a schistose appoarancu. At the
tima I took this to be abedded Bijawur rock, hut I am not pro¬
pped to assert pojiiMvuly ^hat it is so. lYhcther it he or not, a
obasidsrable quantity of ore (oontaiuiug, however, a rather high
SERICULTURE.
SERICULTUHE IN BENGAl..
From Q, N. Barlow, Esq., C.S.I., Oommieiioner of tbeBhagntaor*
Division and iSoutlial Fergusnabs, to the .Secretary to the uov-
eruniant of Bengal, General Department,—No. 647 Ct., dated
Camp Boalijoro In .Sonthal Pergnnuahs, the 17th February 1S83.
W ITH reference to paragraph 11 of the Government Resolution
on the General Administration Report of this Divlsioii for
the year 1881-82, 1 have the honour to submit herewith copy of a
very exhaustive report, and its euolosures, fnriiished by Mr. Porch,
the Collector of Muhlah, on the subject of silk manufacture In that
district, and to state that I have uottilng to add to wliat ho has
said.
2. As for the disease of the silkworms and its cure, the Deputy
Commissioner of Sonthal Perguonabs reports that tiissar silkworms
are suhjoot to epidemic disease. 1'he crop of August and Septem¬
ber lost have in many plaoee been a failute, the young worme dy¬
ing from a disease locally known as “ chheruoe,” a form of cholera
or dianheea which killed them in four or five days. As a prophy
lactic and antidote the Sonthals use the root of a plant umlod
" chowda.” The root is finely powdered ami mixed with cold
water. Tho leaves on which the worms feed ai-e well satura ted
with this liqiiid, which is said to prevent tho disease and cure the
silkworms tliat eat the leaves so treated. Very few of those at¬
tacked recovered. Tho tionthals, however, have much faltli in this
roraody as a preventive.
3. The .Suli-Divisioual Officer of Banka reports in similar terms
regarding the state of the tussar worms In his illatrict. He adds
that no satisfactory cure for the disease is kuowu.
Prom R, PoEf.R, Esq., Ollootor of Maldah, to tho Commissioner
of the Blmgulpoio Division,—No. 991, dated Maldah, the 2iid
February 1883.
WtiH reference to your No. 391G, dated 28th November 1882,
regarding measures to prevent epidemic disease among silkworms,
and tho alleged decline of tho Indian silk industry iu cunsequenoe
ot such disease, 1 liave tho liotiour to inform you tiiat tiie subject
seems to have boon noticed in a ouufused way in the General Ad
ministration Report for the Bhagulpore Division for 1881-82.
2. It is a large subject tu deal with, and tho following divisions
of tho subject must first bo kept in view:—
(I.)—Tlie Indian lUHlhony silk industry under the European .sy,s-
tem of reeling and aupervisioii—
(a) by tho English firm Watson A Co.!
(h) by tho French firm L. Payoii A Vo., and the European or
Wesleru market for such silk.
(2.)-The Indian mulberry silk industry as oondueted undei the
uativo system of reeling, and its market lu the oast; also as tu
nulhcrry silk, the Maldah mulberry cocoons roared on the immatui o
hruh mulberry loaf, and the Midnaporo mulberry cocoons reared
on the mature mulberry-tree loaf.
(.I.)- Cocoons of other than mulberry silkworms, rL., tus.sar silk
cocoons, eiiasilk, Ac.
3. As to the lost, tussar, Ac., though such cocoons are procur¬
able iu this district from the fmir and oUior trees, and though such
cocoons umild be reared, no such industry could be successfully
ievcloped in Maldah side by side with, and in competition with,
even tho moat inferior kina of i iulberry silk cocoons industry, be¬
cause of the superiority in svery respect of the mulberry silk in-
ihistry at every stage, oiz,, growth of leaf-feeding worms, spinning
ciicoons, reeling the silk into thread, throwing such tliread into
nganzinn. If Uie alleged decline of the tussar silk industry is
■eferred to iu the letter under reply, then I may say from general
enquiry that it does not appear that ostablisliiiig exhibitions would
bouefit the tussar silk industry, for the dooliiiu is dun to the hither¬
to ratlier unworkable oliaraoter of tlio tussar oouoons. Owing to
tlic difficulty nf tpinuiug tiie tussar cocoons, and the still greater
lifficulty of reeling tlie tussar coooous for that reason, profits from
this industry are low, and there are no induoementa to embark or
to retain capital In snoh an indifferent investment. TIiu decline
ppnai's to be duo to the tussar industry being cumineroially rather
, failure, and not to any particular detorioratii u from uiseoso of
the tussar worm.
4. Returning to the auhjeot of tlie mulberry silk Industry, In
whicli tills district is greatly interested, the superior branch of it
the Eiii'opeun supenised filature silk -ttiis Is not prospering It
is at Iiest a very precarious Industry owing to foreimi causi-s, yic.,
state and uoiii|s'tittiin of the other foreign silk-produciuc centres
in (Ihina and .lapan, and in the Eiliopetin oi lV«.sl,ern silk market,
aggravated at times by tlie demand G.ci. is lor tl.c native reeled
silk (Khaugni) fcr the local Ea-i' in silk mai Uut, such demand
being able at a profit to take up thousands of maunds of cocoons)
ami so to enable tho native silk trade to put pressure on European
firtAs, and send up the price of vccocus tn a limit that U unprofit-
TBM ms.
ablt, or jttst «t«1(il« Atramtiit to koop th^ AktaMN opon, naUwi
» kroonbl* torn hi th« Earop«ui «illc nwrkat h«lM thtm.
S. Tb« noUv« iUk tndoatry UproiMring. Kdibotrf ooltlrk-
tien U extending. JBente tor mulberry land* ■ub-i^otd uw enor-
tnone, oU,, from Ri, 18 to Be, 26 a beesfaa. In a l^M nahal 1
fixed the Qovcrnment rate of rent (or euoC land at cmo yhpee a
beegha, but it rraa reduoed by the Board of Baronne to 12 annai
a bMgha. In ita a^cultural aapecta, and aa regard the aaay pro-
fita made by na^ea from the native mnlbmy riUc indnatry, the
induatry muet^be oonaidered aa brlaki proaperoua, flonriahing.
4. Under auoh oiroamatanoea, Inlener and deteriorating aa the
Bengal silkworm la, exhibitiona are nnllkely to bring aMnt any
benefit, beeanae the natlvea interested in tiie trade wilt net aooept
OM radical oiiange of onatom is the present state of afiaire aa to
alia. The Benggl worm snits its obohialrtanoea ; If eats little oom-
paratlvoly, ana tbrivea on the tanmatare op shrub mnltrerry leaf,
which is renewed at every cutting; it is leas troublesome in rearing,
tuid spina often (nraltivoltine). The adk-thread reeled is therefore
wanting in wirineaa and ia very endy, wbi^ makes Bengal silk, aa
it is, an abomination to the Kuropean silk thrower, viz., preparer
of organzlus. The natives do not care about that, so long as the
industry goes on according to oustom, and they oan easify raise
and diapoee of the frequently yielded ehrub mulberry-fed ooeoon,
either at foroed*up prioes to the Buropean silk companies, or reel
It off tbsmselvaa and dispose of It aa a atill coarser sUk-thvaad
than European Indian silk, viz., the " Kbangru " silk for the Bom¬
bay silk-weaving mills, and eventually for the Burmab and otber
markets. In Midnapore the Bengal silkworm, it seems, ia fed on
mulberry-tree leaf, and produces a better ooeoon which gives a
more wiry thread and leas endy thread in rteUng, owing to the
mature nature of the leaf fed ou by the silkworm, viz., toe leaf of
Ae fulbgrown mulberry-tree.
7. Those engaged in the mniberry silk industry in this district
undsratand these matters, aud are wealthy enough to bring about
neceesary reforms in the industry, if it would pay them to do so {
but any change, even if obvionsfy advantageous, ia disliked, and ia
BuspeotM by the natives. They require no indnoement from ex¬
hibitions for the improvement of the silk industry. With rsier-
coos to the BOtuaf causes of the existing daieots in this industry,
it may be remarked here that from the olroumitancas of the coun¬
try, the ecantiness of fodder, the slender resouroea of the ryot,
and the narrow area of his industrial effort, a comparatively puny
breed of cattle answers his purpose better than a large, strong, and
mors costly stock: so, too, as regards the breed of the Bengal • Ilk-
worm, with aU ita detects.
fi, tioreover, if anything oould be dona In this way, the wealthy
Eurepeau firms, who nave eo great a stake in the Indian silk in¬
dustry, would have worked In this way with sucoeee for the in-
BtruotlOD of their silk gomastabe and ooeoon rearers; but they
have tailed to alter the oustom of tbe eouutry, bad as it is In this
respect, though they have repeatedly made such efforts.
9. The European supervised eiik industry in India is a very
precarious Invertment, but may be profitable to wealthy firms that
can stem over a luooessiou of bad years. Indian mulberry silk,
from the nature of tbe oooocna, when reeled, Is wanting in wIriness
and ki endy, aud is hard to throw into orgaiiztue. If It oould be
better wound and be more wiry and less endy, the European super,
vised silk industry in India might hold its own against the most
adverse of Eur^au markets.
10. If the Europoau supervised silk filatures wereolosed, the
native silk industry would etill ibrivo for a long time, but undoubt¬
edly such oollapse would recoil upon it, aud be disastrous to the
native silk induetry, which is eo largely eubsidisad and indirectly
guided by European capitalists. Without that capital aud guid¬
ance aud suppui-t, the native silk industry would, it is believed, be¬
come very preoarious and collapae after a time.
11. Auy glut in tbe native-reeled silk market, viz.. In the de¬
mand for Khaugru silk brings down the price of the eoooons and
sends the ryots with their cocoons to the European silk oompany’s
agents. There has been such a decline this year in the demand lor
iCWigru silk, which, with the abundant yield of ooooona iu the
last umulh, has placed cocoons at a price that keeps all the
European supervised filatures actively at work so far os spinners
are to be liad.
12. Mulberry has beeu this year slightly in excess of demand.
No worms were lost for want of food. A little mulberry was lost
through not be^g required. Tbe excess of the mulberry crop was
owing to the moisture from the lateness of the last imus. The
last uocooiu were therefor* a wonderfully fine crop. There baa
beeu rather a glut lu the native illk market owing to the clieapueu
of cocoons and other cause* in previous seasous (viz,, over-produoe,
because many of the European filatures did not work owing to
high prioes of ooooous), aud natives therefore now reel their
ooooona in their small filatures at home rather than sell them.
Cocoons are three rupees a mauud cheaper than usual,
Native eiik tradere and owners of small filatures have engaged
spinners ; and tliough the Buropean firms cau get cocoous at prices
that pay to manufacture silks they cannot get epiuiiors, and so
many “ gains " or '* basins ’’ and reels remain unusra,
13. ^e pidue of Khaiigi'n silk is from Us. 11 to Us. 12 per seer
of 81 sicca ; cocoous from^. 29 to Bs. 30 per mauud of 80 sloca ;
"Chapain," or the eiik refuse after reeling, sells at Ue, SO a
maond.
14. At the minimum, 12,000 mauuds of cocoons are reared. Of
these about 8,000 are reeled by natives aud about 4,000 are reelsd
for tbe European silk companies nuder European supervision,
Ths outturn is much in excess of this generally.
15. |>rtain letters that appeared In the Indian AgHmUturiH,
in the last quarter of 18M, on this subjec^ appuur to me to be
very absurd and quite beside the mark. Back-rouU, or tbe high
lates of rents paid for mulberry land, have not In the least affected
tilt molberry oultivatloBfor the (UkinAuttry, and do not alEsot
theqneetioB. I* is a nut* qptssMm.of 4Bvlsi(ui«f Mim^tnual pro-
fits brtweeen the semindar and the tenants of differont degrees,
where the estatae are permaaeotiy settled. There is so rsstrlotiOB
of mulberry cultivation affeoldtig tbe silk industry. Obmpet^tien
rents do not prevail maong snb-ryots, and rates have ifisen sremor-
tionate to the expansion and profits of the native silk iit^s^.
The introduotion of such ioptoa as Sunday work and fnmoraBty of
tbe factory people in European silk factories Is ei^a^ absurd and
irrelevant as regards the proeperity of, the indos^, though the
latter is much to bs depnoated and put down, U ft 'n to, in other
and higher Intereste.
16. A copy of a report sent from this ofiloo to the Seoretory of
ths Seoaomio Museum, Calcutta, regarding the eiik industry,
of thUdistriot, No. 185, dated 6th Jane 1880, ie herewith for¬
warded.
From B. Poboh, Esq., Magistrate and Collaator Of Maldab, to.the
Secretary to the Economic Museum, Oalouttat-^No. 105, dated
Maldab, the 6th June 1880.
I HxvB the honour to submit the following informatton regard-
the silk industry In the distriot of Maldah,
2. The following published records may be referred to;—
(a).—The history, antiquities, topography aud statistios of
Butern India, as surveyod by Dr. F. Buohaaaa Hamilton,
(1807-1814), ooilated by Montgomery Martin, in three volumes,
volume II, imges 950—972.
(5).—Beport of the prooeedinge of the Bast India Company in
regard to the trade, oulture, and mannfaoture of raw ellk, nibniltted
lu 1886.
( 0 ).—Silk In India, compiled by J, Qeoghegon (1872), seotion I,
paragraphs 6,27, 28, 29, 31, 82, 38. 84, 35,86, 52, 54, Ac.
(d).—Dr. W. W. Hunter'e Statistlce of Bou^, volnroe VII,
pages 04—08, district of Maldah (1876).
^)—In connection with subject " The Wild Silk of India and tbe
ueee of tuesar and other wild waete,'' have reoeutly beeu notioed in
the Secretary of State’s deepatoh No. 104 (Statetloe and Com¬
merce), dated 11^ December 1879, to the Qovernor-Oeneral of
India in Clounoil.
8. The following notes on the present state of the silk Indus¬
try in Maldah are extracted from the Annual Admintstration Re¬
ports of the district of Maldab subiritlod by mo In 1878-79 and
1879-80 to the Oommissloner of the Bhagulpore Division (extract
from the Annual Administration Baport of the distriot of Maldah,
1878-79, paragraphs 18 to 26, aod paragraplti 57 to 60 ineiusive ;
extract from the Annual Admlnietratiou Report of tbe dlatriot
oi Maldah, 1679-80, paragraphs 12 to 80 iuoluelve).
4. (1878-79) The cultivation of mulberry fared well and the
oropa wore not far below the average. The year was very favourable
as to weather for the produetiou of cocoons, and tbe ooeoon rearers,
who bad to buy more mulberry leaves than in other years owing,
to the ahundanoe of silkworms, could not make the bnsiues* very
profitable on aooount of the dearness of the mnlberiy leaves. The
duliioss of the silk market has caused the closing of several large
ooucoruB conducted by European agency. The native filatures have
been doiug a brisk business in their coarse silk,
6. The market for silk fluotnated very much. Last season
good European filature silk sold at Bs. 18 per seer of 72 sicca
weight, and at the sud of the ssosou at Hs. laandRs. 14-8 per
seer. The native manufacturers are almost out of the (Calcutta
market. The natives reel an inferior coarse silk called lUaugru,
which Is iu great demand tor tbe Bombay market. Nearly three-
fourths of tbe cocoous reared in this district are reeled into this in
ferlor silk in the small native filatnres. It commands a uniform
rate of between Re. 11 aud Bs. 13 per seer of 80 sicca weight, aud
the price of cocoons is regulated by tbe market rate for the native
silk ; BO that European manufacturers have frequently to work at
rates which leave them no marglu for profit, and nnfroquently
they have to work at a loss (as they sell in the Calcutta aud home
market) aud this they do simply too keep their workmeu to¬
gether.
6, Ths total quantity of cocoons reared in the Maldah district is
between 38,000 and 40,000 mauuds yearly ; of this quantity, about
11,000 to 12,000 mauuds are reeled Into good silk far tbe Culontta
aud home markets by European mauufaoturers, aud the balance is
reaied into Khaugru by tbe natives, oblefiy for the Bombay market,
\V Ith regard to the quantity of cocoous, the produce per 80 sicca
mauuds of cocoons when reaied into good ulk is on an average
about 2 seers 4 chittaoks of silk of 76 sicca wsight. When
reeled into Khaugru a mauud of ooooous yields nearly 2 seers 14
ohittacks to 3 seers produce Of 76 sicca Weight.
7. Tbe causes which affect the silk trade, and consequently the
manufacture of silk, are the failure of tbe crop of cocoous, which
is caused by extrema of heat and oold, by too much Min aud cloudy
weather, when the worms are in their last stag* ‘when they are
spilling thuir cocoous, and also by tbe want of opportune showers
fer the mulberry, Ths market for silk is generally Infifneuoed
by the result of the crops in Fraaoe, Italy, aud China,
for when the cocoon crops are good iu three oottntriee, tlis
market for India silk Is, as a rule, very bad, Ths Italhm, Freuoh,
and Chiiui cocoous are far superior In quality to the oooooas reared
here, and the silk is consequeutiy of a better quality than Indian
silk, which, as a natural oousequenue, is not In dsmaud when large
quantities of superior French, Italian, and China sUk sBe proour-
rable. The only improvement in the European filatures has been
the subetitutiou of itaam for boiling the water In the basins,
which formerly need to be done with wood firu, ae the natives
still do.
6. No nnliorm price is ever established for the purchase of
cocoons; the several different qualties sell at different prioes. To be
aUe to jadge of the dlffreaat qtuUtM of oooooaai ra^iitw great
Jiily 2 , 1608 .
'3^
267 -
, _ ,_ The eyetem of pnrohMing oooooiu followed by Bare-
peatn «• Anle i* m feUowa :—
9. The gomaateb et eeeh of their feotoriae U under » oontteot
to enpply them with silk, and to be paid for the quantity of silk
reelsa front the cocoons they supply, and. not for the couoons them¬
selves. They receive orders from tiiua to time to. make silk at
such andnncb a rate per seer, the profit and loss on the ooooon nor-
ohasers being their own. They are hot bound to supply their
employes with silk it they oannot manufacture it at the orders they
reoeive'from time to time, bnt they can alnunft always work to order,
as tite orders they receive are generally regulated by the atate of
the cocoon market; if the sUk mark.et is good they supply large
quantities of sUk and make a profit for themselves, as us orders
they receive are liberal.; bnt when the silk market is bad, these
orders are rostiiotad, so that they oan only supply a small quantity, |
and that by pioklng and purohasing small qnantltles of cheap '
cocoons. Messrs. Watson and Company mannlaoture in this way
through gomastahs who deal with the cocoon producers, but the
French company, Messrs. Louis Payen, deal direct in ooooont with
the ryots, and take Isaaes of land in the mulberry-growing tracts
ill order to facilitate purchases of eoooons. The average price of
coooone during the season 1877-78 was about Re. X per maund,
and in aoason 1878-79 about Ks, 27 per maund, Thera are fonr
kinds of refuse from oooooui, viz., obassam, waste ohassam
(native name gudbar), oocoons that will not wind (topah,)
and reel pickings (fiswa). Qood ohassam sold at Bj. 120 to 140 per
maund in 1877-78, and at Bs. lOfi to 110 per maund in 1S78-79 ;
gudhar at Bs. 30 to S3 and Bs. 28 to 24 per maund : topah at
Kb. ms to 18 and Bs, 12 to 16 per maund ; fiswa at Bs. 65 to 70
and Bs. 66 to 60 per maund.
10. There are altogether aix European filatures in this district,
working a total of about fiOO reels. Of this number, 100 are turned
by steam-power, and the rest by the manual labour of boys. The
total outturn of these filatures is about 480 mannds of silk yearly.
11. There have been no changes in the manufacture or mode of
doing busiuess in silk by Europeans or natives. At present the
prospecte of silk are very bad tor European factories owing to the
depressed state of the market, which has faUeii of late years with
each successive war in Europe. Manufacturers liave no indacement
for working their factories, as jsales at a profit or even at oost
prioos are soarooly possible,v^ile the stock of silk on manufacturers’
hand is already very largo.
12. Messrs. Watson and Company are manufacturers of raw or
uuthrown sUk for sale as such in the Calcutta and the homo market,
and their business is entlnely dependent on the market rate for
raw silk. Meiira, Louis Fayeu and Company manufacture the raw
silk in Bengal, and ship it to France for their throwing mills at
Lyons; they are therefore to some extent imiepoadeat of the market
rate as regards the snooess or profit of their manufacturing
operations.
13. The principal silk factories are the following :—
(1) Jalalpoor ... ... Messrs. Watson A Co.
(2) Sadraor Gilabarl ... Ditto.
(3) Buragharia ... Ditto.
(4) Mahudipoor ... Ditto.
(5) Haripur ... ... Ditto.
(6) Bholahat ... ... Messrs, Louis Payen.
Besides the European concerns, there are numerous native silk
filatures in every village throughout the mulberry-growing area
of the district, viz,, the centre of the district.
14. The followhig are the different desuriptious of silk pieces
and silk and cotton pieoes nmnufaotnred by natives at Bahapoor,
Bhawandai and Baipoor, and at other places iu Shibgunge :—
Silk/abrics (Oarad-cora/i, itc.)
1. Mailabar Pattern.
2. Kalintaraksbya
3. Chaudtara
4. Bulbul Chasam
6. Mayur Kanti
6. Dhup Chaya
7. Other colours
Silk aftd cotton miztd fabrict (Ilticbi matru, Siraja, itc.)
1. Uaohi,
2 Mmto J * Gulbudan.
o, aaseru ... j j Kutar of numerous patterns.
16. These are generally woven in pieces from 24 to 25 feet
In length, and their value varies according to texture from Bs. 10
to Bs. 25 a piece. The raw raun silk is thrown by the weavers
and others, mostly women, for weaving. Clothes suited for
native wear are also largely manufactured in the district, oliiefly
at Shibgunge, '
17. (1876-80). Mulberry Is mostly cultivated In tlianos English
Bazar, EaUaohuok, and Bhibguuge, This area greatly suffered
from the fiuod in August 1870, and the mulberry crop then in
leaf was destroyed ; bnt after the flood had subsided, the plants
revived, and the temporary iujory was so far oompeusated as to
be little felt.
18. The silk business was ratber brisker than last year. Bums
of the silk filatures managed by English firms, that had stopi>ed
working in 1678-79 owing to the dullness of the markec, were
re-opened during the year 1879-80.
10, Bevlew of silk manufacture in Maldah during the last
five years.—The silk industry in the district of Maldah was about
the same In 1874-75 and 1876-76. The prices of Bengal raw silk
in the European market kept very steady during the years 1873-
74, 1874-75, 1875-76.
20. Since the great fall of 1874, whieh brought down the
value of Enropean ud native manufactured silk to nearly half
the foimsr piioe, tMcan of oocoons have been complaining of
los4e«. They no Irager nudie the large profits of former yean.
They dp set, bewever, losewbestiMre «re good eiepe. Tbeleeere
are the mnlberry culttvatOMi vriio bare not a certain market now
for their mulberry, owing to the BaukUer number of worms roared,
and also owing to the failnres of the worms, which pf late have
become very frequent. The cause ofthe decrease in the quantity
of worms reared is thus explained. Formerly rearers, when losing
their worms iu two or three seasoaii, tWie tuoli profits frotti
ooooons In the seasons iu which the worms thrived, that it mora
than compensated for the losses of bad seasons, and left them at
the end of the year with good profits. Now the profits on good
seasons are so small that they seoreely make np lor the losses in
bad seasons, and for this reason many rearers keep only the
quantity of worms which they can feed with their home-grown
mulberry without buying any from the mulberry oulMvators.
Some mulberry cultivators have therefore given up growing mul¬
berry.
21. The number of families in this district whose ooonpatlon it
is to rear worms may be reckoned at 20,000. They raise in the
whole year about 1,20,000 mannds of oocoons, worth now about 24
lakhs of rupees. Mr, T. Prloe, formerly of i^roghorah Silk Fae-
tory (Messrs. Watson and Company), informsa ms that about
40,000 maunds are reeled in Maldah (see last year’s report). Dr.
W. W. Hunter, in the Statlstioal Account of Bengal (Maldah),
volume VII, page 96, gives the quantity of ooooons lenred at
Maldah, and reeled or exported raw, as 60,000 maunds, worth
about Be. 18,00,000. From the late Mr. L. Gay of Bbolahaut
(Messrs. Lonia, Fayen and Company) and from other sources, in¬
formation was obtained that the quantity of cocoons reared in the
district of Maldah, and reeled or exported raw, is about 1,20,000
maunds, worth now about Bs. 24,00,000. This seems to be more
correct than the previous estimates. There are about 35 square
miles of land niider mulberry cultivation in the centre of the dis¬
trict. The yearly average oost of cultivation for one beegha of
land is Bj. 25, and the yearly average yield of leaves HObmhas
or loads of one m.tuud weight each, the average price of tlie load
being 12 annas, giving Bs. 45 a beegha. This would show that the
mulberry cultivator is still doing well, but unfortunately he does
not always find a market for .the leaf, and he has to cut it whan
ready all the same ; this ouosaionally oanses him loss.
22. One-seventh part of the cocoons are bought by Euro¬
pean manufacturers; the remainder are bought either by
native manufacturers, or are reeled into silk by the rearsra
themselves, who most of them have one or two reels. The
total number of reels in this district is at least 10,(XX), The
silk reeled by natives is sold at the Aminigunge and
Sodhukapnr hautu, and at Bbolahaut or mart. It is also
bought til the villages by the ilalalt or brokers. 7'he purchasers
of native silk (fChaiigni) are mahnjma from ;^mbay, inures,
Delhi and other up-country place. Borne is bought by the
corah manufacturers of Mlrzapore (iu the district of Mourshedabad)
and Bosontporu ; some also is used in home manufacture for corahs,
inasru, oud other kinds of cloths. About a century ago some
■even thousand looms, and in 1810 about 4,000 looms were em¬
ployed in the manufacture of these different sorts of cloths, hut
for several yoai-s they have been gradually die^poartiig. It is
said that about 700 luoins are now worked. The mssrn, which
used to employ the largest number of looms, is n cloth of mixed
silk and cotton, the warp being native-wound silk, and the woof a
fine European made cotton.
23. There are in this district six filatures belonging to Eura-
peous, which contain about 800 basins (gain), and give work to
about 2,000 people. Men, women, and ohlidreu arc employed
ill them. Some filatures from other districts are partly provided
with cocoons from Maldah during the November and March
seasons, and the total amount of silk manufactured by Europeans
out of Maldah oocoons is about, according to the late Mr. L. Guy
of Bbolahaut, 1,(K>0 maunds or 80,000 pounds. The silk reeled by
natives amounts to about 6,000 maunds or 480,000 pounds. The
total number of people in this district to whom silk gives employ¬
ment either by mulberry culture, woi-m-roariug, or silk-weaving
or silk and cotton weaving, may be estimated at 300,000. Tho
year is divided into three great “ hundhs," viz,, crops or Meosous,
with small intermediate seasons as follow :—
Bjtecles ui mulberry moth.
November ... J Agruhani (chief; |
March
July
Bombyx Korl.
Deal worm, Bombyx tor
,Falgouu /'*' tunalua (CUota Pftlu), au<\
Bombyx Textoi* (Bora
Paheje
Gheitro (chief) ... Deal worm, Bombyx for-
tuoatua, and Nutri or
Madraahi ^rorm, Bombyx
ortRai,
Kiiyaaki ... 1 Ntetri or Madraai worm.
Joyati ... J Bombyx
( Aaari (chief) ... | KUtri or Madroal worm.
^ Sraban ... V
{ Bh'uluri ... J Bombyx meal.
24. Tho inanufucturc of stlkaadailk fabrics uud eilk and cotton
tabrioe iu the dUtrict of Maldah duriug 1877-78 waa not le«e than
iu 1876-77, bnt at the Olid of 1876*77, that ia, about March J877,
war between Kuaaia aud Turkey liavbig become iiiimineub, there
was a heavy fall in the deinaud both in tho Kuropcau aud Calcutta,
markota, and Hongul silk, which in January 1877 was aelling iu
Calcutta at Ba. 25 and Re. 26 a acor, fell in March to Ra. 19 and
R«. 20, being a fall of nearly 25 per cent. Since March 1877 pidcca
remained steady up to tho beginuing of March 1870, when fears of
a compUoatiou.of Kuropoan allaira caused a further tall wliich
brought prices uowu to Re. 15 to J6 a seer. Xhe nativo ludustry,
whlcTi U very large iu tliis district, kept very steady throughout
the year 1878'79f and the export of native manufactured silk ana
ptecea vat .quite as large asauriug 1^77-79, andwaj inade, at usual.
••358
THE VmiAia
July 2» IS 8?,.
Delhi. Xhc largeet expert* were made to Calontt* and Bombay.
The native maauiaetured xilk. oatled Khangru, ii bought in its
raw state by silk pieoo manufaeturers trom the above-namM towns.
The silk pieces worn in the district are corahs seven yards long by
one yard wide, and are mostly shipped to Europe, where they are
ueedior handkerchiefs, and longer pieces are us^ |n this country
for native dress (dhooties). There is also another fabrle called Jiumber.
Musm. The svarp silk and woof ootton which is woven for up-
country markets finds sale there only. £!ar]y In 1879 the prices of
native manutaetured silk were also iufluenbed by the bad poUtioal
news from Europe, but not quite to such an extent as the European- Puts BUk.
made silk. The rise and faU of price of native silk depends on the
state of Indian markete more tfaau on those of Europe.
25. During 1879-80 the *'bundhs ” were not good. There was
a considerable failure. The eocoous that arrived at maturity were
of averam quality. The average price was Bs. 35 amaund of 80
sieoa we%ht. The silk market ooniinued muoli depressed owing to
etagnatiott of business in Europe from the catues above quoted,
which greatly affected the demand for silk. Thera was a slight
improvement visible at the beginning of 1880, and prospeots are
now somewhat moi'e bopeful,
28. Particulars of the best kinds of Maldali silk and mixed silk
and cotton fabrlos now made in the district of Maldah are entered
in the two aocorapanyiug lists of 15 and of 21 specimens, foiwarded
in May 1880 to H. H. Looke, Esq., Secretary to the Economic
.Aluieuin, Caloutta, and Secretary to the Bengal Sub-Ccinmlttce
for the Melbourne Exhibition, for the purpose of being sent to the
Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880.
MELBOURNE INTEENATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1880.
BxBoai, Scm-CouHn^TEx.
Detailed list of articles sent by the Collector of Maldah, to the
Bengal Sub-Committee for the Melbourne Exhibition.
List of sUk, and sUk and uOUon fahrics produced In the district of
Maldah, and sent by the CoUeotor of Maldah to the BongM Sub¬
committee for the Melbourne Exhibition.
name.
jt| Ronmn
o3uu«cter.
Hllk uid
cotton.
5
WoTon, ol twisted Fakan thftu
silk.
Kiffbtothre&d piece Alpatl „
Qon^ uni^ta silk Cktrah ,,
Fiuewchir .. Hawa c^Mdar
*■5 -
SS'S'el - S
lipil I
pue
17
15
10
20
Kadanipbul, red Issll kadAmpUuU
flower, seraja.
White kadamphul ^ada kadamphuli
flower. aomjft.
White boo flower Seda belphullseraja
I Black striped Kala patadar
Red striped .. iifli ti
I (N’arno uf ylllaffo) Harbar aeraja
ftnrlinr sentj a. ,
Wliitc large Wndam Sada ham kadani-
flowur. 1 vhuli Roraja.
Flsh'bonu stripe | MitohUkata scraja
/ soraja.
i Whitodlued tmt- 8u£edkai-dar
lUTll.
Blfiok flsh'b 0 11 e I Kala MachUkAta ,,
stripe. ,
Rfvi-llned pattern ‘ l^alkordar „
(Xanie of person) {Fourujl Bulbul Chas-
Feemji Bu I b n 11 ma,
CtiAHwa.
j^ulan ftarl .. Pulan sar!
rwithent tnoaaure BogaJiEa
I Kimkini .. KankJui
(A remuu’i name) Allrcliani Hasru
Mircbani Masru.
(Fea'Btrl|>od) Idat* Matni Kaaru
ru Jtf asru.
Yards.
M X li
10 X li
7X1
t X u
4 i X 1
H y 1
44 X 1
44 X 1 '
X 1 j
4 i X 1
As. A. r.
30 0 0
3S 0 0
0 8 0
7 8 0
7 0
7 0
0 0
fl 0
0 0
2 6
H X 1
11 8 Q
44 X 1
5 12 0
44 X 1
8 4 0
44 X 1
6 4 0
44 X 1
r. 12 0
44 X 1
513 0
64 X u
12 8 0
H X 1
S 8 0
84 X 1
5 8 0
e X 1
3 12 0
» X 1
6 8 0
JENCY CO.,
XuIJXEITElID,
UEBOHAKTS AUD OENERAL AGENTS,
OtHcutta,-3<), STRAND.
O'cncral Manoj/a- — W. E. .S. .TKVKKnsos,
Manaffur . . .
Agencies for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantiigeous terras.
•noj^oupojct
JO onujd pT
eo^d 8uni3S
Cm* o e o
^ O O «3
oo oo o ooo
OO oo O OOO'M
•epein
udf^nuiu i
s,AoniJ|sao0 j
'WI
•mpui ‘[sSnoa 40Moq ‘ilcpi'iK 1“ oqt "I
Coolies recruited by nur own staff of experienced Agents, with
Depots thi'onghout Chota Nagpur and at Dhubri.
ludentors and Consignees of all mcrebaiidize.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, and Private Agents.
Assam.-" THE E.XCHANGE.” DIBBUQARH.
W. .1. WiiSATLEV, Mamffcr.
A. D. Stuart, Sapenntendmt.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and Eu¬
ropean Uesidents.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India Gmieral Steam Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agents
for Commercial Uiiiou Assurance Oo., Fire and
lafe ; Agents for “ Star” Line Ocean
SteameiUjCiileutta to London;
jkgents for Reuter’s
Telegram Oo., ^
limited.
London.— great •WINOHESTBR-STREBT, K.C.
E. G. Rome, Secretaty.
K, FOBOB,
Offg. CUfastw.
at Kmiaghany »w?toWt, sol COurato,
July 2, 1883.
THE ind!an agriculturist.
269
THE OSlEAiT RSSDBDIF
FOR PRICKLY HEAT, INDIGE STION. HEADACHE. BILIOUSNESS. AWO FEVERS.
The tettimooir ^ gwitleiBea bu beon unquAlifled in praiw of
A* po*MMlu| tlMDonti mott MMatie] for tlie rcitorattoti onil luiiinlu/uiuoe of hoMth Trit}) perfect \ iittnir uf >x>d.v nnd mind,
Zt ii SffarveiOing &&d TaitelMS; forming ft most InTigorating, Vitalising, and HefreMhing Beverage,
OlMihutsat relief In HBADACHK. BBA or BILIOUS 830KNEBS, CONSTIPATION. INDIORSTIOIT. LaHSITUDR, HEAllTHrilN. mi-t >f:> RKisH tfOLPflj premtf smt
buicWy earn the wont fora* uf TyPHlfS. SCAJtLBT, JUNGLE, Ami otUrr FKVBBS, biJ,vLLPo-X, MkABLKS. euU <.j iiKIN COiiPLALNTS, »«(! ranous other
_ ^ _ _ tilteitU ooudlU«um'>i iiu\Wo«x» , „ ^ . . .
Pr* ITnfoldlos nrmi of ImnenM benefit to mankind," \ Dr. fiPAB,Ka {Oorornuiont ModioiO inepoofir of Kmijmuita from thn P>.-ri of Lonflou)
Pr WOSUbAir,—'* U lami wa the Wood with lla lort uUuo oeuititueute."_ I write# —“ 1 have ffreAVploaaiue in liearinn my oonlitiUioe* imouy to iu eitlnwy
OOTBSmlBHT OtmOIAXA AJITB PiAmSOUl oaring for the welfare of their employee ehonld note
its ealae ae a epeciflo in Fever oasee.
“ RAWpt rrirBlIIS, PimJAtTB, INDIA.-''tellovo tlial tlir iiB, or roiir
Prretn,* SftUno will do mom to yrovonf fever than nil lh« Qnfntuoevnr linpnrtfd oaii nin* ’*
Dr. WBLBY.—I fniuut it «ot ae tt ai^ctllc. lu my exMerieuoe nnU fnwllv, lu liic wornt
form# of Fcwr, uo other mwilrino reiinirod, . .
Dr. 8. GIBBON {formerly I'hysJcian to the Ixmilim He uiwfuhjeM l»i the
treatment of diaehiie hM long t«en cutiilrunih hy uiedloal expetdunor."
X>r. it. W. DOW8ZKG.-'''] aaM it in the treatment of forty.twecMea of teUmrPorer,
un ha ppy to ita te 1 oerer loat a alngle eaae.”
.Z>r. W. inniVllEHB,-^" Sinee lt« tniroductiou tUo Fatal Weet India Korenarodepiivivl
of their terfon/* _ ^ __ _
HIB UAnlWrB BBPBXnn^ATirX the QOVSSNOS OF BZS&BA LEOKI,
tn a letter of nauvet forut adduionia lupt^ of the Pyretto Saline, eMtee-^' It }a of ijreut
vnluf, and i ibaU re}oio6 to hear if it in tbenoaaet of all Bnrope^ rltitlhg tite tropioa."
To be obtained of an; Obemiat or Drug Store, in Patent G^laas-stoppered Bottles, 2 b. 6d., 4s. 6d., lla., and 21s. each.
Please note in connection with the rec ently observed effects of the nse of Citrate and other preparations
of Ki^rBSsia that LA.MPL0T70S’S PTsETIC SALIKP is warranted not to contain any substance
which would cause calculous or other earthy deposits.
H. LAl^FLOlJCB-IlTTl^, L0iN'ID03>T, E.O.
ZULULAND AND OETEWAYO.
"‘I know what it is,’ he answevcd; ‘this honey i, nia.Ie from
cupliorhia flowera, whieli are very poinonons.' This explanation made
me feel exceedingly unoonifortablt; but I elioited from Jiiiu that tlioro was
not much ilfliiger, as the ‘tnaass’ taken with it would neutralise the cfFeut
of the poison. Ilireetly ho mentioned poison T dived into the jiaeks, and
p lied out a liottlo of ENO'.^ FEUiT .S.\].T, and emptying a quantity
into two paimikiiis, (iUe<l tliom up witii water, and aevoral tinimi
repeating the dose, in a few lionrs wo were eonsidoi-aldy better, ”_
“ HuMaml mil Citvii-nyfi” (/«. ISO), by Oaplain )V. k. L'mllom. Ut Jinn
K. V. Koi/nl Wnrwi.'hliii-f. /f-yhih’.Ht.
“ ‘ What on eartli shall I take to iiulnlaud?’ asked my friend Jim
La.w one day at iMde.rshot, when ho had jnst received orders for South
Africa, to start at forty-eiglit hours’ notice. I replied, ‘If yon take
my advice—and if.s that of an old tvavellor—you’ll not budge without
a few bottles of EN(1, even if you leavo halt your kit behind I
never am without tliese Salts, and, please the pigs, never intern! to be ’
On his return j inquired, ‘ Well, how about EhfO’S FBtJJT SAbT*’
‘ My do.ir fuliow, it was the host adviuo you ever gave; they saved
me many nn illucss: and when I left Tiingla, I sold tlic runiiUniuu'^l.oftl..,
for teu times the original price ! ’
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANGER OF DELAY.
You can change the trickling stream, but not the raging torrent.
W HAT EV EEA BOOT SHOULD EKAD.—How important it is to every individual to liave at hand some simple, effective an,) ,
able remedy, sueli as ENO'S FEUIT SALT, to check disease at the outset! For this is the time. With very little trouble
can change the oourse of the trickling moimtoin stream, Init not tiie rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I feel I cannot sff*
oiently impress this important information uixm all Honsnliolders, or Ship Captains, or Europeans generally, who arc visiting or rosidinB i
any hot or foreign climate. WJiouevor a, change is contemplated, likely to distiiib the condition of health, let END’S FEUIT SALT b
is out of order, the spirit of danger htw boon kindled, but you do not know where it may end ; it ii a marneooa’aity to'havo'’a eimVle remodv
at the onset, all'oalariiitouB results might have been avoided. What dasllcs to the Civrth so many hopes, breaks so mtl^ swccV'^/i^uoM*
blasts BO many auspicious enterprises, as untimely death ? uwiuua,
E ND'S FRUIT SALT,—“After suffering for nearly two and i» half ye.irs rPlIE ART OP CONQUEST hS LOST WITHOIT THE ART OP FAT
from severe headache and diaorderoil stomach, on J after trjdng nrmo.Ht I TNO —HfNNER E.VOAOEMENTS.—,STiAH,rL.ANT.S —TOO Illr'W
everything and spending much money withimt Unding any bonoHl, I was POOD. —LATEFtOUKS. —IN.SUPPfCIENT EXEltClME - FyoiTPAiffum
recommended by a friend to try ENO'H FRUIT SALT, and before I had j A.'.-A gontlemim writes: “When I feel out of aorta
finished one bottle 1 found it doing mo a groat deal of good, and now T ENO’H FRUIT SAi.T ono hour before dinner or first thing in tho
am restored to my usual health ; and othem 1 know that have triod it have Tho offoot is all 1 could wish.” How to enjoy go^ food that
not enjoyed suoh good health for yoam,—'Yours most truly, Root, otherwise cause biliousaeas, lioadacho, or disordo^ at<imn/.h ’
Ht'MPHMTS, Post Office, Barrasford.” I FRUIT SALT. vreu swmacn-
O UCCESS IN LIFE.—“ A now invention is brought before tho public, ond oommauds success, A score of altominablo imitatious are
O immediately introduced by the unscrupulous who, in copying the original closely enough to deceive the public aud yet not so exactlv
as to infringe upon legal rights, exercise an ingenuity that, employed iu an original channel, could not fail to securo roputation and
profit,”—A dams.
C AUTION.—Lffla! rigUs are proUded in mry civiiisetf couidry. Examine each BoUle, and see the capeule in marked “ ENO’S FRUIT
SAM'.” WilliOiU it you have been imposed on by worthim imitalionii. Sold by all Chemiete, /mce Sb. fld. and Js, Cd.
-uso END'S
DIRCOTION8 IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW "fO PREVENT DISEASE.
Prepared oaly at BNO'S FEUIT BALT WOEKB, KATflHAlI, LONDON, S,fi, fry J. 0, BNffi Efttat.
370
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
July a, 1883,
PHCENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
Civil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
Fwged and Cast Iron Work, Boilers, Machinsry for Jute, Cotton and Bice Mills, Collieries, Indigo Concerns, Tea Cardens, dv..
Contractor^ and Brick-making Plant, and every class of Iron and Brass Work made to order.
soXjEi -A.a-:E!isrTS 'S'cysi
Eobey & Co’s celebrated Portable and Fixed Engines and Machinery, Gwynne & Go’s “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Gould’s
Eotary Pumps, and Eobinson's Patent Steam 7’nijja.
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
Eobey & Co’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Eobey ” Semi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Ehgines and Boilers, Land
tuid Marine Boilers, Gould’s Eotary Power Pumps, J. & H. Gwjmne’s “ Invincible ” Centrifugal PiimpN, Hand, Lift atid
Force Pumps, Tangye’s “ Special” Steam Pumps, “ Vauxball" Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, .Saw Benches,
Spencer’s Uiuid Drilling Machines, Steam Pressure Eecorders, Kicbai'ds’ Engine
Indicator, Gifford’s Injectors, Cooking Stoves,
Fire-Proof Safes.
J. & H. Gwyniie’s “ Invincible ” Cetitrifugal Pump.
This Pump i>eing arranged to swivel on the bod-plate
may be fixed at any angle i-equired. It does not re-
guiro n fool-valve, being fitted with small .air ex¬
hauster and clack on discharge, which always keep it
charged ready for work.
Kobey’s Combined Vertical Engine and Boiler.
This class of Engine is ne.u Iv twice as largo .as
those of the same nominal horse-power of some
makers. The Engine, inste.id of being fixed to the
Boiler as is usual in Engines of the same class, is
erected on a massive Cast 1 ron Standard which makes
it quite iudopendent of the Boiler.
These Ploughs have been expressly designed and manufactured for the use of the Eyots of Iiidin, whose special needs have been
carefully studied in their construction. They embody all the Cjualifioations for which the native imwlc impiements have hitherto been
preferrwl, whilst being incompai'at)ly superior in etrcngtii, diuahllity, and effioienoy,
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to tliree times the depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the (nvtlest land
witliout getting ehokea with weeds. Price, Bs. 15.
INllIOO AND TEA PLAHTTEBS’ IMPLEMENTS AND ST0BE8. _
Eiisrca-iisrEiEiiis’ toools .ajktid sa?oitEis os’ -a-XjU. sncnsriDS.
A-LWatb ok hand a labgb stock of Poatb, Bar, Akolb, Tbb and CoBRuaATiO) Iron, Stsbi., Brass, Coffer, Piq Ikon,
Fookcrt Coke, SaiTHr Coal, Fibb Bricks, akb Fire Clat.
4Sr Qpi.oXoq'tm on klppMcatww.
July 2, 1883.
THE INDI.^ AGBICULTURIST.
271
GOODALL’S
Household Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
The most Deltclous Sauce In the World.
This cheap and oxoeUent Sauce makes tho plainest vlaiids palat*
able, and tho damtiest dlshoB more dolloiouB. With Chops, Steaks,
Fishy &o.y it is inoomparablo. In bottles, at 6 (i., Is., and 29, oaoh»
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
I7ia Best in the World,
Makes dolioioiiB pudding without oggs, pastry without batter, and
beautiful light bread without yeast. lu Id. packets, Gd., Is., 2 s.,
and 6s. tins.
OOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
Ths Best and most A^raealle Tania yet introduced.
Tho best remedy known for Indigestion, Loss of jVppetito,
General Debility, Ac. Bestores delicate individuals to health. At
Is. l|d, and 2s. 8d, oaoh bottle.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
for malting Belicions Cuettinis without Eggs, in less time
and at lAitf ths price.
Tho Proprietors ran rooommoud it to Housekeepers generally ns
n. uBoful sgont iu tlie preparation of u good custard, Uivi: it a
Trial. Sold iu boxes, !Jd. and Is. each.
THIS lUUSTRATION IS A FAG-SIMILE OF THE UD
MESSRS. SUnONS' SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEOS-
BEWAKE OF IMITATIONS.
, NOTICE.
SUTTON’S SEEDS 8c CATALOGUES
'' MAY BE HAD OF DULY AUTHOEISED AOENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
JXC'LUDIA’G—
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makeit Three Gallons of the Best Ginger
Beer lu the World for Threepence.
The Proprietors, Indian Agriruliurisi. Chowriugheo-road, Cal¬
cutta ; the Great Kastern Hotel, Company, Limited, Caltsutta 5
Messrs. Wilson, Mackeu/,io & Co., 13, Old Court House-street,
and 1 , Maugoo-lauii, Calcutta. Orders received by Messrs,
, Uiiig, Hamiltou h Co., Calcutta-
Tho most valuable preparation for the production of a delicious
and invigorating bovorago. It is easily made, and is by far tho
cheapest and best Ginger Beer ever offered to tho public. Sold in
packots, Sd. and Od. each.
COODALL’S ECC POWDER.
TSrOTIOEI-
iln ordering through London Shippers, purchasers]
should he particular to stipulate for
SUTTON'S SEEDS.
Its Action in Cakea, Puddinga^&c,, &o., roBombles that nf tho c*^pr
in every partioulai% One poiiny packet vrill go as far as four eggs !
and ouo sixpenny tin as far na twenty •eight. Sold everywhere, ia
Id, packets ; Qd. and l.s. tins.
COODALL'S BLANCMANGE POWDER
IBIakea doUcious Bloncmougo in a fow minutes. Iu boxoa at 6 d.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations may be had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Propiietors; GOOBALL, BACKHOUSE & CO, Leeds, England.
FREEinliufOFliPHORUS.
Nature’s Great Brain and Norvo Tonic and (lio most wonderful
Blood Purifier. The highest Medical Authorities say that it is tho
only Cure for Wasting Disouses, Mental Depression, Loss of Energy,
and Stomach Complaints.
It is ploasaut to tho tasto, and might bo taken by tho most
delicately constituted. Iu tho most enfeebled it builds up a NEW
AND HEALTHY CONSTITUTION. One do« of this Bomody is
eniial to Twenty Doses of Cod-Liver Oil.
IS Thousands have been spatebed from tho brink of tho gravo by the
'timely uso of Freeman’s ftvKtjr os PiiosriioEus. May bo had of all
Chemists auW Patent Modioino Vendors, in bottles at 2s. fid., 4s. bd.,
11s., and 83«. __ . - _
BFSCIAD AGBIfTS;
GOOMLL, BACKHOUSE & GO.,
White Hor»e Utreet* IseeiUi fincland.
TESTIMONIAL.
front Ji u III I'l/'i, Kstf., I“l‘' F itr-Vfi Aith »! uj tin
Ihn'h. Sort'/f If o f Iitdlti.
“With rufcronco to yonr nioflo of pneking siioriH for
export, r must how much I wu.s .L'-ratifiod with the
Kynteni you wurc ho goo<l ms to show me. Dunii^.'* tho
whoFo of luy hui” indiaii experience, it was my i-fuifttAut
regrot that I5ji;<)ir.h Mood.s wore ulmoKt invariably
lower ill goriiiinutinL: jiowcr than tho Amoi’ican. After
seeing the clilMU’aXe pi-yc-utionn you take in oxocuting
such ordor^i as that of tlie A^fri-llorti HoeioLy of
Iriitia, I uni by no nioaus MUrfiriHcd to hear thnt you Imv^
t>ooD. griitilied by the roi’oi)*! of ho much t-ostiujony froji^
the tropics jia u» the condition of your SoctiH upon arrival »»
£ufcyu^m
THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
' * .AM> nV .HriCCi.lli WAKUANT TO
THE PEINOE OF WALES,
' READING, LONDON, p,^%
TC’ TVTrA.-f AIVIY rillllW
ii
W ■ II M >
ENG!-LA.ISri3,
All communicationa from the Trade should be address¬
ed direct to Beading.
272
THE'iroiAN AOHiCtXjLTURIST.
July 2,188S,
S. OWENS &. 00.,
•W"BCIT3BB’:RX.A.Da»S-fi|T»EI»T, X.p3STO02Sr,
HVORMiLiO ENQINEKRS AlW MAR|iFACTURi||UI OF
PMPING MACHINERY OF EYERY DESCRIPTION
FOR STEAlf, WATER, WIFE, CATTLE, AND MAEUAl POWER.
Hydr»a 3 ic and Screw PresaeSr; Oil Mill Machinery, l^drAnlic Iiifti, &c.;
sous MAKBBS FOE GBBAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKf ’8 PATENT DipT-ACTlNG 8 TEAM*P 01 W?-iGRE TttAN 11 mt
THE KOtlrOWIXO ABB BOMB OF TEE FROlIIKBltT ADVAITTAQBS OF THE BLAKE fUMF:—
It wHl'Itort At *ny point
of stroke.
It has no iloAd point,'
It works f«At or itow-
with tbo aaioo oerttdttty «{
action.
It i« eoonoQiioAl. Hob a
le^ ptt tfa« '$Ua« VaIv«.
It la conkpoot and dur¬
able.
Hand Tower l^Fer
Detaehod.
BLAKE'S PATENT
Ulrtob'AobinK .st«am Tuaji and DoUer PceOer.
I . ■ coHRure OIL mjL. M
on MUU, tvt steam 0 > CsUle Towop.
D»p.woU Pump, lot rsHloal Oo»Wn^ Steam
Hurts pt Bnllook l7wcr. ‘ '
■nglnm BoUsr, and Desi)-
weUnmpS.
Poaiilu-biu'rrl Fores
Pumps in Frume-
IropTOTod Steam Borin*
AppanAos, aiso
*ppa»«-,«~ H TOOLS, -Ji?
Boring Tools of every dsacrJpUoi), for Artesinn Weils, ^
teaming tor Minerals, Fonndntions, Ac,
It la IntKohAiUFa^ls W
^ all its wotkhig punt,'
It wlU deUvermoso water
than any other Famp,
It Is mado of best aate-
rUls In the most wodcBm-
like manner.
Can be .worked at 200
strokes per htmr, or 20
stroke* minute.
Douiilo-liarrBl Oontraetors' Ftimpt,
for Hand or Steam Ferrer,
D»uMo.baTrel Fha Bnglne, tor
ttsasioni, Faotorioa As,
Dsep'Won Pam! s
Fire Biig1ues,fpr Towns, Hallway
Stabionu, do.
Faroe Pnupt on
Barrow.
Wrouuht-ir oi
PorinbloFulops^
I'aiuit [:eoirtfiimii rn«P». <nr OontraWort’
«.«, or irrigation ."oric.
OcfL-iron Itoufu'
or Pump.
PorUiblo Ircigatorc for Uor*«
or Bteun Towor.
BLAKE’S PATENT DIBECT-ACTING STEAM PEMP AND VEMICAL BOILER
filling TANKH. WATKii-SDPPLV TO SMALL TOWNS Oft VILLAGES.
White&iar’s Ironworks, Whiteiri^s-stneet, Fleet^rtreot, ^ndon.
Catalognet and Etiimatee Free on ApjAicaiion.- ■
" ^.nyw, APn nr.rawwr, wnn firw PdnPBlETOBB. BY W, B. UhAOe' AT ifa* “ 3TATE91tA.N «5 FRIKND Of ISDW.” OfnOE, CaLOUTTA.
B^t«reairo.M}
THE
INMAN AGRICULTUEIST,
A MONIHLI
JOm/IL OF INDIAH AOmULWREf Mlf/ERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIIL] CALCUTTA :-WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 1, 1883. [No. 8.
GANDY'S paa COTTON BELTING
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR AND PATENTED IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
PRIZES.
IlAMBClllill
Bkhun
SyOB'EV
Ataj.anta
First Premium,
. . 1878 1 ClNCtN'NATI
... 1879 ; NhwYobk
... 1879 i Mkluol’bnk
1880 PmsEi-K.t
... 1880 Atalaxta
.. 1882, I Ni'iw Zkala.vd ... 1882, i Falmuotii
F irst Prize, Sydney, 1879.
... 1880 , PiTTSBi:iu;
I'msErK.t ... ... 1S81
.\talaxta .1881
PiTTSBi:iu; ... . 1882
1882, I TfNEMOL'IU ... 1882.
llambiir*', Diplenia,
Now Yoii, 1880.
Berlii), J879.
i,J879. Molbcmi'iip, D 80. 1878. (iiiicimiati, Juur, 1880,
OVER 450,000 FEET SOLD DURING 1881,
liiclndiiifr .'1,877 feet nf main Drivitiji BoltK, of «ultlis ruii;{iiiy; fniiu 13 in. to
OO ill,, arc worluiig in over 0,000 Mills and U’urks m Eurojic tuul Auicrioi.
Tlte f'ilhmiuj Tcslti (hi/ Kirh.ikh/, oj Lwhm) uluiw ihi: relirim sirntglh and value,
(viii/iiirtd with LeatliJT.
Ilest Double Lutithur (i in. Belting
Gandy’s 6 In. x S-ply Cotton
Breaking Strain per Siju.jtxj iueh of .Seution.
3,372 lbs.
6,811 lbs,
Prioo per foot,
2s. 6d.
Ipj;. ^ ‘ I','; ?i
THE “
r<AXU'V^4 Patent Anicrio: ii C'ti’ton K.ilt
GANDY BELT.
All/ Lnm'h ni' WitUh
fur ilnUi Drmny.
li i..: (.|i(i bent b..|t
cv.-i- iii.'tde fill- all pni-pm-
I’M, Aliif), (jinii
Sti'.mger tlinii Ije„itli(.r.
ThiiriMijilily VVatei'iiriior,
and ii'it att'e.'ted by teni-
pevatm-f, tliiigs well u,
the pulleys, riin,H (.rue,
mid e.in be innde any
length wilbiiiit jiunf.s.
This t^ri'irs ii[
(*,’(! l■ll'|l■ltrill'|) w IS Sup.
iili.’d ill Oil.. (Iriler tu
Me;.ii,rK. .fiihii tiros.biy
and Sims, llulifax. May
1, 1880, and (ioutiimes to
give entire satisfaction.
G-.A.ITDY ” BELT.,
litii a mi)k riority ov. t tiwiliot lailis lu every particular: its ivii
MAURICE GANDY,
I Patent Anicru': ii C'fi’ton K.ilt ittn a hiq»t nonty ovi i hinUior lu ovory pjirticiilur; it'i cu'^fc
{VI Ixiini^MiLout haif tlmtof loathuf, w'h oiN atreir.t .nd ^rippin^’, j-owc iKahn. liouLk' thyt, of Lli" hu«t Joatbor,
IK (shown by ropoiiit.'H. twte Liken t»y .isirkaMy, k't tintn! i, Thagc lo'.U kp • i ah vo, to which rt}iocial /iltonliou ig
iJiroatod. ThotJ? ‘•(ran'iy'’ tKilts iu*o mn le "'f any w'dth iij) to 72 in.-hos and nny ioUL^Lh n|i to foci witho'il jouit,
1 thus obviating lily uoGCtobitv of htvtnt,M.ut) IjoH-'nil i-lu- nno jailley, of dr.viuf.’; which U jai'cr «tLi,'<factory»
J tui it if* iniiio.ssibje to llttVc uelU of i.s\.ictiy till han >n« i<v tliO other i-t uUvay.^. a Mtopp^pe.
Tiuso ary avoided by iisin;; luui'ly'-I’.iUnu lidts in ojiu « . th. T cse Handy Helt« atvjiiadc of Ce inwit
American C uon )nu*k. apoclally propa’od at Bahui.ore fui* the jmrj tt-, and Gion put lo^otlun* and fi-udiLd liy (ia'uiy^i
patoniud Machiiwry aud process t 0 }revcnt slretehlnp’, ui I ifndtr thorn ijnpA*W'»uH 1> utin wj.ln tae loUujflc#.
I l’'a.., 0 s-u»cd m .nivuitttK:e« such iis these, tho uuii’er’a' mhiptlon of i dy’n IkilU can only be a qm-wti'-n of tiiao.
A SUBSTANTIAL GUAEANTEE GIVEN WITH EVERY MAIN DRIVING BELT.
PAIinV Ptttentoo and Manulaotnror, I HlilfinU tVOEKS : Livorpui)!, EuBauI; il Q I
UnllUli 130 , Qneco Victciria-strcet, LUilUUIIi aud UaltiinWL
lOKDON.
aud UultiinWL
271
THE INDIAN AGI<IoULTURIST.
August 1, 1883.
TBS SRSAT BEMEBT
FOR PRICKLY HEAL INDIGESTION,HEADACHE, BILI OUSNESS, A ND FEVERS.
Tb« tefrtluouy of madto*l fceuttomeii hM besu iioqn^fled tti pnilte of
UMPLOVGH’S PYRETIC SALINE,
Ah oioments urnst eivrutiul foi mRtnrEtioAi fuid mMntoDtuiou uf UoAlLli with porfeot vUour «t body nntl mtint. ^
. .. ^NI)l(.rHTI(>^, L\SSlTiri)a. HKARTBUIIN, nnd yKVBRlHIl fX)LD85 proronti Md
othrr PKVERK, UUAtiiES, and £UUX>TlVJi: or HKIN OUXPLAINTH, Hud rartuu* otber
QitoreU ooiidttiona or tS)P biood
Dr. SPABK9 (Oo\P7nm«iit Rbullral limp^rtor of BmiJtmntifrom th© Port of London)
’ ... .. .. -illittojy ■
It in BfforveioinK and TaatoleaH; forming a most Ixitrjf^orating, VltaIUln«» and ReAreahlng Beverage.
r©lW}n in.iVDAI’lIh, ntK or HILlOf'B HK'KNRSM, CONSTIPATION .. ' ' . .
Fj.uOviy cuiTii thf HA»$t forma of Til’HUb, BCAKLET. JUNOLL. and
PBOTTT,-“ (rnfoliHnjfwrtniof Itmnenaohrnfflt lomankinri. , —.. -... .-n--; - -ii •
Dr MOBOAM.*—It funitnhM Ihu bl'Kxl utth it« iucl italiiio (‘ountltnriile *' { writes‘ J has© groat plousuro bv baarlug toy conUiU.teatlULOi)y tolls ©tnenoy.
OOVSBJVXXVT OFFICIALS ASrs FXASTTFBS oariiig for the wel&re of their employes should note
its valne as a speciAo in Fever cases.
nAwtn, pirrojis. iroNJAtm iirot4.-"'Wc nrpiv »»ii.To th»t th. MKi of your
1 *jtrO( Sallnr will do more lo pro%r;il fever than alHh* Quinine ever Imported can onrw ”
Dr croaLJiy,,-' J/'HiMrt itacd-- ----- *-»»'-.—
Dr. J. W DOW8INO.—“ 1 used it in tlic \ realmeul of forty-two oaaOB of Yellow Totbt,
aim atii happy lo atstr I ncArrlmi a single cws©.”
Dr. W BTBVaKa.-** Hiuce its '
of I heir terrors.”
I rntrudurllon Iho I'etal V'est Imlls Pevrr« arc rteprivwd
HJSB MAJJSSTT'S BSPBEaSKVAlTPlS t Im OOVaB^OB OF SIBBBA LBOKB,
tuft letter of reci^uast for an acWttlonid supply uf the Pyrelir Manne, slat V is of f/riHit
ei as a spfyiAe. !a my erpilenoo aod famUy. in the wortt
medioln© being wqiilred'*
yaloian to the Lmidnn Wospltal).—*• lie uMfuiueu in tbo
. , if r#q^ii6it for an Rcirtttlonid supply uf the Pyrelir ftaTtne, slfttus—*• r iso'f j/r«e ’ ' ' - * • - • •.- ....
raf«c. auci 1 shall rejoice io hear it Is In the houses oi nu Kuntpuans visiting the tropicn.'
To be obtained of any Cbemiet or Drug Store, in Patent Olaai.atoppered Bottle*, 3*. 6d., 4*. Od., Us., and 31s. eaoh.
Flease note in connection with the recently observed effects of the use of Citrate and other preparations
of Magnesia that XJtMFXg>XT6H’S FYaETIC BAXXSE is warranted not to contain any snhstaaoe
which wonld cause oalculona or other earthy deposits.
HI. H;iIjIj,~L03iT3D0aiT; E.O..
City Line of Steamers.
THE
FOR LONDON DIRECT rki SUEZ CANAL,
SOUTH OF INDIA OBSERm
Tons.
Captain.
City oJ Manrhesler ...
... 3126
A. Moedoiiald.
City of Oarthwje
... 2661
J. McPherson.
City of Canterbury ...
... .3212
J, Man-.
City, qf I'enioe.
... .3207
H. J. Moffat.
City of London
... 3212
<r. Black,
City of Edhiburyh ...
... 3212
SV. If. Barhoju.
City of Rhios
... 32.36
A. Thoms.
City of Agra
... 3412
J. Gordon.
City of Cuientta
... 3838
E. McNeil.
City of Oiford
... 4000
IV’m. Miller.
City of Cambridge
... 4000
D, Anderson.
The Oi/y oj Vemcr. trill leave about 7th August, ami will be
followed about a fortnight later by the Citt/ of A ijra.
GLAD,STONE, IVULLIR & Cu.,
7 Agents,
PnBUSUED Wbekly at Ootacamcnd,
The Head-quarters of the Madras Government for
the greater part of the year.
TERMS OF SUnSCRIPTION.
(Exoiuszi’u OP Postage.)
Advance,
Per annum
,, half-year,
,, (jnai'tor .
,, inciiBom .
R*. 20 0 0
„ 10 0 0
„ 6 0 0
„ 2 0 0
Arrears.
Ra. 28 0 d
,, 14 0 0
„ 7 0 0
„ 2 8 0
Neihjh^n'y Press Co., LiniiiccJ, Proprielovs.
Agents in India:
Me,ssb.s. HIGGINBOTHAM & Co. ... Madras,
TIRE BRICES
AND
Agents in London:
Miwsjw. GEO. STREET & Co. ... Cornhiil.
K. ALGAR, E.sq. . 8, Okmcnt's-law, London,E.C.
Messrs, BATES, HENDY & Co. 4. Old Jewry, London,
Mb.ssks. GORDON k GOTCH ... St. Bride-streel, Loudon, E,0.
Messrs. RHODES ft Co. •... 34, Nicholaa-laue, E.O.
14
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
16
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MONTHLY
BQOord of Information for Planters
. OF
OOFTEE, TEA, OOOOA, OINOHOSTA, SUGAB, PALMS,
NOW RSADT.
I^EVISJl:33 EDITlOl^.
r^UBURBAN Vlllaa, Market Gardena, and Residential Farms,
in Kathiawar.” By Major U. 1,. Nutt, Bombay PoUGoal
Department. Price, One Rupee per copy. Apply to Snpotln-
tattdeBt, Bombay Kdueatiou Sooioty’* Pro**, BycuUar
OTHER PRODUCTS,
Stiiied for cuflivatioH in (he Tivpics.
Published on or about the 1st of eacli month by A, M. and
J, Ferguson, Oe.ylon Observer Office, Colombo,
Price in odOanoe yearly, R«, 10.
Be. 1 per copy.
10
August 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN 4GEICULTURIST.
275
TTe publisA tie follMvinff paptrt at thU Office :
TEE lEDlAK AaEIOOrLTUfilST.
(MONTHLY.)
Sates Biibseriplion, including pcsiaget
STSIOttY IH ADVANCE.
For India
I . ^
Yoarly
For
f Yearly
Half-yearly
Re, 12
7
,, IS
.1 7
Mofnuil.
lU. 22 0
„ 12 0
7 0
- Bvigk copies, Se. 1 ; hack copies, Ss, S,
Advertviemnisf or tho, “ Indian Agciculiurisi " sAoii/d he sent in
not later than the SSrd, to appenr on the Ist t(fihe following month.
THE FBIENE OP INDIA AND STATESMAN
(WEEKLY.)
Satet of Biibao'lption, inch ling poatige,
STBIOrir IN ADVANCE,
, „ , Town.
For India .(Half-yearly ,,, II 0
(.Quarterly ... „ 6 0
The reduMd rote for Mieslonarioa ia Re, 15 per anmiin.
For Europe •" ... Ra. 20 8
IHaR-yoarly ... 0
oingle copses, As, 8 ; hack copies, Se, 1 ,
Adoertisemms for the ‘•Friend of India" should be sent ii
Slot latei- fflan fTednesday, to appear on the following Saturday,
THE STATESMAN AND FRIEND OF INDIA.
(DAILY.)
Sates cf Sttbscripiion, including postage,
STflIOItl IN ADVANCE.
2 'owtl.
(Yearly ,,, ... Ils, 38 0
For India J Half-yearly la 0
jojinuia < Quarterly ,, 10 0
Monthly .. 0 8
V early
For Europe .1^^;;'^
(.Monthly
Single copies, As, 8 ; back copies, As, 4 and o'.
Advertisements for the “Statesman" should hr sent in not Uu
(Atm S 2 )^ 1 ., to ajipoar on IhefoUowi i ; inorninj, .
MoJ 111111
Ks. 42
,, 22
H
.. 4
,, U 8
M 18
7
PLANTERS’ STORES & AOENCY CO.,
r,I3^d[ITS3D-
MEBOHANTS AND GENERAL AGENTS,
Oalcutta,--30. .STRAND.
Ckneral Manages'—W. E. S, .Trffrbson.
Manager-,
Agencies for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantageous terms.
Coolies recruited by our own stall' of experienced Agents, villi
Depots througlioul Cliota Nagpur and at Dhnbri,
ludentoi's and Consignee.s of nil merchandize.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, .niul Private Agents.
AS8aia.~’'THE EXCHANGE,” DIBBUQARH.
W. .T. WnEATLEv, Manager.
A. D. Stuart, Agenrij Superintondcni,
Direct Importers of every requi.site for Tea E.state.s ,and Eu¬
ropean Residents.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India General .Steam Navig.ation Co,, Ld.; Agent
for Commercial Union Assiu'ance Co., Fire and
Life ; Agents for Star ” Line Ocean
Steamers, Calcutta to Loudon;
Agents for Beuter'.s
Telegram Co.,
Limited.
London.-GRE.\T WINUHESTER-STREET, E.C.
E. U. Rock, Secretary.
Intending Subscribers wilt gdease address the Manager,
Stibscribci's should slate distinctly for wmen i'acer retn'dUuees arc
intended.
Agents In London for the above papers:
GEORGE STREET, Esq. ... OornhiU,
F. ALGAE, Esq, II is l'>, Oteineat's-lanr,London,S.G.
BATES, ilEiJBy qq. ... iVatbrook, London, Ii. U,
D, J. KEYMEji j, QQ. l, inUcf, •ea/w'-A/fVij/'j /'Ycci-sl/'L-i'’/,
l/uJidu/if E, 0,
SOLE AGENTS FOR TES UNITED STATES ■
THE international NEW.SFAl'ER AGKXG Y
H. R. HUBBARD, J’ropviotor,
Hew Haven, Uonnecticui,
Agencies at Slrmingham, Bordeaux, and Oharente.
NOTICE.
FOR. WAFXl
rPHK Dlioraji Giuuing Factory and Full Press, in good working
order.
For pai'tiLmlars, apply to tlic Faotory Eiigiueor, Dhoraji, or to
the Joint Administrators, Goudul State, Kattywar.
THE AGRA BANK,
“ LIMITED."
Capital ... ...£1000,000
Reserve Fund ... £190,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNTS aie kept, and
Interest allowed, when the Ci^cdit Balance
does not fall below Re. 1,000.
DEPOSITS received available at any time
for Reiuittauee to England hi the Bank’s
Bills, and Interest allowed thereon .at tin;
rate of 4 per cent, per aunuin,
DEPOSITS are also received for fixed
periods, on terms which may be learnt on
application.
DRAFTS granted at the exchange of the
day on Loudon, Scotland, Ireland, and the
Bmik’s Agencies hi the East.
CIRCULAR NOTES Jssuod, negotiable
in the )'‘.’inoIpal places in Eiuopo.
GO^ivRVMENT and other STOCKS,
and sllci^ bought and sold, and the safe
custody of the same undertaken.
INTEREST, PAT, and PENSIONS col¬
lected ; and every other description of
Banking Business and Money Agency trau-
saoted.
All Remittances should be mode pay¬
able ti) the Agra Dank, Limited, Sfi
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to ROBINSON and
CLEAVER, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Price Lists (POST
FREE) of their
‘Their liibli LUion CulUrs, CnffH,
yiilrls, Aic., li.'ite tliu incut ot
A u U
IRISH LINEN
L'\ eel I e n c 0
chcAJillUdB.'—
Couit Cin'ulur.
InUlicV
COLLARS,
CUFFS,
■Gnd Cliil*
-fold,
poi (i<ix 1
4./1I Id O/n i
- j)or du/. I
I
FovLadloH,Gontlo ,
iiicti, .iml Children,
L>/U doz. I
HurpUcc
Linen,
Sjd. pel
yard.
Rc-at Irifili Linen Biicctiii'-?,
2 yirclH wide, 1/11 por
yard.
Exlr.v nc>.Tvy (amoat dur-
uUo uj-ticle) ‘ij yardd
vuidu, n/3 per j'urd.
Ihillcf Tuv-vlllnfir, 1 ft inch
wide, pery.u-d.
JjUion I>iiw
LINENS
CAMBRIC
I»or doji.
OIiUdroD's .. 2/0
Ladiibs’ }>yj
GeutloiiiCQa .. 4 /ig
IlrMsmcowj
tIoA.t n 1 u s -*1
CJotliH, -l/diKir
dt)/..
Finn Linuna
and Llucu
Difipur,
lOd- i.>cr yArd.
POCKET
Ladle-,
Ciont-i'
l>or do/.
..
*ui;e
HANDKERCHIEFS.
Fish Napkins,
3/0 pel dng.
Dinner Napkm.s, FLAX.
0/0 perdu?.. ^
Table Oluthe, 'J
yds square, 3/11;
24 yardB by 4
yara-'i, 13/4 each.
Linen, Ure«w MaiorlalH, Flann-ds, Iribh and Hwias Embroidono
& DAMASKS.
‘The Iiiali Cambrics of Mdshm.
Rubiusoa & Cleaver have a world-
wldo fame/—
Uo.sic'-y
Deal r.ougcloUl SHIRTS.
biBlicB, with 4*fold
all Ilium n'mlnalid
cuffk, U, 1 /e the lialf
dun. (tc DiottSiiro, 2/ extra).
Olovm^Uudc/vwt^'T'uma'; m,-/Lacc‘uwd» of every dwcrlrtleii, atlowcxt wliultwale prices.
ROBINSON & OLEAVER, Manufacturers, by Specif Ap-
pototanent to her Majesty the Queen and her Imperial Highness
I the Grown Princess of Germany.
THE ROYAL IRISH LINEN WAREHOUSE, BELFAST,
276
THE INDIAN AOflCULTUBIST,
August I, 1883,
PHCENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA
JESSOP & GO.,
Oivil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
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S03LE -<a.GhEIISrTS iFOS.
Jlobpv & Co's Cfflebi'atoil Poitable and Fixed Engines .and MacLincry, Gwmne & Oa’a “ luvincible " Ccjitrifugal Pumps, Goulil's
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Robej's Combined Vertical Engine and Boilei,
Tliis ehess of Engine i.s nearly twice a.s I irge as
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makers The Engine, instead of being tixe*! to llie
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it quite independent of the Boiler.
Kansomo’s “ Indian ” Plough, price—Rs. 16. Howard's Ryot’s Plough, No. 0, price— Rs. 20
These Ploughe have been exprcBely designeil and mnnufaetured for the use of the Hyota or Iiulia, whose special needs have been
carefully etndfeirIn tlieir conetmetlou. They einhod,y all the qualifications for which tlie native-made hnplent^ms have hrthci'to been
preferred, whilst bemg incomparably miporior in strength, durability, and eftieloncy.
MCRAE'S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stir* up the Bo’d to three times the depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes tluroiigh the dirtiest laud
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INOIOO AND TEA PLANTERS' IMPLEMENTS AND STORES.
E33sra-i3srE:iDiis’ tools .ajistt) sto:rt3s ot^ -a-ll kiistids,
AbWATg OH UJLSD A J-AKOe STOCK oF PbATE, BaR, AsoUK, TkE AND CoRRDOATitD Iron, STEfiD, BbASS, CViTUB, Tw lltON,
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COitah auis on App UcuMon ,
SdKiittfdd Nd, 1S3.}
INDIM AGEmTIIRIST.
A MONTHLT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTA -.-WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 1, 1883. [No. 8-
CONTENTS:
r.\as.
AoKNOwisDaiisNis .Si77|OmcuL I’apsbS-
Paqb,
CunimsposDB.NuB—
Tho iu Barley.277
'J’onk in the Central Pro-
vineoa .278
TIio luiluouoo of Kunhoat on
tljo Soil and Plants ... 278
Agricultural Esporiments,
conduuted by Pundit Ajud-
hia Praslmd.296
Mr. Halxipathy Moudolliar'a
Agriculture E.'tporimonts,,. 29S
Sblections—
Lx.VDi.vu Articles—
Tlio I'ioitffi' and the huhan
AHiU’nHuriM. .
Note on tho Causos retarding
Improvomonl in C'attlo-
Hroediiig among Cultivat¬
ors of the Uindu Class in
tlio Doab Tract, about tho
Vicinity of DUtriot Etah,
N.-W. P.
Our WsaUier OHioo.
Tlio Siii>oriority of Indian
Wheat ..
Porosis in Assiim .
Ltinai Arbcrioulturo.
JlDJI’tilU.Vl, HpiES .
Agricultural and Horticul¬
tural Hocioty of India
Boo Culture in India.
Kudimnraniat; or, Unpaid
j V illago Labour .
279 1 Agrioulturo .
\ PoRKSTRy—
I Nolo on Fronoli Poroits by
j Mr. A, SmythioH, Assistant
Conaenvator of Poroids ...
I Pores^ Pri'groBH itoiiort ior
j Bengal, 1881-82 .
jjjj i The CiAEDSN—
Tho Uardon Balsam ...
285 i Miseealouv—
V88 Motes.
287 Tobacco—
287 j Cultivation .vnd Mnmifacturo
I of Tobacco. .
... 201 ! Advevti»emei>'ts
299
302
802
803
30i
306
306
307
308
Out' CumupundcnU and Conirihulors will greatly olligi’
if they will take the trouhlc, where the returns of culliva-
tim are staled by them in Indian loeighls and Measures, to
0
give their English equivalents, either in the Uxt, in jnireu-
l/usis, or in a foot-note. The, bigah iw^iiiicular varies so
Much in the different pfrovinees, that it is ulisulutetii neetssnry |
ta give the, English value of it in all eases. It u'ouUt he a great
reform if the Government itself foUoived the same eonrsc in all
the official reqmrts puhlished by it.
All correspondence must bear the full name and address of
the lorUer, not necessarily for pnblicafiwt, but a.s a guaratilee
of good faith. We, shall take no notice of anonymous letlvi's.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Tub Indian Forester, V-ol. IX , No. 7.
Tuii General Report of tho Stirv'oy of India 1883.
Rkpoui on MoasuremeuU df the Urovrth of Australian Teas on the
Nilgiris,
CORRESPONDENCE.
___—
Tnli KllGOT IN BARLEY,
TO THE EOlTon.
Sin,—The uativcB residing In a number of villages aituntod in
the north gt Forgnima Itiudporg of the Agra (Ustilct, have
bean suffering this season from the most frightful sores that can be
imagined. Ijargo malignant ulcers, in which, if granulation does
sot in, it is of a morbid oliarncter, building above the level of tho
shin on exuberance that gives tho sores a fungoid, poisonous
appearance. It is said to appear first in the form of a pimple, and
I have remarked on some portion of tho leg below tbo knee,
generally midway, or if anything ratlior nearer the ankle, almost
invariably on the ontsido. Tho pimple if nbraitloil foi ms a sore
which spreads rapidly and appears to know no limit ; tho smallest
I liavo seen was about an inch broad and two lnuUo.s in length,
boat-shaped, and sltnatod am-oss the log ; and tho largest about
five iuehes by throe, tlioiigh I am told that numerous cases are to
bo seen in which the whole log is involved. 1 liavo not heard of a
singlo euro as yet.
Tho disease in this epidemic form first mode its appearance about
the time the wheat and barley crops wore being harvested, and
among the poorest portion of Iho villagurs, wltioli gave rise among
tliciu to the most absiinl e.vplanation of its cause coiiooivable.
Tho K. I. Railway line wbicli passes thiougli tiioao villages is being
ballasted with broken sand-stoue, whioli gets so hot fiom the
heat of the sun as to bliaUt the legs ot.tlie labourers. Most of the
[toor people in tlio villages boing employed on tlie work, and the
lores often originating from these blisters, gave rise to the Idea that
tills was tho source,
Tlic malignant and opidornie cliacautor of the disease left not the
diglitest doubt in my mind that it was the result of blood-poisou-
ug of some sort, and the oasuul remark of a cultivator to tho ofifect
.hat tiicro had been a great deal of urgot in tho barley and blight
u tho wheat this season suggested tlio probable cause of tho
pidemic. It is woll kimwii that the continued use of ergot as an
rticlo of food has the oltcct of producing what is known as '• gon-
rciiouB ergotism," and other malignant diseases appearing in on
■pidemic form. ICpidcmics nf this nature have been recorded to
ave on many occasions all’octcd whole districts on the Continent ;
iiul I strongly suspect that the use of orgot of barley will be
found to bo the cause of the trouble I speak of. 'The kiinl of ergot
in tiucstion is called kanttnd in the vernacular, obvionsly derived
from the word hiu'lri, a oow-p.'it, a small fragment of wliioh fuel
it I'lsomblcs elo.soly both in colour aud eousisteney. To give you
ail idea of how plentiful it is this season, I send you by to-day’s post
(or inspection a Uandlal of it which a man collected for me from
his store of barley in a Cow minutes. I have no doubt that mannds
could be collected if necessary. Unfortnimtely all tho barley has
been tliruslicd or ratlicr trodden out, and 1 was unable to seouro a
perfect ear. The present speciinoiis arc only fragments, and it is a
wonder, considering their texture, that they were not entirely dis-
sijiatod under the heavy troad of the oxen.
In the case of tho officinal ergot of rye, each grain forms a sepa¬
rate ergot, whereas in the present disease all the grains are
agglutinated into a moss which is covered with a contlnnoua
epidermis, very thin and shiny, presenting this appearance both
in tho fresh and dry state ; fragments of this skin will be found
aJlioriug to some of tho larger pieces of ergots sent, Tiic place
whore tho grain should bo is marked by he,irt-shapcd protu.
beranoes. TTio natives are unable to account for its increase this
year, and believe, or rather say that they do, tlmt a woman or child
passing a field while it is being sown, with their eyelids
blackened with MJal (lamp-black) will cause this blight. One old
cuitivator very gravely told mo that this was nonsouse and not to
be viodiled, and that the true cause of kanehen was ploughing willi
,s share the very day that it had returned from the blacksmith
covered with black iixydc.
I have been trying to recall all - >“iial circumstances of thd
past Hcasou ;—Wo bail a very sovc-rc frost lliat dcatroyed cjuito
luvll the niAhi crop, and did icine damage to Gic wheat, Ughteu-
278 THE INDIAN AfRICHL’TURIST. Angtifit 1,1883.
log the prodncB conHideTEibly ; but tbla was after the grain had
formed, and the ears arc affected with ergot before thl«. Bat then
again in the rains before this, there was a great blight aijH<fr which
was attacked by a grub ; and to make up for the Ions, hundred* of
acres that would otherwise have been allowed to lie fallow, wore
sown with barley and sometime* wheat crops the ground had
borne the previous season. This leave* room for speculation.
It is well-known that soil Impregnated with the sporules of this
fungous parasite will produce the disease In plants grown in It, if of
the class the parasite attacks. More or loss kaiulua is to be found
in wheat and barley fields every year, and myriads of sporules must
be scattered on them Irofore the crops arc reaped. Is it possible that
the time required for a proper rotation of crops, and consequent
delay of perhaps two years before the appearance of the particular
crop* affected by the fungus is sufficient to destroy the sporules,
whereas a twelve-month is not ? The greater number of the “ do
faeli ” fields I have spoken about wore sown with boric}', being a
more productive orop in poor soil timn wheat; and, strange to say,
it is this grain in which kandim is most plentiful. It Is, unfortu¬
nately for tliom, the staple among cultivators. 1 sent for half-a-
pound of mixed grain from the house of one of the sufferers, and
tliough it was said to have boon cleaned by Iiis wife and ready for
the hand-mill, hod no difficulty in picking out small pieces of ergot,
and by dusting the grain on a piece of white paper also ascertained
that it was also mixed witli it in a very fine powder.
The fact of tlie sores appearing very largely omong labourers is
probably due to the poor fellows being obliged to purchase flour
from the hanya, who, wo may depend upon it, never bothers him¬
self about picking the grain at all.
AVheat is, ns I have mentioned, also attacked by kandtia, but not
so Im'goly this season as barley, I send you, however, a few grains
of blighted wheat, affected by the disease, also very prevalent this
season, called by the natives (with a nasal pronunciation) »4hi’o ‘—
I am sorry I oannot suggest au KngUsh name.
The ear of wheat affooted appears quite perfect, or if anything,
rather larger than the average of the field, but contains these abor-
tivo little black grains I send you, the most peculiar feature of
which, and the one ))y whicii they are readily distiuguislied by the
natives, is the division of tlie top of each grain into two little
points. The natives do not believe thorn to he poisonous, but tl)o
sickcniiig, unpleasant taste whieh even one loaves if crushed betwieu
the teeth and allowed to remain in the mouth fur a little while,
leaves no doubt tliat they are mistaken, as ergot of ryo is describ¬
ed to Imve just such a taste.
To conclude, if some medical gentleman would suggest an inex¬
pensive remedy and y(gwu for tlie sufferers I liave spoken of, it
would be au not of oliarity. It is useless to tell the majority of
them to go to hospital; they aro too timid, and appear to mo to j
prefer death, I have recommended purgatives, cleanliness, '
linseed moal poultices, and careful picking and washing of grain
bufore grinding.
w, c.
Court of Wards, N.-W. P.
fJOTK.- Tho samples of wheat and barley sent by our correspondent
may l>e seen at our office by any one interested. Wo should ostesm It a
favoui', if oorrespondouts in other districts of India will kindly take the
trouble to acquaint us with disease of a similar nature affecting crops,—
Ed., I.A.
TEAK IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES.
TO THK BDIIOR.
.qpB,—I have read with some surjirise a uotioe in your issue
of the 2nd .Inly, conooruing tho supply of Toak avallahlo iu th«
forests of the Central Pioviuoes, aud tho nuoessity for introducing
Htringunt regulations for the prevention of premature felling
iu thoso provinces,
I would ask you to give similar publicity to the following low
remarks, witli a view to correcting certain Inaccuraclos in those
you liavo airtudy puhlisheu.
Your oorrespoudent appears to be unaware that since Jb07, no
teak ha* been permitted «? Im out except by foudatorioe and
zemindars within the limits of their territories, witliout the
perittkssioii of the district officer or his forest otticer :
that the only Itirge teak imported of htto years into tho
Nagpore and K&mthi markets is the ontoome of the Panataraa
Ecmlndari, and that ite prloe has been from Be. 2 to Be. 8 per
cubio foot,' and not 8 to 12 annas, as stated in your issue :
lastly, the statement that the AlapilU forests hod been
ruthlessly out Into for the supply of sleejler* for the Nagpore
state liue. As a forest officer, who has watched the AlapilU
forests for many years, 1 would beg most omphatloaliy to deny
that tiiey have been damaged by outtiug for this purpose.
Those forests have been most anxiously studied by various fo>)c.st
officers, including the post and present Conservators of Forests
of the provinces, aud ths past and present Inspeetors-General
of Forests to the Government of India. Not more than 20 teak
trees have been out since 1875 in the Goveminont forests.
Soleotion fallings of Saj {/ermhtalia lomeniota) have becu most
oarofuUy carried out, and yielded a lakh and-a.half of the sleepers
required.
MADRAS.
Note. —Th* romorki of our oorrospondont to whioh Madras takes
exception were received by us us trustworthy, and ocooptod, as many
conimunioations of a liko nature must bo, on tho good faith of tlie
writer. Our correspondent will probably have something to say by-and-
bye. In tho moantimo we are an-xious to givo tho fullest publicity to
JIadras’s letter. Our regret frequently is that the pages of tho
AgricitlhirUt arc not more frequently taken advantage of to ventilate
ideas on all tho subjects embraced in our journal.—E d., 7. A.
THE INFLUENCE OF SUNHEAT ON THE SOIL
AND PLANTS,
(21) the Editor of the Otyhn Ohtcrvtr,)
SiK,—Mr. 0. F. Walker and thoso who hold ills oonvictiona
may be interested in tho following extracts, I am with him in
agrociug that wc have becu suffuring from a want of sun-power
of late years ; and that It is not rainfall we have suffcrcdifromi
but the long continuoiico of it with little or uo intermission, and
the absence of the requisite sunlreat.
The sun of oourso is a most necessary factor In the consideration
of climatic iiilluonoo on vegetation ; and no doubt the reason
why (us some one remarked) one estate bears, while another does
not, may in a measure arise from the power of retention or non-
retention of the soil of excess of moisture, It takes a congenial
season to make a healthy blossom I
The extracts ore as follows “ It has been oalonlated by Mr,
Baikes, that tho temperature'Sf tho soil, when drained, averages
10 “ higher than it does when undrained ; and this is not surpriiiog
when we find that 1 lb. of water evaporated from 1,000 Ib. of soil
will depress tlie whole by 10’, owing to the latent heat whioh it
absorbs in its conversion into vapour.”
” Faraday oaloulated that the average amount of heat radiated
in a day from the sun on each acre of earth in the latitude of
London is equivalent to that whieh would be prodnoed from the
oombustion of 13,000 lbs. of coal.”
“ Slightly beneath tho surface of tho soil in tropics, Humbolt
states temperatures of 162° and 134° are frequently noted, and
in white sand at Orinoco 140°, whilst at the Cape of Good Hope
nuder the soil of a bulb garden a temperature of 100°, is reoordod
by HorscheU. In China the temperature of water of the
fields was found to bo by Moyer 113°, and odjaoeut sand
muoh hotter. Ttiosc extremes of temperature would oaoso the
specific gravity of the air to vary from 1167 to 863 may servo
as a kind uf measure of the disturbing oansea whioh interfere
with tho velocity and local dlreotloii of utmospherio current* and
other plienomona, the oaloulation of whish has been founded on
mean results.”
It would be a good thing if certain stations were gr;iisiied
with sunshine recorders, but perhaps their cost wguld bo against
their institution. Eartli thcrmomotcra however are moderate iu
price, and are made to go as deep as 120 inches. There can bo
no doubt that the temperature of the grouad greatly affect* that
whieh 1* growing on or in it.—Your* faithfully,
S, V, B, OWES.
August I, 1883.
THE INDIAN |,aRI0l7LTUHlST,
2?9
H^^riijultnrist.
CALCUTTA, AUOVST 1, 1883.
^HE PIONEER AND THE INDIAN AGRI¬
CULTURIST.
^TJE Allalmbad contemporary says tliat it is " perplexed
svitU doubts as to the trustworthiness of the Indian
Agriculturitt on a subject so well within its province as
manure.” The Pionem' is modest enough to admit that these
doubts do not arise from a more intimate acquaintance with
Indian agtioulture than is enjoyed by the Indian Agi-kuiutnat.
This perplexity, on the pai-t of our contemporary, has arisen, it
seems, from “ some very positive assertions,” recently made by
the Indian Agriotdturist, and the conclusions arrived at by Dr.
Voelcker in a late number of the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society. The Pioneer's perplexity of doubts seems
to us to arise from the confounding as identical tsvo things,
which are totally different. These are—/ra<, the value of nitro¬
genous manures; and sno^id, the validity of the conclusions
drawn by Mr. Fuller from experiments made on the Cawnpore
Experimental Farm. We need scarcely say that we have
never at any time under-estimated the value of nitrogenous
manures. Our ideas regarding manures in general and their
classification may, we think, be fairly gathered from several
articles which appeared in this journal in the yem- 187f>, and one
of which the Government deemed of sufficient value to reproduce
in the Gazette, To have a due eppr*.iation of the value of manure
is one thing ; to question the sweeping conclusions drawn
from a few experiments isnnotlier, and a totally different thing.
The Pioneer’s perplexity appears to us to cousist in crediting
tis with unbelief in the efficacy of ammoniacal m.anures, when
we really neither hold nor express such unbelief, but in
reality venture to withhold our oasenl to conclusions whh.-h
seem to us to be based on an insufficient substratum of
experiment. It would not be difficult to show that we are
not alone in believing that the deductions made from the
Cawnpore experiments cannot be accepted without consider¬
able limitation. We venture to reproduce the following
extract of a letter which appeared in our columns on Mai-ch
Ist, 1883. Tlie writer is Mr. C. A. Hill, B.Sc., F.G.S.,
Associate of lh6 Royal School of Minos ;—
“ Mr. Fuller has coiniuittod the mistake in inductive logic
of basing a wide generalization upffiTa very limited breadth
of experience. His remarks may be understood to imply that
in all Indian soils, and for all crops, nitrogenous raamires .are the
most valuable ; whereas, all that may bo legitimately infoiacd
from his admirably conducted experiments, is that o,t the e.r.
perimeTita! plots of the C'ltKinporc farm, in their present condition,
the manure most required for a ■n'hrat rr,>p is a nitrogonouH one
•—the raamire most required for a ditt'erent croj) on the .sa me
ground, or for wheat in aimihor pari of Imli.), nde-lil be a veiy
different one.”
No one, we suppose nowadays, who know.s anyl liing of llio
science of agi-iculture, would venture to a.sserl that nitrogen,
and nitrogen alone, is all that is reijuired in (he matter of
manure to render every field fertile and every croj) a bunqier.
Some such belief did certainly jn'evail thirty or more year.s
ago, but, as we ventured to say, the craze fm- nitidgcnoun
manures died away when their true relative value came
to be uuderatood. lu reviewing the Cawnpore Farm Experi¬
ments, 1881-82, we ^said : “Comparative experiments have
everywhere proved that the use of any one fertiliser, whether
nitrojwn in any of its forms, or lime, pota.sh, phosphoric acid,
has alwaj's produced conflicting results, indicating, .as j
a disturbing caaae, the presence, in dlffcreril. proportions in the j
fields experimented upob, of some available plant-constituent or
constituents which the fertiliser assisted the plants in absorbing.
It follows that the repeated use of a given fertiliser (as pro¬
posed for nitrogen by the Assistant Director of Agriculture)
must progressively impoverish the soil of the co-active
constituents sooner or later, and reduce the outturn of the
crops to nothing. Mr. Fuller’s experiments have not embraced
this feature of the case, or he would not.have over-rato<l nitrogen,
essential though it ns to plant economy. Tliat -no one
plani-coiwtUiient is of ant/ ealtie in the soil hi/ itself, .and that
several contribute to make up a plant, is a e.ardinal axiom
tliat should never lie lost sight, of. The Cawnpore experiments
conclusively estal)li.sU this. Aii nnmannre t soil (page 288
of the Oom'iment Oavtte, already (pioted) yieldexl
7711bs, of wheat per acre. The same soil, fertilised
with nitrate of potash at 2401bs. to the acre, yielded
l,005lbs. Difforeuce in produce—8311bs. Another unmanwed
soil yielded 777lbs, per acre, and when similai-ly nitrated
produced l,242lba.—difference in yield, 4(i51bs, If nitrogen ij
all that Indian soils need, explanation of the dis])iiritv in
yield of the nitrated plots is necessary. The two i/nimnnred
soils, it is worthy of note, iverc in the present instance in
identical conditions for e.xperimont, There was a difference
of only Gibs, per acre m their v.nmanimd yield; yet, when
nitrated, one field yiclda<l Sfiylbs. per acre more than the other 1
There is but one explanation of this. One (ield had more
assimilable plant-constituents awaiting excitation with .activity
by nitrogen than the other ; and the omndusiou that follows
is, Ih.at somethin;/ besides nitrogen is needed for Indian soil.”
We trust wo have, so far made our position sufficiently dear
with regard to the criticism which we ventured to
make on the conclusions arrived at from the Cawnpore
Experiments. In replying to a leader in the Pioneer
(we think), which was based on tho January articles of the
hvlian Agricaltiirist, Mr. Fuller in a letter to tho Pioneer
shielded himself behind the authority of M. G. Ville. We
have not bis letter before ns, and write from memory only j but
so far as wo reedteef, he affirmed that his experiments were
carried out on tlm lines m.arked out by M Viile, whose work ho
very properly stated Imd been crowned with all the honours
which Hcientifie societies could confer on them. M, Ville's
ivork was publrshcd in lK7il. and trauslatod and edited by
Mr. Crookes, F.11..S. Jn the pages of the Agrir.nUurd QazeAto
for .Tauiiary 1883, Sir J R, T.awos .subjects M. Ville’s sUte-
j ments to a destructive crilii'ism, from which it is very doubtful
' whether the reputation of M. Ville will ever wcovor. We do
lot blame Mr. Fuller for bringing to his support all the
authoritie.s ho can muster, but in the instaiioo ipioted ho
has been unfortunate. In dosing a long article dealing svitli
the series of artide.s written by .Sir J. R, Lawos for
•he Agricnltural Gazette, the Field s.ays “ As regards tho
mportuut question as to the sourcc.s of the nitrogen of pLmts,
M. Ville’.s statements .as to the power of plaids to derive ;’i
of their supplies directly from the air is blown to the
iviiuls by .a ma,sa of fads, the result of actiml experiments.
M. ^ ille states that nitrogen is assimilated by jilauts ie.
Miree difTcrent forms, c/;., as ammonia, ,os the nitrate of somo
jase, .and ns nitrogen g.i.s ; mid (hat it has been ascertained
hat 'croiK ahvaj'M (.■oiitain more nitrogcu than the manures
iqiplii'd to llimn, mid (his c.vcchs is derived not from tlie .soil,
lilt from the air.’ Such a positivo statemmif is proved by
Sir .J. li. Ii,awo.s to Ij.; absolutely eroneons m every instance.
Wheat most nearly, of all our clip ivoted orop.s, acroiiuts for the
iltrogen suiiplied in maiinra. In every other instance where
■xcess of nitrogen above tb.d, contained in the manure is said to
le derived from the atmosphere, tlie very ojiposito is the fact
-the maiuiro contiins more nitrogen than appemfi in tho crop,
,11.1 a l.•ollsi<l(;r,able loss o.^ours. In the analy.sis of thu soil in
rhich his e.vperimei-;s were e-m-rted on(, (,ii.jiig/i in tde ivit/i the
reutest care, no mention is made of nitrogen, but ho refers to it
s similar to that of Itothamstod as to tho nitrogenous matter,
ir ,J. B. Lawes state,s that within roach of agricultural onqis,
he arable soil contains fr.im 10,0001bs. to 12,0001ba. of nitrogen
/er acre, but app,arently M. Vide loaves this out of calcula¬
tion aitogothor j and, because ho fiinls inoro nitrog-on in certain
crop.s th.m w.as applied in the manure, jumps to the cmclusioii
tliat the balance was derived directly from the air. In the case
of whe.at—which, as ha.s been shown, makes the best use of the
nitrogen supplied—it is shown by the reviewer that 1 ewt.
nitrate of soda furnishes 171ba. or 181bs. of nitrogen, and that if
every particle were taken up this would suffice for II Tbuahola
280 THE INDIAN /(JRIOULTURIST. Aagttst 1, 1883.
of extra wheat, and ho thinks farmers would be satisfied
with 6 bushels on an averaj^, and that even in 1803, the
year of maximum produoe at Bothamsted, the amount of
nitrogen in the increase of the oxparimental crop was
considerably less than that supplied in the manure. # * • •
Sir .T. B. liawes points out many other errors which our
limits will not allow ns to recognise. Enough has been nd -
vanced to act as a warning to our readers not to blindly follow
the advice of one who, however well-intentioned, is not a
farmer, nor a scientific man, but who is evidently profountl-
ly Ignorant of agrioultnral practice.”
Mr. Fuller has mentioned M. Vide as the man in whose
footsteps he hae followed, and now the Pioneer brings forward
Or. Voelcker as the eminent authority who “ bears out with
extraordinary force the results of the Cawnpore experiments.”
The Pioneer will probably ho snrjjrised to learn that the
experiments of Or. Voelcker which it brings forward in con¬
firmation of the Cawnpore experiments not only reveal nothing
new which was not established beyond all possibility of doubt
many years ago, but are merely confirmations of an earlier
experiment. Sir J. B. Lawes, tlien Mr. Lawes, more than
thirty years ago conducted the following experiment:—
Two plots of land, side by side, for eighteen years were
manured alternately with ammonia salts and phospliate of lime.
In 1852, plot No. 1 was treated with ammonia, plot No. 2 received
superphosphate. In 18.'>3, No. 1 got superphosphate, and No. 2
ammonia ; and so on for eighteen yeai's. Tims, each plot had
been nine times manured with ammonia and nine times with
mineral phosphates. Over the whole time the overage produoe
of both was exactly the same, 24^ bushels ; but the average of
the eighteen crops grown by mineral manure alone, whether
on plots No. 1 or No. 2 was only 17J bushels ; whilst the
average of the eighteen crops grown on either plot by ammonia
Baits was 31^ bushels, being an increase of nearly 14 bushels
per acre more each year. These results, ooulirmed by Voelcker,
and tested by the practice of ngrioultnrists, were accepted
among scientific agriculturists long before Mr. Fuller’s interesting
experiments in the same direction were thought of. The Pioneer
will probivbly now understand why we could see nothing aHtouUh-
ing In the Cawnpore Experimental Farm experiments, and why j
we do not feel at all annihilated by Dr. Voet^er’s paper in the
Journal of the Hoi/al Affrieu/lural Sonictif. T)c, Voelcker is but
following in the footsteps of Lawes, and the latter left nothing
to be performed by those who came after him but confirm
what ho Irad established.
The chief source, however, of the Pioneer's perplexity arises
from the “ grave discrepancies between some very positive
nssertionsrecently made in the Indian Agriculturist, and the con¬
clusions arrived at by Dr. Voelcker . . . ^which bear out with
extraordinary force the results of the Cawnpore Farm experi¬
ments and the conclusions which we drew from them,” and the
writer in the Pioneer “ doubts whether the Indian Agriculturist
will find it worth while to quarrel with so high an authority
BS Dr. Voelcker.” Here, again, it seams to us thore is confusion
of thought, and a coiisequent inability to gr.asp the points at
issue. So far as we are aware, no one doubts that both
at Cawnpore and Woburn, the yield of wheal from nitrogenous
manures was very marked. Hod Dr. Voelcker, however, gone on,
ns Mr. Fuller has done for India, to draw from the Woburn
experiments the conclusion that it is nitrogen alone that is
deficient in the soil of England, not only would the Indian
Agrieulturist have “ quarrelled with so high an authority,” but
every aeientifle agrionllurist in England would have laughed
In the doctor’s face.
"We may bo permitted here to say a few words anent
the criticism whidi the Pioneer recently made on an
article of ours regariling the appointment of Major Pitcher.
In our June number, we said, “ We have no knowledge
whatever of Major Pitohor. He may be the most suitable
man in all India for the position he has been placed
in at Cawnpore; but this square-mamrouud-hole business
of placing soldiers and warrior judtes, in charge of
Experimental Farms, seems to us almut as wise as placing
ploughmen and pigslrivers in command of regiments, and
giving district and divisional comnrands to growers of big
oahhagee, nuperifttive tmnips, aad gigantic gooseteries,”
The Piotmr was then good enough to vouch for the
superlativd fitness of Major Pitcher. He had spiMlally studied
agriculture daring a recent furlough to England, and was
out of sight the best man in the province for the
position. Will the Pioneer inform us if there is any
country in the world besides India where the servants
of the State are asked to perform such widely dlflfering
duties, demanding special knowledge, as that implied in the
translation of a Small Cause Court Judge to the practicB* con¬
trol of a scientific Experimental Farm 1 So far as we are
aware, the control of Experimental Farms is given in England
and the Colonies, Germany, France, America, and elsewhere, to
men who have made a life’s stud.v of the subject, or who have
been specially trained for the purpose, lu India, a clever
civilian or a clever military man is deemed able to cope with
nnythlug—from the demarkation of a ryot’s holding to the
government of a province, and the idea never seems to
dawn on those who make snob amazing appointments, that the
purposes of the State would be better served by importing men
from England— young men who have studied agriculture in
theory and practice in the beat schools of Emope and America.
The Bengal Government is about to establish an Experimental
Farm. Will there in this case also be a clever civilian appoint¬
ed, or will the Bengal Government look for a man of ripe
experience who will redeem Indian Experimental Farm reports
from a good deal of twaddle ?
The Pioneer has been good enough on several
occasions in recent years to criticise and lecture the Indian
Agrkiiliurist. May we take the present opportunity of return¬
ing the Pioneer’s compliments ? We strongly advise our con¬
temporary to write about subjects which it understands, and
leave to journals such as the Indian Agriculturist the diaouasion
of technical topics whiot lie outside the rim not only of the
Pioneer's knowledge, but which apparently stand beyond even
the circumference of its conceptions.
NOTE ON THE CAUSES RETARDING IMPROVE¬
MENT IN CATTLE-BREEDING AMONG CULTf-
VATORS OP THE HINDU CLASS IN THG DOAB
TRACT, ABOUT THE VICINITY OP DISTRICT
ETAH, N.-W. 1>.
T here appears to bo a great deal of something not quite
coinprehensible in connection with cattle-breeding
among Hindoo cultivators about this part of the country ; not
speaking of professional bi’oedei-s, but of .*110 great mass of
agricultural people. The male of the cow species furnishes the
draught server in agi-Mvitture, and the female of the hufl'alo
B]wcies the milk supply ; the opposite sexes on citlier siilc
being comparatively useless except for propagation, and it would
seem reasonable that before a proper means could be devised
for improving either or both of those species, that we should
form, if possible, a correct appreciation of the causes and of the
effect, whether detrimental or otherwise, of these exclusions
on the general conditions of the animals.
A cultivator in these densely cultivated districts, if asked
why he docs not keep a greater number of cows and breed his
own draught cattle, invariably answers that it is because he has
no grazing grounds. Beflecting no further than that this is n
fact, many have been led to the conclusion that there is some
inherent infirmity in the constitution of the cow that renders
it impassible for her to exist without grazing on a pasture,
this not being the case with Uie buffalo. The buffalo in Iho
matter of grazing has, if anything, the advantage over the cow
of habitually grazing at night, and of grazing in a pouring
rain, and perhaiis of protecting itself from flies, a serious
obstacle to grazing, by covering itself ^ith a coating of mud.
Whether these advantages are admissible as suoli or not does
not alter the fact—that there are no perceptible phj'i^logical
reasons why the cow should ireod to graze ani^ not the & ?salo.
That the" cultivator will keep buffalo cows but not cows
unless ho has pasturage for them, is a fact, but some other
reason must be assigned for it, the moat plausible being that
as stall-feeding is much more expegaive than gi-aziug, it docs
not pay to stall-feed cows.
August 1, 1883.
281
THE INDIAN KcmiCULTURIST.
Tha first fact that is always thrown in your teeth by culti¬
vators of these parts when urged to increase their slock of
cows is, that the bnSalo averages a supply of three times ns
much milk as the cow—8 seers against her three ; but as it is
well known that the milking qualities cau be bred and im-
junvetl, that English cows, when properly fefl give an average
of 12 quarts—quite 12 seeis, and that many country cows have
beep, au<l can be brought to give the same, the inference is
that she is neglected. Large milk-giving capacity is obviously
as much an artificial condition in the cow as the length of fore¬
arm and other peculiar physical conformations tliat give the
English race-horse the speed he shows. The great development
of udder and lean condition that characterizes the first-class
milch-cow in working trim is a form obviously quite unsuited
to any animal in a wild state, dependent chiefly on siieed tor its
preservation as most of the herbivora are, and judging from
this, any approximation to this state must be a retrogression
from good milking qualities. Allowing cattle to griuc in large
herds with the object of securing bull calves which arc allowed
to suck their dams as often as nature prompts is, it is to bo
feared, an ajiproximatiou to the wild state, and most of the
breeding in Ind ia is done in this way.
An interesting enquiry now remains, which is—why it is that
the she-buffalo has supplanted the common cow in the dairy of
the Uoab .Hindoo cultivator 1 Su])planted she has heeu. Set¬
ting aside other weighty reasons, it is traditional that the
general use of the milch-buffalo is compai’atively recent, and It
is well known to be extending. However unexpected the con-
elusion may be, it is strongly suspected that the veneration in
which she is held hy Hindoos has had a groat ileal to do with
bringing about her degeneration. Tli.o first objection to keeping
a cow by Hindoos may have been tjie fear of her getting into
the clutches of beef-eating people when these people I'uled tho
laiiil ; and it will not be surprising if tbc first impulse to buffalo-
breeding proves to Inive been given during the time of the
hlahomedau coinpicsts. This, iu the absence of ijrouf to the
contrary, hardly admits of doubt. To this day, ih'Spitc the
roluxalion in Hindoo religions discipline, it i.s deemed a dis-
ropulSble act to sell a cow atall, and decidedly improper and
sinful to sell her to people likely to devour her, oi desecrate her
sacred person in any way, and we can readily imagine how
glad the conquered Hindoo must have been to fiml a substitute
iu the buffalo, rogurding which animal there are no such
scruples. There cau be no doubt that foraging parties from
large Mahonicdan anniea secui-cd their beef by force, it being
highly improbable that till a very Ulo period they could have
purchased enough for their wants with HilKlooi^ln at its
height; to say nothing of their eai>js.fS)Uey, which was by no
means one of even religious toleration.
2. The very important que.sliaii of gelding to whicli no
one appears f.o li.ive laid much weight.—No Hindoo about tbc.se
pai'ts would dream of emasculating an ox; even a ctuinmi', in this
part of the country at all events, would be instantly ontciistud
did be attempt it, for wu know of an in.sUnco where this was
actually done, though the man kept up the trade iu spite of tho
disgrace. B.rt at the same time, no cultivator would care to
yoke one that had not been so Ireateil ; besides the docility
and lessened liability to coiistiUilional waste secured, there
is a tacit conviction, only very occa.sioiially expressed, that the
unsexed bixost h.as lost its sanctity, and that whatever objection
there is to -working tho entire hull, there is none in harassing
the unfortunate “ buitiya,” a.s the gelt aninml is called. Can
wo conceive anything more deleterious to caltie-biecding and
disadvantageous to agriculturists than this objection to castrat¬
ing ? The ordiiiiirv cultivator now, unless he wi.shcs to release
a “ Brahminy Bull” after the death of a relative, is hound to
.sell Ids bull calves, anil under most disadvantageous conditions
for he must have budiyas. The. few that do use entire bull.-,
ne\^!R%nleas bred by theniselvcs, mak<- a great merit of it us
manifesting Ui(jjr devotion to their religion, and caicfully fix a
plank .across the horns. You arc occasionally loM that So-and-so
owns a bull as docile as a gelt ox; but these exceptions only prove
the rule, and the sad truth is that the majority get more dread¬
fully vicious,and ax’e sold to the “baiijara ilcalcrs” tor a mere song,
if not presented to them, on condition that they will c.atch the
beasts themselves, A jm'ty of Baiijuriw wore observed a few
days ago near the tehsil town of Itmadporo in the Agra
District, driving away a number of mature bulls that they had
evidently purchased from cultivators who had kept them eutir-o
in the hope that they would prove docile. The poor beaste
had been subjected to the excessively cruel process of castration,
known ns “ criuduug,” nud were Ireing forced to march before
the inflammation, which is always very great iu this process,
had subsided. “ Incision” does not apjjoar to suit maturo bulls^
and the small liability to tetanus displayed in the bovine
species allows of the crushiug pi*ocess being carried ou with
impunity ; iu the horse, it frequently results in tetanus. It was
probably the intention of these men to dispose of tho animals
in large cities for lieavj’ c.arl work, os late castration never
ensiu-es a perfect tem|)cr. The operation of gelding is always
iwrformed by tho fU-st year iu tho case of cattle required for
light, active work, as most well-bred animals are ; it lightens
tlie neck and sbonlders. The heavy neck beiiig a sexual sign
is only acquii-ed at maturity, and it is only cattle that oi-o
reipiired for heavy, plodding work, that m-e allowed to acquire
something of this form before being castrated. After the second
year and before the third, must bo the time iu this case. Both
well and [ilougli work arc best performed by active luiiiuals,
and cultivators, when wishing to praise their cattle tell you, tliat
they “actually yaiiip cfoic/i. the buflook-rim" or " ,flij with tho
jilougb.” The value of a bull-calf decreases every day after
the j>ro])er time for castration has e.xpired, ami the ahortuoa.s
of this iieriod, combined witli the absence of a comjietitive
mart, leaves very little hope of a good bargain Ijcing made by
tho Hindoo cultivator.
This objection to rendering tho animals serviceable, ou which
they arc depoiideut for so much, can only be regarded as a groat
social evil among those people. Everybody knows that yon
must have gelded oxeu, that the bulk of tho animals must be
purchased from Hindoos, yet they refuse to geld,aud there must
bo no ostentations .salo, and a large seasoning of sophistication even
with the ungelt animals. Vour respectable Hindoo slionld not
go dancing a'wut a mart—who will buy i—with his cows and
ailvBN : they should bo sold at home, if at all, with pretence of
the sale being really a gift, and a losiioctable native will often
tell you with fu'ide that a cow has never been sold from tho
stalls of his faiiiily within the memory of man ; you m.ay sell
to tlic chamnr and he to the gelders if he is not ovor-auxions
about Ills soul ; then you may buy “ budiyas,” but not the
particular ones bred by you, This wouhl be indeceiil, and you
would be throwing yourself ojieii to suspicion. Your brother
may buy such animals but it is considered an uncanny thing to
do, 'J'he baiijara who castrates is the customer ; he is
oftciicr a Hindoo than a Mahonicdan, and it i.s pleasant to
deceive youi-sclf with the reflection that you sell to a Hindoo.
This, alino.st the only, legal cnsloiiier heloijging to a vast clique,
can demand his own price fia- entire bull-calves. They arc now
with the cultivator of such a wretched breed that he scarcely
oU'era .anything for Uiem ; Its. 10 is about the average. Tlie
baiijara gets his .st,oc.k from brecdci-s iu well known districts,
but if a cullivatiir purchasing draught cattle from him,
happens to have a male calf, it is sure to be thrown into the
bargain at a dead loss. Bound to be of a vile breed, it is,
after castration, sold to some aiifortuiiate chamar. Taking all
this info consideration, it does not appear astonishing that a
cultivator should show no anxiety to imjirovo his own breed,
and that he should neglect the splendid opjKirtunities offered
him by Govcriimont of well-bred bulls, (liic would think that
the best iiKluccroeiit to general improvement would be tho
guarantee, if possible to private breeders of a fair price for
their entire biill-ealvcs of a certain standai'd. Perhaps it would
then pay to stall-fce<l cows of better ((uality, and the objection
of “want of iiasturage” would not be raised so fi-equcntly.
The writer knows of an instance in which a beautiful black
Jiissar bull, one of a number furnished by the Awah Estate
iiQiler the Goiirt of Walds, was scarcely tolerated for the fiist
few moiith.s of his being stationed and advertized free of
charge for the Use of all cows brought to him, and is now
flocked to by cultivators, it is confidently believed, because the
Agricultui-al Department have begun to g-ive prizes for cattle
at fairs. The bull has been about 20 mouths ,al one dep6t, and
is now tho sire ^ 73 beautiful calves, .07 of them males lyid luoic
^ THE INDIAN Afl^ODLTUBIST. Angxist 1, 1883.
pMaliw atill, «11 black like kin. Tbe owner* of a few of I
then being told tkat they could oonjoeto for priaes at tiie
]&(tMar fair apiieared pleased, but regained quiet, it ia
•u^peoted, because they are poor men, Mtd weigh the chanoes trf
taking a prhie against the expense of travelling, to say nothing
of neglecting their I’obi crope, as the fair takes place in Novem¬
ber, their being no reasouable hope of their selling the entire
calves to advimtage. They were asked what they thought of
selling their calves, with two teeth, to Crovemment for artillery
purpoees, and, of course expressed their approval and opinion
that it would pay to visit the fair under these circumstances.
The fjovemment demand for oxen for military purposes is
very large, and tkeU'C shonld be no difflculty in giving a guarantee
for the demand, particularly when a very superior standard
conld be fixed. They could bo purchased entire at ahotjt 2 ^
years, and caetrated. The late geldiug wonhl leave their necks
rather heavy, but perhaps this is just the form wanted, for the
heavy draught work they are put to. There can be no doubt
that this would throw a fair share Of the trade into the hands
of oulHvators, in whose interest we write, and by making
them regular cattle-dealers, perhaps eventiuilly induce them to
throw aside scruples about castration. After all, the objection
is very weak and unsound in a religious point of view. A
brahmin was naked to explain how, if casti-ation was so sinful, he
reconciled himself to purchasing gelt cattle, his moral responsi¬
bility as purchaser being just as great as if ho had performed
the operation himself, inasmuch as if he did not make the
demand, it would not be the interest of dealers to geld. He
could only answer that it was not the pi-aoticc, and atlded tliat
there were some otherwise orthodox Hindoos who went so far as
to sell their calves to wistraters, and then pvirchase them back for
a slightly larger sum, i-eally the gelding fee, but that they only
did it because it has beau the practice iu their families for ages.
The beat cattle for general use about this district are brought
from the M'oarut country. The Morati is a Mahomedaii, and
has no BCniplesabout castrating. The .Tat also, unless living
.among scrupulous people, is not very particular iu this matter,
and breeds good cattle. There is reason to be afraid that no
breeder could make the business pay if he objecteil to gold
his own stock unless specially supported.
3. Food .—In the case of a hnffalo-cow every particle of
waste food and leavings iu a Hindoo household cau he utilized,
but not so with the cow : it would not l>e proper to feed her
on leavings of lotA—jhiUa. The imperfect digestion of the horse
in comparison to that of ruminants, allows of the dung of the
former being given freely to the buffalo with the effect of
fattening and increasing milk : the only objection being, the
horse odour, which can be detected iu the milk. Low-caste
natives do not hesitate to feed their cows on it as well, and it is
apparently not considered as objectionable as jKiUa. The few
people, well-to-do cultivators, respectable Kaiths, &c., that do
keep a cow or two, the smaller the better as they will eat less
say that they only do it so iis to be able to perform cortair
religious ceremonies with facility, and that if it were only a
matter of milk it would only be more profitable to keep a goat.
Tlie object is to salute the tesat, and look at her face the firsi
thing iu the morning. Give her a little of their food before
eating themselves, (a meritorious act) secure “ products ” for tlr
purification of their hearths, &c.
The buffalo is said to have the supt-rior advantage of Ireing
able to eat certain cheap foildere that the cow will not ; w
know of none in daily use. The cow does not refuse castor,
ueem, babul and jharberi—the four extraordinary fodders used
about hero. We do not do iiali ves sufficient justice when we
imagine that they cannot calculate on the niceties of agricul
tural economy. The following is what n shrewed Kaitli, wh
by the way owns a cow, told ns : “ there is one little advantage
that tlie keeping of a oow should bo credited with. If ii
graaing aluut it enter a field of oorn,- there is a chance of the
cultivator saying, ‘ It is a oow, let it eat,' but heaven pro¬
tect the buffalo detected at any similar little game.”
On the whole, I should not think that the buffalo has any
very eupetdor. advjuitags imder this head ; perhaps what is
meant is, that eearse food gives mure profitable results iu the
case of the buffalo than it does iu that of the cow, iu the matter
of milk.
4. The buffalo is asid te last longer than the cow, and a
ujmmcm native/proverb is,— ’
<?ai iTura d/iori, bhaiiu titra thori. This, when literally
ranslatod, means-.-that whhe the cow is aging after her se-
ond calf, the buffalo ia soaroely affected by her third calf.
Of course, the numbers here are exaggerations but it shows the
pi'evailing impression. It is nndersto^ to be an estabiiehed
'act that the better fed an animal ia the mere virility wil^t
sliow, and if the unfortunate cow is to depend upon “ usar ”
pastures for its support, the origin of the proverb is not long to
be sought for.
5. There are religious objections to selling a cow, hut none
whatever to selling a buffalo, and one can understand a poor
but pious Hindoo cultivator who knows that he may be feresd
to sell his milch beast any time, selecting the buffalo.
(5. A buffalo proving baiTen does not throw a cultivator
so completely off his centre if we may use the expression, as
in the case of a cow, the latter would prove a burden as it
would uot be easy to get rid of her while the former can and
will certainly be pat to the plough or yoked to the well
)'ope. From the sui>erior attention paid to her, she shows
more bulk and bone than the average male bufi'alo,
.and makes a very fair draught animal. A short time ago
we came across a cultivator working a barren cow-huffalo,
at a well ; it appears that he had worked her for 6 years.
He originally trained her, influenced by the idea prevailing
iu these pju'ts that work sometimes removes sterility. As
she did not improve but worked very well, ho continued
working her. The usual thing is to moke the barren cow-
buffalo over to the carrier who loads and works her freely
returning her when she sliows signs of I’eeovery, if she over
does. A lai'ge proiwrtion o{ the buffaloes that may Ire seen
carrying grain to the Agra market of a morning, will be found
to l>e barren females.
7. It a Hindoo kills a buffalo accidentally, it does not
matter iu the least ns it does in the case of the oow, when
ho has to perform penance of no ordinai'y severity. In fact,
he compromises himself rather seriously if he allows her
to die with a rope round her neck, aud tethers are cafhfully
removed from cows la-lievod to be dying. Thakurs sacrilice
a buffalo to the godess Kali at the Deseh<trii festival.
R. The hull buffalo ns a dra\ight animal for agrictiUtiral
purpoaes holds a very inferior rank, bad for well work,
for ho . is slow aud cannot bear the heat of the
sun. Bad for ploughing l>ecauso he will not walk straight,
and it is not easy to make a clean, straight,-furrow with a
pair. What is generally done is to pair a buffalo and an
ox : the ox keeiw the WffWo straight, and they manage to
get. along pretty well. Even this is objected to very strongly
iu a proverb that we cannot do bettor than give—
BhainsA bard ka khcti kark, karua kftr bir&no khke, Badiya
ainchat ha6 bhtlrau ko, Bhainsft kbenoh debar ko ja4, aur
j^kar ghai’ nitj uar karkesk vo nar binft maut mar jfto,
Or—He that ploughs with a buffalo-bull and an ox will
know (bitter) debt, for the ox will draw up towards the
dry sand and the buffalo will drag down towards the
swamp ; and he that has a shrew for a wife will die before his
time.
Of eourso only ohanian and such low castes use them for
ploughing and irrigating, though all glasses use them for
carls. We were once given, by a onltivator, a yery lucid
illustration of this teudenuv iu the buS'alo uot to walk straight.
He unyoked a pair of oxen, aud thejr immediately started
off unattended for a clump of trees where the were daily
tethered and fed. He then unyoked a pair of buffaloes, and they
as soon commenoed straggling about in opposite directions as
if unaware of the existence of the trees “where they were also
daily attended to, aud had to be pushed, and punished into
the proi>er direction. Perhaps, through the stupiditi' of
the beast, it is uot possible to train it so,thoroughly as
the ox.
Natives have a proverb to the effect that you should sot
count on your buffalo.till the calf has weathered three winters,
showing t^t the mortality among them till they arrive at
maturity is considered great, but it must be the same with
the male produce of all milch stock, particularly whsr* they
August 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN ^GBICULTURIST.
283
are of scarcely any valne. Bafelo-calves arc aaiil, however,to Iw
very easosptible to cold. Nor can very young animals endure
the hot wind and at thifi time of the year they are found to
thrive best in an enclosed room the floor of whioli has been
flooded and worked op into a puddle ; the steaming atmosphere
of Buofa a place suiting their temperament. Male calves
are hardly allowed enough footl to keep them alive ; it cannot
be afforded when the milk which they require is
mia^e VftUtnble than the calf itself. The latter sells for
about 4 rupees when 18 mouths oM, and the very batter-
milk it would havd'required in this time to keep it in health
is worth move, let alone the butter which the culti¬
vator cannot afford to eat himself. In the bovine species the
rule does not admit of exception that the male is naturally
larger than the female, and the reverse being the c;vse with the
ordinary breed of buffaloes about here, the conclusion is that it
is the result of unnatural starvation. Natives tnll you that they
cannot keep up a suitable breed without refreshing by im¬
portation of stock from localities where the animal thrives best-
It is very likely that the neglect of the moles of the home
stock, already spoken of, partially accounts for this necessity,
though we must not lose sight of climatic unsuitability, the
natural habitat of the buffalo being a moist wai-m climate. A
well informed and experienced English gentleman who has
resided in the part of the country between and about Agra
and Delhi for more than 30 years, tells us that efforts were
made in days gone by,to introduce the huge Bengal buffalo, but
without suceffis, and tlwt the breed known i\s the “ Sindhi”
i-eeognized by their great size and more especially by their
twisted home, which like that of a ram form quite a ring,
have always proved superior and best suited to tlie loovlity.
The famnua milk buffaloes of the ‘‘ gaddis ” or Mahomedan
milkmen of Aligarh arc said to be, of this breed. Tliey have
the i-eputation of being very careful about the breed of their
cattle, and to be very diary about parting with good males bred
for milk stuck,
9, Buflalo milk is said by the natives to liave a greater
specific gravity than cows’ milk, and to be in consequence move
satisfying food, and at the same time to contain more butter ;
but thill they tell you that the quantity of butter in the milk
of a buffalo-cow, tliough averaging 6 per cent by weight, is us
much subject to regulation as the produce of n field. iVciling
on cotton-seed immediately increases the butter ]>or seer of
milk, tUougli at the same time it reduces the quantity of milk,
but the balance of profit is universally admitted to be on the
side of cotton-seed feeding, if for no other reason tlmn that it
is e.isier to extract butter froraricli milk, and tlie animal keeps
in better condition. Natives here say tliat feeding on the grain
called v,rd has the peculiar effect *6^-^iroduciug an inordinate
flow of milk in the bufl'alo that ruins her in a very short space
of time, and that it is a favourite trick with dishonest people
that wish to sell her to advantage. It is only suspected at.
present that if there is any difference between the sperific
gravity of the milk of the cow and buffalo, it is the result of
difference in bulk, and that the same difl'ereuce would be found
between the milk of very large ami very small cows. It is an
open question. In sburl, one is led to believe that this ad¬
vantage, if such it is possessed by the buffalo over the cow, is
also the result of neglect and consequent degeneration in the
latter.
There can be no doubt that investigation would elicit other
points of difference between the two species that would show
advantages and disadvantages in each j but those mentioned
seem the most important, and would appear to ju-stify the
following conclusions ;—
That the ordinary Hindoo cultivator finds it more to his
advantage to keep milc)t buffaloes than milch cows. The reason
for this does not appear to be because the cow is constitutionally
unsuited to bear comparison with the buffalo in milking
qualKHeS, but because religioue feelings brought about a neglect
of the cow tha* resulted in her degeneration. That these
feelings still influence the Hindoo, and have organized a condi¬
tion of pecuniary lose in bull-breeding among cultivators which as |
the bull furnishes the draught power in agriculture, represeuts ‘
a needlsM loss in this Industi-y. That unless things are modi¬
fied and the proepects ol gain eahanced,tho neglect will continue.
That tlie encouragement of a competitive demand under
conditions that do not compromise the Hindoo with his society,
ocoompaiiied with aid in the shape of well-bred sii-es, and if
possible, a guaranteed domaiid for good steers,—in fact, means
taken to ensure a profit to the breeder although he cannot
commaud a ohea]i jiasture for his stock, will, as in the case of
j horse .breeding, eimuru tlio improvement of cattle among agri
culturists, and throw a profitable industry into their hands,
)iartioalarly if the cow can be brougljt to rear good bulhcalves,
and furnish as miu-h milk as the buffalo at the same time.
That though the buffalo lieiiig an exotic animat is likely to
die out very readily if the above end is obtained, she now holds
tlie place of the milch beast admirably, and taking religious
prejudices and all things into consideration, her improvement
is worthy the consideration of those who would aid the ryot,
the greater part of wlioae rent she now pays, her keep, as has
been often pointed out, represen ting an annual pi-ofit of Its. 40
to a aUtivator of 10 aa'es of g(>od land, who is enablod through
her to utilise certain proiluctions of Iii« fields that would other¬
wise be wasted.
That nothing but the ordinary idea of supplying good animals
for sires, and discouraging breeding from any others, appears to
lie wanted for the improvement of buffaloes, they being so
much ill vogue ; unless a demaiid could be found for goo<l
males, indispensable animals for draught and burden in marshy
districts.
AY. f
OUIl WEATHER OFFICE.
A GOVERNMENT whose financial prosperity and very
existence dejieiid on direct income from the hiuil, may
appropriately sahsidise science in the pursuit of weather-laws
—these intimately affecting tlie prosperity of the agricultural
masses. Aud it is well that the suhition of a great |iroblcin
has been imderUkwi iii India as elsewhere by State resources,
which idourt can make success ]iussible. .For some ye.ars past
the Goveniiiient in tins country have responded liberally to
the ever-inereasing dcin mils of the Meteerological Depaa-t-
iiieiit for e\paiisioij. Tlie operations now extend over an
area wliicii must b« the envy of European meteorologists,
and tile conipactness of its Hdiuimstratioii is doubtless an
element of efiiciency. That it should seek to justify its existence
in attempts to forecast the weather is emnmendablc, wlale in
conformity with natural expectation of the due exercise of
the functions with which it has been presumably endowed.
L’nfortiinately, bare, as elsewhere, the fluctuations of a
column of mercury, representing variation iu air-pressure or
tension, have reci-ivtal undue prominence : aud are held to
comprise the secret of loiig-songlit weather laws. Degrees of
tension, however, have no known or recognisable sequence, and
wanting this knowledge and much else, forecasts .is now
eoiwtiluted must usually prove illusory. Occasional coti-
fonuity between forecast and weather proves nothing—
fui-nisbes no weather law—for weathei'-c<ist«, avowedly
empirical, sore as many successes as those emanating from
highly organised State departments, equipped with costly
appliances aud invested with scientific eulat.
The telcgi-aph has been employetl here, as in Europe aud
America, to announce the periodical and season weather
changes, which, first manifesting themselves in known confines,
exteiul over large and varying areas—but tin's operation
scarcely comes within the domain of predictions. The area*
intensity, and duration of weather-phases (the ultima thidt of
meteorology) are not details which the telegraph con
determine. No forecast, for instance, of the probable duration,
intensity, direction, and limit of the air-depresaions, <dia» rain
or monsoon currents, which appear at intervals on the Bengal
and Bombay currents, aud travel into the coutiiieiit of India'
is possible by the telegraph. But such information .accom¬
panying the intimatiuii of tlu- .ippc ir nice of the depressione
would lie vjibiiible to the rtgricullurisU Of course, it would
be still more viiluuble to be iufornied in advance by the weather*
office when and wUerj these dopressioua would form, an^^ the
area they would affect. As with those monsoon depiegatons,
284 , Au^t ivisas,
liotrever,. #D with th» AmerioaB stoims.which ,4tre hUe^f^to
tw^asw the Not alwa^ do theoa -wach England or
TrmM. ^«y freqaently end nomewheire .«u ^ boean. The
weather offioe fails to give any ii^rmaidoa in.this respect; it
is h^lessly contined to telegraphic intimation of storms having
commenced in certain American looalttkm, whence they are
hypothetically held to cross the Atlantic to Europe. It is
not by any means established that all Atlantic storms originate
iu America, or that any etonn so originating has actnally been
traced to England and France. What is suggested by the
knowledge obtained is a probable oo-incidence at times be¬
tween disturbances gradually extending over vast and varying
a,rea.s. The practical worth of the weather ofliee iu Europe
unit America, ns in India, in fact begins and ends with the
telegraph which is not a meteorological instrument at all.
It is true that the weather office in England claims the
fulfilment of 80 per cent of its predictions, but departmental
statistics, departmentally interpreted, ore not necessarily contH-
butions to eternal verities. In India, for instance, the secre¬
tariat conclusions from jail and police statistics often conflict
with departmental deductions, and tone down considerably
departmental self-satisfaction. But any deduction, however
authoritative and entitled to respect, must be vitiated if all the
factors in a question have not been tabulated. Some years ago
the head of the Medical department in England declared that
departmental statistias proved the health of the Indian army to
have been strikingly benefited by recently improved sauitatiou.
The jubilation among the official constellations was however
brief. An Assistant-Surgeon sugg^ted that the diminution of
mortality and sickness was rather the outcome of increased
invaliding —a factor that had found no expre.ssiou in lieiid-
quarter statistics.
The 80 per cant confirmations claimed by the weather office
in England must be appraised by their character, as well as
by the character of the 20 per cent failures. The last pre¬
sumably comprise the unexpected incidonoe of great storms
which inflict severe losses on the mercantile community.
The department has not on the other hand been able to establish
to the satisfaction of anybody but itself, any diminution of
shipwrecks and oousequeiit loss of life, or of any bonelU. to
agriculture or to the population at large, through its alleged
triumphs. No aid given by the telegraph in estimating the
direction, for instance, of a storm already in incidence at a
distance, is a meteovological prediction for the localities warn¬
ed to prepare for it. Still less are pretensions to a prediction
in such cases admissible when neither the duration Jior dis¬
tribution of intensity is notified. There is no basis to proceed
upon in these respects. And when we beai- iu mind that in
England weather phases, unlike those iu India, are com¬
paratively of brief duration, it is always likely that a predic¬
tion during a period of disturbance, of tlie ce-ssation of that
disturbance within a certain number of hours, will bo verified
—even when not scientifically based—and the same for de¬
ductions as to duration of calms according to season. The
bulk of the 80 per cent verifications consist of such triumphs,
the scientific premises in which are more or less contestable,
while the oonclosiona are endorsed, as it were, by a cynicism of
nature. The public estimate is adjusted accordingly. Again
—the alarm through hoisting of cones and other signals on
erroneous deductions from telegraphic and other data, makes
the community eventually distrusttul or indifferent to warn¬
ings unless confirmed by local weather knowledge assisted or
not by instruments. This is very natural ; for the loss of time
which means loss of money in a commercinl and maritime
country through concessions to miscalled science, must ultimate¬
ly create contempt of efforts, however scientific the alleged
basis.
On a par with the above, but on a vague and still less
tangible basis are the speculations by our Indian weather
office on the character of an approaching “ rains.” To predict
for instance, an average, or more or less than average
“ rains,” conveys no information of any value to the
almost purely agricultural population, while confirmation
can scarcely suggest suggest a scientific triumph. The area of
prediction in Bfingal, N.-W. P., CentrabProvlnces, and Punjab
b larely, if ey«& without sufficient rain, except over
vttryin# fraotimai it ^ tl» d«4»itibn of average, ot above
or below average sniiip*,” it pw ihnt tiw. «gri(wltarist is
imiiffierwt about,iwovlded the dietiibatlon of rain, over tliio
season has been epportim^ or eetyiisotoiry, practical wilue
of a prediotiou is embixeed just fa these pointe-r-and on them
the weathei'office Is silent. A ” rains.may. be above the
average—but a rainfall concentrated in July and August
siguifies drought when the rabi crop is to be Sown, and that in
turn implies a ffimine due within a twelve-mouth. A “ rahj^ ”
may be below the average, but its dutributieu so adapted to
(^picultural requirements as to ensure an am^le hharif crop and
the foundation of the rahi or succeeding one. And so on for
other conditions. Pndffl’ these circumstances the only pr-edio-
tioH that would prove striking or vindicate science, would In-
that of total or almost total failure of the “ rains area beui<i
mentioned. But tlie weather office has no knowledge of area ;
a prominent feature of this year’s prediction too. Again, the
forecast of a more than average “ ruins" this year for tiie
Bengal, N.-W.P.,Central Provinces and Punjab,cannot possibly
imply that a uniform fall of so many inches will occur in eacii
subordinate area with a known rainfall average registered at
certain stations. Tlio distribution of the raiji is always eccentric.
Large tracts may be deluged while others bo imperfectly
visited, or not have more than an average rainfall. So far then
as details of area are concerned, a consideriition that snporsodes
everything else, tlie prediction, even if confirmed as to tlic
gross area, will be a failure.
Of late a tendency has been manifested in our Indian
weather office to enlist jihenomena in cei'tain iocalitie.s, for
determining weather pliases in contiguous areas—a sigiiifiiiant
admission that weather laws may be sought for elsewliero
than in the fluetu.atious of .the barometrical column. In Juno
last, the office concealed its barometrical prediction of the piv-
coeding May, of an “early rains” in Tipper India. An nn-
expeotod snowfall in the Himal.ayns at the end of May was
held to have vitiated the forecast. Such a plienomenon in
previous years ha<l, it was declared, retarded the “ rains ”
through lowering tiie toniiierature in Upper India—or in
other words causing there a rise in pressure. Monsoons like
all disturbances gravitaie only to areas of iow pressure—
which is the same thing .as high temperature. On subsequent
discovery', liowever, that tlie snowfall of May was only partial
and that through not extending into the interior of the
Himalayas, the requirements of departmental hy'pothesis of a
retarding high tem])erature or low pressure had not Ijecn
I satisfied, the original prediction of an “ early r.aius” iu Upfiei'
India was restoied. But tlie supjiosed intei'-dependance of
phenomena more or less separated by time or locality or both
has never been justified, by facts. That the weather office
if, however, pledged to some such hypothesis is further proved
by the following :—
“ Weather rejiort, Simla, Ifith .Tuuo 1883. * * A dry westerly
and north-westerly current prevails over North-Westevu India,
ajipai'ently repelling the moister moMoon current.”
Hero liypothesis seeks iu co-iacidentivl piionomena the relation
of cause and effect. But even tlien what justification is tliere
for preferentially making ttie westerly and north-westerly
current a aauie in this instance 1 How if the monsoon current
repelled the other I Tliat the dry area referred to was as
much tlie ofl'ect of the atmosphei'ical regulation at the time .as
the moist area beyond it, and that tlie dry and moist winds
w'ero simply concomitant features of the weather noticed
there is not consonant with science at the weather office, be¬
cause meteorological hypotliesis has ever sought to discover at
the earth's surface, the origin of weather-phases. The spectacle
presented to the mind’s eye of moist and dry winds couteud-
iug fur mastery, is as uuscientific iu cotfteption os false iu fact.
At no point was there any conflict of winds iu the instance
mentioned, for the result would liave been sumetbii^Pa-ef a
cyclone. What happened was that each body o^wiud diminish¬
ed in force towards a neutral area of calm of mure or less extant,
on reaching the conCnes of which it ceased. The phenomena is
of coustout incidence : during the “rains” more prominently
tbw at other times. The hills offer the best facilities for
obeervatioa, Flying scuds or clduds iu toasses of somo extent from
tM <)r S it tbe.ratfi of C feet and b|qi !0 per
aebond', may lie diMolv^; or vatiUttiog about a limit 'ffduob
tUe apeeW-tOT HlAy approrhaately determino by obaervation
agamst the oontottr oi a dirtaat ridge. Whatever the force of
the wiud denei^ or volume of the oloude, the latter will be
found to travel viry litUe beyond the point at which their
dissolution i» cibserved to commence. This will go on for
nil iisur, or more when the invisible cloud-vanishing
lino will ^ede advance. But this forward or
backward movement of the area of moietore by no
means suggests repulsion by nn invisible force, or repulsion
of the latter, It is rimply a self-adjustment to altering at¬
mospherical conditions. Ae the wind is part and parcel of
the phenomena, it presumably ceases too at about the cloud-
vauishing Une aforesaid. That wind and cloud are inter¬
dependent on atmospherical movements involving both, as in the
above case, a noteworthy instance may be quoted. At day¬
break once on a sultry morning in an open agricultural tract,
a rushing sound in the west drew attention to a low bunk
of clouds stretching unbroken from north to soutb (as far as
the eye could see) and advancing rapidly. As it passed ovor-
licad, a brisk wind sprung up. The wind censed ns
the cloud sped onward. But the rusliing sound that was
audible for some time after, proved that the wind was con¬
fined to the limits of the cloud, which was about 400 yards wide.
The limits of the moist and dry areas and winds referred to
by tile wcatlier office on the Otli June aforesaid, were eimilarly
iKil regulated by conflicting winds, but by the operation of
from season to season ia succeeding years—thus
^king one year a oountwpart of&c other for all time to come,
and rendering a weather offico unuecesBary—a logical A«rrt-
karri truly.
The abnormal pressuio deviations of any period and locality,
can refer only to that period and locality, and as it is an es¬
tablished fact that low pressure means high temperatuio
and low temperature high pressure, the abnormally low pres¬
sure of March to May last w.w accordingly attended by abuor-
mally high temperature, and the known inter-ixdatiou of jires-
sure and temperature was tlieroby exceptionally illustrated—
that 18 all. The weather oftice is doubtless justified in Seeking
a connection between preceding and succeeding weather-
phases, because given conditions and their environnionts are
necessarily the resultants of auteoedent ones, but ult the factors
must be known for a reliable deduction. At present/irwsara
constitutes the sole liasis of inference. That all (ho factors
required by present hypotliosis will be discovered or deter¬
mined is a jwssibility (of the remote future) Imt that satis¬
factory deductions from tbeni will bo practicable deductions
rising to tlie dignity of laws, is not clear. It luiglit provo
more profitable to seek tiio origin of .aimosplierioal laws in
influences beyond tho earth’s surface, than iu iutenuinablo
combinations of factors of varying number and strength.
A. P. W.
THE SUrERTOEITY OF INDIAN WHEAT.
some occult atmospherical oomliLions wliich arc always arrang¬
ing areas of visible and invisible weather-phases.
Tliere is domoustrable error in oonstiluTing barometrical varia¬
tions and MO c.illed intar-dependaat ph*enomeua, tlicliasisof fore-
e:ists. Tlieae arc irreconcileablc. In the Fioiiocr of the irith June,
an article, entitled “ Tlie Monsoon,” desires to cslaldidi tlmt
tile abnormal deviations of llio liarouietcr for March, April,
and M.ay last, serve as an index of llie ensuing “ rains.” 'JTicse
deiiatioiis represent luxccsses or deiicioncies over .average
pressure *(raaskii)g iiiflneneoa being eliminated) for the moutlia
in (jueslion. Kwesses are termed potilit'o ov pliu ; detieieiicics
nniiUh'e or Tlio first indicate an apjiroaehing “ rains’’
/isfoii', the second afwra tlio average. Now eitliei tliis hypo¬
thesis for an ensuing “rains"is right, or that of iater-depondaiit
(plrenmnena. They eannot botli bo eorreet—for if positive
mill negative pre.-isure arc repressions or forecasts at all, it is
not a matter of the remotest consequence what tlie eharacler
of Himalayan snowfalls is, The “ ruins " e in neither be
retarded nor accelerated, nor otlierwj^i iill'ccl,c.'d by tlnnii.
But if snowfalls do haveanysuch intricnce, tlien iiositive and
negative pressure are meanhigless. It is noteworthy (Iim tlie
ilepartiuelit rales )irossure somewliat low in assiguiiio vilia-
ling influeiico ovei it by snowfalls. It. tlieivin iierpctraies
;i scientific lieresy, wliicli allhougli practically wortlilcss is all
tlie same welcome because degrading tlie miii li vaunted
barometer.
The llioory of nbiiormal pressures, liowever, requires cx.-imiiia-
iion on its own merits. If tlio abnoriiiiil pressures of .Mareli to
Miiy do not indicate ciovvat atmospherical eoiidilious, but
tlioae for .Tunc to Seplemlmr. what do Uie ubuoriiial pressures
of tliese montliB signify ? Logic.ally, tlie weatlier for snlisequeiit
montlis--and not tlie “ rains.” But as tlie abiionmii pressures
for Mareli toltfliy were negative, a more than average “ rains ”
will follow. Sucli n “ r.ains,” however, is impossible withmil
the abnormal pressure during their iiicidoiice heiiig also
negative. It ciiuuot possibly happen that the prnssnre dm-iiig
the “ rniiia ” will be positive, and the rainfall nevertheless
eimform itself to the negative or low pressure of Jlarcti to
May. Supposing however, that the relation hetween the
pressureof March to May and that of the “ rains " is establish¬
ed, thmT'fiie undeniable intcr-dependanee cf the “ rain ”
wil.h the “ rains*' pressure lends to the fact that the
“ raius ” pressure is virtually indicated hy the pressure
of Mai’ch to May. And this being the case, nnidogoua rela¬
tion of the October to December presaui'e with the “ rains ”
presiiue will be established ; and so on all round tlie year.
In other words the abnormal pressure of March to Way last
which started into etisience somehow, wilt bo pormancutly
M ESSna McDOHtah r.llOTHElhS, of Jlaiihuie,
Loudou, have Airnislied the Secretary of State
for India tvith ti very uilercstiiig rejiort of a series of
osporimc.iits with Indian wheat, which they worn
instriictod to curry out, F.mr lots of Indian wheat,
each of .fi,00011)s,, wore dilivered to tho ilrra, and tho
following instnictioiif: were hud down for their guidance
in conducting trie cyperiments. The instniotions were
~(1) that they slnmld take a given quantity of
wheat of each of those four representative Indian
wheats,—ri;., Indian fine soft wliile, Indian superior s ift
red, Indian .average hard uhito, Indian average liiuri rod
--and i-uanufacturu them into flour by tiioordiimry jirirces-;
of grinding under iiiillstoncs ; tJmt they should take similar
quantities of the same wheats and nianufauture them into
iluur by means of crnshiug betwooii rollers, .according to
tlio 83 -stPni known ns tho Hungarian or i-oller system ; (2)
that a given quantity of each flour so produced 'Hhould be
ni.imifacturcd into bread ; (3) that the (pialitios and oilier
eliiir.ieteristies of the flours produced, also of the ofl'al.s, pi:.,
middliugs, pollard, and brand, should be noted: mid (t)
that they slioidd jiroeure tho following representative
wheats, of fair average quality of the season, as tlion being
soul in ^lark-huie ^^arket, aiul for tlie jmrpo.sc of obfaiii-
iiio; results for eompanson, deal with them preeisely us
iiliove indicated, lioth as regards flour, bread, and ofi'.ds, vi;,
—English fiveruge, American (red winter), Ainoidcan
(spring), Australian avonigc, t'lbf'ornmn average, Hussiaii
SaxeiiKka, Uussian Taganrag, itnssiar Knliaiika, llussi.m
t'diirka, Egypthiu Bulii, amt Egypt! in S.iid.i,
Tho cxporiiuenU, wc observe, wore carried out, in tine
firm's owm mills, and wore personally snporintended liy one
of the members of the firm, a faet, wliicli goes no little way
iu adding to tho value and trustworthini'ss of the report.
The result,s attained Imvc imdoiibledly proved the
superiority of the four lots of Indian wheat over the Eng¬
lish and foreign witeata ; and wo cannot do better than
st,utc licre for the Ircnefit of our I'eaders the. loiuVmg
elmraoteristics of tliesa wheats, as given by the fli*m itself
ill its report to tlie Secretary ot State. Wo take tbs
Indian wheats first.
hot 1.—Quality, fine soft wliite wiieat —(white, medium
sized, skin lliin, cloaii and regular, free from seeds ; 2 per
ceiii weevilled ; handled c.vceDJingly well.) Value in hon-
doii, 49a per 490 lbs. Weight per bushel, 64 Ihs. (This
woiglit is only eiiualled by Bpecially fine .samples of any
wheat.) Weight of 100 separate gi-ains of the cheat, 55'4
grains avoirdupois. (100 weevilled givims weighed only
39'09 grains nvoirdupoi#.) Results of the milling and
bakings prove it to Vio nn exceedingly good and useful
Wbwt 4 the flottv being great fa (jnautify, of pure whito
286
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST. Atlgnei 1, 188^,
color auJ superior 1)looiu, and with a slight beany flavour.
It is more suitoblc for markets requiring vildu flours rather
than strength, owing to its containing an exceptionally
low percentage of gluten. The yield of broad from it is
veiy large.
Lot 2.—Quality, superior soft rod wheat. (Colour, dull
light brown, with about 5 per cent white wheat; size,
h.alf-mcdiiiui and halt-small ; skin thin; weevil, only a
trace; el oau and freo from seed; bamlled well.) Value
in Loudon, i5g. par iOClbs. ‘Weight per bushel, C2J lbs. ;
weight of 100 separate grains of the wheat, .bl’S grains
avoirdupois, llosults of the millings and bakings prove it is
a good and useful wheat; tho flour being great in quaitity
and. of medium colour and strength, with a slight beany
flavour, and ooutaming an average of gluten. Suitable
for markets roijulriug flours of medium strength and colour.
Tho yiedd of broad is excoptioiialJy largo.
Lot 3.—Quality, average hard white wheat (oolour, light
yellow, and somi-transparont with a littlu hard red ; size,
long and arched ; skin thin ; wheat clean, but about 3 per
eont of dry mud in largo pieces; weevil only a trace).
'\''aluo in London dls. per 1961bs. Weight per bushel,
GOlbs. ; weight of 100 separate gi-aius of the w'heat, G8'3
grains avoirdui)ois. Results of the milling and bakings
prove it is a usefnl wheat for markets I’oqvijriug strength ;
flavour, beany; tho gluten (by water tost) nvoragiug 12
per cent. This 'wheat and No. 4 aro probably unsur¬
passed by any other wlioats iu the world as reg.ard.s tbo
quantity of flour yielded. Iu colour, medium. Spoeiall}'
useful for iniving with very damp English wheats to
bring them into condition for milling. It is also a
fitable wbetit for millerH, owing to its requiring 8'f per
cent water to render it sufficieutly mellow for use, To this
wheat and to the Indian avoiwge hard red (lot -I) must be
awarded tho distinotiou of pr(i<f>ifiH;/ mon lirtud iUnn tm//
olher Jltmr, making it a “ baker’s ” flour us well us u
“ miller’s.’' The yield of the broad is eveeptionally large.
Lot 4.—Quality, average hard rod wheat. Colour, very
dull brown, semi-transijaront, with 10 i)rr eeiit line, soft,
white, largo, eoarso grains, arched and pointed. Value
in London, 43s. per 49()ll)s. Weight per bushel, Gl,',lbs.
(condition clean and free from dirt, hut a little grain,
seed, and linseed and barley ; free from weevil.) IVeigbt
of 100 separated grains of the wheat, ""'7 grains avuir-
diiiwis. Results of tho milliug iind bakings prove that
it produces a common and dry strong flour, in nlincjst
nnoqmilled quantity. In colour it is iiiforior. It is profitahlo
wheat for millers, as it tivkes 7’G per cent water to render
it sufficiently mellow for use. The yield of bread is ex¬
ceptionally large, making it a “ b.akcr’s ” fliiur ns well as a
“millers." The same remarks apjily to this a,s to lot 3.
Glanoing at the j'osults obtained with the English and
foreign wheats, we find that (he yield from tho liuglish
wheat was ])oor, that from tho Russian Taguuroy good, and
from the American spring and Russian Saxonska medium.
The highest yields were obtained from the Aiistraliiiu,
Californian and Amerioan red winter variotio.s, but even
those were far behind tho yield obtained from tlio Indian
wheats. TIio two Egyi>tian varieties exporiinontcd with
wore apparently very inferior, the Saida being described as
the poorest wheat in the market, possessing no good quali¬
ties and not nearly worth its price.
Two systems of milling wore adopted in carrying out
tho exporimeiits. That of grinding binder millatouos is
B.ald to jiroduce flour of one “run” or qu.ility, mid does
not offer faeilities for tho production of flours of high,
modiuin, and low grades from the same wheat. By the
grinding system sonic of tho outer skin or bran is also
tom or ground into flour, so preventing the attainment of
qiorfoctiou of oolour. It is said to bo well adapted, how¬
ever, for the produetion of common ordinary flours, ns it i
produces a greater quantity of flour than a system wliich
more thorouglily separates tlio oft'als. By tho roller system, I
flour is produced by flattening or squeezing tho grain !
througli a series of rollers, os distingiiisliod from tho tearing
or grinding of millstones. Tlie system is dasoribed fuitlier
as foUoWB ;—“Tlic wheat is first eraekod through a first
Bot of rolls and its sieve, so seimratiug a small quantity of
flour and dirt, tho latter being liberated out of the crease
of the wheat, and is not rcmovmble by any svsteni of
brushing or blowing. The eraekod and purified *wheat is
then passed on throiigh other sets of rolls and sieves, and
rondorsd into middlings and flour,” A loading fcaturo in
this system which desorves notice is, that the germ ^f tho
whoat in which is the chief portion of tho colouring matter
of tho grain, is not torn or ground into flour ns it is by tho
system of grinding under stones, but the action of the
rollers is to sqfioezo or flatten it, and from its soft aud
oloaginoiis nature, to incroaso its size, so rendering its
separation from tho flour easy. The adv^tages of this
system aro said to bo, loss liability to “ kill ’’ or ^strny
the granular natiiro of tho flour, tho removal of 'tho dirt
found in tho creasos of tho whoat, andwcjho separation of the
germ, so rondoring tho attainment possible of a high
standard in the character, oolour, and bloom of tho flour.
It is satisfactory to fiud Messrs. MoDougall Brothers
rccordiug their opinion that tho character and general
excoUeuoe of tho Indian wheats are improving with the
dolivorie.s of eacli sucoessive season. Siwaking of tho
Itarticular consignments they have been experimenting with,
tlio firm s.ay, “ that tho Indian wheats now specially under
review were delivered to us iu excellent condition, witli
freodom from dirt (exoojit lot 3), barley, gram, and other
impurities, also with a freedom from weevil, rarely equalled
by Indian wheats, except tho prime parcels of tho past
season, and there is no doubt au outlet in this country and
tlio European continent for unlimited quantities at prices
tliat sliall prove remunerative to aU parties oouceruod,
citlior in thoir growth, transportation, or oouvorsion into
flour aud brood.”
FORESTS IN ASSAM.
f nilE area of (Jovernmeut forcsbs iu Assam at tlio cud of
- 1 - tho year 1881-82 was 8,011 square miles, made up as
follows
(•wsorvi'il forests 2,000 square miles,
i’rotveted „ ... OiiO
Other „ ... 2,7i)l) „
l''()rvst« l.ivyouil reveiine
limits ... ... 2,487 „
Tlie addition,s of tho year were tlirec now forests aggregat¬
ing f )0 square nnloiS, wliieli wore hrouglit on to tlio list of
reserves. IVo oliserve that tho question of briugfiig under
reserves several otlier forests is under cousidoration, and
it is poriutps ])robal)lo that more work in this direction will
be cH’ected during tho eun-out year,
Tlie results of lire protoctiou during tlio year under notice
do not appo.ar to liavo been very satisfactory. Out of au
area .attempted of 10 . 0,212 acres, tho failures amoimlc.d to
42,78,') acres, or 41 per cent. Tlio fires ooourred chiefly in
0 ()al|iara and tlie Khasi lUlls, where tiio injury done is
vo])orled to liave li oeii g reat. It is stated, liowcvov, tliat
measures have boeii"ia^oii which will prevent tho rociirrenco
of such damage in tho forests near Shillong, and it is hoped
tliat similar preoautious will bo adopted in regard to tho
valuable' sal forests of Ooalpara.
Brcaobes of forest nilos wore not iiumorous during tlio
year, and in this respect Assam compares very favorably
witli otlior proviiiooa. Tho number of prosecutions was 37,
against 40 in tho preceding year. 'The majoritjr of tho
prosecutions wore on account of illegal appropriation of
forest produce.
Tho area under plantations at tho end of the year was
i,!.')! acres, ns against 1,107 acres at tho ond of 1880-81.
2 'ho total area was distributed in the following propor¬
tion :—
Onoulchouc plimlations ... acres.
Teak „ ... 170 „
(Jtliei’ „ ... 31 „
Sowimjs of Nahor and Ajhar ... 38 „
Tho teak plantations .at Kulsi and India-rubber at
Balipara are reported to bo i>rogrqssing favorably. A very
largo nurnlior of tlio rubber trees'**(at Balipara aro now ovoi’
9 feet in height, aud by constant care aud attention they
havo lieen protected from injury. Tho licenses givep during
tlie year to extract rubber from tlio district forfisfs, which
w'ere sold by auction, realised an inooiuo of Rs, 2G,646.
Some of tho licenses aro reported to have realised immeaso
lirofits, in spite of the competition of foreign rubber, and of
tho facility with which the trees oau be tapped in any part
and tlio produce sold as foreign. Besides the Balipara
plantation, there are a number of old rubber trees in the
Ohandwnr reserve on which experimental tappings are to
bo mivle to nsoettaiu what amount of juice can bo safely
August 1, 1883, THE INDIAN Aj^RICULTURIST, 281
extracted, the age at which topping can be begun, and the eemindars, and wo see a proposal in the report for purohas
e£feot| on a tree of judicious tapping.
It IS stated that little forest work has yet been done in
the districts of Sibsagor, Lukhimporc and Cachar. On tliis
point the Chief Commissioner remarks as follows in his
resolution in tlie Forest Eeport:—“ The timber trade has
not yet extended up the Brahmaputra Valley higher tliau
Gowhatty, and there is little local demand for any otlier
woods than the common kind. A new demand for sleepers
has, Ebwercr, set in througli the construction of tlio Dibru-
gurh-Makum Railway^^d tho Jorchat Tramway, and in the
Lukhimpore district 1,377 trees were handed over to the
railway, which has a concession for five yeais of all timber
it raiuiros. The royalty on these, had they boon sold to
the public, would liavo amounted to Es. 18,410.” The
exploration of the large and little known tracts whicli it is
proposed to reserve on the slopes of the Nagii Hills, around
Miikum, and in the north Cachar Hills, was the princi])al
work done in those districts during the year under report.
The departmental timber operations show a decline dur¬
ing the year, ^’lio total number of ti’ees felled by tli(>
department was 378 as against 1)99 in tlio previous ye.ar.
Besides those, 6,112 trees wore felled by purchasers, and
4,377 trees wore mailc over free of charge to the Assam
liailw'ay and Trading Company. The iinancial results of
the year have not been satisfactory. Tlio receipts auiouut-
cd to Es. 1,66,053 os against Hs. 1,68,997 in 1880-81 and
the expenditimo was Es. 1,65,301, against Ks, 1,42,725 in
the preceding year.
CANAL AEBOEICULTUEE.
T he report of District and Canal, Arboriculture in tlio
Punjab for the year 1881-82, shows that a fair measure
of success was attained in the operafions of that poriocl. The
length of avenues planted by district committees during
tlic year was 380 miles, making tlio total length phiuted to
the end of 1881-82 up to 4,008 miles. The extension of
groves, nurseries, and plantations was also satisfactory ; the
total planted area for tho whole ])roviiico at the end of
1881-82jitood at 3,437 acres, as against 2,802 acres in the
preceding year. Compared with 1880-8], tlie Cimncial
results of tho year show a slight improvement; the c.vpundi-
tiiro amounted to Es. 1,07,886, against Es. ],0.5,69.j in
1880-61, and the revenue derived was Its. 35,178, or
Es. 5,603 butter than it was in tho preceding yoiu-.
There seem to have been several nietliuds ailoptod in the
raising of trees. The general nile is that of raising tbom
in nurseries, and transplanting them when tliuy are from
one to throe years old. In tbu Delhi division, tl»o tehsil-
dars, it is said, adojd tho metliod__ojF_ sowing thu sued in
trenches ; another plan adopted is that of sowing tlic seed
on raised embankments ; in Eobtuk, again, the plan of
setting out root-cuttings in worked eurtli ivas tried with
BUooesB. It is satisfactory to learn that tho eiibrts of the
authorities to secure the interest of leading members of tlio
ngrioultural community in arboriculture have not been
wholly unsnocessful. In tho Sialkoto district, it is said
that the people have already done iimcli both in arboricul-
tur? and horticulture, while in Hazara tlic demand which
is growing up for trees, which are distributed gi-atis, is [
taken as a sign of appreciation of arboriculture on the part I
of the natives.
Turning now to tho actual work of tho year, wo soo that
the introduction and cultivation of vinos and good fruit
trees received much attention in Sialkotc, Jliung, Duhra
Gliazi Khan, and in one or two other districts. An attempt
is also to be made to introduce the better kiml.s of pliiutaius
into the Punjab, whore tho present variety grown is a very
poor one. In the Iloshiarporo district a new encamping
ground was laid out at painsuali ; tiud very miicli was also
done in planting out nnra, •niunj, and liahi grass for tho
purposes of protecting roadway cmbanknientM. Tho work
in conHection with reclaiming tho " Cho” near Hosliiarpore
was also continu^, and according to tlie rcixu't, the results
hoped for are ‘^protection to certain low-lying moliullas
of the town from floods, and the diveraiou of tho channel
of ‘ Cho,’ which, if unchecked, thi'oateus tho cxisteuce of
the town.” In tho Jhuug district there arc now a very
largo number of kikar plantations which supply wood for
river Bteamers. These plantations are tho property of
ing some of tho Iiotter plantations from their owners, in
view to planting them out with shishum iustoad. From
Delhi, Hissar, Jullundur, and Peshawur tho reports of tho
work done during tlie year are also satisfactory.
As regards canal arliorioultuve, we see that tlio total
length of avenues, as it stood at tho end of tho year, was
2,045 miles, against 1,919 miles in tho beginning of tho
year. Tlio iiannoial results were satisfactory. The‘ex¬
penditure amounted to Ks. 32,541, and the income derived
was Its. 46,392. Speaking of tho work done by the canal
antlioritios, tho Punjab Govonnuont's resolution, reviewing
the report, says that “ a largo number of trees were pUuitod
on tbo Kasur and Sobraoii branches of tho Bareo Doab
Canal, and on the new distrllmtai'ies of tho Westoni .Tiimna
Canal ; and now that water has been turned into tlio
Sirbiud Canal, nrboricultural oporaiions will be prosecuted
more vigorously along its banks,"
EDITORIAL NOTES.
W E owe to the courtesy of the Lieiitoii.iiit-Covcnior a cojiy
of a letter wliicU ho has addressed to tlic (ioverumeiit ol
India, on the subject of the e«tabli.-ihniciit of nii Agricultural
Department in Bengal. 1’he letter is itself highly iiiterostiiig and
in-structivo, and the ]iro]iosal,s sot fortli have a decidedly practi-
c.al aspect. Wo tiro unable to comment upon it in the jirosenl
number, but our readers may see it reviewed in tho Stainsman
of tho 25Lh and 27th nUituo.
Mh. D. Monnis, the Director of Piiblio Gardens, Jamaica, at
tho request of tho Govermuent, recently visited liritiKli Honduras
to examine tho llora and agrieulturu! rosoiiroes of the colony.
The following is liis preliminary rejmrt ;—
“ M’ilh regard to my visit to British Honduras, I was
enabled, by tho assistance and courtesy of the (lovernnieilt
to travel through nil the Hoiithern settlements : and while
making observations and carrying out the wishes of the
local Goveniment, I had very favourable opportunities,
(assisted by the native uolleetor whom 1 took with mo)
to make \aluabIo i-olieotioiis of seeds and plants for tho
Public Gardens of Ihis island. The chief plants of interest
gathered were several species of Palms (Cliaiiimdoroas, Baotria
.Sabal, Chaimcrnjw, kc.,) which w'ero not prcviouMlv in tho
Jamaica Gardens : seeds of iiuraorou.s timber trees and flowering
plants : and n valuable collection of decorative orchids, includ¬
ing the indiguiioii.s largo growing Vanilla of Central
Ameiioa. This latter has [lods much larger and moio aroma-
matic than the oldinary Vanilla cultivated in Jamaica, and I
am hopeful (hat it will be largely projiagated and distribnteii
in Ihe island.
“ After returning from the south, I next visited the central
and we.steni districts of the eolony. Tliis country generally
(vvitli tile excepi.ion of a few isolated ranges) rises so very gra-
du.allv from the sea coast to tlie interior that ])oints on tho
western frontier, nearly one liuiidred mil i from the co.ast, arc
only throe hiiudrod feet high. This low, geiitly-slopiiig land,
is pleiilifully iiitoraectcd by deep navigable rivers whicli flow
slowly towavJ.s (he sea. Along the banks of these rivers, tho
charaeturistics of the soil aud climate wore of a moat favorable
charaoLer, .and the vegetation osseiili.aliy tropical and luxuriant.
Paasingaeross the country from the riv-er district to another, .1
section was traversed composed of a poor ipiartzy soil eup]>ort-
ing only a sparse, vegetation of Pino (Pitch Pine), evergreen
oaks, aud a low shrubby palm (Chaniferojis sp). Oa further
acquaintance with the interior portions of the country 1 found
Hull the alluvial deiiosits along the river banks extending some
live or six, or, in some instances, .some ten miles on eadi shie,
coiduined, chiefly, tho rich valuable soils of the colony. Be¬
yond these were ‘ broken lands ’ and ‘ pine ridges.’ I esLiiiiato
that fully niie-tliird of the area of the colony is cotuiwsed of
‘ jiine ridge.’
“The most important as well as the riche.st river valiey in tho
colony is that of tho Old * River, sometimes called tho Beliro
river. This extends in a wide sinuous eourso from the town
288 THE INDIAN j^aBXCULTUHIST, Ao^t 1, 1888,
of B»liz« at th« Bea coast to tbo western frontier ; in the up>
per portions, the viiJIey wi(iens into broad expanses of rich fer¬
tile plains covered by cohuue jjalm, in soino cases, thirty or
forty miles in breadth. I carefully examined this district and
woi’kwl my way to the frontier station—tho Cuyo—near which
a coffee plantation has recently been established, t7ith
the exception of sonio six sugar estates and the same number
of bonanu plantations, this ooflfeo plantation is tb.e only
uttempt, hitherto made, to establisii a systematic course
of culture in the colony—the bulk of the people being
employed, and the chief trade of the colony depend¬
ing upon mahogany and logwood cutting, whicli, when
good prices are ruling, aro apparently very remunerative
indnstries,
“ In tlio forests of tlie western districts, I found the rubber-
tree of Ceuti'al America (Oostilloa elastica) voiy abundant.
This tree (a member of tlie Ifreatlfruil family) is specially
suitable for cultivation on account of its preferring a loamy
sandy soil ; and being a deep feeder it might bo utilized as a
sbado tree iu cultivated areas with gi'eat advantage, I spent
two days with a rubber gatherer iu order to observe the methods
of bleeding the trees and prepivring tliu rubber : and I brought
with me botanical specimens of tlie tree, some seed, as well as
a sample of the rubber. I hope soon to make a special report
on this tree and its produce. I am, also, making arrangements
to procure a largo (piantity of tho seed, when ripe, for distri¬
bution amongst cacao planters in this island. Trees at ten
yeai-s old yield from four to seven pounds of rubber, which is
valued at fimu 2s. .‘hf. to Ss. per pound. If c.n’efuliy managed,
the trees can be bletl every tliree or four years.
“ Another iutwesting pl.-mt found wild in these forests was the
indigenous cacao of Central America : this ditlered from
nil kinds I had mot previously. After careful inijuiry, 1 found
that it was the ‘ Tam pasco cacao ’ of tlie Atlantic slopes and
identical with the celebrated ‘ Socunusco’ of the Paoilic coast.
Ill Jnibit ami chamotei-, tlie trees approach tliose of tlie Oacau
eViorto, and an cxaiuinatLou of tho iwils whieii aro of a gold¬
en-yellow colour led me to the oonelusion that this ‘ Tainpaaoo ’
or ‘ Socunusco ’ cacao is tlie yellow form of the celebrated
‘ Caracas’ cacao. Should such prove to bo the case, there is
little doubt that this yellow variety wilt prove as mucli supe¬
rior to the red (Caracfis) form, as the yellow ForiWtura does to
the red (Trinidad) cacao.
“ Many other interesting plants of timber and dye-woods, as
well as of plants of medicinal and economic value,were met, many
of which I have no doubt aro capable of being utilized both in
British Honduras and in other British posaessious. A detailed
account of these will more fittingly l)e included in a report
wliich I am now preparing on tho scientific result of my visit.
“ Ill retuiTiiug from British Honduras, as ineuLioncd iu tho
second jiaragraph of this letter, I had to take stcamor to New
Orleans, and I was detained tliero nine da 3 ’s waiting for a
steamer for Janniioa. I took advantage of this oiiportuuity to
visit the sugar estates on the river Miasissippi; ami among other
kinds,! found tliat tho oelobratecl Laliiiia cane of the Sand¬
wich Islands (lately intro<luced to .lamaica from Mauritius) was
nnder cultivation on one est.ato and was very favourably re¬
ported upon. I brought with me specimens of the best canes
from Louisiana whicli have boon safely established at the Hope
Plantation.
“ The best Louisiana sngar-c.aiios .are as follow :—
“ZoAtntt Caiu; : brought from Sandwich Islands by J)r.
Eichnrdson and cultivated at Belair Plantation on tlie Miasis-
Bippi River. Reported upon favourably by .lohii Dymond,
the proprietor : small flag : grows well and yields gooil sugar
does not, however, ratoon well. See Mr. Horne’s Report on
the same cane received from Manritius last year.
“ Louiiiana Otaheita Cane ; formerly much grown iu the
Southern XTuitodBtatos, now mostly superseded by the Red
Ribbon and Violet canes : it does not stand the climate of
Louisiana so well os either of the latter ; comes up later :
matures lotor, and ratoons less well. In favoumble (i.e., warm)
seasons or under favourable conditions (i.e., near the sea or
bank of rivers), it produces larger toipiago than either Ribbon
or Violet oanee, but is rai-oiy so sweet as either. It is a tender
cane for these latitudes, and easily affected by frosts,
“ Rm Ribbon Oouw.—The sweet Louisiana cane ; bal'd shell,
broad leaf ; a general favourite amongst planters, but is rej^uted
without sufficient grounds to degenerate into the red cane :
yields lai'gely in qnantily of oane and works well into sugar :
does not stand frost so well ns the violet cone, but is, on the
whole, considered the best oane for Louisiana.
“Jat>a Cane .—Very similar to Otaheite : was brought to
Louisiana about IS'fO, Stands frost better than the ribbon
oane and ratoons well. Said to be a rich cane, yieldfi»g--wgar
largely."
In a paper road at the last annual meeting of the New York
Agricultural Society, H. E. Alvoi-d summarizes tho conclnsious
thus far obtained upon the subject of silos and ensilage ; Silos
of moderate size are convenient and economical on almost any
farm, to preserve green any forage crop which circumstances
prevent curing, or some crop specially grown to supply succulent
food in the winter. Silos may bo built with much less expense
tlian has been generally supposed, and that, upon their location
and arrangement, the economy of tlieir use very largely de¬
pends. Tliis system of storing forage may bo pumued almost
regardless of weather, and may be arranged so that tlie chief
labor comes at a time when other farm work is not pM'ticuhu’ly
pressing. With proper care the process of ensiloing will
preserve green fomge substantially unimpaired as food, but
with a probable increase iu the iiercentago of protein
and more or less loss in the curbhydrntcs. As cattle
food, ensilage forms a cheap substitute for roots ; but the
crops generally used fail to fill the place of tho loot,
crop iu a judicious farm rotation, la feeding ensilage, tliu
best results follow a moderate system, rather than its entire
substitution for dry, coarse fodder. The most marked result
in ensilage feeding is tho lenoral condition and health of the
animals, just .as in the case of any suceulent food. Tho exten¬
sive use of ensilage upon any farm is mainly a question of
convenience and economy dejiendent upon tin* looal
conditions.
Last year a farmer improvised a STiiall silo liy sinking a
molasses hogshead into the ground iu his b.arn cellar. He cut
up till his corn fodder with a hay-cutter, supposing lie hud
enough to fill about four hogsheads, hut on packing it found it
wouldn't fill one. He then bought of a neighbour as much
more as ono horse could draw, and still there w.as room. He
then cut up the stalks from a jiioce of sweet corn, and with a
lot of roweu managed to fill liLs hogshead. He made a close
fitting cover, and with a jnckscrew set under one of the floor
timbers, pressed it d own a s tight as possible. In the middle of
Decem!>ei' he opened Lis'silo, and found the corn ns sweet and
fr.agrant as when put in. From the liogahe.ad he fed ono cow
half a biLshel of-ensilage morning and niglit for two months,
mid considers it the best producing food that can bo h.ad. This
year ho proposes to fill tlie hogshe.ad witli oats cut just ns tliey
are iu the milk. If a silo on so simple a jilan is practicable,
tliere is certainly no rensou wliy everybody should not have one,
and satisfy hiuujolf of the value of the ensilage system.— A'culuui
Tdegi'a^U.
Tuk latest addition to the litoraturo regarding tho diui-
Uiiri U-oo is an interesting paper by Mr. C, M. Smith, of tho
Public Works 'Department, at Masulipatam, tho Madras
presidency, which lias rooeutly been published by tile
Looal Government. Mr. Smitli’a remarks apply to tho
variety of tlie tree as growing iu Masulipatam, and ho
writes as follows ;—
“ Height of tree, 15 feet ; bouglMi commencing at about 2
feet from the gi’ound, straggling and wide-spreading, from
10 to 15 feet in length ; unarmed j bark of a dark ^ brown
gi'ey color, and very ragged.
“ Learei—bipinnate, three or fom* on a “twig, 6 inches in
length, with from six to eight pains of piniue —pinmo being 2
to 3 inches long ; UafieU paired and numerous—as many as
twenty-eight pairs to a pinnio, but varying in number iu differ¬
ent leaves, and on the soverol pinm length inch, breath
1-IOth iurii.
August 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN /gRICULTURIST.
28D
“./Yoioerj— in clusters, of a pale groen-yellovr; very strong,
butVgreeable scent. Blossom in tlie oold weatber (twice from
December to Febmary); seed ripens iu March (second crop.)
“ Pods —curly, of a dark red-brown color and hard ; an
average pod contains five or six seeds, small, oblong, smooth,
an d of a tawny color. The length of such a pod is 2^ inches,
and breadth over | inch.
should have mentioned that the leaves commonly have
one terminal pinna, but frequently terminate in two, t.c., in a
pair of pinnse.
“ There ore ninety trees in this garden of difierent sizes, most
of which are proclucing seed, besides two or three young self-
sown plants. There is no difficulty In propagating the tree ; it
cornea up readily self-sown.
“ The trees iu tills gai'deu are, I am informed, about 38
years of age, Iiaving been planted by a M r. Dick, port officer.
“ The soil is almost pure sand ; the roots of tlio trees pro¬
bably reach good water, which is found not far from the
iirface,
“ The poor nature of the soil probably accounts for the small j
size of the tree. 1 say ‘ probably,’ because the small size is, 1
tliiuk, mainly due to the trees being jdauteil too close togetlier,
iu many instances there being little move that 0 feet of ai)aee
between the trunks. The girth of the beat-grown trees at a
height of 1 foot from the gi'ound, T find to be about 2 feet 6
inches. The trees, however, are mean iu ap))earance, thougli
luxuriantly covered with foliage at the right seasons of the
year. Tlioy never entirely lose their foli.age.
“ With regard to the produce of trees, I note as follows—
The total quantity of seed iu pod produced in the one crop
which I have Lately hail collected amounts to dS sacks of 7 libs,
each, or 3,010lbs., or 1'33 tons, f find that I oz. seed is
obtained from 11 b. of full average-sized pods, /,.c., the seed
bews a proportion iu weight to the pod of 1 -lHtii nearly. In
one average-sized, well-developed pod, 1 find seven seeds ; iu
another six. Eight hundred seeds nearly go to the oviiioe, i.c.,
12,800 to the lb. of 1C ounces, A70lb. sack of pod oeonpios
in bulk a siiaee 28 inches and 18 inches diameter—nearly 4
cubic feSl, and thirty-two sacks=128 cubic feet .= 1 ton.
“ In regard to the vidue, I have never systematically
endeavoured to sell the seeds and pods. There is no great
demand for them here 1 believe. I believe they are not ex¬
ported. They are, I know, used to a limited extent by the local
chueklers or leather-workei's iu tanning and ooloring leatlier.”
Mr. J. 0. Horsfall, tho Collector of Kistnu, iu subniit-
tiug Mr. SmitU’s'paper to the Board of Revenue, has reoord-
ed tho following observations on it
“ Mr. Boileau, my forest assistant, has been directed to com-
lueiice planting up one of the forest ropes witii the dioi-dicL
The tree grows fairly well iu tliis distiict, botli close to tlie
sea, on sandy soil, and inland. Our avenues of trees on
the ilydemdarl roads seem to have flourished better titan those
in Mr. Smith’s oompoimd in Masulipatiiiu. I exjteet that it
will be lai'gely grown as soon as its value becomes generally
known, and I am informed that plaulatious of it are being
started by some enterprising natives in the Bapatlo taluk, who
had taken up land for casnarina phmtations, after witnessing
the result of the casuarina plantations started under tho jungle
conservancy.
“ I see no reason why iu a few years tluB district should not
be able to supply any quantity of the piods. Tlie ti-ee, how¬
ever, is a slow-growing one, and 1 rogiet 1 cannot state from
liersoual ebservatious at what age it first begins to yield,” j
We have received a edfy of the “ Dcscnptive Catalogue
of Indian I’roduoo contributed to the Amsterdam Exhibi¬
tion,”^^ Baboo Trailokya Nath Mookevjee, the officer in
the Dejpartment of Revenue and Agriculturo who was
iutrustod with th* organisation of tho Indian collections for
the Amsterdam Exhibition. This list has been arranged
nlphabetiotdly according to the modern seicutifio names,
and has, in addition, a complete index to tdl its English
and vernacular namea Apart, therefore, from tho primary
purpose for which this book has been written, it is to the
credit of tho author that ho has so thoroughly douo his
work as to give tis au easy book of reference on tiw subject
of Indian produce. He has produced a neat volume of 190
pages, sure to boeorao a standard of roferouoo in future.
As a catalogue it seems to have one defect, however, and
one which it was most probably impossible to obviate,
namely, there is no mention of tho numboi’s nttaohod to
the specimens. Tin's difticuHv it is doubtless intended
should be overcome by tlio visitors getting possossioB of a
copy of tho Official Catalogue of the Exhibition to bo used
along with the deseriptivo catalogue.
Wo think tho maiiiior iu which each product has been
treated exceedingly good, and the stylo and got-up of tho
work excellent. After tho suicutific name is given a suudl
paragrapli containing tho loading vcniaoular names. Tlicn
follows a brief account of what might bo called (ho jiropcr
tics and uses of the jiroduot. On the margin arc stated
tho uses to which caeii product is put. For example, if
tile visitor wishes to learn something of the niedieinal
virtues of a jilant, he has only to run his eye down tiw
marginal notes to the word “ Medicine," opjiosito which
I will be found tho information desired. Wo note in tlie
I preface tliat tlio author acknowledges ” his obligation to
Dr, George Watt who kindly consented to correct the final
proof-sheets, and thereby many iiiaceiiraoios in liotaiiical
terminology have been obviated.” This i.s a guaranteu
that tho scientific uanie.s are those iu use at tho present
day. Until the rojiorts of the Amsterdam Exhibition
a[)j)ear, it would be premature to comment ujxin the
manner in which Baboo Trailokya Nath Mookerjeo has
disehargod tho duties intrusted to him as “ Officor in ciiargo
of Indian Exhibits,” but judging from tlio couiplcteuess
of his “ Produce—Dosorijitivo Catalogue,” wc should expect
to hear favourable reports on the Indian display at
Amsterdam. We may mention that Baboo T. N. Mookerjeo
is at present tlio otficor in charge of the F/xhibition branch
of tho Kovouue and Agricultural Department in connection
with tho approaching Calcutta Exhibition.
This following ]«tssage is from the United Slates Ciousul
General Mattson’s Report :—
Tile Indian agricidturalisL—ryot—can in no souse be
compared to tlie American farmer, but rather to
the late serf of Russia, ife is a tenant on iiard con¬
ditions, and is, by custom .and bigotry, almost a fixture on the
• particular spot of land wliere ho was born ; his furniuig is done
on a very small seale and according to old metiioUs, to wliich
he clinga willi religious veneration ; liis wants are very few,
and he endures poverty and even hunger with fiatienco ; he.
cultivates Ids patch of five to (ifteen acres on shares for the
landed jiroprietor—zemindar—wlio holds under rental to tho
Government, and the bettor half of his gross iiiooiue generally
goes to the zemindar, tlie priest (Bralimiu), and tlio usurer, in
the form of lenl, pre.seiits offoriiigs, and interest, and if lie can-
net ten cents a day by his liarj and lioiieless labor, that will
suffice for the most pressing wants of his lioaseliold. His Iioino
is a mud or bamboo hut ; liis projierty a [lair of small bulloeks,
a few COW'S, calves and gouts, a wooden cart, and a few brass
ami earthen jiots—iu all woi tli alwiit 1^.70 : and Ids imiilemeiita
ami tools are of the rudest kind, sucli u» his ancestors used a
tliousaiid yeaiw ago, aiul yet he is making seme iirogress uuder
British rule, ami finds his wants increasing ; at the same time
bettor outlets for Ids proiluce ami more recompense for ids
produce and more rocompeiise for lii.s labor, and, on the wliole
is so iiidei>oiideiit on 10 cents a day that ho will eat or .store
his wheat rather than sell below a eortaiii Jiriee. < >f coiii'se, lie
does not employ machinery iu farming, Imt ploughs his land with
a erookeil piece of iroii-ixiiiiled wood, Imnows it with an hupla-
uieiit resembling a common ladder laid fiat on the ground, aud
i.igged liy till! little bullocks cuMswaj’s over the field he sovv.s
by liaiid, rcajis with ,i rude '.ickle, i.trrie.s the slieavos home mt
his back or iu the bullock-cart, (liveshe.i them with a wooden
club, lU' lets tlie cattle tramp out the grain, ami cleans it by
baud wiuuow’ing.
A I'LOCK of sheep running iu tlie orehard is said to be tho
best praotieai protection against the ravages of the codling moth.
They pick up and eat ifvery wormy apjile liiiil drops, before
tile grub h.as time to gel out of it, ami so prevent tlieir propa¬
gation. In au orohai'd thus ixwtured by .sheep tluoiigh the
290 THE INDIAN AGJjRipiJLTUJUST. Aa^t 1, 1883,
eosuaer, Mr. A. B. Whit<ray,«n experienced Araerioau nur-
cerToUUii foand the fruit on gatheiinjif hlntoet uniformly sound,
while in another part of the same, and acpai'ated from it
only by a hedge, and of the same varieties of fruit,
but not psatui-od by sheep, the fruit wae as
nuifortnJy wormy. But every one cannot make a sheep pasture
of bis orchard or fruit garden. Next to this, he recommends
■what bits already been widely published, the hanging in the
trees of -wide-mouthed bottles, like quinine bottles, partly filled
■with sweetened water, with the addition of a little vinegar.
These will attract and trap the motb in large numbers. The
ant, he also atates, is a valuable auxiliary that ctui he utilised in
fighting this psst. It is a carnivorous or flesh-eating insect, and
■will clear trees of insect foes in the vicinity of its nests. He
RUggeats the planting of snt-hills in the orchard, by taking a
HjKide full from an old liill and planting it in a hole in the
ground. His objection to the use of torches to attract and
destroy the moth is that you are liable to destroy friends and
foes alike.
PaoFKSson A. J. Cook, of the Michigan Stale AgricnUnral
College, has made extensive trials with arsenical comirounds as
H means of destroying the codling moth. It has been a matter
of general experience that when Paris green or London ))urplc
has been used on potato vines it is soon washed off, and the
mixture has to be frequently applied. Professor Cook fails to
find any difference between the tw’o above-mentioned insecti¬
cides. A half-ounce of either to a gallon of water is quick
death to insects when spread over infested foliage. He also
found that a weaker mixture, one pound of the arsenate to 100
gallons of water, was effective.
Experiments were tried to find out how long the poison re¬
mained upon the foliage exposed to onliuary conditions of rain,
wind, Sk, a brisk shower was found to render the poison use¬
less, This has been the experience of many. We have found,
says a oontempoiary, that the only profiUblo time is to ajqily
the arsenic after a shower, or while tiio vines are wet with the
dew, and if a hard miu soon follows the work needs to be done
over again. Professor Cook found that insects suffered no harm
by eating foliage after twenty days’ exposure, and in most oases
fifteen daim were enough to remove the iwisou sufficiently to
render it inoperative. When the plants were kept from the
winds the time of action was much extended.
The test of the microscope was applied in all oases, and it was
found that the jmisou Lad boen removed from all smooth jjarts,
and only small portions remained in holes and out-of-the-way
comers. The poison is removed by chemical means, wind, rain,
brushing of leaves against each other, &c., and not by beiuj
absorbed into the substance of the plant. This last is proved
by careful chemioal analyses that have been made to detect
any traces of the arsenical compounds.
Professor Cook not only concludes that much more of the
])oi 8 on is used than is necessary. We may mid that the
importance of frequent applications is fully sustaiued by all
these exi»eriments.
Pyrethrum powder is side, and should be used instead of the
deadly arsenical compounds on all garden vegetables, the foliag
of which is eaten. Cabages, lettuce, 8 traw\>erries, &c., belong
to tliis <;la 8 s.
Tiie insects that infect the fruit and foliage of trees may bi
wifely dcsti'oyed by a liiluto mixture of the Paris green or Lon¬
don purple. With these the fruit is usually picked a long time
after the iwisou is used. It is .seen that we have a remedy for
Ihu codling moth tliat all may use. Any force juimp can be
employed for spraying tlie trees. The uozsle fitted ■with a
tine nose may be arranged upon the end of a long pole, iuid in
thi.s way the poison mixture is brought to all parts of the
tree.
Tukrk is a right and wrong way to umke a hole in the ground,
and set out a jiian,Isays a contemporary. Some persons remove ton
times the necessary amount of earth, .and do not give the plant a
good setting as one does it In one-tenth of the time. Small plants of
vegetable and flower garden arc best transplanted with a sharp¬
ened stick or dibble. This simple implement should have a
bcud for u handle like that of an umbrella or cane, only less.
jtt should be thrust psrpendiculsrly into the well«prepsied soil,
(here rotated and removed. The left hand at the same ti^e
picks up the plant, and after picking it in the hole, the dibble
is pushed into the soil to one side, and in a slanting position,
starting about three inches from the opening and running to
meet with the bottom of the first hole. By poshing against th*^
dibble and bringing it towards the plant, tlie earth is pressed
np properly, and tfie work is quickly and well done.
______ < -■r-
Tub Nallamalai forests ooutain large val)f/s with good soil
and covered with forest of teak. Yegi (Petrdaaryto Martu-
pinm), Nallamaddi (Termnalia, tmruntom), and Blackwood (Dal-
bergia latifalia), while fine trees of other kinds, likely to prove
valuable in the future, yield a cover whicdi keeps the soil moist,
and ensures a good reproduction. The hill slopes are natnrally
drier, but, still, will supply a large amount of bamboo as well
as quantities of Cliirimau (AnogeUaut latifolia) and other
good wood used in the country. The proposed railway line
from Tadpatri or Adoui to (luntur will pass through the forests
by either of the two great main road.s, the Naudikanama and
Mantralakanama (Dornal Pass), and will be enabled to draw
largo supplies of fuel from them, which can easily be arranged
for under a regular working scheme to the benefit of the forests.
At present a considerable amount of wood is taken out, and
finds its way to the less well-supplied districts of Bellary and
Auantapur, and even further, and the Eurnool-Cuddapah Canal
can probably be made use of to extend the ai’ea to whiolt pro¬
duce can Ije taken.
“How many young men,” says Uie Farmers Review, “ever think
of studying practical farming with soma successful farmer ?
An old farmer—ho was old in experience rather than years—
called on us the other day, and talked an hour of his experience
in (h’aining lands, raisiug sheep and horned cattle ; the breeds
he had kept, and the beat for such and such purposes ; of
his experiments with the several vai’ieties of apples; of
how bo “ learned the poultry business,” &c., &o. “ Now, is it
going far out of the way to say that not one young
man in a hundred, who to-day proposes to follow farming the
rest of his life, seriously thinks of going out to live a year or
two with one of these praoticiil fiu-iners, so aw to leani the busi¬
ness ? When a young man pi'opo.seB to follow the law or medi¬
cine as a profession, he goes to some good lawyer or jiliysiciau,
and sjicjkIs a year or two in ‘ reiwling ’ law or medicine. Now,
why should not a wide-awake, energetic, ambitions young man
study f arming with some practical farmer who tried all these
experiments f We think a t the end of one or two years the
young man would know abs olntelv more of practical faming
than he would learn by himself in ten years. In other words,
ho would start out as a young farmer nearly where the older
man of whom he learned stands to-day. If the young man
makes a success ho hius got these things to learn, and learn
by experience, too, and why not study with some good, practi¬
cal, thorough farmer—go and work on his farm as a hired man.
We found a graduate of the Massachusetts Agricultural College
a few years ago as the hu’ed man of a piactical, successful, and
thorough farmer, studying farming. We met a young agent of
the French Government studying fanning in America in the
same way. He had worked with practical farmers in the great
cheese regions of Now York, with the cattle-men on the plains,
and was on his way to the frontier for farther study,”
Win the day ever come in India when the sons of zemindars,
and otliers iutei'ested in Indian agriculture, will take to a simihir
practical fiishiou of ac<|uaintiug themselves with the agri-
cidturc of their own laud 1
Tub following note on deep versus shSSow jiloughing is from
the Farmer’s Revum :—
Agriculture has not as yet become a fixed science. , While
certain principles have received general recognition, in regard
to other matters, theory and piuctioe are constantly undergoing
changes, ns superior practical results are wrought out by a
depai’ture from established methods. Not so very long ago, the
theory and practice for using manure was to plough it under as
deeply as possible. Now the surface application is moat in
praotioe. Deep ploughing has been aaiooiatsd with the idea of
August 1, 1883. THE INDIAN ^GBICULTIJRIST. 291
good huslwuiiy.'iuid with ita oppoaite, uid it would
h^o required a good deal of uioral courage for a farmer who
took pride in bk work to aokuowledge that he ever ploughed
land for a crop only throe or four inches deep. Ho would have
been a loser in reputation among bis neighbors by such an
admiaeion ; and yet it seems now to be pretty well established
by practical reeults that, under some oouditious, tho farmer
who ploughs deep doM it at the expense of the crop, for tliat
se-iSOfi at least. Thefwies based upon esUblished facts, or
whicli can be proved ,^e by practical results only, have value.
Before giving our theory on the subject of deep or shallow
ploughing, we give one or two practical results recently brought
to our notice. The first is a statement by a correspondent of
the Jcnirnal of Affriovltwe, who says : “ 1 ploughed eight acres
last spring alwut eight inches deep, harrowed it fine, and it was
.IS nice a bed for planting as I ever saw. Well, I planted it
early, that is, early enough, and then I worked it with iuy
riding plough pretty deep, and it was pretty cleai’ of weeds.
There was a fellow on the other side of the fence, with a very
light plough and light horses which were not able to plough more
than three inches deep. When he worked it he did it mostly
with a narrow-bIade<l scraper that would scarce go into the
ground at all. But what surprised me the most of .all was, that
when we husked our com, that chap had ten bushels more to
the acre tlmn I had."
About the same time that the above fell under our notice,
the Hon. Samuel D 3 ' 8 art, of Franklin Grove, Ill., a member
of the State Boai-d of Agriculture, gave the results of
an experiment of his own in deep and shallow plough¬
ing. Last spring, in preparing a field for corn, ho ploughed
the alternate lauds deep aud shallow—the one as deep as a
heavy team would turn the soil, ui'dit or nine inches—the
other, not to exceed three or four inches. In planting, he
planle<l across the lands, so that there should I)e no possible
differenito in the seed, manner of planting, or cultivation. The
corn on the shallow ploughing came up nearly a week ahead of
that on the deep ploughed land ; it continued growing till near
maturity, when the latter took a start, and shot up
two fest above tliat on the shallow ploughing, and was still
growing when the frosts came, and gave no sound corn, while
1,hat on the shallow ploughing all inatnrad. Now for our theory.
The deep plo»ighing brought to the surface a soil not probably
lacking in the elements of fertility, but which having been
buried under six to eight inches of soil, w,\s not in condition
to furnish plant nutrimeut until it ha<l undergone a chemical
change, through the action of the air. sunshine, vain aud frost ;
while the surface soil, which had iK-en subjected to theso in-
llnences, was turned under so deep tlrt.it was not available as
plant nutriment, certainly till near the close of the growing
season. The shallow ploughing gave a seed bed of the surface
soil, which furnished plant nutriment from the start, and thus
ensured an early gi'owth and maturity of crop. The con-
clnsiou to be reached is not that ploughing should l>c uniformly I
shallow, but that deep ploughing should be done in the fall. '
When so done, the soil exposed to the action of the elements
during the winter will be properly prepared for a seed bed in
spring, when but a shallow stirring need be given it. But if
ploughing is delaye<l till spring, deep ploughing at that time will
be at the expense of that season’s crop. White it is unquestion¬
ably true that aU soils should Ije worked deep, it is a question
worthy of careful expeiiniont whether this i,s uec-ssary every
year, or whether, say on alternate years, a shallow stirring of
the surface to the depth of three or fom’ inches by .some imple¬
ment which will do the work much more rapidly aud cheaply
than the plough, will not bring equally good results with a
saving of time aud labor. Such experiments, to be of value,
should be on soils of difthrent quality and texture and on the
different crops grown by the farmer. We suggest this subject
to those in charge of our agricultural colleges and experimental
stations.
Dahlinoton is one of the few towns in the north o England
owning a sewage farm, and the statement of its accounts just
issued for the financial year ending in March is (says the Neitcattle
ChronicU) interesting, because there can be no doubt that many
towns on river sides will some day be.iorced, aa was the town
pa the Skerne, to divert their sewage from the stream and
utilise it on the laud. This oouree was forced upon Darlington
some years ago. It bought laud aud formed, a farm to utilize
the sewage at a cost to the present of j^OQ,6d5. In the
fiuiuicial year just clo.sed it ai)cnt £7,205 on the farm, including
£4,081 for iuterest on and repayment of Joans. The receipts
were £7,805, inclusive of £6,000 from tlie borough rate,«»that
the farm paid its way as a farm in spite of tho bad harvests,
but the town has to pay the interest on tho money borrowed,
and this is the cost to it of keeping the sewage out of the river.
There are 60 cows on the farm, and 100 cattle, sheep, aud pigs ;
so that Darlington Corporation is a farmer on a tolerably large
scale. But Darlington has in ita own luiuds Uie gas and water
works that eiipply tho borough. These works have cost the
borough in round numbers £200,000. liSst year the receipts
were—Gas works, £19,863 ; and water works, £9,905. Both
loft very handsome sums to the profit of the works. After
paying the interest on the lotnis lliotv was a credit balance
from the working of the two of £8,167, so that they pay
much more than tlie iuterest on the loans on the sewage farm
(repayment of priucip.al being for the moment left out of the
question). In other words, taking repayment of debt into
account, if the people of Darlington would use a little more
of the cheap gas their works make, and the water they got for
the asking from the Tees, they would from tlie profits gradually
redeem the works from the loans upon them, pay the Interest
on the sewage farm, and ultimately free the latter from its
mortgage.
BEK-KEKprifo JN India.—O n this subject, a correspondent
of a Calcutta paper, after relating several facts regarding the
domestication of bees in several villages of the Jlooghly and
Burdwan districts, says :—
Perliaps j'ou may not be unaware of the fact that the
respectable Dutta family of Nimtollah owns an estate in
east Bengal, which is chicil^y valuable for tho cultivation of
Dce-liives amidst the water.lily plants. The honey cullected
from these hives is generally known as ‘ bly-honey,’ and is sold
at Calcutta and otlier i)Iaoe.s .it. a high price. From these
facts, I am of opinion that, if the .scheme is favourably support¬
ed by the Government, and (ha people are encoiinsgej to
extend bep-k<'cping, it will certainly take a footing among the
paying induHtrios of tlie country.”
A coaRE.sTONDENT Writes to us that the cultivators, who form
about 76 per cent of the population cf the N.-W. P., never dream
of using chopped timber for cooking purposes unless at weddings
when they collect it for months if not years previously, and then
use a oertaiu percentage of cowdungwith tho wood, or at funerals,
when tile whole village often combines to turnish the fuel. Cowdung
is al.si) used here—a little of it. The average cultivator holds about 11)
acres, 6 of which lioar fuel crops, for they chiefly use arhw, cotton,
and castor stalks where flame is required ; cowpats am need freely
for evorythiug, and by mixing straw with tho cakes, they can
be made to burn with a flame without the unpleasant smell of
borning straw. At a low computation five acres give 26 maunds of
fuel annually, and as the average cultivator also owns a pair of
oxen and a cow buffalo aud calf, and he will also have,
if his wife is industrious, about 76 innuuds of cowpats—a great
deal of cow-dnug ts lost when the cattle are in tho fields, and
in the dry weather this is the potteie’ perquisite). In all, 90
maiiiuls, or 10 seers of fuel dally, If he requires so much, and ha
does not by any moans, often sollfug his fuel and using bis arhar
and cotton stalks freely for wicker llniugs for hb welb.
Those that are not cultivators, send tbsir ohlldrsa to sticks
in groves, aud collect maclar stalks, useless thorn he dges, &c.
Tbe Farmer's Revied’ haa the following note on changing the
benriiig year of apple trees ;—
Mo.9t varieties of apples bear oidj’ on ullcruate years, giving
an abundance of fruit one year ;iiid litlle or none the next.
But this bearing year in a tree can be changed by removing
the blo.ssoms on the bearing year and allowing it to hear no
fi-nit, when it will makehi set of fruit bndi and hear the next
year. In a young orchard this habit can be uoticeA aud
292
August 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
changed by the above methixl nu a i>oi'tion of the trees, at the
expense of bnt little labor, «o as to have a part bearing fruit
every year. With a step-ladder and pair of shears the work
can be rapidly performed. It is not too late now, even if
the blossoma are gone and the fruit set. Its removal i.s as
easily accomplished, and with the same result.
The report by th-of. Henry of “ Experiments in Sorghum ” at
the, experimental farm of the university of Wisconsin, of which
a brief summary was given in a recent issue, contains also
voluminous extracts from correspondence from sorghum
growonj and manufacturers throughout the state upon methods
of cultivation, manufacture and cost value of seed, skiramings,
&o,, a few of which we subjoin.
O. S. Powell, of Kiver Falls, on the subject of skimmings,
says ho runs them into tanks to bo made into vinegar. He
says ; “ We make the best of vinegar by merely giving it
time to work, and then pass it from one tank to another for
the purpose of sti’ainiug and filtering. Six thousand gallon.s
were mode last fall in this way that by the first of June will be
Ijetter vinegar than is obtained frosn any other sonree, not
excepting old older or maple .sap.” This vinegar is liiacle .at
scarcely any appreoiabk* cost, and the idea is well worth being
adopted by other syrup makers.
Ambrose Warner, Wliitcw.ater, B.aya : “ I fit my land as
tliougb I were going to plant it to onions, then I always get
a good stand, Go over with a drag last ; that fdls up all the
boixe track and le.aves it ready for the planter. * * * * I
plant throe feet eight inches lietwoon the rows, and from two
and-a-half to three feet ill the rows; plant about one inch
deep ; drag before planting. When the cane is up bring the
shields (on the onltivator) within two inches of each otlior, and
by driving slow can do ii nice job as I have no lumps to bother.
When the cane is two or throe inches high, clean out the weeds
in the hill, then cultivate same as corn. When ready to cut I
take a saw-buck, made longer than for sawing wood, set it
between the second and third row, out four row.s and throw on
the horse. When I have enough for a bundle, bind it and cut
off the tops with one blow of the corn knife. Then lay the
bundle over next the standing cane, and so as to have the
bundles of next four rows cut laid on them. Bind and set up
my seed heads, then rake up the leaves stripped off with a
hoi-ae rake.”
Edwin Blood, Stockbridge, on the subject of manufacture,
says : “ Heat the juice in the desecator to about 150 degi-ees
add milk of lime until the juice shows by blue lltniua paper
slightly acid, or until the paper shows a light pink color. Heat
rapidly until the scum tarns dark colored. Let it stand a few
minutes, then draw into evaporator ; then skim and evaporate
ivs rapidly ns possible to 228° or 230\ # * » If above
instructions are carried out, one cannot f.ail to make a light
colored, clear syrup perfectly free from that detest,csl sorghum
taste, and which will sell at any time in any market.”
As for the cost of making syrup much depends upon the
state of the weather, ripeness of the cane, machinery and help
employed. In the fall of 1881, it cost me 11 cents per gallon
for manufacturing, and the post fall (1882) only 7 1’6 cents
per gallon.
Evan Erickson, of Stevenson, P, O., La Orosse county, sub¬
mits a detailed statement of total cost of raising ami manu¬
facturing ten acres of cane, which, being condensed to save
space, foots up as follows
Preparing the ground...
Planting and cultivating
Harvesting and hauling
Labor and fuel in manufacturing...
Board of men and teams
Barrels for syrup
Hauling syrup to market
... # 20-60
... 30-00
... 65-37
... 182-00
... 81-65
... 31-00
... 31-00
Total cost
... $387-42
Ct; by 1,670 gallons syrup, sold at 40c.
Deduct expenses ...
... $628-00
... 387-42
Net profit
... $240-68
Net profit per ifcre
... $ 84-06
Hollister 8. Philips, of Mindoro, La Crosse county, writing
of tho value of seed, says : “ The yield of seed, ns near as -I
could estimate, was twenty-two bushels per acre. * * I*
One hundred and eight ironnds of seed yielded slxty-aix pounds
of flour. We used cane seed 4onr in our family from the time
of threshing in November till the next August. For griddle
cakes it is nearly equal to buckwheat (some of our neighbors
claim it is superior), and mixed equal parts with buckwheat we
oould see no difference. For soft ginger cake it is exoelleiit.
* ' * As a feed for cattle, horses, and hogs I know if has
no equal. There is no grain that will maln^ horse gain in flesh
faster. For milch cows a person cannot estimate its value till
he hajs tried it. It is especially valuable for young stock and
calves and for hogs. I know that it is worth more per bushel
than corn, and when I say more I mean that there is .a great
difference. In the spring of 1881 we killed a hog that had been
fatted wholly on cane seed. The meat was as hard and sweet
asever tasted. This hog was fed on nothing but oaue seed and
water, yet it took on flesh faster than any hog I ever fed.”
The following is the sulrstance of Dr. Aitken's report re ul
before a recent meeting of the Highland and Agricultural
Society :—
“ 1 have to report regai-ding the progres.s of the work of the
chemiciil deportment that the experiments at the .society’s
station have been succesafnlly laid down, Tho crop this year
is barley, succeeding turnips, and thougli there is a healthy
braird to lie seen, yet the long drought has to a considerable
extent prevented tho manures from coming into operation.
Crops to which only light manures are applied suffer most from
drought, and it will be some weeks before the expetimunts at
tho stations will ho worthy of a visit. In addition to the
general scheme which lias bedn followed froiu the beginiiiug,
the plots on the stations have in m'xst cases been divi led into
two parts, to show tho different effects of nitrate of soda
when ap])Iied with the sued and wjien applied some weeks
later. A few odd plots liave been utiiixed to test the eilicacy
of some forms of manure which are now becoming iinixirtaiit,
and experiment is in progress at Ijotli stations to lest tho csffect
of potash oil the potato crojj. The analysis of the turnip crop
of last year is progressing, but owing to the large scale upon
which it is being caiadeil out, and the greatly nicre.ased number
j of the plots under experimeut, it will lie montlis before it is
completed. A large number of schedules have been sent out to
farmera in various parts of the country, describing a simple
method of testing the fertility of the soil, and so enabling
farmers to discover what raaiiurial ingredients their soils most
require. It is a small exoerimeiit applied to the tiiriiiii crop,
costing almost no money and very little trouble, and is cap.able
of yielding iufoniiatlou which will enable those who try it to
effect .some economy in themauiiring of their land. The silo at
Porlmore, whose construction was sanctioned by by tho .society
at its last meeting, has now been built. It is made of concrete,
and has a capacity of about 170 cubic yards, audit is capable of
accommodating about 100 tons of ensilage. Tho crop to be put
I into it are of several kinds, vis., about 8 tons clover grass
j about 20 tons natural gross, cut from plantations and roadsides;
about 12 tons of green oats, partly after lea and partly sown
out ; about 30 tons of corn and pease, and about 30 tons
of tai’es. These will all be cut and siloed at their greenest, and
kept during the winter under a pressure of about 200 lbs. per
sijuare foot of .surface. In addition to this silo, Mr. Mackenzie
is coustructing another of slightly larger diineusious to store
the produce of 12 acres of natural grass and 8 acres of clover
grass, and also a silo on the hill farm consisting of a pit dng in
the dry earth, and intended to hold about 10 tons of bog grass.
The purpose of these experimeuta is 'liot only to test the
suitability of silos for the pi'eservation of fodder crops grown
in this part of the country, but also to furnish information
regarding the value of fodder so preserved compared with that
of the crops at the time of cutting, and with t^e same when
made into hay. Intimation will be given of the time when the
silos are to be filled, so that any members of the society who are
interested in the experiment may have an opportunity of
witnesRing the operation.”
August 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AGBICULTUHIST,
293
Tub following method of preserving eggs fi-esh is in use ii:
America :—“ I have been iu the ogg trade for several years,
and this is my method of preserving eggs. Take 12 pounds un-
slaeked lime, 2 povnda salt, 2 ounces cream tartar. Slack
the lime in a tub, and then add the other ingr'odieata.
Make the solution strong enough to boar up an egg. For
family use ftD a ten or twelve gidlon jar with eggs, be sure
there are no cracked ones, and then till iu with the solutior
and they will keep good and fresh a year.”
Pabtibs Riming to be posted in sericulture assert that this
State can annually produce $30,000,000 worth of raw silk.
Thk is about twice the amount of gold yield, and it would
seem that, as mining gives out, serioulturo might be profltalily
entered upon .—Sacramento Bee.
Tub quantity of Tea per acre in Dai-jeeling is probably
fairly represented in the latest report of the Darjeeling Tea
Company (Limited). The figures for five years ranged from
3181b. per acre to 369, so that the average is about 3.'iOIh. Now,
if estates between 3,000 and 6,000 feet altitude give 3501b. per
acre in 27' north, there will be nothing wonderful in an average
of OOOlbs. per acre at similar altitude,s iu Ceylon, but 20' nearer
to the equator, and with the alw»y,‘) more genial climate of an
island.
A HBALTirv condition of the Oana lian finances Is reported.
The revenue for the eleven mouths for the current fiscal year
eudiag with May amounted to $32,330,103, ami tlie o.'tpenditure
to $24,109,920, leaving a surplus of over $8,000,000, or
l,600,000f,—that is to say, a sum of If, for every three in¬
habitants.
A LABQBI.T attended conference of reiircsontativcs of Mnui-
cip,al bodies and Mining Boards was held at Melbourne on the
5th .Tune 1883, to devise measures for tlic eouservation of
State forests. Several members of Parliament also attended.
It was admitted on all hands that the management of the
forests by the Oovernrnont ha.s been shameful, and that timbei'
has been wasted in a wholesale manner without regard to
future requirements. The e.'jnference considered that it w!ts
incumbent ou local bodies and others directly iatere.stej to
obtain control of the forests within their respective boundaries,
and decided that a deputation should wait ou tlie Minister of
Lands to-mon'ow to urge that the forests slionlil he vested in
Boards consisting of re,proseutatives of the Mining Boards !ind
luunieip.'illU'e.s within the respective di.stricts, who .should he
empowered to impose sueli restrictions as are necessary ou the
felling of timber, cai-ry orellu^ work iif planting and thinning
where necessary, and generally undertake the management of
such reserves. It was also suggested tliai the forest he let by
the Government for grazing purposes, and a portion of the
proceeds handed to the proposed Eoard.s.
Dn. Salmon, who has investigated the Bubjoct of chicken
cholera for the Chicago Dei>artment of Agriculture, its caua<>
and prevention, gives the following ou the subject of disinfect-
ujg poultry-houses in which the disease has appe.ared :
" For this disease a very cheap and moat eft'ecti ve disinfectant
is a solution made by adding three pounds of sulphuric acid to
forty gallons of water (or one-fourth pound sulphuric acid to
three and-a-half gallons of water), and Jiiixing evenly by
agitating or stirring. This may be aj)pUed to small surfaces
with a small watering pot, or to larger grouud.s witli a barrel
mounted on wheels and aiuanged like a street sprinkler. In
disiirfecting poultry-houses the manure must be first thoroughly
scraped up and removed beyond the reach of the fowls ; a
slight sprinkling is not sufficient, but the flooi's, roosts, and
grounds must be thoroughly saturated with the solution so that
no partjde of dust, however small, escai)e8 beiug wet. It is
impdNsible to thoroughly disinfect if the manure is not removed
from the roosting-places. Sulphuric acid is very cheap, costing
at retail not more than twenty-five cents a pound, and at
wholesale but five or six cents j the barrel of disinfecting
solution can, therefore, be made lor less than a dollar and
should be thoroughly applied. It must be remombered, t,^o
that sulphuric acid is a dajigorous drug to ^laudle, as when.’
undiluted it destroys <dothing and cauterizes the flush wherever
it touches,”
The plague of rabbits from which our Australian colonies
are sufleriug has led New South W.ales to pass a now and 7nore
stringent Rabbit Act, the provisions of which do not err on
the side of leniency. Henceforth, any person jvho shall have
in his posseosiou any live i-abbit, or oven shall introduce into
the colony from any other colony or place any rabbit scalps, is
liable to forfeit and jwy for each offence a sum not excooding
.£100, or in default of payment, bo liable to a term of imprison¬
ment not exceeding six mouths. Hitherto the rabbit has not
been a terror to our American colonies, but according to the
last mail from Canada, his increase iu the Dominion is ocoa-
siouingsome alni’iu. The Natural History Society of Toronto
has brought tlio matter before the Commissioner of Agriculture,
and demanded the exterminiitiou of the rabbits, which a few
yoaw ago were impm-ted to Toiontn from England. To do
this effectively a wit of (piestious li.ss lieen sent out by tha
Government, .osking for inforumtiou on the subject, at the same
time giving a detn riptiou of the rabbit of the coimtiy and the
English rabbit, which alone ij to he treated as v'ennin, and
exterminated accordingly.
From n paper by P. H. .laeolwiu the American Agriciiltiiriat
we (piote the following hints ;—
An acre can produce $(100 in jamltry, .ami the capital rerpiir-
t:d returned by the itouHry iu a short time with proiil. With
a systematic method of cleaning and feeding, more profit, with
less labor, can be derived fi'om jwulti’y on one acre of Uuil
tiiaii from the l>esL rogulatcil dtiiry under the soiling method.
An acre, devoted exclusively to poultry, will return a greater
profit, with less coat in labor, than ten acres of wheat or any
cereal crop. The jjoorest .and lightest of sandy soils are more
suitable for poultry than the best pjistures, as they are freer
from disease. That yards free from grass, and clean to every
corner, .are better than grass runs, has been demonstrated ; but
shade of some kind should bo suppliod, No poultry-house
cfui bo kept absolub-ly clean without .a board floor. In setting
lioii-s, the nests should be in waian, dry locations in cohl
weather, mid in cool, moist places iu summer. In selecting for
breeding purposes, plum.age and points of marking shouhl give
way to robust conslitiitiim, vigor, and activity. Feeding steep-
d clover h,ay and linsood meal assist iu the formation of the
ivliilc of eggs, by supplying nitrogenous matter. The houses
hould bo freely vontil.ated iu summer, .and warm iu winter.
All .soft food should be freshly mixed. Yellow-legged fowls
lell better than those with dark legs. All nou-sittera lay
>urc white eggs. No male should run with ov'cr twelve hens—
loss number would be better. Eggs from two-year-old hens
ire iirefcr.able for setting purposes. Exercise should bo
iirnished by throwing a small quantity of corn into a bundle
jf loo-so straw or liay, for fowls to scratch. Keep a good dust-
latli alway^s. Spailo up the ground as often as possible.
Wlicn a rain is threatened, see to the young chicks. EaiTy-
hatcheii pullets are the winter layers. Keep no fowls for
beauty, if profit is the object. Use puro-brod males always.
Large males bred on small heus produce legginess iu chicks,
but small males on large hens produce closer bodies and
hot ter logs. Never use a male witli his own offspring. It is
a saving of time to lot a hen sit, in jireferenco to breaking her,
hens lay but few eggs when deprived of sitting, and go at
t iu a week or two. Breed your own fowls, and never bring
hem to your y.ards from otlier plnce.s. Hens lay a.s well when
ot iu company with males as when with them, ami such eggs
ceep fresh longer. Young chicks, when feathering, undergo
levere natural drain on the sj'stem, therefore never omit a
neal. Use only tho freshest eggs under sitting hens. Hot
white-wash, containing carbolic acid, liberally applied, will
kill or keep off vermin. The rough scales on fowls’ legs are
‘osily removed by a mixture of lard and sulphur, or ooal oil.
Finally, be as attentive to fowls as to hoi-ses, cattle, hogs or
Bh«ep, and he iu your yard from morning until night.
294 THE INDIAN AGRICyLTUBIST. Aagust 1, 1883.
W, I, CHAMBBnt.AiK, SecTcUry of tho Ohio State Board of
Agriculttire, and one of the moat reliable and intelligent
ofHcialR iu that line in the country, pnblishea on the basis of
official telegrams received June 7th, the following table, show-
itig percentages of tho condition of wiieat at that date, cora-
]>ared w^h diiuc 1, 1882, together with the yield in 1882 and
probable j-iuld in 1883, in the twelve prinaipni wheat-growing
states of the f'^uion, which last year produced nearly four-fifths
of the entire wheat grown in the country.
It is as follows :
Statsh.
Per
oent,
Jnne 1.
Bushels
in
1882.
Probable
bushels in
1883.
Ohio ...
.12
40,404,000
2.3,382,000
ludiaua
80
4.1,402,000
.30,005,000
Iowa ..
80
25,487,000
21,019,000
Kansas
71
.33,248,000
23,080,000
Minnoeota
88
37,031,000
32,760.000
Illinois
32
52,603,000
16,000,000
Kentucky (about)
fiO
17,250,000
8,417,000
Michigan
07
,3.3,316,000
22,-321,000
California
88
.34,547,000
30,000,000
Wisconsin
86
20,115,000
17,224,000
Tennessee
82
8,671,000
8,971,000
Nebraska (spring)
111
1.3,673.000
15,399,000
Total
... j 307,080,000
250,068,000
lie says: “ This gives a prnhaljlo shortogo
of nearly
117,000,000 bushels in these twelve states, and makes it pro¬
bable tliat the crop of 1883 will be oven smaller than that of
1881 ; at least in proportion to acreage and population ; and
this will leave lees surplus above ‘ seed and bread ’ for export.”
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA.
TIu tisual MoiUMy Metlhig wm held on IVcdneiidaj/, the !?0tli
June ISSS,
■\V. H. Coffswsra., Ksq., Presidenl, in the chair.
T he proceedings of the lost meeting hold on the I9tli April were
confirmed.
Tho following gentlemen wore elected Ordinary Members : —
H. J. Baynes, Esq., Manager, Jatooke Cloi'deu, Meleng Estate,
Assam.
R. B. Yates, Esq., Deputy Conservator and Harbour Master
Calcutta.
A. Campbell, Esq., Assistant Conservator of Forests, Ciornkh-
poro.
Dr. J. Mullanc, Civil Surgeon, Dhubri.
Manager, Moouoe Tea Estate, Darjeeling.
Captain j. O. Morris, Cantonment Magistrate, Saugor, C.P.
W. L. Thomas, Ksq., Merchant, Calcutta.
The names of the following goutlcmoii were submitted as desirous
of joining the Society :—
C. K. Slanisty, Esip, C.S., Magistrate, Cuttack,—proposed by
tlio I’resideut, scuoiinevi by Mr. J. E. MucLachlan.
Edward Biggo, Esq., Merebaut, Calcutta,—proposed by IV. Tl.
Cogswell, Ksq,, seconded by Mr. It. Bleohyndeu.
mboo Ishar Prosad Gorga, of Molsadal palace,—propeaed by
Ruja Suttyunuudo Qhosal, Babadoor, seconded by Baboo Jaikls.sen
Mookerjee.
K. W. Road, Esq., Manager, Latakoojan Garden, Assam,—
E roposed by Mr. R. Bleobynden, seconded by Mr. J. E.
laoLachlaii.
Baboo Si>olohaud Nahar, Azimgungc,—proposed by Babco
.Talkisson Mookerjee, seconded by Baja Suttyauundo Qhosal,
Babadoor.
Edward .T. Dawder, Esq., Private Secretary to the Nawab Vikav-
ul Umra, Hyderabad, Deccan,—proposed by Mr. G. L. Komp,
seconded by tho President.
J. D. Maxiveli, Esq,, Merchant, Calcutta,—proposed by \V. H,
Cogswell, Ksq., seconded Iw G. D. Kemp, E-.q.
C. A. ^muells. Esq,, C.s., Magistrate, Buncoora,—proposed by
Baboo Portub Karain Singh, seconded by Raja Suttyauundo Ghosaf,
Babadoor.
W. Bleeck, Ksq., Imperial German Consul, Calcutta,—proposed
by W. H. Cogswell, Esq,, soconded by K. Delius, Esq.
R. Decy Suodding, Esq., C. S., Collector, Momilaiiad, N.-W.P.,
—proposed by Raja Suttyauundo Gliosal, Bah.adoor, seconded by
Baboo Jaikissen Mookeriee.
The Nawab VTkar nl-Umra, Hyderabad, Deccan,—proposed liy
Dr. King, seconded by tho President.
C. A. Soppitt, Esq., Assistant Snporlntendeht of Police,
Caohar,—proposed by W, Aitcliison, Esq., seconded by Baboo
.Inikissen Mookerjee,
R, Bleehyndei), Esq., Jr., Culontta,.-proposed by Mr. R.
Blechynden, seconded by Mr. J. E. MocLachlau.
Re-joined —A. L, Keith Murray, Esq., Manager, Borpanee Tea
Estate, Nowgong, Assam. '
Chas. L, Amhier, Esq., Mongbyr,
CoNTaiBonoye.
A aeleotiott of aeads from Trinidad, West Indies. Presonted by
Dr. J. B. Menstes.
A quantity of Mahogany aeed, Er6m Baboo Prasonoooomar
Banerjee.
A^aoket of Broussonetia papyrifera {paper mulberry). From
Dr. King,
A large qnanttty of aoollmatlned maiae seed. Prom tho
Maharaja of Dttrbhango.
A bottle of green sorrel seed. Prom Mr. J. Stalkaitt,
A wardian cose of plants from Mr. E. Koek, of Singapore. (The
Secretory was directed to send a snitable seleotlon of plants in tho
return case.) f i
A large number of Mahogany seeds from TrluldJi}. No advice
had yet been rscelved regaralng these seeds, bnt they were sown
immediately ou receipt, Mahogany seeds being so extremely liable
to deterioration.
Tho annual report of administration of the Customs Department
in Bengal, From J. Scoboll Armstrong, Esij., 0.8., Collector of
Customs.
Two copies of the Implement and Machinery Review. Prom
the Publisher, H. Weatoott, 23, Budge-row, T.Kuidon.
The Manual of Agriculture for Indio, by Lieut. F. Pogsou. By
the author.
Department of Agriculture Report for the year 1880, Presented
by the .Soiitlisonian Institution.
ProceciiiiigM of the Jioatou .Society of Natural History, part of
Vol. .\ V, and :l parts of Vol, XXI, From the Sinitheonlau
lustitutiou.
The Indian Forcaltr. No. 5, Vol. IX. From the Editor.
Journal of tho Asiatic Society of Bengal, Port 1, No. I of 1883,
Vol. till, and Proceedings for Fobmaiy and Marcli. From tho
Society.
Hystomatlo Census of Australian Plants, Part 1, Vasoulares,
by Baron Ferdinand von Mueller K.C., M.O,, M.D., Ac. Ac.
Prom the author.
Tho Tropical Agriculturist for April and May, (two copies
each). From the Editor,
Memoirs of tho Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. Ill,
Nos. 4 and 5. Prom the Society.
Report of tho AHporo Reformatory Suhool for tho year 1882.
From the Suporintonuent.
Report of the Calcutta Court of Small Causes for the year 1882.
Proceedings of the Agri-Kurticultural jijociety of Bijuuur. From
the Seorotai'y.
Frooeedlngs of the Agri-Hortioultural Society of Madras—
Annual Meeting and Ordinary Committee Meeting. From tho
Secretary.
The Secretary was directed to acknowledge all the above contri¬
butions, and tender tlie thanks nf the Society to the donors.
COMMUNIOATJONN.
Letters, enquiries, and coinmuuloations on various subjects wore
read.
From Mr. J. Horne, of tho Botonical Oavdons, Mauritius, to say
a wardian case of selected sugai'-cauo including “ Desiderata,’’
would shortly be sent.
Major D. G. Pitcher, of tho Agricultural Department, N.-W.P.,
for a mauud of Carolina paddy Boc-l. (To bo supplied on arrival
from America.)
Mr. E. H. Boileau, Forest Department, Masulipatam, asking for
seed of the Rain-Tree (Pilhieoluhiam Saiuaii). Application com¬
plied with.
Clias. P. W. Martin, Ksq., Tezpore, Assam, promising a farther
supply of cane seed from tho Dufila +41110,
C. Oasperz, Esq., Sub-Divisional Offiuer, Sasseram, enquiring If
the Society can procure seed potatoes for experimental planting
iu certain Govcmineut Mehals. (A reply in tho nflirinative was
sent to Mr. Casperz, who was asked to make an applioation when
the season for planting potatoes approuolics.)
In connection with this subject, Babuo Jaikissen Mookerjee
roiniscd a supply of potatoe seed, a very favorable report having
een made on samples submitted by him at one of the Society’s
meetings.
A letter from J. Binning and Co., enquiring for details of
working of the Mexican Aloe Fibre Machine, alluded to in the
Procecd^inga of the 2l8t March lost. Ail the trials up to date not
having proved satisfactory, a report is withheld ponding further
trial.
MoONOAII SlLFC.
The following letters on this subject wore read
J. W. Ilolderneia, fjw., Simla, S35lk April 1S8S. —lam directed
to forward a copy of a letter from the PoUtioai Agent at Baghdad,
and its accompaniment, together with the sample of the fibre
therein alluded to, and to say that this Department would bo glad
to be favoured with auy information available that would lead to
the identiiiuaton of the plant which yields tlie fibre iu question,
IK. Tn-eedie, Eaq,, Bagdad, SOth JanvM-y 188S. —I enclose copy,
with F.ngUsh translation, of a letter in Turkish, just addressed
to mo by his Excellency Muliainm.ni Hidayat, theMushlr Pasha,
or Commander-iu-Chiof of this \V i lay at; asking for a supply, of a
seed which, as far us can bo made out, is that of the Sure from
which, in India, the fabric known as Mugra ellk is made.
From his Excellency Muhammad Hidayat Pasha, to B.B. M’s
Officiatiug (lonsul-General, Baghdad, dated Baghad, 29tli Joufiory
1883.
« « « « «
'■ TVanslalion,—It is anderstood that a fibre called in this country
Shoori, believed to be a epeoies of flax which is mnoh need to
eubroideftog,..ls prqdnoe.d abnudmily to Indio, .,
"My idea Is that the rich soU of this WUoyat wonld snrMy
produce the grticle to quetltoa il the eeed were totrodnoed, which
295
THE INDJtlN AGIHICULTURIST.
would be the readering of a lervioo only to bo e:(ueetod from the
inter^ you ehow in metten of publio benoSt: end if yon wUl
pen&it me in t<l^S ^Ue opportunity of e^preeeing my friendehip
end regntd. to aak yon to apply to the Government of India for a
•upplyof the eeed to queetion, I shall esteem it a favor."
The followtaa report was furnished by the President
It is a difficult thing at all time to form any thing like a reliable
opinion on such a very small sample of fibre as fie one now referred
to, and to be able to state with any degree of aoouracy what it
really is, or to identify the plant from which the fibre has been
produced.
My first impression was that it might be the Sanseviera
Zeyianca, t^ moorva fibre Bans murva or Beug. Moorga and
Moorgayee, lieloribed by Sir Wm> Jones in his Asiatic .Researches,
the leaves of which plant I send herewith. The same fibre is
referred to by Dr. Koxburgh, Dr. Forbes Eoyle, and others in
their several works on Indian Fibrons Plants, as used for ropes,
lines, bow strium and producing a soft fine fibre, roseinbliiig silk,
and capable of being spun and manufactured into cloth.
On comparing the sample, however, with the Moorgah or
Moonn SMoharum, Munga Silk Fibre, some specimens of which
from Assam are in the Booiety’s Museum, presented 42 years ago,
and with a sample kindly placed at the Society’s disposal by Dr.
McCann, Officiating Secretary of the iCconomio Museum, they
correspond so ezaotly with the above-named Persian sample that
I think they are Ideutioal, Dr. McCann also drew reference to
Balfour’s Enoyclopmdia, in which work this silk fibre is spoken
of as having been mixed with cotton and manufactured into a
fabric at Dacca, which was largely exported to Jeddah and
Busaorah, and it may be to this that his Excellency Muhamed
Hidayat Pasha refers in his letter to the Political Agent at
Baghdad.
\V. H. CociswEii,.
Tho Deputy Secretary intimated that an aoknowlediraent of the
above report had been received from Mr. Holderness, Ofig. Under¬
secretary to the Government of India, who had mentioned that
specimens of the fibre are being procured from the places
mentioned in Mr. Cogswell’s note,
A N Ew Tea Insect.
Messrs. Begg, Dunlop and Co. write
In continuation of previous correspondence, we have now the
pleasure to baud yon per bearer a tin, containing a nunilwr of tho
insects received from tho Lung Ling estate, the manager of which
wrote ns os follows :—
“ * I am paoklng up for despatch to you a large quantity of tlie
now tea iuscote in two of their different states. 1 cannot obtain
the motb. I hardly think it is time for it yet.”’
TIio inseots were forwarded to Dr. Anderson, of the Indian
Museum, who had kindly consented to observe tlieir habits, and
who had procured a supply oi food suitable for tliem from Dr,
King ; auy further eommuuiuation received on tlie subject will be
published in due course.
'The attention of tlie members present was drawn to some viw
large specimens of tea leof from tlio Dooors forwarded by Mr.F. F.
Wyman, editor of tho Tea Guaette. In reply to an enquiry as to
whether the bushes from which tho speoimeii had been taken were
treated in any special manner, Mr. Wyman forwarded tho
subjoined communication from his oorrespondeut ;—
1 send you speoinious of tea leaves of this season's growtli from
the Western Dooars. Several you will see are exceptionally large
for the fimt three leaved and the bud, and will give great weight
of tea.
“ BagracoU, IJll/i May 188:^—Your favour of tho 8th instant
to hand, I am glad to boar \on have received the tea loaves and
shoots Stoely. 'The leaves and shoots ropresout tho average of the
major portion of this garden.
“ A portion of the tea is eight,rising nine years, and a portion
seven, rising eight years. Wo have several other blocks just as
good, and few blocks of pure indigenous and extra good hybrid
much hcttcr. As the latter are, however, youug buslics, and at tho
further end of tho garden I did not pluck any samples from
thorn. I could, 1 think, scud you loaves nine and ten inches long.
As tho bushes, though young, are very fine for their ago, no part
of this garden has ever been manured, nor have any of the blocks
received any spoolal treatment. The growth in the Dooars is
really most astonishing. I have never soon such rapid growth in
Assam.”
Mr. Wyman also forwarded some leaves for idontificatiou.
" I send you also some leaves of a plant very much like those of
the tea plant, for which they arc often mistaken."
Dr. King kindly identified the leaves as those of the Kurya
Berrata which, he remarks, has frequently been mistaken for tea.
The Deputy Secretary mentioned that he had some years ago seen
some “ tea'’ mode from tho loaf in question u-hich bad all the ap-
pearanco of the genuine article.
Buea, OB CutNA Gkass Skeo,
A letter from Mr. Bleeck, Imperial German Consul, was read—
I have been requested to procure some pounds of good sound
seed of the Romeh (nettle) plant.
“ Several Agricultural Booieties in Germany have vainly tried
to prouuro good healthy plants from seed obtained from Franco,
ana now deoirous to make an experiment with tho real Indian
“ I therefore ventui'O to ask whether you will be kind enough to
procure the said eeed for me, or if this bo impoosible, would you
please infom me where it oan bo got ?’’
The Secretary mentioned that the seed was difficult to procure,
as it is seidom preserved owing to the fact of the plant being
much more easily and readily propagaterl from cnttingi and divi¬
sions of notSi tM tiuit he ww ufonned by the Superintendent
of the Government Botanical Gardens, Sabaninpore, that it did not ‘
seed there at all, the plant being of one sex, though ho had once
rMsed Ehea from seed procured from Java. Efforts are being
made to obtain the seed to meet this and other similar applications.
Wheat and Cotton,
Samples of tbeso were sent by the Suporintendeot, Agri-IIorli-
cultural Society’s Garden, Lahore, cm whicdi tho following report
was given
“ Coliea.-—This sample of Kuppas, that is, with, tho sood left in
unoleaned, is most beautiful, the staple is soft, allay, long, strong,
and of a clean, white color. It would soil most readi^ in tho
Home markets if tho seed was separated from the fibre, and would
realise high prices, as oonmarott with the American cottons, It
would have to be sent to Europe, for the quality is far too good
for tho local mills in India, whoso spinnings are almost entirely
on low counts of yam. It would bo interosting to sec a sample of
this cotton after the seed had been separated from it.
“ Wieat. —The samples marked C 1, 2, and S arc not sufficiently
marked in character to separate, so must ho taken as a whole.
They would rank with Allyghiir wheat worth obont Rs. 2-14 a
maund. The grain la good, bold, and plump, but not so good in
flolor as Meerut wheat, the latter being whitish, whilst the former
Is yellow, and worth about Rs. 2-15. Tho samples marked
L G 1 2, 8, like the former are not suffioicutly marked in character
to separate, so I treat them as one sample. The wheat is damaged
and sxmtted, with much grain disoolorod, and would not sell for
shipment hence in consequence, but would ho bought only by tho
local retail dealers. It is worth about Rs. 2 8 a maund.
■ W. n. CooswEU.."
Gaeden.
There is nothing very particular to record under this head ;
steady proCTOss has been made with tho work indicated as more
urgent by the Garden Committee. 'The remains of a shed near tlio
dwelling-house has been removed, roods rolled and weeded. Tho
gaps in the wall have been rebuilt, and levelling tho lawn taken
in hand. The propagator, whose appointment was confirmiid at
the last meeting, has been doing good and satisfactory work, and
haa now a large stock of roses which should bo ready for distri¬
bution at tho usual time at the end of tho rains.
'The new sorts of Achlmenios got out last year are looking strong
and healthy. The attention of inombors is drawn to tho largo
stock of mahogany plants now in hand, upwards of 1,000 being
ready for immediate distribution. There are also a largo number,
about 1,000 seedlings, of Arabian oofl'eo available, some young
Indian rubber plants, a few teak, divi-divi, and a large stock of
fruit grafts, maugoe, liohee, and paeli, Ac. A potting shed for
UHO during the rains Is in course at erection from materialH, most
of which are available in tlie Garden, so the expouso will be
triiUng. Since tho last Meeting tho garden lias been visited Iiy
a severe storm which snapped off some twenty feet from the top
of the fine young Eucaplytus tree south of the lawn, and uprooted
one or two other trees, but no great damage has been dune,
Tliere liavc not been many cash sales as usual during tho hot, dry
season. Thu new orchiil-iiouse is well filled with plants, and a large
quantity of finely screened ashes were obtained and laid down,
giving a firm, dry, and pleasant flooring. An experimental sowing
of early Amber Sugarcane (the seed of which was presented by
Captain Pogson, and noticed at tho last incctiug) resulted iu a
failure, only a few seeds having germinated. A gieat (inantity of
brick rubbish haa been coUectoiI from various parts of the gnrilcn,
os it rendered digging, Ac., difficult.and was very unsightly.
Ari-angomonts are being made to sell this as road metal, the
proceeds to be used to buy *• kunkor” for the garden roads ; this
will be cheaper than making it into material on the garden.
Rice-IIdskinci Machine.
In tho Proceedings of tho 27th September J 882, the following
allusion was made to a Kico-HuskingMaclunu.—
“ A model as used iu tho West Indies by tho Chinese has boon
jonstructo.l by tho order of Mr. W. H. Cogswell from a rough
sketch kindly furnished by Air. H. A. Firth, and it has boon
determined to give the same a practical trial shortly, with a full
report thereon, so that its ’ scfulness may be generally made
known.”
The model is apparently of tho full size and stands 2 ft. 9 in,
liigh ; it consists of an upright shaft or oolumn of hard wood, tho
upper face of which is ont into deep grooves radiating from tho
centre where a strong pin is fixed ; the grooves are quarter of an
inck in breadth and one-oighth in depth ; a heavy disc of hard
wood similarly grooved and of tho same diamatcr ia mode to
revolve rapidly, the central pin being tho axis : paddy is poured
iuto a receptacle on the top of the i-cvolviug disc, and falls out in
the form of rice and husk into a circular trap affixed to tho shaft.
Grain is then separated from the chaff, either with a winnowing
machine, or by tho very effectual native hand process. In making
such a maohmo for use to India tho upright sliaft might be
dispensed with and a heavy block of wood substituted, so that tho
top of the revolving disc would be within roaoh of the manipulator
whon seated in tho only position a native of India seems able to
work iu. This would also reduce tho price somewhat, as tho tray,
too, could thus be dispensed with, ana the rice would l>c alloivcd
to fall directly on the floor. In whichever way it may bo made,
the maohlne is so simple that any common village carpenter could
make one at a very trifling cost.
The result of the trial against the “ dheki ’’ and upcountry
“ ukhli ’’ is given below. It may be proper to note here Aat tho
dheki has one advantage over the rice-busker, riz.,that the rice,
after being husked and wuuiowed, can be repounded, and the
brown marks which will always bo found on tloo thus remoi cd ;
this prooow whitens the grain and brightens It considerably,
296
THE INDIAN AGRICtJ^DTURIST.
Angast 1 , 1883.
m»kiQg a differeno* of somo three or fonr eoere in the nipoe in the
marketable value. It {«, however, to be remarked that should
this be considered necessary, the rice can be put under the dheki
after being httsked in the maubine, at a great saving of time and
coat. It need scarcely bo said that the whitening process involves
a loss in weight.
The machine has a marked arlvantage over the primitive native
methods when ** aroosh *' or nnboilea paddy is dealt with, as the
dlderouoe in breahage, as noted below. Is then very appreciable,
and when it is resioinMrod that a groat number of up-conntry
natives object to “usna” rioo (made from boiled paddy)its advantage
over the dheki and ukhli in this one respect alone should makelt
sought after, leaving out of consideration its other advantages
which a glanoe at the table given Irolow will show. It is of course
for consumers to decide which vloe they prefer, butarooah (unboiled
paddy) rice would seem a somewhat more cleanly article than
usna (boiled paddy) rice boiled with water, to the tmallW of which
tho majority of consumers arc os a rule profoundly indifferent,
Rksclts ok TttlAlS.
Boiled Taddi, “ Usna.”
j ^
.
d
a
s
©
g
a
v
*4-4
©
o
a
H
'V
(h
.i
s
1
1 Waste.
o
i5
ers.
Soors,
Seers. 1
Icht.
Rico Husker
1
i 17
5 i
3-12
M
1 ’**
182
“ Dhoki”
38
5
3-10
1-2
4
811
“ Ukhli”
22
0
3-8
1
1-2
1
‘’l
81i
Unboiled Paddy,
“ Abooah.”
Klee Husker
1
i 1
17 j
! 5
3-10
l-3i
2i
37i
"Dhoki”
I 2
24
b
3-6
1-5
5
93i
"Ukhli”
1 2
2S 1
5
3-10
1-2
4
3U
In the above table the oolurau “ broken " inclndes all rioo how¬
ever slightly broken or even chipped, hence the very high porcent-
Bgo.
OFFICIAL PAPERS.
AOKICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED BY
PUNDIT A.IUDHIA PRASHAD.
From PcNDiT Ajpdiiia Pramuad, Illsquahdur, Imlalporc, and
Shahjaliaupore,—To W. C. Benktt, Ksij., Director, Department
of Agriculture and Commerce, N. W. P, and Oudh, Cawnpore,—
dated ludalpore, tho 15th of Juno 1883.
Sib, —1. In forwarding to you a report of tho agricultural opera¬
tions cmarlod ou by mo during the year 1882 and 1883,1 shcdl not
trouble you with a mimito account of the procedure which is
pretty much tho same from year to year, but I shall coniine
myself only to such particulars as are, owing oithcr to their novelty
or Importance, specially deserving of Interest and attention,
2. About the Icharif crops therefore I have not to notice much,
saving that I tried a peculiar sort of w'd called sara/iea, in fields
that had rooelvod doop ploughing. The resulting outturn was
exceedingly good, and the urd produced carried the first prise at
the Uolagokuru exhibition.
3. My ti/vtny, too, this year was of Jan unusually superior sort,
and on samples thereof tho iirat prise at the aforesaid exhibition
was awarded,
4. Rabi .—In my report last year I gave a table showing that
the outturn yielded by the Mozufierpore soft white wheat was
better than that given by the other kinds sown here. Kniboldoned
by this feature of the experiment I tried the soft white variety
vei-y extensively in tho season under report, sowing it over 93
heeghas in all my five farms. I’ho outturn fully supimrts the eon-
elusions 1 had previously arrived at. An exceedingly satisfactory
result of this extemave experimeut is, that the zemindars of the
neighbouring villages and the assmeoa generally have come to
understand tjiat the cnltivation of the soft white wheat is more
remunerative than that of the ordinary kinds. Accordingly I
have been requested by many people to supply them with se^, and
I doubt not but next year I will find the cultivation of this variety
more extensive and general.
5. I am also now In a position to state my opinion as to the
utility of pioking the seed before sowing it. All the soft white
wheat seed that was sown at Indalpore (Farm No, 1,) last, year was
carefully cleaned and picked before it was taken to the Held. The
fields sown with the seed so treated, beat the other fields sown
with the same sort of whsat without the special treatment. In
those sown with the picked wed the produce was fully double that
gtveD by the fields in which the ordinary katba wheat was sown
Not only was the outturn larger fai-quantity but it was also better
in quality. Tbc nMn produoed by the picked seed is larger,
whiter, and better Savored than that produeed by the ordinary
method of sowing. 8o far as this experiment goes, I oan oonfidontiy
state that picking and cleaning the seed before sowing Is one of
the essentials that result iu the production of large outturns of
extra superior (uiality.
Seed tuppliodhy Devfirlmentc^ AgriouUurt emd Commeree.
6. Oape OaU .—I trieef the five seers of Cape oat seed that was
supplied by your department, Tho produce equals that of the
country barley, but the grain produeed is iuferior. ^.fs also with
the greatest dlffioulty possible to grind the oats by 'Ume ordinary
flour mills [chakheet) aud honoe it would not do to cultivate thu
variety as a food cron. No doubt it would be very good as fodder,
but then fodder ortinoially cultivated U not a desideratum in tbeee
ports, because tho jangle and plains bordering upon the villages
are full of the most luxuriant grass whloh supplies tho cattle all
the year round with food. It is my optniou therefore that the
oultivatlOD of these oats oan never be universally adopted here.
7. Ouiitea Orasa —I tried It iu the valley of the river Goomtee
as proposed last year. Tho shoots came up very well, were
healthy and promisuig, but the sudden overflow of the river sub¬
merged and killed them. I caunot therefore oonfldoutly state
whether the grass will succeed here, I will nevortholoss try once
with tho proper prooautlon.s, and hope to bo able to give my opinion
about it after the next trial,
8. Maizes. —Of American maizes I received five varieties from
your dojiartincnt in 1881, I tried them year after year as khtiree,/
crops. 1 did uot, I am sorry to say, succeed at all in the experi¬
ments. Few cobs over came to maturity, and those that did, bore
very inferior and dogenoratod grain, I however persisted in sowing
the deteriorated groin simply to save a little seed. In those re¬
peated trials of mme the seeds of tho different varieties got mixed,
aud I ultimately found that on gathering tho cobs, some wore pro¬
duced that differed from tho original seed In shape, color, &c.
While ti-ying to account for tho appearance of these now varieties,
it suddenly struck mo that iwrliaps when flowering the plants of
different varieties had fertilised oacli other and had thus produced
new hybrids. Meanwhile at the beginning of the season under
report your department sent me two varieties of American maizes,
namely, white flint corn and yellow Ctw.ida com, for trial as
wluter crops. I suddenly thought of tiying my own doterioratod
seed along with tho now one as a winter crop, aud wishing at tho
same time to tost tho fertilisation theory that I Iiad previously
arrived at. I followed a peculiar plan in the cnltivation. I sowed
the seed obtained from your department in long linos, and on oitber
side of those lines I sowed my own deteriorated seed. Owing to
the proximity of the different varieties one to another, I thought
that fertilisation would be helped a great deal, and when tho plants
flowered, I shook them in all directions. The result was that
when the crop ripened and tho cobs wore gathered, many new
varieties wore found ; some of those possossod exceedingly beautiful
aud oharactoristio colors. The experiment on the whole was a
thorough success, the grain produoed beiug superior to tho origi¬
nal seed sent to tho Oolagokuru exhibition, and all the gentlemen
that saw them there were surprised at tho largoiiess of the grain.
I iutond next year to sow each cob that exhibits a peculiarity iu
shape or color separately by itself, and will then report tho result
of the trial.
9. Siigar-crnu —I reported lost year the new system that I had
adopted m dealing with tenants, namely, that of purchasing cane
from them, aud erushiug it for inysoK- instead of buying ready
pressed juice. The success that I hud last year indnood me to
extend operations iu tho season under report, and I accordingly
started two rab factories. One as usual worked at Indalpore, and
the second was opened at Januri, a village of mine near Tilhar.
The system of solliug cone is gradually gottlag into favor with the
asatiKcs ; they are, as is well known, averse to innovation and ore
very chary of adopting things unless they are thoroughly satisfied
of the profit likely to result. Gradually they are learning to ap¬
preciate the system of soiling cane.
10. Kepeated experience iu oauo cultivation has taugh t me a
thing which would benefit these that try sugar-uano. The plant is
pro^gated by cuttings which are of two sorts—lot, Khundwon,
and 2ud, Agvabca. The first is obtained by taking the clean cane,
aud chopping it up into portious about a foot long. These bits are
placed ill the field and give ofl-slioots. On the second system the
whole Of the cane is not utilised for outtlugs, but the crown top
aioiie is taken, and that Is plaood a few inches below the soil iii
the prepared Hold, Now although both these systems are follow¬
ed, my oxperienoo causes me to prefer the second sort of cutting,
us because it is tondor, it gormiuutes very soon and also gives ofl
a vary lai-ge number of shoots. Ou tho other hand the Khmidwan
sort arc very tough, and us they are full of sweet juioo, are in great
danger of attack from white ants. It is therefore advisable to use
the Agvalicu or orowu top cuttings us fai' us possible and to avoid
using the Khundwan ones.
11. I must also In this coiiuectiou note the foot that deep
ploughing does euormous good to sugarcane as well as to other
oiops In general. I stated this fact iu my reports of past years,
but I now do so again as year after year my belief in its emm^
gains greater strength. One good feature and a rather impoi-t^
one is that sugar-cane grown on deeply ploughed land withstands
drought more than that grown ou lauds that are not deeply plough¬
ed. Besides, all this deep ploughing duos uot only give greater
outturns, but permanently improves the land. A remarkabe in¬
stance of this result of deep ploughing is seon In one of my villages
called Betiuanagra. During the past years owing to a variety of
causes tho asamees gave up cultivating a large area of laud in
that village and this pat me to great loss. 1 some years ago
Auguat 1, 1683.
297
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUIIIST.
opw'd a {am there and onltivatod almoet all ef ttiiii land lor my-
■«f, I nted the ImDroved i^onghi and thua all the flelda in time be¬
gan to yield jpoa oropa. The asamcca now think the floldi to be
very good, and want them back; they are ev-en willing to pay larger
rent. All thia Improvement In the laud I can only atirloute to
deep ploughing and the introduction of syetomatlc tanning.
Proem of maling Sugar from liah,
12. I atated the hd proceas of making raft laat year, and I
would now like to give a abort description of tho method by
which roi la made mto sugar. The process is divided into 2 parts,
TheKursccs or clay pots full oftlio rub aro taken to tho Khundsar,
and two w mono workmon take charge of them. Tlmro is on ob¬
long atructuto with walls about a yard high colled cliannee the
interior of which is lined with o blanket, before which
the workmen staml. Each of them lays hold of one pot, lifts
it up, and places it on tire wall of tho chanuet mid then by means
of the thick handle of a little Khnrpn- kuocka off the upper holt of
the pot.^ Theu by means of tho Mat Khiirpee he sorapes mid throws
the rah into tho Tide operation is ooiiduotod until it is
thought that an amount of rab sufficlont for tlio day’s work iias
been thrown Into the chmncr. Thnnigli tlio blmikot which lines
the interior of the structure, a part of flic uiolasscs of tlie mb filters
and posses by a drain iuto the hole iiitcudod to roceivo it, re¬
presented at the loft of the iigurc. Each workiiiau is then pro¬
vided with 12 bags made of coarse blauket stuff iuto wliioli ho tills
tbo rab from the chiinnn’ and ties tlie month with bits of rope.
Those he aixauges in a vertical pile on a atruoturo kiiowu as the
Khurea in tho drawing, and then pl.acus a heavy cylindrical
block ol mnd on tlio top of all. Straight tods of bamboo (about
IJ Incli thick and 1 yard in length) aro attached to tlio pile of bags
to kcop it steady, and then the workman mounts on to tlio top of
tho pile supporting liimself on a cross licaiii represontod in tlio
figure, and shakes tho pile backwards and forwards and proasing
with all bis might on to it, Owing to thia prossiire the ninlasaes
flow out of tho b.ags uud fall to tho bottom of tlio Khurea whoiioo
by a drain they pass into flie miiml, a pit well plastered with mud
and b/mii which is uoustruoted near at hand to receive thoin. If
the ru4 is tolerably good, it is thus inaiiipulatod for about six hours,
after wliicli the bags are removed frem tire Khurea, opened,
shaken about, and ro-iirranged in the self-samo way. The pressing
again coiiimenooa and is.carried on till tlie evening when the pile
is left, for tho uiglit In the iiioruing the bags aro opoimil
and the mb with whioh'thcy were originally lillod is by this time
converted Into pntirr,
Tlio second part of the process then comes into play. In a small
room, an obioiig enclosure is made by means of tiiatoliiiig straw
(u/ftiw. Bricks aro arranged on the floor of this enolesnre mid then
a thick covering of reeds {nihiia ) is lairl on thorn. A elutli eiilled
pnlUa is tlien spread over the whole, and then the kliiinrim, a.s it h,
termed, is ready to receive the putiee. The bkiwh's is lilUd with
puiiw and its upper suifaeu is smoothed, A thiul; Injer of
(siicnr) river weeds, is then spread on the top, and this is allowed to
remain fora few days, The .omn-is then removed and to a certain
depth—nil inch or so, tlie pti/iw is louiid to liaru tnriieil iiericcllj
white. Tliis iiortioii is scraped oil Iiy inoaiH of iioii inNtriiiiii.iitii I
o.alled bunliulM. 'I'o tho newly e.vpoaed snrfaoo anotlinr oovuiing I
of .siwiir is applied and friuii day to d.iy the applic.'itioii of the weeds
and the scraping aro carried on alternately. This .scraped fiuyar
teniiod niirfuiof is sprc.ad oil a piece oi coarse nanv.w {juila) wliioli
is placed in somo place exposed to tlio sun, and a few laborers
trend over it and riili it with Ihuir lect. Tills operaliuii drie.s the
Bug,-!!' and makes itwliite, and tlins is fonned wliat is teriiod kknnd.
In this form tho sugar inaunfaeliirer sells his produce, When re-
qiiircd for nso, tliis khaml W iiiatlo into .syuip wliieli is boiiod .'iinl
clarified liy tho addition of milk mid ghr, and is then allowed to
thiokon, euro being taken to prevent ovystailisation tiy rii Idling and
beating it with wooden iiistrniiienti, shaped like tliiek spades. It
then gets tho name of ckini or bum.
13. There arc a few byo-prixlnots tlmt need notice. After the
pUi'liiH'e is scraped off liie kfuiucht , the surface of tlia latter is i-.aiv
fully broomed and little liils ut tlie weeds steeped in .sugm m o
gathered. These aro acciiimil.ated .md when snilieieut in ipmiiity
are soaked iii water and lliu iiynip thus uhtained is boiled. It
tliickcns to tho coaaisteiiee ot rah, mid li.u.s a [leeuliur lluvor, it is
generally reserved by tlie iiiamifacturcr lor home use, and gix's by
the name of chota rah.
14. When tbo klianchrc is emptied the reeds that were laid at
the bottom aro found cevored with thieU white crysUls of sugar
termed pajiri. These are generally consmiieJ by the moiinfaelurer
libnsclf,
15. Tbo clotli pullra, the reeds and tlic bricks 1 dd at tlie bottom
of the /t/taiu'hn‘ are thou waslied in water, mnl tlio solution h tlioii
bollod and converted Into little oblong cakes ol sugar teriiiod
kutm'.
16. The molasses that How out ol tlio khmtchrt arc of two sorts.
When tho kkanehiv is lirst tilled witli inttiyr for a few days a tliiek
sort of molasses flows out ; tliis i.s called ktih'hra and is sold along
with tho ordinary rlimra. After a few days the mol.as.s('s beeoiui's
thinner, and then gels tho iiamo ijumnl. Tine on being boiled la
oouvortod into a tliiuk sort of intorior rab, which, on l.uiug Hiil.jtoled
to the process of clearing and filtering ahovo dcscrihed, yields a tort
of iuforior sugar,
* Impkmntr,
17. Si iUng Paw.—In my report i.a.st year I noticed tho many
shortoomings of the rnde lion pans used for boiling sngareatie
juice, and f also stated tliat(at tho suggestion of Captain Clibborii
1 applied for cast-iron pens from your dep.artracut. You were
pleased to suggest that I would be a loser if 1 used cast-iron pans,
WCAUto hi laic cgursu vt a ioyt y«ius tho iron would oxydisc, uud
j would thou bo comparatively of little or no value. Yon at flip
I same time thought tliat oopper would bo a better material to use.
Five oopper builors were aoooriUngly made under tho supervision
of your department, aud I used them In making rab last your. The
result of the exporhnent is exceedingly gratifying. The raS pro¬
duced contains a loss amount of molasses than it used to do, and at
the saiiiQ time is bettor in grain aud color. This superiority I can
only attribute to tlic use of these pans, as owing to them, heating of
the julco was inor.i etpial and steady, and all tho application of
tbo bell frait, iird flinver, &c, tilings Ibat disfigured the rab, was
avoided, ilany people oamo to see the paus'worklug, a greater
part of thorn wore siigtir-growors and Wiry all agreed as to the use
fulness of those pans. At the Oolagokurii E.xhlbitfon I saw an
American sugar-boiler tlrat was exhibited by M.ajor Pitcher. Tim
apparatus was exceedingly ooouoiuieal and etfieient, and 1 doubt
' nut but that it would be of great serviee bore. If it were possitdn
to obtain a few such boilers manufactured at your workshop, I
Would be e.xccediiigly glad to obtuiii four or five of them, whore-
wdth to c.xti'ud iiperatiena next year. If they conuot bo had, I
will bo obliged to be under the, ncecssity of applyiug to you for
another sot of eojiper pons like those which Major Pitcher so very
kindly coiistruotci! for me last year. It is impossible for me to get
them done liero, mid I will not like, after using pans of this and tho
bettor sort, to rovert to the rude country ones, so that I will bo
obliged to trouble you for another set.
18. Maiiiii P/wi;/fo.—'Two plmigiia uf tills sort were very kindly
supplied to me by Mr. Muloek tor tiial. I have usod them, and
fiinl them to be very light and cheap. The ordinary cultivators
like tlwni very inneli as they can be worlto.l by eommnn bullocks.
'J'hi’y were made at Slialijahaiipoi’fl aud oust Its. 2, aunas 4 each,
which i.s really very cheap, and places tlnira wiiliiu the reach of
almost evei y one,
11), Stkra Sugar .Villt.—l liavo continually boon trying these mills
and worked twelve of them last year. The coutomplated extension
of W'Ofk will, 1 hope, uecessitato my buying a few moro. I oousidui-
it now needless for to mo state that I am thoroughly satUUod with
those iiiUl-i, as I think their superiority h.as now been very well
established.
20, J7ircidi!«y.—Repoutodly I have found tho abscuoo of a pro¬
per apparatus for threshing com, one of tho most injurious and
troublesoiuo difileultios that besets one who attempts agriculture
on a large scale in thoso parts, A man speiids a lot of mouoy on
his Holds, goes to tho trouble of watching. Irrigating, and othopwise
looking afti rtlieiii, mows his crops.and thinks that he la now about
to realise the fruits of ids labor Allot a sudden falls a shower,
the fiAe Cl rots aiel become w 01 tliless, and hundreds of mauuds of
grain i. hpoib'il. This state uf things i.s exceedingly painful, i
met with severe I'i.wk in this way in the lost rubi seasnii. 1, and
1 miiv salelj s.iy .ill tliosi' that try agiieuUuru largely, would bo
1 xeeeilingly grat-tul eimld homo remndy be suggested. An elliei-
eut tlnvsiiing inaeliine i.s a deiiduratum the, want of wliieh is
very paininlly telt. At the liulagokuru exliibition I saw a macliiiio
ealied tlie Imliuii enni-idu'lling maeliiuc, I am of nnininii tliat it
could with some inoditieatioii .suit tho purpose of eloaniiig I’xijra
,'er,y well .and wmihl llieii he e-veoedlngly useful in these parts, a.s
Itijra Is one of the priucipa! staples gionn hole in tiie A/wn/
season,
21, fiiftl'.—With rngard to the Cauwarca bull I havoto slate
that it is doing very well. During last year I had Hixteeii calves
ill all fiom Idiii, and there are 30 iiiorc in the village. They aie
very boaiitiiul and pnniiidiig, mid there is every prespevt of their
maturing into tine cvivvs ami bulls. I think that the plan I follow¬
'd uf allowing the bull to run and rcniaiu unreatriuiiied along with
the kino ia very Buece,s.3fnl,
22. Ikiuh-ij Si.nliion.—Tho stalliou reiiiiiiued with me for more
than a year—hut the rliinale for this plaoo did not seem to agree
with it, so that f w.'is ultimately obliged to send It back to the
stud di'partmuut. There are one or two young mules here, but the
people it appeara do not euro to breed mules.
23. .S'ffefri.—In .Inly 1882, I wrote to you tolling you of tho
fernInl mortality that then prevailed aiiimig cattle here. You
made iiiy letter over to Major I’itelier who very khnily sent me a
salelri that reached mo In .September 1882. Ilo treated 3,87
calllc ill till, out of vvhieli ho was succossful in 3'i7 cases. In 2!)
coses he iuiled, aud the cattle dievl, aiulof 11 cases the result was
imkiiovvn. I must siiy tlmt with regard to the treatment ut
vvouiids and in surgery generiilly, ho was c.xcoodiugly .succossful,
but I am sorry I cannot say equally well ot his troalmeiit of tho
(liseaRc for which ho was speeiiilly scut for, I do not know tho
tochnieal name of the dldeinpor, but when afilieted with it, tho
animal -suddenly bceomes iiuahlo to move, ia purged fearfully, ami
cuntiiiually vumita greoiiisli water. The saloiri oalled this disease
caltle-po-', am! although successful in one or two i.solatod o.asos,
j sign,illy tailed in doing real goovl. Tho natives oailoil this discasu
21, In connection with cattle and their diseases, I must notice
the lliorough ,'iud complete suceess that resulted In almost every
case ill which I c.xperimeQtcd with .1eye's I'urificr. Tliis modiciiio
acts wonderfully im the womids ami sores of cattle, and euros them
ill aliiioBl no time. It destroys voriiiin iiistaataucously, and was ol
groat use to mo in my sugar factories, where it promptly destroyed
the big black ants that attack sugar in myri.a.Is ami vlo lots ot
injury. I found it eiju.tlly successful ill healing the wounds and
boils of men,
25. Mdbcri)/ cliidiupv.—Tbinkiiig that tho samlv nature of the
soil hure was suited to a growtli of iniilhorry, I applied to tho
Huiicriiiteiidout of tho llotanioul (iardeiis, .Shahjahonporo, who sent
me 300 mi»lborry onttiiigs. I planted them and they aro thriving.
I will transplant them to tho river sido in the ensuing rainy season,
VltinjiUcly, 1 iuteuvl starting mao expetlmeuh iu sericulture.
298
THE INDIAN AGRIOUl^URIST.
Aagtist 1, 1883.
'26. ‘In oOuolailon, I iau«t ofiTer my «l&o«rc and heartfeU thanks
(or the ready assUtaooe and kind advioa that I hare always re¬
ceived frem yourself and Major Pitcher.
I nave the honor to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
AJUnniA PBASHAD,
Ulaquahdar of ludalnoro, itc..
District Shahjahanpore.
MU. SABAUATHY MOODELLIAR’S AGRICULTURE
EXPERIMENTS.
T he following is a report from Mr. W. R. Robertson,
M.R.A.C., Agricultural Uoportor to tlie Government of
Madras, to the Director of Revenue Settlement and Agriculture,
Madras, dated Saidapet, 23rd January 1883 :—
“ In the early part of last month, I availed myself of the
permission graucocf me in the Proceedings of the Board, dated
the 9th OctoTjor last, to visit Bollai'y and hispcot the agricultural
operations conducted there by Messrs. A. Subapatliy Moodolliar
and Co., and I have now tlio honour to submit my report on that
inspection. Messrs. A. Sabaimthy Moodelllar and Co.’s opera¬
tions have os tended over a wide area of country. In 1891, tlie
area worked by the plougiis tlicy had introdiiued was 1,900 aoroa
situated in 10 different villages ; wldlo, lost year, tho area was
increased to 3,430 acres situated in 17 different villages. Oppor¬
tunities have thus been afforded to a large number of ryots for
witnessing these important experimouts, as the -villages in which
tlie experiments wore conducted are scattered over a tract of
country fully 30 miles wide. The portions of this laud that
I inspected are situated uear Hagari and near Uautaualial, In
my Inspeotion of tho laud at tlie former place, 1 was accompanied
by tho Colleotor of the district, and wo wore conduoted over the
limd by Mr, A. Sabapathy Moodelllar, Mr. Babapathy Iyer, and
Mr. Firth. In iuspeoting the laud at Bantanalial, I also liad tlie
bouetit of the oompany of Messrs. Sabapathy Moodelllar and
Firtli. Before proceeding further, I must express the very great
obligation 1 feel under to these gentlemen for tho trouble they
took in accompanying me over the land inspected, and for the
full and valuable information they placed at my disposal, I fear
(In the great interest I felt In what Mr. Sabapathy Moodolliar
tiad done, and is doing), I somewhat transgressed the bounds of
fair inquiry, for It must bo romomborod that the enlorpriso Is
entirely of a private nature j but if 1 did do so, it was not resent¬
ed, for not only was all available iuformatiuu fully afforded to
my Inquiries, but it was given in a way to suggest other and
further questions. The chief circumstances which induced
Messrs. Sabapathy Moodelllar and Co. to give their attoution to
the introduction of improved ploughs for workiug the cotton soils
of Uellary having been noticed at length in the General Report
of this deportment fur 1881-82, at pages 14—IG, it is uutiocessiiry
to uotioo them again here. Messrs. .Sabapathy Moodelllar and
Co. have, for some time, been largely iutcrusted in the eottuu
trade of the district, and arc now exteudiug their operations
to spinning and weaving cotton, and are uoustructing a large mill
for these objects iu the town of Bollary. A regular and full
supply of cotton, of a good (juality, is therefore a matter of oousidcr-
nble importaneo to this enterprising firm—objects quite suflioicnt
to explain Messrs. .Sabapathy Moodelllar and Co.'s interest in, and
their desire to Improve, tho husbandry of tho district, lint,
I believe, Mr. Saljapatliy Moodelllar is Infiueuoed by otiior objects
thou mere personal gain, highly laudable as such on object would
be. Ho lias long been connected with tho district, is familiar
with a coiisidorable part of it and the people of the oultlvating
classes, and has noticed with concern the gradually iuoreasing
poverty of the people and the loss and less care dovotod to the
tillage of the soil—influonces which, in a season of great drought
culminated in the famine, which so reooutly devastated the district,
resulting in a loss of one-third ef tlie population and the
abandonment of nearly one-third of the arable urea. Mr, Saba-
dathy Moodolliar has deeply oonsidored this and other circtim-
stances bearing on tlie state of agrionlturo in Bellary, and has
fully oonviuceu himself that It is the imperative duty of all men
possessing Wealth, who liavo any interest whatever iu the
welfare of the district, to use some of that wealth and wliat iu-
flnenoe they possoss in promoting whatever may tend to further
the interesta of Imsbanury. Mr. Sabapathy Moodulliar looks
upon this duty iu tho same light as many others of his country¬
men who possess wealth do on the duty to provide clioul trios and
similar institutions for Braiimius and other castes, but that the
duty to promote the agrieiilture of tlie country is of paramount
importance—a view In which I venture to believe all will concur
who possess any real knowledge of India and its husbandry,
mid who desire to see the country prosper. jMe.ssrs. Sabapatliy
Moodolliar and Co. have introduoed into tliis district the iindor-
inoutloncd ploughs :—
Swedish idouglis ... ... _ 3,-}4
Improved wood and iron ploughs ... ... 00
Kansome’s double ploughs ... g
Do. triple tunow do. ... ... 1
Do. fow-fiUTOw do, .. , . ... 1
Total ... 401
They liavo already sold 132 of tho Swedish plongli.s and ail of the
Eonsome’s double ploughs. Some of tho ploughs wero sort to the
Nir.am’s Dominions, the Mysore Province, a few to tlie Kuriiool
Distriet, and to the Dharwar District in the Bombay Frosidoncy,
Thus the good inflaenoee set tn oMratton are extaidlsg widely.
Judging from the great gatheriag* of ryots I saw, and tho neat
interest they appeared to ennoe, at Bantanahal and elsewhere,
whore the plongns wore exhibited at work, or the land that had
been ploughed oould be seen, Mr, Sabapathy Moodelllar is ap
patently doing much good in the distriot. It was a great pleasure
to accompany him over the land, and to wltnoM the Interest with
whieli tlie ryots listened to his remarks, and tho apparent pride
a " took iu tho superior crops raisM on the deeply-ploughed
. I am oonvinoed that the movement is entirely spontaneous
on the part of the ryots, and is due simply to their appreciation of
tho quality of tho work done under Mr. Sabapathy Moodelliar,
Tho plough iu most request is a Swedish Plough Ko. 10, which
after being strengthened Is sold at Rs, 05 each. Thou^' it is, I
think, tho largest and heaviest plough that has ever been introduc¬
ed into tills part of India, the ryots, In their ^preoiation
of tlie deep-going power of the plough, sometimes drive it
much deeper than it is intended to work, and tho oonse-
qucuco has been tliat in several oases the powerful beam of the
plough has beeu bent ; but Messrs, Sabapathy and Co.’s AYork*
slioDR liavo proved equal to tliis emergeuoy, and tlie ploughs of the
kind now sent out have firstjthelr beams strengthened by iron
plates. 'The ploughs are sold to ryots either for payment in ootton,
lor cash, or on credit for 4 or 8 mouths, lii some oases, the
ploughs arc lent on hire at Rs. 10 per month. Ploughing to an
avorngo depth of from 10 to 12 liiohos, those improved plougiis are
said to do tho iiudermeutionod work per day of G hours ;—
Acre
Land in a very dry state ... ... ... 04
Laud In a moderately dry state ... ... 02
Laud in a very good state ... ... ... 1
Mr. Sabapathy Moodolliar estimates tlmt ho can, when tho land
is in good condition, plough with his largo plough, from 10 to
12 inches deep, with 4 pairs of cattle, at a cost of about Rs. 3 por
aoru, whereas ho could not with the largo country plough got as
good work done for Rs. 8 per acre. I should oonsitler, from what
1 saw done, that tho large country plough w-ould do a sliorter
length of furrow tlian one of the improved plougiis, and that ono
operation of the latter is equal in effect to two of tho former.
Ploughing a furrow 12 iuohos wide, an improved plough would
liave to tra\-cl 8 miles to perform one acre,of ploughing, but 20 per
cent of tho time would bo lost at the headlands in turning ; tho
useful day’s work would tboroforo bo 4 '8 hoHrs ; the cattle would
thus need to travel nearly 2 miles per hour—a muoh faster speed
than iiBiial. 1 certainly saw some of the plonghs woikcd at a
speed as groat, but it was only fur a short timu, uud could not lie
kept up during a day. Probably, therefore, tlireo-foiirtlis of an
aero may bo taken as a full day's work witli one oi the improved
ploughs when tlio laud is iu really good order. Tiie ooiiutry
plough could not get over more than two-tlimls of an acic per
day, under similar coinlitions, ami would uood to go over the
lami twice : its eff'oetive work would llu-rofore be one-third of an
acre per day, and three days would lie occupied to do ou acre
with six pairs of cattle. No borl results liavo followed ouo doep-
ploiighiug these black cotton soils, as far as is known ; the fact is,
that tlie cotton plant is tho chief crop and its deep roots proparo
the soil for deep ploughing. Messrs. Sabapathy Moodolliar and
Co, liuve ample facilities for repairing iron ploughs at their
Cotton Pleases, of which they have eight in different parts of tlie
district. They trust to be able to make iron ploughs ore long.
Much of Messrs. Sabapathy Moodolliar and Co.'s laud is worked
on tlie sham plan, that is, tliey pay rent, provide manure, the
ploughs aud tlie seed, and the cultivators nud tlio mauiiol labor
and cattle labour, aud get from ouoTwoHli to one-sixth of tho
cotton yielded for harvesting it, while half of the remainder goes
to Messrs. Sabopatliy Moodelllar aud Co. as their share : they are
satisfied witli the arrangement, nud would be glad to got a
larger area of lami on the terms ou which they liold mucli of tliat
tlioy now liavo. It appears to me muoh better that land should
be thus utilized, instead of lying waste ; there would be no difficulty
in drawing up an “ improving rease” to secure tho interests of the
State. All now enterprises are uncertain at first, and if capital
must bo attracted to agrieiilture, some indiioemonts must be
held out, aud Mesrs. Sabapathy Moodelliar and Co.’s plan of
providing capital has muoh to recoiuinond it. This distriot appears
to demand exceptional treatment if it is correct, as is assorted,
tliat iu the pnst 10 years, the population has ditmuished one-third,
wliilo there is one-third loss land under cultivation. Mr. .Saha-
^ Moodolliar docs not confine his attention to deep culture ;
quite uwaie tliat, though deep cnltinv. is ono of tho moat
effective tneatis at the command of the former for improving tlio
outturn of Ids farm, it is only one of tho means that are available
for securing this desirable object. Ho is giving attention to the
oni- manure, so almndant aud yet so little used iu India, vl-..,
noudretlc, Ims made arrangeniouts with tho Town authorities of
Bollary, Adoiii, and Ciiddapali for obtaining supplies. Lost year
ho maniirnd a considerable area of black cotton soil with this
luamirp, at the rale of about ono ton per acre. The rosults were
very satisfactory, but lie considers that tlio rail charge is too high
for such bulky manure, Tlio rate appears to he ,7 amias per
I waggon per mile, and the consignee loads and unloads tlie manure.
usually made is so poor, it will not hoar tlio cost ot distf^t
carriage ; it should he used only near the places where it is
collected and prepared, or tie made into a more oouoentratcd
manure, Messrs. Saliapathy Moodolliar and Co. consider that tho
land manured with pondretto lost year shows this year also a mark¬
ed superiority over tlie unmanured land ; and the portions I saw
certaiuly Wc out this conclusion. Messrs. Sabapathy Moodelliar
and arc, 1 nnderstoad, making arrangemeuto fqr ooUectiug aud
August 1,188S,
290
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
crtiihlag bouea for luo M manure. It (■ not only In cultivation and
manuring that Mi*. Sabapatby Moodelllar ie taking auch a leading
part, but in the introduction of cotton seed of anperior kinda ; he
underetanda that a deeply-tilled and well-manured aoil can be
much better employed than iu growing inferior, Indigenous cotton.
He has therefore imported into the distriet largo quautities of the
following varieties i—Coimbatore, Hingunghat, Broach, Dharwar,
Tinnevelly and Dhollora, with which most of the laud ho holds is
cropped, Mr. Sabapatby Moodolliar Is a tU'ni believer in thin
seeding, and has his cotton seed sown at the rate of only about
71b8._ Mraoi-e, iu hues wide apart. He discourages as mnoh as
iwssiblo the culture of ei’ops between tbe linos of cotton, in order
that the cotton plants may benefit fully from tbe soil. My own
opinion is that bis anxiety on this score is unnecessary, if care is
taken in selecting a suitable crop for growing botwcou the lines
of ootton, for during its early growth cotton does not need much
from the soil, and a cereal crop may be grown and removed before
the ootton needs the whole of the land ; of course, when both
ooton and a cereal crop are grown on the same land, iiinro is
demanded of the soil, and it must therefore bo manured more liighly
than if cotton only is to bo grown. Tbe crops I saw sii Messrs.
Sabapatby Moodolliar and Go's land were almost invariably much
better than those of the adjoining land. In passing through the
country, it is quite easy to discern by tho crops the fields tlist have
been deeply ploughed. Last year tho ootton crop was very bad in
Bollary, owing to tbe failure of the raius, and tho average outturn
on Messrs. Sabapathy Moodelliar and Go’s land was ouly about
STilhs, of oleau cotton per acre; but adjoining lands treated in
tho usual way did not give lOlbs. per acre. One or two fields of
low situated laud gave over lOOlbs. of clean cotton per acre. Judg¬
ing from tho appearance of the crops when 1 saw them, tlie outturn
this year will bo very much larger than that got last year. The
absence of a variety iu cropping is a groat evil iu the Bellary
district, and Mr, Sabapathy MoiHlolliar appears to recognise this
fact ; he is doing what ho can to Introduce other crops on tho
black soil, suoh as wiieat, sugar-cane, indigo, and fibre crops. Mr,
Sabapatliy Moodelliar has sliown a practical interest in agrioul
tural education iu having given employinont to two or tliree
graduates of tho School of Agrleulturo iu ooniiectiou with tlie enter¬
prise under notice, and ho is a warm advocate for a status being
accorded to ttgi'ioultura\ education equal to that of medical aud
rnginocriug education. Before ooueliidiiig this report, 1 wisli to
bring to nolieo one 6r two points wliieli specially attracted my
attention while iu Bellary : first, tho neerssity for screens, in the
shape of plantations or fences, for sbeltoriug stock and crops in
severe woatlior ; at certain seasons of tlir year, wlion tho cold
wind prevails, wliieli sweep over these treeless plains, farm stuck
suffer severely, Ktforts should, I think, lie mnuc to inilucc those
intorcsted iu tho land, wito possess tliu means, to do wliat they
(!an to raise screen fences or plantations, ^omc portions oi the
distriet where mixed soils prevail are not unlike tho country
around Erode, iu the Cuimbatore distriet, where a .hedge shruli is
grown largely known as " Moollukiluway,” which is an exoellent
slirub for foniiiiig fences either for shelter or for ouelosiug urop.s.
1 have aiTangod with the ISub-Collootor of Erode (or a supply of
outtiugs of tliis tlioni phut to be sent to Bellary at the proper
season, but there ai'c probably other shrubs equally ^vell suited,
Another point of iuterest is tlie water-supply for nmu aud beast.
1 Iicard of iiistaiioes in wdiioii, even iu a good season, villagers
liavc to send as hr as five miles for their daily supply of water,—
<^iO, iu some iustaneus, not so much to the absence of water, but
to the water of their wells having beeotno so saline as to bo uu-
fitted for driukiug. 'V'clK which at one time coutained good
water, are now for this rufisou abaudoued. It would, I think, bo
a great boon to the people in many places, if, in tlie dry season, a
small portable engine, with n centrifugal or other pump, could bo
sent by tiovorumout to the accessible places for employment iu
emptying some of these wells, which cannot in many instances
bo emptied by tho means at the disi>osal of tiio people. I boliovo
tliat 111 most iustancos tbe increase iu tho quantity of salt in the
water of these wells is to ho attributed simply to tlio coueentra-
tloii of tho salt brought iu the natural spring water due to tlie
loss of water by evaporation over a term of years, and that, if the
comparatively speaking eouceiitratod solution of salt in the wells
bo removed, and the wells be tlioroiigbly cleaned out, tho fresh
auppllca of water when the springs have come thoroughly into play
will generally be fitted for drinking. Tho experiment is, I think,
one well worthy of trial, for, if sucooasful, uitioli good would
result. But more tlian this is iieces-sniy ; now wells are greatly
required, both for enabling tho people to get water for tlieniselves
and their stock, and for raising orojis and trees wlicre the soils
arc suitable. I vouturo, therefore, to luvite attention to the
suggostiou I made iu iny report on tiic (Joimljaloro district relative
to the employment of o few squads of men in boring (pr water iu
different parts of the district where water is especially required
and is likely to bo met with. There arc otlier points of interest
connected wdth tho improvement of the district, but they need
more careful local investigation than iny short visit [lermittcd.
The Director of Agriotirturo rtiuarks on this report;—“ KotoiTing
to the metaya' system adopted by Mr. Sabapathy iu his agricul¬
tural operations, Mr, Robertson appears to advocate the adoption
by Government of a similar metliod, so as to bring into cultiva¬
tion a largo area of land that is now lying waste. But not to
l|)oak of Uie fact that the melayer or sharing system, liowevor
suceossfully it may be worked liy a private owuer, lias been
discreditea ovorywbove by Iniiian history as a Government mctliud
of agriculture aud revenue, there teinuins the fact that the lands
now waste are so chiefly from the want of people to cultivate
them. Rather loss than a quarter {not a third, as Mr. Kubeitson
puts it) of the jpopulatiou of Beilary disappeared with the fainiue,
and lomethlng less than a quarter of the laud in oocu nation before
tbo ftoiius jyi now lying waste and lUtouaupUd, Xbc people ot
India are not migratory, aud it la improbable that these waste
lands will be oeonpiod by immigrant settlers. Mr. i^abapathy's
experiments with poudretto are said to have boon very satisfac¬
tory, but the report of them would have boon more Interesting
and useful if aeeompauied by comparaUve atatomenta of results.
Mr. Robertson’s suggested remedy for tho cost ot carriage of this
manure to pluocs distant from where it is made, riz., to mal’oa
moro ooulontrated poudrette and to wse il only near ih': /tlaer^ where
it i,v nillertnl and prej/arod is uointolligiblO, for. tho only purpose of
couceutraticin mnat ho to fit it for carriage, while ooneeutration is
unnecessary if it is to be used only where it is oollected and
prepared. With reference to the pranting of ‘ kiln way ’ hedges
to Bcroeu crops and stock from blast, I have to observe that in
Coimbatore it is necessary to supplomont for some crops, such os
tho betel vine, the kiluway hedge by high soi'eone of matting. I
am afraid that tho remedy for braukish wells proposed by Mr,
Robertson in tho the sumo paragraph 14 would have only a very
temporary effect. The soil is impregnated with salts of vai'ious
kinds, aud those salts as they get dissolved infiltrate into tho
water. As the water gets low, the water of course gets moro heavily
charged. The only lasting remedy is to oondenie It—a thing
easily done by people W'ho know so well how to distil—or to got
water from a lower stratum, but this would be generally ijossiblo
onty by moans of artesian wells, and llioy arc not always possible.”
The Board ot liovenuo in submitting tliis report to Government
consider that Mr. Sabapathy Moodolliar’s efforts to improve tlie
agriculture of tho district whore lie resides arc most praiseworthy,
aud he doaorvos every enoouragemout. It occurs to tho Board
that in two dirootions the Goveramout might possibly afford
valuable aaaistnuoo to tho people in such a district as Beilary. One
is by showuig them how to extraot from the cxistiug salts, which
are so abuudant in the soils, thoau nitrogenous olomouts which are
tho great desiderata in manures. Whether this cau bo done iu
a cheap aud a practioablo manner (if It can bo done at
all), and how it is to bo douo, are questions for a competent
analytical or agricultural chemist, such as Dr. Nioholason or Mr.
Harmau of Bangalore, to decide. Tho Board believe they are
cptrcct in stating that at all salt factories a largo amount of poton
tinl nmmires is lost hi tho mother liquors, which are thrown away
from iguorauec of their value, and, reasoning from analogy, ft
would ap])car that similar properties arc to bo discovered in tho
salts of tlie soil, fi’hioli iu their natural oonditiou are usually
noxious to vegetable growth, and by filtration into wolls render
tho water iiiidrinkahlo. I'lie possibility of getting rid of tho
Biiiino imprcgiiatioii is tliorefore a matter of the deepest interest
and imjiortance, and the Board would urge on Govcruiiient the
desirability of having the subject scioutilieally investigated,
cjusidering it to bo one on wiiicli funds might very advantage¬
ously be expended. The other point is tho siukiiig of avtssian
wells, whioli lias indeed lately received tho attention of Govorn-
mont ill the niljoiniiig distriet of Auaiitapur (vide Board',s Pro-
eeedings, dated Gtli Dooombur 1882, No. 3024). Moro favourable
conditions tliaii those roiiortod on for Anautapur would probably
bo fouud ill tlie neiglibourliood of Beilary ; but it would bo well
to have aetiial experiments made by a spscioliy-quaUtlod person,
acting ill cousulatioii witii a geologist.
Order of Oorenuiuou, da/ed 10th Jme JSSJ.
I Tho Oovornmont ooucur witli the Boai’il in oonsidering Mr.
Sabapatby Moodolliar’s entorpriso vci-y lamlable. Tlic dilnoulty
aud oust of effbeliug repairs appear to bo the ehiof obstaelo to tlie
1 moro extoiidod use of European ploughs. Mr. .Sabapathy will bo
! supplied witli a copy of Mr. Benson’s late report on Agricultural
I Implonicuts suiteil for introduction into India, together with tlie
ordoi
is th
but t
been asoortained in tlie North-Weaterii IVoviuoes that barren
saliiio lauds eau bo reclaimed and tlicir saline iuiprogiiatfnn.s
I removed liy pla ’ ^ . ' ’ ' ' " ’ ,
‘ Huperiuteudeiit, Government Karma, lias been directed to procure
a supply of seed for trial at Saidapet. Possibly Mr. Sabapathy
Moodrliiar may wisli toim-ike an experiment at Beilary, In which
case Mr, Roboitsoii will supply him with some of tho seed. Tho
subject of artesiuu wells, tlie cost ot which tho Sauitaiy Com¬
missioner believes lias been greatly over-rated, Ims lately reoeived
eousiderable attenliou, aud cffui'U ore being made to discover
suitable localities for borings.
r tlicreon. The Govonimeiit do not ontirely approheud what
e proposal made in paragraph 3 of tho Board's Proeoodiugs,
my practical suggestion will receive tiielr atteution. It has
SELECTIONS.
BEE CULTURE IN INDIA.
"VyOT having met with becliivos in the plains during a long
rcsidouco in India, it ooeurred to me that boe-keeping, us
etttriod on iu Europe aud Aiunriea, might be lutrndueod into India
with great advantage to tlie rural population. When in England I
wrote to tho India OlHeo for any available information on tho
subject of Indian bees and apiculture. This lad to the Sooretai-y of
State addressing tho Govoriiment of India, aud thr (iovcmniout of
India .sent out a clroular to local OuvermnCuts and Admiuistrations
asking for iufurmatiou on the snbject. Tiio local Governmouta
having oulleuted iutornialiou and furnished reports, those reports
have jnst been issued, with a Resolution of the Govornmeut of India
on the subject.
The reports contain much Information of tnlerest and im-
portauee’i but iieeeasatily, from tile uatuce ol the subject,
tho writers iu most cases not having the noeessaiy know-
l«dgu ^ btio-Jwojiei's or natmiflkttft errpusvuf ppuiipiu mv
soo
THE INDIAN
AGRIOui
TURIST.
Aagust 1,1883.
rxprcssodj aotu^ 'facts of prliaary uiiportauco avoflo tiioolaplBtcly
Btatoa aa to be of little value, Otliu- rtporter* have givijft opluioiia
w'hioh, however they miuht npply to limitod aronB, are Inapplicable
to the whole of the plaiol of India.
It appears the honey-l)cu is found all over India—somo repOTtors
mention six or seven liindB as indi^fcnous to their locality ; in all
caat« the hcce are moncioiuid hy native names, and as those differ,
and the dcsciiptioos do not fiieluilc the gouorie charactoristicH, the
species cannot in rtioat cases bo identified, and in some of the casus,
where sniowtific names are given, tlicy arc evidently ivroiig. It
appears prybahlc that varieties of the unieomb bee ,3 J, Doi'aala and
A. Mnivii, and the inulticomh boo, A. Jndtoa, are coniinon over
tlio greater part of India,Ilurmali, and along the Himalayan slopes;
that some variety of ,4. Indim is the kind generally cultivated.
This bee is similar In habits to, but not identical with, the European
bco, as some have supposed. The hco being so generally diffused
is ovlJcnoe that It might he cultivated with profit over the
greater part of India. Very generally it is kept by the natives in
the villagea in various parts of the Himalayas and of the Punjab
hills and Cashmere in the walls of houses: in the Boas Valley hollow
logs are used as hives, and moved from place to jdaoe to gut the
bees pasture j in the Khasia and Jaintia IIIIU hollow logs are used
as hives, and those are thatched with grass. lu Pegu logs are used,
the ends of being covered with skin. The Nepalese. Bhutias,
and Lopchas about Darjeeling use hollow log hives, Althoiwh it
is reported that the natives of lower Bougal do not keep
boos, 1 find they dq keep them in earthen vessels inserted
to the walls of the houses, and I purchase stocks of heos
as 1 refjtuire them from this source. In many cases the hoes
are ontleed into vessels or hives by putting these in suit¬
able places during the swarming season. In other cases, as
in Cashmere, the hives are stocked by capturiug swarms in
baskets, os in Europe. Thu Khasios capture the fjuooii and tie
lior with a thread or hair to a stick on which the bees swarm, when
they are earriod away and hived by tliu owner or sold. The qnocu
is tied in the hive to prevent tho swarm abseouditig. On the i’liu.
jah hills the bees are fed, os in Europe, on sugar aud flour during
cold weather. Even the best native attempts are very rough and
cannot ho very produoti TO. The honey is taken iu most cases hy
usmg smoke to stimulate tho bees j in some cnees, witli tlie small¬
er bees, they are driven out by the blowing into tho cavity. A
powdered plant is blown into the next in Gaiijnm. The honey of
tho larger wild bees is usually taken at night, torches being hold
under the bees. In some plaoos there is a belief the honey must
1)0 taken during full moon, or the bees make away witli it; in otlier
cases tlie idea is they make away with it if it is not taken on a
dark night, as disturbed hoes always fill themselves with honey
if possible. It U obvious how these notions arise, lu some eases
tho sinaii kinds are merely brushed off tlie cornhs : in otlicrs the
comb is put into a bug nun all tlie bees destroyed, lu many cases
tlie face of tho man taking honey is covered, and Assam giuget
is chewed to keep off boos. 1'ho honey is harvested ut certain
times of the year, but it is noteworthy that Lhei'o is u.sually more
tliun one honey harvest during tlie year. In Haraoti and Touk
the honey is taken at tho cud of April and bogUuiiitg of May :
tioorg, May ami .lune, but stated to ho harvested several times 11
year ; North-Woatoru Provinces, twico,May and Ootolior; .'^ili.s.ag.ar,
twice a year, February and October : Khasia Hills, three times,
twice iu Bpring,onee in autumn: Cashmere, twice,June aud Novem¬
ber, or tJoooroher ; Darjeeling, Marcli, April and October. Near
Caientta I find lionoy is taken just before the rains in .lime. It
is very diffienlt to arrive at tho (piantity of lionoy yielded liy one
stock of bees, and in comparing figures the identity of the bee
is doubtful. Ill Burmah three pints of lionoy and 80 to 35 tolalit
of wax are taken from a bee building in liollow trees. In tlio
Central Provinoes 20 to 25 seers of lionoy and 5 to (1 seers of wax
arc taken from a bee found lu white-ants' nests. Four to five seers
is taken in May, and two to three lu October, in the North-We.st.
In Coorg 6 to 21) seers. In tho Wynaad A. Imlinn is said to yield
(libs, tlii-oo or four times a year, lii Triehiuopoly district a lice
building in hollow trees yields ij to ISlbs., and in Oaujam the
vlold is Pi Gaujaro seers. In Indore tho yield is 16 to 21 suers for
tho large bees, and 8 to 12 lbs. for tho smaller.
A Bunnali hec half-an-inoh long yields 211hs. lionoy, 61hs. wax ;
another I to 2 lbs. wax and two ([uarts bonoy. In tlie Kliasia
Hills six seers of lioney are taken. But these figures are very
rough Bpproxhuatious ; in some caaos the proportion botwoou wax
and honey is apparently luoorrect, aud in no case is there data to
draw any conclusion upon as to what these boos w'ould yield if
properly treated. Tho best Europoan varieties when wild in
America yieW tcarcehj anytliiug as compared with wliat they
yiold when properly treated. In some places tho larviP of the
bees are oaten : they are said to taste like oream. The Deputy
(Jonsorvator of Forests, Salween Division, voiiolies for llicir being
a most delicate dish when roasted and served on toast. If a taste
tor the roasted maggots sliould spring up, India would have the
honour of supplying a now article of diet, and a profit would
nttaeb to an improvement in apiculture not thought of hitherto by
the best authoritloB,
It is probable tiie bees swarm at mere than one season of tlie j
year. Moro Information la reguived on this moat Important poi
In Sibsagar they swarm twice, ui;., in March and Oetoher ; in the
North-Wost they iwann iu April ; in lower Bengal I find they
swarm iu May or earlier, aud I captured a fine Bwarm of A. Iiullca
the fii-st week in Juno. Tim treatment J tlie houeycoiuh harvoBt-
cd ib abominable, tho product is necessarily \ ery inferior, and
keeps badly unless specially treated 1 the pollen iiinst in many
cases give the honey an unpleasant Bavour, and tlie last that ft
was expressed with dirty hands W through a foul blanket, and
that a vast nnmbw ot larvie Were omihod with the comb, must
iiifiKs the h^ir BMtteevtahles t« itumpeftM ftt l«Mt ; white the
knowledge that it la very geucrally adulterated must ser^nsly
Impair the domaml amongst natives. The methods opiplwea are
squeeeing the ooinh in canvas bags or in a blanket twisted by two
puisoliB; auueosing by thn hands, Ot iu very few oases by •deW*
of a kind of large lemon-squeesor, considerately Introduced by
some gentleman in the Forest Department to prevent the filthy
practice of haad-s(jueoidug. As tho honey Is often not ripe, and
18 commonly foul, it does not keep ; it is boiled thicker, or till
scum ceases to rise, or it is kept in new earthen vessols with a
very little Wax. Tho I'aflowode of the earthen vessel is probably
tile evaporation of the watery oonstitueut and oonsei^uont ripening,
as it is called in Europe. Boiling injures honev^Jn Ganjam
tho comb is not cleared, but broken up aud sold no doubt—.a dirty
ine^s of wax and honey together, Wax is purified by boiling
the comb and letting tho water cool, or by squeezing tho hot mass
after boiling iu a coarse eloth. Tho price tho honey and wax
fetch differs widely. In Coorg the honey fetches only 2 to 3 ann^
a pound ; tho wax soils for 5 annas 9 pie to 8 annas 8 pic, and is
expurtud to Madras ; at Kotagiri (Nilgin Hills) honey Is 12 annas
to one rupee a bottle, lu British Burmah honey varies from 2 aunas
to 10 amia.s. a Ib, and wax 12 to U annas. Mr. Hunter of Landour
tulU me be gets 12 annas a pound, aud demand U far greater
tlian the supply. A doscriptiou of honey, beiiovod to bo made
from lotus flowers only, is u.sod by native puysieians in eye affec¬
tions, and fetches a very high prloo. In many cases honey and
wax are exported from tlie piaecH where proourod, as in the oasae
mentioned above, c.f/., from Mergui, was valued at Ks. 760 and
honey valued at Ra. 8,000, tho product of wild bees, is exported
yearly to Moulmoin and Rangooii : about 100 niaunds exported
from Ulwar into the British district of Gurgaon, Jto. Tho revenue
on tile collection of wild lioney is very trliliug. In Coorg it Is
about R-i 270 a year, but several Forest Oflioors think the rovonno
from tills sourcy might bo increased. In Cashmere all honey on
Govornmont tracts is the property of_ tlio Maharaja. Bent is paid
to tho liouBo-owiici's ivlio uiaiutain the hives ; when lands
arc U!.a.sod a cash value is fixed and added to the Govern-
ineiitsli.u'o of the rovoimo due; when tho Government sharo
ia TOlleetud hy division of harvest, two-thirda of the honey is
aiipropriated by tho State, aud oue-Uiird hy tlie zcmuidar. It i.s
stated that lioney ill Coorg is somotimas uiipalatahle or injurious
wlieii a particular weed is iu fleiver : it i.s also said to be occasion¬
ally acrid and injurious or poisonous r’u the Wynaad. It is
pusaihle there ia some exaggeration in these aeoouuts. In Gor-
iiniiy, altliungli bco,8 are kept most extensively iu many parts, no
ease of the kiini lias ever boim recorded, so tliat a Gerinaii poet has
written, heos take the sweets and leave the bitters behind ; in
France, at certain seasons, in some localities tho honey is some
what bitter, hut this honey is given to the hues, and the honey for
sale is taken hrl'ove this season.
The stings and tempers of some ludiau hoes are rcporiod as
voiy had iiiiioed, lint my limited uh'i.'VV!itiona have not ooiitimKid
those etalomciils, and aueii statcinyiits to ho of value imist lie
made by persons oxpeririieod in handling hoes, and who know
wliat to expect when stung. Tho European hoes leave behind
their stings and poison bladder ; tho pain may go away iu live
minutes, or may last very luueh longer; the sviclUiig may lie
triliiiig or eniisiderablo, and last two or throe daj’s ; the sovuiily
depends on the part stung, and how often tlin person lias been
stung beforo, ns after a number of stings the pain and
swelling liueoine trifling, and on tlio State of the hoc at the time,
ns Bomo stings are far worse than others. Tho temper depends 011
tlic wcntliur, Btateof lioney liai'vest, &c. I rind A.fairly
good tomporod and easily hnndlod, Kit its sting on my person is
bomowhal more aevoro than the stiiig of tlio Italian bee : this may
arise from tile fact that I am more iiiooiilaled with the Italian
lice’s poison. A, Iiuiiea is much smallor tliau A, Liqmlka, Mr.
Uita, who kept Indian hoes at 81iilloug, and Mr. Hunter of
Landonr, wlio keeps tlie liill bees, agree in not finding fault with
the temper of the tioes. In India, as an European, tliere are ahsnril
auporstitioiis coimeolcd with lioos, Tho Burmese think a swarm
settling near a house unlucky ; in England it is eonaidorod lucky.
Possibly tliero are other superstitions os gross as tho Eogllsli
one, tliat if the owner of tlie bees dieB,_ and boos arc not informed
by tapping on tlie hive, the bees will die. I was gravely told of a
ease of this kind iu EaBcx. I found the unfortunate bees had been
starved to death, but I could not oonvinoo my informant.
As UBual, there are several romodies for stiugs. Ono remedy is
bruised tamarind luavefl boiled in water : this is said to reduce tlio
swelling. Trio Kliasias apply ]mn leaf, which is said to allay
the pain. These applieations, piirticularly tlio latter, arc too gener¬
ally applied to such pnrpo.sos for their spooiflo idrtuoa to
eommand credenuo, I doulit if these romodies are likely to supersede
the Amei'isan one in general use, which is—“ forget the sting as
i]uiul(ly .aa possible.”
It docs not appear tliat tliore is any prejudioo against using tho
products of the lioueylire; lionoy is cntuii by tho natives; in
81)1110 parts large quantities are ooiismnod at wedding foativals : it
is eaten with rice, witli broad, and witli fruit; it is used to pre-
jorve ginger and fruit; it is very widely used as medlcino : for
ofroiings to and for auoiiitiug idole. Wax is used for making wax¬
cloth. Iu olntmouta, by ahoomakers, fto. It is commonly adnlter-
ated, so that it is diliieult oven in Calcutta to get wax snffloiontly
pure tor making artitioi.al eomhs for bees. It appears many ift-
tomptB have boon made hy Europeans to cultivate indigenous boos,
inil tlicse attempts have not been very suceasafnl, judging from tho
iiieagro accounts given of them; lu no case have the appliances
whloii make bee-keeping certainly profitable boon applied and tho
hives used arc oithor out of date or never were in general use any¬
where. ^rcrat reporters soem to think the frame hive used all
over Europe and America very dlfHcuIt to mako, Md requiiing
great exactitude; whor«M Ahy native village earponter eeifld n»k«
August I, 1883,
THE lx,.
301
a blve M good for praotloal purjio «08 os any Hold by the hire-
tnakora in England. A ten-ohest or two boer-caaoa wouhl snpply
tho wood. The Iwoka referred to are far from the latest and beet.
Mr. Cowan's little book (U. Gd) &ai Afodern SeK-kr^fiini/ (6i,),
which are the best praotloal works in English, are never mention¬
ed, to say nothing of the learned works published in Germany and
Amorioa, the Bee Journals, and the Bibliography of Agriculture
published in Italy. The following experiments wore made by
Europeans:—Mr. Preiid had, when writing, one hive: he bad
kept bees for many years on the Nilgiris. but ^ves no particulars
of yield, hive, variety of boo, or mode of manipulating. Mr.
Kreeman kept a etooK of bees which swarmed on iiis promises.
The Snperiutendent, Government Gardens, Ootaoaniunn, a few
years ago, kept a stock for three montlia in a deal-wood box ; ho
fed them with s^ttp, lint they ungratefully nlisocuded, leaving a
few empty combs. They probably beoanie (luei'uloss, end could
not raise another ((ueeii. Mis« OocKhuru, ol Ivutagiri, Nilgiri
Hills, lias hived liees in wooden boxes for years : liur system is
simply to remove all tlie oombs but one as soon us stored, leaving
one to prevent tlie bees absconding. This mothcsl lias the one
merit of simplicity, but it is no bettor tliau the native mothoJs,
and cannot be very profitable, exooptiiw on tho old principle that
robbery is all profit. Mr. Hai-voy, NT-TI'. Provinces, kept os
many os 30 hives in the Chumba hills ; lie preferred tho grotto
liivo, a hive made up of separato frames : this hivo is very little
used, and is unsuited to India, as it is a bad protection against
Iicat, cold, and iuaeot enemies ; is expensive to make well, cannot
be opened and closed without orushiiig tlio bees, and is trouble¬
some to manipulate. Mr, Harvey did not use the oxtrautor or
comb foundation, so tho honey yield must have beeu small; but
ho oonsiders tlie sale of this liouny would give liim a clour profit of
100 per cent; possibly Mr. Harvey would have made ten times
this profit with fewer very strong stocks and proper applianoea.
An attempt to keep a hive of Clinniba boos in Mooltaii failed ;
probably they teijuired stimulating food to keep up their uuinliers ;
not getting this, tliey appear to have dwindloib and become a prey
to wax-moth niid oHier cauniies of weak stocks, Mr. IV. Morgan,
Deputy Conservator of Forests, Madras, has experimented by
using beer-casks as hives, and he proposes a liivo made of clay
with on oppllanoo for superlug. Mr. Murgon’s proposed Iiivii
would be no better tliau tho old English skep ; witli it the modern
practice of bee-koepiug could notuu carried out, and tho produce
would bo often nothing, <!'■ 'le'os will not work in such siipors with¬
out some inducements, anil tliero is no arraugement for tahing
honey from the body of tlio hivo. The Hov. T. Mayer, Bannu,
seems to have taken tho matter up, and tho Pnnjali Government
proposes obtaining model hives and appliances from Englaml. T1
hook used appears to be Hunter's. I would recommend Cowan
book and the Gorman liivo of Dr. Dsersou. Tlie Eiiglisli firms
make expensive applionoos, many of which arc ejuito uimeeossary,
and most are too expensive for profitalde employment.
Tho Government of India reviewing the Reports, cuneimles
“ that several varieties of honey-bees are found in every province
of India whcio there is sufficient forost or jungle, and that tlio
liouoy of some of tlio varieties is good and in coiisiderablo dnmam):
(2) that ell’orts liave been auoeessfully made in tlic hills by Euro¬
peans to doiiiestlcato Indian liees, but that tho bee oulturo is only
practised by natives in the rudest way ; (3) that it is very doubt¬
ful whether tho bee could bo domesticated in the plains, owing to
the dearth of flowers during tho three or four months pieeeding
tlie rains ; (4) that ill Southern India persons (Mr. Stormont of
Hoinluy and others) have given up all attempts to domesticate the
inostbommoii variety of bee found there on aceount of its intrm-l-
able nature.” The Government fnrlher < onohtdea tlie industry is
iiulikoly ever to he, one of gfeaMmportanee. in India. It can only
bo followed ill the hilU where flowers abound throughout tho great¬
er part of the year, or in forests where food is eijually plniitifiil.
The Government does not see its way to taking any iiraotical steps
in the direction of improving the system of boo-uiilture in the
liills and forests ; but opportunity is to lie taken of the Calcutta
International Exhibition to make further inquiries in the matter.
The Local Governments are invited to send specimens of honey,
naming, if possililc, the varietic.s of bee which produced them res¬
pectively. It is much to be regretted tliu Govoniment rosolutiou
siiould discourage attempts at improved bee-culture lu the plains,
seeing that no real trial lias been made by an exporiencod bee¬
keeper. Botanists, including Mr. King, tell mo there are flowers
in Lower Bengal, for example, for ten months ; that only in De¬
cember and January do thoy fail. The rains have apparently now
commenced, and as to there behig a cleartli of flowers before the
rains—that is, tho swarming time, and I found my bees bringing in
pollen from, I tliiuk, January to the present date—I ooiisidor the
conclusion erroneous ns applied to Lower Bengal. Certainly, if
flowers existed all the year round, tlio honoy-heo would not need
to store food and would bo economically valuable ; that for four
months there are no flowers is an admission which proves, uot that
tlio honey-boo cannot be profitably cultivated, but that it can be
far more profitably oultivated than in Europe and America, coun¬
tries having severe winters, during wtiicli there an-uot only no flow¬
ers, but the temporaturo is so low tliut tlio bees cannot breed to
keep up their nunibers, go that it takes two moatiis of spring wea-
tlier and judicious feeding to strengthen tho lines up to profitable
numbei’S. Herr Vogel, one of the greatest German authorltii-« on
the subject, says, “most localities in Germany are honey-poor
but there is in tlie wide German Fatherland, indeed,
no place in which bees could uot lie kept with some snecess.”
Hoiiey-poor localities are defined as places wliere all notable lioney
iiarvest ceases with mustard flowers, and if from harvest through
antumu the bees get enough for tliemselvcs and tlioir brood the
bee-keeper must be considered fortunate, A neiglibonrhood is
generally said to be honoy-poor when there is no noney harvest
daring autumn, and suoli neighbourhovtU form tho greattr part of
iio kept by small fonnere.
very R®"®? /o maV oonaoidy.for.'’®;’!
ijTtm tiLTUBlST
teaobers, __
empty hivo. Re;"
’bees have to bo fed op ''®*\o°i)ay 10 Iw^uglaud the
re(|uiriug six rveeks or tw8'''lLViii the hW«»’ pebm*'’- the stocks
tality, iluriug which there. Is uod agal"the " ter inot-
thero ifl no severe winter in the plaifllj^® “B. jndia ,derail
dearth of (lowers, tlie b»us tain bo fed in. the _t«'o ruths’
sugin\ tt-utl tho brooding being maintaiuedf
would last toil months instead of only from May to
Etigiand, and swarm-s couhl ho made aitificlally 'at alniosi
timo. If without any protcotion —artificial comb, feeding, stimii
atiug, lircedtng, and other devices of tlio agriculturist—the bees
collect stores sufficient to oti’er a prize worth taking, surely it is u
scarcely justifiable coiielusiou th.at the plains where this occurs are
imBiilted to beo-ctilture. As to the attempts mmle to onltivnte
bees, T do not tliink any lint nitist favourable oonelusionu can he
drauii troin tiie eases reported. The Rev, T. Mayer, Hamm, Im-.
taken the iiiath-r up, and In- nppe.ars to be auqiialuterl with the
suhjeet, Imt tin results .ore given, A.s to the native metlKida, even
that of Kashmir, M-liieh ajipears ImimiHo, as the hoes are not des
triiyod, is probably inferior to the old Evglish one of killing tlm
heavy' and iiglit stocks witii sulphur : for tlie old lirood comb must
harbour wax-inoti! and ot/ier eneinitv, of tlie hive bee. As to one
mies, the greatest i-i, I tliiiik, wav moth, whii-h is very ooiri-
iiion in nests of the iiidigeiuiiis hive liee in tlm plains, 1 hnie
taken nests almost destroyed liy it ; blit tills could be met liy
giving no more oomb than tlie'bee.-t enu cover, and contracting the
liive. If these niensnrct slionhl not alisolntely keep down the
moth, tlieii the iLuliaii beo, if iiitrodiioed an 1 properly managed,
would do HO, as it lia-, in Ameiica. As to tin- temper of the Indian
bees, as a German lien mastin' said tome, '* bees are bees,” and
much nonsense is talked on this siilijecf; there is no evidence of any
value tliat the Indian aj/rrtf-n uf ht'i’ is worse than other species,
and 1 Imvo evidenco to the contrary as well os considerable experi-
onon, for I’liave perfonuodliiostdifliouItniaDipiilatioiisintialis-
feriiiig coinlrs to franifl hives, I have three stocks of native liees
now in Calcutta, and tliey are very mild-tumpered. I handle tiiem
without smoke, veil, or gloves. Mr. Stormont, referred to in tlio
Government resolution as having found native bees vicious, does
not give iiiforinatioii n.s to his moiln of mauipulation; and as I
nndevstand ids report, lie. simply refers ki unicomb baCs, aud not
to tlm kind likely to take to a hive, r>.., the miiltiooinb bee, living
in holes, in trees, iii rook cavities, &e.
It is quite possiiiln the nnilticoinli bee of the plubis may not bo
so prfifitiuilo os the bco of the hills ; its swarms raa.Y bo lighter ; jt
may bo e.xeoediugly prone to swarm and breed dronos, Ac. 'J'his
remains to Im proved ; if hill liees aro nntch liettor, then qiiocna of
hill bees or siimll storks may readily be imported into the plains,
and no difliciilty will bo found in koepiiig them over a very largo
area, iiidepimdont of forest and jungle. iShonld those be less pro¬
fitable, as i tliiuk very probable, tliau the K.nriipcaii varieties, tlicn
the Italian bee could lie cultivated, I believe, with success, and
where mustard, logiimeiis, fruit trees, &o., aro oultivated, I believe
boos would bo found highly profitablo.
As to attempts to introdiico tho Biiropeau bcc, these Imvo failed
from well understood causes j the Into I.ndy Anna Gore Langton
imported sumo boos when her hrotliyr, the l)uko of Buokiiighain,
was Goveninr of .Madras. The exporiment. failed. Mr. AVoodsido,
a MiHsionary, N,-\V. I’., imported a stock of Italian be»s at his
mvu expense, but the hens perished. An Italian exportor tells me
he sent hens to India rid Bomliav ; of the fate of those I have not
heard, 1 imported three stocks and two spare qnooiis, ■with the
result that I have two fine stocks which li.vo done very well dnr-
iiig tlio hot wsather in Calcutta, and they find botli honey and
pollen. I have not swarmed tlioiii, heoaiuso the queens are so
young that I cannot get any' dronos ; 1 have not taken lioiiey in any
rjiiaiitity, benause I have fed up the hoes to make them breed, as 1
naturally require bees, not honey—tho bees being far morn valu¬
able than honey, The heat has not attcctod tho bees injuriously';
they have done remarkably well, and are a living evidenco that
tile Italian iioe can he onltivaLed in the plains. I find tho native
iiee very prone to swarm, and tlie stneks are light ; it remains to bo
seen if the native hoc can bo m.ade ns profilnhle as the Italian ; but
if not, the Italian may bo eiiHivated. As to the unieomli bees, ^
do not tliiuk A//in F/tirrn of oeonoinic value : A. Domain remains
to bo tried, ns nothing is known coiicei'niiig the mode of cultiva¬
ting it ; a long thatched open-sided hive would probably liuve to
take the place of tlie usual closed hive.
As to hive and appliances to oommonee w-itli, one stock in an
English frame hive should bo tried for profitable cultivation;
probably a modification of the German hive, built of elay or straw,
would bo found most suitable. As to apidianecs, I think natives
should roly rather on tiio centrifugal extractor, by which honey
can be taken from any part of the hive without damaging the
comb, than on siipcriug, at any rate at first. I made an extractor
for Mr. Hunter for about Re. 1-8 ; tlie clieapest English one Is lo*.
I ronomiucild Mr. Cowan’s book, costing 1*. 6d., for beginners,
and I strongly dissuade anyone uot thoroughly acquainted with
the subject from importing loreigii bees ; it is not a very difficult
matter to order a stock of boos from Europe, but wlien the few
surviving bees reach their destiuatlon (if any survive), inontlis of
c.aro, guided by knowledge and experience, arerequind to provont
their total extinction, aud 6ucae.s8 Is very doiibtfiil. 1 would
strongly ruconimond planters and others having Iniid to keep bees,
and anyone who has a verandah in which to place a liivo, or a tree
under which it could he plnccd, may derive miicli pleasure and^ a
proportionately large profit fiom a liivo or two, coinmenohig with
two at most, I have a few hooks which I lend to persons desirous
of trying to keep bees, and I should have imicli pleasure in giving
any aesutance^ my power to would-be bee-keeMrs, Mr. Hunter
tellH me he has eight hives in his veraudAh , lie gets oxocllcnt
1 , 1683.
302
, _ - —INDIAN
fSi.
OH, UNPAID VILLAGE LABOUU.
Ye eatUfaotory to find that legUUttlQu It «t lut to be attempt-
p tut ou tliia Important eubjeot. The qnettion hat been to long
41 c for deuUion that a doubt aritei whether the utual evUa ol
prolonged waiting have not supervened. So long ago at ISdft,
tlio Public IVorki Comntiitiuu recorded among the reiultt of their
omiuirleB—(1) “That onttomary labour has not been afforded
to the extent neoetaai^ or formerly prevailing; ( 2 ) that the
diffluuUy of enforcing customary labour has iuoreased; and (3)
that customary labour should be euforoed by enaotment," Four¬
teen years have passed, and yet we believe that no Bill on this
subject has been introduoed into the Legislative Council till now.
The Hon. Colonel Bankey has takeu heart of grace, and introduced
the Bill that was published iu the Vbrt Nt. Otorye Oasette ol the
1st May, Thesubjeutls no doubt beset with difficulties. Not
the least is the plethora of doctors who have been ready and
auxious to prescribe for the patient. The minor irrigation works
of tlie country are the patient, and tlio unfortunate sufferer
has been dying of neglect and inanition for the last twenty ^enrs,
while doctorsleamea in odininistratioa have been disoussiug, if
not quarrelling, over the remedies.
The Bill introduced by Colouel Sankey, iu abort, contains only
iiitoon sections. We propose to criticize its provisions In some
detail. Section 1 extends the Act to the whole Presidency of Fort
St. Uoorge, excepting tlio districts of Madras, Malabar, South
Canara, and the Nilgiris, and the canals and distributaries
more tlian one village in the Oodavery and Kiatna deltas.
The wisdom of exeludiug canals that irrigate one village only is
questionable, A oaual affected by tile law would cease to
be affected by it. If now or hereafter it irrigated half-on-aore
iu the area of another village. It would be better to omit
all referenee to the deltas, lor, by Section 2 , the Goveru*
ment may exempt any distriot or mrt of a district, and any
ICMiaUty or work from the provisions of the Act. This power is
ample for ail purposes of exclusion. Seotiou 2 lays down what
work is to be performed by Kudimoramat, nr unpaid labour.
Tliero is much confusion of language iu the wording of many
sections of the Bill, and oarefal revision by a lawyer or a legal
draughtsman Is very ueoessary. Tlie word “ landholder,’’ which
Is used and defined in the Local Funds’ Act, 1871, and which
would he appUoablo througliout the present Bill, is uowliero made
use of. lu Seotiou 2, lanalioldors are referred to as “ tliose who
own (lauds) iu whole or iu part.” In Section 5 wa have “ the
owner or proprietor of the land.” The latter, interpreted with
legal accuracy, would bear a more restricted meaning than the
former, and yet both arc apparently intended to bear a meaning
exootly tlie same. Similany in Section 3, works are dosoribed
whiob are to be doae *' by tliose . . . . wlio oultiratc land. , .” In
Section 5 is laid down that under certain uiruumstauoea “ the
actual cultivator or tenant of tlio land ” sliali lie bound to con¬
tribute tlie quota of labour. It is clear tiiat a tenant neod not
necessarily “ cultivate the laud he may leave tlie land fallow,
or he may employ cultivators under liim. In this case, therefore,
Section 5 extends tlie meaning of Section 2 as regards oultivators
or tenants, just os it restricts tlie moaning ns regards the laiid-
liuldcr. In both secliuns the meaning should remain the same.
Tlie adoption of tlie teriiis “ landholder" and “ tenant ” as used
aud defined iu the Local Funds’ Act would remove tlie difficulty.
Section 2 defines tlie repairs to irrigation works to be done by un¬
paid labour, ”(1) The filling up of gullies, nits, and holes,
ttpeciallu at tht! biwk of reiotmttiU.kc., (lc.” The words wo have
itaiiuized should bo expuuged. If the law requires tha filling np
of holes, Jcc., there is au end of the matter, aud it matters not
whether tiia holes ore at tlie book of a revetment or in any other
part of au irrigation work. To devote special care to a revetment
may properly form port of an executive order, but not of a legal
proriaiou. To take a parallel case, the law provides punishment
tor theft generally, and all special cases are included, aud it would
be supermious to say “ whoever cominits tiieft, espeolally of
pocket liaudkeroliieta, aiiall be punished with imprisoument,
*0.”
Clause 2 runs os follows : “ The proveution of the growth on
village irrigation works of prickly pear, wild croton, young trees,
aud otiier vegetation endangering the safety or oonoeallug tlie
condition of the work,” This is a clause capable of affording
infinite legal wrangling in the CuliocCors’ Courts. I’roventiuii may
be better than enre, but if preveutiou fails, is tlicro to be 110 at¬
tempt to cure ? Cnimid labour is to be applied to the provontiou
of the growth of certaiu vegetation, but not to the removal
of the vegetation If a young prlokly-poar doos appear
above ground, or a slioot of wild oraton, or a seedlmg,
the law falls. laibuiir is to be applied to l>reventiou, not
removal i a forliori^ unpaid labour is not to be applied to
noxious vegetation already in existence at the time tlie Act c >mes
into oporatiou. But the coucliidiiig part of the eiaUse must in any
ease render the first part inoperative. No vegetation can *'eu-
douger the safety or oouoeal the couditloii of a work” until it has
actually grown np to some extent, greater or loss. But it is only
vegetation of this special kind the growth of which ie to be “ pre-
veuted,” The most acuta legal intellect, we venture to eey, would
find it bopeleu to clear a traqk tluongh the word-torngla of this
Motion,
. ^ follows : ** The preservation of such buslios and
AGJ}Ji have been planted for the prqttotipii of the interior water-
..xopt of bauds of tauka.” This prqeainahly mean* the appoint¬
ment of watohmen, as It la molniy by keying, off cattle that bushes
and grasses are preserved. Bat if the weick U nwlootad, nothing
more, m the law I* now drafted, can be dime, u the bushes and
grosses are destrOTed, unpiddlabonri* not to be empiioyed for re¬
planting tbem. But what unknown po^er is to step in .and do this
most essential work 1 Again, wlw are :tU« Interior slopes of bunds
of tanks to be alone preserved)! It is ooi^onftlly of maoh impoi-
tauoe to plant up with gran the eiXtemai oiope of a bond. Why
should the preservation of the grass on the in^mol slope of the
bund be left to the vlllagart, aud that of the external slope to,
soy, tlie Engineer or the Collector ?
Clause 4—“The clearance of slU from slnii^V. supply nud
distributing channels of tanks, spring channels, and also, wdieii
not maiutiuned by the State, from river channels.” With respect
to this ulauso wo would euqulre how it Is to bo dotormiuril
wlietber or not a river.ohannel is maintained by the State. Docs
It depend upon whether an allotment of State fnuds Is made lu auv
particular season or not ? Allotments for oleariug rivev-cbauucU
are frequently made at iutervalt of several year*. Are stioli
channels to be regarded oa “ maintaiued by the State ” in perttftiu',
or as sometimes maintained ^ the State aud sometimes uot '1
Again, eon the Collector or the ^giueer, either or both of them,
Bunounoe that a channel is no lou;;ei' to be maintained by tlio
State, and in snob case, will its care tbcucoforth devolve ou the
village cnmiiimiity ?
Cl.iiiHc ."i—Tile elearance of spaces between the upright stones
of eaUiigiil ills (waste-weirs With upright stoues) and the regulation
of caliiigiilulis, according to the requirements of tlio season.” The
lutroduotioii of a definition of the word oaliugaiali into the body
of a olause of the Act is obviously objeotiouable. 'riiere is no need
to use the foroigu word “ ualingulah ” at all. It means ueithor
more nor less than the EugUali word “ waste-weir/’ which should
alone be need. A oalingulali is not, as liora denned, " a waste-
weir with upright atones.” There are innumerable oalingulaha
without upright stones, Tliese, however, are dammed up with
earth and turf to store up water in the tank, aud need regulation
aud clearance like the rest. There is a further difficulty. Who is
to define “ the reqniremouts of the season ? ” There is a vagueness
about the phrase whicli doos uot commend it for use in a legis¬
lative enactment. For olause 5, we would substltude the follow¬
ing ;—" 8.—The clearance qf waste-wejrs, aooordiiig to rules to be
issued from time to time by the CollectoiV la the first two of the
five clauses of section .’1 “ village irrigation works ” aud “ iriiga-
tion works appertaiuiug to tlio village ” are speuialjy referred to.
But iu Clauses 3, 4, 6 , there is no aach limitation. Tlin use of tlie
words In tile first two sections and their omission in the lust threo
is probably accidental. Ail irrigation works may be said to
appertain to somo village or other. There appears to be no need
for the words at all.
Ssetion 4 of the Bill lays down that in any distriut, or part of a
distriot, tho Government may by iioliCcatlon require that any
work uot included in .Section S shall be performed hy unpaid
labour, upon being satisfied that such work lias beeu heretofora
pevforinoo by uiipald laiimir in snob distriot or part of u distriut.
This provision opens up an iiiipoi taut question, tlie liUoussloii ol
which must lie roserveu for another issue ,—Madrcis Mult,
AGRICULTUHE.
{horn a CiinvtpontUiU.)
- Paris, May 19.
M OUFFART, to whom reverts the honor of tlie discovery
. of tho preservation of green fodder in tronoiiea, or silos, and
known under the name of imiluye, reminda all whom it may
conoeru, that lie aloiio, and 110 one else, is tho real diseoverer of
that process, which lias revolutionised Froncli ugrioulture, and is
in a fair way of effecting the same in several otiior countries. It
was lu 1852 that M. Giiffart first ooiiiraeuoed experiments, whioh
he ooutiuued during elghteeu years with varying sucoess. It was,
however, only from the moment when he cut or chaffed tbs green
maize, treading it closely iu the trenoh, and covering the mass
firmly with planking, stones, Ac., to exolndc the olr, that sueoess
booame established. Austria, as well as otlier nations, wire simulta¬
neously at work, but Quffart arrived first at tho praotioal solution.
He won tiic houor well, and it is only right to wish that be may
live to wear it long. M. Le Biau, of Brest, oontinues his orusode
in favor of tlie dultivatiou of ]wsnipe aa a forage plant, where
climate and soil suit, and these conditions are pretty general. The
root is largely entering into the rations of bonsee, resuLtiug lu an
eoonomy of oats. Ttioru oau lie no question as to the importance
of parsnips for milch cows. It is to feeding oows on them that a
large part of the reputation of the Channel ulauds butter ie duo,
and the same observation applies to the best butters of Bretaguo,
for in the latter country, where the brands are inferior, tlie eause
must be attributed to objectionable methods of propamtion,
Gierraau agriouIturUta devote much attention to the food and the
feeding of animals. In Baxouy grouud-uuts oake has been em¬
ployed, and also rice flour, in the feeding of milch oows, lu both
oases the quality of tlic mdk and the quantity of the butter
have been improved, wliile tlic cattle, relishiug both provender, had
a decided prefereuoe for the riee flour. Atlwle, ootton eee^cake
has been added to the ordinaiw rations of miloh oows aud with
benefioial results. Some of M. Pasteur’s oountrydien, aud scvurnl
Italian seieutists, call in question that geattemaa’s important
discoveries respeotiug the origiu and oauses of cattle plagues.
That diseases are oansed by aniraaloulse, Boating about us, and
only waiting the . favorable conditions of humidity, Aeat, and olose-
DMI to FTflMtoto deTolop, to »tlMory of which Fairtear doM
August 1, 1663
THE INH/aN agriculturist
503
not oteim tti« jpatorlilty. Indeed, readeri o( Ooetbe’i Fausp will
dod the doomue ‘there pahliefaed before Peeteur wm born. But
the letter obdme, end fsirl^ so, to have dieoovered certain infuioria
caJIad microbek eUdstisB in the blood of (took, viotlms of peete,
which, by tbhir - marvelTone fecandity, deprive the blood of the
animal of ite oxygen, and so induce deatti. Further, Poatonr not
only produced theee miorobee artifioially, oautiog death when they
were introduced into the Kyetem, but he tu'epared that very vlrue
in (o bormlen a form, that when employed m 4 voceine, the cattle
inoculated with it ranained proof against attacks of the r^ody,
while (took, nnvaooinated, sneonmbed. What has not yet been
demonstrate^ is the eSoooy of this inoculation for a longer period
than six nwntlu certain, hhroerimeuts will in doe oourse set this
point at rest. French (Mvemment has fast given an addi¬
tional proof of its appreciation of Pasteur’s lifs-work by doubling
bis pension, by raising It to 26,000 franes a year.
7'here are many agrleultarUts in France mere patriotic than
practical. They Wong to that class of short-sighted individualr
who maintain that nanve broods of stock eon surpass the race of
Durhams. Henee, the starting point of tho angry discussions which
rage. A fow simple faots suffice to sot the dispute at rest. In all
the cattle shows held in France, they ore the pure Durhams, ur
crosses, that invariably oarry off the prises, Kvery country in the
world imports Durhams for breeding purposes, the Chinese being
tlxB latest. Where are such Durhams sought ? Id England of
course ; never in Franoe. Again, the small formers of this oouuti y
have adopted the excellent habit of saving up till they have a
suffioiout sum, say 600 franes, to purchase a young Durham hull
to serve their cows, and that animof is imported from the cradle of
the short-horns.
The diminishing snpply of good foreign tobacco has foresd tho
Froucli Government to consider tho question of its home cultiva¬
tion. For three years experiments in the soath>westeru portions
of the country have boon carried ou. The results have exceeded
the most sanguiuo hopes. Last year, despite tho cold wet season,
the yield of tobacco was so saUsfaotory, that an important aroa
of land is ut present devoted to tobacco oultura, soils of a sandy
character being preferred, such being tho kind ou which the best
brands of Havana are raised. Climate does not appear to be the
decisive factor in tobacco culture. In the West Indies, tobacco
is onltivatod during the winter season, that which sigoilios a
tempciutnro eiptal to the summer heat at Bordeaux. The culture
of tobacco can replace the liestroyed vineyards, and another oonaola-
tinu lias been found in the onltivation of Chino grass, or Bamie.
Tho great obstacle up to the present against the latter has been
the want of a machine to bark or skutch the stems, and act the
fibre free, cleanly. Snob is claimed at lost to liave been found,
as a company has been organised not only to construct tlie maohines,
hut to hire them out to the farmers: Further, the eumnany in
question guaranteed to supply seed and plants at reduced rates,
and to take all tho gross raised, lii order to augment the supply
of horses fur the cavalry, the hlinistor of War has decided to
place at the disposal' of formers, select breeding mores drafted
from the Ktate studs. The farmers will he allowed to employ the
inaruH at light work, as paymout fur keep, but they must be
covered only by stallious belonging to the Movernment studs, and i
those approved by the official Vet. Thu foals arc to be registered '
at the nearest cavahy depot. If tho mares after three years prove
improper for reproduction, they will be taken back at tho cost of
the .State.
M, Hoidoy, chief Veterinary luspeutor, slates tliot in the case
ot animals dead from a contagious disease, the best moans to
destroy tlie germs of the malady is to cook the remains, which
cun then be employed witjimvu* danger lor feoding pigs, dogs, Ac.
Care must be taken that while this diet suits during the ruariiig
period of pigs, it is totally unfitted for fattening the animals. I
think there are other reasons than the possibility of contracting
tho trichniue disease for keeping American pork out of the French
market. In England and Germany, where such vast quantities
of that pork are oonsumed, tho inliaViitaots do not suifei' from
trichnine. The truth is that American food importations are so
cheapening the necessaries of life, that fai-mcis cannot obtain re¬
munerative prices. Labor and other expenses, local as well as
general taxation, tho cost of machinery, Ac., augment, and agri¬
culture does not progress in proportion ; hence, the secret of the
situation. Everywhere vegetation is a fortnight late. This has
told ou stouk-feeding, and has uompelled animals to he premature¬
ly sold, aud at inferior priocs. The future, however, is not
gloomy. The vines and cereals promise well ; forage will be less
abundant. Farmers are not inclined to invest in implements.
The sugar industry is deoliniug owing to fiscal charges. On the
contrary it is progressing in Germany aud Aastris. Tho French
Budget of Agrioulture allows a sum of .'>0,000 francs this year as
prises for the nest cultivated small holdings.— jUadras Mad,
FORESTRY.
NOTE ON FRENCH FORESTS BY MR. A SMYTHIES,
ASSISTANT CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS.
1, ^rcwi«rg.-—The forest of Strasburg, or the Hohwald, is
situated on the eastern elopes of the Vosges mountains, in wliat
was formerly the Department of tho Lower Bhine, aud it nearly
surrounds the small village and watering place called Hohwald.
It belonged formerly to the Commune of Strasburg, but, siuoo the
Franco-German 'War of 1870-71, it hat been considered State
property, and it is managed like otlrer Crown forests in Germany.
2. Xne area of the forest is 2,118 acres: the total annoal yield
la 289|M0 eubie iMt, or about 108 oubio feet par acre i the total
annual rovemio amonnts approximately to .1,6001., or about D.
12s. per acre, and tho expenditure amounte to fiOOl. annually.
3. 'This is a most instructive forest to visit owing to the splen¬
did natural reproduction of the two prluoipal trees, aud the regu¬
lar young crops which have resulted from the regeneration cut¬
ting themselves. Silver fir and beech constitu^ the greater
proportion of tho standing crops, and It is now many years since
the regular method ot compartmenta, as distinguisnoo fi-om the
selection method, was first applied. There are some portions of tho
forest, however, whore the young beech poles have heou allowed
to overtop the silver fir, and, though the latter has a wonderful
faculty 01 shooting up aud growing vigorously after many years of
suppression, it is nevertheless obvious that, had the beooh Iroen
out away some years previously, tho silver fir would be now much
higher, more vigorous, and more unifom ; in other words, tho
ahMnee or neglect of cieaninfft has here most certainly ixisulted
in a loss of production and of roveune, for tho fir is far more
valuable than the beech. These remarks, however, are applicable
ouly to a email extent of forest, and in tiia younger seed crops
the beech is being out away in time, ami tlie fir will bo able to
elioot ahead from the lingiuniug. The ueoesilty of cutting back
tlie beech in a mixture of silver fir au<l beech is explained on pages
; 8i and 82 of tho “ Eleinouts of Sylviculture," by G. Baunens,
London,
4, A comparison between the conditions of growth in tho
forest of Strasburg aud iu the fir forests of the North-West
Himalayas is in many respects in favor of thu former, Tho
slopes are leas steep, so that you can walk up aud down with tiie
greatest ease, aud they are not so I'ocky ; the soil is doep aud
always moist, there is a oonspicnous abieiioo of under-growth
(shrubs, bushes, herbaceous plauts), and seedliugs are fouud every¬
where under any crop which is suffiuicutly advanced to shod seed
copiously. The main conditions of natural reproduction by seed
arc therefore different in the two countries, aud this should bo
borue in mind whenever fellings are made in the Ilimalyan fir
forests. A certain strip of forest near the village of Hohwaid
was entirely cleared by the wind some years ago ; it has rocodoii
itself, aud now buars a dense young crop of fir aud beech; such a
result would ouly bo ssou in the Himalayas under exceptionally
favorable circnmatauocs, and even on the limestone soil of tho
Jura, where brambles and otlior plants grow up in a tliick mass os
soon as they receive sufficieut light, such a spot would tiave to bu
planted up.
6. There ore various plantations of spruce fir, hclongiug to
private owners, in the Uonwald, the tliiumugi from widen yield
valuable returns ns hop poles. The forests hetweuu .Saverue and
SoUlestadt are well worth visiting, and SVusscloniie is said to ho
os good a forest centre as can l>c found throughout tlio Vosges.
(i. Qirardntfr. —G4rarduior, iu the Department of the Vosgus,
may he reached from Epiual by rail, or from Munster liy diligenoo.
The .State forest, surrounding the fashionable watering-place
of Gdrardmer, contains 11,472 acres and is divided into eight
working circles, of which six are treated by the regular method,
while two are worked on thu selection method owing to their being
at a CDUsiduiable altitude near the Limit of forest vegetation. Thu
rock is grauitc, aud the altitude varies from 2,000 to 3, 800 feet
above Bctt-level.
7. The average oompositiou of the forest is as follows !—Silver
fir, 40 per cent,; hoech, 30 j spruce fir, 20 ; other kinds, 10. Hero as
elsewhere, the two firs are the important species, and command tho
higliost prices.
8. The average annual yield for the whole forest is not more
tliau .50 cubic feet per acre, and the revenue for 1882 amounted to
7,448i., or about 12e. Od. per acre. .Some of the working circles,
however, siiow slightly better results tlian tliis ; fur instance, the
eighth working cii-cle, called Iti Ontinh Monlayne, has an area of
1,868 acres. The annual yield of regeiioratiou cuttings iu tlis first
block is based ou volume, and it has beeu fixed at 84,768 cubic
feet or about 45 cubic feet psr acre. Iu this amount are iucliidod all
windfalls aud dead trees of three feet girth and over, and alt treee
of four feet girth aud over removed iu thiimiugs, seloctiou tellings,
Ac., iu the rcinaiuing blocks wliieh have not yot roaohed thoir turn
for reproduction. Tnis leaves a small amount for thinning the
smaller pules, windfalls, and dead trees uuder three feet girth
throughout the working Circle, hut it cannot he estimated at more
thou 10 cubic feet per acre, making tlie total annual yield 55 cubic
feet per acre. Tho revenue from this worUiua circle for 1882
amounted to 1,3671., or about 14s. 8(i. per acre. 'The working cireU
of la Qmndf Siontw.mt is well worth visiting owing to tlio regular
distribution of age classes ou the ground aud favourable roproduu-
tiou, but tlie yield and the revcuue (if the figures given above,
which were furnishod by the local forest oflieer, fairly ropresout
the average of a series of years) are rcinaikably small, aud in this
respeot this forest oompures unfai orably with other forests in the
Vosges. The rotation on whioli this circle is worked is 144 vums*
divided iuto four periods of 36 years each, to each of which a
block of an average area of 467 aoros has been assigned. There
are four Qoverumeut saw mills iu thu locality, besides numerous
private ones, and as a rule all the firs are out up into planks ou
the spot. The total length of forest roads is about 42 miles.
Gdrardmer is well kuowu to all forest officers who liavc passed
through the school at Naucy, as every year tho students arc taken
there to undergo a couiBO of triaiigulatlou, and to bo iustructed
iu the working of eaw mills, of which there are many kinds within
the vicinity.
9. Ponlariier.—The communal forest of I’ontarlier is situated
near the town of that name on what is culled the second plateau
of tho Jura Mountains consequently on the J uroAsio Umestoue,
and at an aveigige altitude of 2,500 feet above the sea level. Tho
first working circle has on area of .574 acres, aud the average
anntud yield is about 79 cubic feet per acre, including thinnings
and iclsetion fsUisgs, These limestone soils are rich, and there
304
THF INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
August I, 1883.
is a great variety of uudershru)>s in tbU foroet, including tlirci
specuie of foniccr« and a liorbaoeona elder. If too innph Tight ii
admitted on to the ground before the crop of yonng aeedlings ii
thoroiiglUy establisliod, a dtngo crop of brambles B|)riugs up
chokes pre-existing swdlings, and renders natural reproductior
slow and uncertain, li not altugetber Inipossible. The third block
of this working circle is chiefly romarkablo for a regular and com
piste pole crop of sii vor fir sixty years old ; the leafy cauopy b
complete, and there is scarcely any licrbaceous vagotatlou on tin
ground. This portion of tlie forest is the more interesting as the
reproduction cuttings whielr resulted in the present excellent crop
■were made in 1820 by M. Lorentu, one of tho founders of modern
li’reuch sylviculture and now Dlroctor-Goneral of the Fores'
Adniinistmtion.
10. One circle is worked on the selection method on account o
tlio steepness of the slope, thus resembling in some of its features
a Himalayan forest.
11. La, FuveUe .—This lorcst dsrives it name from /«<>, an old
word for epicea, the eprnco fir. It is situated on the third, or
highest, plateau of the Jnra mountains, at a mean altitude of
3,280 foet above sea level. The total area Is 366 acres, and tho
forest is worked on a rotation of 140 years, which is divided into
seven periods of 20 years eocli ; there are conseijuently seven
blocks aontaiuing on an average .'32 acres cacii. Tho second period
commenced in 1878, so it is in the second block that regeuoratlou
cuttings are now being made. lu the first block, which was
regenerated from 1838 to 1877, thinniugs have already taken
place once,
12. Tho crop consists of spruce and silver fir iu nliuost ccpiul
proportions, nun hero it is tlic former whicli is the more valua¬
ble, the spruce having n value of about 7(f. a oulfic foot stand¬
ing Umber, whereas the silver fir is not wortli more thau 5i<t.
13. Tlio soil is not deep, and the trees do not attain a grcatoi
length of timber thau SO feet; but for all that tlic forest has been sc
carefully organised and managed that the 1 cturns are rcmarkulily
good considering tho great altitude. The average annual yield, taken
From the fibres for Uie last 23 years, amounts to 49,220 cubic feet,
or about IM onbio feet per acre ; the average annual revenue
during the period amonnts to 928f., il. or Kkf. 8<f. per acre ; while
tlic expenditure has not been more thau 40^. per annum, c.xclading
the proper share of pay of the superior ofheers ; tills would not
howovor raise it to any oonsidoraule extent, aud there remains a
handsome net annual revenue to the State.
14. Iu the second block, where reproduction fellings are now
going on, wo find numerous young sooeflings cf the two firs in the
most promising oondltion ; many of them existed on the ground
before the primary cutting was made (wleaiicnf f/rou'</()> aud are
now profiting by the extra amount of light given to them ■, the
soil is not deep, and consequently there are no brambles or brusli-
wood to interfere with reptoducltou, and Ibo thin covering of moss
on the ground permits tlic seed to germinate with great facility.
The urnpls aged from 140 to 100 years, as shown by tlie annual
rings, and the tree have a mean girth of C feet at a height of 5 feet
above the ground.
15. Tho thiitl block shows a dense crop of tali timber, 'u ith
much young growth of various sieos uudoriicatli ! liero oud tliore
the wiud has blown down some of tlie taller trees, but generally
speaking, the forest of ia Fimlh seems to be singularly free from
the ravages of the wind. This is not tho case with all forests in
tlio locality, as there is a forest higher up tlio valley, wliore 5,000
trees were blown down iu a single day, stopping all fellings for two
years, greatly interfering with tlie nioe ealeulations of tlio annual
yield, aud of course seriously coiiipioinisiiig reproduction, for it is
not ovoiy forest wliero one may expect such a favourable issue as
tliat mentioned under the forest of Strasburg.
16. lu tlio fourth and fifth blocks the trees arc somewhat
smaller, aud the sixtii and seventh have been already regenerated.
Selection fellings are carried out iu tlie third, foui'tli, and fifth
blocks. In tlio seveutli block wo find a complete and regular young
crop, 80 year* old, grow ing up under tho best possible eondftious,
witli rather more spruce than silver fir. Tho average lieigbt of the
poles is 85 feet, and their girth 41 feet.
17. This moat instructive forest is well wortli a visit, as nil tlie
details of tho organization project (whicli for this forest was pre¬
pared by M, C. Broilliard) cau be the more readily appreciated by
tlie beginner, as there is only one working circle, and the various
age classes arc very foirly lopresented.
18. La (jraiuU COlc .—Tlio neighbouring forest of La grandt
Oikc is situated on tlie other side of the valley at about the same
altitude. It contains au area of 947 acres, aud is worked on a
rotation of ISO years ; it forms one working circle, aud is divided
into five blocks, with five periods of 00 years each. Tlie first
period commenced lu 18S8, aud is uouscqueutly approaching its
term. The conditions of growth are much the same as in /a
Favellt,
19. Tho average annual yield, from tho returns of the hut 25
years, amounted to 104,636 cubic foet, or about 110 cubic feet per
acre, and the gross nuiiiial revenue has amounted on an average
to 1,9701., or about 2f. 1». 7d. par acre, while the expenditure—
omitting os before the pay of the superior officers—has not exceed-
•d 81f. per annum.
20. L4pia'.~~Thi3 forest of Levier is situated on the gentle
slopes which deaoend from tho Boooiid plateau of tho Jura to the
first plateau. Ills distant about 10 miles from Pontarlior, and is
In the couservatorahip uf Busaneou and the department of the
Donbs. The mean altitttdo may bo put down at 2,500 foet above
sea level.
21. The geological formation is the Jurassic llmi-^tone.
22. The area of the forest J* 6,734 acres, aud it is divided into
eight working circles, and the transitional rotations adopted in
them vary Hum 80 to 180 you's ; but when the forest hus b«sa
finally recognized os high forest, worked by the regular method of
tiiinmugs, ^c rotation will be uniform and fixed at 160 years.
Tiiere will also be a smaller numbor of working olroles,
23. As an instance of the present organization of the forost, we
may take tlie second working oirele oailed Orand Jura Owest, The
orea is 622 iieivs, the rotation is 100 years, and there are five
blocks, with five periods of 20 years each, The onnaai yield of
the principal cuttings is drawn from the second blook, together
with some old trees remaining in the first block, and It ha* been
fixed at 44,033 cubic foot. In the third and fourth bloohs selec¬
tion fellings are mode, and they extend over one-fourth of the area
every year ; in the first and fifth blocks improvement onttings ore
made over about oue-tentb of tbs area every yeo^sothat any one
part is re-visited every foar years in tho first and livery ten years
ui the second cose,
24. The following figures have been oompiled from mi elabor¬
ate return furnished through the kindness of M. Carlot, the In¬
spector of Forests at Fontarlier, and, m tliey embrace a period uf
two-aud-twenty years, they may be relied upon as correct and
ailapted to sliow the tmo financial state of one of the best State
forests in France.
Avertige qftke yuan, ISGl to 188i, itudtuice.
Annooi yield uf ail fellings ... ... 1,125,186 oiible feet.
C
Vsdue of this yield (gross revenue) ... ...22,252
Expenditure (not iucTudlug a share of the pay of
superior olfioors) ... ... ... 468
Keducing tins to tho acre, wo find that the annual yield amounts
to 100 cubic feet, and the gross revenuo to 3f. 6v. Bf., a result
probably imqiiallcd in auy other forest in Fraucc. If we allow a
largo margin for the proper sliarc of tlio pay of superior offleors,
wc shall find that tlio average ne.t annual iuoomc to the State
amonnts to three /fuiitcan au acre.
25. The orop oousists almost entirely of silver fir, wliieh, fii
this forest, attaius its finest diincnsious us ttio foltowiiig measiii'c-
niouts will show One tree was 13 foet in girth, at 6 foot from
tho ground, and was 153 feet lung, taking iu all that could Im
sown. Aiiothur tree, blown down by tlio wind, measured 146
foet long, and, roughly suuarod at the liase, girtlied 10 foot. Many
trees st^diug had a girth of 10 feet anti over, aud as a rule logs
are drawn out of the forest 80 to 120 feet long. There are largo
steam saw mills in the vicinity of the forest, and these logs are
drawn out by bullocks in tlieir oiitirety, so tliat tlioy eau be sawn
up to auy required scantling. In tiic Vosges tlic logs are scarcely
over more than 13 feet long, ns that is tiio usual length ot the
planks required fur the uiarket. There is tinis in tlic Vosges
orcsts very little damngu done to tiie young crops, whereas in the
forest of Levier tlic injury caused to young saplings aud seedlings
is enormous. It is especially at corners ami turns in tiic road
that tlie cliief mischief is done, for as tliu log sweeps round, it
smashes and destroys all the young trees with which it comes in
contact.
26. Tile wiud is the most dangerous uleincut tlie forest officer
has to coutend with on this exposed plateau of tho Juros. lu the
eiglitii working circle a large space, coiitaiiiiug over 200 trees, was
ulearoil by the wiud iu 1880, and tlie soil is now covered witli
turf and brambles. The crop was a dense high forest, about 170
years old. Tlmre were very few scodllugs uuderueatli, and now
tiic wliole area will have to be planted up with some difficulty, as
silver fir does not eonio up well in the open. Even in conducting
the regular cuttings groat prudoiice lias to be oxcroised, as, if too
iiiucli Tight is admitted, the rich soil gives birth to a dense ilioss of
rrambles and herbs, wliieh greatly impede tile growth uf seedlings
f they do not entirely prci'eiit it,^ Similar results, only on *u ex-
iggeratod scale, may ho soon iu tho silver fir forests of tho Nortli-
West Himalaya, where, even under the densest cauopy of mature
'irees, tile nuuurgrowth of lierboocous plants is so thick tliat soed-
iiigs establish themselves with difficulty, and the evil is made
worse when more liglit is admitted.
27. Forest officers on leave from India should be iwoommoudod
to pay a visit to the forest of Levier, as tlioro Is muoli to be learnt
in every way from a careful inspection of this splendid forest ; and
J ever a Forest School is ernatod in England, ami the students
are taken abroad to study cuutiueutal inuthods of forestry, they
would do well to direot their steps to Fontarlier and make them-
iclves thoroughly acquainted with the silver fir forests of the
eeooud plateau of the J ura mountains,
28. La Jaux .—Tlie forest of //n Joux touches the forest of
Levier on tho south, and iu reality forma ouo continuous forest,
inly it is iu a dilferent department and iu a difTeregt conservator-
hip. Its area is 6,543 acres, and it has a moan altitude of 2,025
cot above sea level, Tlie forest is divided into five working
lircles as follows :—
Area! “ An-nual ■Vibid.
Naml. in I I
Acres. I Total. I For Aciw.
i
Oltbic Feet,
OubicFei’t.
'fortheru
1,589
160
120,688
76
Siorth-Eastera
809 .
160
78,797
88
liostcrii
1,237
140
143,470
116
louthern
1,213
140
100,315
90
iVtstorn
1,605
140
142,195
89
Total...
6.M8
594,166
90‘6
Komarks.
Tho annual
yield i|,tbat ot
the regenera¬
tion euttiuga
alone in the
first tiud fifth
blook*
29. To this atmual yield of 91 cubic feet from the regeneration
lUttinga in the first and fifth bloskij we must odd that which
Augast 1,1883,
305
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
remit* from thintdug* and selection fellin^pi In the other three
blooks. This may he estimated at 45 onblo feet, and we thus
obtain a total annual yield of 13S cuhlo feet per acre. *
SO. The gross total revenue is now 16,0001,, or about 21, 8«, lid.
per aore. It was formerly os high as ZO.OOOf., but the prioe of wood
na* gone down. The expoudituro may be estimated at 8W1., ox‘
about 2». 6d, an acre, leaving a bandsomo net income to the State,
tiwngh it does not come up to the forest of Lovier. The coiuli
tions of climate, aspect, growthj export, do., are very much the
same In tlie two forests, and it is not easy to understand why thw
ebonld bo so muuU ditfarenoe in the revenue and in the yield.
31. ^ /Veesf.—Tlie forest of La, fvme adjoins the forest of La
Joux with an arw of 2,830 acres. Xlie crop consists priiioipully of
silver fir, but this tree does not attain the same dimensions here as
la the fores? of Levler, and the yield and the revenue are imioh
less.
82. Chamottix. —The communal forest of Chamonix is situated
both sides of the valley and chiefly between that place and Ar-
gentUre. The area Is 2,750 acres. It is composed almost entirely
of spruce, fir, and larch, and is worked by the selection methotf.
Any other method of treatment would be lioro quite out of the
question. The high parts of the forest are at tbo limit of tree
vegetation, and the extreme rigour of the olimato, oombiuod with
Bte^and rooky slopes, render reproduction difficult and uncertain ;
seedlings of larch aud spnioo, however, are not wanting wherever
the light aud the soil are suitable. There are hut few large trees
remainiug in the forest at the present time, and the spruce seldom
attoins a larger girth tlian 0 feet, while the lai-ch is found 8 or !)
feet in ^rth.
33. The annual yield was estimated at 35,300 cubic feet, or
about 13 cubic feet per acre, but these figures must be aooepted
with some reserve ; still there is no doubt that the yield of forests
BO high up cannot bo compared with that of forests lower down,
and on more fertile soils, It may bo as well to state that the
revenue of this forest cannot be given, ns the timber out aDnu<ally
is divided among the Inhabitants of Chamonix, who either sell
their share or use it up for their own requirements. Tlie value of
the cubic foot of spruce standing In the forest is about three-pence,
while that of tbo larch Is almost double.
FOREST PROGRESS. REPORT FOR BENGAL, 1881-82,
T he area of reserved forests in Bengal was, at the close of the
year, 4,236 tquore miles, or an Increase of 825 sqvmre miles
during the year under review, mid the Conservator is to Im
congratulated outlie fact, that iiijiis own wonla, helms very
neai'ly come to an end of the fiist great woik to be done by
a Forest Doparlmout, on its institution, namely, the demarca¬
tion and sotllomont of the forest areas actually available. The
S'engallia range near Darjeoling, extending over 60 sqatro miles,
was demarcated by Mr. (bunblc, who tlius describes it: “ 'J'liesc
forests contain, with the exception of a small area of Pmidi loiiiji-
/bha forests in the valley of the Great-Rang!t, tho only areas
covered with the couiforous trees in Bengal Forest Circle. Tho
firewood means tbo ultlHzatlon for agrioultural purposes oTtho v^ist
quantities of manure which are now used for fuel. From tho em¬
ployment of manure for agrioultutal pnrposos, an improvemont in
the harvest yield might M oonfidently expected, not to speak of
the introduction of more valuable staples. Wo have now In Ben¬
gal reserved forests for tho supply of large timber, but iu situations
j more or less remote, where population U scanty and eomraunioa-
tions liad ; wo have protested forests managed by Oovernment in
the interests of tlie public ; but we have nouo of the third class of
forests eoiiteniplatcd by tho Act—village forests for tho supply of
fuel onij. It is time that some beginning sllohid be made to sup¬
ply tho want, and the Lieutenant-Governor will be glad to rooeivu
from tho Forest Depiwtment or from looal officers some proposals
on the point."
The protection from lire of fl70 square miles wore attempted, but
tbo season was not a favourable one, and 7 per cent of tho area
was burnt. A remark is made in tho review of tho Government
of India to tho efl'eot that the data given in form No. 61 differ
widely from those rfven in the body of the report, and that iu
future years from No. 01 shonld show only the areas regarding
which spuoial mcasnres have been taken to keep out fires. It is
most importaut that this should bo observed, os If in one province
ovorgrewi forests are shown, ami in the next exoludea, no lair
comparison can be made of tho cost of protection per acre.
That fires iu Bnugnl can bo very disastrous, is unquestionable,
ns it appears that tho fire w'hieh occurred iu compartment No. 6 of
tho liunbul block, Darioeiing Division, killed nearly every tree
iu it, and left the ground baru with tall dry stems standing up in
it. 'These nre now being cut as fuel, and tho oompartmont is
being plan led tip, Asa proof of the good cITuoted by tiro proteo-
tiou, we quote para. IM of lh<‘ report :
“ In tide place it Is well to refer to the very marked impi’ovo-
uient which the forests of the division (Kurseoug), have made in
tiia last ten years.
“ The Officiating Inspector General visited the division in tho
Conservator’s company, and most especially in the sal producing
blocks of tho Diilka jhar, theSivoko forest, the Mahanadi forest,
aud the Matjha forest was tho Improvement noticed. I8al forests,
that a few years back consisted of small tliin polos with mnoli
grasB, are now ilonsely stocked w'itli tall young trees, and tho
grass is rapidly disappearing.
“ Savannahs that formerly showed scaroely a tree ore filling
up and no iongsr deserve that name. Much of this is doubUcss
due to file proteution, but still more to general protection
from cuttings, uinl especially to deinaruatlon and good bound¬
aries."
There are 1,215 acres of regular plantations whleh do
not include such “ oiilturnV' operations as supplying blanks
in nutnral toreals, or re-stocking cleared areas, and it would
bo as well for ali Forest Circles to orlhero to tids nito ae far
as possible.
The largest plantation la iu Bamunpokri in the Kuraeong Oi-
visiou, and it is reported to be doing well.
The Hiinderbuii is tho great revenue-procUiolng division of the
Cirole, w-ilha revenue of over 3 lakhs for tho year under review,
whilst tho mnjority of tue other divisiuns shew small deficits,
wldch it is anticiiiatod will in a few years bo ehonged info
surpluses.
The revenue of tho eircle is derived from tho following
loutcce
conifers which are found in them am of four species, tho silver
Wcibiaiia), the Indian homlock spruoi' {A, thimota)
the blue juniper ri.vnri'n), and the yew {Ih-riti hai'i atn]
The sivor fir forms large forfeits, almost pure, on the elopcis of
Saudukpbo and Suburkafti, from an elevation of 12,000 feet down
to 10,000 feetj at which point it is replaced by the hemlock
spruce, which is also gregarious, but to a less extent than tlie silver
fir, being often mixed with rhoilodoiidrmis, birebes, and other trees.
The blue juniper is only found oocasiimnlly in single specimens,
but is valnubie oil acoonnt of its leaves, whioh are muA nsed to
burn in the Buddhist temples. Tlie yew, whioh oeours at tho low¬
est elevation of tho four, is not uncommon on Tongln, whore very
large trees, reaching even 20 feet in girth, are ocnsionally met
with.
“ The common oak in these forests is the ixwhjphjVa,
which is frequent and of large size and straight growlli, Both
red and white magnolia (Camp) arc also coiuinon.”
We are glad to see that stops are likely to be taken shortly for
plaoing tho private forests iu the Chota Nagporo Division, with tho
approval of the owners, under syatematie niaimgcmont, aud wo
would recommend Conservators in other circles, where private
forests ore numerous, to coiisidor whether similar steps cannot be
taken in their respective provinces.
Referring to the Eominnari foissts in the Kazuilhagh district,
the Conservator states that it is a notiecuble f.aet that nlniust
throughout Hararibagh, the villngers. while gracing over or cut- |
ting the said forest, have the habit of usually leaving some small
urea covered with sal poles suHlcioiit to supply them with building |
materials, and that tho rosouroos uf those village reserves are care, j
fully husbanded, oiid cutting only allowed under self-imposod con- i
dltlons. This practioa shows that tho people are quite olive to'
tho necessity for careful mauagomeut, and th.at they will be quite
capable of iinderstaniling the objects with which an attempt to in-
trodnoe forest conservancy is made. j
Oil Mr. Gamble’s proposals for tho formation of village forests, !
the Local Government makes the following favourable comments: - i
“ Tho Importanoe of this question and its bearing on the ooono-
mlo condition of largo portions of these provinces, oannot be exag¬
gerated. In addition to the beneficial climatic oflects which groves
aud forests are now admitted to produce, it is evident that the
provision iu many districts of a oncap aud convenient supply uf j
Rs.
’Timber --,
3,31,000
Fuel .-- ...
1,60,000
Bamboo and other minor prodiioo
1,00,000
Miscolhaneous
43,000
7’otal Bs. ...
6,34,000
More than a lakh of rupees was received on BundH wood
lli:rilici'ii tititoralie).
In the “ Manual of Indian Tlnibors,’’ a new and excellent work
ompleti'd by Mr. Gamble in the year we are reviewing, we find
■ho qualities uf this timber, and tho character of the forest it
orniB thus described ; "■ .Suiidrl wood is durable ! it is heavy and
loes not float, aud is extremely tough. It is used for a great
arioty of purposes, sueli as beams, buggy shafts, planking,
loate, furniture, firewood ; but chiefly in boat-buliding, for which
luvpose it is very extensively used iu Calcutta, aud particularly
n the Goverumont Dockyard at Kidderporo. It is the chief
timber of Sundorbun foi'ests. Its roprodnotion is most
favourable.
" On all lands tlooiiod by ordinary flood-tide, a new groft’th of
jungle springs up immediately, but on land ordinarily above
high-water mark it only establishes itself hy slow degrees. It
soon spreods itself on lunvly-formad i-slonds on tho sea edge of the
forcste. Tlie roots of tlie 8uiuiri do not penetrate deep Into the
ground, but spremi Uvtorally 2 to 3 feet below tho surface, sending
out pel P'-'iidicuUir tough shoots, which stand from *3 to 15 inches
ill height ull round tho parent stem, ^nd when there arc many
trees close together, walking throng a Sundri forest Is very
lunch liks finding one's way among a fine growth of inverteil
tent pogB,"
The tjuiiderbuns, besides timlwr, furnisUoa a considerable quanti¬
ty of minor forest produce, and nearly half a lakh of rovoune
is oliiained from galpatta (loaves of (/iA<i.’«(,r paluilata) used
for making ropes ami for tliatcliing. Another onrious item of
revenue in this division is the Ks. 2,000 odd received for
shells,
Tigers appear to bo inoroosiug In those swampy forests, and no
loss than 161 w’ood-outters were carried off by man-oatci's
iluring the war, or more by 70 lliau tho number for tho preceding
years,— /adi»n FurcHo',
80C THE INDIAN ADRIOTIfLTURIBT. August 1, i883.
THE GARDEN.
THE GARDEN BALSAM.
T his J»TOurit 5 annuli is one of the beet we have for brighten.
inz np oar gerdene in the raise, and during the flewerieee
Sionthe in the beginning of the cold eeneon. The wild epeciee,
Imjmtwie BnUm 'ma, from which onr garden varieties have iprung,
le a native of India, and ie principally found growing in damp,
shady piacee in the lower Himalayan valleya. The wild plant
bai a h^ty of its own, bat from a floriit'a point of view it is
not to be compared with the variously colored, double-flowering
cultivated varteties. It is grown in most of the Eutopeauand
Native gardens throughout the ceuntry, but unless tlie plants
have been raised from imported lecds, the varletiei met with are
not far removed from the wild speoiee. It is jmislbie to raise
ptante from Indian grown seed with flowers little inferior to
those of the best Camellia and Carnation flowered varieties of
European nurserymen’s catalogues, and os raising one’s own seed
Is a pleasing and profitable oooupatlon, I ahall, farther on, describe
the meet certain method of tscuriug a strain m good acclimatized
balsams. The ooene weedy strains will exist without any oare
or trouble, but lu order to have well grown plants of good voi'ietles
in flower from July uutll November,’ a little attention has to bo
paid in selecting tbe dates for sowing, and also to their treatmsut
during the progress of growth.
The first sov^g should be made iu tlio begiuuing of Juuc, and
continued every fortnight until the beginning of September. The
seed pots should be kept under tbe shade of a tree, ur covered by
mate or any suitable shading material until the seeds germinate,
AsBoon as they have germinated, shade should be gradually with-
flrawu until the seedliugs are able to stand full ex^iosure to the sun.
When the saediings are two or three inches high, they sliould be
potted singly iuto small pots, and again shaded for a day or two
nntU they have made fresh roots. In tiie course of ten days or a
fortnight they will be ready for a shift into a larger sized pot, and
the same process should be coutiuued until the flower buds begin to
appear. In order to have good ipsciroen plants, three shifts should
be given during their progress of growth, but if time cannot be
sparsd, aud if the proper sizes of flower ^ts are not to be had,
oulv two shifts need be given. It is a good plan to sec that tbe
mtui does not neglect to shift them as soon as road}', and that he
uses the proper sized pot. As a rule, when left to his own devices,
he will transplant them from the seed pot Into oue of the largest he
can lay hold of. The result of his treatment is tall weedy plants or
total lota from sourness of soil and damp. 'The gradual transplant¬
ation from a imall-tlzed pot Into a larger Is a very important
matter, and should never be neglected when speoimen plants arc
desired. The soil should be light and rich, and the pots thoroughly
drained, I find tbe following to be a very suitable mixture of soil,
tfiz.icme part loam, one part old cow or stable manure, oue part loaf
mould, and oue part sharp river sand. Water liberally, but take
oare that the soil in the pots never becomes sour owing to defective
drainage.
In order to save seeds from the Camellia and Carnation flowered
varieties sent out to this country by European nurserymen, the
sowings made from the heginning to the middle of July, should
be espeoially looked after. Sowings made previous to that time
Kenstally fall to produce seed, owing to damp, and those made
Sstcr fail owing to cold. When the plants are densely branched,
thin out the lateral shoots, so as to allow of all those remaining
to stand clear of each other. If the strain is a good one, the
flowers will he very double, hence many may foil to produce seed,
aud those that do, only produce it in small quantities. As they
soldom ail foil to produce a few seed pods in October and Novem¬
ber, a few ripe seeds are generally obtainable. These should be
carefully stored, and kept until the lollowing July, and sown
betwesu the beginning and middle of that mouth. The flowers
from the aoolinmtized seed of the first season are iuvari.ably of poor
quality. Many are sbigle and sembdoublo, aud a few double, but
Inferior to the flowers of the previous season, grown from Imported
seed. Tbe best double flowering plants should be seloctod as seed-
bearing stock, and kept as far as possible from the plants with
single and semi-double flowers. If selection ,,aud isolation is care¬
fully attended to, It wlllbe found that the proportion of good
flouble Sowers,will iuorease yearly, and in the fourth season ont of
hundreds of plants scarcely any single or semi-double flowers will be
met with. The strain of accibnatized balsams you thus secure
will seed freely, and possess flowers ntarly of equal merit to those
of tlie best Imported varieties. They are also much hardier and
not sosubjeot to damp OS' during periods of o.xcessh'e rainfall.
—Indian fbroter.] N. W,
MINERALOGY.
On lAtsritic and other Manganese Ore occurring at Oosulpore,
Jubbnlpore District, by F, K. Maloxi, F.G,8„ GeulogicaiSurvey
of IndtlL
I N a previous volame of the Kerords (1) some account is given of
the manganese ore at Qcsulpore, which was visited by the
Super^tendent of the Geological Survey in 1879. The sections
then available for examination were very poor indeed, but, judging
(1) Vol. XII) p.!
from what could he sess, Mri
•apply of tbe ore ooald pnlMibly b» depehded oh. The foUowIng
year a shaft was «unk with a view of tsitlng the tlohasM of the
deposit. When this had reached a depth of §0 feet, the engineer
in charge reported “that all tnee of the ore was lost’ at a
depth of nine feet from • the enrfaoe, at which depth a
yellow subsoil, tesembiinz ochre, was entered; that about U
cubic feet of ore were obtained, and even this email iqoanlflty of
rather an Inferior quality i that in oonsequenoe I reoommsnded
and dlsoontlnued operations,” As this dlaoouraring result was at
varianoo with the hope previously entertained of a ooaslderable
supply, I was direeted to take the opportunity, while in the
neighbourhood recently, of vleltlng the locality and seeing how
the disorepaney was to be explained.
The ehaft is dug on the siM of the pre-existing holes examined
by Mr, Medlloott, from whioh tbe ore liad been extracted for use
in glasi-maklng at Murwara and eliewhero. The eeotion com¬
prises—
Feet,
a, Latsrite ... ... ... „,4toB
i. Mauganese ore ... ... ... t,, i
c. Laterits containing some nodules of manganese
ore, about ... ... ... ... 6
if, Distintegrated quartz schUt dipping at a high
angle (to bottom of shaft) ... ... 1
The manganese ore b, whioh, as mentioned in the previous
notioe (2) is pyrolusite mixed with some psilomelane, oeours iu
the form of irregular spongy nodules varying in size from a frac¬
tion of an inch to several Inches diameter, and averaging perhaps
half an inch to 1 or 2 Inobos. 'These seem to constitute an irregu¬
lar layer, which is 2 feet thick, or rather more, at the shaft. It
is exposed in two or throo other places within a length of 20 feet.
The level varies somewhat even In this short distance, and, as
pointed out by Mr. Mcdlicott, the ore found iu tbe village well,
120 yards to the cast, is at a lower level than that at the shaft.
This difference is, I think, to be ascribed to the laterito (iuoludiug
tbe ore) having been deposited on an irregularly denuded floor
of Bijawar rooks,
There is little or no laterlte of the ordinary (ferruginous) typo
included in the manganese stratum, and the separation between
this stratum and the laterito above Is tolerably well defined; that
between tbe manganese aud the laterite below is not so well
marked, the laterite containing oooasioual nodules of pyrolusite
through it. Tlie laterite above aud below the ore looks some¬
what like detrital variety, but experienoc elsewhere has led mo to
believe that the rook laterite (3) has a teiideiiey to disintegrate into
a mass of irregular nodular fragments, which bear n very close
resemblance to tbe detrital form. Taking into aocouiit that no
dlstiuotly foreign matter is visible in the ruck in questiou ; that
undoubted took laterite occurs close by ; and that tbe manganese
ore is pyrolusite, not psilomelane (a point to which I shall allude
again), 1 do not think there can lie any reasonable doubt
tiiat the laterito, inclusive of tin oro, is ruck laterite
not detrital. 8neh is the view which Mr, Medlioott also
took ; “ This laterito Is of the older typo ; at least lu the exposed
soctioua I could not dotset any palpable rfrinv, which generally
characterises the secondary or detrital laterite. It is therefore
presumable that the lumps of ore are innate, and that the
mangauoso is an integral componoat of the laterite in this
position,”(4)
Witii reference to the original source from which the manganese
was derived, it is, 1 think, scarcely open to doubt that it la to be
sought iu the strong band of luanganiforous micaceous iron which
outcrops along tbe soutbern side of the Lora range and ngaiu at
Gcsulpore(5). But, as I said in the preceding paper, the manganese
in this ore occurs mainly, if not entirely, in the form of psilume-
lane, while manganese of the laterite is mainly pyrolusite, Tiie
Utter, tl.ereforc, cannot be the result of mere mechanical degra¬
dation aud transport, unless it be supposed that the nodules iu
which the oro oecuis are pebbles, originally of one mineral which
has subsequently been ohaugoJ into nnother. This mode of
origin is rendered very unlikely by the alracnco of any other re-
coguisablu debris in the mangaueso stratum.
If tliu latter be not a mechanical deposit, it must bo a mechani¬
cal one. Carlionate of mauganese being, like carbonate of iron,
soluble in water holding carbouio acid lu solution, the former
metal is capable of being leached out and ro-deposited iu tbe same,
or nearly tiio same, way as the latter (6). During tbe deposition of
the main stratum of manganese oro, the water appears to have
held little but manganous carbonate in solution, while at the
time the laterite below was formed, ferrous oarhouato was
the cliief Buhstauoe dissolved, but with soma manganous salt,
the maugancBo subsequently separating itself into nodules by
segrogatory action. Specimens may be obtained eousistiug iu
part of orifinary laterito, and partly of manmneto oxide.
The eceurrcucc of this in,anganeso laterite, intorbedded with
ordinary ferruginous laterite, furnishes, I think, strong ovideuoe
iu iavour of the view as to the origin of the lattar whiA I have
advocated in a former paper (7) namely, that laterite is (iu as far as
the iron is concerned) a chemioal deposit duo to the leaehing out
and ro-depositmu of iron through the agsnoy of decaying
<’) Ibid, p. lOJ. „
(3) liy ‘ rook laterito’ I mean the first form of laterito mon^nod on
page 11 1: 'Tbs term is no doubt open to criticism, but is ooqvsnlsat
AM serves to avoid oircumlcoutioa,
(4) Vol. XU, pego 99.
<A) Page 102.
(6) Vidr. Vol. XtV, page 145,
(7) ibid, page 189,
TTiT? TVTklAv Afl'RTnTTLTnilIST.
307
vegetktipn and tba carbonio acid produced by ita decomposition. 1
of eontt* am spring of the first only of the throe forms of laterito
which 1 believe are now generally recognised, vk.~-
/sf,—Laterito dne to deposition, and excluding the Snl form-
Sruf.-r-Latarito doe to tho alten^iou of other rooks in ti(u (S),
Sr/l.—Detrlti^ laterito due to the denudation and re-deposition
of the Ut or tud form,
With referenoe to the amount of manganese ore obtainable, it is
not easy to form any decided opinion. I think, however, that
there is a fair chance of the layer being somewhat extensive, al,
though very likely subject to much irregularity in level aud the
nmount of overburden covering it, and perhaps, in thickness also.
When there is a demand for tho mluoral, the bed might he fol¬
lowed from the pr'oseut diggings, and the suporinoumbont Intorite
utilised for road metal on the Deccan road wliioh passes close by.
It will have been seen that the reason why so little ore was
obtained from the shaft was that the latter posses through tho
manganese stratum into guartz schist below it. The shaft, indeed,
mormy exposed tlio thickness of the bed, hut proved nothing as to
its lateral extensien.
In the preceding paper I have pointed out that a considerable
quantity of psilomefane oooura with the mauganiferoiis micaceous
iron at Oosulpore. If the latter were worked in oouueotiou with
iron-making, the psiiomelaue would be raised at the same time,
and available as an ore of manganese. On assay it yielded
8.1'20 per oont of available peroxide, or about the same amount
os the latoritlc pyrolusite. From botii suurces combined, it may
be reasonably hoped that a considerable supply of ore will be
procurable when there is a demand for it.
TOBACCO.
CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTUEE OP
TOBACCO.
Memorandum on Tuliacco Cultivation and Curing at Qozipur in
contrast with tho French system deserilied by Kumar
Gozondra Narayan, .Ir., of Kuoh Behar, in his Memorandum*
page 19 of his ^port on the Cultivation and Manufacture of
Tobacco iu France, 18S1.
5Aefter/or AeW,—The tobacco fields are usually sheltered from
tho hot west winds by a high crop on that side, or. In tho
absence of this, by sowing a line of castor-oil plants or any other
fast aud high-growing crop. Tiic cultivation oommenoes in July.
In France iu October.
Rotaiion of croj>i.-~We follow the American system, and tobacco
is grown on the same land only once, or on rich laud twice, is
three years. The land usually lies fallow the third year, or
should do, and in America a crop of oats is often sown, whioh
crop is ploughed into the land Just os the ears oommsuce to
form. In fronce tobauco is grown on tho same laud ouly once in
iu from five to seven years.
Ufonarr.—Tho manure at Gazipnr aud Foosa consists prinolpally
Further Notes on the Umaria Coal-field (South Rowah Gondwana
Basin); by Theo, W, H. Huoiies, A,R.S.U., F.G.S., Geologloal
Survey of India.
In my notes of last year on tho Umai-ia coal-field were embodied
tlio general results inferable from the evidence afforded liy the
preliminary experiments carried out under the mauagoiuent of the
Rewah State t that coaly mutcyr occurred in abundauce ; that it
lay at a shallew depth from tho surface over a proved area of U
square miles ; that it thickened to tho deep ; that the gradient
was lew and advantageous for working ; and that the quality of
the ooal at tlie outcrop was encouraging.
The promise was a fan' one, and from the cxuoptioually com*
mauding geographical position of tho field, it required small ad-
vooacy to show that if the expeutations bused eu the introductory
enquiries were confirmed, a sploudid reserve of coal liud been
established. I am happy to say that Captain Barr, the Folitical
Agent of Rewah. has keenly appreciated tho exigencies of the
case, and his fui-ther sanction has been obtained for carrying out
Bueh trials as shall set at rest any apprehensions that prudence may
give rise to.
I coiifosB that I liave little or no misgiving as to the worth nf the
Umaria and the adjaueut Juhillu fields, aud 1 have bolict enough iu
my opinion to give it expression. But I admit the necessity of
vedflontion ; and, in view nf the important issues dependent
upon the true practical estimate of these fields, 1 strongly com¬
mend tlie course that bad been / suggested of reducing to its
narrowest limits tho margin of unocrtiiiity regarding the nature,
quality, and porniancnoy of their seams.
To achieve this object it was determined that the coal should bo
approached under tho ordinary ooiidltious of anproved mining.
liiure wore two plans open for adoption, citbor to dnvo an iucliuo
from tho outcrop, or to sink a shaft to the seam. Tlio soooud
method was preferred, as being in every souse more workmaii-like,
aud as afformug more soope for cflicieutly dealing with an influx of
vvator j and on tho iltb March 188.3, a pit of 10 foot iiiternal
diameter was commenced under tho charge of Mr. TUonias
Korstor, M.K. , , , , ,,
The position of tho pit is near No. 8 borc-liolc, whero Mr,
Stewart struck coal at 03 feet from tho surface and recorded tho
thiukuess of tho seam as 10 feet, I had a strong wish to go
further to tho deep towards No. 9 boi'o-hole, but I was deterred
by the dread of water, aud the possibly heavy outlay that would
have to be Inourrod for pumping mnehinery.
In an untried field it ts always inipossiblo to gauge the water
difficulty, and I sofeotod the spot for tlm trial shaft where I antici¬
pated the least amount of iiiconvoniouoe on tills sooro. The
choice has been up to the presout justified by the rosulto, for
though tho shaft is 40 foot deep, one workman ucoasioually bailing
sulKces to keep it dry. Sliould tho pleasant oxpi-utation that
tills fact gives rise to bo strengtliencd by further expenouco, X
would certainly rcco-mmend another pit near No* 9 boru-liole
beiutf put dowus In the future dovolopmout of tho hold, u wouhl
act BS a vouUlation channel ; and in the initiatory stage it -.vO'Ud
yield another point where the ijunlity of tho coal might bo
' judged.
AucMding to tho journals oi last year, two seams measuring
respeoUvely 10 feet and 0 iect wore passed through m No, 9
boring, aud I rt-meiiibcr that the coal brought up *u sludger^
was very clean aud bright.—ifccoi-ds qy /fic C/eoloyknl Snn'tty oj
/tidi'a.
(8) Borne examples of this form are aetiesd in the pwcodlng paper,
paaMW,VB<
of cowduug and vegetable manure, such as leaves, Indigo eeet,
&c.; at Oazipur a good deal of night-soil and poppy tnish. The
laud is manured yearly.
Seif.—Lands suitable for sagarcano and poppy are selsotod as
being the rlchost. The land is ploughed from oommonoomeut of
rains to time of planting, or earlier if feasible.
Seed-bed. —A pieoe of gpod high land is selected, well ploughed,
oloaned and manured with good old manure (low ground would
swamp). Tho gi-ound, whon soil has become well pulverised, ia
now marked off into beds four feet broad and running the whole
length of the ground. Tho bed Is slightly raised In tlm oentro as
a protection ag-iiust heavy rain. A small diteh is out between
tbo bods t® drain off the rain. Tatties modo of straw or arhar
twigs are put over tho beds, and are raised three feet from tho
ground, Tho seed is sown in Jnly, and the sooond sowing is
made iu August bi case of aooidoiits. The seed is sown at a
different season to the French season, and differs in soli, and in not
having a stony hard undor-siirfaoe whioh would not drain off wolf.
Sonhuj in ercil-beds .—Two tabic-spoonfuls of seed are sown over
100 square fot-t of snod-beds. It is sown mixed witli ashes.
It Is not left to germinate beforo being sown as in France (this
plan has not yet been tried). It is sown by a man who stands
ui the ditch tunning betwoon tlio scod-beda. After the sood is
sown, the bod ia beaten down gently with a plank, or the naked
foot of coolies. Tho sce.l gei-iniiiates iu eight days. Tho land
ia kept clean froiu woods. Tho tatties are kept on for at least
a fortnight. They are loft of gradually, that Is to say, they
are first taken off for a few lionrs daily, in tho morning and
evening and at night, till tho young plants got aoenstomed to
tho sun. They are a protection to the plants from tho sun and
also from hcai^y rain which often waslius out the earth from
the roots of unprotected seedlings. This ia also done in
Franco. ,
The tatties must not bo left on until the young plants are
transplautod, or else the plants will bo weak and unable to boar
tho sun,
I'ranapJant'w'j.—Tha land having lioen well ploughed and
cleaned from the middle of Juno to the middle of August, is
smoothed over with a heivin (harrow), and the young plants being
now large enough, they arc transplanted when tho leaves are
not quite the size of a rupee. A cloudy or rainy afternoon U
seleotod for the planting (the afternoon is hotter than tho
morning, as it gives tho plants tho whole night iu which to take
liolll). s ,
The fiokl ia uithor markutl ont boforohaiid, by means of a Jong
i-opn laid on tlio field, aloug and on whieli a few ooolios arc made
to walk, aud wliich leaves a cloariy-dofliieJ lino marked on
tho field; those lines aro made first down tho field and then
aorosB, each line being the same distance apart, or clso a lighter
rope marked with knots is tluis laid ou tho field at tho timo
of planting, and a plant is put in opposite each knot. It is
very necessary for facilitating tho after working of the tobacco
that tho plants should be equidistant from each otiier. In rich
land the plants arc put tinoo feet apart. In poorer soils they
arc ouly two feot and two aud-a-lialf feet apart. No plants
wboBC stems have bocoine at nil hard shonld no plau^d « they
will ct*rtalnly bo stitntod. Ombs should bo looked for in the
roots and stems, and all affected plants thrown away. It tho
ground is hard and clayey, it is desirable to stir tiio earth with a
X'/m-rjice a Uttlo round tho young plants throe or four days Oftor the
^ JJoeinff and eurthinq «n.—Tbo land is usually hwd about 1£
days after plsuoting. TV non tho plants are from a loot to
btgb, ttig gjBtli Is throwo up WttBd Wt* «* oa«b plant, inw
Aafi;6st 1, 1883.
303 THE INDIAN AaRICUL\:URiST.
in tho aamo procew apparently as that described oB ildgiog by
Kumar Gozondm Narayan, Jr,, ia hi« momoraudum.
This is carried on wheuo^'cr, from the appearance
of the XJlftutB, it is required. Tlr. ground x« hoed and tho plants
cartlied up aftor each watering until the plants become too big
to allow of men working in tho neM.
Tappintj a)ul pxLllhh) o/r «u<’KT^r.—Whon the jilanta arc about
3 foot i»igh, or, if ■wookly-looking, 2 foot, the top shoot is plucked
off fthia ahoot w plneCtud off, diroctly it makes its appearance In
small or sickly plants), also tho lower leaves which aro dirty
and draggled, aad from 7 to 14 leaves arc loft, according
to thostrongth and growth of the plant, the princliiul object
being to got a fow lai-go and wclf-developed loaves in pre-
fiTonce to A quantity of small ones. Tho side shoots or suckers
arc plucked off tho Instant they appear, aud arc loft on tho
hold for manure,
-Art'ucAinj and in the plant-In frenchitig, tho loaf
puckers up and is only fit for tho native market. If a grub be
found in a large plant, it should be cut out with all the uffeoted
art and all the portion of the plant above it—a aide shoot may
c allowed to grow which will giro a fairly good plant.
Stfjm «xat«7d7w.—Tobacco ripens in about throe months’ time.
It is cut during the months of Kovomber, Ueoember, January,
February, to the middle of March. A ripe leaf has yellow
spots on it. It has a cinimply look, aud if bent between tho fiagor
and thumb wUI break.
Tho cutting and drying of the tobacco as described in Kumar
Gozendra Narayau’s memorandum, pages 22 and 23, Is totally
different to the system pursued at Gazipur. Does not Kumar
Goswndra Narayoa'a memorandum refer to cutting and curing for
cigar tobacco only ?
Outtii^ or havvcating,^Th.<^ cutting commonces directly there
arc suffioient plauts ripe in a field to fill a curing barn. TJic
plants are cut off bodily at tho stem just below tho lowest leaves
of tlie plant. Tho plants, when cut, are left lying with tljcir
butts towards the sun in the field to w’Ut. Tho time a plant
takes to wilt depends on the hoat of tho sun. Usually balf-au-
iioar is suffioient. When wilted tho plants aro eitlier carried
or carted to the curing barn. Thorn they aro spiked on split
bamboos. In the French system the loaves aro x^luoked off tho
stem and hung in tho barn on strings.
ana hanpi/f^ in the cooUq is provided with
an iron spike which he fixes like a spear head on to the bamboo
stick, he then takes a plant of tobaoco in his hand fixing first
the otbor end of tho stick into a iiolc iu a block of wood
provided for tho purposo which he holds between his tooM. Tiie
plant Is plaosd with tho butt on the spike about G or 6 Indies from
tho end and tho plant forced down ovor tho spike on to the stick.
From G to 10 plants according to size are hung on one stick uliicli
is 4 feet long. These sticks aro theu hung in the baru ; the stick
should bo hung so that the^ leaves may touch each other slightly,
but sliould nut press agaiust each other. Tho bant In fitted up
wdth a scaffolding of l^mboos. The bamboos arc 3 foot fi iuclies
apart and 4 foot above each other, tho low('Bt tier of bamboos
being 0 foot at least from the ground (wiioro the tobacco is
intended to be cured by fires). The barniH provided with aa many
doors AS nossiblo, those on thu west side being made as air-tight
es possible. Vontllators iu the roof made to open and aim t are 1
ailv'antageous. Rooms can be made any size. A room from 35
to 40 feet high nud 30 yarda long by 15 yards broad is proferable,
as it can be filled rapidly, aud will hold sufficient tobaoco to euro
well.
and Z)ry/»f7.—When the barn is fnl! {it should bo filled
as rapidly as possible in order to prevent the tobacoo drying
nut iu hanging), all the doors aro dosed, and also tlic ventilators
if any. It is loft for two or three days. The planter can now
tell whether the tobacco U drying up too rapidly or not fast
enough. If tho tails of the loaves curl up and break wltcu handled,
it shows that the tobaocO is going up too fast ; on the other haixl
if there is a pour smoil in tho room aud the pUntR sweat, the
tobacco requires air and perhaps fires. In tho first case the
doors and vontllators aro still kept closed and fires arc liglitrd
iu different parts of the room, or if tlic hon.'ac is fillod with
flues (whioh are preferable to open fires) hot air is carried through
the room iu tho flues. The tempomtur© will probably be raisptl
80" Fahrenheit, but this can only bo told by expericuco. The
tobacco must b« carefully watched, and if drying too fast, the
tcmx>6rature lowered 'auu water spruiklod on the floor. Haising
the temperature causes tho tobacco to sweat and tho inoist-uro
time created in the bouse makes the colour rim in tl)e leaves. 'J'hc
leaves should turn gradually yellow aud thou brown. If dried
too rapidly it retaiui Its original groeu colour. If It is intended
to oure goldeu leaf the tomperaturu is raised to 140' Fahrenheit
or bigiicr at tho stage iu wnioh the tobacco has changed to a
yellow, but this curing cannot be attempted iu a hot climate,
c-xoept by au experienoed curor. U olden loaf rcalisefl double tho
piioc the dark leaf docs. The plauts siiould originally rvll be
in tlH» same stages of ripeness to ensure eneecss in bright or
golden leaf curing. In the above, curiug iu a hot dry elinmtc
Uke Gaeipur ia rofovred to; iu Tirhoot iu mild weather tobacco
caa be cured without any tires. This process will now bo dos
crlbotl. If, as in th« second cose stated above, after two or
three days baugiug iu tho ham tobacco feels soft, thou there is a
sour sraoll in tho room and tho plants may or nmy nut swwat,
Ihou all tho doors and vcutilaUn-s should ho opened and kept
so until the sour smoU is gone find the swoatiu" has sluppod ; if
that is not effectual then ni*na must be liglitoJ. The curev must
now bo guided by tho weather, and )un»l carefully watch the
tobacoo. If tho tips of tho leaves begin to curl, it is going too
fast and the doors must be shat during tho day and opened
only at Wallow the cold air to oiroulato through the room,
tiM tffmftkctlK tolHKOO dry up gradually w
yollow, aud the greater part of it will turn roddUh yoUow called
medium bright. Tho temporatftre must bo regulated by tho
' doors and ventilators. This alr^curing makes a lighter Brown
I tiiun iho firing process, and can only bo adopted In a cUoiato
I iu whioh there is a certain amoimt dl moisture iu the air. If
tiic tobaoco sweats badly, iloors and ventilators must he opened,
nud fires lighted, and A boat raised till it stops. Green tobacoo
is proforaulo to sweated. There is another process followed
in sonic parts of America called suo-ooring. In this
process a soaffoldlog is oreotod under the shado of a troo, and
after the plants arenungup, the whole is covered around and
on the top with straw. Tho straw is opened out when it U found
uoccssary to quicken the drying. This style of ourin^ Is hardly
adaptable to tho plains of India.
—Fluos are iron pipos, fitted up a little above tho floor.
The hot smoko carried tnrough them finds its exit in a chimney
at the 00(1 of the room. Tho fires aro lighted In furnaces outside
the building or Just insido with tho ^rnaco opening outside.
It has many advantages over tho opon fires, as no smoke stag-
natoa iu the room to ^int the tobaoco, and tho risk of fire to the
building is rodneod to a minimum. Tho tomporaturo can also
be rogulatod bettor. For a room 30 yards long by 15 yarda broad,
you would roqulio three furnaces : thosa furnaces aro built of
pukka masonry. The pipos should be 15 Inches in diamotor.
The pipes should bo arranged so as to spread tho boat equally
through the room. Tobaoco should not bo hung dicootly ovor tho
furnace as tho hoat would dry it up too rapidly.
Tho higher tho barn is the better it is for curing purposes. Tho
highest tobacco in a room ia usually tho boat colour, if you havo
a thick roof, otherwise tho coutro ia the host,
Jinlkinff, sort'mu^ and handvig.^T\\Q tobacco is generally cured,
HO far as its colour goes, in a fortnight or throe weeks. It is left
to hang through tho hot weather in tho barns, as the hoat makes
it too dry to handle. Karly tobacco may bo toady to bulk down
in the Christmas rahis. No tobacco sUouhl he bulked until the
I sa]> is entirely dried out. This can bo soon by breaking tho stoin
of the loaf, if bulked with sap In it, it will rot.
Diroctly the rains commonce iu June and tho tobacoo has be¬
come soft and pliable,it U bulked down iu hcapa iu tho ouring- room
iu which it is hung. The heaps aro raised some H iuohos off tho
ground hy a small scaffolding made up of, bamboos aud stick, so
that air can cirouUto underneath, and aro covered over with
straw or mabtin;^. The tobacoo biiould notMw bulked down in
too molsta oonditimi. Tlic best order for Inilkiivg is whou the
tobacco ia just soft enough to handle without breaking. If loo
soft it must bo firod aud allowed to come iu order again. When
all tlio tobacco is bulked down, tho bnlkH must be opened and the
leaves stripped from tho stem and tied iu “ bands " or “ hundlcH'
with about 50 loaves in ouch baud. I'ho )»and is tied round with
a loaf of tobacco tied round the* upper cuds of tho loavoB and
and tuekod In at the centre of the l)UudU' ; these bands arc now
carried In the head barn ov sorting-room. They aro vo*bulkcd
hero ill the same way m before. Whou all the tobacco ii* in
tile sorting-room, the bulka are again oponoJ and tho bunds
boing united, the loaves must be sorted. They should he sorted
into—1, long Ic.af dark ; 2, short leaf dark ; 3, long loaf bright ; 4,
short leaf bright : 5, lugH--Lhat is, all torn or dirty and vury small
leaves, rod and bright, being buudod .sc))aratcly ; and 0, groon_six
varieties in all. Tho sorting is most impurtant and requires strict
supervision. Cart! must be taken tlnit tlie coolies do not inuku
unnecessary breakage in handling tlju Inaves. Tiiey should l^e
tied in buudft of from 15 to 20 leaves. Those bands .are again
bulked and left in bulk till packed. The briglit is diviib><l into
four vai’iotica, should Llieru bo any gmdeup leaf. Guidon loaf is,
pure y<'ilow. In this caso you h(UU! — l, bright long leaf {that is
golden leaf) ; 2, bright siiort loaf ; 3, niodium Iwighb long loaf ; 4,
m.idiinn bright short loaf. Lugs ore often made into strii>8 by
taking out tho thiokost ])ortion of tho stem midrib; two-tiurd is
taken out ono-third nf the way from thu tail of the loaf. It some-
times Bclls boat iu tins form.
/Wki/if/.—Tlia tobacjoo is packed in hogsheads made of tldn
staves. The hogshondH are mado 4 feet in height, and about 3 foot
iu diameter for despatch to Kurope, or olse aftor tlic native eustoin
in bales. The tobacoo hIkjuUI bo paokod as dry ae it can possibly
bo pm^kod wifcliout breaking it. It is geuorally noocssary to hang
it again fn a barn, tiio bauds just siung across the stick, and firo
it till Huffioicjutly dry. If too dry, the doors may bo left open at
night when it will probably he found iu the right order ou the
following moyning. The bauds arc packed M'ith the butts out-
waids and tails inwards. There are throo linoa in each row, two
with their hntts at the edge of tho hogshead and tails mooting in
the centre of the hogshead, and om> in centre of the hogshead. The
next row is conimonced from the olhor side of the hogslmad. When
tlie hogshead is filled, It is pressed dowu witli powerful sorews,
aud rofiUod, till it ouii hold uo more. It should oioutalu ffOOlb. of
leaf as nearly as possible.
G. CAINE.
W ANTED, by tiic Local Gnveramout of British Barmali,
n thoiouglily practical Miner, to sluk shafts and bopo
UoloP. Salary, K'h. ‘i.uO, and (juartern. Only practical men iic(!d
apply. Kngngeimjut fur one year certain.
Appliculioua tu bo forwarded to
X). MACKENZIE SMEATON, Esq,.
Dopwtmont of Revenue and AgrioitHupc,
FIEE BRICES.
E ANEEfiUNGE FIRE BBICKS as supplied to Government and !
the various Railweye, Iron ^Vol'ks, Coal, (ins, and Steam j
Navigation Companies, Price—Pv», 0 per 100. I
ExtiwJt trom Oifloial llcpoit of tests made nt H. M e Mint, '
Calcutta, by TnsonoEE W. H. Hnouj'.s, Khq., F.o.s,, Oili- ,
ciating Deputy Supermteudout, Geological Survey, India:— i
“ 77(e ii)V BriA'fi lintfii by me leere. fimiished hy the Firm of ,
Messrs, BUHN ik Vo. ^ * The mala-iuL from vhieh they urr made 1
are ivi'p rrfrdelm'y awl rojutble of rf■^^slill(/ hiyh temyrruhire mth- i
iiiU scmilly fvsinej. * " * Thm compar/.d wilh, Siombr'tdye Fire I
Biw'hs are. somewhat sitierior." <
'I'bo specinieuB were euljjected to a tempomturc of over ,'1,000 :
(li.^. F^r., tin: jSinoltliig point of Caet-iion being 2,780 degs, i
Apply for tlio above, ami for Raueegunge .Salt-glazed Stonou-are
and imperishable Drainage I’ipes, to
BURN & CO,,
7, Ha.stiugs-,street, Calcutta,
or Ruuoegnngc Pottery Works, Rauoeguiige. ;
K.I.R,, Bengal, '
SOD
FRANCE.
CONTINENTAL & COLONUL AGENCt
CZTCFMSFBJ,
14, RUE DE OHABROL, PARIS.
Trausacle every description of Commisaioii, Mcrohant, and
General Agency Biisinees.
All Indenta executed at Manufacturers' most favourable terms,
Cn!iiWei«,-.,—T«o.und-a-lialf per cent Connnissidn when Bankers'
Draft on Bondon or Pari,s aocompauies order. Hpooial terms to
regular con'CspciulrjitB. AH Discounts conceded to purchasers.
Urigiuul Invoices scut when re(puu' 0 d,
Pro<Un;c taken charge of and rcaliaeit to boat advantage. Cash
advanced on Consignments.
The Agency lleprosonts, Buys, and Sells for Firms.
Public Securities, Estates and PropertioB,bought and sold. Loans,
Mortgages, iliucs, and ludustriai Investraenls, &c., nogociated.
Manufacturers and Proihiceis can have suitable articles introduced
to the markets on advantuguoiis eoudltions.
Pkic’e Lmx— comiire/teuiii'e aud i .iiMe.—on appUcation.
BANKEll.''!.—P ajus ; George Waters, Esq., 30, Boulevard dos
Italiens. Lo.noox : The London and County Bank,
.'}, Vietorlu-.streot, tVo.stmiuster.
Aildr. ,c>: The Manager, Continental and Colonial Ayciicy, 14, Kuo
do <;iiabrol, Paris, Fraix-e. 447
Ausfust 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
“‘1 know what it i-,,’ ho answered! ‘this honoy Is made from
enphorhia flowers, u hieh uro v ery poisonous. ’ This explanation made
mu fed exeoe.diiigly uuoomfortabie ; but I elieiU'd from him that there w.ia
not imu'h iiauga, us tin: ‘ maas.s’ taken witli it would ncutraiisc the etiuet
of tile poibon. Dirurtly lie meutioned poison 1 dived into the packs, and
jralled out a ImltN of EiSO'.S .FRUl'l' .SAL'I', and emptying a (umutity
into two paiuiikins, lilled them up witii water, iiud several times
I'l'peuUii™ the .lose, in a fev Iiouir vu were considevubly lietter,”—
"^/itlidiiinl and C'!ne<ti/r," (ji. / I'l)^ by Captain IT. ll. Ludlow, 1st Matt,
jl.\ Itoi/td IVti, irn J \/o fi It. linanl.
“ ■ B'hut oiM'arfli .ii.tll J take to Zuhilaud?' asked my friend ,Mm
oju' .j|iv lit Ald.M.iifi, idieii lie laid just leei-ived oi'durs fur iSoutii
Atu,'i!, to blurt ,'ii fii’tyriglit liours’ iiotici'. 1 teplied, ‘If you take
myad\iib’ runl itb that ot au oUl tl■ll^ellei -you’ll not hmlge witiiout
;i fi w liol.lh", of l'’.\(), i.e.i it jou leave hidf yum kit behiud. 1
never am wlthuuL liiese Salt,,, and, piciise the pigs, never intend to bH.'
On liih 1 iiMjiun.d, ‘Weil, liow .duuit ENO'.S FRIUT ISALT
‘ My dr,ir telluu, it w.i, ilii best advice you e\er gave t tiiuy saved
mi iii.ujy an ti/m ; :iiud udieu I left 'I'tieglu. j sold the rotutlillhig bottle »
tor frj' timr-j till eri'diial juive ! '— Lit Ht,-Col.
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANCER OF DELAY.
You can chann^ tlie tricklinu atveani. but not the raging torrent.
W HAT I'A B01)\ ^HOULti UKAlL- Jlnw it i-. to ('wvy ijulivitluDl to liavc at iiajul somo Kunplc, oaVetivo, and jialat-
Me. miiL'dy, such as KNO S Uiil'IT SAJ/j', to duel: dKea-.- at th<‘ ’ I'Na- this jk the time. With very littlo tivuhfe you
cau chan|<c liu’ com.se (d the trh-klin/,' iiciunLiiiu ‘ in un, biU w)t the niniii>( liccn It u ill ih‘f> all your tiny t-llbits. 1 iccl 1 oaiiuot .sudi
ciuutl> impresH thiw imporUuiL inform;} ti. >11 upon al) llon.dchohlcrG, y>y Mi ip ( dptain'', ui Kui'op.'ajH >;< ul r iil\, m ho arc vlsltiiiff or n-Niflifur (n
any hot or foreign climate. W'Ii.'iuoct a Jiaiuo i- contcmplulG-l, liln l', -H ,lui h the (MimliHoii of Imallh, let KNO'.^ ]'7tUlT be
your coinpiuuon ; for, umlci uuy ciicuiin u.so is luuhiticiiiI and lu \ vu f.iii do fi.irai, \\ iu‘n y<)u led out oi sorts, yet unable to say
why, irefjucntly wilhout any \i"n'iuiig yon ai'o .vUilileuly Noix.t.-d witli IiiAsiiude, di iiiuiin.ttion for liodily or miMital exortion, losy of uppetitt*
ulckiicss, pain in Llie ioi'cliciul, tluil a<'hiug of buck and limbs, colduf'ss of the sindiii*'', .tjid often sljisoroi", itc. j thou your ivlioie liodv
at the unact, all ca^mituus results luiglitliaye been avoided. AVhat dashes to the oartii ao many Uopea, breaks bo many awiud ullianc'ca
Ui
blaHtB so many aiiapicioua entorprises, us untimely deatld
E >yO'H FHUrr SALT. After riulL'img 1*(»r iicaily twonnd ahnlf v
fiuin Hevoro hca<l«eUe rm<l disoi''len’d Htoni.u h. .linf .iftej- trv
everything and .‘^pending much uimno.i willm.U nudniv
rueommendud by a fiiend to ti\ 1L\<.)’S PPtd'l’ SAJ/f.
f'ini‘il)cd iillu bottle I fomul it domg in^_i j, (;re.'tt licit
am rcf't' 'fed to my usual he.ihh ; and otlier•; t kin*.v (iao
not enjoyed suefi good IumHI} fi>i’ .sfut" AiMii*- u
lll'.MPHKEYS, Post t itliee, l5iiH‘.U'for<i.
T FIK art OV CONQin-IST IS LO.S'J' WJTIIOTTT TIIR ART OK EAT-
INO lil.N'NKK I:NO\OKMI’;xT.S. -STlMI'frANTS. TOt) int’li
i. I't’J'dlOKRS. }\KUKJ0( JK.YTL'VKhrlSK. -EXUKnCMK.N'J',
.K-e \ ueiitt.iorei untes- “ U’jjo/j f fuel ofit of p^oWh, I lake .t (d
hiiu .1
im,\ JieiuJil. I U;i-
.-i’l.i bohjrt; I lit<l
•f ,U"od, and now J L'.Vo’s f’lMfr s.\ 1/1'one t»efore dinnoi or first fhhig in the morning'.
Tii.‘ «.*ifeer V .ill I ciMild wi.h’* (low 1.0 enjoy good food I hat woufd
oili<‘nY)-i‘' e.uiv; bihuusnc^-, liead I'jfic, oi’ dihorderod »tomacii-~-Us 4 i KNU'S
KhUlT S \i.r
Ovl
triod il
»'ulv, it
in \ e
OBI.
MUCl/hlSS JN LITK. “ A neu iuvcntiLni i? bronglit Infoiv the pubfio, and eoiiuiiands sucio-^s, A score of ahomijiablo imitatiofis are
O immLdiutci.V lutrudtieed by tiie uiisi-riipuliHU, w Im, in eopyiug the <irigiiinl eiusidy cuoiigli to deeiiivc tile public, and yet not so osuetly
u» tu infringe upon legal riglit., I'.veieise mi iiigemiit) ilml,, employed m an oiiginal diatiuel, cuuld not fail to aocure roputatioii and
profit/’-. A I'A^js.
C l AUTION. — U'fjrd vhfhf^ ore ^irof'e^ft! m 1 rtrf/ ii 'Hint’d < '■< f'trk Jiolflr, uitd nfP ihr rapinlc iii mo-rl'Cid “ E^Q’.'S L'KLTl’
; SALT/' i'yon hai't vn hy ’tr.>>thics^- tino.nihit- S'-'dhy iiU uh-iirh:>. S. th\, aad 4 ^, Cd,
DIRECTIONS IN SIXTEEN LANQUAOES HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE.
Prepared only at UNO’S FROIT SALT WOUES HATOHAM, LONDON. S.U.. by J. 0. UNO'S Patent.
DIO
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
August 1, 1883.
T. E. THOMSON & GO.,
9 , HSFXuAlT-A.IDEJ-ItO'W’,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MACHINEflY, ENGINEERS’ AND PLANTERS’ TOOIS OF ALL KINDS.
All articles sold at our Estahlishment are manufactured hy first-class Firms, and are of the Vest
material and uw'hnanshi^^.
Clayton and Shuttlewortli’s Portable Engines,
6, 8, 10 and 12 H.P.
Punching and Shearing Machines.
Injproyed Saw-shar}>ening Machines for
Frame and Circular Saws.
Seller’s Bolt and Nut-sorcwing Machines.
Drilling Machines, with Feed Motion and
Rising Table.
Bench Drills for Hand or Power, 15", 20", 25",
Bench Drills for Hand or Steam Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, Screw-cutting, and
Surfacing;.
Foot Lathes.
Lathe Carriers.
Asbestos Packing.
Circular Saw Benches for 3G" and 42" Saws,
and with Patent Self-acting Drags.
Circular Saw Spindles.
Crab Winches, with and without break, to lift
4, 6, 10, 12, and 15 tons.
Brick, Tile, and Pipe Machines.
Improved Brick-pressing Maidiines,
Screw Jacks—Bottle, Tripod, Haley’s Patent,
and Traversing.
Iron Pulley Blocks for Rope and Chain.
Weston’s Patent Differential Pulley Bloclcs.
Blast Fan, Silent, for 16 and 30 Fires.
Fletcher’s Patent Annular Hot-air Furnace.
Soda-water Machines, to make from 30 to 800
dozens a day.
Soda-water Bottling Machines.
Parallel Vices.
Tube Vices, with and without slide gate.
Boiler Bears,
Duplex Punches.
Indigo Press Screws, with Brass Nuts.
Appold’s Centrifugal Pumps.
Chain Pumps.
“ Special ’’ Steam Pumps.
Vauxhall Donkey Pumps.
Rotary Pumps.
Hand, Lift, and Forec Pumps,
Steam Horse Plough.s, Harro\v,s, and Hoes.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Watering Carts.
Water Lifts.
Rice-Shelling Machines.
Flour Mills, for Hand, Cattle, or Steam Power
Flour Dressing Machines.
Chafl'-cutting Machines.
Corn Crushers, with fluted Rollers.
Prize Coni Crushers, with Smooth Rollers for
Crushing Oat, Linseed, Malt, Barley, Gram,
and for Kibbling Beans, Maize, &c.
Cart and Portable Weighing Machine.s.
Domestic ditto ditto, with and without weights.
Salter’s Spring Balances.
A lartje stock alimys on hand of best Sheffield Files and Patent Wood Screws, Locks, Bolts,
Jllwjcs, Nails, Chain, Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper, Zrnc, Tin, Lead,
Oil, Paints, Varnishes and Turpentine.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS m APPLICATION.
T. E Thomson & co.
AjQgnei 1, 1888.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
311
GOODALKS
Honsebold Specialities.
■ A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
toriEshxxie reush.
Tlie Most Delicious Sauce in tlie World.
Thu cheap and excellent Sauce makes the plainest viands palat.
able, and the daintiest dishes more delioions. With Chops, Steaks,
Fish, &c., it is incomparable. In bottles, at tid., Is., and is, each.
GOODALL’S BAKiC POWDER.
The Best in the World,
Makes delicious padding wichont eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light bread without yeast. In Id. packets, 6d., Is., Ss,,
and ds. tins.
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Best and most Agreealle Tonic yet introdacod.
The beet remedy known for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
Reueral Debility, &c. Kestores delioate iudiriduala to health. At
Is. lid. aud Ss, 3d. each bottle.
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
For making Delicions CvsIunU withnvi Eggs, in less time
and ut half the price.
The Proprietors can recommend it to Ilonsekoopers generally as
a uBoftii agent iu the propamtioii of a good costard, dive it a
TbiaIi, Sold in boxes, Gd. aud l.s. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makea Three Ctallon« of ihc Bcit Ginger
Beer in the World for Thrcepcuce.
Tlie most valuable preparation for the production of a delicious
and invigomtiug bovorage. It is easily made, and is by far the
cheapest and beat Ginger Beer over offered to the public. Bold iu
packets, 3d. and Cd. each.
COODALL’S ECC POWDER.
Its action in Oakes, Puddings, &c., Ac., rnscmbles that of the egg
in every particular. One penny packet will go as far us four eggs !
and one sixpenny tin as far as twenty-eight. Sold everywhere, in
Id. packets; Od, and Is, tins.
COODALL’S BLANCMANGE POWDER
HfiJcM doUoious Blanomango iii Q. few Iu boxes at GtZ,
aud U. cacli.
All the above-named Preparations may he had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Proprietors: GOODALL, BA^OUSE & CO, Leeds, England,
FREEIIliiliPWiPHOBUS.
Nature’s Groat Brain and Nerve Tonic and tho most wonderful
Blood Purifier. The highest Medical AuUiorUtes say that it is tho
only Cure for Wasting Uisooses, Mental Depression, Loss of hnorgy,
^''it^u'pioMMt to tho taste, nud might bo
£ S'—, i.
Banal to Twenty Dosos of Cod*Livcr Oil. , . , , i si-
^ThousariSs have been snatched from tho linnk of the Ijrave jw t '
timely use of Fbisbman’s evRcr os Phosphobos. May be had of all
Chemists and Patent Medicine Vendors, m bottles at &. Od,, is. bd,,
Jlf,, and 88«, ___ _ ^
BPBOIAI, AGBINTB:
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
Wr«elv ieeed$g Mi rnginaAs
NOTICE.
SUTTON’S SEEDS & CATALOGUES
MAT BE HAD OF DULY AUTTHOBISED AOENTS
IN EVBBT PART of the WORLD,
lycLUDjya—
Die Proprietors, Indian AgdruUiirUt, Cbowrinybea-road, Cal¬
cutta : the (Ircut P,astern Hotel, Company, liimited, Calcutta !
Messrs, Wilson, M.'iukeiisie & Co., 1,’), Old Court House-strect,
.and 1, Mangon lane, CalcntU. Orders received by Messrs.
King, Hamilton & Co., Caloutta.
THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
AND BV .srKClAI, WAR11.1NT TO
H.E.H. THE PRINCE OP WALES,
READING, LONDON,
KNei.ii.Ni>. r B n 1 o
H communioations from the Tra^ should b* addrew-
ed direct to Beading.
312
THE INDIAN AGEICULTUEIST.
August 1, 1883.
S. OWENS & 00.,
LOlSTDOnsr,
HYORAULIO ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERY DESCRIPTION.
FOR STESM, VATElt. II7.V/i, CATTLE, AKD AIAFEAL FOyTER.
HydraijMc and Screw Presses, Oil Mill Machinery, Hydraulic Lifts, &c.
SOLE JIAKELS FOE i'iKEAT BIUTAIN OF
BLAKE’S PATENT DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMP,-MORE THAN 10,000 IN USE.
TirjD rOLLOTVlNU ARJi SOMii Of 'IHV i'ltOiriNJi.VT AlA\YVTAlit:i> 01 TllK BLAKE fUMr:—
It will start at any point
of stroke.
It ba& no dead polnti
It works fast or slow
with tlio Bomo certainty of
notion.
It is noonomicah Ilais a
IohaI on tho Slide Valve.
It is compact and dm-
uhlo.
Hand Power Lotur
Detochid.
si
M
Ifii.
-1
'll
1
1
■ LJ
1
11
pT^l
*1
-f
1
1
F 'M
r y
• 'if
ft
i
:
Tt In intcrA'hanycable in
all itH working parts.
It w-ill deliver more water
than any other Pmup.
Tt is pukIo of 1 )ohL inuio-
rialH in the most workinau*
like mainior.
CVin be worivfid a1 200
?«tro)u‘S per hoiu, or 20
strokob per minute.
BLAKE'S PATENT
DirtcUAoilui: acam J’uujp ami Lolh r Fotiinr.
UoilBIo-hai’T*'! <''t»nftrufitr>r<’ rnttij)'!,
fur Uuml or I'uwui.
Oil irniA, for P.ti‘aw or (. attic Portor,
Fire Bnffiiio. for
Alunslotu', PiitilorJos, &c.
luij'ToviHl BtfiRTU noritig
Apparatafc,aUo
Boring Tools of orcry flescrlplinn, for Arloiiou Wells
tMUng tor MUitrtli, FoondbUoas, fto.
SIoiis.'
Qt Uaxik-n I'uiap.
P<jrublo“'lrrii<Rtors for Hortc
or Bteaiu Bowlf. «
BT.AKF S PATENT DIRECT-ACTINU STEAM PCMP AND VEUTJt’AL BOILEI!
FOR IRRIG--A.TI01<r RXJRROSFS.
FIUANO tasks, WATEIF^I'IT'IA’ To n,AN"i'.'.T;HSS SMAi.l. TciVvNS UJ; VILU-uay.
Whitefriafs Ironworks, Whitefriar’sstreet, Fleet-atre^,' Londw-
(inA EnOt/krti'S Ftxti oh
Resl0t0red IKo. 183.3
THE
A HOSrHLT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AORWULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. Vlfl.J CALCUTTA SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 1, 1883. [No. &.
GANDY’S P® COTTON BELTING.
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR AND PATENTED IN INDIA AND ABROAD.
PRIZES.
Butti.i''
Syiinkv
Atai.anta
Fij'st Froraimii,
... 1878 I CiNCIKNATI
1879 Nkw'Youk
... 1870 I Mklbodbne
... 1880 ‘ PlTT.vBtJRi'.
... 1880 ' At.\i,ant.v
. . 1880 , I't'rThBnBf.'
1882, |_ Nisw ZEA1.A.VI) ... IH82, I Falmocth ... 1882, 1 TrtJEaouTn
First Pm«, Sydiipy, 1879.
... 1881
... 1881
... 1882
... 1882 .
lliploma.
Mm..,
N'cjw York, 1880.
Il2.
Berlin, 1870.
1870. Ali'lbournr, 1880 , 1878. Oiiicinnati, Jiina, 1880.
OVER 450,000 FEET SOLD DURING 1881,
Including .'(,877 feet (if main Tlrivhij; Bults, c'f widths raii 'ing from 13 in, to
60 iiL, (ivo working in aver G,000 Mills ami Works in Europe and America.
iviny Tnts {iy Kb-kahh/, i,f Luivhn) xlma tht relcUinc strength and value,
cumpnml with Leath^.
Breaking Strain jiur .Square inch el Section.
Best Jloulilc Lonllior G in. Kolting
Gandy’s 6 in. x 8-ply Cotton
,7,072 lbs.
6,811 lbs.
Pries per foot.
6». 74
Mm
GANDY BELT.
MAURICE
Aa^ 7>c»fl/,A or Width
for Main Drii'ing,
It in (he lip.si, belt
ever made for ,aJI jnirpo.i-
oe. Much Cheaper and
Ftrniigor than fjaathcr.
Thoroughly Waterproof,
and not affeeted by teirt-
parature, clings well to
tlio pulleys, runs tnio,
and can be made any
length witliout joints.
Tliis Series of Belting
(nw fiifjriiriiiff) was eup-
ptit'd m One Order t,,
Me^rrti. John C'rosslev
aii'i Sons, Halifax, May
I, 1880, and coutinueH to
give untira satbf ictiou.
THE “ a-Ak.TN’ID'Sr ” BEXaT..
( tANDY'8 T’almil Amoriciiii I'otioii BoHiuri um cku ii a superiority o'or ioatiier Hglu tn every particular; its oo.Ht
)( being at>out half thatol Icalhor, wliile it-..tronatli and m-iiipiiig power is al>'u'. diniblc that of the best leather,
as shown by repeated teats tukon by Kirkakty, "f Lsuidon. 'i'heso UksVt art) givan alMVo. to whioh special ottentinn is
(lireotad, Tliose “ Candy ” bolts are made of any width up to 72 inches, and aav length tip to 310 feet witlioat. joint,
thus obviating the nocessiry of having two bolts on t-iie same pulley, a system of driving which Is iievnr satisfact iry,
as it is impossible to have ljult.s of a.vHctly the aenjo trinsion ; hence one or the iithor is always cansiiig a sfoji^ngo.
These stoppagoB aro .ivuided by using dandy's Piitoiit Bnlti in 0110 width. Tho.se Oandy Belts aro made of the finest
Aaioricon Cotton Unck, BjKs'ially projiared at Balcimoro for tho purpose, and then put together and Kmshed by Gandy’s
American Cotton Unck, BjKs'ially projiarcd at Balcimoro for tho purpose, and then put together and Kmshed by_ Gandy’s
patent*.! special Machinery and pisjoose lo pvovoiit strotohinir, and rendor them Iropsrvious to atmo^h^o influenct,
Posaossed of advantages such as those, the universal adoiition <n Gandy’s Bolts can only l>o a question of time.
kPosaossed of advantages such as those, the universal adoiition of Gandy’s Bolts oanonlv lie a question oi
A BITBSTAirriAL GUABAITTEE GIVEN WITH EVERY MAIN DKtVINO EET.T,
plUflV Pataulec aud Mauiiracluror, inUilAli AVGKitS . Livcrpo.il, FugUuJ
130, Qocon Vlctori.v—treot, Lvrljli/lia auil EalUuirvsw
U.S.il.
314
THE INDIAN AdHICULTURIST. September 1, 1883.
FOR PRICKLY HEAL INDIGESTION. HEADACHE. BILIO USNESS, A ND FEVERS.
f h6 UitUmony of medK'nl nenttemeo hu« uuQuallflod lo praiM of
UMPLOVeH’S PYRETIC SALINE
B. HBAIITRUliN. Hurt FKTBUISlf OoLdSi pveT«nl« anil
BUUI'TIVB or feKlN COStTVINTa. wid VHrluUB olhor
As pngBowirkK eMuent* most oswuUia) for tbc rostorAtion and mnlntoiinnoc r»( health with porfsot vigour of body nnd mind.
^' It in Siforvofioins and Tasteless; forming a most Invigorating, Vitalising, and Befreshing Beverage.
'■OifM kiilAnt relief in nEAl)ACH«. SRA nr BILlOrS RTOKN KHM, CONSTIPATION. INlMaKSTlflN.LASRITUDB^ ..
.qnJckly curea tho \vor«l forms €>f ITFIlUS, SCAELET. JUNOLE. And other J-KVEES, SliAl.bPOX, 41EA8LE8, And ,
latered coudii ions of the blood, _ .
Dr. PEOITTr-“ UnfnJdhm w.Tm* of iratnewpEeiicHl to maiiKliul.” | nr. ftPABKS <Oovormnmit Jnspsflfcor of BroUmuits fiw thg^rt of Jxswonf
Dr MO&O-AK.^’' Iifomlshei* thohhxHl ^Uita loetwllne cunstituonls.*’ I writes:—** I hftvourttKl pleosim* ta bearltig tuy uordlaUtoatlmony tolMaffWacy.'
OOVS&irXSXrT OTTICIALS and rXiASTSBrS caring for the welfare of their employe* should note
its value as a specific in Fever cases.
I>r. J, W. DOWBIKO.—“ T nsmi if n» tbotTAatment of foriy-twocawsof Yellow K«vej% t UAWXTD PTNDBB. nTNJATTB. IKDIA.—“ Wo finnlv ^lievp that. ^>0 nso of yonr
nnrt m\ huwy n» sUte J nwer lo«l a slnj^ rawm “ l*j l otle, Snlmo «tll do more piTvrnt fever thtt»i all the Quinine ever Importad ce»i cure.
I>r. W. flrTBVJWS,—*'Shine its iuttoflnellon the FaIaI Wwt Indm Ki ^«r8 are deprived i I)r. TiTRLEY.—** 1 fonod it aot AHHSpeelflc. in my experienoe and fomRY, in the wor»t
of tnoir terroi'S’■ fovirmof 8«'»rJo( Fevci. m>other medlolnc lifelng rodulred." . .
ItBR &Aj‘BSTY*a JBBKlBMINTATrVB the GOVSHIf OR OP SIBBRA DBONB, 1 Uv. 8. O-IBBON (formerly Physiotan to tlm Londtin HtwpttAl).—“ Us usefidnOM in the
an A loftrr of refjMest for nn ndainonAf supply of the r.v«Tdlc Sallup, hIhIos-'* If is of r/rmf , inutmcuf of disyim- Ims lom? been couUrmcd IV niedlnsl experieucc.”
value. And I shall wyoleo to hear it Is in t lie hotues of iili Buroimniw \ fhltlng the i roplcs. '*
To be pbtained of any Chemist or Drug Store, in Patent OlaKs-stoppered Bottles, 2a. 6d., 4 r. 6d., 11a., and 21 b. each.
Flease note in connection with the recently observed effects of the use of Citrate and other preparations
of Magnesia that LAMFXiOUOX’S FTftETIC SAIilXE is warranted not to contain any snbswoe
which would cause calonlons or other earthy deposits.
H. LA-HiAIPLO^'^ia:’TisrIj03iT3D02<r;B.0.'
City Line of Steamers.
FOR LONDON DIRECT vM RUEZ CANAL.
Tons. Captains.
THE
Cify ()/ Maneheniey
City of Carthage
CU]f of Canterbury
City of TVniM
City of London
City of Edinburgh
City of Khiofi
City of Agra
City of Calcutta
City of Oxford
City of Cambridge
. 3126
, 2651
. .3212
,3207
.3212
3212
3230
3412
. .3836
4000
, 4000
A. Macrlcinalil,
<T. McPherson.
iT, Marr.
J. Y. Moffat.
,T. Black.
IV. U. Barham.
A. 3’ht)ms.
.T, Ooriloii.
It. McNeil.
AVm. Miller.
D. Anderson.
The City cf Canterbury will learo at daylight on the 30th instant,
and will be followed about a fortnight loter by the City of ttrford,
GLADSTONE, IVYLLIE & Co.,
7 Agents.
E^nSTEEGhTJlsrGl-E
FIRE BRICKS
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
IG
NOW BEADY.
REVISETJ JEDTTTOX.
SOUTH OF INDIA OBSERVER,
PuBLMHF.ti Weekly at Ootacamuno,
The Head-quarters of- the Madras Qovemment for
the greater'part of the year.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
(Exclusive of Postage,)
Advance.
Per annniti . .
,, half-year...
.1 (jiiarler ...
,, meusem ...
Re. 20 0 0
„ 10 0 0
„ 0 0 0
„ 2 0 0
Arrears.
Ra. 28 0 ,0
„ M 0 0
,,700
,,280
Depwhnont. Prioo, One Rupee per copy. Apply
teiMeiii^ Bofflbsy BdnostiQit Sookty’i Prwe, Bycullni
Neilylurry Press Co., Limited, Proprietors.
Agents In India:
Messbs, EIGGINBOTHAJM & Co. ... Madreus.
Agents In London;
'Messrs. OF,0. STREET & Co. ... Cornhill.
F. ALGAR, Esg. . 8, Clemenl’s-lane, Ia>ndon, E.C.
MF.sRn.s, BATES, HENDY k Co. 4. Old Jeiory, London,
Mk.ssii,«, GORDON it GOTCH ... St. Bride-street, London, E.C.
Messrs. RHODES 4 Co, ... S4, Nkholas-lane, E.C,
14
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST;
,\_MO.VTHLY
fieoord of Information for Planters
COFFEE, TEA, COCOA OINOHONA SUOAE, PALMS,
AKI>
OTHER PRODUCTS,
r
Suited for cMltivaiwn- in the Tropics.
PnbUshod on or aliout the let of each montli by A. M. and
J. Fergnson, Ceylem Observer Office, Colombo.
Frioe in advance yooriy, Ra. 10.
R«. 1 per copy.
10
September 1, 1883, THE INDIAN AORICULTURIST.
aOODALL’S
Hoiseliold Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TOKSSHXIIE REUSH.
Tbe Most Deltctous 8«iice lu the 1^’orlft.
This cboap and exooUont Satico makea tho plalnoat vianda palat¬
able, and fcbe damtiaat dishes more delicious. With Chops, Stoaks,
Fish, Ac., it is iuoomparable. In bottles, at Cri., Is., and Us. eaoh.
COODALL’S BAKING POWDER.
T!i 0 Seat in tho Wvrlcl,
Makes delioions pudding without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light broad without yeast. In Id. packets, Od,, !»., a».,
and 5a, tins.
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
Tils Seat and most Aijrccalle Tnnte yet introduced.
The best remedy known for Indigestion, I,osb of Appetite,
General Debility, Ac. Hostoroa delicate iadiriduals to health. At
Is. lid. and 2s, 8d. each bottle.
THIS lUUSTRATION IS A FAC-SIMILE OF THE IID OF
MESSRS. SUnON'S SPECIAL EXPORT BOXES OF SEEDS.
BEWARE OF IMITATIONS.
NOTICE.
COODALL'S CUSTARD POWDER, sutton’s seeds & catalogues
For making Delicious Cuattirch, .oithont Eosa, in lea.i lime
(Old at lull/ the price.
The Proprietors can recommend it to Housokeeper* genornlly as
a uaoful agent in the preparation of a good cuatard, OiVl it a
TB iAh. Sold in boxos, Gd. and Is. each.
QOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
Makes Three Ciallniiw ot‘ llie Rest dingev
Beer in the Worlii for Tlireepeiiee.
The mos(. valuable preparation for the prod iictlon of a dolicioua
and invigorating beverage. It is unsily niude, ami is by fai tho
cheapest and best Ginger Door ever iiHurcd lu the puliUc. Sold in
packets, 8d. and Cd, each,
COODALL’S EGG .POWDER.
Its action in Oakes, Paddings, resenibles lliiil of the egg
in every partmular. One penny jiaeket will I'o as far a,s four eggs !
and one aixponuy tin as far as twcnty-cighl. Sold evurywhere, in
Id. packets ; Od. and Is. tins.
COODALL’S BLANCMANGE POWDER
MakoB deb'oions Blancmange in a few raimitcs. In hoses at Od.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations may be had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent Medicine Dealers, and Oilmen.
Proprietors: GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO, Leeds, England.
FREEMAN’S SYRUP OF PHOSPHORUS.
Nature’s Groat Brain and Nerve Tonic and tho most wonderful
Blood ruriflor. The highest Moilicai Authorities say that it is the
only Cure for Wasting Diseases, Mental Deprossion, Loss of Energy,
and Stomach Complaints.
It is pleasant to the taste, and might be token by the most
delicately constituted. In the most cufeobled it builds up a NEW
AND HEALTHY CONSTITUTION. Ono dom of this Eemody is
eocwl to Twenty Doses of Cod-Liver Oil.
«y^'njids have been snatched from the brink of the grave by the
timeiv use of tassMAN’s Svaur or Pnospnoscs. May be hwl of all
Chemists and Fatout Modioino Voudors, in bottles at a». ‘Jd,, 4s. Gci.,
Us., and 88«. _ _^
BPBOIAL AQBINTS!
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
IHilte Bonse I9treet> I<eed«i fioglfind.
MAY BE HAD OF DULY AUTHORISED AGENTS
IN EVERY PART of the WORLD,
lyCEL’DlSU—
The ProprUiloi'K, Indian Anrirnlliirial, Cliowvinghoe-road, Cal¬
cutta ; the Grual Kastern Tiutel, (iompany, Limited, Calcutta ;
M I'Hsrs. M'iUtjii, hlaekenv.ic & Co., Ill, Old Court House-street,
and I, Mango, iane, t.'aleiitU. Urileis rccciicd by Messrs.
King, llaniilton A Co,, Calcutta.
j liTOTIOE- I
iln orderinfr through London Shippers, purchasers
I should be particular to stipulate for *
SUTTON’S SEEDS.
TESTIMONIAL.
I'ftiit ,h,u<iii<js. ICstj.y Urff hf of tl't A^O'I-
li'ii li. fSt'Cdfy of Imllii.
‘ With roforemM’ to y*iur inodo of packin^rfor
('N’port, 1 h:i\ how much ] w hh irmtifio*! with tho
My.stoni you were »•<) a" to h)h»w me. ITnruii- the
uhole ef'iny lout' Tmlian o.\}mnuhco, it. WfW my aon«Uvnt
rof 2 ,ret thnl KuK)i«h packed Heetiw wore almost invurlably I
Ittwur ill ireniiinatintr power thau Um American. After '
soeiu;-’ tlio L-lu!>or.itt' pivenutioiLs you tfike in oxecutln^
Mich or<Tcrs lus lliut «jf the AgTi-Horti B^xtloty of
Imlin, 1 am by uu means .‘iuvjinsoi.T Ui hoar that you liavo
boon gratified Tiy the rocoipl of so much iostimony frojj^
llic tropic.s !Ls to tho condition of your ftoods upon lUTivo}/'
THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,
A SI) nv .SCECIAl WAUHANT TO
H.R.H. THE PRINOE OF WALES,
READING, LONDON,
All oonxsQiuiilcatloiis tho Tra^a should do Address-
AU wuuuulu Ugading.
S16
THE INDIAN AGi^ICULTURIST. Septfember 1, 1888.
T. R THOMSON GO.,
&, E3SI=»LjfiL3Sr-A.aD33]-IlOW,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MACHINERir, ENGINEERS’ AND PLANTERS’ TOGLS OF ALL KINDS.
All articles sold at our Estahlishment are manufactured by first-class Finns, and are of the best
maternal and workmanship.
Clayton and Sbuttleworth’s Portable Engines,
G, 8, 10 and 12 H.P.
T*unching and Shearing Marhines.
improved Saw-sharpening Machines for
Frame and Circular Saws.
iSaller’s Bolt and Nut-screwing Machines.
Drilling Machines, with Feed Motion and
Rising Tabic.
Bench Drills for Hand or Power, 15", 20", 25".
Bench Drills for Hand or Steam Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, Screw-cutting, and
Surfacing.
Foot Lathes.
Lathe Carriers.
Asbestos Packing.
Circular Saw Benches for 8G" and 42" Saw.s,
and with Patent Self-acting Drag.s.
Circular Saw Spindles.
Crab Winches, with and w’ithout break, to lift
4, 6, 10, 12, and 15 tons.
Brick, Tile, and Pipe Machines.
Improved Brick-pressing Machines.
Screw Jacks—Bottle, Tripod, Haley’s Patent,
and Traversing.
Iron Pulley Bh>cks for Rope and Chain.
Weston’s Patent Differential Pulley Blocks.
Blast Fan, Silent, for 16 and 30 Firo.s.
Fletcher’s Patent Axmular Hot-air Furnace.
Soda-water Machines, to make from 80 to 800
dozens a day.
Soda-water Bottling Machines.
Parallel Vices.
Tube Vices, with and without .slide gate.
Boiler Bears. *■
Duplex Punches.
Indigo Press Screw.s, with Bras-s Nuts.
Appold’s Centrifugal Pumixs.
Chain Pumps.
“ Special ” Steam Pumps.
Vauxhall Donkey Pumps.
Rotary Pumps.
Hand, Lift, and Force Pumps.
Steam Horse Plough.s, Harrows, and Hoe.s.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Watering Carts. .
Water Lifts.
Rice-Shelling Machines.
Flour Mills, for Hand, Cattle, or Steam Power.
Flour Drcs,sing Machines.
Chaff-cutting Machines.
Corn Crushers, with fluted Rollers.
Prize Com Crushers, with Smooth Rollers for
Crushing Oat, Linseed, Malt, Barley, Gram,
and for Kibbling Beans, Maize, &c.
Cart and Portable W»"iighing Machines.
Domestic ditto ditto, with and without weights.
Saltor’.s Si>ring Balances.
A large stock always on hand of, best Sheffield Files and Patent Wood Serews, Locks, Bolls,
Hinges, Nails, Chain, Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper, Zinc, Tin, Lead,
Oil, Paints, Varnishes and Turpentine.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
T. E THOMSON & CO.
B^(i0t«red Ko, 192.j
• •
THE
: INDIA! AGEmTURIST,
A UONIBLT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIII.] CALCUTTA :-SATURDAy, SEPTEMBER 1, 1883. [No. 9.
CONTENTS: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Pack.
Acknowusdohikts .317 Storility of Aniriftlii in Con-
t.'oBBSsroNDgNCK— finoment . 341
Tnsar (Silkworm) Cultivation 317 grazing Rijfhta in Foresla ... 34‘i
LSADufa Ahticleh— iSucalyptua Tree in tho Argon-
Agricultural Banka.. 318 Bopublio .343
Fruit and Flower Wines ... 328 Cinchona—
Agriculture in India. 324 Notes. 344
fiDiTonur. Notss . 826 Mr. Moena'a Work on Cin-
Agricultural and HorUoul- ohoua . 845
tura' Society of India .„ 330 FOBNSIliy—
OKnci.vL Pai*ers— Tapping Pmsr for
I’riekly-Pear os a Shelter for Rosin .346
’J'roo.Soods. 333 East Indian Furniture Woods 347
SKLF.CTIONS— THB GARDSN—
The Poona Rnyafa Bank ... 334 The Cultivation of Orchids ... 347
Agricultural Education ...837! “*vatton of tho Artichoke 347
The Uiiyal Agrimiltural Col- I iliNWALOaT—
logo. 337,' Note .318
Agrioullural Exporinients in I Asphnlto Deposits in Mexico 348
Hu.ssox .,338 \ Tobacco—
Notes on Poulti’y Kooping ... 339 | Note . 348
'i'hc Ncooshitio.sfor Juming... 34n i Tobacco Growing .818
WuliuH’ Crop Experiments 340 Advebtiseubnts .349
Our Corro^pmidtnta and Contributors will greatly oblige
uif if Ikcy uhH hdv the trouble, where the returns of cultmi-
lion art stated by them in Indian weights and measures, to
give their English eguivaknU, either in the text, in paren¬
thesis, or in a fool-note. The bigab in particular varies eo
*
much in the di/ercnl provinces, that it is absolutely necessary
$
to give the English value of it in all asses. It would be a greed
re/orirt if the Governmmt itself followed the same course in edl
the official reports published by it.
All corresgondt'Hie must hear the full name and address of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, hut as a gunrante
of good faith. U'e shidl take no notice of anonymous letters.
MAD£A 8 aOVBKNMENT 80H0OL OT AORICULTXJRE.
ANIMOATMS for admisaion into the new olase, alront to be
formed, are iufarmed, that the revised rules and regulations
will be published In the Eort St. George Ocuetlc of Tuesday uoxt,
tho 21st August 1683.
( 8 d.) W. 11. ROBER’J^ON, M.R.A,C„
Ai/riaidtural SepoHer to Oovemmritl,,
in charge of the School qf Agriculture.
Saidai'Et ; \
l"th August 1883. )
The TeaBon why so many axe unable to take Oocoa, is. that
the varieties ooiumuulv sold are mixed with starch, under the pica
of rendoi iiijj them soluble, while really making them fhich, heavy.
Rud f^liqestible. This may be easily detected,/o/’ if Cocoa Ihicl'ens
ill d proves the. addition of s'arcli. Cadbury’s Cocoa
KsseiiOB<ho gcnuiiit ;it is therefore throe times tho strength of these
Cocoas, ahd a refreshing beverage like tea or collee.
Tho most wholesome and nutritious of ooufeotious la far leas
coninmod than it would be were it not for the greatly adulterated
artiulca sold under the name of obooolate. ^ery cake of choco-
Into bearing the name of Cadbury it guarautaed to consist solely of
pure O 4 coa auJ vvliito sugar, uokora to the Queen, 1
AnnpaIi Report on the Lunatic Asylums in tho Punjab.
Bebobt on the Admluistratiou of Criminal Justice in tbs Punjab,
1882,
RnroBl on the Jails of the Punjab, 1682.
RaroKT on the Excise Revenue in the Central Provinocs, 1882-8.3.
CORRESPONDENCE.
TASAR (SILKWORM) CULTIVATION.
(To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.)
Silt,—In Majm: Coussmaker’s Report on his experiments in 1681,
there are one or two pointa which call for the attention of *11
interested in the onltivation of the wild silk-produoers. The
experimental clearing cstablialind at Poona (the expenoee of
I which are defrayed by tho Indian Government) ooosUts of *
I plantation of Lngerslramia Indica, The plants are grown *t
the distance of one foot ajiiart in tbs rows, seven feet between
each row, and the ihrubs are kept tapped at the height of four
feet. All branebee are removed with the prunlng-knlte ae faet
as they are bared of leaf by the worms, and in this way a eonstant
supply of succulent foliage is produced.
Major Coussmaker statee that in the Ahmednuger Colieotorate
tho iiAtives habitually cut book their trees very hard, two-
thirds of tho treun being pollarded each year, and that this
system of cultivation is “ most favourable to the Toear worm,
for tho constant lopping of tho trees and burning of the
iiraucho.H aud leaves harass the squirrels, birds, Heards,
and .vaspa, while the fresh shoots which spring from the
iiutilated trees afford the best food possible for the worms."
There can be no doubt that tho uatnral foes of the worms are hi
.his way put to a great deal of inconveniotice, and that the
constant attention rendered neoossary by the process of regularly
pruning tho shrubs, which Major Coussmaker reoommeuda, makes
the destruction of lizards and othor enemies a rather easy matter,
but I cannot concur in tho opinion expressed as regards the
suitability of tho tender foliage as food for the worms.
lu tho cultivation of tho mulberry-feeding worm Bonhyx
negloot to supply mature loaf has largely teudod to Increase the
debility whioh either too groat kindness, or too little oare, has
engendered; and it seems reasonable to suppose that the wild
worms, which in their natural state iiovor devour the young leaves
unless driven to do so by a scarcity of food, should become speedily
lebilitatcd when fed ou immature leaf. In attempts made to rear
ibe Atlas, Militia and other larvte indoors on branches, the stems
jf which are plunged in water, it is invariably found that the
bllago becomes, sooner or latter, distasteful to the worms, and
although the strongest of thorn may osoapo disease and spin good
locoons, tho majority are more or less affected by the exoeasive
moisture la the leaf. The same deterioration U produced by
levore or frequent pruning.
Major Coussmaker attributes his want of oomplete suooess to the
xistcnce of some climatic influence that he was unablo to contend
Itb, or to tho worms having boon attacked by small spiders,
losquitoos, or othor minute onomios. It is quite possible that
lauy of the worms wore killed by insects, but detection iu cases
f this kind should not be diffloult, aud I think it almost oertain
lat it was the want of properly matured leaf that ouuged hia
OBSofl, since lie himself admits that some of tho worms oominauced
ii>IuBlog bofQls they werwiall-growa.
THE INDIAN AgRICULTUEIST September 1,1883,,
M, Wailly, ia one of hia reports on bilk.protluclug worms roared
In London, mentions an Instance in whwh a mimbnr of S4t-ni and
X v«a larva whlr.b which wore fed upon a nut tree, that bad been
Upped and heavily pnmod, died one after anotUor, oJ though other
worms from the aame brood of egga roared on other trees growing
ejoso by, but uuprunod, spun very line cocoons.
Tt is of the utmost importauoo that the cocoons produced,
whether of Tasar or other wild epecies, should bo as free as possible
pf tho oomont which the worm nataally secrotca. Mr. Thomas
Wardlo, in his I’oocntly published handbook of "Tho AVild Silks
of India,” states that Major Conasmakor has succoodod in obtaining
perfectly white silk by causing tUo Tasar worm to void all its
oemeut before allowing it to spin its cocoon, but particulars of the
method are not given. luaamucli as the quality and quantity of
the oemout in the wild cocoons depends largely mi the health of
tho worm, it would seem that In the production of Tasar silk by
Major Coussmakor’s method a decrease in the amount of the
cement must be acoompaniod by corresponding loss of vitality in
tho worm. And this is a very serious consideration, because it
raises a barrier in tho way of progress towards tho domostioation
of the insect, for it would, of oourso, be useless to attempt to
utilize for breeding purposes cocoons, spun by worms whoso
constitutions had been impaired in this way. Any naturalist, I
suppose, who has studied this subject, will admit that tho silkworm,
when it is prevented, by auy cause, from commonoiug to spin its
oocoon at the appointed time, is more or less injured by the delay ;
and there is also a considerable loss of silk to be taken into
account. It is only by i oaring one brood after another, and by
fooding each successive gcueratiou on tho same kind of plant that
auy real progress can bo made. The moths of this species do not
readily pair in conduemeut, at first, and it would add considerably
to tho cost of production if the sericulturist were compelled to
roly on any of tho wild insects be might procure in tho jungles for
renewing his stock.
It is ill another direction that wo must look to ciTcck au improve-
niaut—from tho manufacturer's point of view—in Tasar silk.
AVhat is requirod is that the Eood-plaut should bo of such a nature
that the worms roared ou it would secrete as little as possible of
the geinont, which at present so greatly depreciates the value
of tlie oocoon ; the plant should also be one on which the worms
arc easily reared. It these coudltlmis arc fuUillod, one of the
greatest ditficulth^s in the way of Tasarcultivation. will have been
removed. There arc probably many indigenous treea which |
might be utilized with this object, but prolonged expeiimcnts will I
bo noocssary to enable ub to ascertain the most suitable, and in
this investigation tlio cUcmical analysis of various kinds of foliage
might be of great service, lu judging of tho ctl'oct of the food on
tho silk, it is important to bear in mind that temperature and
other surrounding oircumstauces oxert some iulluencc ou tho colour
and toxturo, and it is not safe to Infer from tho appearance, size,
and weight of a few Individual coooous that tiio fuod-pluut on
which they w’ere produced is boueQeuU or otherwise. Tho Tasar
worm is extremely polyphagoua, as much, perhaps, in the Ceylon
hillsas In the low-oonutry ; and it is impossible for worms pro-
oooding from such a parout stock to produce cocoons of uniform
character until they have been roared through lovoral generations
on one species of food-plant. In a foriner letter on this subject,
1 mentioned, 1 think, tlrnt the Tasar worm was found in the
hill country feeding on the loquat and the Avocado pear trees.
1 have not had sutholeut time to ascertain whether either of these
would be of me in the direction indicated, but experiments might
easily bo made with them. Tho sapu is auothor tree from which
good results might ho expected, but 0 .^ 1 have not yot heard of a
single uistauce of the Taaar boiug found in a wild stale ou this truo
in Ceylon, it Is probable that a good deal of pnticucc should be
required in inducing the worm to adopt ft. AVhatcvor trees are
seleofeed, it is essential that they should bo perfectly hnalthy : no
foliage that has been ‘ forced ’ by heavy pruning, by manuring, or
by irrigation, can he good food for the worms, aud trees that
ure shaded or deprived in any w'ay of their proper quantity
of sunlight are o<j[uaiiy objcctiouublo.
I have meutioued the lapu ns being probably one of tho trees i
best salted to onr purpose. In " Silk iu India,” compiled by ’
Mr. J. Ocoghegau, I ilud tho following note on tho silk of An>kn'<>a.
(a cloaely nlHod Hpeelos, if not a variety morely of A,
ya^h'ui )Champa • the silk produced from tho worm feeding
on tliia plant [mh-hdin) gives the huosk aud and whitest silk.”
There is auotiiev tree which may probably bo made use of since
It is ooiumonly mot witii in tho jungle ^over 4,000 feet elevation.
It U the tree the leaf of which so closely resembloi the tea leaf
tbftt Mpbea hardly obW W distluguisii tlnm. It is probably
Earya fion'ata. The Atlas worm feeds ou this tree in India,* and
there should be no dUfionlty in getting the Tasar worm to« feed
ou it also.
In Dimbula worms of Atlas, Seleno aud Mylitta have * been
reared on the Avocado pear aud on loquat, and in their wild
state those throe species may bo found ou the so-called " patana
oak,” the kahata.
There are other species of wild silk-produoors, tho cultivation of
which might have give ovon better results than the Tosap; L-'^/thc
acclimatization of these ia matter of time, and the commercial
valuo of thoir silks has yet to be asoortaiued.—Yours faithfully,
PERCY N. BRAINE.
CALCUTTA, SEPTEMBER 1, 1383.
AGRICULTURAL BANKS.
T HB (jueslion of Agricnlturul Banka ia at pi'eaent nccnjiy-
iiig a considoraable amount of attention. Gonemlly
atatej, some snoli opinions ns tho following are suininj;
daily in strength the Ranker namely that is devouring
tho cultivator by usurious interest, and if Government were
to take the place of the banker, it would be satisfied with
less interest. As a .contribution to thu literature of the
subject, we present oui; readers with the following article,
wrilteu by cue who is in hourly contact with aud who lives
among agi'icullurisU. The article therefore embodies Ihu
Ojiinions of a ni.in who knows the fieople well ;—
The prime cause of the great need for bankers, among laud-
owners and cultivators—poverty and iudebteduoaa—is seen by
all to have its foundation in inerease of population, not
followed by suffioient emigration. ‘
The peace and protection to life aud property afferdod
under British rule have obviously tended to greatly incroaso
the poljulation. Tho natives of India receive the advaiihige.s
of civilUatioii, Lmt refuse to throw .aside ancient usages, &e.,
failing from want of knowledge to realize how uusuiterl they aro
to the present rule, how, though once perhaps essential to tho
proper working of nu obsolete adnuiiistratioii, they aro now
only anomalies, and as such must eventually die out.
The practice from tho-oontiuuauee of which wo confidently
believe most serious conseiiuenees are to be apprehended, is the
one by which a man’s estate is divided oqually among all his
children.
There was a tin>e when lawlessness was the rale in India
rather than the exception, as it now is, when a man’s wealth
was protected, and represented by the united physical streugth
of his family; and we can imagine how a father—in fact,
a whole family—would grieve over the departure of a stalwart
younger son capable of using a sword or wielding a Uuhi.
Iu those times every inducement would bo offered him not
to leave the family, and none more reasonable than an etjnnl
share in his father’s property. Uncultivated land was to be hail
in plenty then, neai''Uy)me, aud as a family iiici-eased in
uumbei-s, the area of land required for its support could
easily be increased. Population, however, increases indefinitely,
but tho area of a country is limited. Because of the incrousod
area under the plough, the valuo of land has increased. We can
puiul to a village in tho Agra district which was sold about
fiO yeai’s ago by public auction for Rs. 800, and is now well
worth, nt 3 jwr cent profit, to the purchaser Es. 1,26,000,
Tho younge.sl son of five of a zemindar—the owner i‘ ono
bUtcoe," l/20th share, perhaps 20 acres of.a smalt is
brought up to consider himself a gentlemau and a zemindar,
aud ia hourly stafTed by his foolish relatives with all aorta of
stupid ideas and tales about the extravagancee that denote the
amir, or gentleman. After his father’s death he is put in
possession of his property—a pair of lame oxen aud four
acre* of loud. The wim ef this man iieod eewoely be
•September 1, 1883, THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. 319
traced. The money-leading speculator i« soon in possession
of his’lands, but this, instead of being a blessing to him, as
calculfvted to induce him to leave the locality where there ii
no room for him, and emigrate to some more sparsely
cultivated tract, has been .a curse by (under the presen'
circumstances only) our misappUeti protection which allowi
him “ a proprietary right,” and induces him to cling to th(
shaiftr.'r-efjiis wretched property. This is the stalwart young
lathi-vxda once so essential to, but now the curse of his
fiuuily,—with a vague suuso of wrong done him, associating
with thieves and burglara, in preference to working, luu
determined not to leave the scene of his former affluence
What is the use of preventing the sale of the property of
an indebted isemiudar not the proprietor of an “ impart¬
ible estate,” with the object of preserving him, when
his own loins can produce the dragons that will devour
him, and throw his name into oblivion. If we must
have a wealthy yeomanry and cultivators with well-
filled stockings, or rather jewel-bo decked wives to draw
from in times of scarcity, we must have emigration,
and to have this, the rule of primogeniture or any other
that, gives the property to some ojie person must prevail,
everywhere, even with occupancy rights. All the present
alwurd objections to emigration would (lisaiipear before
tlio courage that notliing inspires so readily in a man, as
being put into a corner,” When the younger sons learn
from infancy that they have nothing but their own intellects
ami good right arms to look forward to for their support, they
will gradually populate all the habitable waste lands of India,
and with the support of wealthy el'er brothers, too, who.se
interest it will always be to start oil' younger iu life, and
at a di.stance from Lomu, and when th?so lands are no longer
available, they will probably have the courage and eutorpvi^se
to stalk out and establish iu some other clime a Rum Company
as we did tlie Ilonournblo East India Comiiaiiy among their
hearths, instead of, as i.s now tlie ease, being obliged to be
huddled ofl n.s (’oo/i'e.« fur their country’s good. It is then that
the raihiaj’s will show to perfuetioii, when they disl.ril",o-
and enualiso the peojile just as they >,ow ao grain only, and
thereby cause local distress very difficult to Iraee or remedy.
We should make every oiuleavour to indnee native gentle¬
men to discuss this (jnestion of iuheritaiice, for the initiative
must come froui them ; and if the\' po.ssess an atom of
liatrioti.siii, tlioro is not the least doubt tli.at a reform will he
established.
We will now endeavour to explain wlio tlm hanker or sowkar
is. Happy is tho cultivator who can furiii.sh his own nihi seed 1
There is 110 more certain evijeneo of iindpioiit. prosiierity, and
why 'i Bccaus'‘ he has liad the whole Veai before him to
Iniih: with it. VVell aware that profit in trade i.-. I.irgest whore
must labour and ]i.Tins are taken, he lends it out on interest,
ill small ([iiantitio.s, to hi.s less fortunate lu-ighbour.s, leeovoring
it before bis own sowings commence. Ho is now a banker, a
small .sowkar, de.aliiig only with grain, and repeating to himself
the proverb, “ A.n d^uin oneL i/fuzu : sonu t/tiur/i aJIm dkun"
grain wealth is great wealth : gold and .siIvor is but half wealth)
meaning of course that yon will not lose by it. In se.asou.s of
scarcity as soon as liis capital ka-s increased sufficiently, he
elects a few regular customers, calls them his aasaniis, ami
treats them in a manner that will^, be described liere.aftor.
It i.s, without exception, the aim and ambition of eveiy
cultivator to be a banker, as he acquiru-s wealth most .surely by
these mean.s. His re.asou for tliis, .as most other native reasons
from facts difficult of comprelieiisioii, are puerile qnibble.s and
superstitious notions. This is wluat one of them told us ; —
“ What can you exiiect froii macti 7m(a (mother e.artli) but
what a child expects from its mother, la;., food ? (.'online
youi-jwjf to cultivation alone, and the good and bad seasons
willr'C^'^nce tl^emselves as to leave you a hare subsistence
because the surplus money is ituinhus cursed, or if thi.s is nut
the corrent translation, unoaimny. Do not we say d/i-ji i (.mr
jhori, the oartii and a daughter, meaning therby tlaat tlic profit
acquired from Ixith, iu the case of the daughter, by her sale,
are as accursed as each other ? You must combine trade witli
cultivation if you wish to be wealthy, for it bas the eli’ect of
taking the spell off the i>rofit from cultivation alone.”
I Let UH imagine a cultivator of ten acres who luts .i clear
profit of K«. 30 at the end of a season, in excess of all
Iris requirements. Wliat would wo have him do with it 1
Surely not hoard it. Tho locality is so thickly populat¬
ed, and occupancy rights so prevalent, that ho cannot secure
a single biggah of laud over and above what ho a!re,ady holds.
Ho cannot, while yet so poor, or indifferently rich, take up a
ti’ado that will require Iii.s pre.scnco at any distanoo from homo.
1/ he lias not iutclligeuce enough to porooivo himself that
cultivation is never successful unless carried on under tlio
direct supervision of the person who is to reaj) tho ))rolU, the
proverbs of his fathers tell him ,so. Khali /jcUtibhUioiir ghon- —
Iv. tang, agm hath mniaria lakh lag hue .nong —cultivating,
letter-writing, petitioning and tho girthing of your saddb*
should bo performed by yon personally, though a hnmlred-
tliousaiid people bo present.
Khete aur i-hammsete—which m.ay be explained—to be a
husbandm.an, you must bo a husb,and to your cultivation.
A'.'/ctd hwahanjg ku dluini dono meoseck an, paiv—K you
attempt to c.arry on fanning and transport trade tugetlier, you
will reap profit from neither. Then what trade can bis rural
imagination conceive, or what does he. iindersland hotter, or
that ho call mure ^conveniently attend to—-hampered aa bo
is by the cares of a husbandman—th,an lending grain to his
needy iieiglibours 'i We will call him the agricultural hankei.
The next—the speculative banker. Tlie baiigu —or ■,iui,hajmt
bohi-cc or proper, who scttle.s in .i district with capital that he
brings with him. He eoiiihiiies two callings, which place him
lit a great advantage over the average agi'iciiltiiral banker—
lending money, or ratlnu grain, in the ordinary way to needy
cultivators, and doing a large traiispoi't trade with .igrioiiltural
produce. Ho is very often tiie agent of a wealthy meruhant!
residing iu a city, and were it not for the competilioii of the
agiicultuviil hanker wliom he is always striving to suDr”''''*> ff*’
would bo eomplote niasler of the situation. would place
the cultivator in a niiieh wop.ia ion than he now is.
Then we —t'l aiiolhei, tho aemiudarl banker. Hois
undoubtedly the worst of the three. This sounds inconsistent,
iitid will leipiirc lengthy explanation. Tho apeculativo
hanker solUe.s in a village with the permission of the
zyiiiiiiJar.s, and aecoiding to the e-xteut of Ills capital takes
up the miiiiii.eiiaiiee of ryots. The most ancient descrip¬
tion of the trade was appjirciitly giving the grain to ths
applie.iiit lit one .si'cr above the market iiriw ruling on that
late, and receiving it hack at tlie h.arvesl. rate. What we call tho
hiirvc.st pi ice is spoken of by natives as akti '/ ka hhoin —the aktij
rate; O means third, and the prefix ak, or rather aksh
ineaniiig de.d.li, i.s added to define the particular .'JrJ day
jf the iiiid half of the Hindi moiitli of fiiii^akh (between
fitjrd .Vprit and i.lrd May iss.'i), as it i.s one of the two
lays of the year on wliirdi offerings of oblations to the
souls of di'p.irteil rchitioiis is an imperative duty on Hiiidoo.s.
Tills is also the d.ltd for wliicli the liarve.st price is fixed, A
few d.iys after tiie aklij tlie ctiUivator.s, soukar.s, /.einiiidars
who arc iiilerusLed in the welfare of their tenants, or their
representatives, iiiil.wary and woigli-m.aster, meet with the
object of fixing the harvest price, wlicli they do by taking the
iieaii of the iirices tliat ruled in the nearest Largo mart a
loiiple of days before and a oou])le of tlays after tho
third of the .second half of B.iisakh. Both .shies—tho
ijoiiey-leiiders and tl'O.so that deal with them—.argiio tho
natter, giving iiistancos of sahia, Ac., and when tfio price i.s
lettlcd to tlie s.iti.sfartion of all, tho banker i.s j>aid hack at uiio
loer more per rupee than whatever rate hits been fixed upon.
Jf course, grain is cheapest at this time of the year, aud
ivhon prices fluctuated a great deal, wo eaii readily see how
his simple sy,stem used to bring a eertaiii and good profit to
,h .sowkar ; hut it is now not much resorted to, particularly
II localities within easy reach of the railway, which we know
have tho effect of equalizing tlio price of grain, keeping it
irotty regular all the year r.iiiud, whieli wuuld of c.iur.so lesson
,he interest, when this is only the excess of the harvest rata
ver the average rate of the years. However, it i.s uowhe ro
uite set aside os wo* will see when treating of tha
ranker’s aciount book. Our re,asoii for hclioviiig it to bo
iue of the oldest syatcuu of hanking, is that the wor
820
TI^E INDIAN AaRIdtJDTDRIfir^. September 1, 1888.
for trad* in the most Ancient Hindi notr spoken ie tyarath,
obviously derived from ({/, the third day of the mouth, and
arat/i eecuvity, or the security of the third.
Itauy writers have expressed themselves of opinion that the
fixing of the harvest price is entirely in the hands of the
huniyn, and is a great hardship on the cultivator. If this
were so, the country would have been ruined long ago.
We do not place any dishonesty beyond the buniya, but
these gentlemen have evidently lost sight of the fact, that
though buniyaa as a caste ore very apt to form leagues, this
particular trade is, in ugricultural tracts, carried on under
the competition of every caste of natives in India, for
I'oasous that we have given, and that it is very diflSoult, if not
impossible, to form leagues under the circnmstances. It is only
in towns where thoi'o are no agricultural bankera, and the grain
vendors are almost all buniyas by caste that tricks can
be practised. Then, again, out in the district, where culti¬
vators are coatiunally appealing to you about wrongs done
them, a complaint against the validity of the harvest price
is never hea^, when the oity rate has been duly fixed in a
large village, the neighbouring villages gener.ally save them¬
selves the trouble of a conference by accepting it. A favourite
adage with them is b/iao anr bureal or prices and rain,
meaning that they are as much dependent on chance as each
other. In the same way a harvest price used to be fixed for the
kharif harvest called jnirinrir ko, b’low, ill the month of Mirigsir
or (between the 16th November and 16th December
1883), but it is now very unusual to establish it with auy
ceremony.
We arc now to see how the banker deals with his a»amU .
Ha has advanced one of them, we will say, Bs. 100, to be paid
from the i/mri/harvest carrying interest at 2 aniioa per rupee
toi e months, or Es, 26 per cent per annum. Tlie money has
been advances ^i-adually, supposing that there is no security
but that of the crop—X)»> oo fniterwards to be spoken of ns
grain) perhaps for a jilough bullocK ; w.. jM-ioe not being put
into the cultivator’s bands, but paid to the cattle-deaiei
by the banker himself, or througli a trusty servant, Bs. 40
for food given at intervals, and Bs. 40 for rent.
Before giving cash advance, the banker, seized with a fit of
nervousness, will walk over his patron’s cultivation to see that
it is not being neglected in any way and will stop advances if
it ia The asami is supposed to feed himself from uloout tiie
16tJx August to the 15tli November from the Indian corn,
«iot, vegetables, &c., that he has sown, and the hanker
does not demand these crops, unless he contemplates throwing
over the cultivator, expecting hinrself only cotton,
masina,&ic. After this, and up to the 16tli Mai'ch, he will feed
him on barley, never allowing more than 2 maunds, 20 seers
(ordinary weight)permoulh.for ,afamily of five ;.salt and condi.
inents must be procured by exchange from this allowance.
Very much the same is done in the rahi, seed of course
being a heavy charge here, though scarcely anything in the
kharif, the cultivator has to supply himself with food from
about the 16th Maifhtothe 16th .June, and does so chiefly
from such crops as jwtatoes, carrots, met/ii, spiiiage, and is allow¬
ed to pluck a little green wheat and barley or grain.
The banker takes over the whole crop, allowing only tli
debts of customs to Iw paid on the threshing-floor. The village
barber, jmttor, c.srpenter, wasiierman, water-carrier, family
priest, and btgari rjiamar (a gentleman wo sh all write about oi
some future occasion) who each get, what will on an average
come to about 26 seers of grain per plough, and charges interesl
oh every item paid by him, but for such portion of the rent
which is always last considered, as is covered by the value of
the produce.
It is the due payment of the tenant’s rent that makes the
zemindar support the soukar. It is usual for the latter to give
him rvhha or informal note of hand in favour of the tenant
pledging himself to pay the rent when the cultivator’s crop is
reaped. This is really no binding document, in the ordinary
sense of the word, as it is neither stamped nor witnessed. It is
only a note from the banker, acknowIe<lging the cultivator to
be a solvent enstomer ot his, and one he does not intend throw¬
ing up. So identical are the interests of banker and tenant, at a
sertain period, tlpit thMe ntkkcu are ae safe aa poaalble, and
inch a thing as their being dishonoured la almoat unknown.
The zemindar has now the upper hand of the banker, fo^ if
he was to eject the tenant, it would be impossible for the latter
.0 collect his balances. So long as the interest already realized
by the banker will not cover the anticipated loss, and leave a
margin of at least 12 per cent profit on investment, tliia|
jf affaira remains, and the cultivator is supported by a'capital-
ist who is bound in his own interest to f^fmish him witli ad-
auces when necessary, but as the ryot says, iiamift phutah, aar
bunii/a chuta ; that is to say—the buniya deserts you with the
appearance of misfortune. The time comes when his cattle die
to a calf, added to which is perhaps the loss of a couple of able-
bodied members of his family, or probably worse, and the crop
does not represent the full rent, or perhaps just it, The
buniya now informs the zemindar that the security for his
money has decreased so much in connection witli this cultivator,
that he can only afford to give a rukkator two-thirds of the rent.
The zemiudar cannot object, for he is told that if he does,
and distrains the crop, the buniya will throw over the tenant,
and he shows that having made such a large interest, about 60
per cent, previously, he cau afford to do it, and show n fail’
profit in spite of the money he loses by doing so. Now, the
question is, will the zemindar coma to terms with the banker,
or will he distrain, and secure all his rent for that season ? In
the latter case, he would be burdened with not only one im¬
poverished tenant, who would require advances to keep him
going, but one deeply indebted to a mei-ciless creditor, no
longer interested in his welfare, who, with his fraudulent bonds
and decrees, and executions, would ueutralize all the good effects
of the advances, and give a great deal of trouble generally.
In the majority of cases, the fomer ooui’se is preferred, and
the buniya allowed to risk his money in andther year's trial.
This season most likely decides the fate ot the cultivator
between a long term of indebtedness and perfect beggary ;
aiiotlier bad soa-sou, and the buniya throws him over, with, by
reason of his purely mercantile training, as little eompii^nctiou
as ho wouia atnoo,.,) a worn-out pair of shoes. Prayers are
useless with this class of people, wno would o.T,y wlmt an Eng¬
lish-speaking Bengali was heard to utter : *• Money matter
no friendship,”
It would be a dead loss to a zemindar, or something very
near it, to keep such a cultivator any longer in a thickly culti¬
vated country, where land is at a premium. The man’s ruin
being chiefly due to the very high i nteresl ho has been obliged
to p.ay,tliB land itself will generally bear enhancement, and it
is accordingly maile over to some solvent ryot on an enhanced
rent, the eiihaucenunit being looked upon in the light of a re¬
covery by instalments of thearre.irs of tin; ejected tenant.
The following figures will show the percentage of interest
reaUze<l by a soukar from an ass,uni be is aupfiosed to have
iulvaneed Bs. 200 daring the year. It will be seen tliat the
old aktlj system we liave already described i.s so mixeil up with
the new one of two aiin.i.s per rupee per harvest as to make it
e.xoeedingly doubtful whether the “ country lout” can really
I understand the terms he has accepted, or the interest that he is
p.ayiiig : —
Kharif.
Its.
As,
P,
I—Bcgistorccl value of groic-^advanoed at Intervals
at the rate prevaitiug on each ocoasioii
100
0
0
2—Interest nt 2 annas per rupee per fanil
12
8
0
.‘1—Interest, the result of deducting 1 seer par rupee’s
worth of grain when making ndvanoos, taking
the average price of grain at 20 seers per rupee ...
5
0
0
Total
117
8
0
Deduct item No. 3, already realized
6
0
0
Balance due by tenant at end of kharf
112,
V
This being a half-ycaidy account and tlio sum really paid by
the banker Bs. 05, it looks like an innocent Bs. 36-13-6 per cent
per annum. But wlien we reflect that this balance, if cleaved,
would I>e paid at hai'vest time when grain is at the very lea^t
20 per cent cheaper than the average rate of tire post si.\ montlis,
and that it would be paid nt one seer above this rate or fi ve
per cent more, we find tliat the deluded ryot will have
SeptemW 1, 1883. THE INM^N AGRICULTURIST.
321
really paid Eb. 2M-0 more. That ia, the sotiknr gets Its.
4fi»I2-0 within 6 montii# for Ra. 06 laid out, or 90-6-0 per cant
per auunm.
Let UB suppose that he does not pay up in the kharif, and that
the balance is oarried over to the rahi. It would stand thus if
he paid up at the aktij;—
, Jiaii accounU
Its, As. P.
4— Balance of kharif ... ... ... 112 s 0
5— Interest on kUhrif balance of Rs. 100, minus
kltarif Interest at 2 annas por rupee per fasil 12 S 0
6— Compound Interest on kharif interest of
former account item No, 2 at 2 annas per
mpoe^ ■■■ ... ... 19 0
7— Interest of 6 per oont on Items 4, 5, and 0,
by reoeivfng grain 1 seer above market price 7 5 .3
8— Recorded value of grain advanced at
interval, at the rate prevailing on each
occasion ... ... ... ... JOO 0 0
9— Interest at 2 annas per rupee per fasil on
Item No, 8 ... ... ... ... 12 8 0
10— Interest of 6 per cent while advancing
grain (No. 8) 1 seer below market rate ... 5 0 0
11— Interest of 6 por cent while reoeiviug back
grain (No. 8) 1 seer above market rate ... 6 0 0
12— compound interest of rupees 5 while
receiving back (No. 9) at 1 seer above market
rate ... ... ... ... 0 10 0
13— Profit, the result of the dilloronco between
the average rates of the year and the harvest
rate at which the debt is paid, on items 6, 4,
6, 8, and 10—20 por oont, a’’ ut,.. 42 0 0
Total 306 0 3
Plus rupees 5 rcecivod in the kharif 5 0 0
Total ... 310 0 .3
Deduct actual sum paid... .. * 190 0 0
Profit 120 0 3
This is .about 03 per cent which baukors will acknowledge to,
.as being only right aud pio))or. In t.Iic event of sucli an
tninsual circunistaiice as prices fulling below the- iicjt liarvest
rale, the cultivator ia forced to receive advances at the latter
rate, being toh' that it is the identioid grain he paid hist
harvest, aud thjit he surely does not intend taking it back at a
clienper rule than he gave it.
This is the toss-hazard on the prin<;iplcbf “ hciels I win and
(ails you lose,” in right earnest. Yet sonkars complain th.at
they are often ruined. We do not doubt it, and it is paiuf.al
to think of, but the s,adder reflection remains that their
customers must h.ave been utterly annihilated.
The (piestion is, does the zemindar profit most by supplying
advances himself 1 If he is a large landowner ho cannot afford
the time to attend to such a diflicnlt business. Cultivators are
loo improvident, and too accustomed to tlie “ feasl-or-starvo”
principle of life, .as a rule, to be entrusted with money in
lum])8. It must be given in small instalments, and the ad¬
vancer must make sure that it is used for the purpose it i.s
given for only; this is by no means an easy task, or one that ciin
!» entrusted to native servants ; euc],\,tenants will griml and
devour choice wheal given for seed ; will sell oxen pmcliascd
for them ; and several have bean known to produce llio same
ox when told that they would not be entrusle.! with cash till j
they showed the animal they intended purch.asing. Besides
this, those requiring advances being chiefly impoverished and
thriftless tenants, cei-tain to bo ati-eady in the zemindar’s
debt, there is not an atom of security for his raouoy.
Tltfre may have been a time when the zemindar was the
and mother), the chieftain of his village, with
perhaps the life and death of his tenants in his hands ; when
he used to show magnanimity towards them, aud pride
himself on their being happy and prosperous. We have
established a different condition of things ; the zemindar
is now no better in Ait own ojiinion tluiu a common lessee,
a servant collecting money tor us, and money the regular
payment of whjoh we must enforce with the utmo.it rigour.
Setting aaide the matter of occupancy rights, tJie lowest caste
of cultivator stands on an equality with a aeaindar of the
highest caste in open court, and could be the means of
getting him flogged, notwithstanding that the latter Would
not and could not touch him without contaminntitm. This
is the law of civilization, and wo would not mention the
matter were it not to show, that for a great while to' coare, we
must expect no (lootry from the average native zemiodar, and
having taken the chieftainship into our own hands and de¬
prived the ryot of his bap-twi, must act the part ourselves.
The zemiudars interest in the cultivator is purely niercaotile
just now ; 110 poetical sentiments regulate Ids conduct towards
him, and wo ai'e uiraid tliat iu thickly populated tracts where
land is nt premium, it jxiys him better to eject an impoverished
tenant tlian aid him with advances. If he is deeply involved
with othei's, it is alway’s his interest to eject hini.
We will now find it easier to explain the position of the third
or zeniiiidari soukar whom wo accused of being of tin? very
woi-st chws. We have seen that a banker deals with well-to-do
tenants, giving them up when they are ruined, or rather, as is
often the ease, after ho has ruined them, aud left the iufareuee
that the model zemindar advances money to men already
ruined witli the object of ro-instatiug them. This shows the
difference between /al'nri, as agricultural advauoes are called,
aud soivAriri or banking, la the latter, the speculator, if
oiiroful, will never lose, but in the former ho will often find
that he is “ throwing good money after bad." As long as
the zeniimlar and bauker aro separate, both fear eacJi
other and restrict one .another iu extortion, and to a certain
extent the ryot is ,'i gainer, but whore both occupations aro
oarried on by the same iiulividnal, the ryot is an abject skive.
One would roa>sonably think that wliei'e tlie zemindar is also
bmker, it will never be to his interest to ruin a tenant; but a
little reflection will make it ,ap]tiroiit that it ia rack-renting of
the very worst sort, (.'iiltivatiou iu such villages is very
imliffei cut, and the tenants abvajTs of the lowest oiwtus,
aud even iiat.ivos look u)>ou it ns very bad form. Every
pnrtirle of grain liist comes to ids gariiere as it would to
any other b,'inker's. Between banking accounts such us we
have shown, which is the simpiost form, and land rent, there is
seldom, if ever, a b.alaiiee left to the eredit of a tenant. So
that tliia class of zemindars gels all the produce of his land for
very, very iimcli less than wiiat it would have cost him had he
cultivated liimself, by liired 1,about, for which there is some
competition. Tliesu cultivators aro wheedled into the belief
that tlicy are ordinary tenants, mid labour under this
impression for a bare subsistence. The advantage to the
zemindar does not end here ; having all the produce
in his own Ininds—for he would instantly eject any one
that would not deal with him ; he can afford to fix os
low a rent as ho pleases, and will give nil his tenants, or
more properly, slaves, oecupauey rigiita before the settlemeut
takes place, iiitcuding of course to make tlieni resign, to a
man, after the settlement is over, for, with the others, ho hates
occupancy riglils. Is he not bound to be dealt as gently with
by the settlement officer us possible 1 We can fancy the
following dialogue :—
I S.O. — “ How very low your rents are, I’ursram. Your liberality
; iu tlie matter of occupancy rights duos you great, gi-eat credit,
I regret to say that very few have taken your example,
Z. —Ah, sir I it is the greatest mistake iu the world to rack-
rent your toiianls. The Ganges bear me witness that I consider
it a sin. My father’s last injunetiou to me was not to oppress the
ryots. " lliey are my cliildreii,” were his words ; and let the
revenue be .as higli as it will, 1 cannot do it—death, and ruin
aro preferable.
iS'O.—But, Puiwam, thc.se sebllenieut rate.s are not heavy.
Z .—Not for those who extract the last drop of blood from
the poor, and those whose souls burn witliin them at the
very mention of ocoupancy riglits.
The interrogator, now confusing takavi advances and b.inkiiig
(two utterly difleront tilings, wlien the zemindar is concerned,
.as we liave explained), probably say.s
I am told you have* to lay out a good deal of money iu
takavi—.strange, coiisideriug the lightness of your reuks and
the quality of the soil,
322 THE INDIAN AGfRICDLTtJHlST. September 1, 1883.
to go}—Sir, God i* above and you are below ;
micU is my Cate (daahhig hit hand ogainM Ku forehead), but
you Me and hear everything, and it is not neoeeaary for me
to apeak.
We fancy we can hear the ehrieke of laughter that will
rend the air from the ch-wjial of that canny thakoor that
eveulAg, and the sighs of his tenants.
Should Government organize agricultural banks, this thakoor
will probably send all his tenante to secure Bs. SO a piece at
8 per cent, or whatever it may be, would take it from
them, and lend it out at 25 per cent, or start a grain trade
with it—as sure as he is born. This class of banker
should be suppi'essed speedily, and with a high hand.
The first or agricultural banker deserves oonsiueratiou. His
competition is the greatest check wo know of on the specu¬
lative banker, and his main business being the production
of the grain, he cannot be forced out of the potty banking
market, at all events, nearly every agriculturist that has an
ounce of grain to spare deals with it in the way we have
stated. It has the effect of distributing wealth to some
extent and is antagonistic to hoarding. Were that to be
suppressed by Government banks, more jewels would
be hung about the necks of native wives and children,
and mote money buried in pots than is already done ;
for the cultivator cannot trust himself with another
trade. The love of trade grows on human heings and gets
as irresistible as gambling, and though we care not for the
latter we should do all in our power to promote the
former. When by means of banking with brother cultivators
and meney-lendmg (the particulars of wliich wo liave not en¬
tered into,os it does not concern cultivators so much ns labour¬
ers and artisans) he has acoiimulatod about Es. 600, not less,
he starts as a grain merchant, purchasing grain in the
district and disposing of it in large cities; still retaining
his hanking work, hut eutruating his cultivation to some
competent and very near relation. Such a man is to
the zemindar the pink of the present cultivators, for one
who has acquired wealth by agriculture only is very
rare. His cultivation is always of the best class, and
even should he not he nil nccupaticy tenanli, his land
has ns much money expended on it as the anticipated
profit will admit of. He knows fall well that it will not jiay
the zemindar to uject him.
We wish to protect the cuUiyalor, and la.'i this man daily
for carrying on a hanking business. This we certainly should
not do when certain that he docs not cultivate less than
Un aci'es at least. It amounts to expiessing ourselves
satisfied if he sells his grain at once ut a dead loss to
a speculative grain merchant, and dissatisfied because he
accepts all the risk and trouble of lending it to his loss
fortunate neighbours, and|thereby securing a better price.
The soUkar’s interest is high ; 63 per cent is very high
we are aware, and that it is necessary that somuthing
should he done to protect the men that requires his services.
But all Boukurs charge the same, and the fact of their
being much competition among them, is very significant, and
would point to the oouclusiou that the security oflbred very
often is nothing more than the crop, and that, liable to distraint
by tbe prior right of a third party, is very poor and insuffi¬
cient. Such a thing as a banker ruined by bad seasons is
by no means unhoaul of. If the security was better, there
is no question about it but that a smaller iuterost would be
charged.
Government agrionltural banks would iii all likelihood
prove a failure, on account of the difficulty of management.
Besides the difficulty of determining who can and who cannot
be trusted, everybody that knows the clo-ss of cultivators
that will (lock to these hanks will tell you that they must
be tveateil like children j that it will never answer to put sums
of money into their hands which they may keep at home,
and spend gradually,—it being absolutely necessary to see
that they do not misspend loans, but utilize them fur the
benejU of the crop, which is nitie times out of tmi the only
security. They mu^ be watched to see th.at, inspired perhaps
with a feeling that the crop will not do more than cover
their debt, and leave notbisg over for them, they do not neglect
t. The banker at present, as we have remarked before,
gives the instalments in email quantities of grain and threatftis
to stop advances the moment ho obeerves the leaet neglect;
and he must be a good agriculturist to know what constitutes
neglect—certain slight omissions and at particular periods
often influencing the produce tor the worse a great deal.
Then, as the preeent law is constituted, it would be rpin to
the zemindar if theee banks in any way interfered witWw
right to collect his money before' any other claimant, parti-
cidarly such a powerful'' limitationlees ”■ one ae Government
would he, or with his right of having the crop hypothecated
to him. These are tlie only rights of any value left him, and
their loss would cause a panic. It is also very questionable if
the water-rate system would answer. There the advantage to
both zemindar and tenant is indisputable, and the water
cannot he misspent,, so as to hurt either of them, whereas
money given can. At present the numerous Sowkars watch
the interest of the zemindar unwillingly by enforcing proper
attention to cultivation—a thing the large landholder (land-
owner would be a misnomer if applied to the zemindar) could
never do without the assistance of a staff that could not be
afforded, even if procurable. If, being the landowners, we
are determined to aid the ryot, why iwt itand eurety for him,
doing so only when his hanker is a brother cultivator 1 We
know that had security ueoesaitates the heavy interest charged,
and that between servant and servant we can expect no other
relation than that of trick. With such security os Govern¬
ment could offer, 25 per cent per annum would ho remunerative
to iucipienl hankers, and much less to wealthier.
Some conditions like the following could be arranged
Every hanker entitled to accept Goverumenl security must
bo registeied. '
None to be registered it cultivators of less than 10 acres,
unless occupancy tonauls, or able to prove themselves heredi-
tary agriculturists.
Such bankei'a will not he taxed (and tonte other locM prin-
legei nuut he tlmvjlii ij.)
CuUIvatoi's, on the recommendation of three or more solvent
and respectable brother cultivators residing within .3 miles of
their village, to ho given two foils of a trefoil scciu-ity note of a
certain value (after paying n simtl premium, which may gn to
form nfimtl for the benefit of ruined agrknllnritU), which note
lliey may make over to any registered hanker lliey please to deal
with, or that pleases to deal with them ; tlie hanker retaining
one foil, and returning the other signed to the office that issued
the note, to he [lastod,against the office counterfoil.
The whole matter wonld of course requiie much considera¬
tion. Means would have to be devised to prevent tiie soiikar
charging more than a certain interest; to prevent him Jiaying
away the money too tupidiy : to prevent him gsttiug careless
as to the. attention bestowed by the cultivator on the crop ; to
ensure his having rightly slated the amount he has paid, &c.
Many of these could he managed by means of the surety note
itself, by some such arrangement of tearing off slips as we have
in tbe stock note. Conditions of the security would also have
to he determiued ui>on.
This would sm'ely be more paternal, and contain less of the
objectionable element of interference with free toade.
IVhaps if a premium of Hs. 1,000 was notified for the best
essay on agricultural banfifug, in the Hiirdi language, and to
he written in Hindi characters, facta would be arrived at that
could not ho elicited by any conference of Europeans, or
wealthy native zemindar's fishing for titles.
The uou-Bgi'ieultaral hanker should be properly held in check
in his dealings with cultivators. They are almost aWays
bunyas by caste, whose chief business is speculating in grain,
and who ortly undertake tire ruin—we cannot call It anything
else—-of cultivators. Tire high standard of inU,”'ti,'^'^ie
among them enables them to take advantage of the
lelegmph (a soalcd letter to the orditraty cultivator), combined
with freedom of motion, not being hampered, and confined to a
locality by husbandry, gives them too great on advantage over
the agrienlturist already, and it is a question whether they
should not be still further suppressed, by a simple device we
knew of, by which the most igaorant and Illiterate oultivater
323
September I, 1883. THE INDIAN /AGRICULTURIST.
could be made avare of the daily prices of gi-ains in, .at least,
the nearest lair^ mart
* w, e.
FBUIT AND FLOWER WINES,
I T is well known that the domaud for wines far exceeds what
is produced from the grape, and that their fabrication Las
been openly carried on in France and England. A
different state of things prevailed of old, for fermentation was a
phenomenon not understood, and the composition of wine was
unknown. The blending, therefoi'e, of the old wine with the
new, and the addition of water, were the only sophistications
practised. Now, it is different. The advance of chemistry has
revealed what was formerly concealed, and men have not been
slow to take advantage of this knowledge. As a consequence,
the glory of the vine may bo said to have departed, because all
the romance chronicled in song and story is inapplicable to
.tho almost indistinguishable imitations flauntiugly sold as
loliif. The fact, however, tliat wines are artificially made
tends only to oonfinn the growing demand for them; and
the question occurs—why should we, boKvuse the production of
the gj’ape is insufficient to meet this demand, disregard other
fruits which ferment in a like manner, and whose products
operate in the same way 'I If we seek to ascertain why most
men are content with the base imitations offere<l to them, we
discover that they do not know what genuine wine is—that a
wine is to them excellent because it is high priced, .and genuine
because tho cask ii> which it is received bears a l'’ieiich name,
oi- the bottles’ chaste labels in whiie and gold. A would-be
connoisseur solemnly tastes such .qvior, and utters .an opinion,
although he has never to his own kijowledge Listed a genuine
wine ; but that is nothing: he is a hon-ricant. lie pretends,
therefore, to a knowledge of wines which takes a chemical expert
years to acquire, and which he (the expert) docs not hastily
apply. To these self-constituted judges do wc owe the existence
in the market of mniiy a spurious wine, and by such judges are
really good wines eoinlemued.
Parfly on account of their eheapiiesa, and partly through
frivolous report, ordinary fruit wines have not hitherto
met with much favour, and but sc.aiit attention has been
given to their manufacture. Notwithstanding this, they
iii'e still in uso—it may ho said by old women, priests,
and shepherds. Well j we should prefer to be guided by
6he simple tastes of such people than by the opinions of self-
constituted comioisseurs whose tastes have become vitiated
by indulgence in the abominable apologies for wine vended in
cities.
The relationship between ordinary fruit wines and grajie I
wines is obscure to a degree : some believe them to be preserved I
fruit juices, and otliera sanclnarine fluids, flavoured with artificial
fruit essences. To establish the foot of their actual connection
is a very sinipte matter. Chemistry having .ascert-ained all the f
changes which take place in grape juice in its ti'ansforniation
to wine—that is, the metamorphosis of certain of its components,
the consequent evolution of cerUiin gases, change in colour,
density, &o., it is easy to follow the changes which take place
when other fruits are brought under the same conditions and
influences, and to compare their products. This h.as been done,
and we have arrived at the knowledge that all fruits contain¬
ing sugar and gluten are subject to tbi' same kind of ferniunta-
tion : tliat they will yield products of more or less poteu, v,
which, keeping in view the literal signification of the term
luijiCf have all claim to that name, all of them bearing a higher
hygienic interpretation than most of the so-called wines found
in the market, and certainly not an inferior hygienic interpreta¬
tion to that based on the components of pure grape wine. It is
from a technical point of view, however, that we will chiefly
conij'jj^’i them in this notice.
Irruit wine* in use in Russia are those prepared from the
apple, bilberry, bramblebevry, cloudberry, cranberry, currant,
raspberry, strawberry, and whortleberry. In Great Britain we
have in addition to these, wines prepared from the gooseberry,
elderberry, cherry, juniper-berry, mulberry, the orange, lemon,
fig, plum, pear, and other fruits. All of these wines possess in a
very pronounced degree the characteristic hQuqnet of the
fruits mentioned, and probably the medicinal virtues in a
modified degree of the plants yielding them. They are mostly
acid to tho taste, and on this account very grateful to the
palates of persons suffering from fever. This acidity can be
removed, if desired, by the addition of glucoee, preferably in the
shape of honey, to the fruit juice prior to fermentation. Care
must however be taken that an excess of gUtooee i' not
added, else the characteristic bouquet of the fruit will be
masked. The blend, however, of tho fruit bouqm, with that
of the mead, is when cai'eftilly made very agreeable,
resembling that of grape wine. The addition of elder-berries’
or elder-flowers to this blend, or to fruit juices whose
fermeutation products have no very pronounced odour, lends to
such the flavour of Frontign.ac. The mlditlonof glucose, for the
purpose of modifying the acidity, i-esiilts of course in the
formation of more alcohol, a circumstance taken advantage of
by wine fabn’catoi-s, and to whicli we owe thu existence of a
superior class of artificial wine.s ; superior in so far that they
are harmless, but whose couuoction with the grape is like the
imitations of a woi'se type, shadowy. They are in fact nothing
more or less than fortified gooseberry and curnant, with a dash
of questionable sautei'ne. Wo allude to certain brands of cham¬
pagne and burgundy, so flailed ; chateau something or another
with the year of the vintage given. It is something however to
know tluvt they are harmless, for in Franco where tho ravages of
phylloxera have forced manufaoturere to extremities, the beet
is employed os a substitute for the grape. Beet-root wine is
a pale rod liquid, possessing a disagreeable taste and odour,
and coutaining varying quantities of propyl, butyl, and
amyl alcohols. The latter is the well known fousel oil. It
will therefore be understood that wines into whose composition
fermented beet juice enters must lie strongly excitant. VVe
can undm-ntand the use of potato spirit in the maiuifactnre of
artificial cognac, but we can discern nothing of the proverbial
elegance of French t.nstc in the adojiiion of tho beet as a
substitute for the grape in the manufacture of winos. The
very association of tho two must be repulsive to most
mimls. Wo have then artificial wines, and artificial wines, some
harmless and some poisonous, tor that which gradually
paralyses the brain nxiinot be regarded in any other light than
that of a jjoisoii: the diflienlty is to know the hwmioss imitation
from the to.xie. This being the ease,and as no Sfsjcial measures
aie adopted by Government for the detection and suppression
of the tr,nle ill such imitations, the question of utilising harm-
less fiaiits, analogous in nature to the grape, for the manufac¬
ture of light refreshing wines, especially in India, becomes of
importance. Tropical fruit wines would, wo venture to pisxlict,
find a ready market in England. Tho apparatus necessary for
their manufacture consi.sts of a few tubs, fllters and presses ;
the industry therefore need not be confined to capitalists,
(.'onaidering the exculleuco of some of the Russian and British
fruit wines, it is a matter of surprise that they are not met
with ill commerce under their own nanies. In alcohoUo
value they .are not inferior to certain kinds of burgundy, hock,
chaniiKignc, frontigiiac and tokay, .as e.ideiiced by their utiliza¬
tion for the manufacture of imitations of the.se wines. Perry,
as perry, is too cheap to be appreciated : as champagne it
commands a re.ady market. The name of c/ooieberri/ is against
the product of that fruit ; not being sufficiently euphonious
to suit the pseudo-oMthetie tastes of tho average Briton. As
(ymmlarian it might lie a success. Should low prices be against
tlio«(> wines, they' miglit be improved up to any standard —dry
sweet, still, and etfervosoing, and priced according to age. They
differ generally from grape wine, in so far that they contain less
alcohol, and less extractive. Following are analyses of samples
of cloudberry and cranberry wine, in which the alcohol is
very low. The amount of sugar indicated points to the causa
of this, till*., defective ferraoutatiou ;—
Cloudberry,
Cranberry.
Speoifio gravity
1-04
1'03
Exti-ttct
iq2 p.o.
IdM p.c,
Ash
•13
•IB
Alcohol
,, ,
1-lS
•80
Sugar
6T0
8*10
Acid
•SO
i-ao
Tannin
...
——
trMM,'
324
THE INDIAN A(i3iODLTURIST. September 1,1881
Saiaples of carrant wine have Imon founii to nontaiu over
SO p.ci of »lc(Aiol, by meaoure; gooseberry and orange nearly 12
p, c., elder 9 p. c., cyder 10 )i, c,, and perry nearly 8 p. c. "W^ith
-tbe 'VxoeptiOD of currant, these aiaoants are soaruely eufficieut
lo keep them, but the standard my be increased, os already
poljited out, by the addition of glucose.
TurpiJig to India, the wonder is that we are not familiar'
with pine Wine, tipari, and mangd wine, an<I a host of others.
Tipari fruit yields almost its own weight of juice, which on
fermentation results in a delicious amber-coloured wine con¬
taining over 7 p, c. alcohol.
The amounts of sugar contained in the various fruits men¬
tioned in this notice indicate the probable alcoholic value of
their pi’oducts. The apple and the pear contain of grape-sugar
6'7 p. c., increasing if the fruit is allowed to ripen. The
orange contains 8 p. c., bilbeny noaily 6 j). c., strawberry 4-6
to 7‘B p. c., mulberry and blackberry 9 p, o., raspberry 3'5 to
B p. c. neai'Iy, gooseberries and currants 7 p. c., plum 3'5 to 6
p. 0 ., cherries 10 to 13 p. c., juniper berries 30 p. c., figs 48,
dates B7, and'the grape about 12 per cent. The more sugar the
fruit contains, the richer will their wines he in alcohol. Some
varieties of the plantain contain nearly 0 per cent inverted, and
10 per Cent crystallisable sugar, the former increasing day by
day at the espense of the latter, as the fruit passes from a state
of sound to sleepy ripeness. I'his latter fruit is therefore not
only well adapted for thu manufacture of wine, or pure spirit,
but for'the manufacture of sugar, .'iiid could be used with advan¬
tage for increasing the alcoholic power of wines from fruits con¬
taining little sugar. The date and tlie fig, it will be seen, contain
nearly half their weiglit of sugar; their value in wine manu¬
facture will therefore be obvious. Wo are in wont of exact
iilformatioii regarding the couslitueuts of the mango, but we
do not doubt that it contains a largo ijuantity of sugar, and
that a wine prepared from it would find miicli favour among
the imtives, who look upon the fruit as iiiouuiparable. The
litchi and rose-apple would also we think repay experiment.
The amomit of sugar contained in the nectar of many flowers
warrants the presumption that a little iierseverance would
place us in possession of a series of wines or liqueurs of a very
luscious nature, rnschia and red clover give ne.arly 8
Biiilegrams of sugar' per flower, nearly 0 of which in the
red clover is grape-sugar, and as we ascend tire scahi to
flowers having fleshy petals, there is a proportionate increase.
An important feature in flower wines would be their
medicinal value. Cowslip wine .and poppy-flower wine
are pleasant soporifics; and orange flowom are said to
possess certain sedative ami hypnotic virtues, the water
prepared from them Iwing used in the south of France
to coimteract the sleeplessness that tea Ls .apt to cause with
nervous persons. The honeysuckle we know to be, auti-
asthmatic. It therefore is not unrejisonable to infer from
the very pronounced medicinal characteristics of known flower
wines, that all flowers capable of furnishing such, will possess
the characteristic features of the plants yielding them. We may
therefore look forward to the time when all remedies will come
direct from nature’s own laboratory in the form of fragrant and
agreeable wines. How does this idea, we wonder, suit homceo-
pathy ?
The flower of the mahwah tree (India) contains much sugar,
and yields,' besides a pleasant wine, a very intoxicating
spirit j the latter, according to Major Drury, resambliijg, if
carefully distilled, good Irish whiskey. The flowers arc said
to be exported from Bombay to France. A full-grown tree
yields about 20 cwt. The oeutriiJ bud of the agave, an
aoclimatised plant, introduced by the Portuguese into India,
yields a sour liquid which veadilly ferments, furnishing a strong
alcoholic liquor. The plant possesses certain well defined cura¬
tive pi'operties, which, if possessed to any extent by the
flowip', Would render agave wine an article of much value,
A TbouI poet of times gone bye sung in praise of the palmyra,
a plant applied for eighty-eight purposes. The flowering
spathss of this plant yield a saccharine juice (palmyra toddy),
from which an intoxicating liquor is made, and largely used
by the common people. Wine and sugar are also made
from’the sap of the trunk. The flowers of many other palms,
notably the cocoa palm, are replete with sugar, and yield mi
fermentation excellent wines, aud by distiliatkm the spirit called
arrack. Arrack is looked upon by many peojlle as a very cruSe
spirit. We submit that, wei'e it subjected to the same elaborate
distilhitive treatment os whiskey, it would vie with that
fluid in purity.' From the foregoing, it will he seen that the
subject of the fermentation of fruit* and ^owws is, by reason
of its being allied to things we know, easy of pursuitf and
that pursuit of it might result in the foundation of.* ’•veir
and profitable industry.
It is likewise self-evident that the inauguration of such an
industry will, next to the introduction of pure gnqm wines
from hitherto undeveloped sonrees, do more than anything
else to drive from commerce those high priced aud elegantly
got-np shams so frequently met with: which,'iiatoad of
exhilurating as pure wine invariablydoes, gives birtl) to f 0 e!iug,s
quite foreign to many whose bad fortniift it is to have such
administered to them, or foisted upon them ; .and which, when
frequently indnlged in, sap the vigour of yontli, render old ruen
idiotic, women feeble, the uneducated rebellions, ami the
rebellious murderous. Here in the Fast, where there is much
in all conscience to enervate, dejireas, and render life miserable
it does seem hard that life's luxuries, those stimulants on which
life often depends during sickness, should be sold without
restriction of any kinds ; that palpably bivd stock, sevoiity-tivc
per cent of which are doubtless unreal, shonhl be passed into
commerce through H. M. Customs.
AdRICDLTURE IN INDIA.
T he success of Baboo tAmbica Charan Sen, M.A., Mr,
()'/!omi 0 ,the Direotu! of the new Agricultural Department
in Bombay, and of Syud Sakbswut Hosseiii, B.A., in obtain-
I iiig the throe first places at tlio Royal Agrioulturol Collegu
of Oirenoester is Buggostive. The UiroucOBter scholarships
created by Sir Ashley Eden in 1880 will, in time, supply
Bengal with a number oi' young men oduoalod in the high¬
est soientilio school of .agrioulture ill England. At i homo
it is generally fouud that sueli men cannot earn a living as
farmers, and there is little reason to expect better resuUa
in India, ii country to ivhiuh the principles taught in Eng¬
lish schools have not been applioii by direct e,xperiraoutH,
and where land is oult.ivatod in small holdings. They will,
therefore, seek Government service, and no doubt will bo
employed, first us the managers of Government estates aud
of experimental farms, then ns heads or mombors of agri¬
cultural dopartments in the different provinces. The
Bengal Government is row conmieueing sncli management
in one district, ami there can be small question as to tlio
tondeuoy of the administration iu that direction.
'rimt Government may do a good deal for agriculture in
this comitry is proved by the introduction of tea cnltiva-
lioii, which wag the result of a Stato experiment, aud tlie
naturalisation of the cmohona plant, which now supplies,
fi'oui Government estates, such a valualile febrifuge. On
tlio other hand, all the Oovernmont studs proved failures,
inoluding that for mules at Darjeeling, in which tliero lias
never boon a foal, and the model farms opened by Sir
George Campbell had to be closed. The farm at Arrah
caused a loss of ton thousand rupees in two years on thirty
acres, cultivating ordinary country produce, or about the
total value of tlio land iitvfee-simple each year. The build¬
ing was afterwards given for a domei scliool, while the
loud of a similar farm at Arrah were assigned to a billiard-
club. For managing a farm, Govorumont agency is defi-
oieut in two respects, either of which would be fatal. In
the first place, the managoraent is eoudnetod on doctrimw
principles, which experience shows never pay, until so
tlioroughly adapted to the oiroumstanoos tliat they cease to
bo doctnmin. In the second place, there is not the sanje
iucmitive to gain which a private farmer has, t^p:!,''^'■pe
anxiety to buy cheap aud sell dear, to got ftorkmen fli’ Ihe
lowest wages, aud exact the severest tasks from them and
DON'T DID m TH£ HOUSH
" Rough oa Rats ” clears out rata, mice, bsetlea, roaohea, bed-bugs,
flies, auta, insects, inolea, obipmuukt, gophers. As, 0, p. 1, B, 8,
Madon & Co., Bembay, General Agents,
Septambey 1,1888. Tm INDIAN AG^IOTJLTUHIST. 323
to coako petty savings in every direction. In thrift, in
empiric skill, and in exacting labour, Govommont must
Ill ways, be inferior to the ordinary farmer. On the other
hand, it can try experiments which no private person
,^euld undertake, because the cost would fall on him, and
'Uifhenefit go to others.
We hope that in future some considerable portion
of the attention of Gtevemment will be directed rather
to the podel management of estates, than to model
fariaSr^M^. tke latter mainly in connexion with
and as ^ means to, the former. Government is in
every district of Bengnblaudlord, largo tracts of land being
its oym property while it has to manage considerable
estates fpr others. The position is ono which it actually
occupies, and the only question is as to how it will fulfu'
its dutiea
On the other hand, Government is not at present
farmer, and need not be, unless it wishea It is now pretty
gouo'rally acknowledged that the past management of Gov¬
ernment estates has been exceedingly bod. No improve¬
ments worthy of the name have been executed, the tenants
liavo received neither aid nor direction, and the assessment
of rent has been made according to the custom of the
private zemindars of the district, and has theiufore been
excessive wherever these wore extortionate. To keep the
cheapest establishment for rcut-oolleoting purposes, to keep
no establishment for any other pui-poso, to get in the whole
of the rent, and from time to time to raise the rent, have
been the sole objects of Government There is now, we
nvo glad to observe, a change, though as yet it has borne
little fruit, and we hope that the Cironoester scholai-s may
1)0 made the agents of future reform. They may be ap-
])ointed to look after the larger Government estates, and
sol an example to private laud-owners r\i what good manage¬
ment can do. Their knowledge oi tfcieutitic agriculture
would enable thorn to give the best .adviec to the ryots,
which the special knowledge of the latter would eiiahle
thoin to apply. Among the improvemeuts which they
might offeut w'c may mention draining, the storage of water
against droughts, the introduction of improved ploiigh-oxen
by utilising better bulls, the improvement of thfl breed of
]H>nips by getting hotter stallions, the planting of fuel ro-
serres, the preservation of posture commons from the
cni’TOachments of the plough, the procuring of better seed,
t lie sjireading of knowledge of the method of raising the
more valuable crops, tho supply of such approved ogrieul-
unil iustrmnouts as of the Behcea mills, tho protection of
ryots from tho extortion of mouey-lendcre and the pur¬
chasers of produce, whore such is needed, the encourage-
incut of combinations for all useful purposes, the erection
Ilf iirimary sohoolsj tho making of roads, and the roforma-
liini of village conservancy. If trained tiovcnimout officials
M.'t an examjilo of such work on tly; C^'owii lands, tho
zemindars would be glad to imitate. At present Goveni-
meut preaches in favour of a zealous performance of tho
duties of a landlord, because every native zemindar can sec
low Government performs them.
A liome farm ordinarily is a part of a system of good
management of an estate, and it would be as useful in
Iiulm, 08 else where. But to bo really n model, it must
resemble the ryots’ holdings in size. When Sir l.eorgc
tlampbcll made an attempt in this direotion, Mr. Unmu
declared that a Government farm, to lie a success, must
extend over at least a thousand acres. Now wo hope that
iiothiug of this kind will be attomjited. If it were suc¬
cessful, it would show zemindars how ryots might be
evicted wholesale at a profit, and the. income of one man
improved by the ruin of tbonsands. Oovommenf. might
just as wisely establish a model school for house-breaking,
with sMoimeus of the newest Bill Sykes’tools and weapons.
A (liousaud acres of land for a model farm can be obtained
m Bengal only by eviotiug two hundred families, most of
which may starve, and this is a price not to be paid for an
oxpol'inieut, which would, after all, be only for the advan¬
tage of thoHO willing to imitate the crime of wholoiialc evic-
tion. Ju small quautities land win bo got on Government
estates,'Viiira oxpori^jieuts tried suitable to the system of
/H’tiie culturt: which prevails in the countrJ^ But it should
be understood that such experiments form but a part, and
a small part, of tho general system of inwlel management,
to introduce which should bo the object of au Agricultural
EDITORIAL NOTES,
CORRESPONDENT of tho Rami .V«i» Perfer says "Tha
whole poultry business, as mauageil hy dealem in fancy
poultry, is a delusion and a snare to any one who eutew the buel-
ness with tho expectation of making a legitimate income frtmi it,
la their case the value of a fowl is not determined by the
or pounds of poultry produoed, but the bird is ‘ sealed’ by (Am
size and shape of comb, color of feathers, style of tail, aud
similar nonsensical points. Let the farmer try a similar
method in determining th« value of the cows he buys, and how
long will he be able to nuvke dairying pay 1 Why Is It not
just as wise to purchase a cow for the odor of her nose, the
style of her horns, the color of her hair and the makc-Up of her
tail, as to pay a fancy or absurd price for similar qualities in a
hen,”
In au interesting paper rea<.l before the Society of Arts, on
“ English Goods and Chinese Buyers,” by Lieuteuant tho lion.
H.N Shore, RN., the following passage ocoiir.s .-—But the
article of foreign commerce which threatens to distance all
other competitors in point of popularity i-i kerotieuo oil. The
development of the trade in this article h.n been remarkable
of late. It is entirely supphinting the native bean and t^ea-oil,
which has done duty hitherto for lighting purposes, and may
be truly described os supplying a want loug felt, Chiue.se ’social
economy being sadly deficient in good house lights. The cheap¬
ness and brilliancy of the oil in burning makes it a great
favourite. It has found its way to the most disUnt parts of the
empire ; nearly all shops are lit by it, and for hundreds of
miles round many of the ports opened to foreign trade, almi.)8t
every cotUige will be found with its sm.ill tin lamp of native
make for burning the oil. Its cheapness h is had a soiuewliiit
uudosirable result in Bliaughai, so far as shareliolders iu the gas
company are c.oaoemed, having prevented gas from oomiug
into general use amongst the natives, who, it is stated, prefer
to buy their oil iu small quantities os they want it, instead of
running up gas bills without any satisfactory check on house¬
hold expenditure.
The oil is at present almost entirely supplied from the
factories at Philadelphia, and tile trade is prautioally a mono¬
poly. From the high popiilsrify it enjoys, there is every
reason to suj)po.se that, until tlie petroleum walls which are
known to exist in China are opened uj), the importation of the
foreign article will continue to increase for many years to come.
The extent of this increase may Vie gathered from the followiug
returns -at Hankow, the imports rose from ZlfilQ gallons in
1877, to 285,157 gallons in 1880 ; at Wu-hu, from 2,190 gallons
to 71,110 gallons during the same period; while the returns
for Siianghai show that, in 1879, tho importation reached the
prodigious total of 4,780,440 gallons.
Thz Boston Convmni/d BuUetin prophesies that a large
ourco of wealth for the Southern Stiit 0 .s is in their timber. Ill
New Eugliuid, the timber supply, it says is already exhausted ;
so of the hard woods in Indiana and Ohio, while the pine
orests in ‘Wiscousiii and Michigan are being rapidly denuded.
In this dilemma the lumliermcu are turning longing eye* upon
tho southern woodlands.
Tns Aneritian CJimiical liiioiiJWfiaila latest issue, gives the
'oliowing description of the use of ani/diite of luagueaia os •
lefecating agent in sugar works :—This invention substantially
mnsists iu oiieraling the defee.'vtiou by means of basio sulphite
A magnesium, which is used either alone or previous to iiny
addition to the liquor of caustic lime or other strong b.wes
apt to decompose organic matter ; and the object of the
nvention is to produce in the liquor alkaline sulphites and
usoluble magnesic salts and to coagulate albuminous substances,
while the formation of soluble calcic Salta and of caustic
dkalies is avoided as much as possible. At the same time the
iqiioi' 18 decolorized to a great extent.
'file process may be carried out iu different manners. Ono
method of proceeding is as ft|llows t—Sulphite or bisutidiile oi
326
THfi II^BIAN AOmiCULTURIST, Sopiember 1, 1883.
magneitittra and wiiislic magneada are mixed together in -water
in such proportioiib, that the compound thereby formed
will sUo-w basic reaction, and of this compound a suffi¬
cient fpiantity is added to the liquor at a lompera-
tiire , sdapW to the quality of liquor and to thn quantity of
foreign matter cuntained therein. The said sulphite or bi-
suliihite of magucBiura and caustip magnesia may be siich as
form 'articles of commerce. Instea.!, howcv'cr, of corabining
these sulwtances as described, sulphurous acid may be intro-
dnced_either in liquid or in gaseous state into cautic magnesia,
stirred up iu water, so much acid being added jis is necessary to
impart to the solution the required basic character. With this
process hyposulphurons aei<l and Irithionic acid may be formed ;
but this is of no consequence. In ease too ranch acid should
have been used, cnustic magnesia is siibsoqueiitly added in
the proper quantity.
The second mode of proceeding consists in producing the
basic sulphite of magnesium in the saccharine solution, by
separately adding to the same the requisite quantity of caustic
magnesia and snlpburic acid, or sulphite or bisulphite of
magnesium. Instead of caustic magnesia, a maguesiiira salt,
which is deoom^josed by sulphurous acid, may in either ease be
cnqdoyed. The defecating medium having boon well mixed
•with the liquor, which at the time of mixing may be warm or
cold, the latter is heated or maintained in the heated state until
the solid matter has separated out and the li(juor has become
clear. In cose a complete separation should not yet ensue, so
nmeh more caustic niaguosia is added as is required to produce
the desired effect.
It -will generally bo found advantageous to subject the liquor,
after it has been filtered ofl' from the sediment produced, to a
subsequent troatraeut by lime, baryto, or strontia, or by the
hydrates or the saocharates or the alumimites thereof, for the
purpose of decomposing such of the snlj)hltes formed as are
acted upon by the said sulistaiices, and of preoij)itatiiig any
magnesia whieffi may luive been dissolved,
In ease any of the substances named should have been added
ill excessj such excess may be neutralized wholly or pai’tly by
means of carbonic or snlpliurous acid, or of both combined, or
by the use of imy other known and suitable precipitating
medium.
From the sediment produced by tlio defecating process, the
magnesium sulphite and the caustic magnesia may be recovered
by means of known chemical proces.ses. Moreover, the
ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds contained in the
sodimept may be extracted therefrom either in the same prooess
or by a separate treatment.
The inventor is aware of the fact tliat acid suliihite of
magnesia has been proposed as a defecating agent, but the use
of basic sulphite, as devised in his patent (U.S. Fat. 208,987),
he cLaims, is new and dilfereiit iu its action. The claims made
iu connection with this patent are as follow :—
Tlie method of defecating saccharine liquors, which consists
ill adding to or forming in the liquor basic sulphite of mag¬
nesium, and, if required, in subsequently adding caustic
magnesia, the process being carried out previous to the afore¬
said treatment of the liquor by lima or other strong bases,
substantially as and for the jmrpose desci’ibed.
In coinhination with the method of defecating saocliariuo
liquors by means of b.-vaic sulphite of maguesinin and caustic
magnesia, as described, the subsequent treatment of the liquor
by lime, l:)aiyta, or strontia, or the hydrates, the saccliiu-ates, or
the ainminates thereof, substantially as herein specified.
In cbnibination with the method of defecating saccharine
liquors, as hereinbefore claimed, the omploymtmt of carbonic
acid, or sulphurous acid, or any other known and suitable
precipitating medium, for the purpose of partly or entirely
prociptating auy bases added in excess.
BiaoiOM, says a corresiwndent, is the most carefully and olab-
orately-ooltivated countiy iu Kurope, and the Belgian farmers
i-aiso larger crops ivoi- acre in their small, uufeuoed, and finely-
lined farms than are raised anywhere else. Farming there
partakes of tha natare of gardening : iqdeed, it would ba called
giimisuiag ekswlWM. Wheat k ttie-fmpoyhBit crop, and the
management of it is particular to what other people would c|ill
an extreme. The seed is sown in the fall-spread broadcast
and thick over rich and well-prepared plant-beds, slmila/ to
those which Missouri tobacco-raisers prepare for their tobacco
seed. The yonng wheat comes up thick, rank and strong in
the fall, and remains so all winter, forming a mat on the ground.
In the spring the ground is thorougl^y prepared by deep
ploughing and harrowing, after whiohit is marked off in drills
ten inche.s to one foot apart, one way. The wheat pl^i^ytse
then pulled up from the bed in bnnohes and carefully picked
apart, one at a time, and dropped at cKstauoes of four to six
inches in the drills in the field. After the dropper follows the
planter, who, with a trowel or thin paddle, makes holes in the
drills at the proper distances, and sets out the separata plants
in the same manner as strawberry, tomato, or tobacco plants are
set out. When the work is done there is a wheat field planted
ill drills one foot apart, and with the plants six inches apart in
the drills. It is a tedious and particular process. But on the
small five-acre Belgian farms, worth $200 to $600 an acre, it
amply pays for the trouble. The Belgian wheat fields, after
being planted, are carefully cultivated between the rows by
hand until the plants are too high to admit of foi'ther work.
The plants branch into stools from each of which shoots up
stalks bearing heavy heads of grain ; and when the harvest
comes, the yield is 100 to 160 bushels of grain to the acre.
A rounEsroNDENT writes :—The diminishing supply of good
foreign tobacco has forced the French Government to consider
the question of its home cultivation. For tiiree years experi¬
ments in the south-western portions of the country have boon
canned on ; the results have e.xoeodod the most sanguine
holies. Last year despite the cold, wet season, the yield of
tobacco was BO satisfacixiry, that an important area of land is
at present devoted to tobacco, soils of a sandy character being
preferred, such being the kind on which the boat brands of
Havana are raised. Climate does not seem to be the decisive
factor in tobacep culture. In tlio West Indies, tobacco is cul¬
tivated during the winter season, that which signifies a tem¬
perature equal to the summer heat at Bordeaux. ,,
The culture of tobaoeo can replace the destroyed vineyards,
and another consolation has been found in the cultivation of
China grass or ramie. The great obstacle, np to the pro lent
I against tlio latter, has been the want of a machine to bark or
! skuteh the stems, and set the fibre free, cleanly. Such is
j claimed at last to bo found, as a company has been organized
not only to construct the machines, but to hire tliem out to the
farmers; further, the company in question* guarantees to
supply seed and plants at reduced rates, and to take all the
grass raised.
The following is from the Colonies aiul India ;—Within the
last tweni.y years a vast extension of the economic uses to which
this valuable fibre [cocoa-nut fibre] is put has taken place. The
tenn “coir,” usually applied to this materml,is the Anglicised form
of the South Indian '■ kayaru,” cord or twiae, and is not applied
iu India to the raw fibre, which is called iu the TamQ language
“ saviiri.” The fibrous husk or rind of the ooeoa-nut is easily
stripped from the nut while yet green, by striking it on tha
point of an iron spike, and then is steeped in salt or brackish
water, whore it lies for several mouths, until the softer portions
of the husk rot away, and Uie strong fibre alone remains. This
is taken out, beaten with a stick to separate and clean the fibre,
and twisted with the required number of strands into rope, or
woven into matting, while the stiffar fibres are made into brush¬
es and other articles of domestio utility. The fibre is pressed
for shipping into bales, weighing 200 lbs. each. The attempt
has been made to prepare the fibre from the dried husk in Eng¬
land, but without success.
Much of the coir fibre used in England is brought from
Ceylon ; but a large and increasing quantity is now fi,':^|j^rted
from Bombay and the Western Coast of Indi^ The supply is
not inexhaustible ; but as prices rise,, cultivation is encouraged,
and as the growth of this palm is along the sea coast, where
other crops cannot be grown, the trade is a profitable one.
Factories for the weaving of coir ntatting hare been opened
by English end Amerieaa firms at Aioppy, Qiulou,0»ladieI|
September 1 , 1883. THE INDIAN ^aRICULTUEIST. 327
Coohto, &o., ftnd tura out a considerable quantity of goods,
Spinuing is not attempted here, boiug more eUeaply done by
h^d at the places where the fibre is produced. Along tin
coasts of the backwaters and canals, many people may now b
busily engaged in scraping and cleaning the fibio and twisting
it into yarn. In the factories the yarn is fii-st sorted to its
various shades and qualities. The war]] is made by boys run
ning backwards and forwards ; then it is flattened and smoothed
for weaving by being run through heavy rollers. The weaving
hHebpwious work, performed by men, who earn two or three
mpera a week at it. The web is again rolled to give it some
fluirib, wound securely in a roll, and marked.
Large proflts have been made in this manufacture in India.
But it can now be carried on so mvich bettor in England, with
the machinery and appliances available hero, that large quan
titles of the yarn are exported. One firm in Lancashire have
introduced steam loom weaving of this material. The various
shades of fibre—croam-coh-oured, reddish bi-own, ami blackish—
which vary greatly according to care and skill in i>reparation
are first carefully separated, and cocoa-nut matting is now
made of tine quality with pretty shades of colour and in
pleasing patterns, so ns to be available for higher uses than the
very coarse makes, and the material is most durable. The yarn
is also plaited by machmery into ciuuet or belting.
Cables made of coir boor exposure to salt-water better than
anything else, the tannin which it contains preventing the fibre
from rotting ; they are exceedingly light and buoyant, as well
us elastic. Coil' cordage, in Dr. Wright’s exp.erimeuts, broke at
224 tt)s. weight. Even the refuse aud broken fibre can bo turn¬
ed to account for stuffing mattresses, aud is used in horticul¬
ture, &c., as no insect will touch it.
The exports from Travaucore of ^ Lis material form a large
proportion of the trade of the distinct, an<l amounted, in
1879-80, to nearly 100,000 cwt., valSad at 13,jf laos of rupees
(say i;i37,290), and paying to the Govoriimeut a dut\ of 08,000
rupees. Of the cocoa-nuts themselves, nearly 9,000,000, valued
at nearly 2,00,900 rupees, aud paying customs duty 13,000
rupees, were sent away. Other products of thisf p.alm exported
as oil aud copra or dried kernel, were valued, the former at
3,22,100 rupees, and tlie latter at no less than 26l lacs of rupees,
making a total value of the export of products of the cocoa-nut
lialm, from Travancore alone, of 4('4 lacs of rupees (nearly half-a-
million sterling). Some thousantls of tons are also ex])ort(;J
from Cochin.
Cocoa-nut fibre is so duiuble, useful, and ecoiiomic.il a mate -
rial that a great future is os-sured for the iinlusti'y ; and, us
prices rise, the natives will pay increasing attention to tlie
collection of the wliolc amount ()roJuci'd, and to its careful
preparation. Perhaps, when, througl^, iuei eusing dem ind, the
fibre becomes still more expuinsive, it may be found iiossibli- to
prejiarc it of greatly improve.l quality ami appeai uuee by steam¬
ing or bailing so as to avoid the pollution of fioiuis and back¬
waters by the decomposing pul]) of the husk, .and the con¬
sequent blackening of the fibre so often obscrceil. The textile
ingenuity of the })re8out age of invention m.iy poi‘hai)s devise
some additional uses for this (ibie j hats and bonnets made of
this material have, it is said, attracted much attention,
A coRBEsroKDENT of the WorM British Agrindturist has the
following note on the application of nitrate of soda Ilegarding
the most economical use of ‘ nitrate of, soda,’ I find tluit much
depends on the nature of the soil to which the manure is to be
applied. A clay soil or a soil containing u|)wards of 50 jier
cent of clay is cap.ablo of retaining fertilizing matter that may
be applied to it until the crop is able to make use of it. In such
a case nitrate of soda could be safely api)lied under either
condition. Such does not apply, however, to light soils or such
as contain only a small percentage of clay ; these soils are,
generally speaking, minus n class of bodies known in chemistry
as ‘lA^le silicates,’ or at least do not contain them to any
great extent. 'Aese ‘ double silicates’ are composed of the ‘ sili¬
cate of alumina,’ paid of the ‘ alumina’ being disjilaccd by an
equivalent of soda, lime, potash, ammonia, aa the case may be.
It is these bodies, then, that give to a soil power to hold foi'tiliz-
ittS nfttter fqt the use of crops,
On light soils whore there is a possibility of these bodies not
being present in the loquired strength, nitiatu of soda or any
other rapidly soluble manure should nevei' be apjdied, till there
was active vegetation to make use of it as it is dissolved, and in
such a ease it would be nonsense to talk of sowing nitrate of
soda on a wot day oi' during wot weather, for thereby it would
dissolre rapidly in the rain, with it bo carried down through
the soil to the drain [)i]ie, ami be lost.
It is not precisely known, says a contemporary, from what
period the cultivation of hemp in Anjou dates, but it is recorded
that in 1748, the Joubert family establisiied, by royal permission,
a sail-cloth factory at Beaufort-on-Valliie, which was afterwards
transferred to Augcre, where it still exists. Iii 17."i2, the brothere
Dantoii obtained the privilege of founding at Augers the manu¬
facture of printed goods, but this industry seems to Jiave failed
to estoblish itself permanently in the district, Thei'e ait* (nooord-
ing to the Moniteiir (Im/'i/s i'< Tissus) several important houses
at Angers engaged in the hemp industry, whose products are
favourably known in other countries.
Within the lost thirty ye.ars wages have considerably in¬
creased in the Augers district, the augmentation being about
2r) to 30 i)or cent for sjiimiers and other operatives engaged
in the earlier stages of manufacture, while weavers are receiv¬
ing double the wages they were getting in IBfjO. The
introduction of power-looms has increased the quantity pro¬
duced, thus allowing of an augmented remuneration to the
workpeople eug.aged in this branch of manufacture. The gene¬
ral condition of the operatives is far more comfortable than
was formerly the ease. This result is iluo in a great measure
to the spread of economical habits amongst the working pojm-
latioii. In one factory every workman, who saves 100 francs
.luring a year out of his wage.s, receives from the firm 15 francs
as iutereal, This harmony of .feeling between employer and
employed allows of indusirial changes being oarided out when
lOcessary, without tlic ilifficulties arising which are often met
with where a less friendly tone jirevuils.
A (jEUMAN oliemisL, Ueri Maximilian Ziuglor, lias just
lateuted, it seems, a now |)roeosaformanu£acluiing a substitute
'or gutta porcha, About 5t! kilo.s of powdered copal and 7J
,0 15 kilos of subiimod sulphur are mixed with about double
he quantity of oil of tui’iieutiiie, or with 5.5 to 00 litres of
elrolcum, aud heated in a boiler provided with a stirring
.jiparatns to a temiierature of 122 dogs, to 150 degs. tl., and
iliiToJ until completely dissolved. The m.iss is thou allowed
0 cool to 3K (legs, C., aud is then mixed with about l.hree
illoH of casein in weak ammonia water, to which a little
cohol and wood spirit has been added. Tlic mass is then
loiilod to the former t<.*m|)eraturK (122 degs, to 150 degs. 0.)
util it i.s atliiii tbtid. U i.s then boiled with a 15 to 85 ))ev
■cut solution of iiutgall or catechu, to which about half a
ilo of ammonia ha.s been added. After boiling bjr aeveral
ones (he mass is coulcd oft', washed in cold water, kneaded ij)
.Qt water, tlieii rolled out .aii'l dried. It i.s claimed tliat the
■csultaut j)ruduct is mucli ehcaper and ciunot lie dolcectcd
rom tile veal article. It is said to wear equally os well.
IfosniAuroaE is one of the largest sugar-producing districts
1 the province. The cano is there grown almost entirely
'll haraai or nnirrigated laud, and to many a village is a source
f great jii'ospurily and wealth. It is a woiidorfui sight to see
1 January or Fobrumy Iho groat jilain of the laud, about Id
r 12 miles .soutli of Iloshiarjiore on the way to Jullundui-,
overed with 100 plouglis busily woiking to preiiute the soil
or tho reccjitiou of the (so-called) seed.
The jirocms of mauufacturuig is as follows ;—
The juice, ras, is boiled till it is thick ; when being boiled, it is
elea’cd with tho mucilage of the bark of ono of two hill trees
jnda kigdia oalycina or hahed {yi’<: na ?), The mucilage, when
prepared for use, is called suylai ; after tho juice lias
been thickened by boiling, it is called nib. Out of tho rab
is pressed the molaBses or s/Ura, being strained tlirough a bag
made of coarse blanket. Bhira is worth at Hoshhuqiore nearly
Its. 2 (ler cwt, Aftor^ the pressing o]>eratiou is over the
828
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. September 1,1883.
rtmaiolsi ntaw, red in colour, U laid in targe wicket troughe
ooJled iAa»iaA, and eortred with a thick layer of water weed,
fhaid. There are two apeciee need, and kardi. They are,
I b«deve,epeoie» of KaWiirtsriafA.plralhl) w Potanogstoii, but 1
hare not aaeceeded in identifying them. Aa the layer of weed
fermeute, tlie sugar turns white, when it is taken off. A fresh
layer at the weed is pnt on during three day.a for lome weeks
(ill Sirmoor froiu commencement of Chet to end of BaMk),
Soinettmes the eagar-caoe crop is much injured by frost, and
this ia uf course a great calamity to the district. I recollected
one year, 1880, great damage was thna done. In Gharmaur
(Perguutiah Gar^haukar) the people sold their cane for seed at
about Se. 140 per acre of standing cane. Thia they found nt
that time more profitable than to press it, for the juice would
not have brought in more than Ha, 00 to 90 per acre.
If the soil is too dry, the frost is said to he hurtful to sugar¬
cane ; the soil of the Serwul tracts in the south of the Hoshiar.
pore District is said to lie good for cane on account of tlie
moisture it ontains which enables the cane to stand the frost.
In Hoshinrpore the varieties are—
Dbanlo.
Chann.
Kanara.
Ekar.
Dhavla and Ckann are the varieties most commonly cultiva¬
ted in the Serval, I believe. DhauH is said to be the richest
in juice, and if a certain quantity of juice has been contracted
for, Lhavlu would be the kind cultivated to meet the contract.
(Siam, however, is a better cane, giving more sugar. So 1
the produce is for home use chann is preferred to dhaulu.
Ek'ir is the variety moat cultivated in the hills. It is said
to be bard and harsh-tasted, and wild pigs do not attack it
when full grown i a great advaut ige to the hill tracts.
Kanara is cultivated here and there, mined up with other
kinds. It is very soft and suitable for chewing.
In appearance the four kinds may be distiiigmshed as
follows
Dliaulti, light green stem.
Ekar also light green, but has black longitudinul lines or
splits in each joint or pori.
Chann is thicker, with brown or purple patches of bloom
on the lower joints.
Kanara is tliin with short joints, very sweet, and soft
like silk,
A coEUKsrosuKNT of a contemporary has the following oi,
the coffee grub
With gmb, as with leaf-disease,only some drastic application
for their utter extiffwtion once and for ever was considercc
worthy of a fair trial. Similarly as with the fungus, I contend
that we have unwittingly fostered the insect by a system oi
applying manure which obtained some ten years since, am
also by the nature of the fertilisers themselves. The soil on
being slackened up immediately round the stem of tho trei
was scraped away by hand, in order that as few roota as possibli
might be disturbed, and coooaunt poouac and castor cake were
s{n:ead in the hollow thus maJu and covered up with eartli
thereby forming a soft mound into which the beetle, with m
difficulty, burrowed for tho depositing of its eggs. Here were
all the couditlous essential to grub life. Tho soil was uu
disturbed by coolies working amongst the coffee j incubation
went on apace; sufficient suuheat reaching the Bjmt tlirougli
ttie centre of the ti-ee, which is always kept handled out. The
grubs, on reaching that stage, found they were indeed in a be<l
of roses: turn where they would cocoannt and castor cake were
in abundance; not only that, but a maes of tender rootlets
were ready for their operations. Small chance of a single egg
at larva perishing here, and little wonder that the tree rapidly
shed its leaves; but a short space of time was necessary to
deprive it of every feeding rootlet. Ever since there was a
coffee estate there has been grub, but not to the extent wo have
it now, and if wc are to reduce tlioir numbei's we shall only
succeed by rendering their oonditions of existence hard. This
can be accomplished by applications of fertilizers obnoxious to
Ike loRCt, dug tooadciisl into tht soil. In spieadiug the
manure over a larger area, we not only indnee a larger roo
surface, but we reduce the chancss of every rootlet 'bein;
reached and moke grab life harder.
From constant communioation with the Entomologist for tin
Boyal Agricultaral Society of England, and through experi
mente carefully conducted here, I have come to the ccnclusioi
that rape cake, in which mustard seed forms a oonsiderab!
proportion,' w a remedy as well os a valuable manure, for
have found it is the only substance of the kind that tlm;
cannot exist on, Castar and ooooanut cake they seem Gmcrnghl
to enjoy.
Miss Ormerod found that forty-eight hoars' confinement 1
rape cake kept moist was sufficient to kill wire-worm ontriglil
This ought to be enoouragement to those who are continuall
looking for speoifice to give rape cake a fair trial. In case i
disappointment, however, I should advise those who purpos
experimenting to be careful that they procure the cake
mention, as I understand pure rape is shipped from many pari
of India, into the composition of which no mustard seed enter;
Manures in the manufacture of which snlphuric acid is use;
such as dissolved bones and euperpbosphate of lime, are ale
very offensive to grub.
The only antitode with which I am acquainted and which a
the same time is innocuous to the roots of plants, is powdere
mustard, but my experiments with it scarcely warrant mo i
stating that the quantity used, to be effeotive, would 1;
practicable, owing to its cost. Later on, I shall be glad t
commuuieale the result of my experience.
I may mention that on my attention being directed to tli
use of mustai'd seed by hop farmers in some parts of Eiiglain
os a remedy for wire-worm, I procured a few bushels, whic
have had the most satisfactory results in expelling the iusoi
from tlie soil on which iUvas sown broadcast, and mulched i
green before it reproduced seod.—DiouEXES,
A C0RR6SP0K1ENT of Iho Madras Mail writes
The finaahal results of the manufacture of poudrcLle by tli
Municiiwlity of Adoni, which you noticed in your issue of Ih
IlliiusUiut, is not well calculated to induce more Miuiicipalilie
to adojit that system of disposiug of the night soil. Tli
manufacture of poudrette has auceessfully solved the much
contested (luestion of removing the night euil and street sweep
I ings in a manner thorouglily ellieient, and their subscipien
utilisation as a manure. I would that a voice were raisoi
feeble as it may be, in favour of its mauufaotiuv, in a mor
extended form, by other Municipalities in Sqntliei'ii India,
advantage, over other modus of disposing of exerementitioii
matter, may be oodsid^red under the heads of ranilatiou am
economy. Tho practice uf many of the Muiiieipalitie.s a
regards the night-soil is to cart it to some plaoe beyond tin
limits of the town, and there deposit it in deej) pits exeavatoi
for tho purpose, or wlmt is worse to spread it out over exislin;
swampy hollows. Hero decomposition sets in, worms an-
maggots are generated, and the nuisance caused by a stuff tha
is naturally foul is aggravated a thousaudfold ; and it continue
in this statu uf putrefaction for montlis together. But th
process of inaiiutacturiag poudrette does not occupy mor
than five days, and even in the r.riiiy season it hardl;
exceeds to.i days. Tho m.atorial manufactured is as harmles;
and iuolfeusive as dry o.arth, It ia also the luo.st economie.i
way uf removing the w'ght-soil. The deodorLsur used in its
manufacture so completely and williiuafew mlimtes covers
up the noxious smell and removes its iiijurions effects, tha i
neither the eye nor the nose can perceive anything offensive
For this reason it may not be necessary to hivve tho jiouJrette
depOt very far removed from human habitations. But when
night-soil ia wastcfully thrown away in deep pits to putrefy
tliere, contaminate the surrounding air, and endanger health,
it is indispensably essential that tho depdt should be as fm
from the town as possible. Now, in thi^, mauulJ0wre o
poudrette, the heaviest item of expenditure is cartage of the
night-soil, which amounts to about three-fourths of the total
cost. Tho actual process of converting this staff into poudrette
costing a mere iota. Thus the cartage for the extra distance
entails heavy expenditure, and runs up to more than the
329
September 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
cost of raauufacturing poudrette, which is the cheapesi
method of disposing of tlie night-soil, immaterial of any
piofit, that might accrue from its 8;ile. The advantages o
poudrette do not stop hero. They are elastic, and must
expand in course of time. When tho merits of this
material come to be duly acknowledged, and when the
deeply-cherished prejudices of tho native cultivators have wojoi
away, the financial results will present quite a diU'orent aspect
A few facts will be more effective than a whole string of argii-
meiTiSf^'ttnd it would be better to cite a few. The report on
the working of tho Poona Municipal Poudrette Depot, and iti
financial j'esults, for tho year 18S3, are as startling as they aro
satisfactory. It is interesting to note how x-elnctant tho agri¬
culturists were to use poudrette .at tho outset, and how its i
worth, as a manure, gradually rose in their ostiinatiou beforo '
the happy results of the year under review wore aohiovod.
Tl>e amount realised by tho sale of poudrette in 1875 was
Bs. 7fiH, while the cost of nmnutacturo w.as about Ils. 18,000.
In seven years the demand for this stuff rose so much, and the
comiMititions at the sales become so keen tliat in 1882 the
pim’eeds from the side pou<lrotto rose to Rs. 30,77(S, while the
co.st was only Rs. 10,884, showing a net prolit of Rs. 11,092.
The report says: “ Seven years ago agriculturists would
not touch poudrette thus prepared, and could not be
iutluced to take it away oven at a nomiual chai’ge. At
present the out-turn of tho manure is jiot enough to keep
pace with the demand. Poudrette is now sought for from a
distance of twelve miles, and in one case it was t.ikon to !i
distance of twenty-four miles for an orange plantation.’’
Cannot tho local Municipality be iuduco<i to mitke an experi¬
ment with poudrette even on tlio smallest scale ? Tiie collection
and removal of the night-soil to tl. s-arious (lefslts set apart
for it, costs our Municipality two l.akhs of riti>cos annually.
Tins is about oue-fourth of the total ilunicipal icveiuie. Tim
qimntity of iiight-.soil collected in this city may be estiinated at
.30,000 tons a year. This, added to the deodorising in.ateri.al
used, will yield 60,000 tons of poudriitto. T.ikiug Rs. 5 per Ion
,is a very low price of jioudvette, tho revenue dei iVed from its
sale will bo three lakhs of rupees. The expenditure will be
only a. trt4lu iu .addition to the two laklis which the Munici-
lality spends aimually. It is veiy gi-atifying to reflect that
the revenue of our Municipality can be enliaiioed by three
lakh.s <if rtitiecs annually, within a period of si.x or .seven years,
and that, too, without, any extra Inirdeil on the rate-payers of
Ihi.s poor city, who arc already groaning under a not overmuch
taxation. This may look like a dieam Loo beautiful to be
l ealised, but have,we not the experience of Municipalities like
Ramsawmy obstinately refuses, and wbat is to bo done ?
Government might, perhaps, do something, though it is not
very evident what. The most curious thing is, that cultivators
have no objection to seeing their fields near towns and
villages used as ])laces of resort by tho community, and
I presume must recoguiso tfiat their fields thus used are
lauietitted, but tin'y obstinately refuse to h.ave recoursa to
tho more cleanl)' and oflicacioiis means moderiL aoience
places at their dwjiosal. We must wait patiently for some
oulightoned man to arise mid instruct his fellow-countrymen,
Mr. Sabapathy Iyer, at Hcllaiy, is doing his be.st, and is at
present the Mochi of his day.
The Mexican Government h.as concluded a contract with
Mr. Oscar A. Droego to plant two millious of trees iu tlic
valloy of Mexico within four ywus, commencing March 15,
1884. Haif-a-miiiioii trees a year are to b e planted in such
places as the (foveriiment shall decide. The contractor pledges
himself to establish a luimber of nurseries, and to have in them
each year at least 800,000 ash, 3-5,000 willows, 120,000 poplars,
60,000 eucidyptus trees, 60,000 tneiios .lapanes, 60,000 uumiitaiu
cypress cedars, 60,000 acacias, and 120,000 of misceUaueous
varieties. The trees must bo iu pl.antations of from 50,000 to
100,000 e.ach, and Mr. Droege has to maintain them for two
years after ]ilaiitiug. Uo is not compelled to jilant trees along
tho highways, however. Three gradimucs of the School of
Agricidtiue are to be received into the iiui'series each year,
there to study the scieiiee, of forestry. He is also to raise f«iit
and other useful }>lanl» tor free distribution. There is U) hi
trail,slated from the Genu ui every year a work on arborictiUnre
of recognised merit. An iuspecton is to Kuiieiintend, and Mr.
Droege is to receive auuu.dly 40,000 dots, till the sum reaolios
a total of 200,000 dols.
RxPKUiJiEN’TS WITH LoiT.STs’ Euus. —Soiifie interesting oxperi-
monts oil locusts' eggs liavo lately eoiuc to our notlcn. One dismal
fact has beoii discovered, uL., that liatcliing and development will
go on miller what would ordinarily he considered most unfavour.
able oironmstaiiecs. The egg, of a reddish brown colour, is about
the siso of a grain of wheal, but not quite so thick. A handful
put into .a tiiinblcr iiiixfd with earth and drenched several times a
day vvitli water oontiiniod to hurst and send forth tho young
in.scct. A similar quantity mixed with dry earth iu a finger glass
and covered witli green grass dnl likewise, witli the only difforonoo
that those subjeoLed to the periodical shower-bath wore slower iu
hatching. Two or three eggs put iuto half a tumblor of water
sank, but oil till) egg bursting to let out the young one it floated
that of I’ooiia, pointing to the fe.a.sibili(y of eaniiiig a net
revenue from a system wdiich iu l)yg()iie.^'eara cost ,iii enormous
outlay without any profit ‘I
Another conespondeiit says : -
1 read with much interest the admirable coiiimiiiiicatioii iu
your pauper of the 11th instant, touching poudrette ae a nmiiiire.
1 .agree with all your corrcspoiideiit advocates, and I think
there cannot be two opinions of tho .sufieriority of dis]losing of our
night-soil by mauufaeturiiig it into poudrette over the old, and
rt'hat should now bo the obsolete custom of carting it away and
bnrying it in pits. But your eorrespoiidont goes on to say, if
1 mistake not, ‘ ic is l/iu most emiiomiral laii/ of disfxmhi;/ of t/io
ilS;)1u toil: la that so ? llan that been satisfactorily worked
out 'I Bec.auso, if so, 1 do not see why all Mniiiei|)alities .should
not convert night-soil into iKUidretti' ; for undoubtedly it is a.
eloauor and more efficacious way. If he meaus only, it is .i
more economical wivy if the pourtrette oan he sold, I am afi.rid
he is loaning on a broken reed. The iicople of Southern
India aro iiiteusely-prejudiced on this head. I know of no
lilaoc where the people will use poudrette. At Bellaiy you
may see, a little way out of the town, a in.agiiifieenL
mound of tins invaluable fructitier, but not a farmer
can .induced to try it, altbougU the mnnicipi.ality
have oltc.ed, I titelieve, to give a large quantity away for
nothing, if ryots will only remove it. In fact the use of
IKiudrette is, I take it, one of the most important problems
we Iiave to work out. If, as in Poona, cultivators could
only be induced to use it, moat Municipalities would reap
tut income which would materially lessen taxation, but
to the surface. Tin's is cortaiuly peraevcraiioe worthy a better
cause--and must dispel tile Illusion tliat heavy raiu would kill
the locHst.s, It is curious to watch the oouvulsive struggles of tho
insect to free itself from the onouinbrauoo of the shell. FU'st
appears the, head, a moment’s repose, and tho whole iusect bursts
fovLli, lies perfectly inert for about a minute, and then a tiuy
^rcon locust, unmUtuke.iblu frfsn tho peculiar formation of tho
lead, couipluto, except that he is wiuglesa, hops about as frisky
IS the proverbial frolicsome kid. Mr, Bor's theory for their
lestructiou seems to eonsisl iu the iuteieeption by mean.s of
sorcens tonr feet high on young locirsts in the crawling stoge. It
would bo iiiterestiug to know at wbatpoioid of their oxistenes they
crawl. 'I'liii writer has seen thorn five niinutos old hop a foot.
Eflorts are being made in vatious colln-torates for the collootiou
ami de.struction of eggs. Many district ollicors, instead of enjoying
at bead-quarters tlio reposu they have earned after eight mouths of
the travolliiig season, arc out in the districts after what is face¬
tiously termed “ locust shikar.” N'otwithstaudiiig those most
praiseworthy efforts, it is feared that unless nature stops in, much
damage w ill bo Jono to tho young crops before they oan bo
rarveetod.— liomOay Catholic Eiamuice.
Tm: (Cntiid niatt fUr Tend. Tinhcstrie statOK that the super
ititimis views of the Buddhists had, until recently, prevented
die exlciisloti of silkworm culture in Ceylon. According to the
:U(‘st accounts, however, this opposition ha.s been nvercoiue,
■nd silk is occupying much attention in .several districts. The
uumorinis iii.seets and reptiles of the islniid have been found
render progrea.s difficult ; hut it is expected that, by tho
adoption of hucli prccaiAionar.y measure,s as arc usual iu
330
THE INDIAN i^GRICTJLTURIST. September 1, 1883.
tropial countrie-i, tiic new enterprise will finally Iw success¬
ful.
Nkw Yobk IvomRias.—According to the census returns
of 1880, there were at that time in New York 378,160 men
and 135,218 women, ni.aking together 613,377 persons, including
servants of Iwth sexes, who obtained their living by the work
of their hands. Tlie various branches of industry amounted
to 218, giving employment to U(i,179 men, 71,796 women,
luid 9,878 children under 16 years of age, The capital engaged
in these trades was ^36,200,000, the wages amounting to
^19,400,000, and the raw material to £57,680,000. These 218
industries were carried on in 11,.3.30 estahlishmeuts, iuclnding
839 hoot ami shoe factories, 782 bakers' shops, 761 tobacco
manufactories, 736 clothing works, 460 ompenter.s'shops, 412
printing offices, 401 plumbers’ shops, 229 fnriiitaro wareliouNCs,
298 painters’ shops, 177 tin-ware factories, and 174 siiddlers’
shops. A capital of £14,000,000 is sunk in the manufacture
of waterproof clothing, and £6,010,000 in the boot and shoe
trade, which provides employment tor 10,000 ijorsons in 120
establishments. No less than 30,000 tons of raw india-rubber
ai ‘0 imported annually into the United States. Combined with
other Bubetanoes, it produces a toUil weight of manufactured
articles amounting to 300,000 tons. The co.st of raw india-
rubher font yoam ago was under 2«. a lb., but it has now risen
to abont Bs. In consequence of this great rise in the price of
india-rubber, attempts are made to replace it by other sub¬
stances, such as celluloid.
Ihstitute of AoBicuiTunE.— The Council of this Institute,
which has been founded for the purpose of advancing technical
instruction upon various sections of agricultural practice, have
issued their second annual report, from which it appears tliat
the total number of poraons t(j whom cortifioatos of merit have
bean awarded, during tlie present session, is one hundred and
three. The arrangements for tlie next se.ssiuu consist of a
comae of 280 lectures upon agricultural science, from (Ictober
lat to May 3rd, 1884 •, a counse of 60 lectures on poultry, dairy,
and bee management, from March 10th to May 3rd, 1884 ;
a course of ten Monday evening lectures on agricultural science
from Februai'y 18th to April 28lli, 1884. Research committees
liare been establislied, anil .are carrying on tlieir respective
inquiries upon root crops, farm seed.s, ami iilanl growth. The
address of the Institute is South Kensington, S.W.
CuiNKSE Tea Trade.— The returns of the export of tea from
Chian and Japan during the past season continue to show a
great decline in the shipments to this country. In the twelve
mouths ending the 31st May, the total consignmonU to iis were
in round numbers
lbs.
1882-3 ... ... ... 170,000,000
1881-2 ... ... ... 164,000,000
1880-1 ... ... ... 175,000,000
To the Continent the shipments were—9,360,OOOibs, in 1882-3,
as compared with 10,100,OOOibs. in 1881-2, and 7,200,00011.8. in
1880-1. Accompanying this decline in the supplies of ten whicli
Europe has obtained from Cliina, tliere lias Iweu a large
increase in the supplies from India, and the Indiini product
would thus appear to bo gradually ousting tliat of Chiua from
uiu markets.
The number of eatlle killed in tlie Madras Presidency
by wild animals was, it seems, 9,703, against 8,9.38 in the pre¬
ceding year’. Nearly three-fonrtlis of the unmlrer fell victims
to tigers and pauthew. The loss was particularly heavy in
Cuddapah and South Canara, It was alsolai’ge in Vizagapiitaui,
Oodaviad, Kumool, .Salem, Madura, Tiunevclly, ami Miiialiar.
At the very moderate rate of Rs. 20 ii-liead, the 9,703 cattle
desti’oyed by wild boasts represent a loss to the cultivator of
about 2 lakbs of rnjiees, or between four and five times lus much
118 the Oovevumoiit has expended in the destrnction of theisi |
animals, and tins loas is caicnlatod Lo be ammally rceiin'ent, |
though readily termuiable by Iho .sanction of adequate rowards.
Iiooking at the loss in Cuddapah 2,(?32, and Smith Oauara
1,766, worth, respeotively, Rs, 40,640 and lU. 36,300 to the
agriculturist, against Bs, 2,629-8-0 and Rs. 6,400 expouJeii by
Government, it would seem a retrogade policy to liave rodiiced
the rewards formerly sanctioned. In these districts, at least,
where it is deal’ tliat the cultivators have had to pay for tlip
mainteiranee of tliese wild beasts seventeen and six times, res¬
pectively, what the Government have laid out on their destruc¬
tion, ami have liivl to pay this much in cattle alone without
taking note of their loss in sheep and goats, it would seem that,
the Govei'umeul reward sliould be enhanced, and thatjUic
amounts suggested in Board’s ProceeiUugs in G.O., 4th Maicli
1882, No. 261, are not excessive.
But opart from tlie three districts particularized as marked
instances, the Boai’d are of opinion tjmt it is false economy to
go on paying inadeiiuate rewards for a series of years, allowing
the agrioultarist also the while to lie under uuiioeessnry losses
and difficulties, ami tliat it will bo mitcii cheaper in the end to
enhance the rowards as proposed in Board’s Proceedings en¬
closed in G.O., 4th March 1882, No. 261, and press tlio destruc¬
tion rapidly homo. Largo areas could tlien be perfectly freed
by extermination, and tho cnltivatons would be saved Uie
additional cost to which they arc now pul of nightly foucing
their cattle in tiger and paiitlier proof structures.
Tis Obe ih the Malay pEsiitsuLA.— It appears tliat in
1882 the exports of metallic tin from Eorak amounted to no
less than 7,000 tons, which equals the production of Cornwall
and abont 40,000 Chinese are now engaged in mining works
there, A Frencli Company lias been formed for working tin
I deposits of tin ore in Malacca.
IxFORHATioH has liocu rcoeivoil from tho Foreign Office,
through tlioSoieiice and Att Uap.artni6nt, to the effect that tlio
“ International Exliihitinnof Macliinery ami Apparatus be.st
adapted for the Extraction of Water for Irrigating luul Ciittle-
wateriiig Purpose,” aunounceJ to be liold at Cagliari, in May,
has been postponed imlil November next. The machinery ami
apparatus ailinitted to tliu show aro tube divided into the
following classestilaas 1. Boring apparatu.s of tnlmlar wells
furuislied willi tlie respective suction pumps. Class 2. Borers
and expluratiiig implements for tlie soarclt of subterranean
waters. Class 3. 'Water-wlieels, cliains, witli buckets for
raising water, turlnnes, centrifugal pumps, liydranlic rams,
Archimedes' hydraulic screws, pnmp.s, and water-raising machi¬
nery of every description. Class 4. Irrigation plans whicli are
recognised of practical execution and economic utility in
Sardinia. The prizes assigned by the Ministm- of Agriculture
are,For the first-class, one gold medal and tlie pnrcliaso liy
tho said Minister of two Apparatus of the sy.stcm which olitains
the first prize, two silver, ami two bronze modal.s. For tho
second-class, one gold medal, two silver and two broaze medals.
For the third class, two gold medals, four silver and four bronze
medals. The Minister of Agrioiiltnre will parcliase, l)eside.s,
some of tlie awarded macliinery of lliis clas-s, reserving to
himself the selection and disposal of them, For the fourth
class, a gold medal, and 600 lire premium.
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL
SOCIETY OF INDIA.
The w<ml MoiUU;/ Medhin vf thin Socb'iy ms held, on Wednesdai/,
the SSth July iSSS.
\Y. H. Coii.swzLL, Esq,, Prosidont, in the Chair,
The proceedings of the last meeting held on the 20th of .Tune
were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were cloeted as Ordinary Members i—
G, E. Manisby, C.8., Magistrate, Cnttaok.
Edward Higge, Estj,, Merohaut, Galuntta.
Baboo Ishar Prosad Gorga, of Moisodal,
H. VV. Reid, Ewj., Manager, Latookajan Garden, Assam.
Baboo Bital Ohand Nakar, Azimgunge. ..
Edward J. Lawder, Esq., Private Secretary, to thOWswab
Vikur-ul-umra, Hyderabad, Docoan.
,f. D, Maxwell, Esq., Merehant, Calcutta.
15. A. .Samuols, Esq., C. S,, Magistrate, Bancoorah.
W. Biecek, Esq., Imperial German Consul, Caleutta,
K. l)eey Kpedding, Esq., C. S,, CoUector, Moradabad, N.-\V. P.
3'hoNawab Vikar-ul-umra, Hyderabad, Deoean.
C, A. Sonpit, Esq., Assistant Superintendent of Police, Cachar.
Elehard Bleeh ynden, Kiq,, J uslor, Calcutta.
September 1, 1883,
331
THE INDIAN ^RICULTURIST.
72ho names of the following gentlemen were Buhmitted as dc-
alrouB of joining the Society :—
W. Campbell, E»q., Knrliutrie Factory, Tirlioot,—proposed by
the Deputy Secretary, seconded by Mr. .1. E. MaoLaolilau.
A. M, Bose, Esq., Borrister-at-Law, OHleutta,—proposed by
Ksja Suttyanundo tihosal, Bahadoor, V.-P,, secondod by Mr.
Richard fileebynden. Junior.
J. R. Croft, Blsq., Merchant, Calcutta,—proposed by Mr. Q. L.
Kemp, seconded by Mr. W. Stalkartt.
J. D. Masoyk, Eeq., of Juaglnorc,—proposed by Mr. R.
Blechyndeii, seconded by Mr. O. L. Kemp.
•irr A. Dawson, Esq., District Superintendent of Police, Ban-
coorah,—proposed by Baboo Pertap Narrsia Singh, seconded by
Baboo Joykisson MooKorjoe.
Raja Bajooomar Rai, of Fatorlaghatta, Calcutta,—proposed by
tlie Deputy Secretary, sooouded by Raja Suttyanundo Ghosoi,
mhadoor, V.-P.
O. B, Reynolds, Esq., C.E., Assistant Manager, Wurrora State
Railway Colliery,—proposed by Col. W. B. Thomson, seconded by
Mr. J. £. Ma'cLaobm.
Prince Mlrza Mahomed Jahali, Bahaduor,—proposed by Rajab
Suttyanundo Ohosal, Bahadoor, V.-P., soooudod by Mr, Richard
Blechyndeu, Junior,
CONTBIBOTIOK.S.
A large number of Chrysanthemum and Poliaiithus roots, and
some Begonia cuttings. From Baboo Prosonu Coomar Banorjee.
Capsicum seeds from General Dhuje Narsiiigh Rauu Bahadoor,
Kepal.
Capsicum seed from MasuHpatau,—a quantity from E. 11.
Boileau, E8(i., Forest Department.
The IndiMi Fore»iri', Nos. 6 and 7 of Vol. IX. From the Editor.
Procoodiugs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for April 1883.
The Trop'iritl Ar/ricnlturht for Juuo and July (two copies each).
From tlio Editor.
The Records of the Geological Survey of ludiu, Vol. XVI., Part
II., ISS."!. From Government of India.
Snggoatious regarding Forest Administration in the Madras
Presidency. From Government of India.
The Admiustratiou Report on the Jails of Bengal, ISS'J. From
Govemmoutof India.
./Ubum Beuary No. 7, and a numbe, of largo also Floral Pictures.
From Enist Beuary Erfurt.
5 lbs. Uivi-Divi soeds. From Col. J.'fitewart, R.A,, Cawnpore.
CoJiMn.MCATKitJs.—From Major Pitcher, Department of Agri¬
culture, N.-W. Proviuoes :—“ You would greatly oblige me if you
could kindly find out through your correspondents in the Mauritius
the price of tile ‘ grotteuao ’ and of the ‘ Cassc-teto’ impleincuta
ill use tliern for cleaning and extracting Aloe fibre. 1 should like
an estimate of the cost of each lauded In Calcutta!” Tim Seoro-
tary said that Major Pitulier’s I’equost liad been complied witli,
but tjiore not been suffloieiit time to receive a reply. Tlie Casse
tete is tlic machine alluded to in late procoodiugs, the use of wliioli
appears to reiiuiro some practice, but one of tlie garden iiiea is
bring trained to work it so tiiat it may Iiave a fair trial.
l''ioiii Wossra. Bcgg, Dunlop* Co.—Asking for information re-
g.ardiug experiments made with Aiuurieau cotton seed in India.
As such a mass of information has been eollootod by the Society in
tlip last tliirty years during which exporiiiioiits ha\o froqnontly
been made, Mca'rs, Begg. Dunlop & Co. wore rufened to the
Society’s Journals.
Rice-Husk Kn
Several applications cither for drawings er working-models of
tho Rice-IIuskor reported on in last iirosecdiiigs were read; the
Deputy Soorotary inentiouod that tlieso wore being prepared.
Information regarding a maelilne for HpnniiV) and whitening rice
has also been received, and will be duly noticed.
HK.m' ExTKACTlUi.
Olivb in InhIa.
From Messrs. Begg, Dunlop &Co.—"We should fuel greatly
obliged if you could supply us with some information isigardiiig
the cultivation of the olive in India. * • • • Jt seems strange
that the cultivation of the olive whioh has attained to such
importanoo in tlio country mentioned sliould be
neglected in India. Any information wliioh you can give wo shall
be glad to receive, as also particulars as to the best mode of
propagation.” To which tim Secretary replied as follows r
In reply to yours of the 22nd instant regarding olive culture lu
India, I append an extract from a report furnished by Dr. Ross
in the year 1852, the only experiment to extract oil from tho wiUt
olive of whioh 1 can Hud any record. This exporimout U alluded
to Dr. Stewart in Iiis Punjah Plants, pnblisiiud in 1869, and
by Dr. Brandis in his Pon'st Ploru, imbllshod in 1873, as orucial,
and as one that proves tliat oil cannot be extracted In anfficleut
quantities to mako it roinnuci'atlve. You will ui)serve in Dr.
Ross’s report, tliat tho fruit was dried in tlie sun, and altogotlier
treated in a manner whicli appears to bo quite opposed to tho
Italian practice, wiiore tlie fruit is oollectcd into small mounds,
and the oil, expressed by their own weight, escapes and runs iuto
u rcoeptaule ; they arc then pressed with siuail mill stones, and
tho oil obtalnerl by tins method too is of good quality. The fruit
Is thou placed in socks, boiling water poured over them, and again
rcssod, tho produce being inferior in quality ; the oil is flien
opt in stone jars, and the slimy parts allowed to settle ; these
dregs must be removed, or tlie oil would liecome rancid.
1 will lay your letter before tlic Couuoil, and will submit a pixi-
posal to make a careful trial when tlic season arrives.
As regards modes of propagation. There ure three methods
meutioned—cuttings which appear to strike readily, “ driving a
stout stake cut from a branch into tho ground which throws out
roots and gruivs iuto a true, and cutting from a felled tree tlie
wood “between root and trunk” into pieces about tho size of a
mushroom, taking care tliat some bark adheres ; whicli pieces are
planted, are fit for transplanting in a year, and for removal to tiiv
olive yard in three.
There are a great variety of ulive.s valued each for special quali¬
ties. I sliall no happy to oliLaiu advice from France os to tlio
species which ore must estoomed. I may add that tlie Eavopoaii
olive trees imported iuto Bengal have not as yet tiuwered.
Mr. Powell, of the Lahore Agricultural and Horticultural
Society, in reply to an enuuiij’ regarding the couditioii of the
imported olive trees tried in l.ai.Iiorii, writes that-—" the trees grew
well otiougli ill good soil, and even niado a slinw of Howoriiig but
no fruit 1 fruit of the sise id a pin’s head may turiii, but they
invariably drop ofT. ” Mr. i’mvell adds, Im thinks, Ciiumba and
the upper iSutlej Yalley siiilabie places fur the iutrudue.tiuu of the
European variety. " I have at tliu AgriuuUural and Ilorticiil-
tural Garden, Laiiore, suvwedud in raising uative olive stoeks
irom seed, and grafting tlie European olive on them, but tliuugh
the grafts take perfectly well, nunc Iiavc been down Uiuff enougli to
test the probability ot fruit,”
I.MjiA.v \Yiie.vt, and What its Futurr mat Bkcome.
Towards the autumn of 1882, the Secretary of State for India
had instituted a series of experiments, by practical expert*, in
Indian wheat, tlioreuglily cxliaustive as regards their quantitative
auJ qualitative properties and values, iu compariaou witli those of
American and otlier well known recognized wheats of commoroo,
and from the analyses of wldcb it is shown that tlio ludian wheats
" afford a larger margin of profit both to tlio miller and baker tliou
any other.” Tiiose are such startling faots, they possess so much
of interest, not only to membois of this Society, but to the public
gc-m-rally, that I feel too groat notice and prominence cannot bo
liiven to tln'iii, so J unhesitatingly give, in extpnso, tho wlmle of
tile details ot tlio.so experiments, the results, and tho dednctioiis
to be drawn theiefiom, us published in tho JHcDUomist, IBth Juuo
I8S3.
The following letter received from Mr. Wilkinson, British Oon-
Snlato, Manilla ;—
I bale the boiiiiui- to inform yon that I have sent to the Harbour
Master at Jlungkimg, with ii-ijiu'st to forward to you, a model of a
Hemp Extractor as used iu these islands. 'I'lio model is reduced
exautiy oue-lialf the usual size. The"several pirei-s of wood which
compose it are packed up loose, but tin y can be e.isily put together
by means of the enclosed iustructioiis and diagi-amB. 1 have had
much difficulty in procuring this model from ouc of the pioviuccs
of this island, hence the delay in sending it to you.
The follow'ing Is a description of the apparatus in n.se In the
province of Albay, Island of Luzon, for extracting the filnes from
the stalks of the wild plantain (Musa textilis) locally known as
Aiioca, or Manilla hemp :—
Two strong uprights ai'e firmly fixed In the ground aud oonnootod
by a cross bar, iu the centre of whioh a largo liroad-bladud knife
is fixed edge downwards on a block of wood toateued lengthwise on
tho bar ; the kuifo has a strong handle which is connected by a
cord to a long bamboo made to aot as a spring ; by being tied in
tiio middle and the butt parallel and above the bar, tiie free end
thus foims a supple and powerful spring, and holds the edge of the ,
knlfe^rmly against the Slock ; below the bar, there is a treadle, |
attacl? ' by n oord to the handle of tho knife ; the moile of opera¬
tion is fCfr the wicker to stand opposite the knife, placing either
foot on tlie treadle, which he depiesses, thus forcing the kuifo,
handle down and the blade up ; lie then plaoea a strip of stalk
(culled locally siija) between the blade and the block, leaving only
enough to wrap round a stick, on tho near side. Ho tlieu roleasos
tho treadle, and the knife^ by the action of the bamboo spring,
nips tlie strip firmly against the block, and on tho workmen draw¬
ing the the strip through, the pulp is leh behind. The apparatus
U extremely simple and inexpensive.
That article wa.s preceded by the publication of a pamphlet hero
in March l-mt, kinm ii by some as tlie “ yellow pamphloV’ entitled
“ Indian Wheat jv/'si/s Aiiierio.au Protection ; or, the luflueaeo of
English Tiado and American protection on the Development of
India," BO ably dealing with this subjeect, that the Government
of India were furuislied with a copy of it, and received a ooui-
muuteation thereon from tho Bengal Chamber of Coimneroe.
It shows the position occupied by India as to supplies for
Europe, liow the trade could bo diverted from America to this
i-oiuiti v, Slid the advautages to tho Indian ryot and to the English
mmml.iotiii-iir that would result. There is tho following proof
ol Lhe qualilv ot the v. heat raised, proof that it can be raised,
and at prices that Hill place it on fair eoinpotitlvu grounds, and
there is ample evidence of the one thing ouly tiiat iH nesdec] to
achieve such results ; and that is, cheap communication by the
pushing forward of the railways, and the steady growth of their
systems.
I understand that the Goveruinont of India are using their
tndeavuiii-s to get a rcductiim of transit rates on ail Indian rail¬
ways, that this Is likely to oo conoeded, aud if it is, combined
witli the active eonmotition for ocean freight, I know of no valid
reason why India should not in time supply the whole of what
is culled the foreign, or imported, wheat iuto England, which
amounts to aiiuuiilly about 56 iiilllion cut*., worth .‘H millions
sterling. Of that quantity about five million owts., or nearly
three millions sterling, went from I udla.
Tho question of tho Yvi-obable wheat supply from India is
oooupying the minds of moat thinking men of position and In-
fiuouoe iu England, and I see no gootf reasons why it riiould not
go forward, but time will| bo required to dovojop it to a mttoh
greater extent than known at present; with this data, however,
before Government, and tho adoption of the progresnlve polity so
332
THE INDIAN ^KICULTUKIST. September 1, 1883.
•(■■rongly, yet temperately, PuriKistly, anil alijy advociilcd, tlic
remits e&B be but those of golden harvests for thin country,
W. U. Coosw-siL,
Kspshimesw with iNniAii Wheat.
In October last, Messrs. McDougoll Bros., of london, were
Instnicted by the Seoretaiy of Stale for India to institute a series
of expertoeiite with Indian whont, In order to ascertain how they
compared as to yield and ijuantity of flour with American and
otbEr supplies. Conditions under whioh the experiments were
to bo cOnduoted arc thus set forth by Messrs. MuDougall
I, That we should take a given ijnantity of each of these
four representative Indian wheats, or.—Indian Une soft white,
Indian snperior soft red, Indian average hard white, Indian
average bird rod, and manufacture them into flour by the ordinary
process ot grinding under millstones. Also that we should take
similar quantities of the same wheats, and manufacture them into
flour by means of crushing between rollers, according to the system
known as the Hungarian or roller system. II, That we should
take a given quantity of each flour so prodnoed, and maiinfacturo
It into bread. III, That wo ehould note the qualities and
other cliaraeterlstlos of tlie flours iffoducod, also of tlio offals, eh..,
middlings pollard, and bran. Iv. That we shoud procure the
following representative wheats, of fair average quality of the
season, as then being sold in Mark-lane market, for the purpose
of obtaining results for comparison, deal with tliem precisely as
above indicated, both os regards flour, bread, and offals, riz.—
English average, American (red winter), American (spring),
American average, Californian average, Bunsian Suxnnska, Kussian
Tannrog, Rusaiui Kuhauka, Russian Ghirka, Egyptian Bnhi,
and Egyptian Baida.
As none of the Kubanka or Ghirka qualities of Rmssian wheat
could he obtained bt fjondon, those could not included in the
tests. Of each of tlie other wheats specified, however, 5,000 lbs.
were taken as delivered from the ship (weiglit of sacks or lurgs
not included), and subjected to the troatinont specified, the opera¬
tions being carried out ui Messrs. McJIougaU’s own mills and
bakeries, under the persoual stiperviniou of one of the partners (if
the Arm.
The Xi-aporation aii4 Lonn in A/fifinp.—The percentages under
this heading, It will be noticed, vary considerably, from No, 11,
Russian Saxonska, stones, 0-7; rollers, 0-2 ; to No. 18, Egyptian
Bnhi, stones, 5-5 j roller^ 6-4, These variations must not be
attributed eblofly to the difl'eronoos in qualities of the wheats, as
they arise mainly from the waste aud loss that is iuseparablo from
working small quantities on a practical scale; about ten quarters
of each wheat wercopniated upon in these experimental work¬
ings, whereas in ordinary milling a “ grist ” will run from one
thousand to several thousand quai'ters. This will bn readily
understood, when it is borne in luind that, after the working cif
each sepal ate wheat by either process, the stones or rollers,
hoppers, elevators, dressing silks, te., have to bn swept out, mid
it is impossible to avoid some waste fiuin this cause, lit milling
operations it is found there is a laigor loss, Ac., “unaGconiitci!
for," on inferior wheats than njion good wheats, but it does not
exceed a total of 1 to 2 per cent. Eor practical purjioses, tlie
items, evaporatiou and loss, should lie taken os obtained by cum-
etent millers, namely, four stones, 1 to 2 per cent j from rollers,
to 3 per cent, according to the qualities of wlicats.
Waler used in Jirend-Midmy.—The difl'oreiioes in the quanlltie.s
of water required by oacli of tlie flours from Indian w heats per
280 lbs. flour in making them into bruiid (ranging from Hit'ti lbs,
to 141'0 lbs, water) is partly aecouuttd fur, liy the fact of siinie-
what similar variations in tlie water absoiiied in rendering the
wheats mellow for milling.
tVeig/it per Buahrl r./ li'/ti'nl*.■—Those experimental workings
liavo brouglit to light a fact well worth noting, ri:.,, tliat the rule
so geuerally held amongst wheat sellers and buyers, and tliouglit
to bo without an exception, tliat tlie greater the weight of u
bushel of wheat so much higher must it lauk as u flour-yielder,
and oonsequently in value, must now be regarded as true only
within a striot limit. A high standard of weight for any given
cubical measurement is, no doubt, a good criterion as to drviir,ss
of condition and soundness of tlie gmiii, for any dampness in
grain causes it to weigh ftpAfrr per bushel or rjuarter of tnoasure-
ment Instead of heavier (a fact whioli will surprise tlie uninitiated).
But experienced parties will study with interest three columns in
the synopsis of the wheats, showing “ weight of 100 separate
S rains" of each wheat, “weight per bushel," and "yield of
our." Taking equal weights of the four Indian wheats, it will
be found that No. 3, weigtilng 60 lbs, per bushel, yielded more
flour than No. 1, weighing 64 lbs.; also, tliat No. 4, weigliing 60
lbs. per bushel, yielded more flour than No. 2, weighing 62i|lb8.
The reason of this is evident. The four wheats were equally and
perfectly dry, aud probably would have weighed the same per
bushel had the size and shape of the grabis of each wheat been
the same, but they differ widely in this respect, Nos. 1 aud 2
being medium or small, and Nos. 3 aud 4 long and arched. Hence
the latter will not fill into a measure as closely as the former,
leaving larger spaces asoocu|flod, ami causing any given measure
to weigh less in ennsequenoe. The old rule holds good for wheats,
tbs grams of 'which in size aud shape are similar, but it will only
ntslsad if applied to Indian wheats like Nes. 3 aud 4. It was,
doubtless, adopted at a period when it was the custom for all
wheats to be Md by msssnre, aud for sales by measure it is still
a corrsst guide, but as ssles are now made by weight rather than
by measure, the rule can only safely be applied within the limits
indicated,
Tkt O/oIs,—This is a Bubjeet of minor importanoe os oompared
with the yields and qualities of flour aqd bread, and it is only
needful to state that, of the o&le Included in these returns, the
middU&gs from both systems of milling were worked down to the
quality known on the Mark Lane market as “ coarse mids*, fait
average," the bran to “ bran from stones,” and “ bran from
rollers," and the pollard to “ pollard, fair average,” '
OliUen in Srmd.— From an economical standpoint, it may be
said the nutrition of bread mainly depends upon the gluten, or, in
other words, tlie nitrogenous or albuminous compounds or flesh
formers, eontaiuod in the flour from which it Is preduued. Tlio
starch would be equally important if it could not ho obtained from
other sources in as suitable a form at a muob clioaper rate—as in
rice, Indian corn, and potatoes. But the gluten is not obtainable
from otlicr sources, of equal quality and flavour, Heaye Jts
special value as a constituent of wheat, Further, upon the cluteii
In flour depends the elasticity of the texture of the bread, and
consequent freedom from density or htavtuesi. It is gcnetnlly
believed that upon the percentage of gluten in flour depends the
ykld of broad that may oe obtained from it, as illustrated by tin-
Hungarian flours, which are almost uueiiualled for yield of bread,
and rank high in Lduten ; but this is erroneous, as proved by the
oxpcriincntnl workings now under review. It w.ould be found
that the flours liigli in gluten do not produce the most bread,
unless, lit the s.inio time, they possess n high degree of drynet..,,
for it is upon tlie dryness of the flour that the yield of bread
mainly depends, aud nut upon the gluten. Tlio two lots of floni
from Russian wheats (Nos. 11 and 12) are those which are highest
in gluten, yet they do not yield as muoh bread os any of the foiii'
Indian wheats (Nos. 1 to 4), and the difference in yield from
the latter would have been still further increased had tliey not
been previously mellowed with water, as noted, before milling :
ooiiflriiiing tliat it is the diyuess of a flour that detorniiiics tlie
yield of bread.
Anctlier erroneous idea is, that upon tlie quantity of gluten
resent depends the height or loftiuoss of the bread. 'I’liia would
e correct, provided the feriiieiitatiou of tho dougli were in .'ill
cases carried to a prceisc degree ; Imt it varies widely, and it will
be found tlio loftiness or height of tlie bread depends eliielly upon
a high degree of terraontotion, provided it be not carried to great
excess, rather than upon the gluten. This is illustrated by the
broad consumed in tho London district, whioh is made from flours
rich in glntou, yet is not so high or lofty as tlie bread eousuiiu’d
in some otlier districts, wliieli is produced from flours containing
raueli less gluten, tlie popular taste lu Loudon demanding strengtli,
nutrition, and then fair coluiir, whereas, in the districts referred
to, a high degree of whlteupss is demanded befure nutrition.
The Four Inwan Wiikat.s.
In addition to the particulars ooutalned in the foregoing returns,
we have to report that to auy one experienced in tiio reijuirc-
mentsof the ,wheat and flour markets of tho United Kingdom,
and, indeed, of most ether euuutries, it will be evident tlmie is
no probability of these Indian wlieats coniiiig into demand for
iiiamifactnre into flour vnflmit a lihmJ ndiiiij'Uirf of iiUisr wheats.
They all possess in a marked degree tlie saiiio elmiueteristica of
great dryness, and a distinct beany and almost aromatic flavour,
inseparable from wheats grown in tiie eliiiiutes anil Mills of tlm
tropics, Also the flours are rieey, the texture of Die bread is too
close, and the crust is hard ami brittle, lint tinwcliaiaeteriaties
do not detract from their usefulness in auy important degree,
Asia well known, a miller cannot show skill in Ids eiuft to greater
advantage or liroiit than that with which lie selects hi.s wheats,
and mixes his grists, .so as to produce to best advantage a llotir
from whieli lirtad can bo nindo of the colour; blnoin, strengtli,
and flavour desired, and withal a good yield,
\Vu pronounce tlicbi to be exceedingly useful wheats, in faet,
tiardiy equalled for wliatis dofloient and wanting in Hie EiigUali
markets by any uDicr wheats. 'Their chief uliuracterlstics are just
those ill wliii'li the wlieats grown in our variable elim.vte are
most ilettcieiit. Their groat dryness and sounduesa render them
invaluable for admixture with English wheats ttiat are in any
degree out of conilition tlirongh moisture, and tlie great propor¬
tions of tho wheats harvested here have been in that eoiiditiou
for some years past, a condition tliat must prevail in all otlier
tlnvii tliat of wlieats harvested aud stored during flue and favour¬
able woatlier; and this the Euglisli farmer knows, greatly to his
cost, is a state of elimute. tliat is by a long way the exooptioii
nillior than Die rule. Added to their dryness, tho tliimiess pi the
skins of those wlieats, aud consequent greatness of the yield of
flour, must always place them In the front rank as a “ miller’s ”
wlioat, whenever they are liandlod with reasonable iutoUigeuoo
and skill.
Such uuprocedeuted yields of floor, as shown by these wheats,
ranging (by ordinary grinding) from 77'48 to 80'52 por cent
against English 65'2 and American spring 72'2, speaks voluraes in
their favour, and their value is still further increased by another
point of merit of almost equal importanoe, vfz., a larger pereeutage
of bread may be obtained than from any ether of the flours
included in tills review.
That, for the beat of tlicso Indian wheats (tbs fine soft white),
on the day they were valntd in Mark •lane market, a price was
offered as high as that for American winters. New ^laud nr
English (see list of values in synopsis) proves that tho greet value
of the ludiou wheats is boooniiog recognised hero, a knowledge
that will ere long extend to all our markets. The q^»r lots
of Indian (Nos. 2, 3, and 4) wore lower in val«e to ,tnr extent
of 4s. to He. per quarter, as might almost have been expected from
the difference iu colour aud oDier characteristics ; stiU, as these
latter wheats become better known hero, this difference in price
will be somewhat lessened. Their beany fiavonr is not a serious
obstacle, as fair average delLverloi, when well cleaned and properly
dealt with, can be employed in tho proportion of 25 per cent
to 50 par cent along with home-grown or other wheats, such
as Americans, potsesdng a flqe tweet, ipilky, oi nutty flavour.
September 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUKIST. 333
Qlanciog at all thefaeta here e.laOorateil, U is eeident that, thei
wheata afford a larger Margin of jtrojil hath to *hc- miller and bah
than to any ntkttr.
W« venture to record a conviction wo hove long hold, stronglj
emphneieed by the reunite of thceo experimental workings, of the
meaeurcluss Importance of tho groat rououroou of Ibo Iiuliac
empire being develope<l to tho utmost iu producing wheat I
this country. Farmers here are finding that to live the 3 ' mns
produce beef and mutton ratlior lliau grain, lioncc tho greater noo
of resources of supply unde)- our own control.
It is evident such a conviction is common to tlio inembors o'
your Honourable Council, as testified by their unceasing olforts in
this dtreotion. And we desire heartily to congratulate them upon
the important fruits arising from their labours. The uharocter and
general excellence of the Indian wheats are improving witli the de-
liveries of each sueeessivo season. Tho Indian wlieats now
sjpeoially under review were delivered to us iu excellent con
dltion (see details) with freedom from dirt (except lot No. .1).
barley, gram, and other impurities, also witli a freedom frotii
weevil, rarely equalled by Indian wheats, except tlie prime parcelt
of tho past season, and there is no doubt an outlet iu this country
and the Huropeau ooutineut for unlimited quantities, at prices
tlmt sliall prove rerauuerativo to all parties ooncornod, citlier It
their growth, transportation, or conversion into flour and bread.
Gakden.
The Garden Committee’s re|>ort was road ; tliey intimate tliat
a now catalogue of plants is iu course of preparation, whicli will b
ready at an early date, when a copy will bo sent to eacli moinhor.
Tlie usual Monthly Garden Hoport was thou road.
iSiuco tho last meeting good progress lias been made iu garden
work.
A great deal of laboiii- lias lieeu taken up in the levelling of tin*
largo lawn; howevoi', adi'anoe li.as been inaile, and tin; work, wlmn
completed, will be a permanent impiovemeut, and will add groot
ly to tlie general appearance of tlio garden, and render it more
attractive to visitors.
Hoeing and breaking up tho ground throughout tho oroliard has
been commeuoedj a very necessary tliough trouWosome piece of
work, wliich it will take some time to do thuronglily, as it covui-s
a considerable piece of laud.
iu tho last garden report it was moutioued tliat a pottlug-slu'd
was under coustruotion’for work during the rains ; this lias boon
completed and has Iteeu of great use during tho lieavy rains
wo have been experiencing in the mouth under review.
A bamboo fence, some seven .feet higlt, to eneluse blO' x 7u',
iueludiug the prupagating-shud, is being made, and will he finished
in tho course of the month ; wlien tlio fonee is eoveretl with
creepers and ulosed witli a door, tlicre will lie a good and secure
place in wliich to keep the more waluahle plants ; the want of
which Unow greatly fell. 'J'lie material for this useful work is
supplied entirely from the ({ardeu.
The few Amber caiio wliich germinated, are now iu flower, they
were sown on the 2'Jlh of May, and liave thus taken only ahoiit
sixty days to mature, so this vniiety of iSorgliiim is well named
tlio Harly Amber. It is proposed to try another orop of cane
iu the same land, a report of which will he duly given.
Tho instructions given by tlic Garden Committee in leferoime
to oollootiiig plants, near and around tlie plant liousc, are In iiig
carried out, and a road lias bceu ooinmciicud uhich they pointed
out os de.siruhle.
A portion of tho lane leading into the garden on the eastern
side has been widened and tlio elearaiiecs made round Uio liniise
formerly allotted to the ((prdunor, now occupied by the Deputy
Secretary, give that qide of tlie g.ardcu a more pleasing and
ornamental appearance.
Trojiagation is being carried on vigoionsljq and tlie stoclt of
plants has thus been largely luercasod. 'I'he lollnwiiig .arc still
available:—
Mahogany, Cofi'ee, Teak, Coara Kuliher, I’aiier Miilhciiy,
Sago Palms, Poiueiaua Regias, Sissti, Sivistouia hmiulis, and
other Palms. 1
Plovrers liavooii several oceasions iieen supplied free of cliarge to
many charitable institutions on application.
Ric'UAiiii Br.ECiivvDHN, .fuiiior,
iSeerelfirg.
OFFICIAL PAPER.
PKICKLY-PEAR AS A SHELTER FOR TREE-SEEDS.
I N accordance with tlie official momomnditm of Government,
CoUeotors were called upon to report tlie result of any experi-
meuts, moile by thoiii iu tho direotiou, suggested by Mr. H. S.
Thomas, of using prickly-poar as a shoTter for tiee-soeds wiieu
sown broadcast aiiiongst inassea of it.
Tho CoUeotors* replies are now submitted to f lovernmeut with
the following remarks :—
In Aiiaiitapore, South Caiiara, Ganjani, Kurnool, Malabar,
Nll^ris, Tinuovolly, and Vizagapatam, there is liappily no scope for
•the experiment, ns the cactus is either scarce or altogether un¬
known.
In several districts where tree-seeds have been sown lirnadcast,
sufflolant time has not elapsed to allow any seedlings, which may
have sprung up, to show tliemselves above the prickly-penr. Tliis
applies speotally to Nellore, Coimhatoro, Trichinopoly and Salem ;
and probably to North Aroot, Kristiia and Chinglopnt, where
experimeuta on a limited scale are reported to liave failed It la to
be regretted that (except in the case of Nellore) tho Collectors have
not furnished defiiiito information .as to the areas dealt .with,, or
as to the kind, quantity, and coat of Uie seed sown, nml of the
lahoiir employed, as to gauge tlie results by outlay.
In Rcllary and Taujore, no experiments laid been made wlicn
the reports from those districts were submitted, but tile Colleclora
promi.se tiiat cxpcrimeiits shall lie instituted at au early date.
In Ciiddapnh, over l,HOO piaiits ai'C said to have risen from sonu'
tamarind, niargosa and janihii (Engenia jitiubolana) su'd sown by
tho General Deputy Collector in six vfflages. Information is
wnntiug us to tlie quantity and cost of the seen used, and as to the
appro.xiinato area over which it was sehttorod, and tlie cost of
scattering.
In Madura, it is said tliat tliere are no dense olumhs of iirickly
pear, except ill the Melur Taluk. Homo mnrgosa seed was sown
amongst it in tills taluk without rcaull. I’articulai'S as to quantity
and area aro wanting.
Tlie Crillotitor of Godavari reports that in that district, pi ioUly-
pear is cliielly found in and near vilhigc-sitos, “ where its presum i-
Is a nuisance wliich ought to he got rid ot.” But as it is not got
rid of, it should be utilized till it is. It is believed tliat, apart
from the troiible attending its removal, tho villagers in some
places are very loth to see it (li-stroyod attributing tiic saving of
their lives to it in no small measure iu famine, as tho cactus boars
edilde jiears in the sovorest duuight. This was notably the case
ui Coimbatore. 'I'ho consumption of tin- fruit by human lioings
accounts for its propagation eliiefly in and around viiliigr:-.siteK.
While, llicrcfore, this espi'i'iniont need not inti-i'lcrc witli the
removal of cactus wlion il isilesircd to l•l!lllov() it hn cultivation,
or liecauso of tlio harliour 11 iiK‘h it possibly gti'es to snakes in
villages, HO long as it is loti etaiuhiig, it shoiiid be utilized ,as a
oouspi'vatoi' of tress. Iu twelve villages some easnariiia, tamarind,
mango, iimrgosa, palmyra, and dale seeds wi-m sown. 'I'lie ciema-
rina seed did not germinate., possibly from having hcoii eiirried oil
iiy ants, as lias been toiuid the c.asi‘ elsewhore. Why the palmyr.i
and date slioiild have failed, is not meutioiiod ; pos.sihly they h.av
not yet had time lo gormitmte, as these seeds .siddom .show ahovc
ground tin iihmit a year, ami auim-timeb lie im'rt hut alive in tlin
gi'ouiiil tor tlio or three yeans till tlicro is a good rainfall. A (mv
tamarind, mango, and margoau seed gcrnunatuii, hut on the nliolo
tlio result ot tliv experiment does not Si-cm to tiavo lieen thought
pueoiuaeiug. The, Boai d believe the cliivf tiling wanting is time.
'ITioy notice, however, tliat “ twenty miiiigo and twenty tamarind
trot's ■' are spoken of as “ planted '' in omi plnoo. Tim iiliiiiliiig
of grown triiH.s is no pai t of the experiment, ami similar iiiisun
derstundmgs iii other plaee.s may peiliaps acooiiut tortiiu want of a
gl ester pioportieii of success.
Ill Nellore, tlie experiment lias soumiiigly been very thoroughly
tried and eert.iiiily on a large scale. In tlio Gudur Taluk, 1,1HH
measures of tree-seed ami i,ti,')() palmyra kernels Were sown over
5'i7 atTg.s of [irieUly pear. SufiiciBiit time ha<l mil elapsed to
jmlyu propeily of re-sults, bat none of the seed had germiiiateil at
tho time oE liic CoUeotor's report. In the AtmaUur Taluk, I.ISIO
measures of seeds were sown over 11'2 aerea. A few saplings aro
reported to iiavc lioeii seen amongst tho cactus,• hut ns more than two
yeara li d cliipseil since the sowing, the Collector believes that tlio
iiilU ot the .seed did not germinate. .In the ICaiidlikur Taluk, 27
icies were sown iu IfiSO with a very largo " quantity ot seed,
iiid after two years, eighty snjiliiigs wan tlio apparent result. In
he Kanigiri Taluk, J,U8(J incasure.s of seed and 1,000 palmyra
liciiiels were sown over 120 acres in twenty lill.ages. From thi.s
-eed, 800 srediiigs of sorts mid oil palmyias have germinated.
Tills is the giciitesl suceess that tho Collector cun ciiroiiicle, and ho
.ioneidot.s that “ as a piaetieal measure to be taken into consider.'!.
lioii iu the opeiatioiiM ot the .Jiiiigle Coiisorvaucy Dupartmeut, t!m
'.vperimeiit stands eondemnod.”
In TVieliinopely, some margoaa and tamarind seed was sown
11 oadeast ill more than KOI eiity villages, and as tlio ri'siiit of this
lowing, HOd tamariud and 1,880 ni.argosa seedlings are said to liave
already sprung iqi. 'The Collcetur thinks tlio e.xpcriment a success ;
but it'would have been more salisficlery it tile value of tim .seed
uul labor expended liad been sUted, so that lelunis might b«
coiiiparcil with the cost.
lu .South Areot, the idiiii advocated l>y Mr. Thomas is stated to
avo been prautised ever since 1S7T liy the Deputy Coiiseri ator,
Ur. Wooldridge, wiio, w'liUe adding oortaiii iiitercstiug differeiiceM
if opiiiiou loiuidud oil experiouce and printed in (I.O., 14th August
879, No. 1702, and Board’s Ti oeocditigs, dated 2Uth April 1882,
S'o. I Ilk"), says “ there can be no doubt of tho icsults of tlie
jystoui,” and gives as results 0,2.)7 soe.dliiigs aI)ovo one foot in
girth and Ill ,422 less than one foot in girth, remarking ui one, place,
“ self-grown uow like a tope.” llo also utilizes dense beds of
Jwarf wild date in tlio same way. Mr. Wooldridge adds that in
li.s oxporieuco the increased siiudo and iiioisture from tiio growing
reos has been found to destroy the cactus in time -a view- helii
Jso by Mr. .Steaveuson ; and os it is ordinariiy found that in thick*
y.growu wood, grass is exterminated, it may well lie tliat iu
uui'so of time, the same result will follow iu cactus. That tlie
actus does not suifer imder single trees under which it still gets
,11 hut the midday sun, is no evidence that a plant which lives so
jiuoli on snu and air will not die out wlieii thoroughly shut in t>y a
liiek tope, siieh as Mr. Woodridge has raised iu it. It will pro-
Jably then he found to live only as a fringe.
'The Colliictors (Vizagnpjitam excepted) have not dwelt on Uio
■ nestioii of employing prickly-pear to pioteet avenue seedlings.
11 Vizagapatam, the Local Fund Bo.ard deciinoil to sanction the
xperiiiieiit on any' of their roads, on the ground tliat it would
ipread the grow'tii of a poriiioious )>edt. I’robably this would lie
■tie view generally taken, and it may bo remarked tliat, wliile tiio
dea finds place among tho papeia eircalatod, it wiu ncithci Mi.
L'homasis proposal nor the Board's recommoudatiou that the cactus
ihoidd anywhere be propapated for tho protecUou of avenue or
ither tree*, but merely tliat, where il; was louad to be ui existence,
331
THE DiDIAN AGRICUB^URIST. Sopten,])er 1 , 1883 .
it' fihoul/l bo utiliiiod in piaoe ot beins lookod on as an uamitigatc'c
evil.
iSoino reports ain inosj^rs, and Mr. Maoleano'd particalariy so.
11c wUi now report what io«ai.ureH he liaa taken for broadcaa*
sowino noeiliii oactUB, atitl tlio time of sowing.
looking to the merkctfly aueoimsfn! rosnita obtained by thi
Deputy Coniiorvator, Mr. Wootdriclgo, whose reports are worthy o'.
{Ktrusai, the Uoard are ilitpoaod to tlituk that the want of suocea
II other parts may be attributable iu very great measure to wan
of time for the nppef ranee of the sairlings above tUu oaotua when
it is 5 or <i feet bigli, and perhap.s also in a less degree to ill-seleo
tion of tlie time for sowing, eu that tlie seedlings diil not get tin
whole rainfall, or to season, and in some places, eeoralngly, to inis
uiiderstnuding. Uoiisidoring that the experiment ts not expoualvo,
llic Hoard would wish to see it renewed.
SELECTIONS.
Till-: I'OONA llAVAT'S BANK.
Tapbriit Sib WibLua Weddkruubji, Bart.
I TROPOSK to-day to lay before you a statement of wtiat has
been done up to date towards establishing A^icultural Banks
iu India ; and my object in dolugao is to ask for your help in
obtaining for the undertaking the support of the Buglisli public.
\Vu may safely assume that all who come to a mcetiug of this
Association are well-wishers of India. Aud on the preseut occa¬
sion I am the more encouraged tocoimtupon your active sympathy,
lieouuBO of my past experieuee wUeu diaens.siiig this nueation of
Agrimilturid Rank,-). As regards uo other prnposal have I found
MO general an unanimity among people of various shades of opinion.
All agree that the financial position of the Indian rayal is not
what it ought to bo, aud might bo ; and all agree that arrauge-
inouts are urgently rwjulrod for supplying him, <m roasouable terms,
with the capital without which oultivatioii cannot be carried ou.
I shall therefore, without further preface, proceed to consider
the question iu its husioeas aspects, sotting forth the facts of the
case and the cuiisideratlons wbioli will, I think, satisfy the Investing
puiilic that the undertaking rests upou u good comiiiereial basis.
Though laud hanks have prospered iu other countries they are new .
to India, We have thorufove felt, iu approauliiug the preseut |
undertaking, that the first thing to be done u to aoipiire a eurtaiu
amount of luoai and special experieuee by observiu^ the actual
working of such an institution iu India. And this it is proposed
to do by starting au experimental bauk, under good local maiiage-
lueiit, upou a liiiiltod scale ami within a limited area. For various
reasons the Voona District has been selected Cor the expurlmout; aud
the system followed will bo that which has been fuuud moat success¬
ful ill practioe elsewhere, niodifioations being gradually introdneed
as experience may suggest. When trirntworthy facts and figures
have thus been rolluctud, wo shall know what rucks aud uhoals arc
most to he avoided, and we shall be iu a position to decide iu
i\ bat direction, if any, a busiuess of this kind can hu safely and
profitably extended.
Iu order to make the situation clear I will deal witli the Bub-
jeet iu the following order ; —(1) I will give a brief skcloli of the
DeklUian rayat’s position, ivithspcelnl roferouee to his dvpuudeuee
on the nioiieyleuder, aud his finaueial difflcultieB in couseiiiieuee
of the c.xorbitauL rate of interest ho now pays. Next (~) wo may
uoticc what has beeu done in other countries, Ucrmaiiy, Italy,
Australia, Kgypt, iu the matter of Agrioultural Banks. 1 will
tlieu ffi) show Iiow it is proposed to apply a similar system iu the
case of the I’ooiia experiment. And lu couolusion a few observa¬
tions may bo aiUlcd as to the advantages aud disadvantages of
India as a field for eutorpi'iso of tlie present kind. Iu dealing
with tliese several topius I will be as brief as possiblo, hoiug uu-
xious to leave ample time fur diseussiou, and for the oi'itleiaiiis aud
auggestious with which I trust wo maybe favoiliod,
(1) yVw rai/nt’is iiti/>f,ndeiUK: on the —lu order pro¬
perly to realize the important funotious which capital has toper-
form in the rural economy of India, it is aeoessary to have a oloar
view of the peculiar position of tlie cultivator. Iu the Dekkhan
the arrangement is a sort of [lartneraliip butwooii tlio rnyat, who
is 11 peasant proprietor, on the oue part : and the village saukar,
who is the local capitalist, ou the other. The rayat owns the
land aud the cattle, and supplies the labour by lumself and Ins
family. On the other hand tlie saukar maintains the a hole party
until the harvest becomes available, and provides cash to pay the
Ooveisimeiit usscssiuout uud for inciileiitul «.\peiiBe.s, as when a
hiillook dies or wlieu u marriage lias to bo celebrated. Ho also
guuci'ally supplies tile seed corn. The crop thus obtained is
shared between tlioiu ; aud this arrangement is a fair one, seeing
tliat any profit that may accrue is the result of the rayat's lahom-
aud the saukar’s capital. To use the words of Lord OrauhrooU,
theexisteuee of the tnonoy-lunder in the village polity 'is as essou*
tial us that of the ploughuum. Now this eustorpary dependence .
of the rayat upon the village suukur must he constantly home in !
iiiiiid when dealing with any- question of the preseut kiml For the
conneetiou is uot a twinporary or exceptional oue produced by acci¬
dental causoa, but Is perinauent and uooessary, the oo-operatioii of
the money lender betug to the rayat one of the coiiditiuiis of his
existence. Aud this fact was Strongly Insisted on by the speakers
in the great debate at Simla lu 187fi>OU the Dekkiiau Agi iourturists’
IbsUof Act: Sir Johu Straohey pointing out that “ mouey-leudara
aro obviously as ueoessury to tne Indian a|p?ioulturist os the seed
wliieli he sows, or as the rain falls frona beaveu to water
his fields,” is, tu fMt, 00 doubt that ths rayat oeeds the
saukar’s help. But it is always p^tibla tliat this hejp may be
purchased too dear; that lu the division of tho pai-tnership profit,
capital may got too much and labour nothing at all. And this -will
be the case if the rayat pays a higher rate of interest tiian tho
profits of cultivation warrant. Now iu the DekkUaii ihe ordinary
monthly rates of interest ore 1, 2, and 3 per oent, aooordiug to the
credit of the borrower ; thatle, the rayat with good oredlt oan got
money at 12 per oent per aunum ; the man of middling coudltfon
pays 24 per cent; while 841 per oent, and even more, is demanded
from the mau who needs money badly. For the average borrower
wo may take 24 per oent as the rate. And it is quite evident
that no system of agrioulture can pay if burdened with suoh a
charge upou tho capita employed. What would an EuglUii farmer
say to such a drain upou ills resonroos ? Iu order to meet punc¬
tually a charge of 24 per oeut, the profits of a buslnees must bo
uot only abundant but also regular. Aud tho profits of cultiva¬
tion cannot be regular whsu tliey depend upou the Dekkiian raiu-
fall, which is proverbially unoertain. As yet irrigation has been
but little oxtaudod ; and as regards nnirrigated laud we are told <iii
authority that the cultivator “ hardly gets a full crop ouee in .
throe years.” The return cauuot therefore bo regular. Again,
oompouiid interest mounts up if, owing to bad seasuiis, payments
fall into arrears. Ami finally, when tho debtor gets into seHous
diUiviiIty he is sued in the civil court which, us wo oil kuow, is au
oxi)en.iivv pioces'i. For ii claim of Rs. 100 court foes of sorts amount
to about its. d.-i. ami there are besides heavy inoldoutal costs, ai) of
which ultiiimteiy fitll ii|mii the debtor, Uudor those ciroumstunees
we cannot wonder that one peasant after another boeomes em¬
barrassed, and tliat having once stumbled be finds it hard to get
upon Ids foot again. Indeed the wonder U how the rayat can
maiutain himself at all. Aud that he dues so shows how bravely
be carries ou the struggle, and how deeply ho is rooted iu tlie soil.
May we not hope great things from him if ho were less lioavily
weighted, if, for example, Uo could get his oapital at 9 per cent,
instead of at 24 per oent, with oosts and oompouud interest iu
addition V And indeed when we eomu to ask the question.
Why should the Indian peasant hu thus loft unaided to carry on
so heart-breaking a struggle, there is no good answer to be given.
In former times when each Indian village was au isolated oom-
muiiity, when all the villagers had to draw their loans from the
sloudor store of one local lender, it might bo reasonable that tliey
should pay 24 per eout. But it is uo lougor reasouable now, when
lommutiieatiouB have iieoii opened up, aud wlieu tho Indian laud-
iulder oaii have aeoess to the aeeumulatsd ofi-pitai which in Rur'ope
is anxiously seeking chauiiels for safe and profitable iiivestmeut.
It is as tliough 011 tiio one hand we hud a rieu but tliirsty soil: on
the other liaiid vast stores of fortiliziug water. Wlult wo need is
a cliuuuel of oommuuieatiuu in order to liunelit alt purties. The
problem is a simple one. All tliat is wanted is a litue euterpris>
and a little organization.
(2) Affi'icnHin’al liankt in other eouiitrl'-e, —Now, wlieu we propose
to establisli an organization wo naturally look to see what h.-is been
done else where under similar oirouinatauoes, Aud fortunately wo
-lavo oxamploa before us in ISuropu of popular laud banks whioli
lavc been in oporatiou for many years, oud are still spreading with
he greatest beiiofit to all eouoenied. L.iiid banks, undor the name
if nioi tgiigc debenture assoeiatimis, were first founded in Fnissiii
ly Fiuderic the tii'cat, and they have attained special devolojmieut
among the peasant proprietors iu tho Rhino provicos and iu Italy.
The details of the sy.stom and an aceonnt of the land credit lustitu-
liou.s throughout the cimtineut will he found in a valuable blue book
mblishod iu 1870, and entitled “ Reports from her Majesty’s
bepresoiitativos rospoetiiig the tenure of laud in the seyerkl
ouiitrios of Europe.” Success appears to have invariably
.tteudod these financial undertakings. Even iu Turkey the
ystoin seems to have worked well in spite of tlie ruined couditiou
if the peasantry. Mr. Consul Blunt, speaking of a land bank In
'he vilaot of Adriauoplo, reports that the agrioultural intorosts of
ho country derive groat advantages from tliis institution : the
ustoin, so prevalent among tho small farmoiSj of borrowing
louoy at exorbitant rates of interest iu autielpation of their
rops which ultimately placed them at the luercy of a host of
jeloutless usurers, is fast giving way before the facilities offered
by tills lustitutlon, wliieh onalilos tho poasaut proprietor to
borrow advauoes at 12 per oent per aiiuum ou very moderate
seenrity. The Trustees of tliese ‘ National Borrowing Funds’
propose lowering the rate of interest to 8 per ooiit next year.
It is an undisputed foot that these funds have very itiucli cou-
tributud to place the po.xsant faniiurs in some disfcriots on a
solvent footing ; mauy of them have not only paid oil' their
old dehts, but have also improved tlinlr properties.” ’J’lieao
are tho results wo should gladly scs produced iu India
by a similar system ; and, as a nation, wo are surely iu honour
bound not to be behind the Turk in a matter of this kwd. I
now hobl ill my liaud copy of a paper, “ De I’organizatiou dii
credit agricole,” reoeiitly roail by tho eminent ooouomist, ^ M, 4e
Lnveloye, liofore tlie Belgian Agricultural Cougross. In this pa^r
ho brings up to date tho facts and figures ralatlng to laud banks,
and speelaily commends tho “Raiffeisen Agricaiturol Loan Unions”
of llermany, co-operative assoolatioiis of peasant proprietors whloh
H-iuielimes oomprlse whole villages and distciots. Next to
Uerinany oomes IWy in the devoiopraeut of these popular land
banks. Iu 1880 they were 133 tu number, the subscribe capital
being about 42^ millions of fraues. Their loans had then
reached l-Ji millions, aud tlioy liad 100 miliions of deposits. Mf
tho Australian Coiouies the system of mortgage banks seems
to have speelaily prospered, yielding divideuos of from 16 to ‘25
per oent to tho shareholders. The experienoe in Egypt is
also enoouraglug, especially as regards Xndia, For there two
companies, one Eu^lsh and oue French, liave been working
with couslderahle snooess j aud the position of the Egyptian
cultivator boars a close analogy to that of tiie ludlau rayat. As
335
September 1,1883. THE IJ^IAN AGRICULTURIST.
regard) the method of doing bnsiuose, it will of oourte be
nndecatoed that all these ingtltutioDB carry on their loan opera-
tions with borrowed money. The secret indeed of their financial
snooese depends upon keeping down the amount of their own
paid-up capital upon which a dividend has to bo earned, while
making their loans to landholders out of capital borrowed
from the general pdblie at low rates of interest. In this way
a small margin of profit on each transaction will, upon a
largo business, yield a haudsomo dividend to the shareholders,
The methods by which the required capital la obtained by Imuks
and credit oompaniw are various. A largo amount is obtained in the
form of deposits, oithor at call or for fixed periods. But a still
more convenient mode of raising capital is by the issue of mort¬
gage debsutures, a system originally borrowed from the Prussian
institutions already referred to and in England regulated by the
Mortgage Debenture Acts-of 1805 and 1870. As some present
may be not familiar with the process, I will briefly explain
how the system is worked, Let us suppose that A, a landhulder,
wishes to borrow £1,000. He goes to the Credit Company and exe¬
cutes a mortgage on his estate, and the company advonoos him the
£1,000 on being satisfied that his title Is good, and that tlie vatno of
the land exceeds at least by ono-thlrd the amonnt advaiicuil,
Similarly, B and C exeonto mortgages for tho sums they require,
say £2,000 each. The law now allows the company to
deposit these mortgages with the Kegistrar of tho Government
Ofiioes of Land Registry, and to issue mortgage dcbontunis, say
100 o! £50 each, to an amount not oxceedlng the sum total, in
this case £6,000, of the mortgages of A, B, and C ; each of these
£50 debentures being charged not ouly on tho aggregate estates
of A, B, and C, but also upon the whole property of the company,
including tho reserve fund and unpaid siibsurlbed capital. The
debeutures arc issued for fixed penods, and aro transferable by
endorsement; they carry interest, payable half-yearly, by
coupons, and summary powers are secured to tho holder for the
immediate recovery of ml anroats of principal or interest. Such
mortgage debentures, being a very oouvouiout form of investment,
are readily taken up by insurance cumpauios, by trustees, and
by private investors ; and, being secured upon the whole property
of tho company, they are placod on tho market at a rate of
intereet below that which is demanded from the private borrowor,
Tho company thus c v upies tho position of a credit institution
between tho landholder.who wishes to improve his estate, and
the general public who wish a safe iu vestment without the
trouble of in(juiriug into titles. And the profit for those good
officers consists of tho Jifferouoo in tlio rates of iutorest; A, B,
and C borrowing, say, at 6 per oout, while M and N, the
investors, are willing to lend to the company, say, at 4 per cent.
To illustrate the proeoss still further we may take the figures
of ail institution of this class, tho Laud Securities' Company
(Limited), incorporated iu London*eighteen or twenty years ago.
The subscribed capital Is £1,000,000, of which only £100,WO
are paid up. From tho returns made iu conformity with the Act,
it appears that up to March I8SI, tho amoiint advanced was
about two and lialf millions sterling. The whole of this sum,
except about £10,000, had boeii borrowed by the company on
mortgage dcbontiirea. If tborofore we suppose that the com¬
pany took a profit of 1 per cent on those transactions, borrowing,
for example, at 4 and lending at 5 per oent, these figures would
represent a gross profit for the shareholders of £25,000 per
annum, equal to 25 por cent upon the paid-up capital of
£ 100 , 000 .
.(3) The hiitory of th< Poona, txpirUiwU.—?OT nearly half-a-
century tho rolatious of tho rayat to the saukar have oxorci.sod
tho mind of the Bombay Oofovmnont. It was soon on the one
hand that tho rayat owuld not exist without the monoy-londur,
and on tho other hand, that by constant borrowing he was
falling into hopolosa debt. The problem was how to supply him
with capital without the loan becoming the cause of his
ruin. As long as tho private lender la left uneniitrolled,
he evidently goes on lending as long as it is prufitahle to
liimeclf, regardloss of the conaequoncos to his debtor. It became
therefore the idea of the rayat’s friends to orgauiso a financial
institution which should deal on soino roroguized principles com¬
patible with tho rayat’s well-heiiig, instead of leaving him to tho
tender mercies of hungry and competing creditors. The rayat ie
ill India the goose which lays the golden eggs ; a good and patient
bird which will lay enough for all if properly caved foi. The
object Is not to let him be torn to pieces in a struggle for his flesh
and bis feathers. In 1860 a prwoaal was brought forward by
Mr. Jacomb, of the Bombay Civil Service, to oatablish agricultural
bauks in tho Dekkhan, and upon the correspondeneo the following
resolution was recorded iii its favour by the Government of Lord
Elphinstone In all countries where landed property is niueh
sun-divided, tho majority of the pleasant proprietors are over¬
whelmed with debt, and It la notorious that iu Inrlia tho ryots
aro cheated and oppressed by the money-lenders. His Lordship
in Couuoil therefore cannot but think that any loan bank which
advances money to the ryots upon fair principles and at a
roaaonablc rate of interest should be encouraged, a-' tending to
keep down undue exaotions, and ns furnishing an industrious
ryot with means to dig a well, or otherwise improve iii-i land.”
Wotting pmotieal however wasthcu done. And the silent struggle
between the rayat and the saukar did not receive special notice
until tho BUbjoot was forced upon the pnblio attontiou by the
^ious agrariau disturbances of 187.), when the chronic autugouism
oI the claBses broke Into open hostility. Tho Dokklian lUots’
Commission was then appointed. And in 1879 their report result¬
ed hi the legislation known as Mr. Hope's Act; tho chief featiiro
of which was to “ disarm ” the creditor, by taking from him the
power of recovering debt by imprisoning his debtor and selling his
land in execution. Now, though tliuso provisions at once put a
stop to the seveiitlei uf crsidtors, it cannot be said that they do
anything directly towards supplying ohoaii capital to the rayat.
On the Contrary, by damaging nia orodit with the capitalist, tln-y
tend directly to increase the difficulty of getfing loans on favour-
able terms. Indii-eotly, however, tJie Act has no doulit done
something towards a solution of the problem, by driving the
native capitalists to devise some moans by which their busiuesa
may bo carried on under the altered oouditions : by iudu.;ing them
to join tho movement for the establishmout of a central institution
to bo carried oii upon sound priuoiples awl under first-olass
management. In this idea they wore oncofiraged by those who
took an interest in tho scheme on public grouuds. And accord¬
ingly In March, 1881, a rough project for an agricultural bank was
drawn up under tho ausiiioos of some lewing capitalists in
Bombay ; and tlie IIoii. Mr. Maiidlik undertook to iiitroduco in
tlis Lo^l Council ,a Bill for its duo incorporation, supposing that
Government ngrood to the oonoessioiis which were considered
necessary for tho success of tho sebomo. Among the concesaions
asked for, two of the most important relate to the settlement of
the rayut'e old debts, ami to tho method by which tho advances ot
the bank are to be reoovered. It is evident that tho bank cannot
safely deal with a man ojipressod by an incubus of paper debt,
even tho amount of which is not known, and agamst whom
oroditors liold bonds ami unexecuted decrees. To make frosh
advances miilor such ciroumatauco.s would be to put materials into
a quicksand, Aud a settlement of the old debts is absolutely
necessary before we can have a firm foundation upon which a solid
business can bo built up. Suoli a settlement might perhaps Iw
offocted privately by gradually buying up the (hibts, hut this
would ho a difficult and tedious matter, and boeides claims might
he held back. Accordingly it was renresontod to Oovoruinont
that this settlement womd best be otiected by inoaiiH of a coni-
misslon acting under legislative authority. And It was also
pointed out that such a liquidation formed part of the original
scheme of tlic Hon. Mr. itnpo for tliii relief of the distressed
districts. I am glad to say that tho Government of India have
responded in the most liberal spirit to these reprosentatioiiH ;
agreeing to carry out a voliuitary liquidation l)y way of experi
inont in one division of a Dekkhan district In the way proposed.
They have also agreed to advance tho cash necessary to coinpro-
miso the claims, the amount to be I’ollootod from tho rayats in
moderate inatalmeuts over a term of years. A similw liberal
spirit has lieen sliown as regards the eolleotion of tlie bank's
future advauoes. It is in the iutorest of all parties, tho rayat,
the bank, aud the tlovermneiit, that the process of recovering
agiiottltuml advnuoos should lie effective, cheap, and expeditions.
Bithortu iu case of default they have been collected through the
Civil Courts. But experience shows that this method involves the
maximum of friction with the minimum of rosnlt. Govormiient
liave therefore agreed that the bank's advaneos should he treated
as advances made under the Land Improvements Act, and re¬
covered when ueeo.xsary through the revenue officers oi the ilistriet
and village, instead of ny the inaehini-ry cl tho courts aud bailiffs.
This is tile system followed in Germany where tlie bank's
advaneos arc reooverod with the land tax. And it seems a
reasonable one, a-x tho hank will in fact be carrying
out, through private euterpriso, a duty which those Acts seek
to perform by departmental agency at the expense of the .State.
Tho policy of Gorenimoiit on these important questions w.as
uimouuoed in November last by the Ltou. Major Baring in
his spceeli on the Bill to nmoad the Land Improvements Act. Ho
on that oeoasiou explained that Govormeeut wished as far as pos¬
sible to improve the system under which agrh-ultural mlvanecs
from tho 'J'roasury were made aud roeoverod under tlie Act, bet
that they honed much more from the cnoouragenicut of private
eatorprise. Ito then specially referred to AgricuTuirtil Banks, ued
statoil tlie cunoessions above sot forth, 'fhis very encouraging
announcement iiatiirolly gave great heart to tiioso iutcrcsted in
tho scheme. Meetings wore held at I’ooiia, and a onmmittee
formed ; and on the 23rd of Novoiiilier last an iiifliieiitial deputa¬
tion of leading capitalists waited on H. K. Hir .lames Fergussoii at
Governmoiit House, and sot forth in some detail the arriuigemcmts
whioh according to their experience would bo tho host in order to
establish an experimental bank in the ?oena District. Thej' pro¬
posed that the experimint should be tried in the Bnrandar 'laliika
or sub-division, and that tho capital of tlie oorap.any should bo
Rs. 10,00,000 in sh.arcs of Ea. 500 each. In reply to this addres;-,
H. E, expressed his sympathy with the movonaent, and moutioued
tliat he had personal exporieiica of similar Institntious In the
Australian Celoiiies, which tud been very successful. He
i-efeiTod spooially to one in New Zealand whoso working
capital was three millions storliug, whieh liad paid a divideinl
of 1.5 {.or cent for many years, and had aocumnlatwl
n reserve fund of ,£3ilO,OlK). Sitbscqucntly to this iuti-rvifiv,
a formal desjiabeh, dated Doeember last, was received by the
Bombay frovorineiit from tho Gevornmjut of India, and in tliis
arc sot forth in full tho views indioatod in tho apoeoli of the Hoii,
Major Baring. A copy of this despatch was supplied to the Poona
Committee, and upon this they have given a further detailed state-
mout. Theso important doeumrilts arc too lengthy for mo to
attempt to summarize them within the limits of tho prosont papci-.
But I have had them printed in a ooiivoiiieiit form, and shall bo
happy to supply conies to those interested iu the uudertakiug.
iVe have now dealt with the three points iudieated at the com-
meuuemsnt oi this pajier—(1) the layai-’s dopeiKleueo on tho
moneylender; (2) Agricultaral Banks iu Europe aud elsewhere ;
(3) tho hUtory of the I’oona experimont. And there only remains
to make a few remarks as to the general prospects of tho scheme.
1 will tlierofnru oonelnde liy noting what appear to^ bo the special
adv'antages of India as a field for such au enterprise. I wifi also
candidly limit the special dilliculties; pointing out how it is pro-
nowd tbartheso should he met. Among the leading advantagi's in
India 1 would mention (a) the largo margin of profit from cultivation
336
THE INDIAN AGEICTJL^I^URIST. September 1, 1883.
whrfo capkal provides irrigation and manure ; (A) the merits of the
luyat as an honest debtor ; (r) the e\i-(tt)uoa of a skilled agency
for mouey-lcading : and (d) the favourable attitiule of Govorumeut.
(>!) As regards the possible prntits of Indian agriculture under
favourable oiroumstances, I only wish all presont could witness the
almost magical transformation cd'ectcd round the city of Poona by
moans of water aud manure. Ten years ago this land produced
only a ragged crop of millet, worth perhaps fi,a. 6 or 10 an acre,
ami dopoiniont for its evisteueo ou the periodical mins. Now the
same land is covered witli a iniigoiaoent crop of sugar-oaue, aud
wheu I left Poona the other day it was being sold os it stood on
tho ground for about Rs. 500 on acre. This is simply the result of
capital, the landowners in the iramediote vicinity of Poona being
men of some moans who could affoni to take water from Fife Tauk
and “poudrotte ” from tho Municipality. No doubt tho price
1 have mentioned was exceptionally high, the cane being ratailod
in tho ofty by way of a sweetmeat. Such a price could not of
course ho inaintaiued if sugar eultivattou was largely extended in
tlic locality. But I moutiou the example as coming under my per¬
sonal observation. Also under ordinary circumstances tile not
profits of sugar-cane are estimated at from .flO to £20 an aero, the
cost of cultivation being about Rs. 100 per acre, whilo the crop
docs not Sell for less than Ks. 200 or .SOO. Nor is sugar-cane the
only profltabitt garden produce. In tho iioighhorhood of Poona we
Hu(i extousivo spice plantations aud vineyards with orchards of
mangoes, plantains, and oiaiiges. The myat is also becoming a
cmiBidorabfo gi'owor of potatoes, carrots, aud so fortli. Indeed,
througliout India we find that with capital at his back tho rayat
can produce any crop for which there is a foreign demand—cotton,
wlieat, spices, tobacco, jute, oilseeds. For it is tho chnroctoristic
of India, with her rich soil, varied climate, aud skilful “ petite
culture," that she can produce of the best quality whatever is de¬
manded by fotoigu trade. Whether it be opium or iuiligo ; rice
or tea ; coffee, cotton, or tobacco ; if she has only time India will
always place hoc products in tho first rank miioiig tlia markets of
the "world. My proposition therefore is, tiiat in no other country
lines capital cniployod upon land give so rich and so certain a re-
tnrn ; and tliat the differenoo in value between “dry crop” and
“ garden,” between a precarious crop of millet and an assured crop
of sugar-cane, provides au ample margin upon whioli the c.ipitalist
can rely for tlie safety of his advances. (A) Wo next conic to the
merits of the rayat as an honest debtor, lie is in fact a moilul pay¬
master ; being filled with a religious desire to pay his debts, not
only those iuourrod by himself, but also tliose incurred liy his fatlier
.and oven remoter ancestors. H'o leave ancestral debts unpaid Is in
bis ryes a shameful thing ; it is os tliuugh he refused to his fatlior
due funeral rites. This strong religious seutimont (may it novor
grow less !) is indeed tho shoot-anchor of tho rayat's credit. Move-
over, ho is by no menus wanting in shrewdness, and lie feds that
for tenipoml as well as spiritual purposes it would bo fatal to re¬
pudiate Ids debts; for who would then be found to trust him ?
Hence his steady refusal to avail himself of any iusuiveucy law.
For example, in the Ahinednagar Distiict, with a rural population
of nearly tlireo-qnartcrs of a milliou, net one rayat, out of the
thousands hopelosaly iuvolvcil, wus found wiiling to aoeopt freedom
under tho special insolvency cIoushs of the Dekttan Agnoultiirists’
Kcliof Act. Two or three were indeed dcclareii iiiKolvouts by the
Courts, but this tupposed benefit was onuferrod on them in spite of
tlieir protestations and even tears. I liavo myself often seen
instances of the same feeling. I was especially struck on one ooca-
sion when a number of leodiiig raynts, some three or four hundred,
had come togctiior to meet mo at Sangamuor, a local eeutre of
iHiportanco in the Ahmoduagar District. 1 asked them liow they
liked the operation of tlieDekkhnn Agriculturists’Relief Aot, which
liad thou given a sudden olieok to all process for tho recovery of
dc.lit. The ausH cr of the prmeipal rniyat who acted as tlieir spokes¬
man was given in two words (.Mahratta) ; “ Siikh jluila’’—“ wc
are in comfort.’’ lie went on to expiiui that now their creditors
could not harass them with docrocH aud oxeoutious : so they paid
the Governmont ossessmout out of the crop, and ate the rest them¬
selves. Ho than again repeated tho words, “ (3iikh ihilla.” This
seemed to me a very dangerous state of tiiiiigs, looking to tho
preeatious position of tho Dekkhau peasant when unsupportod liy
the money-lender ; so I said, " 1 am glad to hoar that you are in
comfort. But how aliout the saukar s rupees wliioh yon have
liad i Is It the part of honest men to live in comfort when tiiolr
debts arc unpivid '/ ’’ To this there was an immediate aud un-
animouB answer in the negative, not only from the spokeeman but
from all those present. Many of them stood up, saying “ No. !
No 1 it is not honest. Wo wish to pay our debts, lint wo have
boon opproBBod by our oredltors, aud wo do not know how much
wo really owe them.” Tbey tbuu wcut on to ask that Govoru-
ment sliould make inquiry aud ascertain tho true amount of tho
debts, aud whatever that was they would pay it. On tliis point
they were quite vehement, saying: “Allow us aud our eliildrea
dry bread to eat aud a cloth to wear, aud give everything else to
our creditors nutil oiir ilobts are paid.” Altarwards they handed
me a written proposal to the same effect, which 1 Sent on to Gov¬
ernment. I think gontlemou present who have experience of tho
Indian peasantry will boar me out in saying that a feeliug of tins
kind is very universal, and that the rayat is an lionost debtor who
is willing to pay if lie lias tho moans, (c) Ahd if on tho one
hand the layat, on account of his hereditary iiistluote, ha satis-
factory debtor, so on the other band in tlio hereditary triidiug
class of India, wo find ready an unrivalled agency for tlie
distribution and coliootiou of loans. At present tlie actual
moncy-lcuding business of the ihokkhau is In tho hauds of
native saukars, chiefly Marwadis. Tlieso local capitalists
thoroughly understand their business ; in each village they can
tell you to a nicety the means and oharoetor of the individual
raysts ; and they ore very shrewd, patient, and «oonopiieal in
their niaMgement, In starting an Agrioulcural Bank it would
I lie fatal to take up a position of antagonism to this oa|»ble
I and iuflucutial oioss. If it is to be a commerelal sneoess
must SBuiiro tfielr co-operation : bringing them in as shareholders,
depositors, agents, and brokers ; aud making it advantageous
for them to join heartily in the aeheme, and to bring to ^e
bank a portion of their business oonueqtion and good-will. The
object is not to subvert or set aside the existing maohlnory tor the
distribution of agrloultural capital, but to organixe and regulate
it. Auii 1 am glad to say that as regards tlie Dekkhau Districts,
we have every reason to bo satisfied with the friendly inolinatiou
of the local capitaltsta. ludoed, as already showo, they have actual¬
ly taken tho initiative, under tho guitlanoe of a few native gentle-
mou of special intelligenoo and publio spirit. At first they wore
naturally inclined to doubt the onoot which a large new money-
loading institution would have on their interests. But they are
cloar-hoadod practical men, and soon came to see that it was for
their advantage to have a share in a bank whloh would enjoy
special privileges from Government. They also boliovo tliat a
stimulus will thus be given to tlio prosperity of tho district and
to the general trade which is mostly in their hands. I iiave al¬
ready dosnribed tlie active stops taken by the Poona Committee,
and I uudei-staud that about one-half the total capital required
has already been offered from tho four Dekkhon Diatrlots. On tlie
subject of the facilities for local ooutrol aud inanagemeut it is fur-
tlier of importance to note that the bauk may roly for efficient
help npou tlie class of Government peusiouors, public servants who
have retired after a long term of approved service in the revenue,
judicial, and other departments. These men are in every way fitted
to serve on local boards, from their high oharaoter, from the leisure
at their command, and from their experience and kuowledgo of
business, (d) The last point noted is, tho favourable attitude of
Goveriimout. It is an old saying that the English capitalist in¬
vests Ills money in every other eoniitry of tlie world in proforeneo
to India ; and no doubt the distrust of Iiidiau ventures dates from
the old times of .Tohu Company, when he did not make private
ontfli'piise welcome it it appeared in tho petsous of “ iaterloper.H”
aud “ adventurers.” Happily this state of things lias long oeasod
to exist. Yet there still seems to survive in finauoial circles a
om tain fear of official joalousy. Thus a couplo of years ago a goiitlo-
man of large finanoial oxporieiicc, and himself a Director of the
“ Credit Konoier Kgyptiou,” wrote to mo as follows regarding
tho presont project: “ hly impression is, from what you and
others have told me, that India lias all the conditions roqiiisito
for the HII 0008 S of a laud bank, provided always it oan rely on
tlie support or, at any rate, the ‘ beiievolont neutrality’ of tlie
Government.” .Sinoo this was written the Govormnoiit of ludia
have doelared their policy on tho question. And wo know that
they are ])roparod to go much furtlier than more “ bonovolout
lumtiulily.” Recognising the true interests of tho State os tho
gonoral landlord, they offer to ur dertakiiigs of this kind an active
support, administrative, tluaneial, aud legislative. Aud when wo
romomher how all-pervading is the iufiu’euuu of Government in
India, wu realize liuw important is the change, iu the situation
when this iiitlmmoe, formerly adverse, is now thrown into tho
scale in our favour.
IVliuu we look upon tho other .siiln of the picture, and oousidor
what are tho special disadvantages attaching to suoli an antorpriso
in India, 1 do not raysclf soc that, from a bauking point of view,
there is any real and serious diffieulty except that arising from the
poverty of tho individual rayat and the want of solidity in the
scourity he is able to offer. He is indeed tlie olwolnte proiiriotor
of his holding, subject to the payment of the Goveriuneut assess¬
ment ;aud if this Governmout demand were either fixed or limit-'
ed iu a definite way, tile security would bo good ; but this is not
case, the demand being liable after every filj^ycars to au onhanoo-
ment which may swallow up the margin of profit upon which the
mortgager depends. 'J'lio theory no doubt is that tho ontiaiiee-
meiit will not touch improvoinoiits made by tlie holder, and those
whosupixirt tlie existing laud system that in practice tho demand
is not increased except ou fair and suffieient grounds. But I feel
bound to admit that this view of the case is not aooepted either
by tho rayat himself, or by those would otherwise bo willing to
invest their savings iu land. I make this admission witli regret,
os liemg the weak point iu the scheme I advocated ; but It oannot
be denied that the banker must look with distrust ou a security
the solidity of whioli dopouds upon tho discretion of the flscM
authorities. Throughout the Dekkliaii the oi'igtual 30 years’ loos¬
es have withiu tho lost few years beeu falling iu, oeeoidiug to the
order ill which tho groups of villages were first settled Tims iu
Puraiidar Taluka, whore our experiment is to be made, some vil¬
lages h.avo beeu re-settled, otliers are duo for revision, while
others .again will become due withiu tho next few years. This
prospect naturally brings uncertainty into ouy ooleulatiomi re¬
garding the value of tho holder’s iuferest. The I’ooiia Committee
iiave therefore asked that iu the area of exporiinout the existing
rates should not bo disturbed for a period of twenty years from
the present date. Tho difficulty may thus bo dealt with by a
simple departmental order, and it is hoped that the Local Govorn-
meut will uot objeut to make this moderate ooueesslon whloh tliose
ou the spot eonsidor essential in order that tlie experiment may have
a fair trial. Tho other diflieultios which have from time to time
boon suggested tome while Agrinultural Banks in India have been
iiider dlseussioii, appear to luve been all eoosidored and disposed
jl : the rayat's old ououmbraueus will be dealt with by a voluu-
-aiy liquidation under the managemoiUof a Statutory Comialssioiijf
the natiie mouoy-lcudors instead of being hostile have tham-
Bolvea taken a leading part iu tho movemeut for the establishment
if a bank ; the delay, vexation, uuoertalnty, and expense of
lolloctiou througii tho Civil Courts will bo repined by a summary
procodure mainly worked by the village offioers, and more suitea
bo tho simple habits of tho luyats, wlitlo, instead of the old offioial
'bstruotlou, tho undertakuig will bo supported by the hoarty good-
September 1, 1883.
THE imiAN AGRICULTURIST.
«
337
jrtll ot tk« hlghMt imthorit!e«. To oonolnde, I b«g to iubinlt that
uots ftbovft itt forth ihow that the undertAklug resti on a good
***?**?”l*^j.^*f** ' ^ would ask you to onoourage the local efforts
mde in Inolaby securing for tho enterprise aomo active and effec-
toal upport U this oountry.
AOEICULTUEAL EDUCATION.
r thMe times of proposed agricultural Improvements by legisla¬
tion, the pubfio Aould not loee sight of another way by which
improvement of perhaps a more substantial nature may no brought
almat-4n alterawon for the better, which would make the other
lest netdessaiT. Wo allude to better training lu their respective
professions of proprietors, factors, and farmera. A proprietor edu¬
cated from the time he loaves tlie nursory at one of the many
large public srhools, and having bought a right of one of ttio
Vnlverstites, by the sweat of his brains for a fow years, to wTlto
M.A. or B.A, after bis name, Is no more able to manage liis es¬
tate than he would be to measure the distance of the sun from
the earth without studying mathomatios. No doubt bis educa¬
tion and associations have made him a gentleman and a British¬
er of the first water; but we must have more iu these times than
that, if those happy social relations which have made Britain
great are to contmue to exist. Such an one too freqnently guided
By a lawyer-factor, whoso training for the very respousible office he
is eupposed to fill is often even worse than that of nls employer. Of
course we have a few noble exceptions in both classes, hut it Is not
those who have induced our remarks, Tlie result Is the usual ono
when the blind lead tlic blind. It becomes a matter of greater
interest when we see tliut this stato of tilings involves not ouly
farmers, but the public generally, in a serious loss. We are loath
to admit the fact, on the other hand, that farmers have not been
keeping up to the times as to the knowledge of the very essence of
their buaiuesB.
it was good enough to do ns their forefathers did, when good
honest dung was the only manure applied to crops, and os many
pence per annum would liavo covered tlie exponco of purchased
food as It now takes pounds ; but it will not do in those days,
when farmers have tc ’ook to their intoroats, involving a sum of¬
ten far greater than tlieir rents against dishonest uiauure
merchajits, oulpabiy negligent seed merohants, and ohemioni
quacks. For some, analytical chemists arc like other men,
and can bo bought at a price. We only speak for the few,
we hope, very few, of these different olassoa, but It is
usually into such liauds that the ignorant fall. No one
can road the reports of Dr. Voclokor and Mr. Carruthors, iu tile
last Royal Society’s journal, without feeling the trutli of our re¬
marks. With all those eoinpllcatioas, it is hocomiiig more necessary
die out, and faruiurs must get to know for themselves in most,oases
or by the aid of a relinhle specialist in u certain few, what is
being bought. If a farmer wore to go to market to Iiiiy u cow,
and come home with a bull, because ho did not know the one from
the other, tho act might appear more absurd to farmois, wlio
would all laugh at him j hut tlio mistake would not be greulcr,
and would really cost imicli less, than that of the m-au who went
to market to buy dissolved bones, and paid £IUU fur what was
said to be such, but wliicli W';i« really dissolved coprolitos, inUed
*with refuse hair, and horn, worth less than il.'K) ; or auuthcr, nho
thought he had secured £11^ worth of the finest pei maucut pasture
grass seeds, and had o^ gut ryegrass, worth in the upon market
about £10, and enough weed seeds to keep him in mi.sery for years
to oomo.
Government lias of late years begun to do something tow-ards
spreading a knowledge of agrleultuiuU'auts throughout thu masses,
but os y^ all that can he duuo with prosout muehiiicry must he
very superfioial, though in tho right direction. Wo have on
agricultural class, subsidized by Government in Edinburgh Univor-
sity, and ably eonduoted by I’rof. WiUou, who is possessed of largo
and varied experionoe. Yet we would like to soothe Govoriimout
do more than that. We should like to see a fow more collogns
on tbe type of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, but
with the stafiF appointed and jiaid by thu Legislature. It was most
unfortunate for the agricultural work that serious mistakes in
oaloulatiou and mauagoinont were mode in tlio early days of this
college ; else wo sliould now liavo seen the country dotted over
with such pUoos, doing an uutold good to the community at large.
Tho college was also unfortunate iu getting into bad repute
through rowdyism on the part of studeuts : and oven yet, although
no snoh thing has been experleuued for years, wo now aud then
hear the./tfma has not quite died away. A few facts os regards
the work aud managemeut may not be uuiiiterestiug. Tiio insti¬
tution is e.utiroly self-supporting, having been buTlt by piivate
enterprise. Lectures on ngrioulture, and the various iuportaut
allied branches of science, are given by a regular stafi of six
oompatent men, besides various auxiilaiy lecturers who coma at
intervals. The students, who usually vary iu number fiom 00 to
lOO, are strongly encouraged to go in for practical work of all
kinds, and this is wherein we think tho stronghold of tlie Royal
Agricultural College lies. A young man when he loaves school
• or college Is better not to give up all studies which conduce to his
ooiture, although he means to learn to farm as a profession.
The sudden relaxation of strict rule is often too much for the
average student. Going on to a farm os a boarder, iu the usual
way, verygeaeroHy results in his getting Into laty habits and
learning nothing ot business, and much that he w-ould in a few
years be thank^l never to have known. The result is that he goes
abnadi having lailed to snsceed lu this country simply bccanse he
neither gave himeelf nor tho oountry a ohanoe. Iu oonneo^lon ndth
tile oollege there is a farm of fiOO aoros, whore students are at liberty
to assist in work of any kind, and for exocllenoe in whioh as well
as for praotiool work done at tlio votei-lnai’y hospital aud black-
smitli and joiner’s shops, there are prizes given. Those, In a far
greater degree tliaa the real value would iudioato, onoonrage lu
all Euglishmeu of the right sort a true spirit of healthy rivalry. The
college, in short, is one the Government would do well to take a
pattern fiom ill many respects. This Is shewn by the high and
yet improving standard of work done, as jndg’ed from the results
obtained by its students at the two most important recent cxaini
nations for the diplomas of the leading English and Scotch agricul¬
tural societies, as well as by the largely luoroosing porcsiifiigo of
passes for ti.e diploma of the oollege itself, now that tho more
important subjects arc taken by outside examiners.
The Royal Agricultural College has now been before tho public
for many years, aud its rules and management have been discussed
from time to time in the columns of some of our contemporaries.
These regulations have not always appeared in a favourable light.
It must be fresh in the miuds of many that very disastrous eonse-
quenoos, to the college itself and to agrloultural toaohing generally,
resulted from tho removal of Professor Cliurch, by on arbitrary
edict of the Principal, who, according to the rules still existing,
has such power of removal, Wo arc glad to know that, under a
new Principal, matters go harmoniously with botii staff and
students ; still, we cau’t help thinking that thu appointment
should be of more certain tenure. Many former Pi-ofossors now
occupy imixirtant positions in the soieutlflo world, and several
of the preseut staff are men of position aud ability. If our hopes,
that like iustitutious to this (which has done such good work iu
the past, aud is now, as we have shown, exhibiting increased
activity and UBofuliioss), inoy be founded under Government
auspices, sliould be realized, they may profit by its experience,
ainf frame such a constitution as will work without any possible
frictiou for tiie good of tho cause of increased agricultural educa¬
tion. Most of our readers must bo aware that wc are likely before
long to have a Minister of Agriculture. We hope Giat one of his
prominent functions, or of tbe officials of the Board of Trade
appointed to look after tho interests of agriculture, will be tu look
over agricultural education lu all its branches ; for, os we stated
in our opening remarks, wc arc confident it is largely by the bettor
education of all the different classes tliat have to do with laud
that British agriculture is again to take the position that It ought
to occupy ill the oyes of tbe civilized world.—iVoriA Britoh
AyricuUnriit,
THIS IlOYAL AGIUCULTUEAL COLLEGE.
^ITUATED near tlie noble Oakley Park, tlie seat of Lord
O Bathurst at Oireuoester, Gloueesterslilro, is a stately Uotliic
building, standing in tho midst ot the “ College Farm,’’ a mile
uud-u-quartoi' from tho town of Cirencester, and in the vicinity ui
the picturesque Htroud valley. This is tho Royal Agricultural
Cuilugc, ill wliichso many of the leading agriculturists of the pro-
seut day have been trained, and iu which arc at present a nuuibur
of students who are ([uite up to tlio stamlard of former yours. 'J’o
this cstablishiiiout 1 wciidud iiiy w'ay on July fi.ird, with the iuteu-
tiou of sociiig what facilities arc afforded for the training of
students, especially youug men fiom ludia or who are dcstiuod to
be ouiploycd iu India, Whi n 1 was at Circucester five yeara ago,
the Rev. Mr. Constable was I’riiicipal of the College, but ho loft iu
1879 and tho luigu of tile Rev. John U. M’Glollau, M.A., Double
First Classman in Uouoiirs, aud lato Fallow of Triufty College,
Cambridge, commoiiccd at the boginaiug of 1880. To tliis
courteous geutlciiuru's iiiauageniout must, 1 believe, lie attributud
mucli of tlio success and many of the improvements whioh liavo
marked Uio history of the Oollogo during thu past three years,
'i'u him and hisassistauts and pupils I am iudehtud fur much ot
the iufunuatiuu 1 give here. It was '1 i-.M,, when I reached tho
“ R. A. C.,” and some of tho studeuts, who had bccu working
during the nioriiing, were just starting tenuis, cricket, aud other
games, oii the well-kept lawns. Otlicrs wore still at work lu tlia
College, Imt most of the work is done iu the morning,
'j'lie teaching stuff is at present very strong; lu this
direction there has been much improvomaut during Mr.
M'Cellau's principal-ship, resulting lu an iuorease in tlic
uunibar of studeuts. There are now about 00 etudouts,
including six natives of ludia. Tlie professors and lii-
structoi'B include such men os Brof. H. J, Little, M,C.R.A,B.E. ;
Prof. E. Wallace, F.H.A,S. Ageio. Gold Medallist Edin., Diploma
R.A.8.E. ; Mr. Russell Swauwioh, M.K.A.C. ; Prof. E. Kincli,
F.C.S., F.I.e. : Prof. Alien Harkor, F.L.S. ; Miss E. A. Ormorod,
F.M.S., Coiisultiug Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural
Hocioty ; I'rof. it. Ohm, M.A., F.M.S, ; Prof. A. W. Thomson,
C.E,, B.S.C.i Prof. W. F. Gatside, M.R,C.V.8. j Prof. Fawcett,
B.L ; Dr, Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Ac. These, with otlicr
conipctout gentlemen nut employed upon the regular staff of the
College, form the Board of Studies. Tho Collego, with a large
mixed farm attached for practical instruction, was established
in 1840 under tho patronage of H. IT. H. thu late Prince Consort,
with the support of a number of the nobility oud gontlomuii
interested lu ogriculture from all parts of the kingdom, “ for
euoouragiug aud supporting the study of agriculture,” Under
lU Royal Cliarter it lias six residentiary professorial chairs, and
giuutK owblficates of proQcioucy auil u diplouia of luoiubofHhip aud
associatoship. lu 18i0, a supplomoutal charter with now powers
was obtained, aud in Maroh, 1880, her Majesty was graciously
1 pleated to command that the College ho styled the Royal Agricul¬
tural Collego. The object of the institution, in the words of its
Charterof Lcerpoxatiou, is, by combmation of CoUego and Farm,
Sept ! mber 1/1883.
I ■ . ....._____j_ III ■ -
* ftffloahart, the vwioUi «el«iiaM ootmeot
ed Ihwewitili, Mid the pteoUcftl applioatioa tbereol In th«
omtivettoD ot thv eoil, and the ruarlng and mtiiagement o{ (took
In other wordi, by teaching the ectentlflc prinelplea which
tieoeaaarlly BOvern a^eeltural operationa In all ptati ot the world,
together with the ntethode and prooeseei ot aonod agrloaltural
practice, to fnrnieh the raoet efiolent trailing for the prOfeeelon
or buaioeee of an agrioulturiet, whether at Home, in India, or
in the Coiouiee,—a trainine, that ia to eay, which ahall be
expretaly euited to the need* and reqnireniente of the following
olaaaea intending landownen or oocnplen; intending land
agent* or enrveyora, iutd etewarde, {aotora, or managers of
•etatei; inteudmg ooloniat emploj/i* in Indian agrioultnre,
foreatry, kc. In addition, howerer, to affording the beet eoieutlflo
and practical education for ail euoh reqairementa, the Colloge
offer* to ita itudente many of the general advantage* of a Univer¬
sity oonrse. A* the initltntion ho* a special intorest for Indian
reader*, and will probably be Hie training ground for some o:
the Indian* and An^O'lndiaua of the future, I shall briefly refer t<
Bonie of the principal feature* of the Oollege, lu order that youi
reader* may form a fair idea of its oapabihtie*.
The UAoprf is a neatOothio structure, and is furnished with an
organ, anda rerCdoe erected In memory of the Kov. Principal
Uaygarth. The Lihravy coutains several hundred volumes,
chiefly of the best works on agriculture and the allied gclenoes, and
works of reference. The RtcMittfi Rooms are furnished with daily
and weekly newspapers, general and solentiflo, and the leading
agriculture periodloala, inoluding one or two from India. There
U a i/nseum divi ded into epeolai departments for tlie illustration
of farm produce, agricultural chemistry, natural history, geology,
botany, building, veterinary science, fto. A considerable space
of ground is allotted for the Botanic Garden, which is an adjunct
of great value to the College for practical instniction in the botany
ot agriculture and arboriculture, and various experiments in vege¬
table physiology. It is divided Into uumorous plots occupied by
representatives of the natural orders, grasses aud other agrioul-
tural and economic plants, and studded with numerous speoimena
of shrubs and trees of British and foreign origin. To me this was
one of the most interesting parts of the establishmeut. Here
lectures are given upon the spot, with the subjects of the lecture
growing before the students' eyes ; a plan infinitely
snperior to teaching from more books end drawings. The T/ectm'c
Thentrt Is a lofty liatl of large dimeneions, with tiers of desks
capable of accommodating nearly 100 students. In addition to
the lecture theatre there are several excellent class rooms appro¬
priated to the looturos of the various professors ; and the Library
aud Uiuiag-room are also used, os required, for the same purposes.
Ou tile walls of the Dinlug-room I noticed a list of Members of
the College, by Diploma (M.R.A.C.). This list comprises only
those stuucuts who Imvo graduated in Honours. It is, periiaps,
tile best recommondatien the I'oltoge uould possess ; sucli uanies as
the foUowiug I noticed thei-e :—^Honry Taiiner, F.C.S. (1847),
author of many text books ou agriculture and now an Kxamiirur iu
agriculture ut BoutU Kensingtou ; John Coleman, now an Assistant
Royal Commissioner on Agriculture i W. R. Robertson (ISO.'t),
now Agriouiturnl Iteporter to the Govornmeut of Madras j Cliados
Benson, Assistant Mamrgor of tbo (lovernment ExporimentuI
Farms, Madras ; C. E. M. Russell (187ti), .Siiporintundciit of
Forests aud Govorument Farms, Mysore; Kumar G. Narayan
U880), of the family of H. R. H. the Maharajali of Coo(!h
Behar, Beugal, the first native Indian who obtained the
diploma; C. E. 0. Wilkinson (183"2), Agricultural Director of
Bstatos to H. E. tlie Nawab of Hy<lorabad ; aud E. C.
Oxauue (1883), Director of Agricuituro, Bombay. In the
aamc year ns Mr. Kobortson olitaiued liis diploma, I’rofessor
Wrigbtsou, F.C.S., Professor of Agricuitnre at Snntli Kensington,
obtained liis diploma. In April last, two natives of Bengal,
Ainbika C. Sen, M.A., and 8yod .8. Hosein, B.A., obtained diplo¬
mas, the former having received the highest number of murks
ever given to any student in the College: the latter w.as only tliird
on tlie list, Mr. Oxnmie being second. Tli» chemical, pbysiuai, and
l)iologlcal laboratories are well-fitted with all noonssary applianeoN,
Tiie biological laboratory was added in 1881, ami is in
charge of Professor Horker. It is fitted up after the most approved
laodcU, and supplied with cilicieut microscopes and tlio necessary
lustruinents, aud ro-agenta for dissections aud minute examiuatiems
of plauts and animal*. The Mail lias ou more tliaii one ocuasiou
recently advocated the exteusiou of a knowledge of veterinary
science iu ludia, aud I was pleased to liuur tlial two prises for
veteriuory seiouoc, one of £60, aud the ether of £‘20, ai-e auuually
awarded to the Bengal Agricultural scliolars iiy tlie Beugal Uov-
eromeut at the final examiuatlou. The Vcterinai-y llospilal at the
College is fitted up witli boxes for tiio reception of diseased or
injured liorsos, with yards aud sheds attoohml for sick cattle aud
other stock, nxamiuationhouso, pliormacy, and shed for /johI mortem
examluatlooB, The Colkgo farm ooiitaiue about 600 acres, divided
into ‘20 fields, occupied and worked liy a former Honour student
and Member of the College,—Mr. Russoil Sanwiok—who has
aoliieved a high reputation In agricultural circles. 1 could not
see the best of tlie stock, as tliey were at the Vork Agricultural
Sliow. Mr. Bwauwiuk ha* taken over 300 prlzcj for his cattle,
■beep, pig*. 4o.
Of general deioription t have given enough, I believe, to
show that the Royal Agrieultural College is admirably adapteil
for teachiug natives of India and others tire scientific prliieiples
which noccsaarily govern agricultural" operationa. In the Report
of the Special Committee to the Agrioultural Society of Scotland
last year, it was stated that ” agrioul tare is now a science, or rather
the application of a number of sciences, and requires as wide a
range of soienttfio knowledge a* any learned profession.
Nothing but a College spectally organised and equipped for the
training ot agrienltunit* is oopafote of affording the mtana of
acquiring the knowledge whkth 1* now necessary to the iprOTer
unaenstimdlag of the sMentifio priaotples upon wbl^ the voned
f reotioe of agriculture rests," And now to mention a few item*
obtained from tiie worthy Prinolpal of the College. (Joeetloued
os to the Indian studenta, he produced a photograph of eiz naitlvec,
four of whom were from Bengal, selected by the Bengal Govern-
meut; one was from Oude, hu exnenie* being paid by the (jlovom-
ment of the N.-W. Provinoe*. There was oirewbo paid his own
expense*. AU Iiad worked well, and two had left lost April.
There are now six Indian etadente, and two mote are expected
from Bengal soon. The Indians ore oDt-«ta4onti, aqd thwefore
do not take their meals with the rest of tlu students. They are
very studious, and os a rule do not join in the games In whiDh the
Europeans indulge. As I expected, they do not. a* sonieof the
Europeans do, enter ploughing matohe* and other eoD petitions
where the students undertake the actual working operations ou
small patches of land in order to know by exnerisnoe what work
the form labourer has to do and how he shonld do it. About eight
months ago, H. E. the Nawab of Hyderabad, with his suite,
visited the College, aud was so muo h pleased with what ho saw
that be observed that he should like to spend a few montlis
at the Colloge as a student, but ho had not time to do so.
“ However," ho went ou to say, “ seeing that I cannot stay here,
perhaps you can send out one of your diplomaed students to
take oliargo of my estates, aud teach the natives how to till their
soil better than they do at present." The Nawab remarked
that be lioped that Ilyderabad soholarships would eventually bo
established. It was arranged that Mr. C. H. 0. ITilkiuscn, who
took bis diploma last year, aud who is related to Sir Rurtle
Frere, siioulo go to Hyderabad as Agricultui'al Director of tlic
Nawab’s estates. The last advices from Mr. Wilkinson were
favourable. At the close of lost year Colonel Pearson, tlie
English Director of the Forestry Scliool at Noroy, Fraiioo, where
many of tlie Indian forest officers are trained, visited the Royal
Agrioultural College In order to asoertaiu wliat facilities aro
aifordod for the study of forestry, us it is probable tliat at no
distant date the forest oHicers destined fur India will be trained
In England. An application was sent to the^ Government by
the R. A. C. autliorltios with a view to tbU College being
utilised for the purpose, and it was pointed out that thuiu
aro large woods of various kinds close to tno Royal Agricultural
College, belonging to Lord Batbui-st where ail the operations of
forestry are earned on. In the forest ot Dean (li hour from
Cirencester by rail) are some of the finest oak forests ia tlie
country, so that on the whole this Oollogfi would be a very good
establishment for the purpose I liavo named. However, a final
decision has not yet been arrived at, there being oue or two other
Colleges where it is said facilities are oiiered for teaohiiig
forestry ; Cooper’s Hill College bclug one of them. Thore are at
preseut some Indian Civil Servants studying at tlie R, A, Colloge,
and one oi the professors assured mo that “ ouo of our best niuu
is Mr. ICoess, tho sou of uu Indian General." The Principal said,
" \Vn have had many nationalities ropreseuted hero since
T have been hero ; we Iiavo hail men from India, Grueue,
Italy, Brazil, France, Egypt, Channel Islands ; Euglish, Scutuh,
and Irish.” The late Duke of Marlborougli lind lioou Pre¬
sident of the College for several years. Ho will be sue-
oeoded by the Duke of Kiehmond and Gordon, K.Q. II. R. H.
the Prince of Wales is patron, aud tho Committeo of
Maimgomout ineludes suoli laiuled proprietors and agriculturists
os the Earl of Dueie, tlie Eai'l Bathurst, Sir Miuiiacl E. Hicks-
Boaoh, Colonel ICiugseote, Professor Story Maakelyuc, and the
lion. Lord Lyttelton. I cannot ooiicludo this notice of a most
interesting cdnuationiil iiistitutioii—which all Anglo-Iudiuiis ut
home on inrlougli would do well'to visit—without iiioutlouiiig
tho Aiji'icultural Stuih’lils' GincUr, Oflited Iiy students ut tho
College'. Ill tlie uiiiiibor for .July 1882, I flud an article by Pro¬
fessor Kincli, ou tlio Soy Bean, wliieb attracted couslaorablo
.ttention In ludia last year .—MaUrax Mail.
ACRICULTCIIAL EXi>KRLMENT-S IN SUSSEX.
rnllE experiments conducted at four different stations—represent
I iiig (liti'ereiit soils—during tho post year by the Sussex
Association for the improvement of Agricuitnre have, according
to the report presentod by Mr. Thomas Jamieson, ohomlst to tho
association, yicldud .some iuceresting results. To the surprise of
wondering farmers, the barren clay of an aliaudoued fioUf near
Hay wauls lle.ath has been made, uudor the fertilizing influence
of a suitably combined uiaiinre, to give forth a remunerative
harvest, and, moreover, valnaUle knowladge lias been obtained
uu more than one important scientific point. In broad outline
the experiments have confirmed the familiar rule that to produce
cereal crops, uitrogouoiis fertilizers are iiidisponsable : to produce
roots, pliosphatic. For tho eiiforoeineiit of this prinoi^e Mr.
Jainiesou judges even the varied mauurial riclies of tiiat standard
fertilizer, farmyard manure, insulHcioiit. Both at Hillmgshurst
aid at Haywards llcatli oxporloiioe hvi tanght hi'n that even a
heavy dose of farmyard iiiaiiuro, uuacoompanied by artiflolal ferti-
'.Izurs, cauuot supply all that is wanted, and that au addition of the
special snbstauoes cdT.jotod by tho several crops add* to tlie value
of the hai'vest out of proportion to the outlay. It is, on the other
hand, quite practicable to supply all tho constituents wanted" for
plant food economically by means of artificial manure alone.
Amoug nitrogenous manures nitrate of soda has, in the post year
—possibly owiug to atmospheric couditiuus—carried off the palm,
Mr. Jamieson, who wages woi* most uncsrefBomously upou various
accepted beliefs, protests agaiust tbs opiuiou that nitrate exhausts
the toil. Add what else Is wanted, he says, aud the exhaaetieu
September 1, 1883. THE IHDIAH AGHICULTHBIST. 339
will b« hil. He ii not omoIuI to eppralfio nitrogenemii nmnaro*
otherwlee than aoaoriling to their woalth in nitrogen—with thie
provUo only, that eomo, oa, for inatanoe, mipbate and mano, may
under oirottnutaBoes act to a certain extent injurioniTy owing to
the Smaence, or generation, of acid. At Hauooke Qato, Mr. Jattio.
eon obeerved that tho eulphurlo acid, liberated from a dreeeing of
sulphate of anunonia, eo seriously affeotod a crop of swedes triat
they assumed a perfectly red oolonr, as if exposed to the action
of acid vapours. This symptom disappeared upon treatment with
a dose of nftrate of soda. As regards phosphatto manures,
Mr. Jamle^ adheres to his former opinlcm that—except
on ohaik—it is perfectly immaterial whether tho phosphate
ho ^tplied in a soluble or au insoluble form. Indeed, more
favourable results have been obtalnod from ooprolite than
from holloa What Mr. Jamieson sets far more store hy
than solubility la minute pulveriation. His favourite mode
of supplying phosphate is in tho shape of a mixture of
steamro bone-nour and fiuely.ground ooprolite, a moiety of the
phosphorus being allotted to each. Ou chalk soil, suoh as that
at Preston Park, dissolved bones liavo produoed the best result.
Nevertheless, the defleioncy of phosphorus in tho maniirial dress¬
ings, purposely left dedoieut in one aubstanoo or other, shows a
less marked efioot on this very soil, which fact Mr, Jamieson
attributes to the presence of more 'available' natural phosphorous
in chalk. That phosphutio manures, whether auluial qr niinerul,
soluble or insolnblo, do not exhaust their eflect iu the first year,
is amply proved by a series of experiments with swedes made at
Hassocks Gate, where the differonoe in tlio crop on various plots
is very marked, aoeodring to tho dressing applied in the preoed-
ing year. The potash experiments plainly indicate the peculiar
value of potash as manure on oertain soils. Oue main feature
apMtent In tho results is tho uijurious effect produoed by the
chloriue of muriate of putash. For agrioultural purposes potassi-
chloride has never stood very high in popular estimatiou. But the
ground for this was previously Its extreme solubility. Mr. Jamie¬
son taxes it with the exhalation of ohlorino, uudor tho inBuenoo
of whloh the plants sicken and grow wau and pale. He has re¬
marked—without being able to suggest au cxplauation—that iu
soils rich in black vegetable matter—humus—tids baneful effuet
is to a large extent neutralised, as is also tho detrimental action
of noid already instanced in the case of nitrogenous manures. To
arrive at au explanation, be has instituted several ingenious ex-
puriments. Among other things, he has dressed a crop of sickly
swedes, labouring under vegetable ' olilurosls,' with dextrine,
with tho result of'produeftig a strikingly deep green and healtliy
colour iu tlie leaves of the plants. The plot gained rapidly on its
neighbours. But It did not maintain its superiority. Apart from
this interesting result tlio question under luvostigatiou still
reniaiuB unsolved, Mr. .Tamlesoa reoommuuds the blgli-priecd
nitrate of potash in preference to other potash salts. 'J'ho
doBciency-exporiments appear to hake raised a dmiht in Mr.
.lamleson's nilud whether tlic leguminous classes of plants (beans,
pease, and elovor) really deserve tho distinetivo name of ‘ p'dash
plants.’ Some of these have thriven whore potash was designedly
withheld. Similar experiments seem to have satisfied Mr. Jamie¬
son tliat from tho familiar hoptade of inorganic elements considered
to be indispensable for plant life, sulphur and magnesia may iu
many cases be eliminated, being present only as aroidontal ad-
inixtures. As a useful wheat manure for Sussex, Mr, Jamieson
rucommeuds (duly guarding himself against application to every
soil)---(1) as autumn dressing —24 cwt, of sulphate of potash, J cwt.
of sulphate of lime (or iu substitution of hoth, 1 cwt. of ground
kuipite), 8 ewt. ground eoiuoUta flour, 4 cwt. steamed buue flour,
and liowt. mitrato of soda ; (2) as spring dressiug—4 ewt. suipli-
fato of petash, 1 cwt. mineral supcrpliosplmte, 4 ewt. steamed ])one
flour, 14 ewt. ditrute of soiki. Tliu mixtures are ciilenUtcd per
acre. As a good root manure Mr, J.amiesoii roeoinmends 24 ewt.
ooprolite flour, 4 ewt. steamed hone flour, }, ewt. ultratu soda,
,4 ewt. eulpbato of ammoufa, 4 cwt. horn-dust or dried blood, and
2 cwt. ground kaiuite,
The experiments will bo continnod in tho present year. Tho
committee have assented to Mr. Jainiesou’s proposal, aooording to
which tho root plots will bo cropped with mangolds, without ma¬
nure, to show the lasting effect of mnuuros already applied ; wheat
will be grown ou tlie same plots, witli ‘ soU-exhanstlng ’ manures ;
beyond this, some Interesting experiments will be made at Has¬
socks’ Gate to elucidate tho question of miuoral higrod louts abso¬
lutely essential to plant growth,—iSiwicx Advertin’r.
NOTES ON POULTRY-KEEPING.
loon,
N O donbt, what constitutes tho greatest cost in a poultry-yard
is tho daily food, and we must uot be blind to the fact that,
if left in the hands of unskilful people, the owner soon flnd.s out
tho enormous expeuso to which he has been put, so much so,
that we have often hoard tho remark that after paying high prices
for grain, the eggs they receive iu return cost them eauu the same
price that would be paid for a dozen, if judiciously managed.
The feeding of poultry is a very simple, but not always au easy,
pioblom. The expeuso of building fowl-houses and other aeoesor-
los is known; whether they be costly or iasignlfieaut, they re-
piWeut capital which in time brings forth timit; but a daily
food is a problem whloh must he solved at every moment, and, if
badly solved, it misleads, and the mislcadiug carries yon uu to
losses which increase daily.
There is no living oreatnre of tho animal kingdom in respert of
feeding that possesses sneb a multipUeity and variety of taste as
the eook wi4 tioii. They are gt»Uv«T»iis, betblvoretW/ eaniivoroas,
vermivorous, and tnseetlvoTous ',they teed without distinction upon
everything that Is offered ■, they refuse uotblug. V?Ub such a'
oonformity of stomaob open to rcocive substonoes so dtvecsiflod,
wo must admit there is a larM margfii ; woronver, tvhatovet'tho
Ingredients, they thrive npon tnum, tSey.pmpet, and the aim of
the owner is obtained by gotting the mwt satisfactory resoit.
But tho result can only be obtained by fudicious fmUog. If fotvis
are only allowed to oat ivhat they can pick up, ft would bo a very
poor one, unless they have tho run of a staekyard at harvest time,
when one need not trouble mtieh about them; oii.'. In every other
season of the year they must be attended tonight and morning.
Another important point is to know what a hen can eat so as to
satisfy her hunger and keep her in good eondltfon ; this is a great
oonsideratiou, wliicb must not be acted upon at agness, for on the
proper (luantlty depends tho whole sueocss of the undortakfng; in
laot, it Is the turning point. If too much food is given, It turns to
plethora and manure ; tlie hen under those ciroumstances becomes
almost sterile, and if she does lay it ts only at rare intervals. If
not food enough, the hon, not Bailing sufBoient nutriment for hoc
own snlisistoace, cannot produce either eggs or flesh. The result
would bo iiti iu both cases. To obviate Mis, a medium must be
found by which surplus fat is avoided on the one side, and on the
otlier to prevent tho loss of flesh ueoessary for her mafntenanoe as
a produner.
A practioal farmer in France, Monsieur Francois Routillet,
the author of a book on poultry, asserts that a hen navina liberty
to roam about requires 120 grammes (44 oz.) of coni per dfem, and
a hen ill conSnement requires flO grammes more, or 180 grammes
(64 oz.) On the other hand, Monsieur Matiot Didieux, who has
published a work in two volumes on the same subiect, maintains
that with 60 grammes of oats (24 oz.) a hen of moderate size can
be amply fed. The earno author even goes further, and says that
45 grammes of buckwheat (IJoz.lis sutfloient to keep a hon In
good condition os a producer. There is evidently some error, as
there is an enormous difference iu the estimation of those two
gentlemen, which is far too great for any ponltry-kesper to aot
upon.
To set at rest this questiou, B Belgian nobleman, a student of
iiatnml history in general, and of poultry in particular, has put to
the test the remarks made hy (the above authors, and it is only
by experiments on different subjoots that this problem of feeding
poultry has h«eu solved in a satisfaotory manner, as being the
moster-inovuv of a profitable poultry-varn. For that purpose, three
lots of hens, of ordinary size and uf the common sort, were chosen,
Kaoh lot, composed of ten hens, was confined during a month iu
rune about 20 to 22 yards of area. Tho first lot was exoluiively
fed on barley, the second ou buckwheat, and the tlilrd uu oats.
To pioli of tliesn throe lots 1000 grammes, or 1 kllograninie (about
'2j lbs ), of these different grains were given oaoii day. On mak¬
ing up the three lots, each was put into the scales ; the first lot
weighed 18 kilos (.'!04 lbs.), tho seooad 174 kilos (384 lbs,), the
third 184 kilos (-401 lbs.). At the end of the mouth they wore
again weighed, and the followiim is tho result i—Tho first WJ lbs.,
tho Bocoim .884 lbs., and M'c third 395 lbs, ; so that it is protty
oertain that the food given was sufileiout to keep them in good
uouilitiou.
Wo see that oats proved to he loss nutritive than the other
grain, still tho hens were satisfied with the portion they had. Wo
may remark that these hens were confinod so that they were
obliged to feed excluelvcly on grain, thereby debarred from
piekliiu up any extras ; tlion, taking into oonsicleration what they
find wncu at liberty, wo may fairly argue that 73 grammes, or 24
07,. of grain, are suflcioiit for each head of poultiy daily, being a
very liberal allowance.
Having established tho quantity required for oaoli fowl, the
hreedor oan easily euunt his cost on the oue hand and his receipts
oil the other. In ease grain is too dear, which may happen,
there are other moans at times very ooonomical—take,
for instance, tho potato. This is very suitable to hens
when boiled aud given to them hot; it assists the laying to a
great extent; hut bearing in mind the profit tho farmer Is to derivo
from his yard, potatoes must bo cheap, otherwise he must seek
other substitutes.
Beetroot, turnips, carrots, fto., boiled and mixed with bran or
middlings, is a very excellent food for fowls ; but if fed
solely ou grain, grass, aud vegetables, tho hen would drag
on her oxistonco, but would bo neither a good layer nor a
good sitter, A hen requires food of a stimulating nature. As
we have said before, she Is granivorous, herbivorous, carni¬
vorous, Ac.; she eats nil these snbtanoes ■, she digests them
all, however hard they might ho j her digestive organs arc so con-
Btruoted that in her ejections no particle of grain or othor substanao
is seen. She is very fond of meat, whloh Is very easily digested (
oven particles of bones remain in the stomach until thoroughly
digested, and are ejeotud in the same state as other food,
TIio hen heiug carnivorous, fiesh or moat Is then one of the
constituent parts of her food. A farmer oan always obtain horse-
flesh or inwards of animals at a very moderate rate, which being
Iwllcd and cut up, and given In the same quantity as grain, wiU
always keep fowls In the best of order. The hen, as a vermivor-
ous bird, is always seeking after worms and insects, and they have
a groat affection for larvir, and chrysalis, wliioh they seek all
day during the whole of the warm weather jbnt In late autumn,
or in winter, when it is difficult to obtain them through their
own exertions, farmers ought to assist them by establishing vermi-
niores,’ or ‘ vorminntlon hods,’ hy which larva, Ac., oan bo easily
reduced in large quantities, and which would prove a very great
oon to i» I Itry, at a mere nominal price.
In out next chapter wo will give a desetiption of a ‘ verminiere.’
C. w.
Bfltiih AitfriUtf,]
i
340
THE INDIAN AGRICULTORISI?. September 1,18g3.
THE NECESSITIES FOB JITMING.
I T is now many y(»r* sinoo Govornment, soaing tiie warto o{
foi'oit caused hy Jumlitt, ciuiiiavoiired to pnt n stop to tbe
practice by pointing out to Hs ortioors the deiflrability of puttlug
some sort Of pressure on those who pursued this " wasteful nu3
vagrant oustonj,” oS It was called.
Near Dailcellng, Sir Ashley £dcn had hopes of ptoduemg sonii
effect, by summoning the chiefs of thOse comniauitlcs that jumed
aud having Its desire explained to them.
lu vain the chiefs urged the impossibility of conflnlug their
people to one plot of ground, but seeing Oorerumont determined
they promised to do ^ they eonld.
Home two years after. It was officially recognised that the cus
tom was not iu the slightest degree abated. The people jumed os
before, regardless of the orders. On looking into we matter, it is
noteworthy that the custom is extremely old, aud evidently
preceded the Aryan Irruption into India by which the plough wa«
Introduoed, aud that jumlng despite a few exceptions is in India
a race oharaoter of the great uon-Aryau group. It appears pretty
clear that In pre-Aryan times the oountry was covered by a huge
tropical forest, jumed everywhere by the indigenous races called
by the Aryans demons.
Thus the custom Is actually older than the languages and
physioue we now see among the nou-Aryau hill tribes, who have
hc'un driven from the plains, aud have sinco largely ditferentiatod.
Neither the plough nor the hoe are non-Aryan implements, ami
were they alwllshod, jumlng is the only alternative. Uuinan cus¬
toms are often uunocountalny persUtout, cveu otter the causes are
removed, but to understand jumlng, let us examine It where the
custom is still a uooessit^, and where indeed it is a far more
laborious system of cultivation than by plough or hoc. Taking
the Noga* hills, as a good example, we generally see tribes,
villages, or communities owning and cropping iu rotation an area
from six to ten times that ueeded for a year’s crop.
The hills aronud arc seen in various stages of forest growth, or
grass, whore crops have beeu last taken off. It is also fonnd on
eiujuiry that each family hot its laud carefully marked nut by
stones, ridges or guIUss, on each of some six or eight differout
sites, on the hill slopes around, and that are jumnd iu rotation.
This year’s jnme may be due east, last year west, and the year
before to the south, and so on, a new site hoiiig cleared each year,
and at first put under root otops, Ac,, called “No cn-u,”
the second year under grain, and called" Hcram erra,” after
which, as a rule, It Is thrown up. The various sites are usnally,
though not Invariably, takeu m rotation, and when tlie forest
growth is say eight or ten years old, Ou solootiou, the men and
boys go to it ana look up theb' boundaries, outtiug or marking
them, and first clear all the undergrowth,
Wlien this is done they fell the trees, leaving and lopping a
few where they desire to train their pan, alUH, Ac., aud cut tlie
rest up so as to lie close, aud thus burn thoroughly. After sis
weeks or so, aud wheu sufficiently dried, it is all fired, giving
rise to tlie liugc vortical or columnar clouds with a spreading top
so often soon m the hills iu spring,
Mon, boys, and womeu then coilect tho stems, branches, &o.,
and burn round the stems of any large trees that it may be desir¬
able to kill, or form of the sticks and logs an effectual uhliatis to
keep out auiinals.
In this newly cleared land they plant yams, uhw, oottou,
hirhun, chillies, Ac., and it la tho “ No erra.” Last year’s olcar-
ing is also clnar^ over by tho dao, the creeper grass and plants
cut down, and fired when dry, aud iu this they dibble the hill
paddy, It is tho “ fleram erro.”
As the season advances both sites must bo weeded as gross
springs up, and os may be supposed tho rice gives some trouble
Irciog so like grass ; a little loop of bamboo, or an Iron hoo tiio
sisc of a tabic spoon is used in weeding.
The hill paddy is usnally weeded three times, au<l ou the hill
sides may be seen, hero a loug line of womeu and girls, ou ano¬
ther slope the men aud boys, 10, 20 or 30 iu a liuo, aud tlio work
Is communistic. Thus one plot of ground gives, tho first year
root crops, Ac. j the soooud year, hill rice, and U seldom planted
the third year, as grasses come up so thickly, especially >i!ii
(Fnii'frntneyliudi’ii'u}, that rooting and growing nndorgrouud
defies eutiroly their limited agricultural implomont, the dao.
lu the fonrth year, the site is generally deuse ubi, through
which oeo can only get hy paths or on an elephant ; hero and
there tree plants are up, also tho larger grasses, ns nol, kagru,
megella (onucAaniiM spontennm,) rising to 20 and 25 feet, (megoj.
la has measured 83,) creepers also appear, and some creeping
grasses that rise over the ulu.
Id the fifth year tree plants predominate, os tlicio are no
jnngle fires known iu these hills, and at lost all trace of the ulu
h IS disappeared by tho seventh or eighth year, aud tho site is ready
again.
Tire does not kill nlu, water and shade are the means most
effectual, and hoeing, as a rule, ou such slopes is worse than t ho
discaso, and the soil at times too stony. The roots or rather
rhizome Is often a foot deep.
The grasses of Eastern lieugal and Assam arc about 170 kinds,
aud may bo rougUjf' grouped by their modes of inopagatioii,
THIOK HEADS,
Heavy stomachs, bitioua conditions—Wells’ May Apphi PdU—
witl-bilious, cathartic, As. I, p. 1, aud As, JO. B. H. Madon A
C!o,, Bombay, Qeuoral Agents for India,
' Tho MW It Sega, IfOBF IMb n«t Nag*.
ForOst grasses, tbe seeds of which are at a hel^t to tourii
nnimalx passing, and having sphtes, hooks, or gum as modes x)f
attachment (when ripe).
Those of the open unoultivated plains, whore the wind trans¬
ports tliem, the minute seed being on a high kalm, and oovored
by down.
Again, seeds of gtosses, that are like grain, and oce traaspart-
cd by Urdu, others wltli light husks by ti ittr. VUt has a minute
seed on a kalm and Sue down attaohed, whloh enables it to travel
long distances, and when ouec rooted, another and unlgue mode
of propagaticn at onoo oomss into play, by its rapidly spreading
underffround, among stones and roots, or even to a dej^h of a foot
aud 18 inches In clay. It is this peoullarlty of a grass, tlie lesds
of which fill the air in myriads and travel Immense distanoes,
that lies at the root of tho necessity for jumlng, among most hill
tribes to the south and east of Assam, and auto the north, where
neither hoeing nor ploughing is possible,
Hill soils are proverbially rich, and exhausted soli Is oertalnly
not the cause, sjs we have oases iu tho adjoining plains where
rioo has boon cropped for 200 years without Intermission, or
manure, Tho cure for juming Is to introduce some other crop
like potatoes aud plautaiiis, whore a much smaller area will sup¬
port tho same people, where tbe labour of oiiltivation can be
coneentrated.
It is highly probable that jumlng survives In places whore
there Is lees need for it than formerly. But to suppress it by law,
as a “ barbarous system,” would eutuil tho neoesslty of our sup¬
porting all the hill people around Assam.
There is generally a good cause for everything ( the above Is
one cause for the neoeasity of jumlng.
—Indian foratcr.)
S. E, PeaIi.
Note.—'■•inco writing the above, 1 BOO at page 9J, rroooadinga of tho
Uoyiil Geographic d Hoeioty—
‘‘Tho TiiuhnnwlKw of Borneo live o poneoful rural life, and have no
vey imnioular points of interest about, tliom : it is th dr custom to move
from one place 10 imuthor on the l>.auka of tho river, ImiHIng every
slight lioiiso, oioaring (ho grnuad, and planting, in an idle aort uf way,
paddy, bauauns, Indian ooru, sivoot potatoes, and Uio like. Grass
sooner or later makes its appearance j very slight attemjffs are niado to
keep it down. After a time (generally about three peal's from olearing)
it i)as gained the upper liand, and tho llitnsy house alKiut this time
usually collapses, and a move is made for u frosli loeation."
WOBURN CROP EXPERIMENTS.
A L.iriOE gathering of agriculturists assembled at Woburn the
other day, liy invitation of tlie Council of the Royal Agri¬
cultural Hooiety, to make the annual inspection of tlie field expuri-
meiita which arc bolng conducted on a farm set apart (or the pur¬
pose by the Duke of Bedford. General approval was expvo sedas
tu the inunuer in which tho cultivation aud mauagemeiit uf tho
crops and tlic pruparutiou of the farmyard nianuie are being carried
oil, and tho present uppearaneo of the nuuieruu.s plots (li-spl.iys a
satisfactory growth, the difl’ereiices ill luxuriance and vigour of tlio
v.vriuusly manured wheats and barleys amply eoiilirmlug to the
eye the evidence reported of the almost iiivariublc results during
several linrvests from each order of mamirial treatment adopted.
Tlie primary objoct was to esoertaiii by practical trials made
under conditions of scioutific oxactuess, what are tliu relative values '
of riiamitu obtained from tlie eonsumptjon of different articles of
food by animals. Aocordiugly, tho farinyiml manu re u.sod is pre¬
pared in three different ways—one portion by giving the cattle
decorticated eottuii-cako, which is very rich iu nitrogenous consti¬
tuents, and is, therefore, estimated to yield a manure of higli
value ; another portion by giving maize muni, wliieli is estimated
to yield a manure of low value ; aud a third portion is prepared
witiiout any such piirehasod food, all tin: lots of cattle being fed
with similar quantities of roots, ohaff, and straw. For tho pur¬
pose of eouniariug the effects of the food-prepared manure
with those of arti&ial inamiro, parts of tlio orops are dresiSd
with nitrogen, potosii, pliosphoricj acid, and otiiur chemicals,
equivalent to the coustitneuts contained iu tho cotton-cake
aud maizo-meal respectively. Tiie rotation kuowu as the
four-course sliift is followed upon an area of 18 acres. Four
acres of maugulds or swedes are grown with four difforont
uiauurings—namely, one nere with cake-dung, one acre witii maize-
dung, one aero without dung from puroliased food, lint with artifl-
eittl mauure correspondiug to the cake manure, and one acre also
witiiout dung from purehasud food, but with artifiuial manure
eorrespoudiug to tlio maize manure. There arc four acres of
barley following the mangolds, there are four acres of seeds foliow-
iug the Iiarley, aud four acres of wheat following tlie seeds. The
seeds are fed off by sheep, part supplied with cotton-oake, port
supplied with maize-meat, and part receiving no food but the
hcriiagc, and the increase iu live weiglit iu each casa Is noted.
The value of tu'.cleg a fourth part of the laud under each crop,
instead of the wliole under roots one year, barley the next, all
seeds tho next, and ail iu wlieat iu the fourth year, is that a fairer
average of results can be arrived at wlien all the experJuients are
made in every season as a year favourable to ouo of tlio kinds of
manurial trsatmout might ohanoe to bo uufavourablo to another. ^
WELLS' “ BOTJOH ON OOBNS/
Ask for Wells’ ** Sough on Corns.” As. 0, p. 1. Quick rellof,
joinpleto, ponnansnt snro. Coras, WortSi bujtMns, B, S, Uodoa
A Co., Usosnl AftaU,
September 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
4
The following table ihows the general re»ults of hIx year#’
oxperimnitg with the root* :—
WtiGHT OK Roots.
In the year.
I Aore
I mannred
from roots,
chaff, rtraw,
and 1000 lbs.
cotton-cake.
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
Tons. Cwt,
Average
3
13
4
IS
22
17
13
17
2
10
10
6
G
Acre
manured
from root*,
johaff, straw,
land 1000 lbs.
maize-meal.
Acre
manured
from roots,
chaff, straw,
and artUiold
manures
equivalent
to cotton-
cake.
I Acre
inantired
from roots,
I chaff, straw,
and artificial
manures
equivalent
to maize-
meal.
Tons.
Cwt.
I'ons.
Cwt.
1
1 Todb.
Cwt,
o
1
I 7
4
3
IG
iT
16
I 18
13
i
1.7
4
9
7
19
1 fi
16
18
19
24
10
1 20
IS
21
14
24
7
21
13
17
1
10
13 j
j 18
3
12
17
1 j
!
13
IG
The average of six years’ e.vperiinouts comes out soniowliut in
favour of cotton-cake duug over maizo-mealduiig: but the
estimate of agricultural chemists that the mauurial residue left
from feeding ootton-enke graotly exceeds tint from luuizo-meal
is not borne out at all. Xu fact, in the last two years tho results
from both were very nearly Identical. ArtlGcials rookoned as
etpiivaleut to the actual ninUtuun from the food are more effuctive
than chemical culculutiou allows for.
For five years’ trial of barley on tho same acres in each year
following the roots, the results, us far as bushel iiieastires arc
concerned, appear tlius :—
PKOllDCfi OK BabLISV AmB RoOTS.
tho incrcBBc in live weight wiw very much lees when tho auiinals
got no arttli.'i.il food. The object, nnwovi'r, was to try the edict
upon the subsequent wheat ci'Op, Tho evefttg'' results for five
years, so fur as hnsbols of dressed com are coucernod, aro thosn
Pkoducb ok Whisat APThu .Skbiw.
I Acre after j Aero after
seeds fed offjsecds fed off
I by slieep, I by sheep,
i without I without
cake or ocirn'eake or corn
’ Aero after : Aero after
'seeds fed off soods fed off
In the Year, j by sbeeii, by sheep,
jwitli 723 lbs. with 728 lbs.
I cotton-cake, maize-iuoal.
—tho wheat
top dressed
w'lth artifi¬
cial manure
-tho wheat
top-dressed
with artifi¬
cial mamirc
\
j _ _
i
tMjuivalont
tu ootlou-
cake.
1 equivalent
1 to maize
1 meal.
!
' Bushels.
1 Ihishels,
liushelfl.
1
J878
41-
-IS-.b
i50-G
1 39'4
1879
' .39-.8
40-
42-7
1 -Jl'7
IS^iO
' 2fi2
21-9
‘251
J88I
.60-4
1 •'■>1 + 1
58-9
: r>5-3
1882
42-8
1 1
i i
42 t
: 4GT
Average ... j
•lO'n
■12T
43-3
1 41'5
Tho iiiflnonce of season appt.ara inore powerful thou tho inamirinl
troaUnent, as fairly uniform dilTcroinu-s occurred in tliu yield
between one harvest and another. 'J’ha averages show a better
result from tbc residual manure of tbe maizc-fcodiug tbau from
the residual manure of tbe cotton-cake feoiliiig —a domonstration
coinplotely opposed to the teaebing of the agricultural chemists,
ns founded upon aualyac.s of feuding stiitFs.
Aero after !
In the Year.
i
Acre after -i
roots from
ootton-caUe
1 mamirc,
1
i
1
l Acre after
1 roots from
luaizo-meal
nianuro.
•
1 roots from
1 artificials
equal to eot-
eoii cake
dnuniire—-the
barley top-
Idressed witli
artificials
Acre after
roots from
ui'tificmla
i cijual to
, muize-tneul
timtiure.
1
{
1
Bushels.
Bushels,
Bushels.
j Bushnls,
1.878 .. j
41‘3
38-8
51'4
1 3«-4
1879 ... '
38'0
40'6
45 7
1 32-8
1880 ... J
41-3 1
37-0
410 1
1 33'I
1881 ... 1
60-6 1
47-3
51-0
51-0
... 1
1
61-3 j
1
48-1
40-0
40-3
1
Average ... j
(
44*5
42-7
47-1 i
1
40-0
Tho cottou-cake manure plots gave an average of .14)i
hualiola, against 42i busluds • from the in.iiz- meal mannn:
plots. Tho yield from tW artificial manure plots w.as still
greater, where the oonstituuiits equivalent to cottou-oakn manure,
and also nn extra dose of artificial were .applied, but considerably
smaller where only constituouts equivalent to maize meal manure
were applied.
After barley come seeds, each acre fed off by ten shoop—
one lot supplied with oottou-eakc, one with tlie same weight
of maize-meal, and the sheep on the icinainiug two acres
receiving no other food thou the horhago. The average in¬
crease in live weight of tho several lota of sheep, as repeated
for six seasons, appears os follows :—
IiroKEASE IN Live Weight ok Siibek fluAziNo Skeus akteb Barley.
In the Year.
Increase in
live weight
of 10 slieep
ou 0110 acre
InoreoHo In
live weight
of 10 sheep
ou one aere
Inorease in
live weight
of 10 sheep
Increase in
live weight
of 10 sheep
of seeds,
having 728
lbs. of cotton-
cake.
of seeds,
having 728
lbs. of maizo-
meal.
on one aero
of Bt*ed.s,
without
other food.
OU one aero
of Bee’dH,
without
other food.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lhs,
Lbs.
1877
303
27.5
214
210
1878
447
444
.392
.■(26
1879
328
435
314
250
1880
262
.317
220
314
18il
434
852
1.34
168
1882
845
402
IfW
110
Average ...
353
.371
‘245
231
Here the cotton-cake feeding did not tell so well as the feeding
ou an equal quantity of nioize-meal ; and in both coses, of oouise,
STERILITY OF ANLM.\L.S IX CONFINEMENT.
A n ihtnrrsting dsnartmnul of the sterility of animals is that
which resulfs from eonliuemont. This seems specially to
affect what (ire vaguely dosign.ated the uohlo aniniais. Those
which are sterile show great vanatioiis : .some disdain to cohabit or
have lost sexual dusiIe ; utbors have iuei’iasc of sexual appetite,
iiinl oolittbit freely or cxcvBaivoly, but without imprvguation result¬
ing, or with the result very rarely following. Hoimi, if iinprognatod,
bring forth only aliortions, or young which are dead-buru, yr, if
alive, feeble and ill-formed. TUoib is, for iuataneo, os Shorthouse
bos pointed out, a common occurrence of cleft jialate in the lion’s
cubs burn in the Zoologieal Uardens.
Anioiig birds in cnnliiiuinnut there are many good examples of
change of sexual habits and of storiiity. In some cases they haw
no eggs, or, if they produce, they have only comparatively few, or
they may nuglucl the eggs when produced, or the eggs duly cared
fur may ho iiirapablc of iioiiig hatched. This ahortional sterility,
arising from iiiqioifeclion of eggs n.s u ro.tult of eontinrinout, is
wjII piovod by experiments made in Kruiiee ou the common fowl,
tVlieii these birds weie allowed oonsidoniblo fieedom, 29 per cent
of the eggs failed to be liateliod ; w'huu loss froedoin was allowed,
•10 per ueiit failed ; when closely couHncd, 00 per cent w ere
not hatched.
Tiu! [Kiwcr of temperaturas that aro not according to an animal’s
nature to induce sterility is no doubt very groat. Lanvin inen-
tion.s that Mr. Miller, a former sniioriutciident of the Zoologic.al
(Jarileus, believes that the sterility of the oaruivuru there was in-
oreased by iiicreaso of exposure to air and eold. In winter inade¬
quately sliolteroil cows cither ceasoil to give milk or gave it in
diinmished quantity. “ And” soys Bpenecr, " though giving milk
is not tho same thing as bearing a young one, yet, ns milk is part
of the material friiin whion a young one is built up, it is
part of tho outlay for reproductive purposes, and dimiiiiitiou of it
is a loss of reproductive power.” Failure to maiutaiu tho cow's
heat may entail sncli roduction in the supply of milk as to cause
tho death of the calf. Hard living, says Darwin, retards the
period at which animals conceive, for it has been found ilisadvan-
tageous in tho northurn Highlands of Scotland to allow cows to
hoar calves before they are four years old. Roiiliu found that in
the hot valleys of the Equatorial CknUilloias sheep wore not fully
fecund.
'I'hc oomiTiou fowl will not breed in (Jreoiiland or Northern
Siheria. “In this oountry, it is fed,” says Speueor, “ through tho
uolil mniitiiB, bu(, novertiiolcss, in midwintor it cither wholly
leaves off laying or lays very spavbigly. And then wo have the
further evidence that if it lays sparingly, it does so only on condi¬
tion that the heat, as well as the food, is actiffcially maintained.
Hens lay in eold weather only whoa they are kept warm, to which
tact may be added tho kindred one, that when pigeons roeoivo
artificial boat, they not only ooutinuo to hutch longer in autninn,
hut will rcconimcuee in spring sooner than they would otliorwiso
do.”
On tho subject of the interbreeding of animals, there is a vast
liody of opinion as well as of facts showing its power in producing
monstrosity and itsally, sterility. “ If we were, 'says Darwin, ‘‘to
pair brothers and sisters in the ease of any piira auitiml, wlueh
from any cause had tho least tendency to Bteiiiity, the breed
would assuredly be lost in a few generations. Elsewhere he
shows that “ long-coutinned close interbreeding between the
uearert rehftions diminishes tho oonstitutional vigour, size, and
342
THE INDIAN AGRICSULTURIST. September 1, 1883.
fertility of the offtprlng, ftud oooBeioually leads to malfomiatious
but not neoeuarily to general dstorloratiou of form or atruoturo.
Tliis failure of fertility shows that the evil roanlta of interbreed
Ing are indepeiident of the augmontatiou of nrorbid tendeneles
eommon to both parents, though this augmentation no doubt if
often highly injurious. Our belief that ovU follows from cloai
Intorbroraing rests, to a large extent, on the experionuo of praotioa
breeders, ospoeially of those who have seen many animals of th(
kind which can be propagated quickly ; bat it likewise rests on
several carefully rcoordod experiments. With some animals olosc
intorbroedlng may be carried on for a long period with impuulty by
the selection of the most vigorous and healthy individuals ; but,
sooner or later, evil follows. The evil, however, oomes ou so
slowly and gradually that it easily escapes observation, but can bi
recognised by the almost instantaneous manner in which size, con
stitutional vigour, and fertility are regained when animals that havi
lung been Interbred are crossed with a distinot family,”
Regarding the vety remarkable auhjeot of sterility of sexual con
neotlon with speolal Individuals only, Darwin says “ It is b\
no means rars to find oertain males and females which will
not breed together, though both are known to bo perfectly fortili
with other males and ftmales. We have no reason to suppos<
that this is caused by these animals having been subjected to
any change in their habits of life. . . , The cause apparently lies
In an lunate sexual incompatibility of the pair which are nmtehed.
Several iustanoos have been commnnicated to me by Mr. W. C.
.Spooner (well known for his essay on cross-breoding), by Mr. Eytoii,
of jEyton, by Mr. Wiokstod, and other breeders, and espooially by
Mr. Waring of Chilsflold, in relation to horses, cattle, pigs, fox¬
hounds, other dogs, and piguons. In these cases, females which
either previously or subsequently wore proved to be fertile, failed
to brood with certain males with whom It was particularly desired
to match thorn. A change in the constitution of the female may
sometimes have occurred before she was pnt to the second male,
luit in other cases the explanation is hariUy tenable, for a female
known not to be barren lias been unsitccossfully paired leveu or
eight times with the same male likewis i known to be perfectly
fertile. With oart-maros, which somutimes will not breed with stal¬
lions of pure blood, but siibsecjuently have bred with oart stallions,
Mr. Spooner Is inclined to attribute the failure to the lesser sexual
ower of tho raoe-horso. But 1 have beard from tbo greatest
reedor of race horses at the present day, through Mr. Waring,
that it frequently occurs with tho mare to be put several times
during one or two seasons to a particular stallion, of acknowledged
power, and yet prove barren, the mare afterwards bleeding at once
with some other horse. These tacts are worth recording, as they
show, like so many povlcus facts, ou what alight coustituticual
dllforeuoos the fertility of an animal often depends.”
Before leaving the snbject of tho causes of sterility of animals,
I quote a jpassap from Darwin regarding the results of cuufiur-
inent : “ SufBuient ovidouoe," says ho “ has now been advanced to
prove that animals, when first confined, are emiuently liable to
suffer in their reproductive systbin. We feel at first naturally
inclined to attribute tbo result to loss of health, or at least to loss
of vigour ) but this view can hardly bo admitted when u’o relluct
how healthy, loug-lived, and vigorous many animals are under
captivity, such os mrrots, and hawks when used for hawking,
cheetahs wbeu used for hunting, and elephants. The reproductive
organs tliomsclves are not diseased, and tlic diseases from which
animals in menageries usually perish are not those wliioh in
any way affect their fertility. No domestic animal is more
subject to disease than the sheep, yet it is remarkably pro¬
lific. The failure of animals to brood under coufmement lias boon
sometiniei attributed exclusively to a failure in thoir sexual instinct;
this may oocusionally come into play, but there is no obvious reason
why this instinct should bs specially liable to be ulTeotod with
porfeotly tamed animals, except, indeed, indirectly, through the
reproductive system itself being disturbed. Moreover, immorous
coses have been given of various animals which couple freely undei
confinement, hut never oonoeivo, or, if they oouooive and produce
young, these are fewer in number than is natural to the species.
In the vegetable kingdom Instinct of conrsc can play no part, and
wo shall presently ace (ho says) that plants, when removed from
natural conditions, are affected in nearly the same manner as
animals. Change of climate cannot be the canso of tho loss of
fortuity, for, whilst many animals Imported into Europe from
extremely different climates breed freely, many others when confined
in their native land are completely sterile. Change of food oaiinot
be the chief cause, for ostriches, ducks, and many other animals,
which must have niidorgone a great cUange in this respect, breed
fiwely. Carnivorous birds, when confined, arc extremely sterile,
whilst most carnivorous animals,exceptplentlgrades, are moderate¬
ly fertile. Nor can the amount of food bo tho cause, for a
snffloient supply will oortaiuly bo givon to valuable animals,
and there is no reason to supimsc that miioli more food
would be given to them than to our cholco domestic pro¬
ductions which retain tlieir full fertility. Lastly, we may infer
from the ooae of the elephant, cheetah, various hawks, and of many
animals which ore allowed to load an almost free life in their
native land, that want of exercise is not the sole cause. It would
appeor that any change in the habits of life, whatever those habits
may bo, if great enough, tends to affect, in an inexplioablc luamior,
tho powers of reproduotiou. The result depends more on tbo consti¬
tution of the eiXfoies than ou tho nature of the change ; for cei Uiin
whole groups are affected more than others ; but exceptions alwoys
occur, for some species in tho most fertile groups refuse to
breed, aud some in the most sterile groups breed freely. Those
unImaU whioh uenally breed freely under coufiuoiuent rarely
breed, as I was assured, in the Zoological Gardens, within a year
or two after their first importation. When an animal whlob is
genoTnUy sterile under oonfineiseat happens to breed, tho young
apperantly do not inherit this power ; tor hod this been tho ease, .
vorioui quadrupeds and bitda whicli ore valuable for exhibition '
would have become oomraon. Dr, Broca even affirms that many
animals in tho Jardiu des f lontei, after having prodnoed yonn^
for threo or four successive senerailous, become sterile; bat tbie
may be the result of too clMe interbreeding. It Is a remarkable
oiroamstanoe that mauy mammals and birds have produced hybrids
under oonfinemeut quite os readily as, or even more readily than,
they have procreated their own kind. Of this fact many iiistanoea
have been given, aud we am thus reminded of those plants whioh,
when cultivated, refuse to bo fertUizod by tboir own pollen, but
can easily be fertilized by that of a distinot species, ^olly, we
must oonclnde, limited as the oonclasion is, that ohanged eoudi-
tions of life have an ospeoial power of acting injuriously ou the
reprodnotive system. The wliole ease is quite peculiar, for tlioee
organs, though not diseased, arc thus rendered incapable of per¬
forming their proper functions, or perform them Importootly.”—
Sxtraal/romtiut (f/tliiltmian L-etum, dtlitmvd by J, MMhetvx
Vmwau, M.D., F,Ji,G,P.,L.
GRAZING RIGHTS IN FORESTS.
I N the letters which have recently appeared in the fbreulrr,
the effect of grazing ou the forest vegetation bos alone been
discussed ; aud it has apparently boon assumed that, provided it
was shown that grazing was not immodiutcly and directly injurious
to the r.'piodiu'tiou, no further objection could be made against
it.
SV'liiU', bowvvor, fully admittiug that this is the most import-
aut point that we have to consider in connection with grazing, 1
am of opinion that the probable effects of grazing rii/ht» ou goneral
forest managomout deserve uttontiou in a discussion ou the policy
of excluding grazing from a certain class of forests.
Apart from cultural considerations, I think that the existence of
such rights would weaken our control over the forosts, and that
they would bo, in general, an element of insecurity in our protec¬
tive measiiros. All forest rights tend to become more onerous, and
it is difficult, even whore carefully prepared records exist, to pre¬
vent tho doinaud the right supplies from gradually inoroaslng dur¬
ing a long series of ycors with the general growth of the popula¬
tion. Moreover forest grazing has this peculiarity about it that,
within limits of course, tne more a forest is grazed over, the more
pasturage will be fouud ou it. The pat.^hes of short cropped gross
increase in extent, and, os tho cover lightens (os lighten it must in
time in any forest where the grazing is coustout and severe, but I
will allude to this later on) spread over tho ontire area.
Tho history of forestry In all European countries furnishes us
with iiumerous examples of tho growth of rights, which, when
grouted, must have appeared harmless enough. In tho for^xler
tor April last, we find, oo. an iustunce of this, some intorostiug
facts regarding the extinction of rights in Enping Eorcst ;—
“ The extiuotloii of rights of fuel in tho Mouor of Waltham, Holy
Cross and Seward-stouo, which wore utterly destructive to the ap
" poaraiieo of the forest cost CIS,000, and C7,000 were paid to the
" inhabitants of Longtnn to extinguish thoir rights of lopping. The
'* eutiro coat of tho arbitration cost £100,50.1.”
In European countries, where tbo indirect ovils from grazing
are less iujnrioua than in India, it has boon admitted without
question, not alone by professional foresters, but by tho general
public, that grazing rights are u serious danger to tho State forests,
aud largo sums of the public money have been devoted
to tho extiuotion of these riglits. A recent writer in the
/ifviir des Manx et Forets thus expresses this opinion : —
“ L'Extinction des droits do p&turage doat los forSts domioales
‘ BOut encore grev^cs eat do la plus grande Importttuoe, non seule-
‘ inont an point do vue de I’iuteret du Tresor, tuais snrtout an point
' de vue do Vintdrdt social. Porsoimo ue oonteste on effot, qua
‘ les droits do p5turage, quaud ila ue sout pas une cause do ddterl-
‘ oration progressive, de mine finale pour les forests, sont du molus
‘ tonjours un obstacle 5 leur amelioration.”
In tho peculiar conditions under which forest work is carried
>n in India, these objections to grazing, in any forest nhattver, ir-
'espoctivo of the direct injury done to the vegetation, appear to
lie so weighty and important, that I think it would be impolitio
o allow grazing rights of any sort, even in deodar fom^ta, v/hen-
•ver this can be avoided.
But at the same time I agree with Mr. Moir in protesting against
oreats being left unreserved, simply because we cauiiot entirely
txclude grazing from them, while I believe that grazing
.lone, when sufiioiently severe and eonstaut, can, in time,
:ansi: the annihilation of aky forest, zvitN deodar. I oin
muvlaced that with proper restriotioos, and by closing, if
lecessary, parts of the forest for a time, any forest can
>0 at least preserved, in spite of grazing ; but tliat a right of
razing from its tendency to increase, is always a serious danger,
>ud should be avoided where possible. The foot that forests oou
xist and reprodiioe themselves in spite of moderate grazing, is
iroved by our finding forests still in India, just as Conclusively as
.he fact that large forest areas have disappeared under the united
nflueuee of over-felling and grazing, proves the necessity for State
interference in forest muiiugemont.
But until the time, certainly not yet within a measnrable dls-
onco, when the natives of this country more generally grow
odder crops, immense areas must coutlnne to be devoted to graz-
Jig. Many of these areas, whioh os a rule are unfit for oultlvatiai,
ire still fairly well stocked with timber, and could be improved
aud continue to furnish both timber and pasture under a simple
rystem of forest management ; and there are many oases in whioh,
iwiug to peculiar ciroumstoncss, snoh os the feeling of tho people,
ir the opposition of the Civil authorities, it is raAcmoALIiV neoes-
sa^ to aoo^t forests burdened with grazing rights.
]^t this is no reason why we should allow forests to be burdened
ith rights, when this oaii be avoided, under the uiistakeu notion
9
September 1, 1883. THE INDJAK AGrRICULTURIST.
that they will not be an obstacle to improvemeut. A propot of the
disonsslon on the offeot of grazing in deodar forests, some facts
relating to the '‘chir” tpintw7o»yt/ofio) foresU in the Murree Hills
mw be of biterest.
In many parts of these forests, where fires havo not recently
occurred, we find, in spite of grazing which has never been pro¬
hibited or in any way restricted, a douse crop of vigorous young
seedlings, and these do not appear to have suffered in any way.
Where, however, the cover of the forest has been removed by
felling or lopping, so as to allow an nnbroken stretch of gross to
spring up, there are as a rule no seedlings. In several ptacos the
forest land has been cleared for cultivation and then abandoned.
In sequestered places far away from villages, the forest has sprung
up again on these cleared places, but whore grazing has been
more severe, this has not happened, and the cleared places remain
perfectly bare. Now, os I have already stated, seedlings of
any size do not appear to bo injured by grazing, but it would
^pear that when they come up in short grass they are uountantly
browsed down while still vo^ young. For it is impossible to
suppose that none germinated in the bare places, when we find
similar cleared places well stocked with seedlings. Darwin gives
an example of this in his Origin of Spooks.
“ But now important on elemout enclosure is I plainly saw near
*'Famham in Surrey. Here there arc extensive heaths with a
•' few clumps of old Scotch firs on the distant hilltops I Within
" the last ten years large spaces hove been enclosed, and self-sewn
" firs are now springing up in multitudes so close together that
** all cannot live. When 1 ascertained that these young trees had
'* not been sown or planted, I was so much surprised at their
‘ numbers, that I went to several points of view whence I could
‘ exaraiue hundreds of acres of the unenclosed heath, and litoral-
' ly I could not see a single Sootoh fir, except the old planted
‘ clumps. But on looking closely between the stems of the heath
' I found a multitude of seedlings and little trees which had been
' perpetually browsed down by cattle, la one square yard, at a
‘ point some hundred yards distant from one of the old clumps,
‘ I counted thirty-two little trees j and one of them with twcuty-
‘ six rings of growth, had during many years tried to raise Its
‘ heatl above the the stems of tho heath, and had failed. No
• wonder that os soon as t’’- laud was unclosed. It became thickly
’ clothed with vigorously growing young firs."
1 cannot believe that this 'does not tako place in deodar forests
also, and it would appear Iw bo a mistake to suppose that animals
grazing do not injure the youug seedlings of species such ns doodoi'
nud other conifers that, when older, they wUl not touch. In fact
it would appear certain that whero tho grazing is sufficiently
severe and eonstant, every seedling U eaten dowu as suun as it
appears, and reproduction becomes absolutely impossiblo.
Of course, where tho number of auinhls pastured is small com-
jiared with the area, this could not happen; and if in additiou to
this tho land is hilly and uneven or rocky, tho majority of the
seedlin^pi of unpalatable speoios, many nf which would conic up out
of the Uttlo tracks followed by tho animals when grazing or bo-
tween rocks, would entirely escape Injury from such limited grazing.
We may indeed go further and suppose that whore there was a
struggle between a number of speoios, those that were unpalatable
to the animals would ho benefited by grazing uude^ the conditions
I have described.
It is, I think, this immense differouco between i/ndrr-grazhig
and otwr-mazing, between the injury done by a few animals pirt-
iiig and cTioosinff thoir food auioug the undergrowth and prftohos
of grass under the more or loss complete cover of a forest, and
the injury done by a crowd of ifnimula constantly grazing on a
continuous stretch of grass d&d probably, involuukirUt/, ornppiinj
down every seedling, tu>t ahsoluldy poisonons or nauteout, that ac¬
counts for the fact that while wo have examples of hill fere.sts
disappearing in a few years almost entirely through grazing, wc
also find cases like those cited by Mr. Muir, oi‘some of tho pine
forests I have mentioned near Murree, in whioli, in spite nf yi nziiig,
reproduotiou goes on as vigorously os couhl bo desired. The iiu-
portanoe of this difference botwoen tho effect of light grazing and
severe grazing is evident. As tho wants the forests satisfy increase
with tho natural growth of the population, a harniloss grazing
right may, in tho course of time, overwhelm the forest burdened
with it.
That tho simply of posture in a forest tends to iucroaso with
the demand, i think will be evident to any one who examines a
forest uonstontly grazed over, and who observes the eUango
from soil and undergrowth of the least frequented or dousor por¬
tions to the hard bare soil patolies of short grass and, evontuE^y,
in tho most frequented portions to the continuous stretches of
short gross with oceasional isolated trees.
With regard to Mr. Moir's very practical argumont in favor
of limited grazing in deodar forests, namely, that those forests
in which grazing is not prohibited are in a very much better
condition, as regards reproduction, than those protected from
grazing, there is nothing contrary to roasou or cxporicuoe in
supposing that tiie deodar seedlings are benefited where the
catUe eat the grass and leave them nutouchod. But from what I
hav6 quoted, it would appear that if the grozlno had been a little
more severe and constant, this would not have happened, and the
seedlings would have disappeared with tho grass while still very
yoAg, and as grazing tends to Increase, it is a wise policy to o.x-
clude grazing even where at first wt injurious. But I am of tho
opinion of ‘‘ 9w." (viiie the Forester for March) that there is
room to doubt that grazing alone was the e.an8e of that superiority
noticed by Mr. Moir in the forests grazed over os compared with
those on which grazing had been prohihiiod. Very probably Ur.
Moir is correot. in bis deduction, but he has not cited sufficicut
facts to place it beyond doubt, that grazing alone and nothing else
oansed the inperiority.
Not long ago I hoard a similar faot made use of to prove that
fires were beneficial to pine forests,* and that oonsequontly our
teaching was nonsense. Since the lost ten or twelve years the
villagers have been prohibited from setting fire to the pine forests
in tho hills about Murree, which previous to that time they had
regularly burned for pasturage every year. Many of these forests
are now, indisputably, in a worse oonditinn than they were some
years aco. In faot in some places there are seedlings at
all, and os notwithstanding this the mature trees are being
fellml, those forests offer a perfeot example of the conversion
of pine forests into pure grass lauds. But this detorioration is not
due to tho teaching of forestry as regards the injurious effect
of fires being erroneous, hut to the faet that fires have rccwnonally
broken out, and having tho aoeuraulations of several years to feed
them, instead of only one, or part of one, os they had formerly,
have been much more violent and done nmcli more damage than
they did in former years, the soodliugs hoiiig utterly destroyed
instead of only scorohed, It may bo said that it does not much
matter whether tho theory or the practice was wrong, tbo result
of forest work in this case is to reader the last stato of tlieso
forests worse than the first. Out the failure is due to the com¬
mon sense rules which uxperieiiee has taught to ho nooessary in
fire protective measures not being couiplTed with. lu faot the
forests wore made over to the Forest lirpartmout saddled with
the impossible condition, at fai‘ as thoir protection and improve¬
ment are oonceraod, that tho villagers could, with the consent of
1 ths civil authorities, extend thoir cultivation whero they liked
‘ in them, and fell trees whero they likod,t so that It has boon im
I possible either to demarcate or fire traoe these forests.
It may not be out of plaoo to recall here that not very many
years ago it was argued that fires wore beneficial to teak forests
and assisted reproduotiou, and that by keeping out liras wo were
adopting a " wrong system.”
Tho lato Captain Forsyth, in “ Tho Highlands of Central India,”
writes os follows ;
“Tho grass burning universal in these forests” (teak forests of
of tho Satpura Range) " is undoubtedly beneficial in a great vaiicly
“ of woya,” * s * * • .
“ It lias been held by some that those fii as are very Injurious to
‘ the growth of teak saplings and other valuable trees, but It is
“ au iiudoubtud fact that teak seeds will germinate and produuo
“ better soudlings whore tho grass luw been (ireil than where it has
“ not ; and it is not well oatahlishod that much ponnaiumt injury
“ is afterwards done to the seedlings. By groat efforts fires were
“ kept out of one or two favourably sitnated teak forests for soma
“ yetis, hut 110 result of consequBUce to the youug trees was ob-
“ served.”
* V K * 't it M
“ Tho discussion, however, can never assume much practical val-
“ lie, since it would he quite Impossible, with any moans at our
“ command, to keep fires out of any but a few very limilcd and
“ favourably situated localities.”
Since this was written liiindrods of thousands of acres of teak
forests liavn boon auuiially pi-otootcd in the Molghat with in
disputably a good ofl'ect to the forests, ami the villagors Ilium
solves, tho wild Clouds and h-ukitrs, recognise tho wisdom of fire
protection.
„ W. li. D’Auev.
— The Indiiin Forester. \
EUCALYPTU,S TREE IN THE ARGENTINE
REPUBLIC.
C ONiiLIL BAKER, of Buenos Ayres, says that the Jo'iw'tlyptus,
styled by some tho “ fever-destroying tree,” is considered to
be a lory healthful tree, aud the puugoucy of its leaves is such
that it is never molested by iusects; it is reported to be tho
only tree grown iu the .drgoutino Republic which tho locusts will
not attack. It has the reputation of being an efi'ectual destroyer or
absorbent of malaria. Iu A.-.stralia, it is said, there arc iio marsh
fevers whero largo forostr of tho Biicalyplus exist, and tlio troos
havo been planted in the Poiitiiio inarslies near tho city of Romo,
with oxoollout effeot. In Huoiios Ayres they bruise the loaves, and
I bind them to tho forehead for nervous heauaehe. The loaves them¬
selves are a special abhorrence of sueli iusects as prey upon fruits
aud fruit trees, against whose visitations they furnish protection
by being scattered thickly on tho ground underneath. Consul
Baker U strongly In favour of introducing this tree into the major¬
ity of the European countries, and into the United States, aud
calls attention to tbo success whloh has attended Us cultivation in
certain districts of Franco, Italy, .Spain, and Portugal. I'he troo
boa been planted on a large scale and with good msults iu Algiers,
and at the Universal Exposition of 18(i7,in Paris, the trunk of a
troo only oiglit years old, having a oiroumforeaoo of between five
and six foot, was exhibited. The Uneaiijpiuji gUibulas grows with a
rapidity which is surprising. Tho first year of its planting, its
usual growth is about 18 iuciies per month, when it is planted
under favourable clrcumstuiiccs. Its iucreaso in height is some
what retarded during the second year, but tho diameter of the
trunk iuoroascs, and its branches begin to spread. Oiviug to this
rapidity of growth, forests of these troos ore obtained in ton years,
which with other trees it would take a century to form. As an
example of tlioir increase, it may be stated that in Hyeres, seeds
* But the peculiar wniditions uader which those forests wore made
vor to the Forest Department, tho Forest Olfioer in charge oannot
prevent this destruction, as the villagor-. can, midor onions from tho
tohsildar, foll^ny troos they rcipiiro fur their own use.
t Those forests aro now bring dumaroatod ; as socu as thi, B
aooomplishod, it will bo possible to protect them properly.
S44
THE INDIAN AGRTCTTLTITRIST. September 1, ISeS.
plantod in 1'8J>7 had, in I8B5, ruaohed the height of 58 fOet. In
Toulon, the pi»nt« grow to 2-t ieot in two yoari. In 1863, there
were trees in AlgioM of three yearn’ growth, which had attained
a height of from M to 35 feet, and generally in that country tlley
growat the rate of about 10 fret each eoaioni In Australia, its
native soil, trees of fifty years’ growth attalu an altitude of from
225 to 280 feet, and a circumference of from 30 to 00feet, producing
colossal boards or stabs 160 feet long and 12 feet wide. In the
Argentine Kepublio, the tree has a perfectly straight trunk, and
In the forests the branches rarely begin below 00 or 70 feet.
The outside hark is loose and shaggy, like the plane tree. When
young, the trunk is full of small branches, filled with bluish green
leaves. In the first years of its growth tiie loaves are opposite
and sessile, but as the tree assnmes its truo obaracter they become
potiolate aud alternate, aud their colour changes to a much darker
hue, hanging vertically, and presenting their edges to the sun.
Their two surfaces are exactly alike; the flowers are White, aud
produce a capsule-seed vessel of tlie size of a filbert, which is full
of BDiOll blouK seeds similar to those of the onion. The tree will not
grow from cuttings : it must be produced from the seed. Tliese
are generally planted in boxes, and afterwards transferred to small
beds. Two or throe seeds are generally plantcrl together, and light¬
ly covered with fine earth or river sand, and afterwards •finely-
cut straw Is strewn over the top, as much to protect them from the
hot sun as fi'oni heavy raius. In very dry seasons the small plants
aro watered every fifteen days, but this la not absolutely necessary.
The tree requires a deep soli and permeable, neither too light nor
too compact, and it does not grow to advantage when there is too
much humidity in the earth. The usual time for pinuting tlie seed
is in the months of February and Moroh. Tlie seeds begin to sprout
in eight or ten days. The cultivation of the Jfucafy/ifii* in the Ar¬
gentine Kepublio has only two diffioulties to oncountor, the first
being the irregularity of the suosous. A hard frost out of season,
which sometimes ocours, may destroy a large numbor of plants. It
is, however, very rarely that trees tliat have safely passed the first
winter will afterwords be killed by frost. Altliouglv the tender
shoots may suffer, the tree, for that reason, does not die, but with
the first favourable weather new aud stronger shoots will spring up.
After having changed thoir leaves, the trees appear to be able to
endure greater cold. The other difficulty with which they have to
contend is the wfnd. On account of their rapid growth, the trees
ljooome_ top-heovy with their weight of leaves ; and tlio roots for
snstaiuing such on enormous pressure as a high wind prodnucs are
relatively small, so that a south-west pmnpttro, especially after a
rain-storm, will sometimes uproot whole plantations, nnd this is
rarticiilarly likely to happen durln^he second year of their growth
To provide against this, planters iu fiuonus Ayres make use of stakes
and supports to guard against the danger to which the trec.s are
exposed. When the trees are placed close together, they assist to
protect each other, and when tney are plautod under the leo of a
bolt of timber, whioli is froquoutly done, tliay are better enabled
to resist the wind. After the tliird year they are thinned, and tlioso
thus cut away are used as stakes or guards for tlie rest.—y««r«a(
of the Socirly o/ A Hu.
the results obtained from all the eight hybrids ore oompomd In the
following tables
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 8.
No. 4.
Crystallised sulphate of quin¬
ine .
Crystailised sulphate of cin-
chonidiuc . ...
Crystallised sulphate of quini-
uine..
Ciuchoniuo (alkaloid) ... i
2'87
2-94
traces.
0-72
1- 48
2- 85
traoes.
0-B7
1-88
2-93
traoes.
0-32
0-97
1-94
traces,
0-80
No. 5.
No. 0.
No. 7
No. 8.
Crystallised sulphate of quin.
iue .
2-12
2-04
6-12
8-09
Crystallised sulphate of cin-
ohonidiue
2-84
2-26
2-46
3-33
Crystallised sulphate of quhii-
diue.
traces.
traoes,
traoes.
traces.
Ciuchouine (olkalol d)
1
0-33
0-68
0-55
0-57
CINCHONA.
rPHE lollowiug is the resolution on tlic Annual Report of the
•A. Government Cinchona Plantation hi Bengal for the year
1882-83, and the Annual Report of the Quinologist for the same
year i—
The result of tlic ploutiug operations of tlie year shows a
decrease of about 50,000 oinohona trees on the returns of 1881-82.
This is due to tlie uprooting of a largo number of the OulUaya
and hybrid varieties which were found to possess bark of poor
quality. Some 160,000 red bark trees were also uprootod in the
ordinary rotation, and were replaced by the yellow bark and
hybrid varieties. Neatly oil the land within the existing
oinohona reserve suitable for the cultivation has now been planted
out, aud the SuperiUteudont accordingly applied, in October
last, for permission to plant out with Ledgeriaita and the hybrid
variety a tract of laud in the traus-Xoosta portion of Darjeeling
which bad been reserved for Gevormnont cinchona cultivation.
Both these species have been proved by repeated analyses to be
very rich in quinine, while most of the yellow bark or quiuine-
yielding trees on tlie existing piimtations at Muugpoo are quite
young, aud the whole etouk is not sutficieut to furnish, wen
when mature, enough bark to employ the factory profitably for
more than a few weeks in the year. There is in fact no planta¬
tion of these trees actually in exlstcuoe, while the nurseries
have a magnificent stock of nearly half-a-mlllion plants of the
best sorts of yellow bark trees which wemld lie lost unless the
seedlings wore spsodily planted out. 'I'he proposal for forming
tho new plantation was readily approved By Government, mid
measures have stuos been taken for planting out tho reserve
with a number ot tha best kinds of Ledyerimia and hybrid
cinchona.
2. In the Resolution reoorded upon the proceedings of last
year, it was remarked tliat there were several distinct forms of
tho hybrid variety, and analyses wei-e given of the samples of
bai-k of four of tiose forms. Buriug tho year under review tlie
Superintendent had analyses mads ol leor mors of these forms, and
Dr. King points out that hybrid No. 4 is very poor in quinine,
and it was the trees of this sort that were uprooted during the year.
No. 7 appears to bo cxcopWonally riah is quinine, and tho planta¬
tions of this variety might with advantage be extended.
Ihu total uuiiibsr of oinohona trees of all sorts at the close of
tho year was 4,711,178, namely red [Oinrhana Succinll>r(^)%^la,^!O0,
yellow (Oalisaya Letlgeriaiyi) 662,098, hybrid unnamed variety
304,378, and other kinds 30,592,
3. It is satisfactory to observe that the crop of tho year is the
largest that has yet boon liarvostod on tlio plantations. It
amounted to 390,980 pounds of dry bark, of which .372,610 pounds
were of Succirnhrrtt 22,120 pounds of Culuaya and //crfyeriaaa,
and 2,250 pounds of hybrid bark, fly far the largest portion of
the produce was made over to the faetory for conversion into
ciuohoua febrifuge, while about 41,800 pounds of yellow aud red
barks were sont at the request oi tlie Secretary of State to London
to bo there converted into various forms of febrifuge, and
returned to this country for trial by the Medical Depart¬
ment,
4. The cxpeuditiiro or. the plantations amounted to Rs.
80,739-0-2 against the budget allotmunt of Uo. 82,225. Of this
expenditure Rs, 17,548-3-2 was iucurred on the newly opeued
trails-1 eeata pUiutotiou, aud on the young plautation at Sittoiig.
This sum is uliargeable to capital account* 'I’ho balance, amount
mg t . Rs. 6.3,191-2-5, which was spent ou the old plantation,
aud inoliidos charges ou account of packing and carriage of hark
sent to Kiigl'ind, is chargeable as working expenses.
5. It is disappointing to notioe tlie continued failure of
CuHluiyma bark, uotwithatauding that tho utmost care has been
taken of the plants aud every endeavour made to grow them
at vnrions elevations and with varions exposures. Only three
plants were alive at tho close of the year. An attempt has been
made by the Superintendent to Introduce the Mumija plant, vt-hioli
ta a genus botauically allied tq cinchona. It is said to be
loss particular tliau ciuohoiia as to f^il aud clini&to, and prodnees
a qiiinluc-ylelding bark under the name of Ouprea. 'rfils bark
forma a very largo proportion of the quantity of quinine bark
iiiipoi tod into Europe. Although the first attempt to grow the
plant In the Muugpoo plantatious has not been quite sucoessful,
Dr. King entertains hopes of siiooessfully acclimatizing it,
wheu he is able to procure a itioro adequate supply of seed. Tlio
Liontonant-Govenior will await the result of the exporlmont
with much lutercst. Tho surplus seed of the Otiligetya Z/cUguritiJM
was as usual distributed during tho year gratuitously amoucst
applicants. ' ®
0 . Dr, King has eventually succeeded in obtaining an analysis
of the bark renewed on Suceinibru trees that liad their origiitol
bark removed by tho shoving process introduced by Mr. Moens
the distinguished Director of Uinohono Cultivation to the Dutch
Goveriiinent. It appears that this proeoss consists in shaving off
the greater part of tho boi'k of a living tree to the height of Irom
eight to teu foot from tho ground, cAre being taken to leAve every*
where a aufiioiently thick layer of bark to uovsr tiio wood. This
method has had a fair trial ou the Sikkim plmitationa, and the
result has, beyoud doubt, beeu’*'favourable, as tho bark renews
perfectly. What, however, ruinaiaetl to be eean was whether tho
renewed bark was as rich in medioiual alkaloidsos the origtaal.
It was witti the object of detqriniuiBg- this question that the
analysis abovo reforred to was undertaken during the year. ■ Xlio
results are thus described by Dr. King : '^’he bark renewed
rather slowly, but the aualysla shows that it is very riali both lu
quinine and cinohonidlno; and there can be no doubt that in
countries where rod bark trees are perfectly at home, and where
their oouliuuauoe in good health and vigour for a long series of
years can bo absolutely ooautod on, this shaving proosse must^ a
very excellent one."
7, An interesting feature in the operations of tho year is tlio
low coat at which the febrifuge was turned out, The price of the
febrifuge ueoowrily fluctuates from year to year, but In no former
year hM It hoeu so low os Rs. 8-8 a pound. This satisfactory
result Is Attributed oUieny to the lArger peroentAgo of tho AikA*
loids (2-73) extracted from tho bark used in manufacture The
issues, howevor, foil below those of 1881.2, though they were a
S<^ieJ»ber 1, ie€3. THE INdIaN A0BICULTURIST.
345
little in fldvaaoe of tbote for 18S0-81. Tho following table ooa
pares tbe distribution in the past three years >->-
1880-81. 1881-82, 1882-88
lb. oz. Jb, oz. Ib. oz.
To Mediool Depot, Caloutta ...3,000 0 3,886 0 2,000 0
Ditto, Bombay ... 2,000 0 1,000 0 1,000 0
Ditto, Madras ... COO 0 800 0 ,330 0
To Oolonlal Government, Mauri¬
tius ... . 160 0
To Surgeon-General for District
Medical Officers of Bengal . 093 4 803 12
To lugpeotOr-Geneial of Jails for
jails and looh-nps, Bengal . 14 12 20 12
Sold to the public ... ...3,130 11 4,880 0 4,060 12
Given 08 samples ... ... 3 2 2 9 10 0
Total ... 8,653 13 10,878 9 8,901 4
The issues to the public were 120 pounds below those of 1881-82,
and not in excess of that year ns stated in tbe superintendent's
report. The stock of febrifuge in hand on Slat March 1883
amounted to 2,062^ pounds, which, thougli greater thou that with
which the year opened, U by no means too large a reserve to meet
emergencies.
The revenue derived from the sale of the febrifuge, seed, plants,
and bark amounted to Rs, 1,52,807-1-0—
Rs, A, P.
By sale of febrifuge, seed, plants, and bark to
the pnblio ...
By credits from the Medical Depot of Caloutta
Ditto ditto ditto of Bombay
Ditto ditto ditto of Madras
Ditto from Colonial Government of Mauritius
Ditto from tho Surgeon-General, Bengal
Ditto from tho Inspeotor-Gonoral, Jails
80,577 0 0
33,786 0 0
18,500 0 0
6,775 0 0
2,475 0 0
13,271 8 0
442 0 0
Total ... 1,62,807 1 0
The operations of the year resulted in a profit of Rs. 60,284-9-5,
which is equal to a dividend of 6;1 por cent on the capital outlay.
This is exclusive of the cost a considerable quantity of tho back
sent to the Secretary of State which has not been taken into
account. It must, moreover, be borne In mind that those profits do
not represent the whole of tho gain of tho year. Tho cost of an
equal quantity of quiiiino at Rs. 98 nor pound would have beon
Rs. 4,01,328. Tho cost of tho febrifuge used was Rs_. 08,988-.8,
There was thus a saving of Rs. 3,32,340. Tlio total saving olfoetcd
since tlio topeulng of tho factory by* tho substitution of tho
febrifuge for sulphate of quinine aiiionutsto Rs. 23i lakhs, which is
mure than twice the amount of tho cost of the plantations.
9, Coualdornblo attention was given during tho year to the
improvement of the process of nianiitaeturo. The present system
is admittedly wasteful, in that it faili to convert into febrifuge
the whole of tho alkaloids which tho bark contains, while
there is no doubt that, by the adoption of a ditt'orent and more
costly process of manufacture, a still hu-gor porooiitago of tho
medioiual alkaloids could be evtraeted. It is not, liowovor,
equally certain whether the febrifuge so obtained could bo turned
out at t loss cost per pound. Tim whole subject <d tho ooiirso
to bff adopted in the disposal of tlio raw produce of the planta¬
tions Is still under the consideration of Uovoniuiuut.
10. Tho thanks of the LieuJouunt Oovonior are again due to
qjp whoso iuanagemenT*of lils department leaves notliing ti,
bo’desired. Dr. King has reported very favourably of the servioei
of Mr. Gammie, and the Lieuleuaut-Ouvornor ouliroly concurs in
the praise accorded to liiui. The other asBi.slaut« of the depai l-
inent are also well spoken of.
MR. MOENS’S WORK ON CINCHONA.
XN the JiwfircAf J/r,for 2lst June is a review, by Mr. K.
I W. Van Gotkom, former Director of the mucdiona culture in
.Uvo, of De SinM'ultnw m A-Jc, t"' m<t C- B,
Moons, Director of the Govoinmeut cmclioiia entorpiise in Java.
Wo translate tho notice as follows w'riti^'bai
vears of long study, e.vperiiueut aud obsovvatious, tho writer has
crowned hhflongUiy rule o£ the Govermnont c.ueliona culture in
Java. The book, a quarto, printed, with wide luaiginit ou thick
paper, with full list of contents aud alphabetical mdrv, occunyiug
noHess than 393 pages, comprises a careful deseuptiou of the
“V“ r r HHrii
«ooi^cnd itasaucxoelieiit standard work, whioh, iii the held
to furnish us with such a npo fniit. Kum^^t amce lo, M
oherfcUt to the oinohona culture lu Java, and tiom April ISi. to
April 1883 superintending it in its entirety. Mi. J>l?«us liaa tne
mSt favorable opportunity to study both the .hwtoncal and the
nrMtioal soieutido problems lu all their bearings and to place
fh™ in a olearer light. A mouth's visit to tbe clnohonu plauU-
rions in British In A, extensive and intunato relations with the
best qulnologlsts in Europe, would proservo ^''‘”'1,
the remarka^ book, a Interesting and mdispensiWe in the highest
degree to the planter and tho merchant as well as to the merojy
sci^tifio student, beais on every page the evident tfaoes
and at the same time profound views. Science owes special
thanks to the Medical Union of Batavia, who undertook the
publioatiou of snoh a oostly work, No library of Importanoe
should bo without the book. May it be tbe privilege of the
honored and roipoctod writer to oontinne to utilize his extensive
quinological knowledge still In bis native country for tile higliest
iutoreste of culture uud of oommeroe 1 "
FORESTRY. *
TAPriNO LONQIPOLIA FOR RESIN.
A iS tlierc is some likelihood of a oousiderablc demand arising
almost Imiuodiateiy for Pmuii tonyi/vlut reslu, tlie subje-ot of
tapping that tree ought to possess no slight interest for tlie
Uimalayau forester. .
'I'lio extensive forests of this pine which stretch along tho
lower slopes of the outer North-West and Punjab Himalayas
have hitherto remained valnaloss except at alow points, suoh as
Nalui Tal, Rauikhet, &c., where tho wants of a large local popu¬
lation aud tile abseuoo or insuffieinniiy of other woods have raised
this pine lo tlie position of the ohiet or sole timber and fuel ti-oe.
Not that there is no market for its timber in the numerous
wealthy towns situated within a liundrod miles of tho hills, but
present prices arc as yet too low, and transport too difficult and
costly to make export from tlieso hills pav. Hcuoo ovory clr-
onmstanoi) likely to Increase the value of tlio pine ouglit to bo
very welcome. Slionld tlie tapping of the treo for resin prove
remunerative, tlie result may be that wo shall be able to work
several liiiiidred square iiiilos of woll-sLockod, hitherto unproduc¬
tive forests, lor tlie oousorvation of wbieli other forests nave nt
present to pay, and which bonce make our financial position appeal-
year after year muoli worse than it really is, and act as a drag uu
the progress of the Department,
There is on tlie surface no reason why the Pinwi lcnig\f<jlui.
should not be as important a soiiroe of wealth to Northern India
os the cluster pine is already to the West of France, even with its
present very imperleot moans of oommunioation. As lu botli trees
tho largest quantity of resin is uoiitainod in tho sapwood, it U
probable that llie method- employed in tapping the one will suit
with little or iio modification tlie otlier. Readers of the Indian
Poiratfir will lienco perliaps fiiui tlie following extract from the
translation of Hagnorls' klemeiiu of t^yh'lctiltm-e. interesting. It
describes the metiiod employed in tapping the cluster pine, and
gives some iiifonii-ation regarding tho amount of yield audprioe of
tliO rofiu iind ifs mauutaotui'o lulu the i arioiis products used in
the arts. Thu excellent illustrations which ooeoinpany are from
the lieu of Mr. A. F. Ih-onu, who has kindly drawn them at my
rcipiost for the Indian. PurtiHtt r ;—
" There are two methoils of rosin-tapping, which in French are
termed respectively gnnmayf (t vu»'l and gf.tnmago d vif. The Hist
I’xhaiists and kills the tree (irhouco the naraoj, and is adopted
only when tiic tree is to Ini foiled soon after ; the uecomi, os may
be guessed, ha-s fur its object to obtain tho resin without oausing
the deatii of the tree. lu either cose, the first tiling to bo done
is to take (itf gradii.ally a rectangular strip of hark, begiauing at
ibo loot of tlio tree mid going up about 4 inches ; a little wood
must also be removed with tho bark. Tho wound thus
made is tcolinioally enllnd a i/ififiv or blaze. The liistrnmuut
insed la a light a.\o with a eurvod head aud a handle bent
at an angle in tbe direction of tho concave face of the
bend. Once or twice a week tho wound is ro-opoiind, and
it is at the same time lengthened by taking ofl'a fresh strip of
liarU aud wmid above it about two-fifths of an lueh lung, lu this
manner the wound attains u oertuiii length, which in the forests
ninU-r the eoiitrol of tlie Forest Itepnrtmout ought uover to exceed
n feet. Moreover, in tho printed stipnlations which contraetora
bind tliemaelve.s to observe whoii they purehase the right of resiii-
tniiping, there is a elau.se which fixed a maximum of 5 inches for
the breadth of the ijuarre, and a maximum of two-fifths of an inch
for its depth.
“ Duly one r/nnm at a time ought to be worked In those trees
which are not In bo felled in the rext tliiuiiiug operations. To pro¬
long their existeiiec, it would oven bo desirable to make the qiiarre
only ;i inelica wide. Tlio same, quarn’ la worked for 5 years by tho
iiroceas c.xplainod above of frusUoulug and lengtbauing the wound,
bnriiig tho first year it is lengthened by 22 iuolies ; during each of
the three siieeuadiiig years by 20 inches ; and during the fifth
year by 28 inchos. At the cud of this term a now qtianv is opened
which is worked in tbe same manner. This pt-ouoss is repeated
until within a few years of the felling of the tress so tapped, wJien
the proooss cnilod yemmage, d moi-t is employed.
No tree is tapped in the manner wo liavo just dosoritiod before
t has attained u eii-cimiforetice of 3 feet. M. Lamorque is of apiiihm
that it would be better .at the beginning to work a quarre. for only
our years, aud then give the tree rest for ono year. Tho gnanrH,
when left alone, soon heal up by the formation of new rings of wood
Hid bark, and some time after a new qnadre miy bo opened iu the
swelling formed by the bark immediately over the old qnarre,
“ 'J'lie swelling is a sure indication of the oxisteiioo of an old
qnarre beneath, and some old trees may bo seeu here and there
bearing traees of sevcial of them, It frequently happens that from
want af Buffioicut adhereiioo, tho bark separates on each aide of the
old wounds, the separation being wider at the middle, where also
the conseijuent swolliug out of the hark is uaturally greater. This
jfiiouonienon gives the Tower part of the stem the shape of a
spindle, and the trunk looks as if it was being oruahod under the
vfeiglit of tb% portion of the tree above,
“ lu private forests the i/itarrei are often allowed to reach a
iieight w 13 to 10 foot, and two or throe aro worked at a time ou
thick trees. This is a bad practice. If for the time being a treo
846 THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST, September 1, 1888.
in made to yield a largo onantity of reslu, Ita lougovlty U matori-
ally ahorteued,
“ As wo have already tudicated, geiinnage d man U praottaod
only in the oaao of troos near thuir maturity, or of thoae which
arc to be folloil in the very next thinning operations. It is begun
01 soon as the trees are big enough to ooutoln o guarrt, In otTier
words, os soon as the tliuy have attained a girth of 20 to 24 inebos.
This generally happens at tlio age of 20 years. The ijuarres are
opened in precisely the same manner as in tho first process, only
they are worked up faster, and several at a time are opened in
each tree. Usually a tree treated thus dies In threu or four
years.
" When a now quarrt is ont or an old one re-opened, the resin
oor.os out In boad-like drops. A portion of it flows dotvn the wound:
the rest, owing to volatilisation, solidifies and forms a orust over the
exposed wood. This solid substaboo Is known under tho name of
galipot. Iformerly tho rosin was allowed to run down to the foot of
the trees, where it was received in a little trough hollowed out in
ono of the roots or in the sand. Much of tho restn was thus lost by
absorption in the sand, especially in the first year. Little earthen¬
ware pots are now used, whioh are hung along tlie stem of the trees
and are raised as the quatii' is worked up higher. To got
the rosin to flow into the pots, a small curved plate of zinc
is lightly diireu in an oblique direction into the wood im
mediately over onoh pot.* The pot is kept in Its p'aoo by moans of
a nail fixed under, and on which it rests lightly. To render the
waste still smaller, the pot is covered with a thin board, whioh
prevents the loss of the volatile portion of the rosin. Tho
resin-tapper examines the pots when ho goes ronud to re-open tho
wounds, and empties any ho finds full. The galipot is scraped off
once or twice a year,
“ The use of those pots and plates of zino constitntos the method
of Mr. Hughes. It requires a heavy outlay at first, but it possesses
the advantage of yielding a larger quantity of resin, and that in a
purer state. According to Mr. ijamauos tlio results of this method,
us compared with former results, are os four to three. It is muoh
employed in tho Dunes at Cape Breton, Mlmizau, Bisoarosse, and la
Teste. But in the district ronnd Dax its use is not so general, while
at Mont do Marsan it is still rare. Tins is a source of much loss.
To diniinisb the waste of resin by absorption in the soil, the t^per
makes the same trough serve for several suocessivo inutrves. They
are consequently obliged to out little oanaU all round the foot of tho
tree leading one and all Into the same trough. These canals are
necessarily out right into the wood, and thus soon kill the tree.
“ Kesiu-tappiug is carried ou only in the interval between the
Ist March and the 10th October : but the gradual thiiiuiug off of
the bark ia_ begun os early os the 10th February. j
“ Ueslu is most abundant iu trees whioh measure at least 10 |
iuclies in diameter. A pine of this stzo yields uunually three
litics by the process of yemianpe ('tide. Takiug into eonsidoratiou
tho coutiuual dlmluutlon lu number of the trees, we may rnokou
that au acre yields annually about 30 gallons, whatever be the ago
of tho forest. It is not so easy to oaloulato the yield by tho pro
uvHa oigemmi^e A nwrt. Still it is generally admitted that fron
80 tea 100 pines, 8 inohes iu diameter, will also yield annually tho
same quantity, and that for three years. On the estate of M.
Marcollus, near Blscarosse, I saw a pine 13 foot in girth and 3G
feet high up to the first branch, which had ton qhamn worked on
it simultaneously, and which still yields seven or eight litres of
vesiii annually,
“ The price of the raw resin is necessarily very variable. .Soino-
times it is as low os 40 francs a hiirriijiw (340 litres). During tho
Amoilcttu War, it rose to 290 francs. At Mont ile ^^nrt[ln where it
is converted into the diffureiit manufactured resin products o£ com-
inureo, tho actual price of a baiTtque is 120 francs.
“The rosin-tapper is paid so much pur Onri'ique, usually from 30
to 45 francs ; which gives an average of four or live francs a day.
“ 1 visited at Mont de Marsnii several distillerie-s. In one of
them they distil the resin for spirits of turpentine. The raw rosin
always contains, according to tho care witli whicli it has boon
collected, a greater or loss quantity ot impurities, such as lumps of
earth, chips of wood and bark, leaves, Ac. To roinovo these the
rosin is put into boilers In which it is subjected to a tomporatiirc
just high enough to liquefy it without causing it to volatilise. In
this Uquiil state it is passed through sieves of rye-straw into
troughs. The clear liquid is known imdor the name of ip.
'* From the troughs the terebfilUhiiifi is condnoted through a pipe
supplied with a stopcock into a still. During tho distillation, a
tluu ooutiunous stream of water is introduced into the retort by
means of a funnel, Tho water, lu the state of steam, carries over
with it tho spirits of turpentine, and after condensation in tho
worm they are both received into a vat.
“They are then separated by the process of deoautation.
Colophony and black and white rosin are made from what remains
ill the retort. A conduit-pipe leads this losLdiic into a trough,
whence it is passed througli a very fine brass sieve into a wooden
chest; what is collected in the chest is colophony : what Is left
behind in tho slove is black rosin. It is made into cakes of from
100 to 200lbs., by pqnnug it while liquid into troughs hollowed
out in fine sand. XVhite rosiu is prepared In tho same way,except
that the hot residue in the sieve is agitated briskly in one-tenth
its volume of water before it Is poured out into the sand moulds.
“ All these products have their special industrial uses. Spirits
of turpentine are employed iu modiolno, in the preparation of
varnishes and plants, for ligbtiiug, fur cleaning iiiruitiiro, ko. The
solid products enter Into tho manufacture of paper, soap, stoarino
candles, torohas, sealing-wax, &o., and arc also used fur the caulk¬
ing of vessels.
« A muoh simplsr and more effeotWo plan is now followed, A flat
]ilate of zinc with one corner slightly onrved upw'itrda, is drirou obliimoly
across the quarre, the ourvoil corner being immediately over the put
which is hung on one side of the quarre.
“ The residue from the first filtration of the crude resin is burnt
lu special stoves, and yields tar and pitch.
“ Ono bari-iqut of orude resin gives 100 kilos of spirits of
turpentine, which, taking actual prices, would bo wortn abont
123 francs i the otlief produots cover all expenses and yield
besides a trifling profit. Blaok rosin sells at the rate of 18 francs
per hundred kilogrammes; the price of the same weight ol white
rosin is 20 francs.
“ In another establishment in the same town, tho block rosin is
hooted to a high temperature,- by whioh a double decomposition
takes place. Tlie result is, iiocording to the manipulation employ¬
ed, the aeparntion of certaiu volatile oils used in varnishes, or of
certain fixed oils whioh arc used for lighting, for impregnating
wood, in making wheel-grease, in the inaiiufaclure of printing-
ink, ko.”
In the Himalayas the Piimi longi/otia is already tapped on a
siiiall scale, the crude rosin being sold in the bazars under the
name of blroxa, ganda //kiruzu, ilbuj), borja, Uaa, lihalga, etc. A
small quantity of turpeiitino is also dUtillad therefrom for sale in
the uoiglibouring towns. This industry was carried on mote exteu-
aively before the oonsorvation of the Government forests, since
which time the tapping of the pine therein has been strictly for¬
bidden. This is a measure much to be regretted. Ho doubt tho
extremely primitive and fatal method of tapping Is responsible for
the orippliug of that very nsoful industry, but nothing was easier
than lor the forest officers to teach the hill-man Improved
methods.
Tho present system employed iu the iiills of Kumauu and
Garhwal is to out a sort of ulcho in tho stems of the trees from
3 to 4 feet from tho gronud. The bottom of tlie niche is
hollowed out into a shallow trough to receive the resin
as it oozes out. Tho trough Is cleared ont os often os it fills, some¬
times as soon as the second or third day, but usually between
the fourth and tenth day, when tho niche is first made, and
at longer intervals afterwards. Generally the roslu-tapper does
nothing more to tho niche once it la made, but as tho resin vola¬
tilises and hardens over tho wound into a crust which impedo.s
the flow ot fresh resin, he sometimes chips off tho wood on the
sides so os to get rid of this crust. The same niche is nsed for
two and even throe oousoontive years when no forest fire occurs,
which either burns down the tree or chars the rosiu-enorustoil
wood of tho iiiolio to a depth ot an Inoli or twee.
Tapping begins in February and ends lu Mayor June, i.c.,
during the period of comparative vegetative repose. As soon as
the buds expand and the tufts of new loavos are developed, tho
outflow of resin either ceases or bcooiiies too insiguificant to be
collected. Tho higlier the tomperaturo and drier the weather is,
the more copious is the cxudaitiou of resin.
As regards the yield per tree, the quantity is very variable
asoordiiig to the size and vigour of the tree, the state of tlie
season, the nature and oouilition of tlie soil, and the iiiiiiiiiur of
niches cut. As tlie htll-mou never coiiecru themselves about the
lifo of tho trees they tap, they work several niches sliniiltanconsly,
tho result being cither death by exhaustion or the broakiug of the
tree by tho wind lielpod by forest fires—a varitablo gnn»uigi‘ a
)ihirf.* Mr. Kichard Thompson (Bramlis's “ Forest Flora,” page
507) says th.at “ the yield of an ordinary sized tree is 10 to ’JOlbs.
of bi'r/ti [ot tho first, and about a third of the quantity tlio second
j'ear,” in other words, from 13 to 271bs. My own information
collected in Garhwal and Kiiiiiauii gives tho yield of a single
niche —4 to Gibs, the first year, and rather loss than a half of that
the second year, or from aliout 0 to 8jlba. ill all. As a small tree
would contain two and a large ijiio three niellos, these
figures agree pretty nearly witli Mr. Thompson's. Tho largest
outflow takes place when the niches are just ont, os much as 11b.
being sometimes obtained from a single uicho from an average
sized tree.
If we adopt the system of the Froiieh Landes, with the aliglit
modifications, if any, it will require, we shall probably obtain by
the mctliod of y/oiiiititge d vie about the same quantity auuitally
that is now taken out of a single niche during the first )ear. In
other words, tliore is every rensoii to expect that tho yield per
treo ill our Pimm lonyi/olia forests will be little, if at all, inferior
to the yield per tree in the cluster pine forests of tho Landes,
And wo have iu our favour cheap labour : the Landes rosin-tapper
earns from Ho. 1-14 to Its. 2 G per day ; his Indian ymAari brollior
will tliiiik himself Incky if lie is paUl 8 annas a day.
Lost year at Niiiiii Tal Mr. Uraidwood very kindly supplied me
with some crude Pimm luitgighlia resin, from which I distilled
ossoiitial oil of tnrpontiiie, tlio residue being a pale straw-oolourod
colophony. 'I'ho lesiu was full of impurities (about 5 per oent.)
From 3^ gallons X obtained 3 ijuarts of oil, and about 20lba.
of colophony. 1 lost a good deal of the rosin in clearing it
through a sieve, and tho worm of my still leaked very oonst-
derably. We shall probably not be far wrong If wo assume that
tho yield of oil under favorable oireiiiustauces would be about 30
per cent of the crude resin, or about the same as in the case of the
oluster pine.
.Some of tho essential oil I distilled was submitted by Mr,
Greig, the Conservator, to Mr. Morrison, Pharmaceutical Chem¬
ist at Naiiii Tat, for professional opinion. I have not seen Mr.
Morrison’s written report, but ho told me iu couversatioii th^
ho had subjected tho oil to the proscribed tests, and had found ft,
os regards mcdtolnal purposes, equal to the host Imported oil,
except that its odour was muoli less puugont. For Industrial
purposes it will probably bo found to bo quite as good.
* Tho vitality of loaffiJulM is, however, so extraordinary,
tliat in forests fr.-m which tho resin-tapiior has now lieoii oxoluded
during tho lost 10 years and mere, tlionsands of trees may bo seen oon-
tuining old charrod uiohos. Tho bark may bs stri|>ped off over n
browith of 4 or 0 foot all round tho trunk, without nooasaarily killing
the tree.
September 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
347
A propoiftl has reocutl^ been made to umo the crude resin for
the munufftoturo of lighting gas, and if the uooessaty quantity is
forthcoming, a trial is to do at once mado. Whatever this idea
may ultimately come to, eomo expcrinionta ought ocrtainly to be
undertaken in tapping tho pino, and manufacturing from tho
crude resin tho various eommuroial products it con yield. What
locality could be more favorable for tho purpose than the hill-
forests ^of the School Circle of tho hf.-W, Proviucea ? Success,
which is assured if tho experiments arc properly carried out, will
result In every Pinus longifolia tree, wnloh la now practically
valuolMS, yielding 8 annas yearly, and every moderately well-
stocked acre Ive, 15 per annum !
E. E. FERKANWii!.
—Iiidim Foretter.]
EAST INDIAN FURNITURE WOODS,
T oon IVOOD (Ceilrcla Tooim) is light, soft, and red, and has
no heartwood. It is not eaten by white ants ; it is highly
valued, and universally used for furuituro of all kinds, and is also
employed for door pauols and oarviiig. From Burmah it is ex¬
ported under the name of “ Moulmcin Codar,” and as such is
known in tho English market. It there fetches about Rs. 63 per
tou, tho cost of cutting and delivery being Ra. 44, according to
Major Seaton, In North-West India, it is used for furniture,
carvings, and other purposes. In Bengal and Assam, it is the
chief wood for making tea-boxes, but is getting searoo on account
of the heavy demand. Tho Bhutios use it for shingles and for
wood carving j they also hollow it out for rice-pounders. It is,
or rather used to be—for very largo trees are now ratlior searoo—
hollowed out for dug-out oanoes in Bengal and Assam. In Bengal,
Assam, aud Burmah, it grows to a very large size, trees 20 feet
girth, with a height of 80 tn 100 feet of clear stem, being not nn-
eommon in forests which li„ e been only little worked, like those
in Dumsong and in souft parts of tlie Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Cliickerasi or Cliikrassi Wood (Chil'rama tahnUn-'n) is a largo
tree, witli bark reddisli brown and deeply craokod. 'J’ho heart-
wood hard, varying from yellowish brown to reddish brown, with
a beautiful satin lustre ; seasons and works well, and is used fur
furniture and carving. «
Nagesar Wood (afivm ferrm) has dark red heartwood, ex-
tromoly hard. It has boon found to answer for sleepers equally
well with Fynkado, hut the cost of cutting tlic hard wood, its
weight, and the freight from the Tenasserlm forests to Calcutta
prevent its being much used, as the total cost is scarcely covered
by tho price (B.h. 6) per broad-guago sleeper. It is used for
building, for bridges, gunstock, and tool handies : but its more
general use is prevented by Its great hardness, weight, aud the
difficulty of working It,
Pitr.aj Wood (Amoora Pohitiikn is reddish, hard, close and
evoii-grained, but is littlo used. lu Chittagong, oauoos aro some¬
times made of it.
‘Kaudeb Wood {GuhiphyUm, /lolyant/inm) is light rod, shin-
lug, cross-grained, and mod^ atoly hard. It is used hirgely in
Chittagong for masts, spars and rafters, and sometimes for small
boat-buildmg and canoes.— O/un/iIr'.i Mannal of Indian 'J'imhcru,
TaX Wooi {Ditdwp'iin pnl,i/anl/ui) U ved aud hard, and is much
valued in Caohar ami Cliittogong. Maim says it docs not float ;
but he mnst refer to groou wood. Major l.nwiu says it is used in
Chittagong for making bods, tools, &o., aiiii is sawn in boards for
the CaTontta market. —Timher 'I’radi-f Jou.riia/,
There are largo tracts of virgin Nagesar forests in tho (taro Hills
and other parts of Assam, and if tlia Assam Government would
Imitate tliat of tho N.-W. Provinoes in spending money liberally j
on roads and timber slides, this large field for outorprUe might be i
opened out. The Meehis are most patient aud experienced wooil-
cutters, and nothing is wanting but proper means of export ; and j
now that the demand for railway sloopors for the projeetod North- i
Eastern Frontier Railways is assured, it scorns a pity that they
should be dependent on Europe for their sleepers, wiiilst suoU vast
natural resources are close at baud.
Some Toon logs have lately been sent from Debra Doou to Lou¬
don, to Messrs. (Jhurch and Sims, aud realised in a sale by public
auction per supcvflcial foot.
Messrs.Cliurolil 11 and Sims report that Toon rosomblos tVest luilin
Cedar, but is too hard to bo used for the ordinary purposes for
wbioh the latter wood U Imported, namely, cigar boxes aud cabinet
Work.
Regarding a previous consignment of Toon, however, tho same
firm reported that it would prove salealdo as a substitute for
Mahogany, if sent in well squared (Acirn, not sawn) logs, almnt 1.3
inches square and 12 foot and upwards in length, and would com¬
mand 28. Qd. to 38. per cubic foot. Tho price lately obtained,
ms lbs. 6d., for 112i cubio feet, was nearly 38. Sif. per cubic
!bot, but this Is accounted for by tho present scarcity of West
India Cedar in tho London market,
If Toon wood can bo delivered in any largo quantity at Chitta¬
gong or at any Burmese port, It might be profitable to send eomo
trial shipments to Loudon, though of coin*8o export from the
forests of Northern India is out of tho question, both on ma-ount
of tho soaroity of the timber and local demand for it,and also owing
to the prohihlttvo charges for transport by rail tc tlw seaports,—
htdim fc-ritttri
THE GARDEN.
THE CULTIVATION OF ORCHIDS.
T he onltivation of this highly interesting and beautiful clas*
of plants is not an easy matter, oven although India is tho
homo of a groat many of them. Tho largest olsss are epiphytes,
aud are found growing on trees, and sometimes on tho face of
rooks, in tho doons aud valleys along the base of tho Himalayas,
and in other hilly parts of tho country. Tho terrestrial species
aro numerous in the high and more temporato regions, but as
there are only one or two speclos cultivated In gardens on tho
plains, 1 do not intend to speak of them at present.
As they arc found growing on trees In a natural state, It is also
natural to suppose that they will thrive best under oultiv-atiou, if
nature Is imitated as closely as possible. When a garden uontains
suitable trees, they should always bo made use of for orchid onl-
ture, but as tin's is not always the ease, artificial methods have to
be adopted. Wlien seleotlug a tree for their onlturo, seek ont
one that is full grown ; if it la old and beginning to decay, so much
the bettor. Never select a young and vigorous growing tree, as
its vigour and growth tends to throw off suoh enoumorances os
orchids. If an orchid is securely tied upon a tree of this olass,
and regularly watered, it will live for a long time, although It sel¬
dom makes enough root growth to cling to it without artifi-
ticial support. In oreliid culture, diminished root gi'owth means
soaroity of flowers, therefore wu must do all wo cun to encourage
tho production of healthy roots. The species of tree to soloot is
also a matter for consideration. Tho mango is one of the oommonc.st
trooB in our gardens, and luckily It is one of the. best for orohid
oulturo. Tho jamun, aud other rough barkoil Hpoeies, aro also very
good, but I have found that orchids do not establish themselves so
quickly upon it, and other spooies I have tried, as upon the mango.
The best season for ooUoeting orchids from tho junglo for garden
culture i.s from November to .fauuavy. They are quite at rest
then, and will bear removal without any injury. When you havo
collected and deposited them safely within your garden, tie them
itp at once, or plant tliem in tho baskets 1 Iiave descrilied below.
Copper or brjcs i wire is tho best tying material, but if not obtaiu-
ubfo, strong string may bo used. If the roots are slightly covered
with moss before running the wire over thorn, it will be found to
bo bonefioial for retaining moisture, and keeping the wire from
"Uttiug thorn.
Hanging baskets, mado from liailiboos and blocks of wood, is tho
two eommon<'.st, nrtifieial methods of growiog them. Tho first-
named 1 eimsidet to be the better method of the two, and whon
filled tip with uleo healtliy plants, they always look very orna-
mouUl. They are easily made, a oominou village oarpontor will
turn out throe or four of thorn in a day. Whan filling thorn up,
the orohuls should be planted in the middle, in a mixture com¬
posed of wood chips, pieuosof charcoal and moss if obtainable
They thrive host if hung lip nndor tho shoilo of a largo tree, but
will siiceood toloiably w'ell if linng in a voraiiduh. Blooka of wood
may bo very suitaldo for damp oliinatca, but in tho dry climato of
till-N.-W. Provinc‘.s orchids never look h.appy upon thoiu. Bam¬
boo baskets should, tliaroforo, bo always used in proforenoo. Whoa
cultivated in baskets or on blocks of wood, orchids roqturo a
greater quantity of water than they over got in their natural state.
When clinging to living trees they probably inhale small quantities
of inoistnro tlirougli the bark. The abseuoo of this natural mois¬
ture in bamboo baskets, and cut blocks of wood, is probably tho
eauso of a greater quantity id water being required. I may pos¬
sibly bo wrong in iiiy supposition, as a nigh botanical authority
defines tho word “ opipliyto" as a plant that grows on trees with¬
out deriving any nourisliinent from thoin. Whether right or
wrong, experienoe proves that water cannot bo withhold for
months at a stretch under cultivation. AVator should, thoreforv,
ho givoii onoo every day to oichids grown in liaskets or on hlooks,
except during the inoutlis of November, Dceembor, and January,
Tliree tiinc.s a wouk is sutUiciont during those thcoo mouths.
Those grown on trees should also bo watered onec a day until they
aro well established. Whon th-y have once taken a firm hold of
tho tree, they will thrive wit'i less water than required for baskets
aud blocks.—-W. (1 .—Indian Forfsicr*
CULTIVATION OF THE ARTICHOKE.
(Cymra SadymiM L. Ooinpositii-. DC.)
T lfI8 vegetable is a hardy perennial, a native of Barbary and
Sontli of Europe. It appears to have boon ostoemed as a
vegotable from very early times, os Pliny speaks of it as having
been cultivated by the Romans. 'I'lio oulinary part is oonlaiuod
in the immature flower heads. 1 ho broad fleshy llowor roooptacle
termed the boitora, and the thick base of the horny invodnetul
scales, arc the parts eaten. It suconods with little care and
trouble, and is utteii met with in tho gardens of Europeans, but
seldom in those of natives.
Go the plains the flower heads begin to appuir in March, but
are most plentiful iii April, and continue in season until tho
middle or end of May, The plants arc raised from seed or by
suckers. The former should be sown broadcast in beds, from tho
begiuniug of August to ond of Sopteinber. I'he seedlings aro
very hardy, and seldom sutf-;r from ilamp : the seeds should, there¬
fore, be gown os soon as an opportunity ooenrs after tho beginning
of August, When tliey have mado four or five leaves they are
fit for transplanting to whore they are intended to bo grown.
Theylovoadsovimarieiisvi), ibid wbetf m'opwiug tiM gndad
348
THE INDIAN AGRICltjljTUBIST. September 1,188^.
for tlinir reception it flhOulil bo trouclwsil 2 fcjot deop and liberally
mamued. When tiiuo and labour does not allow of such an ef¬
fective preparation of the gwru ml, holes 2 foot broarl and 2 feet
deep shonld bn ditg, and the soil thrown book UboraUy mixed with
old mamtro. The plants shoiiM ho transplanted at 2^ foot apart,
in rows 4 feot asunder. They should bo watevad rngalai'ly, and
the soil l)otwctii the plants oooaaloually stirrod with a fork.
When raised by Httekers the strongest should bb separated from
the edd piapta ill iiopitoinbcr, and at onoo transplantod at tha same
distances apart arf givcu for snodlings. They should be annually
ti'ansplauted in a fresh plot of ground. If this is not done the
llower heads decrease in size, and by the third soosou are all but
worthJess. It is a good plan to raise one-half of a plot from
seeds and tlie other by suckoi's. The latter should bo annnally
thrown away after the ftOwer heads are past use, and the former
reserved for the production of luokcrs for the following season,
uokors floWor sooner, and the advantage gained is a crop of
flower heads a fortnight or throe weeks earlier than when soedllugs
only are used. This vogotaWe does not degenerate if seed is
saved from dowers prodoeed by the leading snoots of the plants
raised from seed. A few of the largest flowers shonld, therefore,
bn nimually reserved for this purpose.
On the liills the plantation need only bo ranowod every
three or fonr years. When a stock has onoo been secured from
seed, this should bo done every third or fourth year by suckers,
and the same plan folloived os described for the plains. When
the plants have to be raised from seeds, these latter should bo
sown In March or April, and transplatcd as soon as they have
made four or five loaves. At elevations below 5,000 feet,
suckers shonld be transplanted in September, but above that ele¬
vation, and especially if on a northern aspeet, it should be done
in March or April. At elevations above 6,000 loot, the stools
should be protected from frost by a covering of stable litter or
lialf-decayea leaves. In spring, when all danger from frost Is
past, the oovoring material should be removed and a quantity of
old manure forked in botwoen the plants. During the operation,
imoovor the stools and remove all the suckers except two or three
of the strongest. At lower elevations manuring and removing
suokers should be done in autumn ; in spring and duriug their
progress, all that requires to be done Is weeding and ocoasional
stirring of the soil,
W, G.
—Indian Forette}\'\
MINERALOGY.
Moloaoan, a few' railos, distant from the river of Coatzoeoaloos,
there is an itnmunso deooeft of osphaltum, which, at pome, plaoes,
is found pure m‘d at others more or less mingled with rook tut
and saltpetre. According to Or. Hoohler* a German travallor who
visitorl it, the “ salt mine,’’as it is popnlarly called, is an isowtM
spur, branching off from the main ridge, or oordiUsra. This
mountain is from 1,000 to 1,200 loet in height, and with a base of
from three to four miles in extent, of oono.shape and cracked by
earthquakes ; on its slopes are found a number of pits, soma cold
and still, others soethlug and bubbling, and emitting a stifling
odour. These pits appear to have oaveraons oommunloation with
the internal fires of the mountain, which, as Indioatad by the
external heat and frequent subterranean noises, contain vast
iiiosaos of material in n state of oombustion. The whole adjacent
surface consists of asphaltnm partly solid, and _ partly liquid, and
more or less mixed with rook salt. So extensive are those beds
that tlic supply may bo considered inexhaustible. In some places
the seething pits eject ooneidorablo quantities of asphaltura in
liquid state. Extensive bods are also known to exist in the State of
Chiapas, on the upper waters of the Orijal\'a river, which has_ its
course through the State of Tabasco, and empties into the Mexican
Gulf, nearg Frontera.
TOBACCO.
Frexcu Tonacco Statistics. —The consumption of tobacco in
France is rapidly iuore.a.siiig, nud hurt ye.ar showed no exception
to the rate of progression, the quantity consumed amounting to
9-11 gravnes (about 21 lbs.) per inhabitant, and presenting a
value of 9fi'. 76c. (7s. 9jrf.). In 1881 the quantity consumed
was 925 gi-aminea (20jlbs.) per inhabitant; in 1880, 907 gram¬
mes (under 201b«,) ; m 1876, 855 grammes (under (lOlbs.),
worth 8fr. .58<!, (6*. lOkf.). According to the returns of the
I indirect taxes direction, the sales in Franco during 1882 produced
the following amount;—Tobacco for smoking, 10-t,930,180fr,
(£6,.597,207) : of inferior quality, 2.1,209,677fr. (,£928,383) ;
common carotte, 5.765,870fr. (£230,634) ; cigars, 67,758,948fr.
(£2,310,358) ; for chewing, 8,6l7,019fr. (£844,704); cigarettes,
16,767,318fr. (£670,0,92); ami snuif, 784229,607fr. (£3,129,180) :
making a total of 355,339,019fr. (£14,2 y,560).
TOBACCO-GROWING.
rKTiiOLB0M SUPPI.T OF B-AKU.-—According to a detailed
slalcment on tbe above subject, lately made before the Berlin
Association for commercial ^irogi-ess, by Professor Liobcrmiiun,
there is at present a I’eniarkable development of activity in the
Russian petmleum industry. There are at Baku .about 200
small distilling works, and also several large establishments.
In the year 1881, there were distilled, at Baku, about 1,400,000
tons of raw naphtha, which yielded about 180,000 tons C)f
illuminating oil.
The most important factory is said to be that of Messrs.
Nobel, which has lately extended its operations, and h.os at the
same tiine increased its capital from £900,000 to £1,500,000.
The springs are about eight miles distant from their works,
and the transport of naphtha is efiected by a five-inch pipe,
through which 1,600 tons are daily conveyed to the factory. It
is intended to replace this pipe by one six inches in diameter.
The factory produced illuminating oils, in 1880, to the extent
of about 22,000 tons ; while, in 1881 and 1882, there has been a
progressive augmentation to 60,000 tons and 90,000 tons. It
IS calculated that a further considerable increase of production
may be expected duriug 1883 and 1884.
ASPHALTE DEPOSITS IN MEXICO.
A V ARIETV of bituminous subatanoes.from the pure hard aspbal-
turn to the fluid petroLoum, are kuQwn to exist in Immense
uantities along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, chiefly in the
tates of Tamaulipas, Vora Cruz, ami Tabasco, but there appears
to have been no organised efforts to utilise the deposits, either
for domestic purposes or for commerce. Cousul Cassard, of Tam
pioo, says that almost inexhaustible bods of asphaltum exist on
both banks of thorivor ThamesU, about sixty miles above that
port, being found In a comparatively pure state and oontainiug
only on insiaulficant proportion of foreign matter, chiefly vogotabie
wUleh It gathers while through oozing the sedgy borders of the
river. The substouoe may he gathered with little dtflSoulty, but ns
the locality is only ocoessible to boats of light draught, the hods
arc coniMratively negloutod. Asphaltum, or cAqpo/jw/c, as it is
called in Mexico, is frequently found floating in misses on the
rivers and lagoons, and is oast up on the beach by the waves all
along the Gulf Coast, and especially in the vicinity of 'J’uxpaii,
and on the Grijalva river in Tabasco. These masses, liy tbe
Iwal law of flotsam, are the property of the finder, and are sold
at the rate of from e^ht to nine sliilUngs the hnudr»d-wcight.
In the state of Vera Cruz asphaltum is fonpj in cousidwrablo
quantities, the principal deposits being In the Canton of Jalaoiugo
in MinatlUau, in the canton Oxuluami, whore several deposits
of petroleum, asphaltnm, and ooai are known to exist in a place
cowA R1 Obapopotito, in the nmaloi^ity of Faaaoo, hi Vapantla,
M r. W. W. SANDERSON, of South Deerfield, Mass., in a
letter to the Tohiwco %m/', gives some of his experience as a
bubacco grower os follows. He says
My Buccose In growing this variety is duo more to improvement
in quality of ecod and careful oultivatiou than all otiior itoms.
f have grown Havana seven years and iu only one instance (and
then ouc-half acre) have I obtained less than one ton to the acre.
I take run-out grass land, and plough It soon after haying very
slmllow, and plough again seven or eight molies deep just hoforn
Llic ground freezes, aud thou apply two or throe busboU of dry
slaked lime, and iu the spring harrow thoroughly, and in May
plough in ton or twolvo cords of good barn-yard manure,
W’limi the plants are nearly large euougli to set out, harrow fine,
and furrow out rows three foot apart, and strew about twe or
three cords of fine mauure In the furrow aud five to eight hundred
louiids of Peruvian guano, nud corbr this with a ridger tlut will
L-avo the hills 22 inches apart. Tlio fdVcili/.or must ho nearer the
plants than for seed leaf. Keep clean and cultivate often, and
have soil loose between the the rows.
Sucker clean and top high. A good or perfect crop cannot bo
securod unless it is suckered clean, as suckers suck the juice
absolutely necessary to perfect the loaves.
Let it stand four weeks or more to ripou after topping, and hang
with twine or hooks, os Havana is hard to lath, and, besides,
cures too quick. The slower and darker it can be onrad the better,
Du each part carefully and well.
Take down aud strip only when in just the right condition aud
malic neat siugle bundles of ten to twelve pounds each. Tie with
two strings if Havana, and three if Seed leaf, keep the butts even
nud tips straight, and you can always sell at a good price in the
huudle.
1 always soil in the bundle at from 16 to 20 cents, and ol;hors
can do 08 well, if not better.
Ai)out ten years ago I believed improvement could bo made in
tohaoco by solocting in some way the best seed, and adopted the
following method, which proved my theory with Seed leaf, and
for the post seven years with Havana Seed : Select beet plants,
romove all suokers, aud when n few of the earliest seed poos turn
brown, romove all the blossoms and seed pods hot full ripe, and
the strength of the plant Is concentrated iu malring the seed plump
and strong, instead of large in quantity. When the seed Is ripe,
shell it, aud then cai-efully wiiiuow it several times, removing from
4 to 2 of the lightest seed, oausing the plant to give you the most
perfect seed. J)y this method you get a better quality and more
weight.
I have sold largo quautitios of seed raised iu this way, aai' it
always gave satisfaction. I read a paper this post winter to an
andiencu of SutlieU tobacco growers, which I hope will result in
ludping to regain the reputation of the Gouuectieut tobacoo. At
present Soed loaf will not supply the demand for fiuo wrappers,
and Havana Seed will, being far superior iu flavor aud quality,
and nearly equal in wiapplug capacity to Sumatra. I have tued
firat, second, third) foartli and tenth yew’f ’growth M Havana Seedr
S^^mber 1 , 1888 .
S 40
THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST.
ms BBIOSS.
FRANCE.
R AKKKQX7KG& I'lBE BRICKS m supplied td Govenunent and
the various Railways, Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Steam
Navigation Companies. Price—Re. 9 per 100.
Extract from Official Report of tests made at H. M's Mint,
Calcutta, by Theodoke W. H. Hughes, f.g.h,, a.r.s.m., Offi-
oiatlM Demity Superintendent, Geological Survey, India:—
" Tht i'w'C JSrieia tetted hy me mere fw-niahecl' by the Firm of
Jlfeasrs, BURN <i< Co, * • • The matcrkiln/rom -which they are made
are very refractory and captMe if reaiatiug h'njh temperature with¬
out senttihly fnaimj, * » * That compared with SiuHrhrkUjc Fire
Brk'ka are aomewhat superior,”
The specimens wore subjected to a temporatuie of over 3,000
de^. Eabr,, the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,780 dega.
1
I
l^alir.
Apply for the above, and for Raueegunge Salt-glazed Stouewai'e
and impcmhable Brainngc Pipes, to
BURN & CO..
7, Hastings-Btreet, Calcutta,
or Raueegunge Pottery Works, Raneegunge,
Bengal,
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AGENOy,
CZFCF.YSFBJ,
14, RUE DE OHABROL, PARIS.
Transacts every description of Commission, ^lerchaut, and
General Agency llusiuesa.
All Indents executed at Manufaoturors’ most favourable terms.
Go?idi<(<Wi«.—Twoond a-half per cout Commlssiou when Buiikors'
Draft on London or Paris accompanies order. Special terms to
regular eorre^oudouta. All Discounts ooucodod to purchasers.
Original Invoices scut when rmpdrod.
Produce taken ohaigo of ami realised to best advantage. Uasli
advanced on Conslgumouts,
The Agency Represents, Buys, and Sells for Firms.
Public Securities, Estates and Propertios,bonglit and sold, Loans,
Mortgages, Mines, and Industriai luvestmeuts, Ac., uegociateJ.
Manufacturers and Producers can have suitable articles intr oduced
to the markets on advantageous conditions.
PitiCE List —comprehension aud rctUtble~—oii apjdiccUion,
BANKER.8.—Paris; George Waters, Esti-, 30, Boulevard des
Itailens. Lonoos : Tiie Loudon and County Hank,
,3, Victoria-street, Westminster.
Address: The iManagor, CoMineMai and Colonial Ayency, 14, Rue
de Chabrol, I’aris, France. 447
ZULULAND
AND CETEWAYO.
“ ‘I know what it is,’ he answered) ‘this honey is made from
eupliorbia flowers, which are very poisonous,’ This e.vplauatiou made
mo foci oxceodiugly nuconifortablu ; byt I elicited from him that Giero was
not much danger, as the ‘ maass’ taken with it would neutralise the olTect
of the poison. Directly hr> inentioiiod poison 1 dived into the pocks, and
imlled out a bottle of KNO'S FRCIT SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two iiaimikins, lillcil tlieiu up with water, and several times
repeating the dose, in a few hours we wore considerably better."—
“ Hiilidaitd and Orte/riiyo,'' (p. IS!i), h'j Captain If. Jt, Ludlow, Isi Batt,
R, r. Ifvi/id iVurwiekshiri Re'jimnit.
“ ‘ liat on earth shall I lake to ^ululand !’ asked my friend .Jim
Law oiu- day at Aldershot, wliim he had just received orders for .Soutli
Africa, to start at torty-eighl hours’ uotioe. I replied, ‘If you take
my adviee- ami it’s that oi an old traveller-—you’U not budge without
a few bottles of KNO, even if you leave hnj’f your kit behind. 1
never am wilhoiit these .Salts, aud, please the pigs, never intend to he.’
On his leturn I im(ui)ed, ‘ Weil, how about UNO'S FRUIT SAJ.T;'’
‘Aly dear fellow, it was the best .advice you ever gave; they saved
me many an illness ; am! when I left 'ruegla, I sold the remaining bottles
for Uu times the original ju ice ' ’ ’’— La iil.-Col,
JEOPARDY.OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANGER OF DELAY.
You can change tUo trickling stream, but not the raging torrent.
W HAT EVERYBODY KlIOULD BEAD.—How imjiortant it is to every milividinal to Iiavo at hand some simple, effective, and palat¬
able remedy, suoli as EhJU'.S FRUIT .SALT, to olieek disease at tiie outset ! h’or tliis is tiio time. With very little trouble you
can chonge the course of the trickling mnuiitaiu stream, but not the rolling rivej-. It will defy ail your tiny eil'urts. I feel I cannot suffi¬
ciently impress tills important information upon all Housolioiders, or .SJiij) Cajitaiua, or JOurojieans generally, who aisi visiting or residing in
any hot or foreign elimato. Wlienover a cliaugo is contemplated, likely to distui b the condition of heaft!., let END’S FRUIT SALT be
your companion ; for, nmU-r any eiroumstanecs. its use is liomilieial and never can do harm, Wlicu you feel out of sorts, yet unable to say
■why, frequently without any warning you are suddenly seized witli lassituile, ilisinelLuation for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
sickness, pain in the forelieail, dull aching ol imek and limbs, coldness of the aurfacc, aud often shivering, &e., &o. ; then your whole body
is out of order, the spirit of danger lias been kindled, but you do not know wliore it may eml ; it is a real necessity to have a Simple remedy
at hand that will answer tiie very best cud, with a [lo-sitive aasuranee of doing good in every cose and in no ease any harm. The pilot can
so steer and direct as to bring tlie ship iuto safety, but he cannot nin-il the r.xging storm. Tne common idea when not feeling well is, “I
will wait aud see, perhaps 1 shall he better to-morrow ; ” whorea.s, Imd a 8ii)ij)ly of ENU’.S FRUIT .SAL'P been at hand, and uso mailc of it
at the ouiet, all oilamitous results might iiave been avoided. What d.ashes to the earth so many bopea, breaks so many sweet alliancos,
blasts SO many auspicious oiitoiqiriseB, as untimely death’
rsMl'S PKUIT salt.-‘‘A fter HUtTering form,arl} two and a half years, rpifK AIIT OF eONQIfF,sr hs UMT WITHOUT THI! ART OF RAT-
hi aevoro headache and disordered Htemauh, end afler ti-j’itig aunost' 1 INO.-IflNNKR KNUAOKWKNTH.—STl M LILAN’I'S. —'TOO RlOIf
^orvtliimr and spending much money without lindmg any honofil, I was' FOOD.—l.ATFJfOUIiS. -INSUFFICIENTEXERCIHE.—EXCITEMENT
reeummemlod hy a friend to try ENOS FRUn' SALT, and hoforo 1 ha.l A<-,— A goiitlom.m writes; “When 1 feel out of sorts, 1 take a do.se of
finished one bottle 1 found it doing me a great .leal of .good, and now I ! UNO'S FlHJtT iSALT one hour before dinner or first thing in the moniing.
am restored to my usual heaitli ; and uUioi’s 1 kn.iw tliat have fried il h.ivo i The offeut is nil I could wish.’’ How to enjoy good food that would"
nnfnved suefi good health fur years.—yoiir.s most Iruiy, Bout. ; otherwise c.suso l.iliousuos-s, hoadiiolie, or disordered stomach—uso ENO’.-I
HuuuuilKYa, Post Ottice, Jiarrosford. ’ ^ ^ . IBLMTHALT.
Ct UCC^S IN LIFE. — “A new invention is brought before the public, and commands success. A Score of abominable imitations are
© Immediately introduced by tiie unscrupulou.s who, in oonyiiig the original closely enough to deceive the public, and yet not so exactly
'as to infringe upon lefeal rights, exercise on ingenuity that, empioyeil in an original etaiincl, could not fail to Secure reputation aud
profit. "^A»ams. .....
/CAUTION.—irfliai rirjhls are protected m enery etinhsed countri/. Fjtainiii/; each Bottle, and see the capsule is marled “ ENO’S FRUIT
SALI." Jfillwut d you haix been Imposed on by worthless hnUations. Hold by all Chemists, price i?s. 3d. and 4s, Gd,
DIREOTION8 IN SIXTEEN LANGUAGES HOW TP PREVENT DISEASE.
tropMOd only at UNO’S FSUII SALT WOBijfft '‘''at-w fu -
850
THE INDIAN AGRIoVlTURIST. September 1, 1888.
PH(ENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
OiTil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
F</rgtd and Cast Iron Worl\ Boilers, Machinery for Jute, Cotton and Bice Mills, Collieries, Indigo Concerns, Tea Gardens, dc.,
Coniracior/l and Bnck-making Tlant, and every class of Itvn and Brass irorh made to order.
SOLE ,A.a-EI3SrTS
Robey & Co’a celebrated Portable and Fixed Engines and Machinery, Gwynno & Go’s “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Gould's
Rottvrj’ Pumps, and Robinson’s Patent Steam Traps.
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
Robey & Go’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, .and Patent “ Robey ” Semi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines and Boilers, Land
and Mwine Boilers, Gould’s Rotary Power Pumiis, J. & H, Gwynne's “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Hand, Lift and
Force Pumps, Tangye's “ Special” Ste.am Pumps, “ Vauxhidl” Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Saw Benches,
Sjrencer’s Hand Drilling Machmes, Btp.am Pressure Recojolew, Richards’ Engine
Indicator, Gifford’s Iiijectoi-s, Cooking Stoves,
Fire-Proof Safes.
.7, k H. Gwynne’s “ Invincible ’’ Ceiilrifugal f'limp.
This Pump leiug arranged to swivel on the bed-plate
may be fixed at .any angle re(|uirpd. J t does not le-
quire a foot-valve, being fitted with small air ex¬
hauster and clack on discharge, which alw.'iys keep it
charged ready for work.
^ Robey’s Combined 't'erLic.al Engine and Boiler.
'J’lii.s class of Eugini* is nearly twice sw large as
those of the same nominal hurse-|>ower of some
niakei-s The Engine, instead of being fixed to the
Boilei' as is nsu.al in Engines of the .same elans, is
erected on a massive Cast Iron Standard which jnnkes
it quite inde])eudeut of the Boiler.
Bansoms’s " Indian " Plough, price—Rs. 15. Howard's Ryot's Plough. No. 0, price—Bs. 20
Those PloiigliB have l.ocn e.xpi'osslv designed end iiionafacturnd for the uso of the Kyots 01 India, whose spocial noe<l8 have Ixiou
carefully BtndletVin their construction. They cinbod.v all the qualifications for which the native-made implements have hitherto been
preferred, whilst being incomparnbLy superior hi stroiigth, durability, and efnuiuncy,
MCRAE'S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to throe times tiio depth of a native plough, and leaves the good mould on the top. Goes through the dirtiest land
■ without getting choked with weeds. Price, Ra. 15.
mDIOC AND TEA PLANTBBS' IHPLBMBNT8 AND 8T0BBS.
ETSrO-IITElEJRS" a?OOXiS STORSS os’ .AJLiXj iciitids.
Ai.WAi'8 OH HAHD A bARoa STOCK OF Platk, ^vr. Angle, Tm and Corhuoatbd Iron, Stekl, Beabs, CorrKR, Pio Iron,
Fochdrt Coke, Smithy Coal, Firk Bricks, ahu Firk Clay.
CaU^gws on d-ppUcationi
September 1, 1883. THE INDUN AGRICULTURIST,
351
We puUUh the following paptrt al this Office :—
THE INDIAN ACHUOT7LTI7RIST.
(MONTHLY.)
Hates (if Subscription, incUtditiy postage,
STBICTLS IN' ADVANCE.
For India
/Yearly
1 Half-yearly
Ke. 12
7
,, 13
„ 7
For Europe ■
Single copies, He. 1; hack copies, Rs. S.
Ailrerlisements/or the “ Indian AgrienUnrisf, ” should be sent in
not later than the SSrd, to appear on the 1st of the folloioimj month.
THE FRIEND OF INDIA AND STATESMAN
(WEEKLY.)
Hales of Subscription, including postage,
STBIOTLy IN ADVANCE.
Town, Mofitssil,
fYoarly ... ... Rs. 20 0 Ra. 22 0
•1 Half-yearly ... ... „ 11 0 ,, 12 0
iQnarterly ... . 6 0 ,,7 0
The reduced rate for MIsaionatioa la Ra. 15 per annum.
/Yearly ... ... ... Re. 26 8
t Half-yearly ... ... ... „ 14 0
Single copies, ils. S ; back copies. He, 1,
Adiiertisemenis for the ^'friend of India" should be sent in
not later than Wednesday, to appear on the following Saturday,
For India
For Europe
THE STATESMAN AND FRIEND OF INDIA.
(DAILY.)
Hales of Subscription, including postage,
STBIOTilf . •• ADVANCE.
• Town, Mojitssil,
Yearly ... ... Ra. SB 0 Ra. 42 0
„ - Half-yearly ... . 19 0 „ 22 0
For India Quarterly ... ... ,, 10 0 ,, 11 8
Monthly ... . 3 3 ,,4 0
Single copies. As, 3 ; Uwh copih, As. /, and S.
Adm'lisements for the "Statesman" should be sent in not taler
than 5 p.m.ito appear on the following morning.
Intending Subscribers wilt please address I hr hlanager.
Subscribers should slate distinctly for wiiiun paper remittances are
iniendid. London for the above papers:
fiVnROR STRElil'l-'> Oornhitl,
F ALGAR. "• n&.l-Z,aisment'.->J.a„r,L,Hdm,l!!.a.
■rates HENDY & CO. ... 37, iVnlbruok, houdou, E. O'.
D J lUEYMERkCO. ... I... iYldtsfruirs'-sirrct, Eleet-strers,
' ' , Lolul'in, bj. (j.
BOLE AGENTS FOR TEE UNITBO STATES:
THE INTERNATIONAL NEWSl’Al'ER AOENCY,
H. P. HUBBARD, Propriotov,
New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A,
PLANTERS’ STORES & AOENCY CO.,
LIILffITElID,
MERCHANTS AND GENERAL AGENTS,
Calcutta,— 30, STRAND,
General Mamger—W, E. .S. JfiFFEB.S'ON.
ilanager '-ii ■
' Agencies or Tea Estates undertaken on Iho moat
advantageous terms.
Coolies recruited by our own sbilT of experienced Agents, with
Dcjidts throughout Chota Nagpur and at Dhubri.
Indentors and Consigneoa of .all merchandize.
Ai-my, Navy, Civil Sernce, and Private Agents.
Assam.— “TUB excilinge,” dibbugarh.
W. .1. WiiKATLEv, Manager.
I A. D. Stuart, Agerwy Supcriniendenl.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estates and Eu¬
ropean Residents,
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India General Stcaui Navigation Co., Ld. ; Agent
for Commercial ruion As-suranoe Co., Fire and
Life . Agents fur “ Star ” Line Ocean
Steamew, Calcutta to London:
Agents for Router’s
Telegram Co.,
Limited,
London.-GREAT WINUHBSTER-STREET, K.C.
E. G. Kook, Secretary.
Agenoiss at Birmingham, fiordsanx, and Oharante.
GOVERNMENT
A N rffeirnt suhsliiutr for Quiiiiiie, .b'olil by ihr jmncipal Europran
A. ami Natirc DriiggUls of CatenUa. Obtaiuiddo from the
Suprrintmdcut, Botanical Gardens, Cah'ulla. Post free, 4o'.,., at
Hs. 6 ; So:,, Its. II : IB o:,, Rs, ~0-l,t. Cash with order.
THE AGRA BANK,
“ LIMITED."
apltal •• ..£1000,000
wSveFund £190,000
CAIXUTTA BRANCH.
DRRENT ACCOUNT.S are kept, and
rest allowed, when the Credit Balance
not fall below He. 1,000.
KPOSI.TS received available at any time
Hetnlttanou to England in the Bank’s
I, and Interest allowed tlieroon at the
of 4 per cent per annum. , , „ ,
EPO.SITS are also received tor hxud
oclB, on terns which may be leai'ut on
RAFTt) granted at the exchange of the
on London, ^otUnd. Ireland, and the
k’a ABcucies in the East.
LltCULAR NO'J'ES iasuod, negotiable
o'vJi^i^KlI'i’^'^and otliev
bought ftud sold, and tho 8ftic
odv of the same undertaken.
(TEBEST, pay, and PENSIONS col-
,d ; and every other description of
king Business and iloucy Agency tran-
U^Eoniittanooa should bo made
to the Agra Bank, Limited,
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the 'world, to ROBINSON and
CLEAVER, BELFAST, for Samples and full range of Price Lists (POST
FREE) of their
‘Thoir Irish Linen OGllars, Ciifff*,
Shirts, fcc., Uato tho morit <»f
IRISH
■“ Court Cimutitr.
, lUiil Tiibli Linen S!i'’At
IRISH a y;utls wide, 1/U i»r
iwr dty/,
f-hlMron‘K .. -j/u
vio'ti. ' CAMBRIP ,»{/,{
r.itm'Hairy (n meat ilm. I t lHinBRIU Qontlclnoil's .. i/io
xlilr, 01 .
Ttiidion’ HTld CliiL
COLLARS, dive's, 3 ful.I, J/U
5 ai*o« H, D-iuu«, .>/Y Huriiiice
f ptiv iluK. iluntrt I Lliion,
44 oW, ijll to &/n , gi,;_ pgj.
_... ' *_I
iihlo artlclo) 2^ yanU
ivitJo, .3/3 per yAni.
RoJlcr TifWolUnif. Inch
wide, per ynnl.
Lliiun l>n«-
LINENS
HEM.lTfTCUB
* pOl' doz.
yard.
C ii r r A FnrLadioK.fionVle* I
ti F r St men, nnd Children, Kapkinn.
_^ —* . 1 / 1 1 to 10/9 i»or doii. !</i;
3/1) per d‘>K,
Dinner N.apkin.H,
a/t] por
Tablo Clotlin, 2
yds HtjUAio, H/ll;
iii yards hy 4
ytbMs, 1J/-I yaclu
^ Cloths, 4,'Opor
m d«)^.
rino Linens
and l/lTKMj
Di.tpcr,
lOJ. por yard.
& DAMASKS.
POCKET
port!.,
-ifvdioa ..
.. b;i
eTJ&E
HANDKERCHIEFS.
FLAX.
‘The IHsh Lftfiibri-.'S Wosm-y
Uobini'on * Chrtvrv huvo a workl-
wido f.tino. (Jt/eicfi.
3/11 to 10/9 por doii
Best L.niKelyth ^ SHIRTS.
IJodioH, witn 4 'lola - —
all linon frontifana "
enffa, tho half
doz. (to moMuro. ^ D,„as 51 .itcri.Us, Fl.mnoG, Irish luid Su.,-. Kini.ruldorleB, Hostasy
Oiuvt UuderVUs, Baeu’; al*. Uco ttooda <)( every dos.-rtpUeu, at lowest wholesale p.hes.
ROBINSON & CLEAVER, Manufacturers, bv 8P|cW Ap-
pcSitmeot tohor&iVstythoQueJn and her Imperial Highness
the Grown Prineoss of Germany,
SH£ SOTAXiJlIjiB LINEN WAREHOUSE, BELFAST#
332
THE INDIAN AGBKiDLTURI^T. September 1, lSfi3.
S. OWENS & 00.,
^KCITE®’m^E’S-STKEE3T, 31.01TID03ST,
HYDRAUUO ENQINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERY DESCRIPTION
FOn STFAM, IVATFIi, W/FI), CATTLE, ASB MAEEAL POWER.
HydrauHc and Screw Presses, Oil MiU Machinery, HydrauHc Idfts, &c.
SOLE MAKERS FOll GHEAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE'S PATEKT DIRECT-AeTtHB STEAM-PUMP,-MORE THAN 10,000 IN USE.
THE TOLIOWIXH ARE SOME OF THE PKOMINEKT ADVASTAGKS OF THE BLAKE TOltr:_
It wilT Btart Rt any point
oi Btroke.
It has no dead point.
It work* fast or alow
with the same certainty oi
action.
It ia economical. Haa a
lead on the Slide Valve.
It ia compact and dur¬
able.
Hand Power Loror
Hetaohed.
It is intoi'ohangoable in
nil its working parts.
It will deliver more water
than nuy other Pump.
_ It is made of best mato-
riaJs in the most workman¬
like manner.
Can be worked at 200
strokes per hour, or 20
strokes per minute.
BLAKE'S PATEN I
Dlrcct-AoHag stoau Paiap and Hollsr Pecdor
DottUlo-barrul OuiitractcrE’Pumy>,
for Uanil or Skovn Power.
Oil UllLs, for Btotkia at Cattle Powors
Don Wa-bflfrol Plru Bngtue, for
tiaasioas, Pactorios, 4ic»
I)eop>woU Pnmnt, for
Horae or iiuUook rower.
Verttoal Combined St'*-Am
Holler, ami Poop*
w«ll Pumpi,
Wfll Kuji y
for ii'Siiii Powui'.
Firu En^duoA.foT Ttvwna, UailwHy Koroe Pnmiw na
fitatfous, ac. Barrow.
Wronf.Ait-ifon
FortJiDio
Patent Onfriftifrwl Pnmivi» f”*" Co?ibriwtOT»‘
uaa, or irrigation Work.
IropfOTod fileam Boring
AppMretOB, also
Boring Tools of overr doscrlption, for Artosian W«dl<,
iaitlag for Miiwralt, Poandatlouh he.
OaAi-irun Honm
or Oariiun Pump;
Portable Irrigators (t»r H»r««
or stcHto iN^wor.
BLAXE’S PATENT DffiECT-ACTINO STEAM PUMP AND VERTICAL BOEEB
B-OK IEBia-A.TI03Sr FTjm>OBms,
PILLING TANKli.' WATEH-SUI'PLY TO PLAN'i'ATiONS 8.MAI-L 'fOWNH OE VILLAGES.
Whitdfriar’s Ironworks, WMteiiiar*s-street, Fleet-street, lK>ndon.
CctiaioffueS cni 4 EMmaitv Free un A/tplicalivn.
VnmeiftttEviadmtmf yon nut FnoyjuvroM, as W. £• Vaaoe, at sub " Siatesuam k SMiau or JLmuia’' OrrKs, Oammtta#
A'noiwijt.?
joikfm OF worn AGMcmm, mEmoor, and sTAmm.
VOIi. 1
CALCtJTTA :~MONDAY, OCTOBEE 1, 1883.
[No. 10.
Hahbcroh
B atuN '
SVOSET
'JtaIaota
BlTUn;
•PfiOlAULY «urr^ FOR AND FATEMTCO IM INIMA AND ABROAD
PRIZES.
.>878 j CtNOIWAW .1880 ! PlTTSSUKO .1881
. 1879^ I NKwYowt . 1880 i AtAUNTx .1891
. . ' MmounsS . 1880 i PrfrsBfina .1882
1 NkwZicalakd ... 1883. j Falkoeth ... 1H82, | Tvsemouta ... 1882.
Firet XVize, Syunipy, 1879. Hjiuilmrg, ^ Wplonm,
. J7«w 1882.
McUwunie, 1880. . 1878. ' Cmctnuati,'Jmiii, 1880,
OVEK 460,000 Mt SOLD DD&INO 1881,
In(!liuliuj{ 3,877 feot of main Di'ivii^ Belts, of wl4tli8 rariifuig from 13 iu. to
60 iu., are wovkinjf iu Over 6,000 Milk and WoiStS iu Europe uud America.
The futluiehuj Tents (ht/ KWkaidy, oj Lonion) s/tow the relative sti’eitffik and wtiwi
• with LttUher.
Best Double Leather 6 in. Belting
Oasdy'a 6 in. x S-pl^ Oottoa
Breaking Strftiil^per 3<^aerti iuob ef Section, '
3,572 ibe,
6,811 IbB.
Prieo per iooi.
0», 7A ,
SB. id.
THE
aANDT BELT.
Any LeliM or Width
for itfaw .Driving,
It is the besit belt
ever niaile for uB purjxw-
e». Much Ohoaper’ and
SliKuger than Leather.
Tlwifuttgl^ Waterproof,
tmd not Miccted by tem-
))erftture, cllugs well to
the pulleys, i-uns true,
and can be tnade luiy
leuj^ Without joints.
' This Series of Bolting
Xsee ongrtmiag) wa* sup¬
plied In One Older to
Afeaira. »Toliu Crosaley
and Sous, Halifax, May
1, 1886, aud contiunes Ca
give entire satisfaction.
^ANWS Patent Amerionn Cotton Pelting can ciS^a wiperiarity owH'Stn^^iiw invfVery'partloalar; its cost
W being about halt that of IcatUor, wliiloiW strength and gBppingpowef is ibmtt'do i We that of the bo.«t le,atIior,
as sllown b^poated tests taken by Kirkaldy. ot, Lomlon. 'itpse torts are given atOTO, to whiWi speeUl atteub'ou is
directed. These “ Gandy ” belts^ are lawls of any width up-to 72 iooiios, and any length Up to 3W feet without joint,
Buis obviatto.the necewity of having two bells on tt)o same pulley, a- mtum of driving which is never satisfactory,
w ttrfe impoeBble to have Wts of exactly the eamo tension ; heaeo one or the otImV Is always oflusiap a stor^wgv.
.. . are avoidsd by usiog Gandy’s patent boUs in one width. 'J'hesc Gandy Belte are made of the finest
Duek, specially propatef at Baltimore lor the numoso. and tiiuu out together and finished by Gfmdy'i
Atti/eUtnASetr .M/t A.._.....A _V > * v ov x.... A.v Af,? 1 AMA
£Si£'i
MAWl GAIffiY,
1 pat6nttod‘«J»olAl Mttohiwry and iwoowf f-npr^vont wndar tlwm
Lr<w«dM#d oitadYAQUgaff suoU «« th^ (Us uoivsnal wlsptldq Beii« atAouy be a
A sDiifiCAiRnuiLL evABAFTBE ozvEir wxtH tvwNt mst tmmo «si>’r.
Patentee aud lUnuiocturdri
>W, QtUHB Vktoriadrtrerty!
Wmrpool, Kajilw4f
354
THE INDIAN AGRfpULTTJRIST. October 1,1883.
CIREJIT
FOR PRICKLY HEAT. INDlGESTIOiy. HEADACHE. BILlOliSNFSS: AND FEVERS.
Thu tntimcnur ci aMlakl (taUnow hM baen uoiiiultftacl lu pratM o(
LiHPLOUfil’S PTRETIG SALIHB
I
AM poMetuluK oMmanu mott etseuLia) for the mtomtioa And mainteuauo* of beoltb with porteot vigeur of ho4r Md
It in SfTervoBOing and Tanteleas; formixig a most Inrigorating, Vitaliting, and Befraihlng Bevatag^*
InutAftt reUflf in HKADAOHB. RPfA or UTLlOtJH H10KNJ5«8, OOM8TJJ»ATIO\, INDTOKSTION. lAMITUPB. HRARTBURN, And BBVBRWH OOLJIfl; preTenU tou
quickly aures tbo uont fonnM of TVruuti. BCARLBT, JUBULE. AUd other I'RVEUH, HMAhLI^OX. HBA8LB8. and BRUl’TIVE or SKIN OOXPLAtNTB, rarioua other
altarod coniUtimi’t of the Wood. . ^ ^ .
S r. PBOITT.-" UnmidWir »nna of immenr bauofll to mankUirt.” 1 I>r. SPAEKS (dovermoent KedicaJ Inipeotor of EwUrranta frm m Port^of toodon)
r KOBGPAJf it fureluiM the bloud w!u> ita loet iMine cpnetitnenit.'’ ! wrttce I huvq groat pleasure lu oMrliig my oca^taUeaiunonj^ to 1UI tfDflaor.
OOTSBSrXSSrT omCXAldS AXT> Buonrsiw OKriag for tha wel&ra of their ainp%as ahonld note
lie valna aa a apacific & Favar oaaaa.
Dr. J. W. DOWiIKO.-"IUMattJiittetire*tmentot toMiy-twooMe»o» VeDowrevor. , BAWm. KHDSa, rtruJAlJS, IJTOtA.-" W« ffimlr tirt)«vo tl»t the n« of ruor
aia, ha ppy to pt -ate 1 wit'er \oet a aVnale oaae.’^ i pyroHc SellHe will do woro to prevent fever tbM all the Qu^ne ever toported can o«re.
.I>r. W- BTJBViBHB.—“BUieells tntrortiwtiun the Fatal Vest ludia Feven are deprived m, TTjaUGR.-~‘‘ I ficuid it act a« a ap^ne. in my experieaee and family, m the worrt
of their terrors.'* _ forms <.»( St'arlcf Fever. uor»tliorm«?diclne being required,'* ,,,
UR 1CAJS8TY*8 UXPBMSmirrATTVm the OOVSHKOR Or SIXRRA LXONZ, i Dr. 8. aiBBOK (formorly I^hyafolsti to the Loudon Koipttal).—*' Its utefulnou lu the
in A letter of request for an amiitmaal euppjy R the I'yretln Ha11ii«. «t«tes~-'* li is of ffrmi I troatmont of aiaoaac bae lung been euuftrmofl hy medical oyperienoe.*'
and 1 ehi^ rejoioe to hear It is in the faouaoe or all Europeans visiting the tropics.'* '
To be obtained of a &7 Ohemiat or Drug Store* in Patent Olaes-stoppered Bottles, Ss. 6d., da. 6<L, XIs., and 218* eaob.
Fleaae not* in connection with the rec ently oheerved effeota of the nee of Citrate and other preparatioae
of Xagnoaia that BaXPLOTTOK’8 FTBETIC BAliXVE is warranted not to contain any auhfrauioe
which would oanee oalonlone or other earthy depoeita.
HI. L-A.3sAI»Lb'Cr&II, 1137ilOx7BOT27:tT“lIIx7x7, I.i03iTD03^; E.O.
City Line of Steamers.
FOR LONDOK DIRECT nid SUEZ CANAL.
•y ■ Tons. (Japtaing.
Ci/y oj llandmlev ... ... 3126 A. Macdonald.
City (if Oarlha^e ... ... 26S1 J. MuPherson.
City of Canterbury ... .3212 J. Marr.
City of Venice ... ... 3207 J. Y. Moffat,
City of London ... ... 3212 J. Black.
City (f Edinburgh ... ... 3212 \V. H. Barham.
City of EHioe ... , ... .3280 A. Thoms.
City of Ar/ra ... ...3412 J. Gordon,
OUy of CcUwUa . 3836 R, McNeil.
City cf Ostford . 3959 Win. Miller.
City qf Camtmdyc ... ... 378S D. Anderson.
Tho City qf EUnhurgh is intended to sail on the lltli October.
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THE INOIAjN AGRICULTUBIST,
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856
THE INDIAN ADRXOULTUEIST.
October 1,1883,
PH(ENIX IKON
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA*
JESSOP & GO.,
OiTil and Meehanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Hetal Merchants, &c.
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BOLE jft.aE3SrTS EOE
Eobey & Co's celebrated Portable aud Fkod Engines and Machinery, Gwynne & Co’a “ Invincible" C^trifugal Punns Gould’s
Eotaiy PanijM, and Eobiusoii’s Patent Steam Traps. ‘ '
IMPOnEIIS AHD MAWlFmEIIS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENMNES AND MACHWERV.
Eoijey & Co’s Portable, Hotfeoutnl, Fixed, and Patent “ Eobey ” Semi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines and Boilers, land
and Mai'iue Boilera, Gould's Eotiu-y Power Pumps, J, & H. Gwynue’s “ Invincible " Centrifugal Pumps, Hand, Lift and
Force Pimips, Taugyo’s “ Six'cia!" Steam Pumps, “ Vauxliall” Doukey Pum}«, Flour Mills, Saw Benches,
Spencer’s Hand Drilling Machines, Steam Pressure Recorders, Eichards’ Engine
, Indicator, Gifford's Injectors, Cooking Stoves,
Fire-Proof Safes.
•T. & H. Gwynne's “ Invincible " Centrifugal Pump.
This Pump being iirranged to swivel on the bed-plate
may be fixed at any angle required. It doe.s not re¬
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heiwter and clack on diacharge, which always keep it
charged ready for work.
Th-** ^''’^Liiied Vertical Engine and Boiler,
inis class of Engine is nearly twice as lai'ge as
lliose of the same iiominul horee-iiower of some
makers The Engine, instead of being fixed to the
Doiler as is usual in Engines of, the same class, is
erected on a massive Cast Iron Standard which makes
If quite iiidopendeiil of the Boiler,
Eaniome’s “ Indfaui ” Plcmgli, price—Be, is.
These Ploughs ^ye been expressly designed and manufactured for the use of the Ryot* oflndlafw^o sMoial’nfJds ha^!?
oarefully *tudW m tieirooiirtruotion. They embody all the qualifications for which the native-mAde imtilcmeiitB have hlrtertn
preferred, whilst being incomparably superior in strength, durability, and cffifliency" implcftieate have hitherto beeji
^ _WORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Btin up the aoil to three times the depth of a native piough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes through thb'dlrtlesf
M'ltliout getting choked With weeds. Price, 15. * -
INBIQO AND TEA PLANTEBS' mPLEMEHTS AKD WOBBB
HiraiisrEBita* tools stores of a V.t, kxktids
AIWA«-0S HAlFb A bUtOE STO^ OF PLATE, Ban, ASOLE, Tee AKD CoBHmTED IeoK, Sim,. BbaSS
iot'KDEv Coke, Smitut Coal, Fibs Baioia, akd Fiee Clay. ^ ’
on App lmtm ,
Mb/rn]
THU
A monthly
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AQRICULTURF, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIIL] ’ CALCUTTA ;-MONDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1883. [No. 10.
CONTENTS: CORRESPONDENCE.
PMt.
AcKNOWlSDOKMINTa .867
CORRKSPONDBNOB—
Indian Hngaroanes .357
Extraordinary Cano of a Buf¬
falo-Cow Swallowing a j
Stool Bpindlo . 868 |
Tlio Calmya Controversy ... 360 ^
Lbadino Aktioles—
Indigo. 369 ’
The Nagporo Model Farm ,
Koport .360
lloport of tho fiovornraont
Botanical Kard'ins at Salin-
runporc and Musaoorio ... 301
FDITORI.\I. Notes .362
(.imoi.vi, P.vrEiis- i
Kxporimont in Serioullnrc , 370 ■
Sm.El'TIUNS-
'I'lio Ontario Agriuultuni!
Collogo .371
Agrioultnro in Aloaninliiquo 372,
French Aprionlturo . ...372'
I'roncli Agriculturol Nolu» 373
Broodin'.' Seed Grain .. 373
TidsSo-lIown for ToxSlo
l'nri)ose.. .. .. . 374
liriiliiiin's Patent Wood Puip
IhDoowa ..R76
'i'iio llrrjid-Frnit T'reo f-ir-
As'or/nts Itif.inn, Linn.) ... 376
Paob.
Fibre Plants of India .. 376
Poultry-Brooding — Natural
and Artillcial Aloans ... 377
Mato or Paraguay Tea .. 379
Kaing Crass for Paper-
Making .830
]m])roving Flocks .081
CWHON.S,-
'I’lio Unrvesting of Cinchona
Bark.388
FoRHaTBY-
A Forest School for Englan 1 333
The 0.tRDEN—
Cultii'nlion of tlio Roan ... 333 [
Tho ftardon Anoinono .. 3.S3
On . >mo Now Garden Poase 883
(iiives 9v'jw« Bilvor-Skinnod
Onion for Pickling ... 384
ilLSBUALIIUY--
Tlie Singaroni Coal Mino.s 381
Coal ill tiio Khns'a ll'lls 337
Ts.t—
niroiigh the Toa Jlistricts
of North India .3.37
Tho Ciiomistry of Packing... 33 1
'i'oBACtai— I
Tobacco Cnlturo in Virginia 33!)
Advebtisemiints .389
Ow Cun'espwdtnis and Contributon ivil/ </iva/lj/ vl/liyi'
Ks if ihfy will Xitke the trouble, where fhr returne of cuHioa-
tion are ataled by tlwni in, Indian weights aiul mnwnree, U)
give their English eguivalents, either in the tr.rf, in pitrcu-
thesis, or in a foot-note. The bigah t'li particular varies so
much in the different provinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to give Ike English value of it in all eases. It would he a great
refm-m if the Government itself followed the same course in all
the official reports published by it.
All correspondence must bear the full name and address of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a gnaranle
of good faith. We. shall take no notice of anony mous letters.
ACKNOWLKDGMENTS.
Report of Police AdmInUtration in the Punjab for tlio yoar 1882.
Report of the KEteriial Loud Trade of the Punjab for the year I
1882-8.
Rboorbs of the Ooologloal Survey of India, Vol. XVI, Part III,
1883.
Rri obi on the Nagporo Model Farm, In the Central Prnviuoos,
for 1882-83.
Report on the Administration of Civil Justice in the Pimjali and
it» dependeitales, 1882.
REP'^fet.on tho Sanitary Administration of the Punjab, 1882,
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British
India, in the year ending .31st March 1883,
Report of the progress and oondttion of the Government Botani-
oal Gwdsne at Saharaopore and Mauooris for the year ending
ManbUSS.
INDIAN SUGAIIOANES.
TO THE EDITOR.
Sir,—C ould you or any of your corrospondonts inform mo if
there is any standard work, or scieutifio authority wliloU would
onablo me to obtaiu a oorraot identification and the tooUnioal
nomenclature of tlie different kinds of sugaroano grown in India ?
Tho author of Tropical AyricuUiirc. euuinorates more thau
tliirty differout kinds grown in India, Chius, Mauritius, Bourbon
Africa, Australia, Egypt, West Indies, North and South Amorioa'
Herr SoUrottky in his work mentions two or three distinct speoies,
hut it does not appear whother they are identical with any
gruwn in Northern India.
In this, tho (Julluudhur) Doali, there nro I know six distiuct
kinds mot with, vh., Ohvnn, Kawirii, Kkar, Dhnula, Kahu, aud
Pontia,
(1.) Tho C/ifiRii is a tJliu sleudcr canowitha pale browu color
streaked with purple, rich in juioe, and saooharlne matter, the
jiiiee, haviug in well oultivated lands, an average donsit/ of
10 6“ lieavvd.
(2.) Tho Kanara in native estimatiou ranks next to tho eham,
but is eullivated uhinfiy in tbe submontane traots, the Siwaliks,
and lower valleys of tbe Kaiigra districts. It is softer to crash,
!•' rich in juice and ssocharino mat'or, and has a pale, greouish
.'olor, and gives a very fair sugar.
(.3.) The A’tei'isa very inferior description of oano, hard to
crush, and its oultivatiou is being gencr.illy disooutinued througb-
'■lit the Dlinb.
(1.) The D/iatUu ranks next to tbe iaiiara ; it attains a much
argor size thau the three preceding varieties, it has a pale green
"lor, bard to crush, rieli iu juice, but deficient In saoeharino
natter, juice rarely if ever exhiliitiiig a greater density thau 7‘6’
Deauvte. Tile tlhuiilii is, as far as I was able to ascertain from
omparison witli some specimens of caue apeuially procured from
Itc Aligurh Pistnot, identical with a kind known dowu oountry
18 Saharanpnri.
(3.) Kahn is grown extousivelj in tile Bari Poab, more
specially in tlic Goordaapore district, it lias bcou iutrodnoed into
he Dosnryaii tahsil (llosliiarporc district) and was tried for tho
irst time in tlie experimental farm at Hosl.uirpore at tho instance
if Mr. Coldstreom, the then Deputy Commissioner, it attains
i large sire, about tliree inches in circnniteronoe, with a height
arying from eight to nine feet; tlie color Is a pale green,
■treaked with violet or purple. The yield in juice is good, aud
the juice has an average density of I0’5° Beavnu‘. 1 may add
hat tho exporimeut of last year was oonductod on a small area,
lot moro than 0'17 of an .xcro, and tlie results which wore goml
hould on ttiat account ho received with caution : this year's crop
vill euahle us to see wiiother the heavy outturn of last season,
i7 maunds or 6,3801b8. of goor to the acre, was merely
lU accident, duo to the unsafe practice of calcnlatiug produoe
ff small areas, and accepting the rosiilts as reliable factors for
general application,
(6.) Tlic Poma is grown all ever the Punjab but seldom for
'ouvorsiou iuto sugar, generally lieiiig reserved for use as a
sweetmeat to be oaten raw. It is too well known to need
loscriptioii hero, hut tho question has often suggested iteolf—Why
do not the natives ernsb it {or sugar? It attaius a large sise,
very juicy aud sweat. It is a very expcnsii o crop to oultivate,
inainmoh os it requires gu cuormous amount vl water to bring
it to maturity.
358
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
October 1, 1883.
Tlic /lAnnn, hiiiara, ilhavlu, nud ekaf cinl rU bs grown on
good land without much irrigation, the ordinary rainfall
being generally snfllciout to dovelope the crop j whereas kahi
ref|Uirc,s watoviug at least once every ten daya during May and
dune until the rains set in, and should get at least two waterings
between 0<!tol)or and tho end of Deoemhor in order to preserve
it from fiost.
Tlio cultivation and preparation of tho land is the same for
each kind, but I found that whereas an aero of e/trinn can lie sown
wth 20 it takes 40 maunds of seed to sow an equal area with
kahu.
In converting the hihii into gooi‘, a Mylnc and J'Aortisos's mill
was used, evaporation and cimi'rittratioii, if such it oau be
termed, being (',fTeete<l iu a karaha or open pan.
it was found that tho ratio of juioe to cane was on avorage
72’7fi per cent, which was of ootinso very good.
The juioe was strained through thick clotli at fir.st, but latterly
through Jianuel : it was then emptied into a sjjooe knrahn,
treated with one ounce of slaked aud Horoenod lime, well pulveri¬
zed, made into a cream with water ; a slow fire maintained until
tlie sriim and all mechanical impnrities present had risen to the
surface : tho juioe was then emptied into another pan and a
steady fire of nu’goisaud cotton stalks maintiiiiied, until tho proper
degree of conccutratioii, about 2fl Beaiimd wos arrived at ; it «’as
then run off into a cooler and allowed to .attain the crystallized
moss and fonmvtiou known as goor. It had a bright golden oolnur,
prnseiiting n marked dilleronoo to the gaor, clanfial with
fiickdak
iSeiklaiis the b.ark of the ncm'i'a (inrhira, " biil>iil,'‘ poundeil up *
and made into a paste with water.
A eoiisideraWo amount of chomioal impurities must rem.aiu in
all juice so rudely olartljcd, animal charcoal on defoeation by
snfp/wnoKs aeiif gew being the most cllicleiit moans hitherto used
toremove tho fecnlaq wax, and to neutralize completely the salts
of potash, soda, and magnesia existing in cane juice.
Another groat defect iu the native metliod of o/tcit pan m apora-
tion, is the waste of fuel and the great heat applied to tho juice
during couocntration : iu a nacuum j>an tho tempcratiiro raicly
exceeds 150’'Fahr. (G-'i'S Cent), bonce the superiority of the sugar,
the large voliimo and well defined form of the crystals.
The results obtained during tho experiments on the/.'u/iw have
impressed the natives with tho idea that it is n staple wortliy of
more geiinral aud extended cultivation. And there are grounds
for assuming that lu course of time this variety will to a great
o.'steut supersede tho cha/in which is now most generally culti¬
vated.
If there is one industry more than another which should
attract English capital into India it is sugar, labor and fuel being
cheap, and practically no competition, there being only two iieiiies
lu the whole of Northern India—Slialijelionpore, and Sujanpwe
on the Barec Doab Canal.
A small tiiine capable of tiirnmg out 5 tons of sugar per diem,
on the produce of about 3 acres, equal to say 150 tons of sugar
per mensem, would, if properly managed, yield a very fair profit ;
considering that French us-iaesiu Mariinigiu’, and English factories
ill Jamaica and British Guiana have, where fuel and labor are
dearer than in India, been known to yiolil as much as 'iil-OO per
cent on paid-uji capital, there is no reason to assnme that an equal
measure of siicoess sIiouUl not be attainable iu Upper India.
A properly oouducted «8i«f’ should bo able to supply good sug.ai'
to the people at large and turn out n fair drinkable liquor. If tho
Aryan brother is to get dnink, it is far bettor that he should got
drunk on good sound atne-rum, than on tho adulterated abomina¬
tions sold in the hazuan.
That the c.stablishment of a sugar factory in the heart of a
sngnr-produomg district would be an unqualified hlossiiig to the
cultivators, is a qnostion not admitting of a single doubt.
A native ielna will work off an acre of sugar-cane, or say
40,00011)8. of cauc in about iii days, the boiling, cooling and other
prooessos taking an intemdnabln time, the refined sugar not coming
into tho market till about tlic following May,
A native/)if«u has not a liiglior extractive power that .".I fiO
pdrcciit, BO that asaumiiig an acre of siig.-trcauo to wulgli
40|0001l).s., we should get 24,000ibs. of jiiico, .and allowung 8 por
cent of this to bo dry sugar we got l,0201bs, as the gi-oss outturn,
ahd 1,020 * 804-24 mdb. sugar, ssUing, say at 16 por muiiud, total
value-—Rs. .354.
An English niaobiae turned ont by any good maker, snoh as
M. M. Walker Hendsrsou ami Co., Olastow, Buchanan A Co.
extractive power, or rather and more oorrootly speaking, give an
extractive power nearly SO'SS per cent, so that for our 40,0001bB. •
of cane wo should got 82 pel’ cent of juioe, or 32,0001bB. and what
is more of a liigfaor density than frdm the native belna, so that wo
might calculate on something like 2,500 — 2,7601bs of dry sugar,
which would be (at the some rato as before) worth Rs. 500.
Hence, irrespoctivc of tho very important ooniiderotion
olieapiiess of mauufaoturo, the ntinc can get moro out of an gore
of cane than tho zemindar or village aha?t, consequently the imine
can afford to pay more for tho cane than tho native manu¬
facturer. t
But the uilvautago to the zemindar doel not oease hero. It
takes him nearly six weeks to work off his aore of cane, whoroas a
iisbie such as I have desoribod would run this cane off iu halfi as
many hours with tho greatest ease—in fact, faster than the
cultivator could supply it oven with 20 carts working. Tlie
aquatic woods alludod to by your oorrespondont in your last
issue, when disous-siug tlie sugar-produoing oapabilites of tho Ooab,
arc VaUisneria Ajiirafis and Polaiiwijclon Crispns.
Let us liopc, now that our Aryan brother is about to bo poHliaally
educated by means of Local-,'iedf-QocernmciU aud Native Jurisdk-
tioK. Bill, his intdlcetaal and xociuZ education may bo taken iu hand
u8 well, and that lie will be able to dispossess his mind of many
prejtidiee.s which preclude his availing himself of tlio advantages
modern soicuco places at his disposal, ho may then ascortaiu for
himself the important truth that there are easier moans of win¬
ning purgatory uud courting social o-sttaoism than by eating sugar,
riiiiird l)y animal okarcoal.
C, S. F,
liXTIlAOEDINARY CASE OE A BITFFALO-COW
SWALLOWING A STEEL SPINDLE.
TO Tin: j-;i>jTOK.
Sill,—The following particulaft of this unusual case may iuterosL
vctcriiiaiy rcadei's ;—
On the 11th of July last, a Iniffalo-oow in very prime condition
and about seven months gone in calf, tho property of a cultivator in
the Agra district, N-‘W. Provinces, finding herself near a spinning
wlu'i‘1, aud pioiin>ted no doubt by licr evil genius drew out the.
steel spiniUe by tho roll of in-wly prip.arod tlircad that was nii it,
with the iiitoution of outing tlic thread only wo presume, but iu
i swallowing tiiis she took down tlie spindle witli it.
I fji'oat was the distro.ss of tlic owner, for slio was of a valuable
brood. “ Ah ! unfortunate," ho was hoard to siiy, “ I suspected tliat
your vile habit of inakiug a masticatory of every bit of cloth and
paper you cainc across would bring you to grief iu some way, but
little did 1 think it would lead you to swallow a sword." All the
oow-loi-clios in the ueiglibuurhood were appealed to, but their
patliology contained uo rules for tlie treatment of suoli a case, and
tlio only consolation he nweived was, that cattle generally diml
whmi they swallowed a needle only two inches or so in length, and
that eatllo-poisoncrs found that throwing a noodle into tho fodder
of their intended victims was one of the Bafo.st ways of ensuring
their demise.
Left to his own vcsoiirocs lio ground down somo load-stouo, and
made the cow drink it ; not that he thought that it would do
nuicli good, but simply because he was hanged if he. could think of
anything else. Ho also went to groat jialus to seouro a large horse¬
shoe magnet, and was found in the act of moving it about her body
ill a Uslleas manner in the hope forlorn that the spindle would bo
attracted nut.
b'or the first 8 days she would not oat anything, and for 10 days
j ntter was kept alive by hand-feeding with wheat chaff, for she would
not touch grain of any sort; after this she ooinmenaed eating hor-
1 self, but only a little green gross and wheat chaff. By the 9th
,September, 60 daya after swallowing tho spindle she was reduced
to tt perfect skeleton, but on this date a awelliug, about an iuoh and-
a-half high and 8 inches fii diameter, appeared suddenly about
midway on the right flank, so low down as to be almost under tho
I stomach, which for the first time gave an idea of the whereabouts
of tho spindle. This luorniug, the lOtli September, the owner in
passing his hand over tho swelling felt tho sharp point of tho
spindle prujuoting just a little out of the sklu about 4 inches away
from tlio anterior odgn of the swelling. ^
The village goldsmith, with his wire drawing tweezers,’ soon
extracted and e.xposed the spindle to tho gaze of the delighted
l illagors. It was brought to me this moruiug, aud I examined it
carefully. It was just 14i iiiohos in length aud J of in Inch In
thickness In the middle, from whioli it tapered on both mkU down
to very fine points.
October 1, |883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
m
bj a. Mm « h« t»tl>. n. »»I. d*, .* „,,,^ " ‘ “>
W. E.
Mkrocarpa,
Weddell
THE CALISAYA CONTROVERSY.
{To the Editor of tJte Planters' Gazette.)
[ ‘Sir,—M y time iiaa boen much occupied iu the last two weeks
Ill Quinolojjioal pursuits, and In retunaug your papers I send
some briif notes, I am correcting, whilst pasaiug through the
press, my coutrlbution to the subject, whicii will sliortly be
published by the Linnroan Sooioty. To thiH fio roiwt'jdj I must
refer you, in place of newspaper reports. I am availing myaelf of
I oannot mftko nil this (it in with n'Jiat It o»Ut-il “ coma hotan-
ioal dototiption, ’ wlildi seoni to bo ooniMtent witli leavinf; out All
Allntlon to tho ImA in tho dosoription of tlio Bark Tivo ; as iu
Bonpland’a most (lonfuahii; aroount oE hit Oiiitihmiucii. Tlio
Spanish botanists and WuddflII worn most partionlav to nolioot
samplos and oarofully to ,l,M..ribo tho hark, Ihavo aVpi-oaclicd
tho subject/ram (.*<.«■* of the bark, and oouso.pmntir consider
Uiit tho diiof factor in tho probl,.,,,. f think pmotiral rnltivatoi s
will agree with mo in this. My ton,i “ I,.-dgoriana" was
to inoludo all tlio bark of a oonaiu riLdi
meant
T , T , . . .". liialily grown in
Javatrom Lodgers l>ag of soods. ami oaliod such In trade. But
Avi.it oiMne Ledger to this country to ^ oa.fnily in^
Gs. the Curator of the frti-m i „ri \i' i. n , a a i io, k’uy
loim, diatingufahod, Woddcll sIiown (p. ;il, Histoiro)
whole question with him and Mr, Holmes, tlie Curator of the
Museum of the Pharmaoeutical Sooioty, and with others iutcrosted
ill the cultivation of Caliaaya.
It will interest your readers to learn that Mr. Ledger is quite
satisfied with ray plants derived from the Yarrow Estate (Ceylon)
as roprosenting his true A^ojo or rod sort; ro.sting his opinion on
the characters I pointed out at the Liiiuo^au. Ho says that th<}
beautiful richness of tlio foliage romaius, especially in tliowe parts
of the tree which jire least exposed. It is this sort to which the
Indians attach so ranch value that they cross thcinselveH when
they meet with a troe of it and call it the 7'ata or “ Father ” true
ibelievbg (as I think not without roasou) that it has a beneficial
nfluenco on all around^ and that all bo found “Calisaya’^ or
true bark,
Mr, Lodger oannot tell what this word means, but Dr. Woddoli,
who spoke the Indian language, says (in his “ HUtoho,” p. 31)
that it moans “ tho red sort/’ ** Colli slgnitio, wi ulK-t, rouffi^
en langue QulcUiia, et saya purlsagurib \'uut dii'u ‘ sorto ’ ou
* foimo,’” or (as I gather from Taohudis Cormau Dictionary of tho
language), CWi, * ‘‘the red of gTowing embers.” r!j'f/ya Sfchiit."
Mr, Lodger fixed upon a slab of CuH’jayu iu my possoAsion nearly
three-quarters of an inch in thiokneas as tho true and highly
prized Pvjo, Ho tolls mo that Dr, Nucldoll hail licard of thu
white flowers, and sought for them, hut i^itiiout Hucooas. '['o
obtain this “ red sort” haw boon the special aim of Mr. J^icdgor,
ai^l by sjK’ciiil policy Ins was able to defeat tlio jealous tactics ul
tho Indians, who boast that n) one that obtains true sued shall
leave tho valloys alivo. Tiicy cither supply inferior qualities or
destroy tho gcrmitialiug power. Tiioy laid wait for five Uiiys fur
Mr. Markham, who escaped through a Providential ciruumstanc-,
and they pum' 0 <l boiling water oniny friend Dr, AVuddcirs plants,
who was profoundly atlected by the outrage.
TIjIb Rojo is, thou, the true Ledijtn'iam, as, in loolciJig over my
old letters, 1 fully recognize. Mr. L>"ilger secs it I’L'pru'jOnted in
my Plato IV. or tho Mueho form A. hfe' does not see it iji torin
13, or in tlio plant I havo from DarjWiing whidi 1 think is proba¬
bly the samo B form. I have, iu all, nine Bpindmcu? of Java trees
from Lodger’s Heed through tho hands of M. Moons. There ui*
dilleront varieties in thoso, whi(!li Mr. L. docs not rccogui/c, but
which arc reproduced in gpccimouH Irom BritiMh Iiidisi. 1 should
say, that hia faithful Indian employed hit' own sons m gathering
seed from fifty trees in dillerent places, and the diilbrcnt collec¬
tions got afterwards mixed togetiicr. The whole appeared to me
to present WeddoU’s var. uiicrocarpa.
Mr. Ledger entirely rejects uiy Mtcntniha CdiyAijodu'ii ; as also
Dr. 'I’riinen’s plate. T'hc colour of the changing loaves, he says, is
exactly that which I copied from nature in tin: Oalisaya Augliua,
and the rich colouring of the leaves is yorfeetly given then , but
the form of tho loaves is, as above desenbod in form A. Wiioii,
as in tbe C. Suceirubra, thu leaves turn this rich retl colour, it is
genorally oounccted with rich ooloariug in tiie green of the loa^es,
This is a feature on which Ledger lays great stress, and it appears
that many of tho leavesassuum this tint at the time of flowering.
Hence the term CoHi{Qukhm) Rfdo), (Spanish), (French),
Now, is this ** red sort” a differoni specie from the Calisaya? It
is not distinguished by tho bark, fur where the 'J’uta treoA arc
found (single amongst the mmeha^ or palchcs) all tho bark is
good, owli^, according to the Indians, to some counoctlon with
uhief mees. This U what I ftad in tho speuimeusseut mo by
M, -Mosn. from Java. Moot Aro of oijuaI <(uulity to tUo true H' jo,
nomu auperior, other. iudioAting, by proportioua of Quiuitliuo or of
Ciucliouiduio, the luHuouce of iiiforiur pollen.
• Kre mb signia(3S to cam n iiro with Asbos so as to rottua tbo glow,
all snob forms are by richer eolouriiii; (tiir purple efdu, aide
bowew. ia aeoldeutal); and, ns 1 tiiink, by its f.iPniahiug pro-
pollont pollen needed to keej) up tile anijerior stiain of thesu bcit
I qualities. AVithout this, they wonld dogoueml.-, as iu an ana
loKOlia manner is tile case with animils. I’lu- Indians, by loin;
obaorvatiou, aro nearer the mark tliaii tlio soieutKic bjtanista !
These are questions for practlual I'uliivatoi-a Dyr a kiuii of
reversal of tbo prucofla above liiuted, in.y gardener obtains for mo
ifeytija'/nfc oucumboia, 1, nil hoik mil, and eoiiseqnontly awootor,
and devoid of tlio strong priueiplo wlUoli disagrees with aoino
persons. By eavoful ferlili/atlou, be keeps up the strain of my
molous j and by artificial impvoguation, roquiring skill, he suc¬
ceeds in growing bcautihil pods of AfanilLa, equal to the best iu
tho market.
I would always have a sprinkling of Tata, troos in luy plantations
of Lalisaya, and should then count on having a!l ot what tho
Indians cuUtruo (piailty,
I remain, yonrs, Jto.,
JOHN ELIOT HOWARD, F.R.S., P.L.S,
CALC'irrrA, outoher i, mi
INniGO,
MtTCIf line bi'1‘1) n.iiil diiring the jnmt tmolve months about
iU orihkiul iw.Ujo, anil imich aljoul, oliomical ami mephjini.'ni
processes fur niigmcntiiig the yield of tho natural dye.
(ienerally speaking, tho foriiici lias bouu .stigmatised by maiui-
fucturei's and others cunccnied iu tlie lal-ter as at beat .nit n
poor imitnlioii. They take tlie word o^n'ilivinl in its literal
sense, and refuse to believe tliut artiliehd indigo is idonticlil,
liemic.'dl) iis well a.spbysirally, with tlm indigo of agriculture,
.he few wdio ae'kuowledgi' it to be, ono and the saino assert
that il.s |.riee must for a long lime keeji it wiUumt tho patij^of
umipelitiiiii. ft is Us.de,HS to attempt to convince persons hold¬
ing Iheso view.,. They, iialurall.v iiet'liiips, do iiul wi.sh to
reali.se tlie truth. We, however, positively set if down, that
arliliciid imligo stand,-, esactly in the .same relation t ’ tlio'
indigo of agriculture, as doo.s iee n.-iLiratly formed in northern
laliludes to that formed by means of t.homicab iu tho cast.
.In,St us we can, by exploding the gases hydrogen and oxygen
ill eertiiin proportions, form water, so can we bring togatlier
from yunuiw sources the edemunls of indigo, and resolve
lliem into imligo. This position heiiig impregnable, it is to
be hoped that the di-sustrous .seasi.n just closed will tend
to OJJCII the eyes of Iho.se concerned, t tJie cousoqnoiices of
an udvuuce in the home market of the arlitieial maleriid.
II IS true that the processes at present followerl in
mamifacture are tedious and expensive ; but it is rsasonabto
to expect th.at, like must tilings owing their origin to tho
uigonuity of man, il. will speedily bo brought within the
rca,Ii of all classes, a eonsummatiou, of eoiu-se, anything
but devoutly wished by those engaged iu tho manufacture
of the naturid dye-a consummation, however, lokkU Uiei/
'<wi akogether poireHost U avert. No advance lias beeii
_yitW^towards tho couiprehension of the thing itself,
Qninme do tons les (Quinquinas dont on ait pubUctJ,
•UnUutiu du la SvdeW Botaolijno do
made
iUiK[uy a CO joui*, los aualviiUH,”—
t’rauw, 9 Marw, •
S60
THE INDIAN AGfRiOULTUKIST.
October 1, 1883.
the superior variety may be found to thrive in the same
neighbourhood. It te one of the moet highly nitrogenous
or towards an insight into processes the adoption of
■which would, for a time at least, eflFectually check its
developmeiit, tliat is, by those must able to deal with
them. It nirely liappeus tliat an individual influenoe or
cause pi-esonta itself in an isolated form. The discovery of
artificial indigo was followed by the utilization of a bye pro¬
duct of aliimiuum manufacture, equal in all respects, except
isoJiMt» of luitro to iudigo. The monopoly of tliig dye was pur¬
chased by a member of one of the largest firms of indigo
brokeia in London. This, it might be Inferred, coming so fast
after the more important discovery, would liavo roused
manufactorers of and speculators in natural indigo, into
action. These discoveries, together witii reliable reports as to
iucieased sales of iudophenol, metliylene blue, alizirin blue,
and other by no moans despicable substitutes for indigo, they
have treate<l, if not with tictual contempt, at least with tho most
ghu'ing indifference. Another influence has now cropped up,
■which, taken with those which have gone before, poiiu to con¬
siderable charges in the indigo industry of India. We are in
a positiou to state that steps are at }>reaeut being t<akeu to
cultivate and manufacture indigo on a very large scale in
countries not very remote from India, and that certain proved
proOeBm guaranteeing from 50 to 100 per cent increase in
yield, above the ordinary process of manufacture, will be
adopted. These processes were offered for sale in Calcutta,
and rejected on nil sides, with the result, that competition lias
been set up of a kind not hitherto experienced, and on whicli
we we not at present'iKirraitted to dwell, more than to say that
such will be under trained Indian management, and that all
the newest improvements with regard to maohinevy and
culture will be adepted. We shall of course be debarred from
using the patents alluded to in India, for it is most unlikely
that the patentees will grant royalties under the oircum-
atonces stated—that is, to peo]>le whom it is their jim-pose to
oppose. The out-look, therefore,from India ii not at all pleasant
in view of the drawbacks i>uuuliar to climate, tiiu gradual
reduction of tho artificial product at home, and tlie competition
alluded to, with advaiititgo.s vw/w beyond our reach to
be set up away fi'om us, but sufliciunlly near to be felt.
Our ultra-Indian competitors, from being able to m.anufao-
ture cheaply, will doubtless ost-iblish the rates. They will
soil 60, 60, and 70 per cent iudigo at a profit, wiiile we
dispose of it at a sacrifice. It may bo said that it will take a
long time to overstock the market to such an extent as to
necessitate reduction. So much the better for onr ultra-Indian
competitors. They will reap larg.j profits, while we barely
subsist, ami by the time that wo begin to realise the fact that
we have from the beginning avoided inform itiou mu^l accessible,
and refused processes most intelligible, the artificial product
will be in full operation .against us. We liave siid that we
are not oltogetlier powerless to avert this calamity. Bat we
doubt very mneb whether it would improve nutter.s were we
to explain how, for we have come to the conclusion that tlie
few speculators who at present rule the ui'irket are not so
idiortsighted as lliey ap])ear. (Contemplating, jDcrIiap.s, c.uly
retirement. They say to themselves, “ The devil take the hiiid-
most." “ Explain your patent im[»roved processes to our
saecessors,” Whetlmr this is fair to the nriunfactnrers, who
are in many oases financed and advised by them, is a question
■which they themselves must consider.
We can well understand that it would he much more satis¬
factory for those ot present interested to go on in tine old way ;
but as it is becoming widely known that not one of the
multifarious blue dyes offered to the public as substitutes for
indigo, con compare with such in exquisite softness of tint,
it is to be expected that workers in science will leave no atone
antorned to produce indigo at a price which will create au
ilflmediate and large demand. Onr obvious duty, under the
circuouitanoeB, is to obviate this necessity.
Thifl'We will not do by treating inventors with scorn,aud driv¬
ing Umm'ditgthited from the country. It seems almost beyond
beli^j that ia this City of Palaces, this nursery of merchant
princes, the coital of a province idenj.ified with the indigo
iudusri-y, there cttfiot be feoad a capitaiut, or body of
capitalists, willing to launch a company to work patents
of such higii promise, say, as Miohei’ia “ I don't beHsve in
your chemicals I" is a frequent iteration of persons opposed
to improved processes. The expression, it will be seen,
is a hackneyed one, “ You may get an increase," tliey
say, “ but the colour mutt be bad.“ This is the logic
that science has to contend against. Quinine is obtained
from cinchona bark, it is obtained from the bark lyy
means of chemicals, ergro, it cannot be the. same ar tho
quinine dissolved out of the bark by water. The -wame
might be S'aid of imndreds of valuable drugs whicli
have to be extracted by chemical jaeaus from the plants
in which they are developed—drugs a thousands times more
delicate than iudigo. To make indigo, then, an exception, is
simply to subordinate Western intellect to Asiatic fancy, or, aa
wo have before hinted, it is pu'rpOsely excepted. There is a
cousequenco to which the collap.se of the iudigo indiistry will
lead, wliicli demands more than mere passing attention— vis.
the abandonment of tho.isands of labourers whose interests are
totally bound up in it. History shows that the sudden collapse
of an industry of this magnitude must be followed by serious
results. It will, therefore, be well it Qovernmeut give a closer
considendiou to certain complications which may arise, in
the event of oar conjectures with reg.ird to the future of
indigo proving more dismal than we care to presage.
What we are especially in want ot at tlie present time, is that
criticism of the improbable, b.irely probable, and po.s.siblB,
wliich our manufacturers themselvo.s are so well able to .ad¬
vance. We look in vain for this. Pig-sticking and horse-
racing are evidently more congenial pursuits. We are not of
tliose who contemn sport—indeed, we should be the last to wish
for any change in tlie present routine of an indigo-
planter’s life ; but we do tliink tliat they siiould at times
manifest some deeiier interest in affairs pertaining to their voca¬
tion, ventilate their opinions and grievances, so that tlie true
condition of,ithiiigs might be accurately judged, and the worst
possible results anticipated. They liave a journal specially
reproseiiLiiig their own interests, The Liligo Plaatei'i' UaMiii
elegantly got up, and well conducted. But it is a rare occurrence
to see anything in the oorru.spondunou columns pertaiiuiig to
indigo. Nothing points more strongly tlian tills to Uic lack
of iuterest exhibited by iudigo-piaiitBi's in their |own afl'.iirs.
For this i-oasou, should calamity befall them, should this great
staple lake its placo in the obituary of commercial products,
scant sympathy will be sliuwn them.
(Jiie year ago wtilicial indigo was not fouu 1 in commerce in
ail isolated state, that is, in anything like the form of the iudigo
of agriculture. It Wios sold as a paste, called propiolic aibl,
and from this, w.is developed, on the fabrics to bj dyed, pure
'iidigo. A few inoiitlLs ago the Baden Cliemie.il Company
Succeeded in producing a liquor of a deep i/dloto uolcur, from
which, Oil e.('poS'i,i\' to the air, indigo separated out.
THE NAUPOrtE MODEL FAUM KEPORT.
T he two points that seem to call for most promiiien
notice in tlie Report on tho Nagpore Model Farm for the
year 1882-3, ai-e the change of system and site, and the attempt
to introduce Kacbi cultivators from Oawupore. Before
dealing with either of these topics, we have a word or two to
say regarding the various haiiiia through which reports on
purely agriculturals matters i>ass. The Nagpore Model Farm
Report ia aa good an example aa any of what we mean. The
Central Provinces has a Director of Agrioultare who, we may
suppose, is responsible for agricultural matters over whioh
Government money is expiended. The report of the farm is
written by the peisoa superiutendiag (die fonn, and passed on
to tho Provincial Director of Agriculture. He ia torn ■writes
■what amounts to a review of the report, and fnasea hotk on to
the Secretary of the Chief Commissioner, The latter, in.*l!letter
to the Director of Agriculture, ■writes what is virtually a
resolution on both documonta, and the three deliverances are
printed as Model Farm literature. We do not wish to question
the wide knowledge and capacity of Indiw Secretaries, Thera
is 8(»u:eely any topic ouder the bmeiu or beyond them on
October 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGEICULTUBIST.
361
which they are not able to write a tolerably readable eseay,
and ahoald Ae matter be uausoolly technical, their deficiency
of knowledge may eaaily be covered under generalitiee and a
cloud of worda No doubt it ie in some respects highly
desirable that the rulers of provinces should exercise super¬
vision over all operations in which Government money is
expended, but in the case of Agricultural Departments it seems
to us that while the responsible oflieers of the Local Oovorn-
, mnnts should in every case be consulted and hold the power
of the parse, nevertheless, the Director-General of Agriculture
is the person to whom the reports of the various provinces
tshoold be submitted. A general report, embodying what is
valuable in provincilal reports and passing in review the
opeiatious of each provincial department, would we, venture to
think, be a valuable addition to the literature of Indian
Agriculture. We are quite aware that the policy of
the present Imperial Department of Agriculture is to leave
a good deal, in fact, nearly everything, to pi-oviiicial.
departments, and confine itself mainly to suggestions, to thu
collection of facts and information, and to the noting of
useful experiments. A good deiil no doubt can be said
in favour of this, but in our estimation nil matters agri¬
cultural, even to the reviewing of provincial reports, should be
more or less under the control of a central office, ready at
any moment to supply information of what is being done in
every part of India in matters agricultural. There is another
matter, we think, which calls for attention in connection
with the Nagpore Model Farm. The net cost of the farm is
less than that of the previous year by lU. 2,115-5-7, the
reduction being due to saving effected by placing the
farm under Colonel Lugard's unpaid management, instead of
retaining a European Superintf.ndent. Colonel Taig.ard, the
Deputy Commissioner, one woiiiu imagine, could find snfficient
occupation in his district without tiiking on his shoulders
the responsibility of superintending a Model Indian Farm.
No doubt the peraons who adviseil and confirmed sucli an
lUTaugeineut are prepared to prove n hundpetij.times over that
it is the best of all possible arraugemeuts financially, scientifi-
oally, goverumeutally, philosophically, and every other way ;
wvertbeless, the non-official heathen lying in outer tlarkuess
will blaspheme and will not dance to the pipings of Directors of
Agriculture or Secretaries of Chief Commi.ssiouers.
Turning to the matters noted at the opening of this article,
wo find the Director of Agriculture of the Centiul Provinces
siiyiug
“ In the repi rls for the past eight years the unsuitability of
the farm,site for experimental agriculture has been often
strongly insisted upon, and this opinion is corroborated by
Colonel Lugard’s experience. Diwing the year under report,
it was accordingly determined to discontinue Govenimeiit
farming altogether on the Model Farm site, and to limit agri¬
cultural experiments in future to a smaller, but much more
favorably situated tract of land lying imiuediatuly south of
the ‘ Maharaj Bjigh.’ ‘ Model ’ farming on a large scale will
not be attempted in future, and all that will be aimed at is
the careful conduct of experiments on a sufficiently large scale
to render the results reliable. Experimental farming on this
new site has already been started. Part of tlie area of the
Model Farm has been disposed of by lease to cultivators. Part
will be utilised us a sewage farm for Sitabuldi and the Civil
station of Nagiwre, and for this purpose a li-act has been re¬
served of sufficient area to utilize the whole of the sewago and
of the irrigation water available.'’
In this conclusion we heartily agree, and hope in future
reports to see good results following from such seusible deter-
miuatiouB. The attempt to introduce Kachi cultivators—-is
•uooinctly described by the Director :—
“ Very little agricultural use is at present made of the sewiigo
of Nagpore, and the inoome which the Municipality derives
from it is quite insigaifieaut. The Kunbi cultivators round
city a^strongly prejudiced against using it, and are quite
igOiOrant of the manner in which it can be used to beet ad¬
vantage. It was therefore determined in June 1882 to import
some cultivator's of the Kachi caste from Cawupore, and
endeavour to proselytiae the Kuubis through theii' example.
Twelve of these men were accordingly brought down ot
Nagpore, and were at the outset entertained as paid labourers
on a very liberal rate of salary. They promised exceedingly
badly, and were very idle and discontented. In September
the Uiree most obstructive of the number were sent summarily
back to Cawupore, and tlio i-ost were induced to accept an ar¬
rangement under which their salary was reduced from Ea. 7 to
Us. 4, and in return for this they wore given four aprw of land
rent-free for nine months, with the right to use, free of charge,
the manure stored in the farm sewage pits. At the end of
this period all salary was to cease, and the land was to be
assessed to rent. Tlie crops which they grew under these
conditions were exceedingly good, and gave them handsome
profits. Their salary has now been diecontiuued, and they
have accepted 6 acres of land on a five-years’ lease at a pro¬
gressive rent, which lias been fixed at Rs. 6 per acre in the
first, and Be, 15 in the fifth year. Tliis is exclusive of water
rate, which is charged for separ.ately according to the amount
used. A portion of the Sitabuldi sewage is stored in pita
close to their fields, and they are allowed to use os much of it
ns they please, free of charge. Government nndertaking to
maintain the supjdy. It is too o.arly yet to apeak with con¬
fidence of the future of the scheme, but I am glad to be able
to report that their example apiocars to be having the desired
effect on the Kunbi cultivators. The l.-itter have from the first
shown great jealousy of the Kachis, anti witliin the last two
months three Kunbis have come forward with applications for
laml on similar terms. Two of these .applications have been
accejjted, and the men are in possession of their land. It has
been expressly stipulated that they are to use the sewage with
their own hands, and not to employ Bh'inyi labourers. The
result of their cultivation may'bc expected to yield some really
trustworthy data as to the agricultural value of sewage, the
lasst method of utilizing it, and ns to the value of irrigation
when used in conjunction with it. There can he no lioiibt
whatever that lack of irrigation Ls the principal obstacle (ft the
proper utilization of city sewage in these provinces, and it may
be possible to ilemoiistrate that the value of water when
applied to a se.wage farm is sufficiently high to render it
))rofitnble to incur a consider.ablo outlay in bringing it on to the
land.”
REPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT BOTANICAL
GARDENS AT SAHARUNPORE AND
MUSSOORIE.
T he Report on the progress and condition of the Govern-
ment Botanical Gardens at Saharunpore and Mas-
soorie, which has just come to h.aiid, calls for a few
•emarkfl. The distribution of plants sliows an increase of
35,G8K over last yoiir. The totiil weight of drugs has fallen off
Vom l,377tti. in 1881 to 61«fti. lOoz. in the present year.
The reeel))U( were Rs. 7,095-9, as compared with Rs. 6,937 of
ast year. The net cost of the gardens to the State has
ucreased from Rs. 19,871-15 to Rs. 21,919-2. This increase is
mainly due to plants and seeds distributed gratis to soldiers’
gardens and to an increase in sala-y to Mr. Gollan.
Perhaps the most important class of recent introductions to
the gardens .are the various kinds of plants that are especially
adapted for growing on salt or sandy soils ; of these the
itrlplcj; numjiiularia has been distributed to Mr. Wilson at
Awa and Mr. Impay at (Jawnpore, and in both places has been
found to thrive admirably on usar of the worst kind. A
huge quantity of seed has been sent for from Australia, and
it may be the means of covering the now nearly useless
stretches of usar in the Doab and elsewhere with a vegetation
that will be of some use as a fodder for cattle, and of still more
value in checking erosion, and gradually depositing a layer of
humus over the batren salt. Besides this, the sand bush of
South Africa, which flourishes in deserts and can survive a
prolonged drought, may be found of use for the same
purposes.
Mr. Benett, the Director of Agrioultnre, N.-W.P. and Ondh,
hopes that among food phmts the eoy beau may become a
success. The existence of an inferior native oougejw lu the
lower ranges of the Himalayas encourages thej expectation that
362
THE INDIAN AGRItIULTtJBIST.
OctoW 1,1881
fornis of food known, and ahonld prove a valuable addition to
fbe food supply of the couhtry. The yields of imported
cottons wOre fairly ifood. New Orleans* gave 2S01b., Upland
GeOi’glau 2061t>., and other varieties 1601b. to the acre. In
caletdatlng the value of the crop, the baaaar price of the native
varieties has been taken ; but iu the great cotton market of
Cawnpore, the ArueriOiiu realizes more than half as much
again as the native fibre. ITle experiments made at
Sab^Uuj'/Ore confirm the results obtained on a much larger
scale at the Oawnpore farm, and are chiefly valuable in show¬
ing that American cottoii-s will thrive, equally well in the
different climate and soil of the former district. The eoanso
variety which was imported last year from the Garo Hills has
not pi’oved a success.
The following acdimatized and imported varieties of cotton
were cultivated diming the past year :—
AcoliniatiiHvl, ' hnpm'tii'l.
Egn)tian. |
Garo Hills. | Louisiana.
Hingunghat. | ixiuiaiana Prolific.
Nankin. Georgian.
New Orleans. ! Sea Island.
Tree Cotton, j Upland Georgian.
Upland Georgian.
As iu past years, says the report, the acclimatized varieties
of New Orleans and Upland Georgian gave the beat return
per acre. The first named variety produced 8 maiiuds
10 seers and the second 7 maunds 30 seers iincloaned cottou
]>er acre. The value of the crop, calculated at H seers per
rupee, is Es, 41-4-0 and Es. 38-12-0, ruspoctively. The cost
of production was about Rs. 24 per aero, which, dednetoil from
the total, loaves a balance of Us. 17-4-0 and Ea. 14-12-0 profit
per acre. I have valued it at the rate obtainable in the
bazaar for the common country cotton. It is of superior ipiality
when compared with the latter, and I have no doubt would
command a much higher in'ice if iirodueod iu aufficiontly large
quantity.
The Egyptian, Hiuguuglmt, Nankin, and Tree cotton
produced on au average 0 mauiids of uucleaned cotton per
acre. If calculated at the same valuo as tho New Orleans
and Upland Georgian varieties, and ileductiiig the saiuo
amount for cost of production, the balance of profit left would
only amount to Rs. 6 per acre. Under more favourable
ciroumstances these varieties, and also the two first named, are ^
c.iiiable of producing lieavier crops. The jilot in which they
were grown had been for some years previously occupied by
rhea, which is known to be a gross feeder. The Garo IUUh
variety germinated veij badly. It was received rather late
for sowing in tho previous season, and tlie pods tlinii produced
evidently did not contain many perfect .seeds. O 11 I 3 ' 40 plants
germinated and produced two seers of unclcaued cotton. This
is not a large quantity for the mimbcr of jilauts ; the yield,
however, may improve when the plant becomes thoroughly
acclimatized. The imporlud varieties gave a poor return,
although grown under the same conditions .as the acclima¬
tized. They all germinated freely, but none of them gre w
to a height of more than twelve inches. They have all
ripened, a few pods, and if the seed is properly develoiied
may give better resulta next year. The fibre of the .Sea
Island is much superior to any of the acclimatized varieties
we at preaent possess. If it can be acclimatized and made
an |uwdfictive as the New Orleans, it will be a decided acquisi¬
tion. The Lousiaua, Louisiana Prolific, Georgian, and Upland
Georgian are all very iiuich alike. The fibre of all four
varieties is similar to that produced by the acclimatized New
Orleans and Upland Georgian.
The following is Mr. Outhic’s account of the silk-worm ex¬
periments : -
As the improvement of silk and the e.xtensiou of this industry
has lately been engaging the attention of the Government of
India, I was induced to try .a small experiment here in order to
ascertain how far the climate of Saharuujxire would prove
suitable for rearing the silk-worius.
Two ounces of eggs were received about the middle of lust
February from Munay, Lehra Hun. The first worms
appeared on the S5th of that month, and the last were hatched
on the 20fh of March. As they were all kept in the same
temperature, such irregularity in hatching seefijs renlarkable.
The worms were at firet fe<I solely on Morm MtuUicaulU ; but
as the leaves of that variety of mulberry ran short, thoee of the
common kind {M. itidiea) were given and were as eagerly
devoured os the former. Leaves of M. a’txx, and of another
variety with broad thin leaves, said to have been introduced
from Kashmir, were also given, but the worms did not eat
either of them so greedily as the two flrsb-uanied. The total'
weight of leaves used amounted to 612ft; A leSa quantity''
would have sufficed if hot dry winds had hot prevailed during
the greater part of tho period they were' be,vjg fed. The leaves '
Were often too hard and dry for the wofms within IrMf-an-hour
after being supplied. The first cocoons were Spun on the 23rd
of March, and the last on the 23rd of April. The total number
produced was 10,400, and their weight in a dry state was Oft.
60Z. The following is Captain Murray’s opinion on a small
samjde taken at random from this first batch of oocoOns :—
“ I took your cocoons to the ailk exhibition held here last
“ Friday, to ace whether they would Come up to those raised in
the Duu. All I can say is that, if at Sivharunpore you can
“ rai.se any quantity like those few sent to me, the people of the
“ district have an industry to their hands. I do not say your
‘‘ cocoons are so good as those raised by my sou, but they are
“ very good indeed." Two pounds of the cocoons were reserved
for eggs, and the lemainder killed by exposure to the sun.
The moths from the seed cocoons have produced their eggs,
and as they .are of the bivoltiue variety of silk-moth, another
batch of worms will soon bo hatching. Until this second b.atch
has been brought to the cocoon stage the experiment may be
said to bo only half finished. The amount expanded on the
exjierinient uj) to the period when all the cocoone had been
formed was Rs. 20. This amounVis nvally the p.ay of the men
employed in bringing le.aves and tending tho worm.s. The same
amount of money wmihi have sufficed for au experiment on a
I much larger scale. Mr. Gollan has personally supervised the
exiierimout from tho comraenoemeuL ; all orodit is therefore,
due to him (says Mr. Dul.liie) for its ultimato success.
The possession of a new site for the Gardens at Arnig.wlh
has now been obtained with a cnltivahle area of 30 acres on a
projecting plateau of a hill-side 5,000 above the ae.a, and the
work of removing all that is worth moving is now being taken
iu hand.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
A c'ouaK.spoNDKNT wiiteS to US pointing out that the deriva¬
tion of Fijarut from two Hiilai words given last month iu the
leading article on Agricultural Banks is “ as fanciful as it is
incorrect.” We shall be glad if our correspondent will furnish
us with the correct derivation.
A PREMIUM of 6cf. per dozen has, it appears, Iwen placed upon
sparrows’ heads by the Government of South Australia, acting on
the advice of a Commission specially appointed to inquire into
the “ sparrow question,” while the somewhat disproportionate
Slim of 2s. 6(i. per 100 is oflfered for the eggs of the bird.
Tue committee engaged in the organisation of the Austro
German Exhibition of 1885 recently, it seems, addressed a peti¬
tion to I’rincc Bismarck, asking for the support of the Imperial
Government. In this document reference was made to the
Austro-Germau Exhibition of Art and Industry, held at
Munich iu 1876, and to the opinion then generally formed,
that the repetition of such displays in important oitlM would
be of undoubted advantage. An interval of six to eight years
was then s[)okeu of as being tho most suitable, but in this
instance a longer delay has been inevitable, as Berlin was.
selected for the next Exhibition, and up to the present tim^i/»
that city has not possessed a fire-proof building of a suitable
character. This difficulty having been removed by the erection
of the Hygienic Exhibition, the suggestion was made in (he
document referred to, that this building should be utilised
for the purpose iudioated. According to ths moat recent
October 1, 1888. THE INDIA^* AGRICULTURIST. 3C3
• informatimi publiMhed upon tha subjpct in the German pvonn, ! stand-by oi tho iudumiinus lull iu^'roos ; and t!i>> I'vpnit i bdl
^ the propoeal baa met with the approval of the Chancellor, and of ! to 6f),000 cwt. valued at i,'133,000 as .-rgaiiiMt 87,000 cvvt.
the Imperial Court It is stated in the Cologm Gaattn that 1 (^^1,000) in the precediujj year, and 06,000 cwt. (i‘2 ID,0<)0) in
the m^lcipality of Bsrim -will, hi all probability, take over j 1870. This is a serious loss, but the fact that in spite of it the
or hire the principal building of the present P.xhibition. In , toUl exports was more than maintained i.s a very promising one
thie case there would be held, in 1885, the proponed exhibition ! for the future of the colony At prosout the industries are be-
^of industrial art ; in 1887, an international trade exhibition ; j coming more varied, and a loss in one direction may bo more
and in 1888 an electro-technioal disjilay. It had been at one j than cuunterlulanced by a gain in another. I'lie mo'st iiotica-
'ti^e proposed to include France in the Exhibition of 1885, able of all the foatnres in tlv report is the immense and steady
but this idea has been abandoned. increase in the small negro’.s Imsinvss pur aivoWeacs, the fruit
trade with America. In 1867 this consisted of a few bunches of
Faom a summary, orthe agricultural returus of Gi'cat Britain bananas .and barrels of oranges valued at X7-5 ; hwt year the
for the present y^r, lately issued by the Agricultural De- export of oranges alone Imd risen to 35 millions, and the value
partmeot of the Frivy ^uncil, ;t appears that the acreage of the trade was i;i21,000. For a sunvll country like Jamaica,
an4er the five mam crops are—Wheat, 2,613,147 ; barley, with only half-a-milliou of inhabitants, this is a very large sum
2,391,984 ; oats, 2,976,377 ; potatoes, 643,456 ; and hop.s, indeed ; but what makes it all the more important is the fact
68,027, As compared with the returns for 1882, there is a de- tliat tlie fruit i.s almost entirely grown by the small negro
crease to the extent of 390,813 acres in the case of wheat, but peasant proprietor, and tlnrl the m'iiit>y thus gofss directly into
an enlarged acreage in the ciise of the other four crops ; thus, the hands of the people. The total number of holdings of land
of barley the increase amounts to 36,715 acres: oats, 141,512 in the island is tifly-two tbousaud, of which nearly ten
acres ; potatoes, 2,391 acres ; and hops, 2,408 .acre.s. thonsiuid are leas th.iu one acre, ami Uveuly-six thousand arc
- between one and three acres ; iimi the proportion of thee-
Tanning Trxtii.e Fabtuos. —M. Piron, a Belgian, Ims in- Htnidl holdings under cullivalion is far and away greater than
vented a process for tanning textile fiibries wliieli i-onders them the large estate.s, a vast part of which still remains in wiM
waterproof, and at the same time, it is said, proof .against de- land. All those facts go to confirm the belief, aU-eiuly hedd
cay, w'hile their suppleness is not diminished, and their weiglit by most of tliose who know the West Indian negro personallv,
not appreciably increased. Arguing from the high state of that the small propiietors are steadily, though slowly, progres-
preservation ill which the bands which surround the lie.ads iug in habits of industry, thrift, and civilisation,
of Egyptmii mummies are found to this day, and which are
impregnated with a kind of re.sin, M. Piron had reconrso to
the substanoe extracted from birch bark, and which is noiv
used to perfume Ruasia leather. Vi'.'en the fine whiUi bark of
the birch tree is cliatillod, it yiehfe alight oil, nearly a fourth
part of w’hioh consists of the special pheiwl, or carViolic achl,
which gives the well-known odour to Russia leather. It is
now found that the residue, or green tar of the birch, which is
obtained from KoUmmn, yields neither aoit^ nor ,-ilkaloiil, and
it forms, with alooliol, a solution of great fluidity, which, how-
evi^', when once dried, is unacted npou by aloobol. It is Ibis
substance, which will unite with the most brilliant colours,
tli.nt i.s used by M. Pii’ou for treating textile fabrloi. Not
only lines it fill the capillary ve.s,sels, but it also costs them
with a varnish of great elasticity, which is uuattackable by
acids and sea water, while it also .stands gro.at changes of tem¬
perature. I'lio aromatic odour of articles thu.s treated drivc.s
away insects ; there is no space for microscopic vegetation,
and neither air nor water can penetrate into the tisane.s.
This process is applicable to all vegelable products, such as
sail-cloth, cordage, blind.s, and awuiugs.
Thr current number of the Jmuiioa IlandbooL contain
valuable information upon the trade and production of the
island, from which it is evident, says the Planters' OaceUe, not
merely that liuropeau enterprise is extending in various new
directions, such as cinchona, cocoa, &c., whilst the exports of
siigai- and Him last year wero larger than for nearly forty
years previoiislv, but that the economical condition of the
negroes forming the bulk of the ])opuhitiou has also greatly
improved. The total exports for the past financial year
amount in value to over a millloii-aiul-lialf sterling, being an
increase of more tliau £370,000 (we give round figures
throughout) on the previous year, and of £206,000 on the
average of the five years preceding. On the other hand,
the imports have decreased by £70,000, and as this de¬
crease was mainly due to the largaly-iiicreasoJ production
of ground provisions and other ueoossaries grown by the
native population, it must really be connted as so much
gain on the whole to the people—in other words, to the
negroes themselves, who form the pinctical working body of
tl, colony. they have paid so much the leas to outsiders for
foiSl^alt is because they have raised so much the more them¬
selves for home consumption. When we come to examine
the details of the figures, the results are still more striking.
The industries peculiarly aflfeeted by the free black on his own
account show a great general increase. True, last year was a
bad one, owing to drought for the coffee crop, the principal
Tjierk is no special mode of making IiuUit fwritvs Professor
Arnold) whioli is better under all civciimstances than every
other. What is best fur one m.ay not be bi\st for another.
The method pursued by an impiiring friend wlio lower,, hi.s milk
in deep and narrow vc.s.se!a into iv.iter in his well with a temper
aturc of 50 deg.. fm thirty-.si.'i hours, may be, and probably
best fur him with a sm.ill dair\, i)n"'c he makes an article
th.al brings 4 or 5 cents .a pound above other dairy butter in
his neighbouriiood, but sueb a praelice could not be followfsl
in a large eieamcry with any couvemienoe or profit ; Iwsidcs,
everybody eaimol jirovidc himself with such a well. Tin*
very tineHt butter i.s made by setting .shallow in a pure and
only moderately cool air ; yet this niotliod is now best for
goiicrul u.se, because it calls for loo much room, too miieli labour,
and too much time and e.speu.se, lobe aoccjitable or profitable
for those who h,a VC mill'll milk to liaudle. Though the butLcr
might be very choice, it would be too expensive to cora)ioto
with biiUcr nearly as good, but made with oiio-qaartm' the
kbour and expeii.se, and in half the time. The Elgin cre-iraery
luiy.s the milk of 800 to 1,000 cows from large dairies nivav the
city. Tile best mode in such a case is to set the milk in largo
vats .Slid eool vigorously with iced water to hurry the sojjar.ation
of the cream, and do it with the least expense ; but in now and
sparsely-settleil Jocnlilies, it is better to cream the milk at the
farni in small vessels with only sue'; refrigeration as the
farm affords, and to send only I'm cream to the factory.
Though sudden changes in milk, ere,am, or butter are not
conducive to the lilgheut quality or longest keeping, yet
rapid refrigeration, as a rule, brings the best practical results,
becau.se it makes a more perfect separation of cre'am than slow
cooling and saves time and expeuse in working, and thus reduces
j (• Mt. Foi' those who relish the peculiarly fresh acid taste
I of a little buttermilk in their butter, uuwaabed butter
will be preferred while it is new. As soon, however,
as the buttermilk which adheres to it has liad time to
change—which it will do in about forty-eight hours in warm
weather—iU fresh taste dwappeara, and it begins at first to
bo stale, then strong, and finally rancid, and decidedly objection¬
able If the working is so thorough as to practically remove
all of the buttermilk, the increased amount of violence breaks
the grain of the butler, and this is about .is bud as buttermilk to
injure iti keeping, so that worked butter is oliori, Ined accord¬
ing to the amount of working done , to it, or t^e quantity of
buttermilk left in it. Butter whiohis well washed' guod water,
especially when it is gathered in pellets or growuies instead of
in am’oss, has no tasftj of buttermilk, and for this rcaaou those
3G4
October 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
who prefer that flavour do not admire it eo much as unwashed
buttw. Kino out often perHous, however, prefor the pure,
dUtiiust, and full flavour of batter unadulterated with butter¬
milk or dieguiaed with exoeeaive jiaJt, and this flavour is
obtained only by washing every pai'tiole of buttermilk from it,
and avoiding the working whioh moat follow when wtwhing
ia omittpd.
A CoTTOU' expoeitioti on a large scale is being organised in
the Southern States of Ameiioa. The committee’s prize-list
exceeds 6,000 dollars, and it is anticipated that this amount
will be largely added to in |»emiums offered by local dealers.
The highest prize offered is 1,000 dollars, for the beet bale, long
staple (first); and the lowest, 60 dollars, for the best twenty
stalks of cotton of the second quality.
Most farmers have great ideas of creating an improved cow
by croasing one breed with another, such as the Jersey with
the Ayrshire or Holstein. These violent crosses are opposed to
oil the principles of breeding, and the great prepotency of the
two animals used for the cross are put at war with one another.
This creates the greatest uncertainty as to results, and there is
sure to be a want of uniformity in the offspring. It is l>etter
to grade than to cross, tlmt is, use a thoroughbred bull of your
favorite breed on a native cow. Tliis native will be found to
respond kindly to this treatment, and tlie offspring will follow
strongly the prepotency of the bull.— Amm'ican Dairyman.
SoMK comparatively recent investigations of Professor Forbes,
the State Entomologist of Illinois, and published in the
“ Science " column of the New York //uispcurfsjit, are exceed¬
ingly instructive. He selected an orcbai'd which for six years
had been stripped by the canker worms. He shot a consider¬
able number of birds therein for two successive years, on
May S4,1881, and May 20, 1882, representing nearly all the
kinds seen in the orchai-ds, made full notes of tlie relative
abundance of the species, examined carefully the contents of
all the stomachs obtained, and tabulated the results. It
apipeared that the robin and six other 8|)ecies of the family
had eaten no vegetable food, 96 per cent oonsistiug of insects,
of whioh 16 i>er cent was canker worms and ouly 4 per cent
insectivorous beetles. The bine-bird ate 12 per cent of canker
wonns ; the house-wren 20 jwr cent; fourteen warblers ate
76 p>er cent of canker worms; thirty cedar wax-wings
destroyed 2,000 canker worms a day or 90,000 for the month
during which the worm is exposed ; and forty-seven finches,
or seed and grain eaters, ate 98 per cent of insects, of which
40 per cent was canker worms. From these observations the
author concludes that bii-ds of the most varied character and
and habits, migrate and resident, of all sizes, from the tiny
wren to the blue-jay, birds of the forest, garden and meadow,
those of arboreal and tliose of terrestrial habit, were either
attracted or detained here by the bountiful supply of insect
food, and were feeding freely upon the species most abundant.
That 36 per cent of the food of all the birds congregated in this
orchard should have consisted of a single species of i usect
is a fact so extraordinary that its meaning caunot be mistaken.
Whatever power the birds of tliis vicinity possessed, os
checks upon destructive irruptions of insect life, was being
largely exerted here to restore the broken balauoe of organic
nature.
Tsx fundamental principles of reproduction [K. Y. Agricd-
tnial Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., July 7, 1883] seem
alike in the and vegetable kingdom. In both, the
myst'jry of life; in both, accretion through cell multiplicatiou
ill both, changes of form aa arising from immediate heredity
and as governed by environment. In our domesticated plants
as in our domesticated aaifflals, we have the male and the
female element of varj’ing potency whose union is productive
of ^ new individual. Both classes are alike influenced by
the oonditious described mider the term selection. We can,
heaoe, qwdc of bi«eding the plant as legitimately as we can
apeak of breeding the animal. We may also use the term,
pedigree, as apptitd to the improved forms of animals. As in
our domesticated animals, improvenieut is brought about
through the systematic mating and selection which constitute
pedigree, so the same system iu our domesticated plants will
avail to produce an improvement which may be described in
the same terms. If a pedigreed ammal is superior in value ou
account of the conditions which allow this term to apply, then
a pedigreed plant must necessarily powess superior value over
the plant which has besn developed only through uneystematur.
effort. As the recognition of the value of systematic effort in
improvement has differentiated the pnisait of animal breeding,
and has constituted a class of men called breeders, so ssed-
growere should be likewise differentiated into a class called
seed-breeders. Seed-breeding is already beginning to be, and
soon moat become, of importance as a farm or garden pursuit.
In gardening we have many illustrations of seed-breeding
in the production of new forms of vegetables, secured through
hybridization and careful selection, as also iu the system called
'• rogneing,” which consists in the removal from plants designed
fur seed purposes of all the plants which are untrue to the form
desired. Iu agriculture we have fewer illustrations, and the
farmer lias applied leas discrimination to his field produce than
the gardener has to bis small but more intensely cultivated
garden. We have, however, a few illustrations in agriculture
of wliat may be accomplished through the selection of seed
under that uniformity of idea which is described as seed¬
breeding. In 1867, Major Hallet, of Brighton, England, com¬
menced his experiments on wheat, selecting his seed from the
quality of the plant produced, hi.s staudanl embracing hardi¬
ness, trueness to type, quality of sample, productiveness, power
of tillering, stiffness and toughness of straw ami earliness of
ripening. The results obtained may be expressed in the
following table :
Grains in original Kind of Wheat. j"
ear- provort oar.
45 Original re<l, oomnienoed in 1857 . 123
(10 Hunter's Wliito, „ ,, 1861... 121
60 Vioinria White, „ ,, 1862..., 114
82 Golden Drop, _ _ ,,_,, 1861... | 96
Wo have hero an illustration of whtit has beeu obtained in
the effort to increase the prolificacy of the plant, and thih gain
in prolificacy has also been attended by a gain in the size of
the kernels. The amount of crop raised, or prolificacy of the
plant under circumstances of field seeding also, if reports are
to be trusted, offer parallel results ; the increase of yield by the
use of Hallet’a seed iu various countries in the world being
reported as between two and three times tlie average ci-op from
other varieties.
In the CiOse of the Waushakum com, the selection being
made by c-astrating tlie barren stalks for two years in succes¬
sion, the seed saved being not from the moat prolific stalks
that were left, but merely of the jierfect ears, raised the
average crop from about 45 bushels to 80 bushels to the acre.
Although the Station has not as yet had time to do mucli
work ill this direction, yet a beginning has been already made.
On account of the importance of these facts relating to seed,
we are disposed to quote the conclusions gaineil by Major
Hallet, which read as follows :
1. Every fully developed plant of a cereal presents an ear
superior iu productive power to any of the rest on that plant.
2. Every such plant contains one grain which, upon trial,
proves more productive than any other.
3. The best gi-aiu ou a given plant is found in the best ear.
4. The superior vigor of this grain is trnnsmiuible, in
different degrees, to its progeny.
6. By repeated careful seleotioos the superiority is
accumulated.
6. The improvement, which is at firet rapid, gradually after
a lung series of yeai's is diminished in amount, and eveiirually
so far arrested that practically a limit to improvement iu the
desired quality is reached.
7. By still continuing to select, the imp^ov^ment ian^/kin-
tatned, and practically a fixed type is tiie result.
An account of Major Hallet’s process may be found In
Popular Soiene* MontAly for July 1883.
Bo far as the Station work has gone, theee claims of Major
Ballet have received confirmation. It is particularly noticeabl
• October 1, 1883.
3(55
THE INDIA;} AGRICULTURIST.
able that when each kernel of the ear of wheat ia planted by
iteelf, one kernel haa invariably proved fai’ move productive
than any other one, wiper gradum, but per ealtum, i. c. not
regularly, but a;t a jump,—E. Lewis Stortevast, Director.
I TLANtED a peach orchard, writes M, Siroy, of the Society
of Horticulture, and the trees grew well and, atrouRly. They
, liad just eomraenoed to bud when they were invaded by the
t^Sfiulio (pulgon), which insecta were followed, os frequently
happens, by ante. Haviirg cut sonic tomatoes, the idea
occurred that by placing some of the leave# around the trunk#
and branches of the'-peach trees, 1 might preserve them from
the rays of the sun, whioli are very powerful. My surprise
was great upon the following day to find my trees entirely free
from their enemies, not one remaining, except here and there
, where a curled leaf prevented the tomato from exercising its
influence. These leaves I carefully unrolled, placing ujxm
them fresh ones from the tomato vine, with the result of
banishing, the last insect and enabling the trees to glow with
luxuriance. Wishing to carry still further my experiment, 1
steeped in water some leaves of the tomato, mid sprinkled
with this infusion other plants, roses anil oranges. In two
days these were also free from the iniiunierablc insects which
covered them, and I felt sure that had I used the same means
with my melon patch I should have met with the same result.
I therefore deem it a duty 1 owe to the .Society of Ifortioulture
to make known this singular and useful property of the tomato
leaves, which I discovered by the iiiurest accident,
Authohuii, says a contemporary, the leak forests of Upper
Burmah are a source of wealth wl loli for another geiieraliou
at least will always bring in ‘a haudsomo revenue, even if
worked in the wasteful and extftivagaiit manner which charac-
lerises moat of the financial expe rimeuts of lluit eomilry, they
must come to an end in time, for no steps arc taken in Uppei’
Burmah to reproduce them. The mineral resources of Ujiper
Burmah are known to be great, bat these aldo are sadly neglect¬
ed. Tlie rich soil and the excellent climate should make
ajp'ieulUire whnt it has never yet been, the real source of the
wealth of both people and Guveniment. Wheat of an excellent
description grows near Sagine, and two crojis a year can be had
with very little trouble. But few people care to cultivate
anything beyond small patches yielding them from 20 to 30
baskets. If any one tried agriculture on an extended scale, he
would at once b” a marked man, and officials from the highest
to the lowest would look ujiGn liim as a fit object for squeezing.
Under sucli a rule it is hardly surprising that a soil which
seems to “ blossom at a touch ” if often altogether neglected,
and that people, who do not know if they will be allowed lo
reap, show a supreme indifleieiice to the preliminary operations
of ploughing and sowing. The Burmaii plough used in our
own rice-fields is not a very scientific instrniuent, but it goes
very much deeiwr into the soil than the one used in Upper
Burmah, and yet even with their primitive impleraeuts wheat
grows to profusion wherever it is Upper Burmah
might not only supply all our needs in this article, and render
iis iudepeudeut of Indian supplies, but might e,vport tliat
grain to Europe, where a constant and remnucrative market
woulil always be met with. It is to be regretted that the iiioic
enlightened of tire Burmese ministers do not awake to the
advantages to be derived from extending wheal cuUiv.itiou in
their country, and imbuing agriculturists with the roqnirod
faith ill tlie stability and honesty of the present rule, which
would result in improving the prosperity of the jicoplo and of
the ■whole country.
The following resolution ai>peafs in the Gazette of India :
« A frequent objection to the s.alt-tax in this country is that it
makes salt so dear that the people cannot .atfind to give it to
feattle in Entities sufficient for the heallli of tlieir stock. In
several European countries where salt is subject to a heavy
duty means have been found for supplying owners of stock
with'cheap salt for the use of their cattle and sheep Without
attempting to prejudge the cose in any w.ay, and without com-
mitUngttoOoverainent bsteehami to any pledges which it
waylwl«»wliiiV«»»bto w w ^
admitted that in India, where the bulk of the p tpiil.itioii is
dependent on agriculture, it would bo n distinct gvin to be able
to issue cheap salt for cattle, and the question of m'cliug thi.s
necessity in a way compatible with the safety of the salt
revenue has more th.aii once engaged the Htleiition of the
Government of India. On the last occasion on which the ques¬
tion was taken into coiwider.ation, it was suggested ’’tdat the
object aimed at would lie secured if a process could be discover¬
ed by which salt could be rendered so unfit for human con¬
sumption that its restoration to an edible condition would be
noither easy nor cheap, while ii would still remain suitable for
use by cattle. This snggealioii commended itself to the Govern¬
ment of India, for, if this could bo done, salt could safely be
issued for stock at a compar.atively cheap rate without coining
into comiietitioii with salt intended for human consumption.
Expetinieiits for denaturalising s.alt were accordingly under¬
taken in Bengal and the Punjab, details of the proce-sses used
ill Germany and France having been obtained through the
Secretary of State. The experiments were, a failure, in so far
that they did not R,atisfy the main condition that the restora¬
tion of the rneJieattsl sail could not be cheaply and e.asily
efl'ected, while the German and other prooes.s were found eitlier
unsuitable or otherwise objectionable in this coilutry. The
problem of issuing s.alt for e.attle in a form which will not
endanger the public revenue, therefore, still remains unsolved.
The Goveriior-Geuoral iu (.'oiincil has again Jiad the question
iiiidor his cousideiatioii, in oounecliim with a process devised
by a pvivato individual, and submitted for trial to the Oominis-
sione- of Northern India Salt llovenne. This process, like
those previously tested by Goveruuumt olfieers, lias not given
satisfactory rosuits in praetice. But his E.xcellency in Council
is inclined to think, on perusal of the p.iperH read in the
preamble, that tlio expeiimeiils as yel miile have nut heeti ru
wide or exhanstive as the iniixirUinoe of the subject demands,
ff any satisfactory method could be devised which fully met
I ho requirements of the cam, a great boon would be conferred,
on the country, and it is hoped that a process may yet be
liscovered which, if not satisfying all the conditions hitherto
prescribed, may yet be sufficient for nil pr.aclical purposes.
tJis E.xcelhnicy in Council accordingly requests that the Local
(hivemineuts will be good enough to arrange with their chemi-
•jil analysers, or with any other thoroughly skilled and com¬
petent oilicer, for the commeucomeut of aysteuiatio and careful
'xperimeiifcj iu the direction indicated. The officer selected
should bo furnished with n tsomplete copy of the papers c in-
(ainiiig the details and results of all the attempts already made,
and the result# of the experiments made under tliesa instruc¬
tions should be communicated to the Government of India.
If any private person should wish to take up the enquiry, the
lovcriiraent will be ghul to furnish him, on application, with
■opies of the correspondence read in the preamble to this
Ivosolution.”
The discovery of “Kairiii," a quality latent in co.al tar,
which reseiiiblos that of qiiiutnc, say- tlie 3fatlme Mait, is
ikely to prove a blessing to a mankind, slumhl further
■xperieiice confirm the result alUiiied by careful experiments
ip to the present time. It h,ad been known for some time
last that tlie plants brought to India by Mr. Clements
Markham belonged to an inferior species of cinchona, and are
jomparatively valueless. Useful alkaloids, no doubt, can he
'xtracted from them, tinged, as it were, by a small amouiit
if the virtues of true quinine, and it is isMsibio that a
ebrifuge may be obtained sufficiently powerful to act upon
ho easily affected con-stitutious of the native population. But
Europeans require a more potent principle to counteract the
iiiry of fever. This febrifngc, which General Richard
ciliachey ha# taken under Ids especial patronage, is the tilniii.st
that soiijnoe can extract from the immense pliiiitatioiis at
Daijeeling. The Nilghiri trees must be classed under a
dill’erenl category. For the most part they .are grown from
Dutch seed, qind arc descended from the legitimate qainiue-
produciug cinchona of South America. It is stated, however,
•hat the process of extraction demands the utmost nicety of
manipulation, au^ that native assistant* have failed to give
sittinfoetioa even >u the prepoi-atim* of ths tuilder f«bvifu,'c,
October 1, 1883.
SGG THE INDIAN AOI^CULTURIST,
They could not be trusted to work by themselves, but had
to be closely superintended through every stage of tho opera¬
tion. Xliere is some talk, we Ijelieve, of making one more
vigorous attempt to establish in Calcutta a thoroughly orgau-
i?,ed laboratory for tho manufacture of febrifuge, abaudon-
iug all ambitious hopes of supplying the European garrison with
Indian quinine as well ns with Indian beer. Tlie project of
iulroducihg the cinclvona cultivation into Guatomahi will create
a fonnidablc though beneficial rivalry. So long ns quinine is
obtainable nt a price that will render its application universal,
wo must not look too closely to the quarter whence relief
comes to the sick and suffering, though we may he pwdoned a
i-egret that such an unfortunate blunder was committed by Mr.
Markbam. At the same time, it appears to us a very short-
aighted economy to maintain tho Darjeeling plantations at a
gi’eat cost for such little purpose, when, by the courageous ex¬
penditure of a certain sura of money, the true cinchona might
be brought in to supplant its bastard brother, Tho real objec¬
tion, we fancy, may be traced to a natural, if weak-minded,
reluctance to acknowledge an error of judgmout. Instead,
however, of wasting time and money on tho ])roduction of an
inefficacious febrifuge, it would be far wiser to got rid of the
Darjeeling plantations altogether, and to begin afresh with
good Dutch seed, and with young [ilants from the Nllgiris.
The Agricultural Departnieut must have been nodding not to
have taken uj) this matter heartily, and jnessed it upon the
earnest attention of the Government. The introduction of the
true cinchona would be a fur more waluable boon to “ the
bulk of the people ’’ than the abolition of anomalies and the
worship of the abstract.'’
Tm* following letter of Surgeon-General Balfour to the
I’nder-SeoretRjy of State for India has been communicated by
tlie writer to the Journal of the Socicli/ of Arts ;—
Sin,—During the bygone nine years, tlic <piaiitities of poppy
seeds exporteil from India have Ijoen ou tlie increase, giving an
outlet to a product which wiis formerly only locally used, and
omployiug a considerable amount of tonnage.
1 beg to place on the margin the countries to which it was
shipped in tlie year 1881-2, and it would be of v.alue to India,
nml to the nicrcaufilo and manufacturing communities of
13uro|W, if information could be obtained as to tlie purposes for
which, in France and tho United Kingdom, such large quan¬
tities Ri-e utilised. In all probability it is pressed for the oil,
which may be used as a substitute for olive oil.
It lias been a subject of inquiry by Deputy-Surgeou-Gcuoral
Day, with myself, as to what oils are used for the sardines of
the Moditoiranoaii, in order that he migiit be able to recom-
mend the
same for the iiiloliaid
tiade.—I have tho honour to
be, Sir, your obedient servant,
Edward Balfour.
Year,
Cwt.
Value in Re.
1874-5
402,296
22,12,58
1873-6
253,326
13,54,194
1876-7
3.51,13.8
18,43,647
1877-8
449,.894
26,45,257
1878-9
249,072
16,60,749
1870-80
530,382
37,51 ,.847
1880-1
070,644
i 89,76.254
1881-2
003,289
39,64,065
1882-3
571,642
i 30,26,401
Country,
Cwt.
Value in Rs
France
348,031
22,60,871
United Khigdom
170,493
11,04,984
Belgium .
74,.582
4,71,239
SXd
9,111
57,634
1,869
11,680
Germany.
1,000
■ 6,250
Other CouAtries
203
1,417
Sir Louiq"Mallet, in his answot to Surgeon-General Balfour,
enclosed a letter from tho Board of Trade, signed by Mr.
Giflen, containing the following particulars The seeds iu
questko are elOMified it) the Im))ort List amongst the
unnumerated seeds from which oil is expressed, and the Board
of Tratlc have no information as to the uses to which they are
ajiplied. It appears, however, from a communication which has
Veil received from Mr. Dyer, the Assistant Director of the
Roy.il Botanical Gm-dons at Kew, that these seeds yield about
fiO per cent of a very valuable oil, which is easily decolorised,
dries well, and remains fluid to a low temperature, and it is
understood that this oil has long been recommended as a sub¬
stitute for olive oil.”
A WRiTRn in the Scie)Uific American states that, within 600
miles of New York city, there is a large section of country,
comprising from 12,000 to 14,000 square miles, which, for
the quality and variety of its minerals, is in all pro¬
bability tho richest and most interesting mineral country
in the world, and one not surpassed by Saxony, iu Enropo.
This remarkable section lies on the borders of Kentucky,
Tennessee, North Carolina, and "W^est Virginia. Seventeen
counties of Virginia arc included in it, and to these may
be added Ashe, Alleghany, and 'Wantanga counties in North
Caroliriii, wiiich form an intorgral jiart of tho same geological
foriuation, and contain the same kind of minerals. In this
section are to be found gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc,
nickel, iron, manganese, plumbago, arsenic, antimony, lime¬
stone, gypsuni, salt, barytes, kaolin, feldspar, soapskmo,
fireclay, asbestos, talc, mica, umber, millstone grit, marble,
.saiulstone, gi'anitc, syenite, and many of the minor minerals
useful iu arts and manufactures. Besides this, the country
is finely timbered, from the valleys to the mountain tops,
witli white oak, walnut, maple, tulip-tree, bats-wood,
hickory, cherry, chestnut, inickeye, cuoumbor-tree, and other
oaks, dogwood, white jiino, black pine, spnioe cedar, and
many other useful and vahnlule woods. It is also a tine
agricultural district.
Tub groat and growing iiiorc.aso in tlio consumption of
jiaper, slid tho eoiVespoiidiiig scarcity of rags, naturally cause
nttentioii to bo turiieil to substances suitable tor the paper
uiauufaelnrer. Already the alf.i and the ramie have been
pressed into his service ; and the same country which prodnce.s
these, <•/:., Algeria, also affords another plant which, wliik
being useful for this piirjio.se, is, nt tho same time, a great
enemy to tho agriculturist. This is the dwarf palm,
tlie fibrous jiroportie.s of which have long been known to
the Aralis, while they have been unable Ui turn them to
nceouiit. A Froiidiman, M. Ilcynaud, has found means for
utilising tlio wliole jilauL,, except the roots, which serve for
firing. Every part, from Uie stalk to the top-moat leaves, is
transformed into fibre of excellent quality', and it makes
no differeiioe if the plants have been pulled up several
years jjreviously. The plants are placed iu a kind of
cage, which is immersed iu a boiler filled with a special
lye, and heated. Tho substance being thus retted, be¬
comes soft, BO that the llbio may be readily separated. It
is withdrawn from the batli, and drained, the lye being saved
for use over again. It is then passed between rollers, while at
the same time being made cold by quantities of water. Tho
number of I'olliiigs, rinsings, aud combings depend upon tho
degree of fineness required. At last, the product is allowed to
fall into a recojilaek* containing pure water, whence it is with¬
drawn to be tit'll up in bundles for traiisiwrt. The vegetable
hair which may also bo obtained from this plant is finer and
more tenacious than any other known ; it readily takes all the
ordinary dyes, even witliout being bleachetl. As the whole of
the tannin which it contains is not extracted, this {ilaat is not
liable to dec.ay, while it is, at the same time, antiseptic, on
account of its aromatic odour, aud to some extent impermeable
I by water.
Tub jirocesH of tuiuiiig straw into paper frotl the rm^l*
material (o rolls and sheets is an interesting one. Beginning ip
tlio iipjier part, the rye and oat straw hoisted by a fork, after
being cut, is carried into a large cylinder. In this, the cut
straw is cooked by steam, aud mixed with chemicals,
which are drawn from large taolu. From digester the
October 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST. 367
_ _ _ • __
fooked straw is taken to the bleaching macliines, where tlie
cooked maw Is i-ednced to fine pulp, and from these it is taken
to the beating engines to draw out the fibre, so that the stock
will “ web." After this process it is emptied into stuff chests
and kept stirred by an “ agitator. Tho pulp now for printing
paper iooks like milk and water, and for wrapping paper like
thick mud, and of whatever colour desired ; and it is ready
I for the paper-making machine." A floating cylinder in each
i tank takes up the pulp, conveys it on a felt carrier, where it
passes through roller's weighing a thousand pounds, wliich
presses out the water. It is now a sheet, and passes round
eight drying cylinders four feet long and three feet in diameter,
heated by steam. Next it goes through two sets of heavy
tlrousand-pound rollers, and afterwards round n set of seven
solid chilled rollers a foot in diameter. The paper is finished
and passes to the cutter, where it is out into sheets and packed
in bales. By a new process it is expected to utilize tlax straw,
which has hitherto gone to waste.
Table napkins are regularly supplied nt the cheap dining¬
rooms of Berlin. The napkins arc of tissue paper, with a
coloui'ed oriiameutal border—not only because paper is cheaper
( At the Royal Show at York, a new method was shown
of utilising skim milk. Mit Ahlborn, of lliidasheim,
Germany, at Ids model dairy made what ho calls “ spark¬
ling milk,” and whieli is neither lass nor more Dian soda
milk or eratod milk. It is skim milk impregnated with
carironie acid gas, in exactly the same manner as water in the
manutaotniv' of soii.a-water, and is forooil into similar boitles,
corked and wired down, and i.s then ready for .s.ale. ‘ It will
keep an indefinite jeoriod ; one bottle wn-s opened tliat liad been
made 17 weeks previoasiy, and which was rpiitu fresli and
good, and os frisky ns possible. It is a very takeable beverage,
and was qnitu as refrosliiiig to a tliirsty soul as soda-water,
with tho additiou.al adv.aulage of Iwiug distinctly iiulritious.
The coat of making it is voi'y small, and it could easily l>o solil
as cheaply as soda-water. The price of the machine for making
it is .£40—possibly smaller sizes might Is? got—and the same
macliiuo will make iorated di'inks of any kind.
We are all taught (says the North British AgrirHltnnst) that by
reason of the inolinatiou of the earth’s axis, tho several seasons
happen at different tinie.s in difterent ))orlions of our globe, so
that seed-times and harvests do not correspond in the various
than iliaper, but as a protection against pilfering. Indeed so
common arc paper table uapkias at Berlin that the manufac¬
turers advertise them regularly in nil the newspapers at
as. per tliousand, being about nine or ten .a penny,
A NEW kind of matting or carpet for covering floors, says a
contemporary, is composed of a fabric woven or knit from
strands or threads of iwper in such a manner that when, laid
upon a floor, it will serve nil tho icirposes of oi'diiiary straw
inatting or textile carpets, laud cad bo cleansed by washing
when such becomes necessary or ifcjsirable.
Any kind of strong paper is taken and cut or formed into
strips of tho required or suitable size, and then twisted or spun
into strands or threads. If a flue texture is desired, the strips
are made smaller th.an where a coarse te.xture ^ preferred ; but
ill either evout tbc twisted or spun strands or threads are
wovaii or knit into a fabric by any of tho well-known methods
practised ill weaving or knitting textile material. Before or
after tho paper strands or threads arc woven or knit into the
matting or carpet, tho ixiper may be reiidci-ed waterproof by
satiu'aUon or impregnation with any known waterproofing
material • or it may be otherwise chemically treated in ordei
to strengthen it, and permit the use of waUw or other cleansing
fluid in washipg the floor covering when desired to fiee it from
dirt or stains, and it may also he troated^with carloolio acid or
other material U. prevent tho ravages .of insects.
If the strips of paiH'r are properly and tightly twisted or
spun into strands or threads and closely woven or knit the
fabric can be subjected to a moderate .amount of wasliing
without liability to injury. Tl.e strips of paper may he formed
very narrow and spun or twisted with .strand.s of yarn : or the
twisted paper strands may be woven or knit with some suit¬
able animal or vegetable matter, the sti'ip.s of twisted paper
forming the warp or the woof, and tlie animal or vegetable
matter forming the warp or the woof, as dcsirod.
Paper strands or threads produced from ditterently-coloured
paper, produce a variety of designs in the fabric during .thi
process of weaving or knitting, as well as the various de.sigiis
that are protluced in ordiuai-y tapestry ; and the fabric can he
woven or knit into any determined ilimeBsioiis to be fitted h,
the floor of an apartment, so that the floor covering will he in
a single piece.
Paper produced from what is known as the " palmetto-leaf ”
is pi-eferred for this use as it is strong and durable; but it is
obvious that paper produced from other sulwtiinces can he
used.
zones. But jirobahly few iximons realize tliat it all the harvest
perioils of the world were grouped togullier, they would bo
found to occupy altogether moro than three-fourths of
the whole year. As a fact, leaving out of siglit altogether
the equatorial and naighbouriug regions, in whiuli different
seasons arc actually contemporaneous, thero are perhajfs only
two montlis out of the twelve in which tho h.'U'vost is not being
actually gathered somowlmro on tho face of the earth. Thus,
in the greater part of Chili, portions of the Argentine llopublic,
Australia,auil New Zealand, January is the harvest moutli. It
begins in February in the East Indies, going on into March
as wo come North. Mexico, Egypt, Persia, and Syria reap in
April ; wliiio Japan, China, N'ortheru Asia Minor, Tunis,
Algioi's, and Morocco, and <iiso Te.xas, do so in May. California,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, and some of the southern
dcpartinoiits of Franco, gathur the harvest in .Time. July
the harvest mouth ior the greater part of France, for
Austria, Soiitli Iliissi.a, ami the greater part of the Cnited
States of America ; Germany reaps in August with England,
Belgium, the Netiierlands, fsirl of Russia, Danmark, ;iarl of
Canada, and the North-Eastern States of America ; Septoiu-
bor is tho time for Scotland, the greater part of (faiiada,
Sweden, Norway, and the Northern Midlands of Russia ; wliilo
Ih ■ harvest drags on slowly throughout Oefebar in tho most
iiortlierii parts of Russia and the .Scuiidimiviaii Peninsula. It
would thus seem that Novemljer aiul December are the only
mouths which liavo not a jJaeo in the harve.st caloiidar of the
world.
The frequency of thunderstorms in Switzerland this summer
Ii.as afforded Profossor Coll.adoii, of Ociieva, a great authority
on electricity and meteorology, ample cpportuiiity of continn-
ilig his observations oil tlie effect of lighlniiig on trees and
vegetation generally, fie lias aseertui: ed that when lightning
strikes a tree it leaves very few marks of its p.as.s.ago on tho
upper part and miiidle of the trunk—.a peculiarity which lie
luicribes to the fact of llioso parts being more impregivatod
with sugar, a good conductor, than tho lower part. As the
otectric fluid descends to the neighbourhood of the lieavier
branches, wliere tlicre is i^ss saochariuo m.atter, it tears open
the hark, and in many liishuices nhivera (.lie tree. It i.s no
uncommon thing to find the lower part of a tree literally out by
the liglitiiiiig, while the upper portion and tho higher branches
seem to have sufferad hardly at .ail. O.aks, however, would
appear to present an exception to this rule, for they are often
found with tops quite blasteil, and the passage of the lightning
lower down marked by a goiige-like furrow. These furrows
sometinies go completely round the tree like a screw, the
TVeee is now every prospect, it seems, of excellent orojrs Teason of which, says Professor Colladon, is that the lightning
throughout the Canadian North-West. In Ontario the hay follows the coUs of which the bark is composed lengthwise, and
crop U the largest for the past twenty years, and the hay is in certain sorts of wood these cells are disposed spirally.
now selling in Ottawa Valley for £1 12s. per ton. The grain
crops in Ontario are not so abundant, but tlierc is every Tiib recent rain in the Punjab has bean moat seasonable :
lirgbnbllity that letter prices wUl be paid than last year, about half tho kharij*im been atved, and there is every
868
THE IKDIAK AGEtOUtTURlBT.
October 1 , 1868 .
ground for anticipating a good raht. Four months ago, in
H'sUiailore, ««(’ was seliiug at 10 seers per rupee ; it is now
Larely 8 seem ; and wheat, which was selling at 32 seeis, has
gone down to 20 aeora per rupee. !
The drouglit in Pppor Inilia has been very severe and pro- |
longed. Til Ifodiiarpoie the rainfall tnim let April 1882 to 3l8t |
March 1883 was I i imliea under the average, the result being
that (I gteat niauy wells aUd tanks had nm dry, and in j
many fiaita of the district the jKople were obliged, previous |
to the last raiiifidl, to send their cattle 80 and 40 miles off down j
to the Beas and Bntlej Valley for grazing and water, the low ;
hills and submontane tracts being quite bare, tanks dry, and no
green grass left.
Isj a little work, published at a shilliug by Oassell & Co.,
“An Old Exhibitor” gives hi.s experience in potato culture.
Witli the view of stopping the ravages of the disease, he re-
eommends early planting and early lifting ; the proper selection
of heaitliy Norts j and the substitution of manures with
suitable chemical ingredients for gross faimyard manure. The
disease, he agrees, is due to atmospheric influences, and is sup¬
ported by dampness and sliade, the former of wliich can be
counteracted by drainage and keeping the soil in a loose, dry
slate, and the latter by thinning ont tlie stems and foliage an
they become too thick, and so exposing the surface of the groitml
to light and air. A cculimou sonvee of disease is the fermenta-
fiou that takes place in heaps of green tops, and which causes
the malaria to spread in all directions ; tlio shaws should
therefore be carried away at once and buried. At planting
time, too, the unused potato sets .siionld not lie left in a heap
on the field, because they quickly ferment and throw olf a ga.s
which carries with it the germs of the disease. Tlie uutlior i.s
strongly opposed to the notion that potatoes should have a long
period for ripening in tlio groiiud after the crop is completed,
believing that nothing tends so much to produce disease. As
soon ns the tutjers ai^e fully grown, he rocominpiiils tiiat they
should be lifted and stored, any delay having only the cil’oet of
inoreasing the risk of disease. For keeping ))olaloes any length
of time ho finds tlio handiest and safest plan is to store in
heajJH on the ground, every jn’oeautiou being taken to guard
against the four enemies of the tulietM—-frost, wet. disonso, and
light.
The writer also advises those entering on experiraonts to
raise their own seed and grow their own sorts, in preference to
grafting one stem on another or grafting eyes. He Iwlieve.s the
latter method will fail to produce distinct varieties. A light
fibi-ouB loam is the most suitablo soil for the potato, ami
thorough cultivation is necessary to its successful growtli. He
considei’s horse-dung the liost manure for cold, wot soils, and
cow-dung for hot, light soils, with a top-dressing of guano,
potash manures, soot and salt or bone manures. He does not
favour Mr. Jenseu’s theory of eartliiug-up. A sharp ridge, in
his opinion, causes the crop to sufier from drought, tlie rain
being carried away from the roots of the plants ; a liollow
along tlie top of the ridge would cause an excess of moisture ;
but an inch or two of earth placed around the stems would
strike the liappy medium, and yield dry, clean tubers iii the
greatest quantity, and of the best quality. In preparing seta,
due regard should be paid to the position of the eye on the
tuber, as the shape of the tuber depends very much upon that.
He .agi'ecs with the ojiinion that there are a separate set of fine
tissues or vein-like threads for each eye, and exporimeuta have
shown him tliat in cutting potatoes for sets, suillciont widtli
and depth of flesh must be left around the eye that is intended
to produce the crop. They also proved to his satisfactiou that
when the cut is made too near the eye, or when the portion left
is very thin, the eye is weakened by the fibres being interfered
with. “ An Old Exhibitor ” argues that the potato is about the
most profitable thing that can be brought into the market, and
that the French and Belgian comiietitiou can bo met by earlier
and thiiier plnntmg, if the drills were only a foot apart, the sets
eight inches apart, and the seed so sorted that each set is only
allowed to make one spiout. If planted in the second week of
March, they should be full grown by the first week of June,
when potatoes ari selling at about 2s, per stone ; and a medium
crop ii’Qtt big iactb<»d of plautuig tvould be 4 , 84 g stones per acre
which would yield .$484, a veiy handsome return for the outlay.
The writer ooucludes his litUa ^i ooAuro by giving a desorip-
tive list of known varieities ol potatoes suitablo for cropping,
iadioatiug those which are likely to prove most satiifaotory.
It appears from statistios that there are in the world no less
than 3,885 paper mills, producing yearly 859,000 tons of paper
made from all kinds of subatauoes, including rags, straw, and
alfa. Alxiut one-half the quantity is printed upon ; and of '
these 476,000 tons, about 300/)00 tons are used by newspapers.
The various (Governments consume in official business, 100,000
tons ; schools, 90,000 tons j cotameroe, 120,<KX) tons ; industry.
90,000 tons : and private correspondence another 90,000 tons.
The paper trade employs 192,000 hands, including women and
children.
The following is a letter from Deputy Surgeon-Qenernl M.
C. Furncil, M.D., Sanitary Commissioner for Madras, to the
Chief .Secretary to Government !-—
I have the honor, with reference to the Order of Qovernmeat
of llth July 1883, No. 841, Reveuue, on an inquiry to be made
regarding a disease said to be prevalent amongst sea-flab, to
report tlint 1 find certain steps have already been taken by this
department, licfore the above order was received, which it
wmiid l»e as well Government should be informed of.
During my absence on privilege leaven letter was addressed
to Dr. Bidie, Acting Sanitary Commissioner, from tho Freneii
Vice-Consul of Madras, enclosing another from the Government
of Pomlioberry, in wldeh latter it was stated that the sanitary
authorities of that town had,on examination, discovered worms
in certain sea-fish, “ qui eu i-ondent I’indigeation dangerense
pour la santfi,” and asking if the like phenomoua had been
observed in our territories. ,
In reply, Dr. Bidie remarked that no oflicial information had
reached thi.s olilce regarding sale of diseased fish in Madins,
but that tho rumour prevalent in PoniiioUerry on this head had
luado its way to this town, and that many persons in conse-
((iieuoe refr.'iined from, as usual, using fisli as food. In tho mean¬
while ho would be ghid to be ftu'iiishod, from the Froiioh an-
thoritlos, with more dotniicd information as to which speoiifS of
fish h.vd been found unwliolesome, and what sickuo.ss had arisen
tlierefroiu. To this lottor, dalod fith Jiiiio 1883, no answer
iias as yet been received.
Alwut tho same time the President of tlie Mmiiciiial Com¬
mission, Madras, and tin) Commissioner of Police, Madr.is,
were addressed for any information they might posse.ss on the
subject, mid tho Museum assistants were instructed to make
careful dissections of fishes, and preserve any parasites that
might be discovered tlicrouf.
Tho answer of the President of tho Municijial Commission,
copy of which is attached, was to tho effect that a belief was
prevalent in Madras tliat many species of sea-fish were diseased,
and that the consmiiptioii itad decreased aud prices fallen, but
that at the time of writing (.Tune 20th) the score was passing
away and trade resuming its iionnal condition. He enclosed a
list of fish in which [larasitoa had been found, but ends his
lettei' with tiie following remark “ I have heard of no case
of sickness or dise.ase from eating fish.”
The Commissioner of Police was not able himself to send
any information of a useful nature, but enclosed the reports
of foul Inspectors of divisions. Two of these speak of there
being a rumour, but tliat in tlioii' divisions it liad not deterred
tho people from using fisli as usual. In Triplicano the people
have been alarmed, but the Inspector had not heard of any ill-
effects luivlng arisen. The scare at tlie time of his report
(June 15) was subsiding. The fishermen blamed tho mutton
butchers for the wliole story, as a diminished oonsumptiou of
fish, of course, increased their trade. In Mylapore, according
to die Inspector's report, the scare seemed to have existed with
greater force than elsewhere, and the people ^ere labortyl
imdei’ the lielief that people using diseased fish would safier
from leprosy. A fish formerly sold for four annas fetched no
more than six to nine pies.
Dr, Bidie iTifoms me that the assistants of the Mueeuni
examined 122 fish, embracing twelve spedee of the kinds moat
couunQiiiy sold m the bazaarst Of the total inspected, 40 o&Jy>
0<Jtob^ 1, 1883.
THE INDIAl^ AGRICULTUBIST.
369
comprisiug uiuo speqles, were found to contain paraaites in tiie
eesopli^oa, gtouacli, or iutedtiueg, but in no on«e was the flesh
found to have an unhealthy appearance.
Since the receipt of the order (11 th July 1883, No. 8ill,
Revenue,) I have iwsoually inspected the various fish markets,
and find from inquiry that the trade has resumed its normal
state, the scare having subsided. I have also examiueil a great
many fish, aud found parasites in only a vei’y few ; a more
detailed account of these cxamination.s will follow. My object
at present is to inform Govemmeut of what has been done,
and that the panic—if such it can be called—has apparently
entiwly subsided.
In a letter to Sir Louis Mallet, Mr. W. T. Thiseltou
Dyer, Royal Gardens, Kew, says;—! am desired by Sir
Joseph Hooker to draw yonr attention to the steps wliicl
have been taken by this establishment to obtain infor-
niatio)! as to the lacqnor industry of Jaiwii. Aft yon ai'c
awaro, its products are highly esteemed by all lovers of art,
but lip till the present time practically nothing has been known
as to the methods by which such beautiful objects are obtained.
from the statement of Kampfer (1712), it has Ijoeii accepted
by botanists that the varnish, which is the basis of all lacquer
work, was obtained from incisions in the three-year old
stems of a tree indigenous to Jaiian, known as Ji/im venticifera.
Heyond the fact that the tree is cultivated .ss coiipice-wood,
the lufoiunation of Kampfer does not go, and uji tf> the present
time our knowledge of the subject has been a complete blank.
Thus Balfour in his Gyclopajdia of India (1873) states that “ the
manner of preparing it (the varnish) and the inode of apidyiug
it, is and is likely to remain a secret.” It had been supposed
that the Japanese lacquer tree wa ,5 ideiitical with a common
Uinmlayan species of/f/ias. ^i. liraiidis iwinls out, however,
(Forest Flora, page 121) that the Hinialayaii tree is not
*' known to yield any varnish ;and Sir .losepli Hooker in
elnborating the Amcardiaeex for the Flora of British India
(h, page 11) has, in describing it under the name of Rkiis
W'aUichiif decided that it is not ideuti cal with the Japanese
species. The laoques varnish tree of that country is appwently
ifliknowii ill India. It seems worth while, therefore, to draw
the attention of the Government of India to the fact, as seed
could doubtless be easily obtained from Japan, and there are
iimiiy imrts of India in which the tree could be cultivated.
In its lac iiiduslry India possesses an art which is closely
allied to that of lacquering. It can scarcely be doubteil that
the latter is equally .adapted to the methods anil habits of the ’
natives. Its results are, in an ecmioniic point of view, inhuite-
ly superior to those in which lac is ir' 'd. i
At the instance of ,Sir .losejili Hooker, the Foreign Olhec
caused an elaborate inquiry to be made by its officers in .lajiaii
into the whole subject. The result will be found in a report
by the Acting Consul at Hakodate, dated Tokio, January 13,
1882, which has been printed and laid before Fiudiiuiiunt. I
am now to suggest that copies of tin’s report, together with
this oommuiiicatioii, should be printed and trausmitted to the I
Government of India, in order that some attention should be
attracted to the subject in that country.
The very complete collection ilhislratiiig the report has been
transmitted to Kew and exhibited in the Museum of Beonomio
Botany. It has been pronounced by experts in Jaiwiiese art
to be of exceptional interest and quite iiuiquo of its kind, A
portion of the expense incurred by the Foreign Office in getting
it together ha« been defrayed from the grunt eiade te this
establishment by the India Office for the siisteutatioii of the
economico-botanical collections relating to India,
I am desired by Sir J. D. Hooker to inform you that he
received from Mr. Quin, Acting Consul at Hakodate, a small
quantity of seed of the Japanese laaquer tree, Ithua uernicifem.
Portions have been teausmitted to Sahariuipore and Madras
, for experimental cultivation. Mr, Qiiiu states that these parti-
tftUar seeds were obtained “ from trees which undergo a very
severe winter, being almost buried in snow for several months.”
The tree, however, will doubtless do equally well in a loss
rigorous climate. Mr. Quin further states th.at the vvax used
in the north of Japan is all made from the berries of IfAio!
nerMcifem,
Mr. J. M IIIJ 3 , in a letter to the Macbias Board of Revenue,
has the following remarks regarding the dietetic uses of
salt;—It would be a difficult matter to say exactly what diseM&s
originate from a want of proper mxpply of chloride of sodium, as
it has never Ireen recorded, so far as I know, that any of the
herbivora have absolutely been deprived of it, for the reason
tliat it is alw.rys more or less pi-esent in their natural diet ; at
the same time, animals do suffer very much in a gener"! way
from the want of a siifficieut supply of salt. This is lo be
accounted for by the fiu.-t that the blood, to bo pure and wbohr
some, must contain a due proportion of chloride of sodium ;
there must, as it were, be a porpor bnlance of its constituents,
.and if this is not maiiitaiucd, wo have a fluid oiroiilatiiig
llirouglioul tho body which is unable to replace, to repair, to
build up, or to comiieiisate for the waste of tissue which is
constantly going on in the animal economy, and the mult is
nuil-nutritiim and general ili-healtii. This has Ireeu frequently
demonstrated, and an animal in this stato is always more prone
to .attacks of disease of every description ; but no hard-and-fast
lino can be laid dawn os to the exact nature of disease whiidi
might develop itself. Therefore, T confine myself to a lirief
description of tlic iidvaiitage.s of tlie use, and the bad efl'ects of
a want, of a jiroper Bup)ily of salt.
Uics of Suit M a Diotutic. —The coiistunt pre.sencc in the sh,
cretions of salt, aud necessity of it in due projairtiou in the iilood,
indicate llie importance of a proper supjily of it with the food.
We peiceive this in Uie instinct of animals ; when it iloas not
exist in suflicieiit quantity in their food, they will travel long
distances and brave the gre.ate.sl dangers to obtain it.
2. It IS eousideroil to be the natural stiinnlaiit of the diges¬
tive system, aud to assist the blood in maintaining its fluidity,
its stimulating proiierties, .and its, powers of self-preserv.ilioii.
3. It gives iliivor Xo and renders food more jmlatabla ; even
fodder of inferior quality is readily oaten when propeily salted.
The preferable way of sailing hay would i>e to sprinkle it over
the difl'erent layers .as the slack i,s being made ii)>, which will
correct the bad ellecte of damp and smut.
4. It is especially iicoessiii'y to aiiiiiuls reoeiviiig cooked
grains or roots, for the salt iinliirally present in siioh prepai-ed
food is usually in .small amount.
,'i. By causing thii-st, it iiulucas cattle to drink large quanti-
ties of water, which in torpidity of the bowwls aud constijiation
(disorders wliii li are extremely common among Indian eattio
Iiiritig the diy season of the year, when the herb.age has little
ir 110 succulent ])roperiies) is most es.seiitial, as it softens and
can-ics onwards tliroiigli the stomach and intestines tlie hard
and dry iiigcste .uid bcces, thus warding oil' iiapaolioii.,
vvliic.li is a most troublesome and often fatal disease.
G. With catttle, siieep and goats, salt can lx; employed in the,
capacity of a purgative with groat bciiafiL, aud is second only to
Fpsom salUs (sulphate of iiiagiiosia), and can be used to empty
he bowels in distention of the nimoii with food oi gas (tym¬
panitis) in impaction or durilnca, depending on over-feeding
or kept up by the presenee of irritating matter in tlie digestive
canal. In fact, it may lx given with the utmost safety as a
purgative in all diseases where it is found desiinble or necessary
to open the bowels.
7. Sinull and repeated doses have an allorntivo effect, and are
useful in all animals in indigestion and irregularity of api;xtile.
8. From its action as a slimuluiit as well as tho cold it jno-
diiees dining solution, it is of gioat Ixnotit in various diseases
of the joints and feet, particidoi'ly among cattle, sheep and
joats.
9. Salt has llie power of inoroasing tlie fertility of the male
mid the fecundity of the female, and it doubles tlie power of
nourishing the fwtus.
10 During the ]xiiod the j'umig are struokliig, salt given
0 the motliei renders the milk more abundant and more nntri-
Lidus, lUid accelerates tho giowlli of her oft'epriiig.
11 If regularly given, it lessens the liability lo intestinal
worms, aud an iiijectioii.of haU’-au-ounee of salt with .a pint of
w.ater will often bring them away from tlie large bowel.
12. The body of an animal getting a regiil.ir sup])!y of it
becomes an unsuitable habitSt for the parasite world in general ;
joUBcqueiitly, it is a higldy valuable agent as a )»i-evcativc
against the attack,s*of these iiests.
370
THE INDIAN AGRKJULTUHIST
October 1, 1883.
13, For ptevenling unil Mrt’fisting putrefaution, sjilt in clicap
and effectual, and statids on the list of antiaeptica next after
carbolic acid. For antiseptic purpose* it i* advantageously
conjoined xvitL carbolic acid. To disinfect skins and other
aiiiuml substances a pound of salt and two ounces of cavlwiic
uckl are used dissolved in a gallon of water,
Ejfectt oj want o/<Setf(.—Experiments have sliowii that animals
deprived qf salt, other than that naturally coutaine<l in the
food, so/ni get heavy and dull iu their temperainonl, fall off in
condition, and have a rough and staring coat. The process of
digestion is materially interfered with, and tliey become in
every way liable to continct disease. It has also been proved
that animals which do not find sufficient salt in their food or
drink become less prolific, siud the breed deteriorates.
Furgative (to empty the bowels)
Alterative (to alter the constitu¬
tion fiom a diseased to a
healthy state)
Stomachic (to improve tlte ap¬
petite and promote digestion)
Dorn.
Buffalo , , l-i to 2 lb.
Ox ,, 1 to li ,,
Sheep and
goats ... 1 to 2 ouuctw.
Buffalo ... 2 to 3outlets.
Ox . . 1 to 2 ,,
Sheep and
gouts ... 1 to 2t1ruulimK.
The stomachic dose may bo
looked upon as a proper
iluily allowance for animals
iu health.
To baJf-growu animals, give half the dose.
Endorsement by W. Wilson, Esq., llircclor of ilcvuniic.
Settlement and Agriculture, dated 20th June 1883.—
OFFICIAL PAPER,
EXPEKIMENT IN SERICULTUllE.
From J.. B. FriiiEU, Ksq., Director of AgrionUure, Central
Provinces, to the Hkorktabv to tlio (Jhief Onmmissioner,
Central Provinces,—No, ,301, dated Nagpore, the, 23nl July
188.3.
I HAVE the honor to submit the (cllowiiig report on the experi¬
ment iu Sericulture which was conducted in Chiiuhvura
during February, March, aud April of the current year.
2. The object o£ the oxporimont was to discover whetlier tlic
climate of the Satpuras was stiitihle for growing .Jnpanoso silk
on the system which is followed iu tlio Dohru Dun, 'I’ho
peculiarity of this system is that ouly iv shiglc crup of cocoons is
raised in the year, whovoa.s iu Bengal saveral orops arc raised in
Bucoession. The eggs are hatched at Dohra in February, atnl tins
ooooons are ready by the end of March. The eggs wliicli are
retained os seed for the next year’s nrop arc thou sent up to
Mus oorie, whore the comparatively low temperature prcvnuls
them from hatcliiug until brouglit down again to Dehra in the
February of the following year. Iu Bengal, on the other hand, tlic
eggs resulting from tlic spring crop of cocoons aic. ailoweil to
hatch out during the rains, aud the eggs resulting from the
raiu crop are allowed to yield a third crop in tlic autumn. ’J'lie
deterioration of Bengal silk has hcoii ascribed to tliis (tiie
polyvoltiiie) system of culture. The raiu and autuiiiu crops of
worms have to endure a climate whicli is uiisuitalile for them,
and tlio breed becomes in consequence permanently ciifeoblud.
The clioioe liotwocn the Dehra uud Bengal systems lies lictwcon
having one crop of good silk in the year, aud having several crops
of silk of poor quality.
3. In Circular No. 2d F. and S,, dated utli .)unu 188*2, Uic
Qovermueut of India, in the Department of Revenue and Agrienl-
turo, offered to supply tho Administration of these Pruvinoos wltii
2 oias. of silk-woiTO eggs from Mussooric if an tucpuriincnt was
undertaken with them. For sueoessful silk-growing, it is neoos-
savy tliat tlie climate sliould not become very liot until the worms
have tialshed spinuiag their cocoons, tliat is to say, until tlic cud
of March or beginning of April. In ttiis respect the ciimate of
the SatpUra districts in tliose provinces most noaily ro.semhlos
that of Dohra. Tlio station of Chindwara stands at a height of
over 2,000 feet above sea level, and lias o climate typical of tlic
Satpnra region. There were a suiBoient number of mulberry trees
in aud around tho station to provide foliage for a small trial.
It was accordingly dutcriniucd to make the experiment there. 8o
far os managomeut was ooncoriiod, tlio experiment was made
tiiuler exouptioually favoiirahlo cirouinstanoiis. The Deputy Ooin-
mlasioiier, Mr. Tawney, took a lively interest in it, and made
cxoollout arraiigomcuts for its proper oonduot. Tlie immediate
cliarge of the lixpnrimeut was committed by him to Mr. DcLange,
second clerk iu the diatriot otEeo who carried out his instructions
xoalonsly and carofiilly, aud has submitted a very good report.
Siuoo no one iu Cliiudwara had auy practical acquaintance with
silk-roaring it was considered udvisaldc to import a traincil
mau from Dehra, who does not however seem to liave reudorod
mncli roai assistance. His pay and tiavcUing expenses (Rs.
158-14-2) constitute the heaviest ItllRi iu tlie cost of the experi¬
ments.
4, Two ozs. of Japanese eggs were received from Mussooric
on February lOcb, and between that date^ and February 2oth,
3 ox. was hatched out by exposure to the sun. This is circulated
to have yielded some 30,000 worms. Hatohlng was then
disoontlnnad, siuce it was believed that the supply of mnlberry'
foliage would not lie snffioieut for a larger number of worms,—a
belief which was fonnd to be incorrect as events showed that the
mulberry trees which Chindwara contained oould have supplied
food to eight times this quantity. The hatohiiig out of the
worms lias to bo so timed a* to take place when the mulberries
are comiug into now leaf, and might in the present ease have
been effected sooner with advantage. Mr. Tawney believes that
February 5th is, in ordinary years, a safe date to ealoulate
upon.
5. It was originally Intended to creot a cheap rearing shed
of brushwood, but it was found possible to ntilir.e an old
brick cattle-shed, which suited tho purpose well. The
treatment of the worms is described as follows in the district
report :—
“ As the worms wore hatched each day tliey were put into
bamboo trays, with the date affixed, and fed on tender
leaves, out very small.
“ After a few days the stronger worms would come to the top,
aud those were again removed to other trays bearing the
same date ; aud so on, till the contents of each tray were
distriliuted into several other triiys, to prevent overcrowd¬
ing. Tlie worms were not handled, but removed from tray
to tray by means of small pincers, tlio leaves being lifted
with tlie worms on them.
“ For .about 20 days they were kept in trays and then removed
on to tho tables, when they were fed on whole leaves. The
tnblo.s wore olcauod every second day.”
For the first ‘20 days the worms wore fed on detached leaves
cut into small plooos. After this leaves were given them in
branches, twigs and all. The leaf given to tho worms each day
was carefully weighed, aud the total weight of foliage used iu
tile experiment was found to be 50 maunds. The superficial area
of tho trays in which tlie worms wore roared was 130 square
feet. 'Phis is one-third more space than that allowed in Italy,
but ouo-fifth loss than tho space whioli was fonnd necessary iu the
Dehra experiments.
C. The mnlbciry trees in Chindwara were of two varieties,
one having much tlilokor leaves than tho other. Mr. Dutliie,
Suporintuudciit of tlio SaUarunporo Botanical (Jardons, to whom
specimens of both varieties wore submitted, prononnood tlie
thiokev-lonvod one of the two'to be -Voriw ntroiniriiuvta, and
the other to lie Moi'im iinlkn, tke mulberry ordinarily used for
silk-growiug in Bengal. 'I'lio Dohra silk-roiiror from the first
f ircferrod the thickor-loavod variety, aud the I'esults liave showu
ii.s preforoneo to have boon juslifioil. Thu worm-s fed on each
variety were kept carefully separate, aud the thiekdeaved
iniilhevry has been proved to yield much the best silk (sec
para. 12). <
7. Tlio first eocoon was spun on Maroli 22nd, tliirty-two days
after luilcliiiig. Tlic following arniugeiiiunts woro made :—
" To onahle the worms to make their cocoons, whole brauclifia
witli leaves were spread over tliom, the leaves sorviug as
food for those that had not comnieneed at yet ; otiior con-
trivaiioes wore also made by tying 3 branelies of cypress
together and spreading tliom like a triangle over the worms ;
to these they took readily, and the coooous made on these
were cleaner and better than tliosc made under the leaves
aud branches of other tables.”
8. It is interesting to note here the ternperatiiro wliich tlie
worms had to endure. It was recorded three times daily, at 7 A. M.,
2 i>. M., uud 10 V. M. 'I’lic highest tomporatiire registered Op to Marcli
Ifftli, was HO'’, wliicli occurred on five days before tliat date.
The lowest temperature regiatered was 68’, Oil Marcli 20th
and 21st, the thormometor marked 02', and on Marcli 22iid rose
to 94'", which was the maximum registered on each subsequent
day of the experiment. After Marcli 2'2nd the minimum was
never below 72', and on several days the thermometer never fell
below 82". Water was sprinkled on the floor of the slied to
keep the temperature dowu, but it is probalde that it was
uniisiderably hotter tlian a grass shed would have been.
0. Tho cocoons woro weighoJ as they woro cleared each day
from tho tables, and tlieir total ” green” weight was 41 lbs. 12^
ozs. A portion of them were “ sun-dried,” the ciirysalides being
killed by exposure to tlic sun. Another portion wore “ steamoil "
at my suggestion iu the simple manner used by rearers of tussar
silk ill Cluittisgnrli distriots. Tho process is iloscribod iu the rc-
poi'l as follows :—
“ The steaming was effected l>y means of 2 pots ; tho lower was
iiaif filled witii water ; and a wire flour sieve was put on its mouth
into which thecoeooiis, a pound at a time, wore put ; the other pot,
its mouth having been broken off, was inverted over the lower one,
BO os to provciit tile steam escaping. Witliiu 15 minutes of each
steaining the clirysalidos were killed thuruughly, as was tested by
opening a few. The steamed ooooons wore then dried iu tho shade,
weighed aud put away.”
10. When thoroughly dry the cocoons were re-weighod and
amounted to 14 lbs. 14 oxs. 'i’hey hod tiioroforo lost two-thirds of
their weight, those which Wore " steamed” losing rather less
weight (62 pur cent) tliau those “ sun-dried” (68 per cent). They
were tliou despatched to Messrs, 'J'homos and Co., Brokers of
Calcutta, who had kindly engaged to have tlio silk spun and
valued. The spinning was effected iu the Borhumporo factories of r
tho Bengal Silk Company. The cocoons yielded 4 108.6 osis.,®}'
spun sUk, aud tliu following producti possessing uiercantilo
value :—
Tape Chossum
Feshwa No. 1
Feshwa No. 2
Godhur
ox.
10
i
1
October 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST.
371
11. The snooess of the experiment tlopeutk upoa the nuantity,
as well as upon the quality of the silk prodneoil. As regards tht
quantity of produce, it is possible to tost the results by cotnjmriiig
the proportion of coooons to eggs and of silk to ooooous with tbi
ratios which are accepted as tJiu standard in works on Sorieiiltiiri'.
This comparison is eneoted below ; —
Une or., of ca
Four lbs. ofi
yield
ga yield
liy cocoousl
Standard
[from 20 to 2.3 Ihs.
cocoons.
•Vue lb. silk
dry
la the experiinou
under rep ort.
19-S lbs.
1-10 lbs.
The ratio of cocoons to eggs is very nearly np to the standard,
while the ratio of silk to ooooous is above it. This is one of the
most eatlsfootory points in the results, since it proves that the
cocoons were above the average else and weight.
12. Tho best indication of tlie quality of the produoe will bo
atforded by quoting tho Calcutta report. Of the oocoous Mr.
Stocks, the Manager of tho Berhampore silk factory, writes :—
“ I went through tlie oocoous carefully and weighted them.
The nun dried and the tie.amtd appeared niuch of the same
quality. I preferred the latter, and they have given hotter produce,
The double oocoous were not more that 3 per cent, and tlie useless
ones 1 per oeut. 1 should say that these two lots wore worth
tls. 3-4-0 per seer dri/. The mm-drin! ('/liiM iliilk'fi-y onvH were u
poor lot,—2 per cent of double and one-fourth stained. 1 should
say Ks. 2-8-0 per seer dri/ a high value for them.
Tho silk IS very good from tho thick-leaved Mulberry cocoons,
but you will find it does not open so freely ns good silk should ; tho
great heat required to unwind the ooooon is to blaiuo for this,’’
“I made tho silk 1213 deiiiors, and it was earofuliy reeled
so.”
It is uoticoable that tlie worms fed on tho thieUcr leaves of
tho two varieties of Mulberry {Moi'u atruj/in'/iand) gave much
better cocoons than those foil on other variety {.Unriia hnlira),
termed tho China Mulberry in the above report.
'I'lio Brokers’ report on tho spun silk is as iollows :—
“ AVe have examiued the two large buudles of raw silk the
produce of the xnn-di'inl and lt( I'Hi d Ihich-leuivd MuHx rry
fUl'UOIIH. M
“ There is uo noticeable dilforonce between either of these bnn-
rllcs or tho three skoins from the xiiH,-i/eir(l dhina ifn/Ocri'i/,
\A’u report the quality to be decidedly good ; the colour is a good
white, but in some skeins there is n slightly grennisli tinge .mil in
others a leaden shade, It is also Miry eleaii : siniii' slight show oi
small knit, but hardly worth notice except in iis.‘ritii'al report ; tie-
sizo is 12 to I'l deiders, but is not so reliable in this respect as wc
should like to see it. ffowever, without some l•.\perlcnl.■(• of the \ n Id
iiiift nature of the eoeouns the reclers aie liaudiing, tiic^ uicnta
great (lisadvuiitage ; in the present ease we eonsider the leeleis
have been quite as siieeessful aseould be expected--the silk winds
rery well.
“ 'J'lie yHlow xhiii Vi't' have not opened, as we think you would liko
to I'ceidM') it ill u fresh state ; it doulitlc.ss will bear just as good a
report as the others ; the only special remark to make is. though the
colour is bi'iglit, it is not of the bni/huxl."
itwill be noticed that no market vnUic is quoted tor the silk,
bccaiisc, in tho words of the Broker's report—
“ If valued as Bengal raw silk wo eimld not put put the value
higher than Its. 16 to Ks. 17 per fiu tory seer, whereas it is tlie
writer’s opinion that if tho silk be tsubmittod for valuation in Eu¬
rope and is not supposed to be Indian or Asiatic silk, it wlli bo
valued at about 308, nor pound in Loudon, running certain kiinl.s
of European reeled silk, to wit, Broussa, very close.
“ Wo could suggest that you send forward the snmples to Lon
don, Marseilles or Lyons for careful ronort and \ ablation, but if
this be done thew'riter vmituros to counsol you, if you desire to gut
a perfoelly unbiassed rejiort and value, to take some pains to dis-
couiient the silk with India, with wliieli object Iirliaii tickets,
and p.icking should bo destroyed, and .skeiii.s should not
paper , „ , .
remiiiit bundled and tied up as now in packets of tliioo and four
ere they pas.s into the hands of the expert at home. On no aeooniit
Hoiid forward any of tlie cocoons—chassuin oi other w'nsto : these
would serve as n eoiiuceting link.
“ In conelusiou we have only to remark that ilie Bengal Silk Com¬
pany work the filatures formerly owned by Messrs, dames Lyall
and Co. This company would like to seeiiie a gooil supply of siieli
cocoons as they have reeled for your departmeiit, and wi‘ .au l they
will bo glad to learn that your (iupartmeiit sees its way to mere.is-
the production and to know at what rate this i.s evp-eii d to taki-
plaoo." ,
The silk was therefore of a quality greatly suponur to that ordi¬
narily produced in Bengal, aud equal to certain clasae.s of Eu¬
ropean silk,
13. Messrs. Thomas aud Co. have favoured me with the follow¬
ing additional remarks on the waste products (Chu.ssiini, Ac.) meu-
tiouod at tho conclusion of para. 10:—
“ Besides tho raw silk produced from the cocoons wc loturii you
the waste or refuse, which some 20 years ago had only a
1 *' '^inol valffc.”
Tape Chamiin appears very good of it.s kind, but wo can’t say
that the mluatiou we now put on it of Es. J 7 .' 5 p''(' /iTrlori/ imixiid
would bo obtainable, because it is uihHe ; as a rule, there is a pre
iudioo against ic/tife Benijcd Chasmm, bueausu at the dyupot the
white of Bengal silk and Ciinssum can't be relied on os true white,
and not being a yellow, it beoomes a bastard colour. But in tho
w'riter's opinwn this white CtUHSum will prove perfectly reliable as
a white silk, and with ooiisumors’s iinuds set at rest on this point ,
tho valuation of Us. 170 ought to-day to lie <’htainablc, B.s, 170
is an e.xtreinely high value. Tliis class of Chassum lias never sold
so liigli in formei yeara, Last year K». f 60 was the i ate, the pre¬
vious year Us. 1-10, Bi-fore these years tho price ranged between
Us. l^ anti Us. 1*10 per factory mauud.
/''Bi/port iVii. _ 1 is Worth nwu’ly as muoli as the Tape Chaksum,
selling along with it iu tin- contracts we pass,
Ati. 2, wortii about Us. 80 per factory mauud.
Vurlfiitr or Z/irm liimia maxlc and husks, worth about Rs.> jjp
1-1 Tlie experiment may tlieroforu be pronounced to have been
a comploto 8uuues.s-. ft wins, it is true, on a very small seale, but
the results are sufiioioiit, I think, to eatablish beyond doubt that
excellent silk can he grown in tho Hatpura tract, If eggs were im¬
ported from Mussoono, and only a single crop taken iu the year.
And in addition to this, tho experiment was eonduoted With to
■nuoti oare, as to furuisli a number of reliable data which will be
extremely useful iu tho event of sericulture lieing taken np on a
large scale. On this subject, whioh is directly counocted with tho
oxtonsioii of mulberry plantations, I will do myself the honor of
addressing you in a separate commnnioation.
1.3. I’iic total cost of the e-xperimeiit was Only Rs. 292-14-6,
considerably iiioiv than half of which (Us. 158-14-2) was iuoiirrod
on the salary and e.vpeiises ol tlie silk-ruinu- iiiiported from Bchra.
Economy is tlieieforc another pciiit fer which Mr, Tawney is to be
giatiilated on liis niauageuieut.
J. B. FULLEK,
Otfg. Director of Agriculture.
SELECTIONS.
THK ONT.VRTO AUIilCULTUitAL COLLEOK.
Bv Prof. \V. A, fiitvitv.
F t was early on a bright morning of the present mouth tliat I
started irom the hotel in (riiulpli for a visit to tlie Agrieiiltiiral
^'ullege. Leaving tlie quiet little city with its w.llls of dull, grey
imestoiie behind, I passed out on the Duiidos-road, and after a
ii’isk walk of a few minutes found myself at the eollege gate.
The first rapid sweep of tie-eye over the scene brought nothing
.cry intwesting or striking to view ; iu the liaekground on a rise of
'round frimtiiig me sto >d ii hmg tliree-sf.orey biiildiiig of the same
vray limestone as that use,il for buildings in th- city. This iiiaili
luildiiig was Hanked on oin side by n eouple of neat. (lwelliiig.s, and
n tile other liy a eliistei of bin us and imt-tmildmgs, wliilv iu front
it tin',SI- liisl, Inilf hidden in the trees, stood a gi'iieii-lionsn. The
'.loitiid ■ in tioid, of the 10 111 ! Iiiiildiug Were treeless, ami having
leeii reeeiitly ploughed np, l.i> bare aud brown.
Tn one brought up in till-United .States where the idea largely
uovaiis Hint inimeiis > buiidmgs are prime factors in the make-up
li a eollege, the siglil was not v-ei-y propososaing, and yet this
ii.stitntinu, ',itu.<l''d away In oiio side of the eeutro of our Americau
ivilizutioii anil <tlmo.st on the outskirts, iiivs of into attracted much
ittnulion tiimi thu.se studying the problem of iiidnstrial ediioation,
aid eaiised many persoiis like myself to make lung pilgrimages,
von iu some eases from aero-ss tile Atlaiitio to study tlie oauees
f its Hiionn.ss. In the Uuitod .State.s we have .scores of colleges
vitli buildings fai more massiyo than those, and whose age roudors
iliem venerable compared with this new thing, yet tlleir famo has
icaroo o.xtended aoros.s the borders of the county iu wbieh tlicy
ixist.
But I have kept tho reader entirely too long outside the grounds
outomplatiug tho earthy campus and tlic gnay-stouc buildings,
w.i 1 not long iu making my way to the olUue of tlie prcsulunt,
Jims .Mills, who gave mo such a weloome tliatl felt atoase at
nee. With him as guide, the professor of agrieulture was soon
ouiid, and 1 uow hail my two main sources of intormation at hand,
lul me give to the leader some of the facts gathered.
3'ht.s college ueconiiiiodatcs 131) ugrieultiifttl stmloiits, who all
estdu 111 the main hiiildiiig under the direct supervision of the
iresideut. Each eaiididiitn lor adiiiisstim has to pass a thorough
xumiuatioii in the eoinmon English briaiohu.i upon entering. The
oui'se of study is two years in length, and is made to oomblue
olli the praetioal and theoretical. All stiideiits naturally fall into
ne of the two classes—“ First Year” or “ .Second Veav” students,
iaoh class works daily li'o houis in the fields, bams or workshops,
,iid have Hvo hours for study aud recitation. The work and reefto-
, lions of the two classes alteniatu ; thus, while tho (Irat-yeor boys
are willi tho professors in the elass-room during the forenoon, tho
j H.-i-om! year students are employed, under tho giiidaiiei! of proper
I siiperiuloiujeuts, at manual labor in tiie fields, barns or sllO])S.
During tlie afternoon the order is reversed. For this manual
] labor tho student is allowed from four to ten cents per hour,
according to his ability. Hi.s earnings arc credited on hit board
aceoiiut. For board, wasliiug and Tiglits the cost is about ten
dollars fier mouth. The cost of the year's schooling is, to a
good, working student, not over sixty dollars per year for all
expunaes, cxecpt clothing.
All students are treated alike as to hours of labor, and the
ouilca.onr is to make each familiar with nil the varied farm opera-
tioiis. To he su'd, with only a two-years’e Hii'Se, and half ol tho
day spent in tile field, no extended courso of i.istniotiou can
be given ; yet, since uo time i.s .spent on any foreign language,
the student is given a fair start at least in sm.ii soieuces
as botany ami ehoniistry, •id U given a g'Xid drill iu
Engli-sii. 3,'lie range of study’and thoroughness is more than
one would suppose at first thought. The average student
leaves tho oollego ai* intelligent man, if not an educated
October 1, 1883.
THE INUIAN AGRIQULTtJRIST.
uu«. It is tu the practlotil operations' that this school
exeels. Let me lUnstrato hy shovrlog how the yotuig men are
tonght in regard to stock. When Vrofesior Brown takes up this
topTa, hie leotnros are lilnstratod by the Uviug aninuils. When
talkiirs obont Short-horns, for iiistaaoe, a bull or a cow of thU
breed li led Into the lecture room aud studiod. Before the subject
is left, several Imlivkluals are brought In at once and eotnpared.
After this course with each breed,' ropretentatives of different
breeds are placed before Bie class, as HereforJs, Short-boras and
Bolted Angile, and oontparisens made. Nor does this end the
matter. }^h student must pass an exainination upon these loc-
lures, aud In a most rigid way. When being examined the stn-
dant'ia aloae In the room with the stodk, the Professor and some
S "oal stockmen chosen for the occasion. It is not to be won-
atthat ^eie young men become very profluient in each
matten. It U la ways like this that the whole farm is made to
serve aa lUustratioh.
Thefarm is Very oompleto, and I vdsh this whole paper could
be glvea up to an aoeouut of it. It eonsists of S50 acres of ohoioe
lanm There are' twenty-one fields of twenty acres each ; there
are seven fine teams of work-horses and all sorts of farm
machinery, without limit, almost ; there arc uii the farm seven
breeds of oaMIe, six of sheep and three of swine.
The oolite is now about to take a step In advance. Several
years ago, |l0,000 were spent iu blooded stock. ThU has paid
handsomely, as over 915,000 have been realised for surplus stuck
Hold out of this herd. This fall they propose to hold a clearance
sale aud re-stoek the farm with a larger number of aniimlsofa
liigbm' type. Not only is tliore to be a great ohauge in the etock,
but the oollege grounds are to be mettunorphosed. Mr. Miller,
who IMd out Falrmonnt Park, Philadelphia, has been employed to
remodel the grounds, aud the work has already begun. This ac¬
counts for the large lawn in frout of the main building beiug
ploughed up, os mentioned at the begimiiug of this article, in place
of their present small green-hnuse they are to -have oue oosting
over teu thousand dollais, aud all the barns are tu be torn down and
new ones built on a new site. 'J'lioso progressive ilmiigcs are a
measure of what the Ontario people think of their agricultural
coUege.
President Mills infornred me that if lie wished he could fill this
school with young men from England alone, and that the cities of
Canada would over half supply the list. UU endeavour, however, is
to liave the sons of farmers from Ontario fill the school. So long
OB this is not tlie case outsiders will be admitted. Last year
iUteeu young men from England were iu atloudauoe, Ireland and
SootUnd sent three each, aud Turkey, Wales, the United States
and West Indies each sent one. Each term he has to refuse many
applioations.for aUmission. Presideuc Mills says tliat so far us he
knows every eludenf who eamt to the OoUftjit from the farm ha* ip’H*
hack to the/arm wlwa th-oiigh. Lot those who claim tliat education
drives young men from the farm ponder over this statement.
The reasons for the success of this school can be found iu the
men and the methods. Those in authority have turned thcmaelve
squarely to the farmer* of Ontario, and sought to know what uiidor
present uouditlous should he taught to their sous to make good
fai-mora out of them. They have uot looked to classical colleges
for guidance, but have been governed by the needs of the com¬
mon people. Who could expect anything but success whan sneh
methods nave been employed f No wonder money is beginning to
flow towards this School like water, and both political parties of
Ontario are claiming the college as their own particular child.
M'ltliOut fear of suooossfnl ooutradiotion, I call it the model agri¬
cultural college of Amovica. Loss than ton years of age it is fairly
rooted iu the hearts of the farmers of Ontario. Eow can it have
other than a blight future ?
It was the afternoon of the second day when I closed my visit,
I felt ns I left that I oould profitably stay a week stadying the
reasons why this young school was so rapidly gaining distiuctiou.
— Fanner* Renew.
AGRICULTURE IN MOZAMBIQUE.
T he only agrioultural industries that can be said to have firmly
and suooesifuUy establtsbed themselves in the provinoe of
Mozambique, appear to be those of the uultivation of the oil-
producing plants, Ametidoim and Oergelim. The production of
these, says Oonsul O'Neill, together with the colleotion of ludia-
rubber, oalumba root, and orcbllla weed, forms five-sixths of
the total exports of the province, This cultivation, and the
labour requisite lor the ooUeotion of the latter products incutlou-
«d, is oondnoted solely by the natives. Efforts have been made,
from time to time, by the Portuguese and other colonists, to
Introduoe the o.ultivatioa of othor produce for which both the
climate and the soil are especially favourable, but none have
been thoroughly snooessful. Of tho greatest importanoe have
been the enoMvours in various parts of the coast to raise sugar,
opium, tobacco, and coffee. As the cultivation of amendoim and
geiyelim is entirely in the hands of the natives. It follows, as a
natural oonieqncnee, that every stage of the working is of a
most rude aud primitive kind. The thousands of acres that are
iitiUse4 uul tlvatiou of the seeds ate cleared in great part
with ail axe of native make, of tomahawk shape, suu with an
edge hati^ly two inches in length. In some itarts, partioulskrly
In the'Stu^ean settlements, a species of biU-houk U also used
for clearing the undergrowth, but these two form the only tools
of the Mokua forsst-dearer. The vast area of country cleared
is then turned over .both men au|i|aromaa with a rough aud
olumey hoe, also of make, the slow working of whiob
entails an enormous atw onneoeasary oonsamptiou of labour. In
tbs sowing of futendoftltf bole# , are made in ^.he ground some
little dlstanoe aparij generally three or four feet, to allow space
for the creeper to radikte. This ts neually done With a sharp-
pointed stiok. One seed—care Is taken that It Is only one, as
the natives ducWo that the nowtb of two or three will strangle
each other—is then dropped ui each other hole, and the earth
stamped over by the feet. In the sowing of go'yelim, the seed Is
broaooast os with grain, and scattered thlohly over tho ground.
The sowers are then followed by othsu with hoes, who work
the seed roagjily into the ^ound, stamping the whole in with
their feet. Care and thermore mudi Lahom- is required to keep
the ground clear of weeds that spring up in this olimste and soil with
astonishing rapidity, and throughout the growth of both these
plants, the plantations are oarefaHy tended, Iu the reaping or
collection of amendoim, the planti are simply pulled up by hand,
aud the tubers taken off a« with the common potato. They are
then laid out to dry iu the sun, and when thoroughly dried, are
shelled by hand for the extAstiou of the seed, an operation
requiring considerable time and patienee. With gergeUm the
plant is In some districts literally reaped, but singly and by hand,
with an ordinary knife. In others the plants are simply palled
up out of the ground; In the latter oasc they are then cut about
a foot down tho atom. The plants are now tied into imatl
bundles, which arc struck In the ground in the sun till thoroughly
dried, when the seed will drop readily off. Largo mats are then
spread on the ground, tho biiudles taken up and shaken vigorously
over them till all the seed have thus been extracted. With
both amendoim and gergelim tho seeds are then packed iu baskets
of native manufacture, aud oarKed on the heads of the blacks,
iu some oases a distance of fifty or sixty miles, to the house of
the coast trader, there to bo bartered for cloth, beads, power,
&c., aud to be stored till an opportunity ooenrs. The sugarcane
is cultivated by the natives upon most parts of the coast where
alluvial soil exists, but only in iusiguifioant quantities, and to bo
used by them as a sweetmeat, or for the purpose of ehowing.
The only part of tho province where Its growth has been attempt¬
ed upon any considerable scale Is In the rtcli soil of tho Zambesi
delta, oud by the Portuguese planters of that district ; munerons
plantations exist there, and the Cane grows luxnrlouHly upon
them. The only use, however, to which the oano has, up to the
present time, been put, is that of tho distillation of spirits.
Consul Baring says, that beyond the Zambesi, there are many
places in tlio province eminently adapted for the growth of the
sugarcane, and which possess easily accessible and secure peris
for discharge aud ahipmciit. Amongst these may be mentioned
Mwambi Bay (Pomlia), Mwcndazl ^Mwemba), the western slioi'c.s
of Nakaha and Nihogehe, on the branches of Eeruao Veloso Bay,
and tho country to the south aud in the vieinity of Mokainbo
Bay. Xobaooo. though cultivated as an article of oommercB for
export, has uot met with nmoh success, as the passion for the
weed has beoouie deeply rooted in the natives of the coast and
interior, so that it is' oultivated by them iu many parts of the
provinoe for their own cousnmptiuu, and forms a regular article
of sale and barter amongst tnomsulves. The tobacco leaf ii
dried very carelessly by the natives, and is made up in a peculiar
way, as follows : —It Is first plaited, and when the plait has
reached a length of three or four feet, it is wouud up iu the
form of a spiral. Uruilnally drying In this shape, it preserves
its form without any binding, and it is unwound ami cut off in
short pieces w'hon required for use or sale. This mode of pre¬
paration is iuv.ariablo among the Makua and Yao, between the
kooumu and Zambesi. Consul O’Neill says, tlmt “ wore the
natives instruoted In soma simple method of drying and pressing
the leaf, the valuable product would bo probably brought down
by them in conaidorahle quantities, affording, as It would do,
a larger margin for xirofit tUau does tiie oullure of oil seeds, aud
it iniglit become a regular urlfcle of colonial manufacture and
export.” Amoug the many plauts useful to eomineroc tliat grow
wild on tho coost laud and interior of Mozambique, may bo
mentioned the oastor-oil plant, the senna plant, a species of
saimparilla, the oapsicum, or oommou red pepper, used by the
natives witli their food, but as yet not gatliered by them for
sale, in spite of tho efforts of some merobants to induce Its collec¬
tion ; and the pine-apple, the fibre of which has been lately
proved to be a valuable substitute for tlax,~Journiil of tho Soring
0 / Art*.
FRENCH AGRJCULTURF.
rpHEsupply of Peroherons is falling short, and the Government
X is anxiously studying Iiow to remedy the evil. Two measii res
are under consideration to prohibit altogether the exportation of tlie
horses, and to augment the number of State lireeding studs. Le
J^orolio, from wliieU the iiaino of tho race of horse in question
takes its name, was an aiicieut region of France, aud with Beanco,
may, for general purposes bo included in Normaudy. It is a country
fall of beautiful valleye, is fertile, well-watered, and oontaluing
fresh pasturages of excellent quality. The soil is argillaceous, but not
impervious. At the same time tlic water does uot pass off rapidly.
Thus it is favourable for herbages, Including among others, peas,
vetches, and sauifoin, and iu some instances luoerue. Ths country,
too, is well wooded, thus affording shelter and shed for the
animals. There h no proof that the Feroheron horse is of Arab
origin. From time immemorial, from paintings aud tapesEy work,
he appears to have been a good, general animal, of wliioh a Seleotor''
number were kept for draught. Till lust century the breeding and
rearing of these horses was a monopoly in the hands of the rich
laud-owners aud the monasteries. The young Perohon in Ut^e
days remained in the oonufery till the age of four years, and
was purohased on the farms in Perohe and Betmos, as also
in the fairs of Sure-et-Loir. Here the dealers from Paris
came to make their ohoioe for potting and carriage horeet.
The army buyers, too, competed for the wanti of tho
October 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
:i7:i
oATalry, and above all, of the artillery. The preaent practice ia
more varied. Some tell the foala at the moment of weaning.
Ottien'bdy them at the age of sIk months, and sell them when
thirty moutht old. While, again, in the Beaoee, the aulnial,
UoMhtwheu two-wd-half years old, is trained to light work, and
sola when aged five years, at a good profit, their work and man¬
ure paying for their keep. Strabo relates that the Satrap of Armenia
sent every year to tiie King of Peraio 20,000 yoitug horses for the
fete of Mitbra. The supply of Peroherous U not equal to this,
but the demand is endeavoured to be mot by spitrions animals soht
from the ueigbnnring departments, espeoiaily from Bretagne,
Anjou, Maine, Ao. 'Clie foals are loft to suckle tlieir mottiers for
five, si*, or seven months ; tliose that are not woanerl till eleven
months are not considered so good as the others. The foal begins
to follow ita motherfrom Iho ninth day, and, when aged about
two mouths, commences to take solid fo^. Weaned ordinarily at
six months,the foals are allowed to live together till the ago of throe
oats. Shoeing is undertaken at this age. The foro-feet are shod
rst, and six mouths later, the hind feet. In Le Perohe the farmers
seleit the mares best suited for their purpose, and what most eon-
tributes to give fixity aud homogeneity to the race is, the exi-
i^noies of Paris, which requires auiinals strong aud full-bodied.
Hence there is a uniformity of aim in loieoting mares. The same
observation applies to stallions, which oliieny come from the
Besuce, though they may have loft Le I’oruhe wheu very young.
Althongli in the latter country ttiore are marcs of all sizes aud
corpulence, there is a family likeness among tliem all, duo to
climate and local causes, Farmci-s have land of various qualitl es,
and place thereon foals of different varieties ; food becomes thus
adapted to speoial typos. The great point witli the breeder is,
to liave a good marc. With a good iiiaro yon will liavo good
fillies. If you want bus and cavalry iiorScs, reject all Arab aud
Guglish blood. If you want borses for the saddle, keep sucii blood.
There are two clnssos of Porcherous, the large and the small,
the former being frctjuently confounded with the Jionionais
foals. Whether light or heavy the Porelieron is required for the
rapid transport of vehicles and goods, and ought to unite nil the
elements of zootcchnic beauty in hone and muscle. The eyes
ought to be largo, the head small, and taporiug towards the nose
and mouth ; skin fine, no coarse hair, head elegantly placed, and
the shouldei'S well detached from tho withers. 'J'ho body of tho
mare, always longer than that of the horse, must not be too long ;
back straight and horizontal wL' croup : trunk of tail thiu and
springing well from the hoiglft of the oroup j a broad croup imii-
oates good notion in hind legs, as a wide ehnst presumes tlie
same in the fore-legs. The legs ought to ho straight, large, aud
possessing little hair—tufts of hair and thick skin indicate liahi-
lity to illness. A skin, tine'to touch and sight, ought to charac¬
terise the whole body. Qroy-colorod gnimals are not to he
rejected. Avoid animals with hard tumors on the logs, Ac. ; the
Jeet should not he too small, nor too large, Tho stable ought
to be well-airod by ventilating chimneys, and light freely
admitted. In the fields the coTts ought to be sheltered. lii
Hungary snob is effentunliy scoured by tliroo walls. Peed well
without prodhoiiig fatness. A mate ought always to bo in good
couditioii. Carrots aud parsnips are excellent. Indeed foals
have been reared on carrots alone. Water breeding maros twice
a day. If from a well, allow tho water to auquiro tho temiMjra-
tiue of the smrounding air, or employ a liiuidful of bran. A
little salt is good. When 2J years old, when tho first milk tooth
eommunce to fall, colts can be set to light work, avoiding as
nineh as ])osslble that of a pulling or violent nature. In fact the
Cist cflbiks ought to be exercise, not labor. In conclusion, to
have pure Peieherons, purchase them ou tho spot from the broed-
ders. M. Schultz of Lupitz, Germany, is creating sometjiiug like
a sensation by his system of culture of saudy soils, rotating pota¬
toes, rye, olovor, pasturage, and lupin. His theory is, that
lupin especially, and clovers, ti* atmospheric nitrogen in tho soil
the more so wheu aided by -the salts of potash, if applied in the
form of kainlte, which is but sulphate of potash. As for atom-
Hpherionitrogen, Ac., that is a point ou whicli scientists ore not at
all agreed. But deep-rooting plants like clover aud lupine (from
lupuJ, a wolf, its roots being so ponefrating and voracious), may
induce oombinatiou In the organic matters of tho soil, so as to
induce nitrification more largely. W. Schultz employs a good
deal of marl, an essential for lupine, lie applies 41 cwts of
kainlte per acre, and obtains in lupine a yield of 11) cwts. of seed and
li cwts. of straw. While not accepting as demonstrated, that
potash favors tho absorption of atmospherio ammonia, it renders
tlie phosphorlo acid in the soil soluble, augments the consistency
of sandy lauds, keeps the eartli fresh, and so aids vegetation.
Harvest operations m the south of France arc disappointing, but
in the central and northern regions tho yield is expected to ))e
more satisfactory. The vines sadly want heat. Tho flowering,
the oritlcal stage, passed off most satistaotorily. As for tlic
phylloxera, Its march is ever forward. The malady is eating its
way snroly over France. Prospects of sugar beet ore exoelleut.
M. Bkmley still maintains that It is bettor to feed pigs on the I
oooked curaosses of disoasod animals than to bury the latter.— j
Jdadrw Hail, I
FRENCH AGRICULTURAL NOTES.
D uring the season of sugar-making the manufacturers enrploy
the services of young chemists, at 200 fr. per month, to
analyse the best offered for sale, and on which the price depends.
The season terminated, the oliemists are di6uiisse<l, hence, the
diflBouUy of obt^ing their services later. It is proposed tliat
for the future the sugar manufacturer employ tho chemist all the
year round ; that in the slack period ho could superintend experi¬
ments afl'oeting tho growth of Sevoml vatietios of beet, tho distance,s
at witioh it is best to plant them, the efficacy of several manttres,
Ao. It Is also proposed that the fabriennta supply farmers, and
at wholesale prioes, not only with seed, but with appropriate
manures. The prospect of tho Iwot crop ia excolltut ; tho weather
is propitious for the young plants.
Head Veterinary Inspector Bonley confirms his assertions, that
the flesh of animals killed in tno knockers’ yards, even tliose
diseased, can be given without danger, if well ooriked, to pigs
during tlirir growth. It must be disooutinued, ho'A'Sve-, during
. the fattening stage,
j Mores, Of the residue of the wine-pross, have proved to be as
I good as pressed beet-pulp for feeding. Hitherto they have not
boon utilized. Sheep thrive well on the diet. It is best to
employ marcs for the first feed of the day, and to mix with the
other rations. A little oii-oake makes an exoelleut mixtum.
There exists an erroneous impression that for ensilage or trench
food a spoolal voriety of maize is necessary. This is not so.' All
varioties have alike been tested in Krauee without any tUfforeiiee
being peroeptlblo, Tho main object is to obtain tho seed free
from damage, so that its gurminative power shall remain sound.
The next euii is to sow in lines from ID to 20 iuches apart. 'J'his
allows of weeding ; larger spaoos ilidiuu' tho growth of tlilck
stems, which nooessitotc the use of tho oh.atf cutter bofoi'e tho stuff
. lie tianudwtl into the trench. Maize for ensilage can be sown from
May 1 to .inly 12 ; but, in Franco, llmt sown between May 15 and
I elimo of .Juno succeed In'st ; 1). cuts, of to the aero. Tho
speeinl iimiiurcK consist of nitrate of soda, sti|)i'rptio.spbate of lime
chlorate of potash, diiuil blood, or wool-dust ; bone-dust can
supei-scde the superpltiMphatc in many suits, aud wlioii faroi-yard
manure is employed the fertilizers can he reduced by two-
thirds.
M. de Holliero's plan of preserving eggs fresh is worth knowing,
sinee it Is practised by merchants who deal so with twelve milliuiis
of eggs annually. The eggs, whan laid or quite fresh, are gently
struck against each other, to see if they be “ sonnd next they
are placed in a kind of eartlion pitcher, having a very narrow
Ijottom ; when the vessel is full, a soluMou of quarter of an ounce
of quick linui to one quart of water is poured iu. Tho lime water
permeates the shell fill it leutohes the fiist nioinbriuio, rendering
the latter impen tons. 'J'ho piteliers aie thru placed in a cutlar,
from where all light is owliided, but a uniform temperature of 44
to 4lt degrees Kin, imitormly maiiitainod. In the course of a few
days a pellieto forms on tho surface of the water in eacli piteher —
oarbomite of lime—aud that must never he broken till the inomeut
for withdrawing the eggs. This prooess emibles the eggs to be
kept fresii for 0 to .S mouths, and not mors than five in a thoiiHanil
prove objeotionablo.
A gardeui'r keeps Ids frames and hothous«.s free from slugs, by
luixiug sulphate ol copper with wlieatun bran. The odour of tho
latter attracts the enemy to curtain death. Keep poultry, how¬
ever, from the sbiili.
'J’he vineyards ni'o in excellent uondition. Unhappily, tho
phylloxera eontimiea its onward march. Of all the loineilies pro¬
pounded, aiitumual fnundaCious, followed by good spriug nianur-
iiigs, is the rao.sl iiupulivr. All attempts to auelimatise the tuber-
uular annual, Soudan grape, iu France, have now been aban¬
doned,— Fill ini'fi,' JO'fi/’w.
BREEDING SEED DRAIN.
rjllIE term “ breeding,” as applied to grain, will be regarded a.s
.JL misapplied. But it more clearly represents the idea in the
mind of tho writer than any other that could be chosou. ,Stock-
breeding has for years engaged tlie attaution of sclentlhc and prac¬
tical moil ill this aud Giirope, and the results are seen iu the im¬
proved breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, swiue and poultry through¬
out tho country, while their iiifiuBiice iu grading up tho eoiimiou
stock is seen ou almost evoy farm and ranch. The gardeners, nursery-
men, seedsmen and florists have brought aliout groat improvement
iu vegetables, fruits aud flowers, improviug old varieties, and devis¬
ing new .and valualilo ones, IJiit no such oaroful, painstoUing,
BcioutiSc effort has Ijeeu directed to ti. ■. improvomont of the seeds
of grain wliioii form the staple of the farmer*’ crops. If improved
varieties linvo been iiitrodnoed they liave largely boon the result of
aocidentul hybridizing or have been bionglit from distant looalities,
and under now oouditious have fora time proved superior to
varieties previously crown. There lias been no eai'oful //rserfiny for
Improved varieties or improvement In quality, as has been the ua.se
with the live-stock men, the gardoiiors, mirscrytnen, and florist.
It is, perhaps, inoorreot to say thoi-e lias been no effoi'i in this dirce-
tieu. iT^hat ia meant is that it lias not by any moans iieen nouoral,
or to any aueli extent us to make itself felt in tho agricuTtiire of
the country. It has in no case passed beyond the stage of
experiment in the hands of few individuals, yet such expenineat
iiidloate, if indeed they do not demonstrate, that by a cai'efiil
system of “ seed-broediag " as great an improvement can be made
upon the grain crops of the country as wo already see has been
wrought in the live-stock interests, the improved quality
of which la not ouly a source of greater profit to the
individual faiunor, but odds immensely to the value of our
resources as a nation. The average yield per acre of wheat aud
corn iu this country for the past ten yoars has been (omitting froe-
lioua), twelve bushels for wheat and twenty-sevou for corn. It
by improving the quality of the seed of tlie.so two crops the yield,
without Improved oulturo. could be increased 50 per oent, it would
' add to tho annual InoomJ^tf the formers of this country on the
basis of last year’s yield, at$l per bushel for wheat and fiOc. for
corn, no leu a sum than 670 , 000,000 of dollars, to over 613
per capita of A»ur entire population, and yet it U ttoraliy
n74
October 1, 1888.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
iwt ,uertaiu that by punaiug os oarefut a system of s^oil
breeding as baa been pursned in stuck breeding, sucb an ini*
provcment oonld Im wrought out, as it is that a thorough-brod
or grade' short-liorn or Hersford steer is worth mote and
pays a larger profit than the native surah. The same principle
of breeding is applicable in both oases. Selection of the
i)est and breeding or propagating from that, taking care that the
Btouk is not allowed to deteriorate. In live stock the selection is
not difficult. In grain, Itow to select the best is a more difficult
problein. lint it is being thought out by cleror and entiiuslastic
exporhnenters. The pioneer in this movomont, so far as is
known to the writer, is Major Hallett, F. L. S.. of nrightuii, Eng¬
land, who commenced his experiments in 1861, and has since con¬
tinued them, an interesting account of wldch appeared iu the July
number of the Popnlar Science Monthly, He finds that in the
cereals no two grains or kernels are exactly alike in prodnotive
ower. That In every head of wheat or other grain there U one
ernel, which greatly excels oU the others in vital power, and
which will tranemit to a greater or less extent its character to
all the grains produced from it. Of eighty-seven grains of
wheat from _ two heads planted by him under preoisoly the
same conditions, and iu the same plot, one produeoii ten
licads containing 688 kernels. No other grain produced any-
thliig near this, and the finest ten lioads selected from the plot only
gave 998 kernels, or ninety kernels loss than the prodnot of this
one kernel. The next year he planted the grain from the largest
head of the plant which produced tun oars, planting in a luw
singly, twelve inches apart. One of tho kernels proiUioed a plant
whioh produced fifty-two ears. While tho plants on either side
of it iu tho row produced seventeen and twenty-nine oars respect¬
ively, and the finest of all the other plants produced forty ears,
'J'lie same system of seleotion was pursued each year, tho results
being that the length of tlio ear was doubled, its contents trebled,
and the tillering or stooling-out capacity inuroosod five times. The
general principles wrought out, or tho law uf vegetation discovered
by those experiments, is summnrii^od as fullowa :
I. Every fully-developed plant, whether of wheat, oats or
barley, presents an ear superior in proiluotivo power to any of the
rest on that plant, ‘i. Every such plant cnntalns one grain which,
upon trial, proves more prodnotive than any other. 3, Tlie best
grain in a given plant is found iu the best car. 4. The superior
vigor of this grain is transmissible in different degrees to its pro¬
geny, 5. By repeated oareful selections the superiority is no-
(’nmuiated, 6. Tho improvement, which is at first rapid, gra¬
dually, after a long series of years, is diminished in amount, and
is eventually so far arrested that practically a limit to improve¬
ment iu the desired quality is readied. 7. By still cuutiiiiiiug
to select, tlio impeovemout is luaiutaincd, ami practically a fixed
type is the result,
Tlie practical value which these experiments and results have
for the farmer is In this, that whan a superior variety has by a long
uuursu uf experiment been dcvulnpod, and its character fixed, its
miiltiplioatiuu for purposes of seeding is so rapid that iu a few
years it can bucomo widely disseminated .aitioug the farmers, Th o
variety of wheat known os the wild goose” wheat, it is olniniod,
was all propagated from a single grain taken from tho craw uf a
wild goose. The origin of ail Egyptian w'hoat is elaimod to lio a
few kernels found in tho wrappings of on Egyptian muiumy. Tho
developmoiit of improved varieties of corn is now claiming the
utteutiuii of tliusu in diargo of our agidcultiiral exporimout stations
ami private investigators, .Some important facts have already
lieon developed, and important results may bo looked for iu the
improvement of this crop. Tlie farmer can easily pursue a course of
experiment for tho iinprovemeut of Ins seed corn. This requires a
special patch, not necessarily large, to be devoted to this purpose.
It should be at such distance from any other coin that by no
possibility could tlie ears lie fertilized by tho pollen from any
other field. As soon os iu tassel, every barren stalk should be
out out that the fertilization will only be by fruitful plants.
Selecting the best ears for seed, the same eoiirso could be pur,sued
the next year, resulting unquestionably in a seed that wuulii be
vastly more proUfio than the original seed. An interesting experi¬
ment would 00 to aoloot for planting tlio cxporimental patch cars
from stalks bearing two perfect ears, and remove nut only the
barren stalks, but the tassols uf all on whioh two ears had not
set, ensuring that the entire fertilization should be from stalks
bearing two oars. The probable result of a few years of this
practice would be to so fix the character of tho seed that each stalk
would pvodneo two or more perfect oars.— Parmcru' Heoiew.
THISTLE-DOWN FOli TEXTILE PURPOSES,
A n article on tho suiiject of reooiit experiments with thistle¬
down appeared in the Newcantie Daily Ohronklo of the 28th
June, and was followed by a letter which will be of interest to
our readers. Tlie article was os follows ;—
Considerable interest has been awakened in the textile Lradu by
the recent annonucerncut that anew fibre liad been di-scDveriid in
the shape of thlstlo-dowu. Under any ciroumstauoes, it is only
natural that on ounonueoineut such os this should have caused a
momentary flutter in manufacturing circles ; but when onr nelgh-
liour, Mr. Fenwick, of Stocktoii-on-Tees, is bold enough to pro¬
phesy that thistle-down will cuinplotely “.((avoliitlouise the textile
trade,” the matter immediately beeomes one of more than passing
Interest. Thistle-down, we are told, is “ os soft us silk, and al¬
most equal to it iu strength ; piece-goods can be peoduoed from it
at half tho cost of wool ; for felting pui poees it is destined to tako
a high position ; whilst It will enter freely Into competition with
cotton, and also mako tho finest paper,” If all this be true (and
it is only fair to assume that Mr. Fonwiok has reasonable gron uds
for making such emphatic etatemente), it eerUiuly seems prob able
tliat thistle-down will ere long oooupy an important place in our
manufactures. But be this as it may, the fact remsius, t at oer -
tain manufacturers hare been so much impressed with thefa “ pro¬
babilities ” of the discovery, tliat they are giving the matter their
earnest attention at the present momeut. The first point whfoli, of
course, suggests itself. Is with rerard to the praatloabillty of using
the down for textile purposes. Unfortunately we cannot have the
advantage of Mr. Fenwick's personal experlenoe. He is not n textile
manufacturer, although he says that, fur some years post, he has
lieeu " giving attention to the raw inateriaU uso^iby our Yorkshire
and Lancashire manufacturers.” It is not necessary, iiuwever, to go
far afield to find some proof that thlstio-down iiuy be successfully
mampulated iua variety of ways. Among the curiosities of the
Dublin Triennial Exhibition of 1349 were to be seuii two pocket
handkerohiofs whioh had been made from thistle-down and pre¬
sented to tho Queen. The material, it is said, resembled tlie
finest silk. We have also before ns a lottor from a large textile
inauufaotnrer in Huddersfield stating the results of a senes of ex¬
periments which ho made some years ago with tho down gathered
from tho tups of rushes. It is obvious that although the down uf
rushes may bo a good fibre for experimental purposes, it cannot
be compared iu texture witli tho down of tliistles. .Suffioo it to
say, however, that rush-down was found “ easy of inaiiipiilatloii,
and strong and sightly in staple,” But a serious uiistaele present¬
ed itself—tho “ down ” eoulu not be grown in suttieieut quanti¬
ties to rottiuiiorato tho proJue n-. Mr. Fenwick believes that no
sucb obstuelo as this will stand in the way of tlie adoption
of thistle-down. Assuming tliat the experiments which are
now being made by maunfac til lets turn out to their satisfaction
Mr. Fenwick suggests that the vast tracts of waste moorland in
England, iScotlauX and Wales, slionid be utilised for the produe-
tioii of thistles. Ho believes it would pay tho cultivator very
handsomely if he sold liis “ crops ” at a penny per pound. But
what weight of thistle-down could bo grovvii per acre ? Mr.
Fenwick puts the quantity down at throo owts., and he oaloulates
the cost uf cultivation so as to afford a haudsoiue profit thus,
Supposing that a tract of moorland of 5,000 aorcs is takou at 5s,
per aero ; this will represent a rental of £1,250 per auiiitm. Then
lie puts down 2-*. 6(f. per acre as the cost of planting, gathering
&G., which means another £635. To this he adds £150 as the
salary of a general superintendent of opuratious, tiius bringing
the total expenditure up to ,£2,025 fur the year, If thou a crop of
three ewts. were obtained every year from eaoli acre of land and
sold at a penny per pound, tho fucoiim of the unltivator would be,
in round, figures, £7,500, dr an annual profit of £5,470 I Those are
Mr. Fenwick’s figures, aud we give them for what they may be
worth, without protending to express an opinion as to tho basis
of calculation. It will readily be soon, however, how Mi. Feu-
wiek has come to the uuucliisioii tliat the hard-pressed agrieiil-
turisl, may find a fertile source of profit by growing thistles in¬
stead of wheat ! Thu question is one uf widuuproad interest and
importance, Mr. Fenwlok lias already brought it prominently
under the notice of tlio fiidia Oltieo, and pointed out that the
bunnJless tracts of wasti- land in our Iiidi.an umpire would Jill’->i il
a splendid field for the growth of thistles. Tho discovery iil n. \v
fibres is engaging the close attentioii of tho Revenue and Agiictil
tural Dopartineut of the (Jovernmciit of India just now. is
intended to make tho oxtruction of fibres uf all kinds a s'pouial
feature of tbe International Kxh'ibition to be opened at Calcutta
next December; and, in view of thi!i' fact, it is not unlikely that
tliistlo-down may be praotieally tested. In the meantiim', people
at home will await with interest the results of the various experi¬
ments which are now being made ; and, sliunld it 1)0 f'luud that
thistle-down possesses all the advantages which Mr. Fenwick
ulaims for it, there is no doubt tho supply would very soon bo-
uome equal to the demand.
The fetter iu reply is dated July 4th, 1883
Sir,—Reforriiig to your loading article of the 23th Juno on the
above, it may bo wolf to utter a note of waruiiig,'Uot against the
adaptaiiility of thistle-down for textile and paper-making purposes,
but as to the danger of ciUtieaiittp tlfistlos on waste loiins.
Tbistlc-dowii, neiug the seed of tho plaiR, on ripening is
liberated by the slightest breeze, and thus will travel for miles.
If 1 am oorrootly informed, a homc-siok Sootohnian, who had
settled in Australia, missing the sight of his national emblem,
sent home for some seed, the result being, that ouoo sown, the
thistles propagated s>> rapidly as to beeoine an utter iiniaaiioo, as
they sproaxl over a wide tract of country, it being almost impos¬
sible to eradicate them.
Fibres adaptable for paper-making, and some for textile purposes,
can be obtained from nearly every plant of the vegetable king¬
dom, the questions to consider being suitability for the purpose
and cost of production ; to say nothing of the former, I am
afraid tho figures set down at 2-. 6(2. per acre os the cost for plant¬
ing aud gathering would fall verj- far short of the mark, os well as
the yield of three ewl. per acix,
Three patents w'crc taken out m 18.")4 for the manufacture of
paper from thistles, one by J-ord lioi riedale, a Scotch nobleman ;
but those were anticipated in 1800, by one Matthias Koops, a Ik;toh-
man, who published a book contafning specimens of the thistle aJt'*
paper, also paper from wootl, straw, hay, bean-stalks, and sundry
other plants.
I am of opinion that anyone Interfering with thistle will verify
the truth of tho motto “ Nemo me impuiie laoessit "—No one
touches mo with impunity.—1 am, &c.
Tnoa, RtrTLXDQE,
October 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICTJLTlTRIST.
Thera h&va been eavoral petouts for making pupor from thistlos,
viz., that of—
Matthias Koope ... No, 243.“}, August 2, 1880,
Ditto ... ... No. 24S1, February 17, 1881.
Hob. J. Sinolair ... No. 1505, July 8, 1854,
(Lord Berriedalo) Gustavo
Hermann Lille ... No. 2303, Ootobor 30, 1854.
Auguste Edward Levado
Bellford ... ... No. 2540, December 2, 1854.
GRAHAM’S PATENT WOOD PULP PROCES>S.
M K, GRAHAM'S patent, of which a spcollication is now
issued, does not dift'er so materially from that of Tilghman
as to present vciv remarkable features.
The patent te for linprovtments in the method of treating certain
veutaole fibrous substances for the proiluction of fibres for
spring, paper-making, and other purposes, and relates to the
method of treating such vegetable fibrous substances as are capable
of producing fibres suitable for spinning, poper-making, and other
purposes when treated by any of the known processes iu which
the fibrous substances are boiled or stoepeu in a solution of
sulphurous acid, or a sutphito or bisulphite of soda, potash,
magnosia, lime, or other suitable base and water, preferably in a
closed vosBol or boiler enltably protected from the action of the
chemicals used (such a process being described iu the specifications
of Knglish patents No, 2994, dated 9th '
.185, dated Uth February, 1867, taken
...— • - - tl,(,
BO as to
lUv
375
Mr. Grftham prefers fco injeot the sulphurous acid, or tho com-
binatious of the »mc, as above described, Into the vomoJ or botlor
, bottom, and to oaiiae It to come iu ooutect with the solution
therein before rcaohiug the fibrous material, for which purpose he
forms a kind of chamber beneath the boiler, and separated there¬
from by a perforated disc or diaphragm of lead or other suitdhle
material capable of resisting the aotiou of the solutiou, iro as to
allow the latter to fill thu ohamber. To this chamber a pipe iy
couuooted tli^rough which the auluburous acid or a oombinatiou of
the same with a suitable base, as (feseribed, Is forced, or injected by
any suitable apparatus.
It will bo necessary to oout the interior tif the vessel or boiler,
aud the mrts with which the suipurous acid (or its oombioations
descr^od) come m contact, with load or other suitable metal or
matenal capable of resisting the action of the same.
let—Mr, draham’s claim, therefore, is thu treatment of vege¬
table aubstauoos capa))ln ol producing fibron suitable for Rpinuirig,
paper-ruakiug, and other purposes, eltlior in a oloaod ov open vessel
orboiler, first with the normal or raonosulphito of potash, soda,
maguosia, lime, or other suitable base (or a auitabl 0 oombinatiou of
any of them) and water, ami when the gases oonbaiiied iu the
vegetable subatanoea have been driven oflf by heat r**-*
esi»pti from the vosscl or boiler, injcofcing Into th'
i>oilGr sulphurous acid in the gucouA or liquid state
or^ in combination with potash, soda, magnosia,
suitable base (or a suitable oombinatiou of auy of them) and wVtur*
or a solution of sulphurous acid, ho oa to form in the boiler a
solutiou containing an excess of aulphurous acid above tliat nvuiii*.
ed to fnrni ‘ •
2iid—The iujectiou of sulphurous aoid, eitljor alone ■
nation with pot4wh, soda, tuaguosia, liinn, or uUior sui'
ywiimicuiy caiicu tnc noniial sulphite) of pctasli, soda,
magnesia, lime, or other suitable base aud water.
Either of those substances or a suitable combination of any of
them, and water, are placed i.. chc boiler with the fibrous sub¬
stances to be treated, and Ae temperature raised to, or above
boiling point, and after the bydrocarnoiis, air, aud gases natural
to the fiWous Bubstauces have been driven out by the heat and
allowed to escape tlu'ough the valve provided in the boiler for this
purpose, Ilf pumps or iujoota into the vessel or boiler eiilphnrou
acid cither in Ite gaseous or lupiid state, or in combination wit
potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base (or a suitahl
combination of auy of them) and water, in the form of a solutioi
containing an csoess of acid ; or a sointiou of eulphurous acid ma;
lie iniected iu sufficient quantity to produce a sututiun contain
ing an eiccess of sulphurous uoid above that required to form, ii
combination with tlic base, a mouo-sulpliite or normal sulphite.
The valve is then closed and the contents of the boiler agaii
raised to or above the boiling point of the solution, the valve ii
the hoilor being kept closed during the whole time that it i<
noeeesary to continue the operation.
The operation of injecting aulphurous acid or its eoinliiuatious
with potasli, soda, magnesia, lima, or other suitable basr
and water, os above described, may be ropaatoil from time to
time during the boiliug so as to fully inaintuiu, and if necessary
increase the strength and olljcieuey of the chemical solutioi
employed,
According to this mode of treatment a saving of the ohemica
employed is offoctod, little or no siilphureus acid gas being lost
during the time the gaseous hydroearbous and other gaseous or
volatile matters arc being driven out of the fibrous materials. And
further, by first treating the fibrous substances with a mono-
sulphite, the fibres will become impregnated with the same, aud
thorohy protected from any detrimental aotiou that might othor-
wlso oeour during their first boiliug for the purpose of driving out
the air, volatile liydrooarbous, and other gaseous or volatile matter
by heat.
Instead of boiliug the fibrous substances iu the moiio-sulpliito
they may bo soaked in a cold solution of the same, and then steam¬
ed, and the air, free hydrocarbons, and other gaseous or volatile
matters, allowed to escape througli the valve with which the
boiler is provided, previous to tiieir treatment with the acid
sointiou.
In the ease whore ho employs an open vessel or boiler the
operation will he naturally carried on at the temperature of the
boiling point of the solution employed, but the process, aud also
the mode of keeping the acid solution at a fairly uniform strength,
or, if necessary, inoroasing the strength thereof, will he substau-
tially ths ssme as that above described when using a cUised vessel
or boiler, in which latter ease the oporation may bo carried on
either at or above the boiling point of the solution. When nshig
an open boiler it is evident that the eseoss of sulphurous acid
supplied during the boiliug will bn constantly given on in a gase¬
ous state from the surface of the liquiii, and ^ must oousequontly be,
replaced by further injections, whilo the acid given bff can bo led
awa>%iid condensed, so as to enable it to be again used if desired.
In onsos whore the vegetable substances are boiled with water
ill conjuuotion with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other sultahlc
base in the form of ou oxide, the injection of sulphurous aoid or
its combinations with potash, soda, magnosia, lime, or other suit
able base aud water, during the hoilinii, but after the air and
volatile hydroearbons have been allowed to escape, will also be
benifloiali
. .....— aiso a non
iiijoetiou being eifocted after the gases eontaiuod iu the vegetable
substances liavo boon driven off by heat, and allowed to escape from
the vessel or boiler, aud subsequently bniliiig ni heating the same,
all substautial lioroiu dosoribed,—/’,»pc'r.d7rtie/-s’ JouritiU.
THE BREAD-FRUIT TREE {ARTOfJARPUS
rNCm, LINN.).
W HILE then) seems a sort of mania aliroad at present for rak lug
Up, aufl fUKuuasing all aorta ol plauts procluoiug valuable
orimagmaryprofiuotH, reminding ua of thu old herbalUtsf. there
aro aoveral uRuful plantn which seem to bo neglected, ami, an far
^ Ceylon IS uouccrued, womny Instance the bread-fruit tree, in-
tr<><iucocl to tiic island naidy In this century, and of which wo have
only oue variety, aud that a very luferinr onti, bearing only ouco
or twice a y«ar. Mo atlcmpb has yet been made by Qovornnient
or private individuals to introduce bettor varieties, several of
exist in tivo South Soa Islandu, unless it be
tho_ Ifou. h\ M. Mackwood, .whose attempt to introdiiue good
varieties failed in couseiiueuoo of tlie plants having died on their
way to Ceylou, from want of a proper muilo of seudiug thorn, nn
doubt. Tho failure of the uufortunate Captain Blitrh’s first atlomnt
to introdllCO the bmarl.friiif ►for, ai. -
wjunu-uuiL u’ces, aiKi a Vast nun
choice and curious plants. The bread-fruit of Dampicr, Auson,
Cook, Allis and others, which is a iiativo of tho Moluccanand the
South Soa Tsiandb, ts likely to have buou iiitroducod to Coylou by
the PortugucKO or Dutch huforo 171)3, and is known to the natives
M tho mi'a (foroipi) drf. A closo ally of the real broad-fruit, the
dti. AHocarpiis iwhil'iH^ Thw,, and one witii a small fruit the
ArtocuriniR Lakoorhcit Hox., are natives of Ceylon, whilst tljc
jak-troe, Artocappm intfui'i/oUay Idim., Is a doubtful native.
When tho Hov. \V. jCllls, tho accomplished author of PoUMi^wn
visited Ceylon iu 18 j- 1 or 1855 he mentioned tho fact
that we had ruily 0110 variety of tlie foroigu broud-fruit troo in tho
ifiland, an<l that a very inferior otio ; this fact was mentioned hv
Mr. W, Ferguson in bis foot-note to Caincron’a Oardeni
in Ferguaou'a 0V//f^m for p. 218, at
mveral times boon .alindud to in fciicso pages since, aud the
they seoiu to have in the Soiitli Seas in^uy varieties of tho bread
Tuit with Jargu and small fruitH, and of HRvoral qualities, Home of
.hom in fruitat all ficasons, ju.st eh wc have varieties of tlie.
nangoes in Ceylon, iiv.vertholeHs, hero wo aro iu 1883 without any
cgular attempt except the one referred to, to introduce botber
'ariotieH of the broatl-fruit into Ceylon. The late Mr. Dyke,
loverumcut Agent uf the Northern Proviuoo, for many years kept
'otbin^f supplioH of plants from tho Westorn Province to be distri¬
buted lu Jaffna of this valuable vegetable. Our Ceylon variety
boars no seeds, but in the South Seas aud West Indies, they socni
to have seed-bearing ones called or bread-nut tree, and
seedless ones, Apyrnui or brcad-fiiiit tree.
In addition to tlieoxtraeU we give from Bennett’s Oalhpring^ af
a Naiuraliat^ who gives a list of no loss than 24 varieties of the
Infallible, tastclow, harmlosH, cathartic; for fevoriahness, rcst-
lessuess, worms, constipation, As. 10, at druggists. B. S. Mudou
A Coi} Bombay^ Geu, Agoats.
THE INDIAN AGRI<5l7LTOTIST,
Oatabot* Ij 18€8.
hreftil-frult, &ud Horne’R Fm, we would refer our readeve for
further isfotmaUoD t« Ellle'e Polyneilan Heneurches, vol. 1, pp.
39-43, WUliasM’e tAe Si'll pp, 421-23,
for moet infartWtinB facte on the different kinds and Oeee of the
hrei^-frult tree. Wo extract at follow* : —
Kext to the above-mentioned food-plant*, oome* the bread-fruit
(A rtoettrpui inuiati), which i* a most usefnl a* well a* a highly
ornamental tree. It Hoinutiines attains a height of 50 feet, but the
average is from 30 to 40 feet, la general its trunk will measure
about IS feet to the ffrst brauohas, with a girth of 3 to 4 feet. It
in a horizontal branching treo, with a coae-shaped head. The
loaves of the young trees are eometime* 2 feet In length, and from
12 to 13 inohe.s in width. Those of the older trees are little more
than half tliatsute. They are covered with rough hairs, whioli
makes them disagreeable to the touch. Some of the varieties have
leaves do^V Itmd, and those of some others are almost entire.
The fruit of some of these varieties weigh as inooh as 0 lbs. ; that
of others does not exceed 1 or 2 lbs,, and 4 or 5 pounds may be
reckoned the average weight throughout the group. They are in
general cono-abaped, flattened at the base, or spheroid. The quali¬
ty of some of them is exoollont, drv and mealy like a potato ; tliat
of others is watery and insipid. They arc uitlier baked or boiled,
and eaten alone, or with pork or flsh. Sometimes they are made
into puddings, or buried underground, and made into a Mandral
i./i., native bread. At all periods of tlio year there are some of
the varieties in fruit, but the fruit is most abundant from the mid¬
dle of February to the middle of April. In some of the native
towns the traos are abundant, and groups of 20 or more, may fre¬
quently be seen scattered over land which had been cultivated.
Large numbers of trees wero destroyed in the wars that constant¬
ly occurred between different tribes,—the first acts of nn invading
force being to destroy food-plants and fruit-bcaiiiig trues of tliu
tribe invaded.
One or more of tlie varintics of the bread-fruit bear seeds, but the
most of them are barren. It is doubtful wlictlier those seed-bear¬
ing trees are varieties of the Arlot^arpun iucha, or if they do not
form aiiotlior spenjos of tlio same genua. The wood of tlic bread¬
fruit is used for sonic purposes by tlie Fijians, but it is not so good
as that of “ Jack” (^rttieoi^iw intiyi'i/olia) or ths inim-fii'pm
hrinuta. It la loft, light browu, with parolict veins of a ladilish
colour. When-wounded, the trees yield a large quantity of white
stioky juice, which is used for caulking the Beams of oaimcs. The
tree is propagated by suckers attached to a portion of the root
from which the sucker has sprung. The young trees grow rapidly,
and Id tho third or fourth year, after planting, they reach a
lieight of about IG feet, and begin to boar fruit, Tlioy have a
picturesque appearance peculiar to themselves, of which a minute
uesoription would convoy a very indifferent idea.
Tho bread-fruit tree (Arfoccirpw incisu) is one of the valuable
indigenous productions of the Island of Tahiti ; and as
it hears at various periods iu different parts of the island, tiie
fruit can be procured during tho wlvolo year. There is
also a variety witli seeds, culled by a distinct name wliicli I
have seen at Erromanga (New Ueliridos group), and it is
also found at tho NaWgators’ and Marquesas Islands, The
A rtwarpiM delights in rich, moist, and slielterod situations, and
is not found on elevated lauds. The general name for the bread¬
fruit tree is Jlaiors, there arc twenty-four varieties.* A white
viscid juice is ooliocted by iuoisious from tho trunk, which is an
excellent substitute for pitch. This tree attains tlie height of
from 50 to 60, and a circuinforonco of 0 feet. The tinilior is excel¬
lent and durable, and is used by the natives for building their
vcssels, as well as for other purposes ; Its colour is roddisli-brown
iiecoming darker with age ; the sap-wood is light yellow. Home
of the native cloth (named Uobuu ami Aiutiu’) is manufactured
from the bark of tliis tree, after undergoing tho same preparation
as tho bark of the Autc, or Paper Mulbori'y (Browminetm
paj’!/n/ei'a): this latter plant is a shrub, from tlio inner tiark of
which the Polynesian islanders manufacture thoir primitive cloth :
the Japanese are said to use it ui the fabrication of paper.
* 1, Fa/‘.n .—This is a mountain bread-fruit: the fruit is long,
of a largo size, and very rough or tuberoulatod.
2. Hare .—The fruit is round, with a bright opidorniis.
3. Uaire .—One of tho best kinds : it is a largo and round fruit,
with rather a smooth skin, and tho loaves aro moro divided than
iu any of tho other vurioties.
4.
BatUia.
6 . Biisro,
0 .
ItaUDMR,
7.
Arainii.—
-A long fruit with smoth skin.
8 .
Fehi.
9, Peiahnri.
10 .
Tahu'd,
11 .
Piipiia.
12 . Iqfai.
13.
Fatira.
14.
0)iha.
15. OfoA'ui.
16.
Bora.
17.
Oviri.
18. Otta.—
The fruits of tbeso last-named eleven varieties are of large sizo.
19. Pqfara. 20. Afalv .—Both these bear small and
round fruit.
21. Tao, 22. I'afai, 23. Aniiaaii.
24. Maiori maohi (tho comraou bread-fruit ).—Guyivoi Obseroer.
FIBUE PLANTS OF INDIA.
(By J. W« Minchin of Ootacainund, Madras Prosidenoy.)
T Jtlli cuttivatiou and treatment of fibre plants iu India lias
occupied the attention ol tho Society of Arts on several
oeeasious. The great frantanist, pr. Eprboa Royle, first suggested
the inipoitanoe of the nbre-prodi'ciiig plants of India in 1864 ;
and Pr, Forbes Watson, in an oxhauativc jiaper before tho Society,
iu 1860, enumerated the most important varieties; iiavlng,
with Uie aasistapoe of the Indian (lovemment, uolltcted specimens,
and prepared plates r^rManting tl.-sm, '^hick were published
in the Journal of the Society (yol. viii, p. 448). Mrt-Iseoaard
Wray read a paper on Indian -fibres In 1889, *»4 i* kipfid
the subject of an. article iby Mr. P, h. Slmmonds, In 1878.
Notwithstanding those frequent disonsii on* and the tborOqgh,
knowledge tliat lias boon obtained of the valni of the different
principal Indian fibres, and of their oultivatlon and.produotion,
there has been no groat oommsreial movement In the - export
of these fibres, and tbk is due to the diffioulty riiat. has been
oiiconntcTod In tlio treatment ; the cost of preparing the fibre for
market by the native method of hand-aoraping Doing prohibitive,
and no machines or process for tfie economical preparation on a
large scale having) until lately, been introduoed.
For tho valuable fibres strength and brightneu of colour are
essential. The ordinary process of retting or fermentation in
stMnant water oannot be followed.
The oorcAoi'Ht, or jute fibre, is used priDai{ially for -coarse bags,
and such purposes where the strength and oolour of .the fibM is
not important. It can be prodnoM at a very cheap cost ; the
cultivation of an acre of jute- is-eitlmatea at Us. 10 for the
labour, and about haU-a-ton of fibre is. the usual crop ;
while by the retting process, one man can prepare for
market about two cwt. of fibre iu the day. The onltivi^on of jute
has been taken up largely by tho natives iu India. The export
stated by Ur. Forbes Watson in his tables, iu I860, at 83,OQDyOOO
lbs., had amounted in 1874 to 600,000,000, or. seven-fold in tho
fourteen years. For the more valuable fibres this retting process
is not avsilable ; n man oan prepare only 5 lbs. to 12 lbs. of rliea or
Manilla liemp fibre iu a day by hand-scraping, while the waste is
enormous.
llie necessity fur some meohauical treatment has lioen long
recognised. In 1872, the Oovernnient of India offered a reward ,of
£ 0,000 for any maobiue that could separate rhea fibre iu a. green
state, at a cost not exceeding £15 per tan. The uouditiaus were
not fulfilled, but a reward of £1,6(X) was given to Messrs. Greig, for
relatively good results. The reward has since been withdrawn.
The cultivation of rhoa has now been suucossfuUy introduced into
tlic Houtli of France, Algeria, and tiie Houtliei'n Htates of America ;
and tlie attuutiou of soieutifio men to some oheiuical or mechanical
treatment has been coutinued.
There are now two maubincs and two processus that claim to
treat green fibre eucoessfully. Tliis Ijoiiig aocomplished, the golden
Ivopes of Ur. Forlnis Roylo and of Dr. Forbes Watson, as to tho
future of Indian fibre, may be realised.
As the soil and climate of tho hill d&tricts of Southern India and
Ceylon, witli wliioU I Iiave Iroeu conneotod for the past twenty-five
years, seem to ino to be spaoially adapted to the cultivation of
fibre plants, and as tlie introduction of any new industry is at the
iweseut time urgently wanted by the European planters settled in
those portions of our Kasteru Empire, I liave ventured to bring tlio
subject forward again, for tho purpose of urging Itlio ailaptability of
tins unitivatiun to the circumstances of tho lull planters; and tlie
fact that lately invented uheinica) and mechaiiiual prooeases have
supplied tho economical and commercial prospects of success
wliich liavu so long been dosirod.
The following fibre plants are suitable for onltivatiou in tho liilt
diatrioU of Soutlioru India :—Rhoa ( Urticri lUilin) NeilgUeny
ncttlo ( Llrtir.n hete.rophylla\ — these are dicotyledons, or exogenous
plants, the fibresrosidiug in tlieir bark or bast—plantain (itiisa
parailinitieii), wild plantain ; Manilla hemp {Muta texlilia ,) aloo
(Aijavn Amerilann), pine-apple (Bronwlia anauait), wild plne-applo
i Brnimlia syliwuti'U), uioogu, or bow-string hemp {Sameviera zey-
luiiica), miidar (or Calatropia giyunteu )—which are moiioootyledona
or endogenous plants, the fibre# lieing embedded in the pulp of
their roots, stems, and leaves. These, and other kindred plants
are indigenous to India, and can bo‘^cultivated without difficulty.
Kliea (Uriica utilie), Jiuchnieria nivea reniia — China grass — is a
pcreiiuiul plant In China, fields of rhea aro said to last, witli
cate and manure, fur 80 to 100 years. It grow* in Sikkim and
Nepaui at an altitude of 3,(X)0 feet. It ho* been cultivated suc¬
cessfully on many coffee estates in India and Ceylon ; hut it re¬
quires rich unexhausted soil. It grows with the greatest vigour
iu damp warm uliinates. In the islands of tiie Indian Arohipriago
it is cultivated under shade. It requires a light but fertile soil,
but it must be well drained. It is propagated from the separated
roots, from layers, slips, or cuttings ; iu this way five cuttings of
grown stems can lie expeutod iu the your after planting ; from seed
no crop oan bo expected before the third year.
M. Favier dosoribos tho plant as giving out several stems, of
which the number Increases in proportion to the development of
the root, which forms a kind of tuft or bush. The stems are
woody, and have the apnoaraiico of thick strong rods, the bigbest
varying from 5 to 12 feet. Tlic roots, slips, or layers sho^d be
piautod 18 inches apart, and after the first crop the altornatc
rows should be transplanted Into new fields, leaving the remaiader,
about 3,600 plants per acre, to spread and cover tlis ground. Tlie
yield in Java Is said to be i4 stems per year from each stool, taken
in four cuttiugs. Each stem iu Its green, state weighs about Ilb, i
100 Ibr. weight of grean stems yialusfi lbs. of a raw fibre or, fila¬
ment, wIiluTi by Muspratt's analysis, as quoW by M< Farter,
ODutains 06 oeut of pure aellulose. In the offiotal rcTOrts to
tho India Otfioo, with native hand treatment, the crop is said -to be
1,000 lbs. of rew fibre per acre, taken iu four outtings. M,. Favier
states that, in Algeria, 1,400 lbs. of fibrous thongs was the orop
per acre, a* oalcuiated by Mr. Hardy, ex-Director of theBf^auioal
Gardens there, while iu the South of France aa mueh as i,fiU0ibs.
of filament have been obtained to-the acre.
Mr, P. L, Simmnnds, iu his articie iu 1873 (Jottmaf, vM, xxi,
p. 762), stated that the crop gathered iu Jamaioa amounted to
300 Ills, per acre at each outtiug, and that thero had been five
cuttings in the year, making the yield thrse-fourths of a ton per
acre pur year, While Mr. Bainbridgc, in the discussion on Mr,
04 ober 1 , 18 a 8 »
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTURIST.
m
L, Wmy'j i»p«, la 1869, itated th*t the mnU of hh own o*-
perieaoe in Aiwm WM 7w Ibt. green nettlee, whloh gave 45 1b*.
weight of fibre in enoh of three oattlng*, tnnlclng only 135 lbs. par
more ^ 5 rear Uotanal, voh xix., p. 4M). The yield appears to
d^MWl on MW, aUnutte, and treatment. The properties of tlie
rhea fibre place It fat the first position among vegetable fibres ; it is
second to nose in strength, while the fineness or attenuation of the
filn« pieces It before flax, and It is etjualled only by the pine-apple
fibre. It con be need for any textile purpose, haring been mixed
with oottou, wool, and silk, to advautage j it is in special demand
for sailoloth, table napery, cnrtains and tapestry ; but from the
very limited supply os yet available, the aiiplloatious of this
beautiful fibre are yet in their infancy
NeUgherry nettle [Uriiea hetn'onhi/llii) is an annual, and
can DC readily grown from seed, giving its crop in about
seven mouths. It gives a strong white glossy fibre, and
a sample, hand.cleabed, was valued at £12.', per ton. 'I'lie cultiva¬
tion has not been tried on a oommeroial scale : the difficulty will
be la the oultlvatiuu and collection of the crop, as the leaves and
stoma ore armed with a most poisonous sting. It has occupied the
at^tioB of plantam on the hllu for many years past, but no means
of treatment was known.
Plantain (Mvsa pafaduiaaa) is generally oultivated for its fruit;
It shonld be planted about six feet apart, and each stem will give
about 4 lbs. of raw fibre, and 60 Ibi. of fruit per year. The fibre
is fius, white, and silky ; long, light, and strong. The
quality depends on the mode of cultivation aud troatment ; but it
Is not so valuable as Manilla hemp. The Government of India
have ooustontly urged the value of this material for paper-making ;
but no use has ever been made of the millious of trees grown in
India for tlieir fruit. Tlio stsms arc cut down, and left after the
fruit is moved.
Manilla lieinp (Mum syhmtrii) iios boon succossfully grown in
Wynood and other hill distriots, since 1864 ; but iilthoi to to no
oommeroial value, from inability to treat tlio fibre. It is grown
extensively in Manilla, where 251),060 acroi are planted witli this
staple; it has iiitherto been treated only by hand, the natives
preparing about 12 lb*, weight of fibre per day, and reueiviug oue-
ualf its valuo for the work, tho waste being so great that only
about 1 Ib. of fibre is obtained from eaoii tree. Yet notwithstand¬
ing this, tho exports have amounted to a."!,000 tons annually.
Manilla hemp is imported into ISurope and America for rope-making
only, and is worth £20 to £60 per ton, aooordhig to quality ; tlio
crop may lie taken at from ' t owt. to 2 tons per acre, aooordiug
to suooessfui treatment. *
Aloe (Affum Atiwricau'i) will thrive on any sterile waste land,
and is now ooinmou tiiroughout India. The cultivation is being
extensively carried on in Mexico, wliore .fi.OOO plants may be found
in on aore. It comes to full growtii in tiireo years, and can easily
bo propagated from suokors. Tho fibre is prinoipolly used for
mixture with Manilla iiemp in the inanufauture of cordage, and
is wortii about £10 per ton less tiiau Manilla hump.
Pine.applo (Bromelia nmutui and JivnuKlia lyliviifna) produoo
a very valuable fibre. The former is cultivated tor its fruit in all
cofieo estates, and tlie latter is found in lai-ge quantities in all the
jungle swamps in tiio hill distriots. Tlie fibro is valued nt £45 to
£55 per ton.
Bow-string hemp (ftowioirrn zcylanicaj oaii be propagated on
almost any soil, from the slips which issue in great aintudanv.v
from tlio roots ; it is porouuiiil ; tlio wild leaves arc from 12 to
16 inches long, hut under cultivation attain .'1 to 4 foot. Dr. Itur-
bui'gh estimated that an aoro of laud would produce thrco-foiirths
of a ton of clean fibre.
Mudar tain, zcrcum (Oa!<ilroyis yiyaiilai) is oouiinon
on all waste plaoos in _ India, Mr. G. \\'. Strctti l,
of tho ludiau Forest Department, in liis pauiplilot, “ A
Ncw .Soiiroo of Reveiiiie for India,” pubiisliod in 1878, iitgos the
value of this product outlie attention of tho Indian Guvormaont.
It comes to maturity in u year, is perennial, anil requires no caio.
Mr. Strettel estimates the coat of In'inging an acre into cultivation,
plautiug four feet apart, at £2 Os. Sd., after which tho only rooui-
liug expense would be fur harvesting luid troatment. Ho estimates
tlurt it will yield a crop of from livo to aovou hundredweight per
acre yoariy, and thotibrcis pruuouuucd equal to good tlax, and
therefore worth £40 to ^ per ton.
The troatment of green fibre has now been successfully accom¬
plished by tho following niachiuea and proosssus ;—
The machine of Messrs. Death aud Kllwoml, of which over nne
thousand are now in use, fur extractiu^ fibro from all kinds of
aloe, plautoin, and ptuo-applu, &c., in Mauritlii.s, Canary Islands,
Africa, &c. It is almost the only machliiu in use for extracting
Heoqufai fibre or Sisal liouip, and Ixtlo or wiki piiio-applc fibre, in
Central America, of which 17,000,000 lbs. weight uro now exported
annually. It is being tried iu Manilla for the treatment of Manilla
hemp. The jet of water which acts as uu elostic ousinou on which
the fibre is beaten, to clear it of boon and useless particles, acting
also most satisfactorily iu removing the gummy matter which
causes tho prlucipal difficulty In the treatment.
2, An lugenlous invention of M. Koqiiet, a Frenchman, for
oru^ing ana scutching vegetable fibres at onu oparation, which
bu baeu patented by Mr. W. M, Adams in this country aud else¬
where, It ti-sats nil kiuils Of dry fibres most thoroughly, aud
has alsosucoossiully treated greou rhea fibre from Kew Gardens.
3t M. Favier, a Frenchman, has suggested a process of treat¬
ment for rhea fibro, by steaming tho green stems in the field.
This enables the easy decortication of tho bast by cheap^ hand
labour, at a very small expense, aud saves the cost of carriage of
the woody portion of the items, those being used for the fuel of
the boiler that creates the steam. The stem ashes oan be at onco
rstumcM to the field as manure, togotlior with the leaves and
waste, sg that gnly the fibro itself is rcmgYcu frgm thu sgil i by
this process it ts'calciiUtod that the fibre thongs can bo obtained
at a cost of 30s. per ton,
4, The process which Is known as Bkman’s patent, for 'the
manufacture of cellulose or ultimate fibre from raw fibres, by
treatinsut with the bisulphite of magnesia. This process consists
in boiling tho fibrous substance under a pressure of 90 lbs. of
steam, hi water oontainiug sulphurous acid, iu combination with
suffialent magnesia to prevent the oxidation of tho organic matter.
This chemical troatment proiluoos an ultimate fibre fixnn the rhea
plant, which is worth £168 per ton, or throo tinios the value of tho
best cotton.
Seeing that it takes 100 ffis. of green rhea atoms to
make 5 lbs, of raw fibre or filament, worth at the rate of £45 per
ton iu the Jiuglish market, M. Favicr's steaming proaess, winch
saves the carriage of tlie woody povtiou further tliau tlie field iti
which it is grown, U an economical consideration of the highest
impurtaiice.
This raw fibre or fllaniout, after treatment in M. Bkmau's boilers,
is reduced from 6 lbs., wortli at tlie rale of £40 per ton, to.3J lbs.
of ultimate fibre, worth .£168 per ton. When this process is under¬
taken by tlio grower in India, us soon as possible after oiitting aud
decortication in tho field, the fibre is saved from the damage tiiat
is constantly going on from fmiiieutatiou, as long os the taunio gnni
is attoohed to it ; it being impossiblo tlioroughly to dry tho fibre
while this gum reiuauis. There is no trouble in at once drying and
packing the ultiniate fibre. Tbe cost of c.aiTi.ag« to the manufactur¬
ing market is rodiioej to a minimum, aud the pure fibre is in no
way damaged by pressure iu packing under screw or liydrtulio
pres.s. At tbe same time the cultivator obfixiiis tho full inauufau'
taring value, which is otherwise iuterooptod by the mill men, who
soutcTi, comb, and prepare tbe fibre for textile uses.
It seems tliat for dicotyledous, or exogenous plants, such as rhea
and Meilglierry nettle, M. Favier’s steaming process, in caujuuctiou
witli M. Ekman’s bi-sulphato of maguesia process, liavc attained
tbe desired object, economical and tiiorougli treatment.
For the monocotyledons, or endogenous plants, such
as plantain, Maitilia hemp, aloe, pine-apple, Ac., the
inoeUines of Messrs. Death and Bll'vood, or M. JRoiiuet,
are required. Fur tlic coarser fibre obtained from tiieso jilants,
no further treatment is necessary ; these coarser fibres ore used
for ropo-maki ug. The finer fibres, such as those obtained freiu
tiio Bromelias, and tho selected finer jiortions from other kinds,
may bo advantageously treated in M. Ekinau’s boilers ; while
from tho waste and iulorior stiiils a paper pulp may be obtained
whiob will bu an important item in tho reueipts of tho estate, Iu
tile ciiitivatloii of tne fibro plants I have ouumoratod, tlie plant¬
ers in the iiili districts of ISmitli India will have varieties suited
to every oxigsucy of tlieir soil and elimale. For their oxhaustad
fields, wliich arc no lougei suited fur tlio cultivation of uofifoe,
eiiiuliona, or tea, there is aloe, mudar or nioorga available, which
wilt ilotirish on tile poorest and most exposud hill sides. For
tlioir loiv-lying rich valleys, at elevations loo low for ooifeo or
eiucboiia, sitoh os Uiu iowur slopes of the Ghats, the cultivation of
rhea iiiu'” can tic o.viriud oil ; on tho level laud, whei'o ploughing
is pu.ssible, thu Ncilghorry m-ttlo can lie sown to advantage. 'I'lio
IIlidra iiied swamps cun l)u planted with the Bi'imflin rofrr<r<x.
and the bui'dui's ut thu streams and steep forest hills can bu culti¬
vated witii piantaiu and Manilla lieinp.
Thu sluru houses aud water-power gonorally found ou thu cotl'eo
estates tliat have been ereotod for tho proporatiou of the ooftuu
crops, aud which are umisod fur uiuo months in the yoar, will
supply thu motive-power for tho scutching machinery, and drying
aucominodalioii for the filiru. It is proliable that tho cost of
liUiiioii’s boiling and chemical process may bo too cousUlnrablo
(or each individual plauLur ; but some oonvuuiont ocutrttl factory
ust-vliliBiiud iu ouch ilistriut, or on tlie coa.st, may enable thu
plautria to obtain tho huiiclit uf tliis process, on tho samo princi¬
ple as is now in uso for tho ultimak- preparation of their ooflee.
It tliui'uforc seems that good hope is affordod that tho cultivation
of liliro plants may relieve the ludiau and Ceylou coffee planters
of luiieh of the troubles that have betallou them, from the per-
sistunt attacks of the UimoiUhi bMiiitrUe, or leaf disease.
oj' tbe SucieHJ of Arti,
rOULTRY-BUEEDENU -NATURAL AND
ARTIFICIAL MEANS.
rnilE Asiatics, and also some other varieties, ore somotiuies
X. troublesome iu tlieir disjiositiou to sit. Wlieii they ai’o so per¬
sistent iu the matter, and it is desired to liavu them laying again,
cither of tliesu two uiethoils will bu found oHieacions ; J'ut tho huii
ui a box with a lath bottom—tbo laths not overall ineb wide and
two inciioa apart; tho box iv foot or more abov'u the floor. Having
no way of Uecpiiig her foot an<l liruast warm, thu feverish desire to
sit is soon cooled olf, and usually in three days she is ruady again
to bo turned into tlie yard. Auotlinr remedy is to put tho lieu iu
a small pen, with no porclics, and place with her a vigorous young
cook, kept by himself for this purpose. Two or tlireo days will
usually clfcct the desired result.
Where the hens are to do the hatoliiiig, they need to be removed
to the sittiug-rooiii. This should bo done at night. Have thu
nest really, with half a dozen nest ogge, and fi.vod with a cover.
After dark, take tho hen iu a basket to the room, aud gently place
her Ou the neat, oovoriug or shutting her in. Du not open tho nosh
again until tlio next oveiiing, then lot her out, aud give her food and
water ; after fifteen or twenty miniitoa, if she does not go on riiu
nest iiurself, oatcli iicr and put lier on, again shutting her in. This
may need be repeated three or four doys, but usually, uulees the heu
is nervous and wild, slie will take tu lier nest of her own acooril ftftuv
tfag Hggud d«Fi IViicu she dues, then give liet' iiw eggs.
878
THE INDIAN AGBICifLTURIST.
October 1, 1888.
, The French oae torkeye for hetuhiog, and lu eome places on
quite,a large scale. In some seotiocs there are men who follow it
08 a huslnesa—hatching out chickens for the neighbouring farmers
at " ro OTWcV a^eoe, or buying the eggs and icilmg the ohiokeasas
soon as old enough. One person lu the vicinity of Lyons is said
to have sixty turkeys sitting in the hatching season. Homo years
alnoo I tried this method jnysoif. It is not uoocesary th.at the tur¬
keys should be broody : wlten wanted, they wero caught, given a
wiuoglassfnl of spirit*!, and placed ou the nest will) some dummy
eggs under tlwm. Wlion they come out of their “ drunk” they
either imagine tiiat they have legitimately tiogun their new busi-
noas, or wero so ashamed of tlieir spree, rather than show them-
Helvea to their motes tlicy prefer to remain in seclusion. These
turkeys are kept sitting from two to three montlis ; as fast m the
L'tiicks hatch, they are token from the nests and fresh eggs placed
under the turkeys for another elutcli. Twenty eggs is the usual
clutch given an ordinary sized turkey.
This same system of re-setting may lie profitably pursued with
hens. Where sUtei-s are scarce, a good, quiet heu may be made to
bring out two, aud frequently throe clutches. Caro, however, must
be liM to keep hens and uosts scrupulously clean, and have them
come off regularly ouoe a day for feed and water, in one case,
which was an experiment, I kept a heu setting for thirteen consecu¬
tive weeks, bringing off four ciutuhoa of chickens, and I did not
find that she was auy the worse for iier lung period of iueubation.
Another saving of time and expense, for whioii wc are indebted to
the Frrnich, is the use of oafious to take care of the chicks after
Imtchiug. The oaxiuns are placed in a room or pen, without any
perches, a week or two before they are needed. Tliis accustoms
them to sqnat on the floor or ground instead of roostiug. At niglib
one of them is removed to a small coop, and as soon as he gets quiet
a few chickens arc placed uudor him. The next day others are
given to him, .and they frequently have the care of twenty-five to
thirty ohiokens, whicli tiioy hover ainl tend as careiiilly as their
natural mother.
It is hardly ueoeaanry for me to refer to the practice of doubling
up broods, and 1 will merely state that among tUusu who raise
poultry for market it is customary to sit several hous at the same
time aud give the whole hatch tu one hen, re setting the otliers, I
have seen this done on the Metropolitan Hotel farm to a greater
extent than I know of elsewhere. An old Scoteliman and his wife
had charge of the poultry there, giving tlieir whole time to it. I
liave seen broods of sixty to eighty chickens with one hou in May
and the worm months. Seventeen acres wore here inclosed and de¬
voted to poultry, Tlie yearly product was about throe thousand
chickens, three hundred to five huudrod turkeys, and nearly the
latter number of ducks. The laying and brooJIug stock, as well as
the growing ohloks, were fed largely upon the scraps from the
liotoT-table, wbioli were barreled and scut up twice each week.
Thus far we have treated this subject purely in its natural liglit,
or ratlier as wo pursue it unassisted by any mechanical appliauncs.
Ill treating it os followed by artificial means or iiiothuils, it is
perhaps best to digress a few inomoiits from the subject propcT
aud consider briolly what tlie artiHoial mothnils arc : for, strictly
speaking, there arc two methods of hatching artitioinlly : One, in
which the eggs arc subjected to heat all around, above and below,
f. enveloped ;hud the other, to only a top or contact heat—the
same as given by the hou. IVu iniglit term the two systems in
conti’a—distinction the first, an enveloping heat; tlie second, a top
heat. This heat may be communiuatuil by hot water, steam, or
a current of liot ail- passing over or through the egg-cliamber, or
by imbedding iu a manure pile ; all seem to bo eflieaciovis —though
in unequal dogrooe —proviiied the temperature is kept up. Hut it
is hers where the method of “ euvHopimj" heat fails ; my own ex¬
periments with this inetliod—-and wliich are corroborated by those
of English experimenters—is, that the only tomperatiiro which will
give good results is 104 degrees Fahronlioit, and this heat be
inaiiitoined steadily throughout the three weeks of incubation.
The diffloiilty of keeping such a uniform temperature iu a climate
like onrs is manifest ; except with the almost constant watciiful-
ness of an attendant, it would bo next to Imiiossible.
AVltli the other method—top lieat^hy radiation—a daily variation
of from two to three degrees is not injurious, provided the eggs are
turned regularly, and properly handled. In fart, an occasional
variation of oven five degrees is not neOBBsnrlly hurtful, though in
the early stages of iueubation it liad best be avoided, I advise a
daily variation of not over tlirco degrees, except of course tlic lower¬
ing of the temperature while tlic eggs are being aireil and turned.
Tlii» top, or contact, lieat Is tlic iioarst imitation to the natural
procBSB. 'i'ake, for instance, the hen or fowl making hor iiest ou
the ground, tbe top <>( the eggs, wlicn in contact with her breast,
are kept at the required heat ; while the bottoms of the eggs rest- I
ing on the ground must bo many dcgi ocs colder. So, also, with
the nests Of birds ; the iiost is open and mimits almost free eireii-
Itttiou of air to the bottom of tlic eggs, while the loji is kept warm
by the mother bird. Such being the case, is it Init reasoualilc to
BUiiposo that the toi>-lieal system sliould give hotter results than
the placing of the eggs iu a warm bath—as it were—wliicli is the
case iu nil methods or mouliLues when the heat is applied under or
around the eggs ? My experiments in this direction have boon fre¬
quent and exliaustive, and cost me many fiundreds of eggs as well
as disappointments; but I ean only regard tlie exporionec as cheaply
gained, now that 1 iiave obtained sueii a liigh degree of snoeess.
AVJiOu we consider the proeoss of incubation, the reason for fol¬
lowing natural uiatlioUs are very plain. We cannot liopu to im¬
prove upon lier ways of eieating and developing animal life, ond
our liest way is to imitate her as closidy as poasibio.
It is well known to most hrooders, liml probably to many of my
hearers, tliat tiio germ or life giving principle of the egg always
floats on the tup. Under tlie iudueuue of tlie Iicat tho arteries aud
vcius expand and extend, following the outside of tlie white of tho
c-gg until they leacil completely acouud tlie yolk, Tlie ^extremities
of these veins are very fine and delloate. Nature, In her wise pro¬
vision for the best devsiopmout of their growth Insures the Bot¬
tom of the egg, where these flue veins are, Being kept rather colder
than tile top, the contact of the body of the mother-bird with her
eggs heating the top of the e^, and keeping that portion several
degrees warmer than the botrom.
When, therefore, the heat is applied nnder, or ail around, the
egg, these minute veins, instead of growing, shrivel and dry up ;
the yolk sack, instcail of being absorbed by the growing chick,
dries fast to the shell, and about the fiftMOtli Or sixteenth day
the clilck dies. Some may reach the twentieth day, and few may,
uiul do sometimes, hatch out; but tiiu percentage is so very small
that it virtually amounts to a failure.
The next point to insure success is the burning of the eggs. The
hen usually makes her nest slightly hollowing, and when sitting
thrusts her feet below the eggs. At intervals She raises one foot,
which motiou causes all the eggs on tliat lido to roll down a little
toward the centre of the nest ; then she raises the other, and the
eggs ou that side ore moved. By this simple action tho eggs ore
moved in position os well os turned ! she will also, with her beak,
move the eggs from the oeutre of the nest to the outside. Instinct,
or nature, whichovor you may choose to call it, teaches her that
the eggs under hor breast receive a greater degree of heat than
those under her wings or ou tho outer edge of the nest ; and that
to succeed lu her maternal efforts, she must give all the eggs iu
turn the benefit of tho greater heat. Iu doing this tho eggs aro
turned ; and wliotlier it is called turning the egg, or something
else, the effect is the same. To test this matter I have sevenu
times carried eggs through the wliole throo weeks In the iuonbator
without turning or moving tUoiii at all. Unless some accident in¬
terfered there were some wliioh hatched—generally from thirty to
to forty per cent. ; others whioli pipped the eliell, but had not
etreiigtn enough to got out, and still others, dead, with tho yolk
sack not fully absorbed, and dried fast to the bottom of tho shell.
Of those wliioli did hatch, moat wore weakly, and full ono-half died
before they were a week old. One lot which 1 turned twice a week
did ten or tifteou per cent, bettor. Another, which was turned
daily, hatched seventy per cent, j and a final test W'hen I tiirued
the eggs twice daily, 1 obtained fifty-eight strong healthy ohiokens
out of sixty fertile eggs, aud botli the remaining eggs had fii lly
developed chicks in them.
Hence I adopt tho practice of turning twice dat ly—morning
and night.
Further experiment—turning them throe or four times a day—
has not given any better than this.
AVe may now ooualder the practical application, or use of arti¬
ficial incubators, Most persona, even among those who yearly
have raised large numbers of poultry, have treated it as an amuse-
iiieiit fur the fancier or gontlemaii farmer who might perchanoo
manage to hatch u few puny, sickly oliioks at a saeritico of dozens
of eggs. That this has often been the case with iiioubatora is lint
too true ; hut the great iniprovcnioiits of the past few years
make such a result among the things that may only /lossih/y occur
by caroiossness or negligence.
Wo have an incubator which, with fiftonii mhnites' attention,
morning and evening, any intelligent person can certainly hatch
from suvouty-Hvo to eighty-five per cent, of tho fertile eggs.
It is iiiuieeossary to assume what gain this would bo over tho
natural way, for it is well known to every one who has had any
experience iu this line, that the average rosalt among the farmers
and bi-Dodovs of poultry for market will not nearly roaoli that
figure.
Take, for instance, one hundred eggs to be hatched in the natfiral
way ; these would requireoiglit heiiti to cover. Of those eight,
one would desert lior iiost before lier - brood was duo, two more
would each break oiio-tliird of their eggs, and the remainder
average ten chicks to a sittiug ! or, s.ay, a to total of sixty chicks
from the one huudrod eggs.
Tills, as mauy of yon well know, is a ffood average result. It
too frequently happens that tho hen will become apparently in the
condition of the herd of swine mentioned lu the Holy AVrit—pos-
si-.ssod of devils—aud conspire to break ail the eggs they possibly
can, and then leave all they could not break to oMl and die,
I know of one suoii case, the past soa.sou, where a neighbour
■scoured from eleven liens a single brood of eleven chickens—an un¬
usual result, yon say ; but one such result outs down tha ynar’s
percentage far lielow my figures, and thus proves my assumption,
Aud now, to one summary of the two methods :
Assuming that wo wish to turn out four hundred ohiokens per
woek for ten months of the year, svhioli would give us about
sovniiteen tlniusuud in all. We would need for this throo iuoiibators
of live huudrod eggs’caparity each. Those of tho pattern ou ox-
liibitiouat tho poultry exhibition—the noa- Centennial—would
cost one hundred dollars each. I would also add one of tho small
size, Olio luutdred eggs’ capacity, as an auxiliary, costing forty
d iliars, making tlie total east of incubators three hundred and
forty dollars.
You will please boar ill mind that I am allowing fora loss of
twenty per cunt, of the eggs, which is fully five par cout, more
than tile average loss with this niachitie,
Tu keep these maohiiiea slocked with eggs to their full capacity
will require live huudrod per week. Taking the season tkrougtt
the average hen will not lay ofteuer than three days oat of seven
—hardly that ; yet wo wiU assume that as our average—Uemji,
for every three eggs wo, gat wo must keep seven hens. At this
rate wc shall need about 1,150 (actual uumbor is i,iOU) hens to keep
the maohiiics stooked, which, at fifty cents each (a very low figure,
as you poultry-brooders all know) will coat $375,
Our outlay, therefore, so far amounts to $916.
Mow, as to the number regarded by the natural method and
tho oost.
October 1, 1883.
379
THE INDUN AGRICULTURIST.
Fir»t, wo muot.aUow for a loss of forty pui- cent, of the oggs
under this method. After twenty.flvo years’ experioueo and on-
servatioOi I feol satisfied that uiue.tontiis of our faruiors will ex¬
ceed that per cent, of loss rather than come below it.
We shall require, on tho same rates os oosaputod abort), 1,.5‘tO
hens for our laying stock alone to produce six nundrod and sixty
oggs weekly—the number recpiirotl. To cover these, allowing
thIrtMn eggs per hen, will require fifty lions per week fur three
weeu, one hundred and fifty In all. Now, allow tliat we double
broods when hatched and re set half tlio hons, and we must have
twenty-five hens more for tho fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks, and
each succeeding week after.
Allow a^ sue weeks as the time oach hen runs with her brood,
and thon iminadiatoly commeneoa to lay again. Wo are oon-
stantly losing with evory hen a laying period of nine weeks out of
the season, which, estimated at forty-two wooks, is threo-four-
toenths of her time.
To compensate for this we must add 330 more hens to out flook,
m^ing 1,870 In all, which, at fifty cents oach, tho same as aliove
cstimat^, makes C93fi as the outlay by the natural method as
against f916 by the artificial, a clear gain of 820 iu cash in favour
of the latter, without taking into account the trouble of obtaining
your sitters just whan wanted.
As most of us know, when wo Iiavo an abundanoo of eggs, wo
have few sitters, and when wo have plenty of sitters, eggs
are often soaree. With tho use of iucubators wu liavo uo difHoulty
from this source, our “ "ifiera” being always ready.
Our noxt oomparison is as to cost of hatching. First, wo will
the size of room required to cost tho same in either case,
although in reality the space roquirod for one Imndred anil fifty
sittmg hons will bo double or troiilo than needed for four iucuba-
tors,
Tho nests for the liens, at a low estimate of ten cents each, will
amount to fifteen dollars ; straw or hay fur tlio nests for thr grci'
sim, say, five dollars more ; next feed, it is computail tliat one
dollar will koep a hen a year, i. e., when she is running out aud
'*“*■'<^0088 to Worms, grubs, &o., which iu tliis ease sho has not,
and I do not think in that view of It that oiio dollar jior bond i.s
too much to charge for the ton mouths ; say, one Iiuiidrod and fifty
dollars for feed, plus twouty dollars for iiusta and litter, oijuals
one luiudrod aud soveuty dollai’s. The mattoi of attendance is u
dlftoult itom to got at, and wq will leave it for tile present.
Now our uiaohiuos will bur. say, ton gallons of oil per wook ;
this in allowing tbron gallon* for each of the larger uiaoliiues mi 1
one gallon for the small maobiiie. (1 think this an over-estimate.)
At sixteen oonts per gallon, which is the average price in New
York market, this will cost ns for forty-two wuek.s, .'5li7'20 : wicks
aud pussiA/// new Imriiors, 8+’80 more. Add also interest on the
oost of our inaohiiics at six per eoiit. (sovciitoeii dollars), and we ,
have a total of cighly-iiiiic dollars -c.itl it ninety dollars eveu |
immoy, which, taken from one liuiidrud and seventy dollars, leaves j
eighty dollars —a gain in favour of tiie maeliiucs.
Next oomes the ijiiestioii of can' or atteudanec, which wo oannof
e.stimato, although it i.s V'Oi'y evident that the care of one liiiiidn'd
and fifty lions must be double that of four Iiicubatons.
The next cost to lie ooiisidereil is tlie coopj oi Iiroodurs for the
chicks. If wo follow tho artificial system exclusively, we sli.ill
need lirooder aoooiiiinodations for tour liiiiidred chicks weekly,
wliicli will oost us for throe brooders. No. 4 n'ln', four tiundrcd
clneks each complete, say, tliirty-livo dollai-s—one iimidred ami five
dollars. To thc.se we must add three suiiimcr iiiothcrs, at ten
doUai« oncli, making ?13,1.
In coops, if we use hens as brooders, wo shall need twenty-five e.aeli
Wook for six weeks, making one hundred and fifty ompa, uUowing
81'26 (which is twouty-five ccistS less than 1 Imvc ever been .abb-
to get them made for), aud wo have a cost for ijoopa of -'fl-ST'otl -
another balance of Sfi'I'oO in favour of tlm artificial method.
The cost of oil tor tho brooders will not be any more, niul proba¬
bly hardly os much as tho food for the hens while cooped with tlie
cliiokeus.
We have thus far figured acinar gain of in favour of the
.artificial method, giving tho hens tiic ln-iielit I'f the cstiinatv in
evory case.
Noxt wc must consider the great gain derived from the increased
number of cliiekens raised under tlio artificial system oi-ur the
iiatniul one
This is computed by breeders, who have tried both, bi lie fally
ten per cent. Hatched urtirieially, the clneks are free from lice,
for there is iiotliiiig from which they can bo communicated. Ami
as lice aud mites are without doubt the cause, nitlior directly or
indirectly of fully two-thirds of our poultry ailments, it follows
that our young stock is lieolthior, more thrifty aud ('rnwthy, and
wo are enabled to raise a miieli larger per cent, than with the liens.
Another gain, and one that commeuds itself to every breeder of
lioultry, whether for fancy orfor the market, is the advantage ol
always bedng able to sit the eggs wliilc they arc fresh, wliother it
bo in midwinter or midsummer.
This waiting for broody liens while your eggj arc spoiling is a
source of groat anuoyanoc as well us much pecuniary los.s to the
lireeder, aud should be a strong argiimont ju lavour of his adopting
the artirioial method.
Another advantage (wliioli, while not .i picimi.u y one, is of great
satisfactiou to tho fancier), is the reanltiiig gcntlvncss of the young
stock. Kveii the natural timidity of the Loghortis and Hainburgs -
the most shy of our domestic bi-tx'ds -is overeonn'. and the ,iliicUs
take food from tho hand, and perch on the slionldcr of the foiider,
with au eutii'o absence of fear. This li.as imany advaiitages^ which
are quick to bo appreciated, especially by ladies who have tlic cai v
oi chickens.
Wo oBtim.ato that to produce aud rear a chickcu by artiticial
ilteana to eight weeks old, costs an average of Hftflcn eents each.
This is in (he vicinity of New York ! iu the Wofit, where gr.-iiii is
cheaper, it will cost somovviiat loss.
I speak espcnially of this ago—eight weeks—because it does not
pay us in the East to raise them to adult ago. At this ago they
are worth for broilers from fifty to seventy -five cents each ; for
evory week Hiifr that ago tho cost is Inorca-siug at a much greater
ratio, and the price is either stationary or AeoroAaod.—Thorough'ireil
Stock Jourit/il.
MATE Oil PARAOUAY TEA.’
T he following aooouut of the Paraguay toa plant is taken from
a traiishvtimi published iu tho P/uirmnnuiticcU Jonrmil of a
paper bv Dr. Tliooiloro Peckolt in tiui Z.'Utckti^ft d. allg, tMcr,
Agot.’ I'Vrefji.: —
This plant, which belongs to the holly family (ftif.iww), has
several uanioa in diltorciit pacts of South Amerioa. In tho Ouarani
lauguaga it U called 6hd, which is tno Indian word for loaf. The
prepared loavo.s wore named by the Spanish “ yorba” (herb), and
the infusion “ mite" [unaccentedj from the native natno of tho
vessel ill ivhicli tlie tea is ui.ade, ami the drug is now generally
kuowii as inato in llrazilian commerce, althoiigli tlio Spauiarila
o.all it “ yorva mate" or " yervade pales.'' Tiiu iiam.) “ uoiigouha”
lias boon s-aid by some writers to be applied to mate, but this is an
error, for tho Ilraziliaiis iiiidcrstaiid by the names “ cmigonha
inaiisa” and " ceiigoiiha brava,” other treci, bcloiigiiig to the same
natural order, which are used as a substiUito for mate when it is
nor, easily procurable.
'I’lio plant was first briefly describod by St, Hilaire, in
wlioii lie g.ave to it tiiu nanio If'r iiariiijiuiririistg, which he altered
ill 182(1, to Ili'x Maty, suliscipieiit.lv piihlishiiig tlm first name agaiu
ill l,S33, and tliis is now adoptc 1 i t tlm " Flora BrasiUoiisis.” In
1824 tho plant was described iu dnt,rl by Lambert, unilcr tho natno
of I. pariururmig, and the [ilaut illnstratad from spocimous from
tlie Jesuit Missions. Tho syiionyms stand as follow :—
Ilex purai/iiaririi-iiii, St. Kil.;/. Maty, 8 t. Hil. ; /. /inragttayoigiii,
Hookor fil. ; 1. paragitcugiJi, I). Don. ; I. pnrajMrUinis, a, obluxi-
folia. Mart.; P, /icutj/'olia, alact. : Cansitm Uongoaha, Rabon ; O.
Oougulhi, Guiliourt : GhomeUa amara. Veil.
Tho mate plant attains the height of an apple troo, becoming
even larger in fcvourable siiiiatious, but ivliou cultivated and
deprived from time to time of its luavos, it romaius small and
forms a iiioro biisli. The leaves arc slioctly stalked, simple, wodge-
sliapod, obovate or oloiigate-laueeolate, toothed, dark grcoii
above, paler beneath, shining, of leathery crmsistcuce, one to three
inches lung, oiio-uiglitliaml to one-aad-a.|ialf ineh broad. The flow-
er.snre axillary, siUi.it 'd on one to I lircc times fucked pcduuctes,
wliite, and of siniiUc size to those of the oiinimoii holly. 'I'ho
calyx consists of four nearly orli'iculat sepals with a foiir-iiarlnd
coroUs. and fonr short stain eis, the. ovary being orown.id with
a four lobed stigma. The fruit is red, and of tlio six) of
pepper enru, oontaining lour seeds enclosed iu si glitly glutinous
pulp, hut often one seed only is developed. The liome of
the I’.inigiiay Tea I’lant is said by Marties to fie hatwe.)ri IS' and
30 !S. latitude, but tin) district in which the troo grows most
luxiirianliy is between 21‘and 21'° S. latitude in tho watershed
of tlie T.iragiiay river ou tlie west, and in tinvt of the I’anaua
river oil the cast, and it is Iniru in a zone between tho Horra
Amambiihy on the South,’ nil I tb) .S.iria Maracajii -in the north,
that tho best and most biglily prizO'l mate is prepaied.
How long the Smith American Indians bad b -en in tho liabit
of ii.sing mate is not known, Imt when the Spaniards seized the
proviiiecs on tlio rivers I’aragnay ati.l Uruguay they fouini this
oust mi prevailing tlicn) ox.ictly as first moiitioiiod iu the writings
of Azaia, who slated tfiat the .tree grew wild in difi'dreiit parts
of I’aragnay, In proof of the high t stimation iu wliieli it was
held by tlio Indians, it may bo m mtionod tliat tlie name “caa,”
wbiob signifies in tlie Tupi langu.igca tree or plant, was given
by way of distiiiotioii to iii.itc, that being the tree valued atiovo
ail others. The use of mate does not appeir, however, to have
cxti-ml'id to cxtra-tropical districts, but to have boon ouuHiiad to
the more inteUigciit tnbo.s known now under tlie iiam i of Uiiaraiii
Indians. Noveltln'luss, when those people wer.) driven further
north by Eiirope.ius, they <lo ii it appear to have earned tho use
of tlio diug with tiiciii, prolia'.ly tliuikiug it not worth while
to obtain it from a dist.mc-' aii l from a hostile pooplo, when they
found a Biibstituto close at liand iu the (tuarana plant.
The extenaivu nso of mate ui South Aiiierica at tlio prosout
time, is probably due in giv.it mcasiiro to the Jesuits, who
oucouraged its use, finding that it restrained the desire of the
IiulUiis for spirituous drinks, while its cultivation, celloction, and
preparation gave oniplaymoiit to con verted Indians, and brought
woaitli to tlio Order. In the .(esuit Kiipublic, the Indians wero
not paid iu money but in produce ; 411)1, of luato woro allowed to
each family.
After the expiil.ioii of the Jesuits, the prn[iaratioii of mate was
coutiiiue.d in the Taragiiay it 'public uudor the a'lministration of
the Dictator Kraiicia ami his suecessoi's, until Dictator .Solano
Lope.s W.IS killed in battle, with tho Br.udliaiis in 1870. An over¬
seer was appoinl-jd ovci the work wh'i also was paid in kind,
roooiviiig foi cae.li aroli.i of tho tea, natural produce of the vaUio of
i ounce oi golil. Since 1.870 tiioro has boon tico trade in tho
articio, wliioli renders .an iueroase ot tno tnidc very dcsir.iblo. At
(lie pi-csout time mate i.s used by about 1‘2,(WI) o! pcoplo,
;Lmi the coiHUiiiptioii amount.) to about .S,(N)J,nil(l pounds.
It has boon stated that mate is not prepiu l solely from /.
/ini'ayuaricn.xis, St. Hil., but tiiat tho leal Oi el other species are
mixed with it.
^ In 1842, Sir W, J, Hooker piiiiUsliod, iu the London JoxDiial
I of liotamj (vol. i., p. 3(1), an e.vliaustivc account of the yerba
mate, togotlicr^ with tl>.> ebiHuctoiistics of tiio didereat
380
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Oetober 1,1883.
varistioB which ho oocai^ored identloal with lUm para-
ffiiarientii. Thii puMr strengthoned the previout opiniou of Miera
that probably more thau one apeolea waa uaed in the preparation
of tbo tea. The inveatigationa made by Miera and thu inouk
Leandro, Director of the Botanical fiaraena in Rio Janeiro, con¬
firmed by BoupUud, indloatu that air different apeoioa are nsad
for the purpoee (1) i/tffzatu, Bonpl., growing m Paraguay,
Butro Kioe, and Brassil; (2) Ike ovatifoUa, growing in the
neighbourhood of Rio Pardo; (.I) Ikx «»»«»•«, Bonpl,, on the
mountaina of Santa Cruz, and in the foreeta of the Brazilian
proTinca of Parana i (J) Ikx crepitant, Bonpl., in the interior of
Santa Cruz, and the banka of the Parana river i (3) Ikx gigantea,
Bonpl., on the banka of the Parana river, This ia the “ oah-
una^' of the Onariuia, (6j Ilex Humhold'iana, Bonpl., in the
province of Rio Grande do Sul. Thiaia the “oaA-uniua" of the
Braziliant. The laat four apeoiea, more eapeuially I. nmara,
yield the “ oail-chira ’’ of the Ouarania and the " caa-uua’’ of the
Broailiana. Martial, however, in the “ Flora of Brazil," atatoa
that in the central diatricta of Paraguay, where the I, p.ini-
j/Hiirienth ia eepccially abundant, only tiic leavea of the apociua
are used ; in other diatricta the varioua apeoiea of Ikx are aimliarly
employed.
It ia certain, however, that /. jtaragitarkntit ia the only apeciea
in cultivation, but tliia ia carried on to a very limited extent
OH the wild plaut ia atill abundant. The Jeauita planted the
tree becauae they found that under cultivation tho leavea had
n milder und luora pleasant tuate. For cultivation, the aeeda are
carefully treed by waehiog from the glutiuoua matter in whicli
they are imbedded, without which treatment they would nut
ormiuatc, this office being probably pcrforinod in a natural state
y birds, aiuco the Indians believe tiiat the sueda will not
gorminato unices they have boon voided by birds. Tho young
plants are taken out of the hot-bod when about aix inoitea high,
and planted out about twelve or fourteen feet apart, in a damp,
somnwhat'marshy ground, au as to allow of a small treuuh being
made around tlie plants in which water can culieet. They must
also be grown nnaer tbo trees whiuh afford shade, as the young
plants are easily killed by a strong sun. When they ore about
throe to aix foot high, aume ut the shade plants are removed, and
ill four years tho loaf liarvoat can bo bogiui, The young trees
should not, however, be entirely deprived of their loaves, lest they
aliotild not be able to recover. In the aevqutli year they will
yield thirty to forty kilos of loaves. It i.i oalculated
that on 220 si{uaro metres of land one tliouaanil six
hundred trees oan lie growu, yielding on an average thirty-tlve
kilos of leaves per tree, or about 23,4o4 kilos of leaves, valued at
190,000 marks per 100 aijnarc metres. The cultivated plant
remains a ainall bush, and never reaches the stature or size ortho
wild tree. The cultivation of mate has beuu carried out with much
Biicuuea in the province of Parana by Ur, K, VVostnUalen, and it
pruiniai'S to be saocoaaful in the Dutch colony of 8, Leopoldo in tho
province of Elo Oraude <lo 8nl, where the plant grows
Inxnriiintly.
Thu tree has been plantoil In tlie C >pc of Go >d Hope, and scums
to Hiiooeed well tliere, as well os in Spain and Portugal. The
ijualily of Paraguay tea depends upon the time of year in which it
ia oollecti'd, the leaves possessing most aroma when the fruit is
nearly ripe. ^ tho Argentine Kopublio, aud in the Brazilian
iirovliioo of Kio Grande do Sul, the I^vos are collected from
Feliruary to tho end of July. The now shoots are put forth in
August, but at that time it would ruin the trees to gather the
leaves. In tho forest of the Brazilian province of Parana and
Santa Cathoniia, tho harvest is colleoted from March to the and of
Soptciiibor. In ParagUiiy it liogius in Dooouibor aud ooiitiiines till
August. About a month boforeliand tho oollootors sot out in
caravans with thoir wives and cliiidron into the forests where the
mate trues are abundant, and make thoir ouoampniout.
The tirst operation ia to prepare a torrefior, ★liioh is made in the
sliapu of an arbour. The twigs are out off from the hraiiohos and
shgiitly scorched by drawing them quickly auross the fire. Tho
twigs are then colloctod into buiidlus suspended over the torrofior
,■1 small tiro of dried wood being kept aUglit beneath. In about
two daj^B the drying is completed, tho aslius are removed, and in
the spot where the tiro was an ox-hide is spread oat, on which tho I
leaves are beaten from the twigs with a wooden blade. Tho dried
leaves aro then powdered aud packed in wooden cases made of
hollowed trunks of trow.
and of a yellowish colour. They powMs an agNa^t «off pitauat
tiavour, but are taldom met within oonuaana.
2iid.—Cah-mirim_This wsa Abe chief srodnet in the time 6f
the Jesuits, and ooniists of the Itaves-aaretolly sopantsd from the
twigs and stalks, tho mid-rib of the leaf being also removed. This
kind is ohiaffy esteemed in Peru, and priooipaUy exported there
by the Brazibaas. It it called herva mansa.
3nl.—Ot& guacu, Cai-ona, or Verva dh Palos, it the most In-
fe'ior kiud, consistiug of the large and edd leavea with thetwige
and fragments of wood, and possesshtg a strong and bitter flavour.
In Rio Janeiro, two sorta are known to oommeroe—mate in deaf
and mate in powder. In order to teat the quality of mate, the
merohant takos a email quantity in his band and blows npon
it. If the greater portion Is blown away, he ootadders tbsA It
lias been heated too much, and thus deprived ef Ita etreligth.
If it is not easily blown away, It -isitliea oonsidered el good
quality.
Mate has been the aubject of several analyese, In 1836,
Trommsdorff analysed mato and found tannin, two vetlot) extnsc-
tive matter, and a substance which be believed to be an alkMdid,
but he poseossod too little material for seuqiletu inveetiga-
tion.
In 1843, Stenhonso found In mate an alkaloid, and proved that
it was ulcutical with oaffeln.
In 18.30, Dr. Rochleder investigated Paraguay tea, and found
the roaobicus of mate tannic acid to be Identical with those of
cort'oc‘tftiiuio acid.
Lenoble, who, as well as Or. Rochleder, supposed mate to be
produced by Ikoralen glamlakma, named the orystalllne aotlvo
principle he obtained from it, "psorMeiu," He also foundln it
wax, allmiiieii, and vola'ilo oil.
According to Dr. Byasson, mato contains as much oaffeln as
the best Chinese tea. Tlie variety which he experimented upon
was cai-guacu. He found also a risold substanoe resembling
birdlime, soluble in ether ; this he considered to be a fatty body
of tlie nature of a compound other, whose alcohol was allied to
ohnlostorine.
Kohin Inis examine J sevnral different kinds of mate. The amount
of enffuin in young loaves dried without special care waa to
0'03 per oout,
3iu,to prcpirotl by the Indians, aud containing twigs aud frag¬
ments of fruit yielded O'lti per cent, aud mate from the
mission of tlin proviiicj of Corrientos, 0'14 per cent. The peculiar
tannic acid, which Dr. Uyassoii did no. tiud, varies between I per
cent and 1'6 per cent. Tho ash of young leaves varies from
0'12 to 0'2.
Professor A. W. Hofmann, of Berlin, found 0‘3 jier
omit of oaffein. Tho averago of the published atialyaea in¬
dicates about J per oeut _of oaffeln, that of India tea being 2 per
cent. Tho value of mute, ns in the case of tea, dopeuds not
merely npon the oaffeln but also upou tho tannin and aromatic
principles. Ho considered the tannin to be identical in every
respeot with tliat found in tea.
Tho aromatic principle has not been isolated, but by dry
distillation a volatile oil is obtained, which belongs to the
phenol group and is soluble iu aicuhol.
In 1877 the mate-tanuic noid was examined by Dr. Pedro N,
Arata, who found that tlio tannin of mate, while anabgous to
that of coffee, was not identical. Tlie chief differences notioed
by him are as follows Lime water gives with the eoffoo-taunio
acid a small precipitate soluble iu excess, but an abundant
insoluble precipitate witli the tannin of mate. This, however,
does not hold good with all samples of mate, the precipitate
being somatimis soluble in nn excess of the tannin. Coffee-tannic
acid gives by dry distillation pyHo'cateohiu, while the tauniu of
mate yields iu addition to pyrocatocliiu tbo isomeric body
resorcin.
Cort'jo-tannio acid ia soluble in 52'84 vol. of alcohol, while mate-
tannic acid requires 73'66 vol.
Dr. Arata considers that oofftio-laiiaio acid maybe regarded
as dioxyparacinuamylio acid, whilst mate-taunlo acid must be
classed in the group of oxyphenylpropionic acid.
Sonboimn and Diloudi'e state that mato contalus the same
essential conebituonts as tlie coffee leaf, and In greater amount
than the coffee seeds, whioli Dr. Peokott coafirms after numerous
experiments with large and small quantities,
III the province of Parana the leaves have lately been dried in
largo wronght-iron pans, iu the same manner as Cliinese tea, or iu
npcoiully constmoted ovens iu which tliey oan be propirod so as to
retain mors aroma; they are then powdered by machinery aud
sifted ; this kind of mate obtains a bettor price.
Another form in which the leaves are prepared is by Ciirefuliy
separating them from stalks and twigs aud roastiug them, but this
is not so much esteemed as the powiiar except iu Cliili, wliore tiio
loaves ai'e prepared.
In the Bouth Amerioan Republio and the Brazilian proviuee of
Rio Graiide do Hul, mate is packed in serous of ox-liulo holding
tliiiiy kilograms, and in lialf-serous, ountaiuing tifteon kilograms;
this (locking gives to tho mate a disagreeable flavour, which
dotracU from its value,
lu Parana it is packed in cane baskets; these arc lined with
dried grass, called .looses, and contain fifty to sixty ktiograiiis.
The mate lU loaves is here sold at 280 to 290 reis (about fifty-six
pence) ; powered mate is sold iu thick and better-woven cane
baskets, containing in a lialf-scron fifteen, aud as a seron, sixty
kilograms, the price beiug ton to twelve par cent more thau tho
haves.
In the Spattisli IWpublia three didorunt sorts ore sold under the
following names f—
Dfi'“Cak-oiiy, or Coa-cily'Sthcic .arc tbs new leaves rf the
UARSiljr dwtioped shoots, Tiicy uic i>t more d«Ii«aS# texMiVr
K.AING GRASS FOR PAPER-MAKITO.
rpllli following communication on this subject from Mr. Henry
JL Buckle, the Deputy Commissioner lu British Bnrniah, has been
addrossed to the Editor of the Paper-.Makers’ Monthly Journal.
8 ia,—I have lately read a letter from Mr, Listard, on the above
subject, at page 332 of yonr Journal of ISth Dsoember last, and 1
think a furtlior account from me may be acceptable.
Ivaiiig grass, or, as it is sometimes oolled, “ elephant grass,” is a
kiud of reed which grows wild all over the sonthern portion of
British Biirniali. It reaches to a height of 12 to 15 feet, and grow¬
ing luxuriantly in plaoee where nothing else will flontlsh, there is
little nrobability of the siwly over failing.
Under tho orJoti of the Government of British Burmah, I have
carried out three experiments with this gross, iu ordsr to dtoido
tho question whether it oan be utilised for paper-making.
1 should first note, that while oonviut labour was utilised in tho
vicinity of the jail, the grass bad to be cut by free labour, since, if
the convicts bud been sent out, they might have taken the opportu-
ni^ to csiMjc,
Tho grass was cut down close to tho ground, and carried in
bondlu to the jail. Inside th? jail, convicts out off the tops of the
gntH, Wtma tho oanc oeases, and the tope wera dhtcarded Xue
October 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
0fl3i6fl wof6 thss Btr ppod of tbo outor portion of bai’kq and wore
geBondly oltuMd. After being poned tbroash a cruBbing null
UMy were out into abort leoetbi, the jointa oatng thrown away.
Thfa wea done beonnae the ^re wna fottnd to be waekeat at the
j<^ta.
The abort langtba of oene, which were aorae ton Inchea long,
were then oorrled ontaide the jail, and thrown into large wooden
tube, whloh were plaoed on a raft anohored in the river, on which
a nu of eonviota were working.
'^e oonvieta aat on the raft, each nian having a block of wood in
front of him, and waa provided with a wooden mallet. A bandfol
of eanaa waa taken out of one of the tnba, wai i^ten on the block,
and, being oonatantly inunetaed in water, the nithy matter wae
gradnally got rid of.
The wbme of the day'a aupply of the raw material having been
thua treated, tha 'tuba were filled wiUi freeh water, and the
atook—aa 1 aholl now call it—woe left to eoek all night.
In tiio morning thU stock was first beaten onoo more and rinsed,
and waa then plaoed on a ralaed, open bamboo platform, for tha
Water to drain off and for the fibre to dry. It was found that in
drylim the inn bleaohed it almost white. The itock was then
atoraa in a shed to finish drving anj to be packed. Under date
IStb January 1862, the Bally Paper Mills reported aa follows on a
consignment of 3,690 lbs. of paper stock prepared in tha way des¬
cribed :—
“ Tills (45 maunds of stock) we bailed with oaustio soda at 20
per cent, and bleached with bleaching powder at 15 per cent.
The sample ol the paper sent will show a fair result for a first
trial. The colour does not come up particularly good. This may
be Improved. Under-boiling may have affected the colour. The
stuff is very easily treated, washing freely. W e have not been
able to ascertain the loss in weight, but it is considerable.”
Under dates 16th and 24tU August 1682, the Bally Paper Mills
reported as follows on a cmisigument of 400 lbs, of paper stock
prepared as before; —
“ The five bales were plaoed in the boilers without any previous
cleaning, and bulled witll20 per oent ol' caustic suda for lU iiours.
The boning was next bloaohed with a sointion of 15 per cent
bleaching powder, after which it was passed through the ureakurs
and beaters in the usual way, auu finally on to the paper
machine, ovor which it ran very nicoly and cleanly.
“ The trial was made under great disadvantages, owing chiefly
to the very small quantl^ o.' material to ho experimented with,
and also to the fact that (raring the mousuon it is very ditficult to
obtain really clean water, mo that the ooiour is not so good os
miglit certainly be expected with clean water suoli as is obtainable
from October to June.
“ There is no doubt that this material is very suitable fur paper,
being easily wrought, and showing, as far aa could bo judged by
this trial, that the loss in weight is leiis than that of uuy other
grass experimented upon by the Bally Mills. The paper, too, Is
strong and clean, and shows on excellent surface.
“ Ooiour. —We have not the slightest doubt that the material can
be bleached up to a good white, aud so be capable of taking any
tiugo desired.
‘'SirttigOtia most satisfactory, and is great enough for almost
any ness to whioli paper can be put, except for bank-uotes and
Bucli-like.
“On the whole wo arc very pleased with tho sucooss of this trial,
and feel couviuoed tliat if the material eau bo produced at a rcasun-
atde rate and iu large quantities, it will soon make a name as u
paper-making material.
“ We should think an atraug^meut of fluted and plain rollers,
with a flee supply of water, driven either by water, steam, or
manual power, nould groatly'tend to reduce the cost of oleaiiing.”
Under date January, 1883, the Bally Paper Mills reported on a
oouHgnmeut of 60 baskets of the paper stock, coutainiug over
3,000 lbs., which bad been prepared in the same manner and with
exactly the same oaro os tho two fonnor oonsiguinents. Tho words
of the report are not quoted beoause they are uuntradiutory, and
because, leas eliomleals having beau used—a solution of only 18
per cent oaustio soda and 1.3 por cent bleaohing powilor—tho
unsatisfaotory rasult is not conclusive.
Under date January, 1883,1 rooeivod a report from a gentleman
in England to whom I bod sent a small (inonUty of the paper stock,
prepared as desoribed, and he said that he had experiineutud with
my material and some eararto gross, and that, liaviiig used the
same quantity of oliomioals with each, mine was “ the stronger of
the two, and it certainly shows whiter."
Under date 23rd January, 1883, I received a report from a
gentleman in Sootland, to whom about 70 lbs. of the paper stock,
prepared as described, had been sent, and he wrote as tollows ; —
” As regards the respeotive advantage of kaing and esjmrto,
there is no doubt that kaing makes a stronger paper tbaii esparto,
and that it also bleaolies better. But it cannot be picked and
cleaned so well as esparto.
There If a kind of black bask, which is hariily noticeable
before boiling and which will not bieaoh, which seamed to be pre-
M&t In considerable quantity in the sample tested. If this could
be got rid of, kaing would be quite as cleau aa esparto,
“ Another objection to kaing is tliat it is more bulky than esparto,
not In the bales, but in tho boilers : it swells up more tlrnii osMi to
afid so much oauuot be put in, Tho same applies to the breakors,
potohers, and beaters, perhaps more at the beaters than elsewhere,
os, while It takes a certain tune and a certain amount of power to
beat an en^ne oontatnlng a given weight of esparto, it takes the
same time and the some amount of power to boat about two-thirds
of the weight of kaing."
It will be noticed that all the reports agree in saying that the
paper made from kaing grass is veiy strong, stronger than i>aper
made from esparto gross.
A« regard! the coloor, too, the reports are very favourable.
Tho black basks notlcod by tho geutlemaii in Scotland were also
moutioniid in the third report from Bally, but they were not very
^tioeable mjie sample of the i»per made which I received from
drawn up of the cost of the ore-
paration of this paper stock, as oonviot labour was employed and
S^theraft'”^' *"* ooDvmte^wo’rking
four months 1 employed on an average 22 oonvlcts a day
rome inside the jail, and some on the raft. I worW up 47,l»i 11^
of tho canes, os cut and with the tops on them which si
prepLd mid dried ^pi. stock
<’* enough canes to make 140^^of prenai-ed
and dried p^r stock was 1 rupee. prepaieo
Witli the convicts I tiir.iei! out each day about 70 lbs of nrv
pared aud dried paper stock, so that 140^11)8 wniiM
about the outturu of two days’ work of 22 convicts * represeiil
Following the usual oalculation that one free man will do tho
work of two oonvlcts. the cost of the preparatlou of 140 Tbs of Vre
pored and dried paper stock would be somewhat as follow^- ^ '
Cost, fsufficient oanes to make 140 lbs. of prepared
aud drieii pnner «took ... r p* Inn
‘’f'-''’‘®bourers for two (lays, at Vaunas each ^
‘ ... 11 0 0
Bailees 12 0 0
.SridYrlTi;:!,™'',
^owmg that esparto g,n,8 is shipped to England in its raw
state, an experiment has heoi. made in sending tldther a consider
able quantity of kaing grass tied up in bundle? as cut. I have not
seen any report of tho result, but f have li.-ar,! that the grass was
found to have become quite brittif. on its arrival in Euglaod ami t."
be f|uice uneifSH. uim wi
It tliis inaterial is to be brought into use for paper-maltiag, soni.'
laliour-savnig machimny must bo a.iopted to roduco the beavv cost
(if hand labour. It might purliaps bo possible to utilise the splon ■
did water power wliioli is at baud in Biirmah, or, if that is not
posaihio, steam might be ased, aud there is at last good reason for
homiig that a valuable coal deposit has boon discovered only a few
miles from the b.itiks of the Irrawa.l.ly river. ^
To anyone proposing to commence the preparation of paper Stock
district of J honegwum British Btimiali, wherelaing grass Is to be
found growing wild over largo areas. “ “
An iirraiigoinont might gradnally be eomo to with tho villagers
to deltvc'r the canes at the mill at a certain price. The uaties irimht
then bo out into lengths, diseardixig the joints by luaohiiiery, ami
then 1 believe the ordinary broakors and beaters would rismova the
pith and leave the pure fibre, which euuld he dried, pressod, and
packed in bales for shipment.
Tours faithfully,
Ift!,y«v Upoklk,
Dt'/mij/ Cvmmiimwr, BriiM Biirma/i.
iiM[’ROVING FLOCKS.
rnllE merchant is cnnstantly trying to improve his trade by
X improving the quality of his goods without increasing tile
mice in proportion, trying to meet all tho wants of his customers.
The manufacturer tries to iiioreaso tlie amount of Ids sales au.l
prufita by improving tho character of his irianufaotnres : so, like¬
wise, should the Sock owner make it a uonstant study how to
improve the oharaotor of his flock, both os to its capacity for in¬
creasing the weight of carcass aud wool from a given amount of
food, aud its capacity for broediug strong, healthy lambs. Every
element of income should be taken into oonsidoration, and an ofl’.n t
made to iucriaise the value of caoli.
The beat digestion produces the beat growth oi body from a given
amount of fooil, aud tho power of digestion is iuoimsod in aavoriil
ways. First by the proper aeleetioii of foods, A iiiixluro of
grasses is nature's proscription of rood for die ahuep, as weli as
other grass-eating auimals. Tnis mixture of grasses contains all
tho elements, in precisely the right proportion, and when in full
supply, cannot be impi-ovod upon. When other food must be given
it slionid be of a varic.l cliarnoter, in imitation of tlm grasses. Tho
sheep has a strong craving for variety in food, and should bo in
(liilgod. It is always a strong recommeiidatloii of a food that it is
palatable—that the animal eats it with pleasure. This is an
element of digestibility. .Second, iiubitual full supply of food
inoreasea the power of digestion. Tile fall anpply ot food gives
full exercise to the stomach, and its power is increased by this
exorcise. Tlie blacksmith’s arm grows more musoular by the con¬
stant exeroise of wieldhig the aleagc-hamnier ; so the animal full
fe.l from birth acquires a large increase of digestion, ami grows
with grrat rapidity to its full iii.iturity. It is this iucrease in the
f lower of digestion that enables the aiiiraal ti oome full weigiit ia
lalf tho usual time of slow growth. Food enough must be dige.st .'d
to moke ttiis growth in this abort time ; aud this is the real im¬
provement iu the vital mauiiiuory of the iinprov.-1 auim d.
Lot us examine tho efl'eot of small au.l large digestion on tho
form of animals, II wo note the bodies ot die she’p kept upon
barren hills, or where food is scanty, we find them long, thin-
b(xlled, sharp-backed, loiig-neoked, loug-hea led, aud long-legged.
Tills ia tho way nature moulds her forms on a meagre diet aud slow
digestion. An expert animal anatomist could at onoo tell tbo
liberality of the diet of tho animal by an examination of its skolc-
tott. But if wo examine tho Improv.id sheep of any breed, wo find
them oompoit, round-bodied, broad backed, short-legged animals,
rouaded out into linos of grace and beauty by superior alimentation,
382
THE INDIAN AGRICJIDTURIST.
October 1,18S3.
Thb improv«n>«nt might hftv« been very mush hutoued by
eoieotioD Ui breeding, but atlll, tlie baeie of the Improved fonns
ha« bees iktlful feeJing, long oostinasd. Thh insreued power of
digestion oomn of loug habit. An animal tliat has alweye bod
■oauty food has a very limited digestion, and it caunot suddenly
be mnOh inoreuaed. The food most be increased very gradually,
and the stomnoh Insrease as gradually in Its digestive power.
It will thus be ssou that skltful feMihg is the true basis of
improving the tlaok in form. The eiTsst of poor feeding upon the
Improved Lciiaster and Cotswohl sbssp nos often been seen,
and the deterioration le mnuh more rapid than the improvement
has ever bean. Tho flook-own«r must, thanrfore, always rogard
it as a great iiiUfortuue tliat this flask should be reduced to a
scanty ration, even for a short time. No prudent flook owner can
afford, to eoouomise ou the food of his floca ; trying to save ou
tlicir neoessary food is simply reokless waste.
Tho fecuudity of the flook can be luoreosed by uelug a ram from
a more fertile breed. When the Coetwold, Leicester, or South¬
down ram is used to improve the oommau sheep, the result is to
iucroase tbs fertility of tho next generation. It is also easy to
increase the feouudity by seleetious in the same flock. Broodiug
will rapidly increase the percentage of lambs from a flook ; and
tliis is an Item of great importnuee iu a flook used for breeding early
Iambs. The peroentage of lambs from the Merino is usually
estimated at 00 to SO per cent., while iu the mutton breeds it is
from 100 to 130 per cent. The differeuoe makes a large diflerenoo
intheproflt. The flock ownor should study every item, ami diU-
gently make the most of it.—itre Sloci Htcord.
CINCHONA.
THE HARVESTING OF CTNCfFONA BAllK.
T HB following is an extinct from a letter addressed to Messrs,
Croysdalt and Co., by their London Agents,Mosers. Fran Cols
LeMairand Eiivera Hicas, ou the harvesting of cinoiiona bark
When elieing was oommenood in India three years ago, it was
with some trepidation that we observed the departuro from the
old, w«ll<trie(l and extremely remunerative process of taking the
hark hy stripping, and it was only when wo wore ivssured of tlie
following neiug facts, that wo expressed our approval, the correct
ness of wliioli ws shortly after saw reason to doubt, and Inter to iio
certain that the new proeeu was a most lamnntahlc failure. \Vc
were assured that tho (luantity of bark to be taken would bo at
least double tliat obtained under sti'ipplug. That tho trees were
mote healthy under the sliciug than under ntrippiug. That the
bark renewed more quiukty under slicing thau uuder stripping.
That the yield of uikaioid, and especially quinine, iucreased more
quickly uuder slicing thau under stripping. Those four pniiiiises
proved, as many growers believe them to bo, the cose would of
course be made out, aud no sane man would take bark by stripping
when he oould shave or slice. The first slices were niidoutitcdly
richer in quinine and other Alkaloids than tho strips taken off the
same trees, but that of course had uothiiig to do with the system,
the bark having been grown under the stripping process, and the
extra rioliness was accounted for by their only having taken the
outer and undoubtedly richer portion of bark which has not been
siloed. The next queetloii, VIC., the great u' healthiness of the
trees under sliciug than stripping, was the point which delayed
our oxproBsing our autagoiiistio feeling, for there was no doubt
that the trees wore healthier under slicing than under stripping,
and the flrat deduction naturally to be drawn was that, if the trees
were lieolthier, the bark must be better; if it were not so, some
other influence must be at work. But further observation, that iu
spite of this phenomenon, bark Itom trees sliced was each lime
w one than the last, and that the rate of deterioration was an ever-
iuoreashig one, made us feel sure that the argument must be a
false one, and in effect, when remenibeiiug that the sap of the
tree goes np inside the tree, aud is there transformed, in Nature’s
laboratory, into leaves, aud comes down outside, down the bark,
and is deposited for the most part iu the bark, in the shape of
alkaloids—when one oooaiders this, all is immediately plain, aud
uetxial every-day experience of those whose life is to handle and
vaUio bark, triumphs over ail the tiieories. Iu sliciug, you cut
through the stocoliouse of the alkaloid, aud leave the contents of
the bark on the tree, subject to leakage and to chemical changes,
by being exposed to influences they were never iuteuded to be
subject to. So far for theory, which as busluess men ws do not
believe fu. Our theory le irtade up from our experienos. We do
notmakeatheory first, BO that even oonM this theory which we
hove compiled from o^orvation of effects he overturued by any
argument which seems to ns very difficult, there would still
remain the facts observed to bo disposed of, and these are the
things that convince us of the suicidal effects of slicing. We have
never seen in auy case coming throngh our lianda, and where there¬
fore, we had means of verifying the whole matter, wc have never
seen Second slices from Identicu trees exoeed in Holiness the first
elioes from those trees. We have observed In very many, ton
many, ootea, a bark arriving the first year in Hue, bngbt, tliick,
rich slices, oominandlug the top value, arrive the nest year in
dnll, sickly, I thin slices of very uneurtaln value, and of
use to only a HmltM number of buyers. We have known caiee of
a crop of bark taken by eliciug decliue in two years, by about 40
percent in weight «pd about 80 per cent of the value,—that is,
lustead of every 100 Ibi. of 8». bark, only eo Ib. of 2«. bark,
making every allowance for the drop In the market. What the .
differenet after three years’ siloing u, we do not know, but we are j
tJttiiA It would be somethliifl -deniable, and it eahme to ue that |
I ahont four years of eltoing might reduce a li per cent bark to
, valueless one. Our experieaMaf oen^hioa hetawea thaft^te
I of the two proaesseeheleg Miiefly.oonwted h» ifliurest .r^Uag to
I bark from mature tree*, you have to faoe a faiwr ttee^loatTon,
that is, that your figures, rotating to young trees, wMw dnjtbe
uenal oouree would be fact improrlng la.alkalpid. ytal^ are Ukely
to be confused by taking any luurfaee iu Mkaoids oqwitlg erbilit
sthiiug, as an effect of the system: juatsad of, as w's o(Kl^ad. in
spite of the system ; to that we should vargue that, it fu igUiwg
on got an inoraase, that increase wonid-be Issa than it *110010 be
y the amount of damage in leakage and obemioM.tlhaigieiofo^ti-
tutlonof alkaloids, resttiting from removing the(niter
layer of the bark. Under the procese,of atstpnhig in .alternative
layers, on the other hand, yon remove the whole .apparatM-^Ou-
tslulog the alkaloids and the oidy places where damage can occur
is at the edges of the alteruaie Intern left on ' the tree, gad great
cate is of course necessary iu bludlngtbs tree up. 'Tfat .otherdis¬
advantage of stripping is the damage done to tiu exposed oambinm,
and this from two causes. First, ooeUsi,. oarelessueis in idercing
the cambioni with their knives in remotiM iti>e Wh,. twti)ad of
a railing it when ready to rise. Ami toe lepoud i^sto 0^ of
it, or is olosdy oonnec ted with it, takbig strips off trs^ . ou
, whjeh the bark hu not renewed to a Buffielent thickusii ^ aUov
i of its beiug taken without iujury to the combium. Tim: ssoond
; enuae could easily be renicdlod by some skiilvd person going venad
I niiii making witii u patch of point, orsomcolhsr oasi^ diatiugahih-
ablc sign, wiiiuh tress wore to be taken, With proper care,^eei
will go uu yisldliig ftuu bark for many years, but under siloing,
a fins estate may be rniued, at least when mature, iu four years.
The damage done hy slicing is much greater, aud sooner peroopt-
iblo, with oi-own tliau with red liarks. We advise drying ftllibaHcs
at as low a temperature as possible as auy higher temperatiire than
00 is sure to net prsjudlclaity upim the hark. Drying bark at a
litgh temperature affects abiolututy tlie oharanter and coostitutlou
of tlie alkaloids, rendering the separation of the quinine a matter of
great difliculty, in fact fatal, to the bark. —Jfiulrat Mail .
FORESTRY.
A FOREST SCHOOL FOR ENGLAND,
.w..—c
O N Thursday, the 2ud of August, Hir .lolm Lublmek found the
opportunity he has for some time been soekiug of calling
attentiou, in the House of Oomiuoiis, to the iinportmit question of
establishing a forest school in England. He did so when the
House wont into Committee of Supply and tliu vote of 1123,23'i for
the offloe of woods and forests came on for disoussioii. Sir John
asked tho (lovorument to eousider during the autumn the (juastLou
of forest education in tills country, aud whether the uatiuul
forests miglit not lie utilised for this purpose. He said
‘ Ho much, indeed, had forestry heeu neglootod, that iu Soot-
1 ,-uid the words suggested doer, Init no trees ; wliile the idea of
foresters iu Eugland was associated wltii tliu nicmbci's of an ox-
ceilent provident institutiou. Of cciiisu, the Crown forests formed
but a small part of the euliject. There were altogether, in round
iiuinhcrs, 2,i>00,000 acres ut woods and plantations in this conutiy,
BO that the subject was one of v.ut impurtauce. Moreover, it «.n
calculated tliat iu .Scotland and Wales thyc wore (5,000,000 or
6,000,000 acres at present almost valueless,^ aud which, if judi
uiously planted, would give lai'ge results. Iu the soioiico of
forestry we wero, ho fsarod, far hshind, most foreign oouiitrioe,
eepociully France and (leriiiany ; and he was vei-y anxious that
our landed proprietors should benefit by the experience w-hioh
other nations had acquired. But let him ask where was a country
geutleman who owned woodlands to obtain iuiormation as to their
mauagement or to procure trained assistants? We had no forest
school in this country ; wo iiad no class of persons spooialiy Iratnsd
aud instructed iu the formatiou and m inagement of woods. It
was, he feared, still true that, as tho House of Commons’ Com¬
mittee of 1864 reported, timber Is “ eveiwwhora worse managed
than any other speoies of pi-opsrty." tfnless something were
douB this state of things would continue. Ou the other hand,
the higliest authorities had expressed a very strong opluion that
we might make our woodlands much more profitable ; they showed
Due step wliicli was a uooessary prolimiuory. The highest Englisii
authorities were stropgly iu favour of tho establishment of a
forest Boliool, aud hud forcibly pointed out the loss which
our present system of itianagemoni, or rather mismanagement,
entailed on landowners. Mr. Browu, iu his standam work
on forests, observed that " if our forests bad beeu Judicioaily
inanagsd wo should not Hud so great)* .port of the woodioods Of
Great HHtalu in the unprofitable stote-in .wUiofi they are,” ' .We
were the only important nation in EuroM,’ argued tilr John Lub¬
bock, without a forest seiiool, and yet,~n wo InoUdsd our qoloities,
our forest, were the largest aud moae valuable in the. World, It
appeared to be a very strong argument in favour of tlie establish¬
ment of a forest sehool in this euuntiy th-ot at present the yogug
men who were goiug out to manage our liidlau forests had to be
sent for iastraetions to ths groat Frcncli Forest School at Nancy,
No doubt, that was a most excellent iostitutiau, and we Were
indebted to the French Government for the courtesy with Which ^
they hod roceived our Engllih atudeuts; but the system of
educatiou given there natanitly oontaioed some brauohee, ae, for
instsuge, the study ol Frenoh law, that were not adapted to
BugUsh students, while there were many other considerations,
suoli 08 oliuiate, which reudered a Continental school less ml-
table for English requiremeats. He might add,’ be stdd, * that
no young EagUsbmen, ae a matter of foot, went tbeie exeapting
October 1, tmf. THE INI>IA*N AGRICULTURIST.
thote {oteDdej^ldr tai'vloD, For our oolouiKu, ngain,
the hero would be of v«ry
great impocteaoe. maai^ttmeut oi their woods would
add ooudddiwhljf to fMMwome. 'Franob foreitera had recoutly
been sent to tbeCSif^ #1f«od Hope and Cyprus, it having been
found impOMdbls to obtafo any oountiymBn of our own witli the
necemry knowledge. Pei^pa, however, he ahould bo asked why
the eatablhiuneot of »uOh li forest aobool, 'ff it wore so urgently
needed, should not be left to private onterprlae. The reason woe
cleor. A properly equipped foreet school must have attached to
it a large Mtent of foreet in various stages, and having a variety
of climatss and soils. TIvis, it was obvious, no private iustitntiou
ODuld supply. He did not, however, say that this would necessa¬
rily invidve the establishment of a Q-overnment school. He undev-
st^'tUat the Government contemplated an arrangement with
the Ooc^r's Hill Ccdlege, but he trnated that before instltating
a ^yanraient sohool they would inquire Whether siioh collugee
as OlrenosStef could be made avafhtble for tho purpose, an d
possibly some arrangements might be devised by wbicli, uuJvr
carelhl ruplations, the professor and students attached might
periodioally visit our national forests. He might mention in
fllttstration, that lately the Cape of Good Hope Governnien t
determined to appoint a Forest Commissioner, with an inoomu
ofd^SdOa year, They oould not, however, diid any qnalided
Kngllslunen, and were obliged to appoint a Fi-ouuh gentleman,
even though he uonld nOt speak English, Tho Sooioty of
Arts bad memorialised her Majesty’s Governmeut ou thesnhjoct,
and the prosenoe in this country of Dr. Brandis and Colouol
Pearson rendered tho moment one of which It was dosirahle to
take advantogo. He hoped, therefore, her Majesty’s Government
would not think him unreasonable if he asked them to consider
this important ‘ question,’ Mr, Courtney, tho Secretary of tho
Treasury, whilst ackoowlodglug the value of the suggo^ions put
forward by Sir John Lubbook, said that the treasury bad not seen
their way to do anything in tho matter, but promised tliat tho sub¬
ject should not lie lost sight of. This is not very mneh comfort
for thoso who think tliat the question ought by this time to have
passed the stage of ' consideration,’but it is better than none at
ail, and Sir John Lubbook, who will, we trust, persevere with his
excellent movement, deserves tho thunks of the public for wliat
he has so far doue in tlio matter. We shall Im glad if ho will
favour us, in an early issue, with his views on tlio subject, and
we can promise him more spioo for their discussion lUau tliat
afforded him by the Tii/n's. — Arl ' y.
THE GARDEN.
CULTIVATION OF THE BEAN.
(Faba vnigark, Moeuoh.)
TP 11 IS vegetable is on annual, and one of the oldest cultivated
_l_ plants we possess. Some uncertainty exists as toils native
iittbitat; however, it is generally supposed to be a native of Persia.
There are two distinct classes cultivated in gardens, We., the
long pod and bread Windsor. The pods of the former are from
,5 to 0 inches long, and contain from four to six medium sized
beans. Those of the latter are from J to 6 inches long aa<I much
broader than tho longpOd, and generally contain three flat large-
sized beaus. There arc numerous varieties detailed in European
nurserymen's citalogiios, however all aro referable to either of
these two clasaos. The long podded varieties urn the most pro¬
lific, and succeed best in tins oountr*. They "noclimativ.o without
any perceptible deterioration in guality, and should therefore be
always grown in preference to the broad "VViudsor sorts.
In tho plains, beaus come in use about tho middle or end of
February, and contluae in seaion until the eud of April. They
should be sown in sucossslon from the middle of Bepteuibev to
the end of October. Two sowings are suflioient for ordinary
requirements, but when it is desired to havo thorn in season
for os long a period as possible, throe sowings should be mode at
intervals of a fortnight bstwoen. They eucoeed best in a deep,
riuh, and somewhat heavy ioatn. Where the soil is light and
sandy, heavy manuring must be resorted to in order to meet with
snooess. I find the foUowiiig to bo a good and economical mode
of preparing the ground. Dig trenches 1 foot deep and IS iuolias
wide, at distances of 3 feet apart for long podded, and 2^ ieet
for board Windsor sorts. Halt fill the treuchos with old riuh
nionursi and dig or fork it into the subsoil at the bottom of the
trunoh. Then nU up the trenohes with the surface soil and also
give it a libersl supply of manure. The trenches will now form
low ridges owing to the manure and looseness of tho soil. They
shonld next be pressad with the feet, and if the soil is still above
the surrounding level, part of it should bo drawn to each side,
leaving a space 13 inolies wide down the whole length of the
rows. The soil drawn away may be left along both edges of tho
latter for the purpose of facUitati^ tho retention of water when
Irrigating. The seeds should be inssrted 2 inches below the sur¬
face in double or aingla lines In each row at fi inolies apart, and the
satnedtstanos between the lines when two are sown. The double
line is preferable to the single one for the following reasons.
U the seeds are Imported many of them fail to come up, wd the
resulting vacant spaoei, besides being a waste of ground, give tho
, pint an untidy appearance. In a double row, vacaut spuoss, as a
<nil«, are not so numerous, besides the plants are much benefltted
by the support and proteotion they aflord each other during
storms. , , . .
The gorralnatlvo power of the seeds is muoh increased by being
■oaktdln warm water for six or eight hours before sowing.
Care, bowaver, must be taken that they aro not again dried up by
being inserted in hot and dry ground. When tho latter it in
the state mentioned, water should be given immediately ^tey
sowing, and the ground kept damp by subseijueut wntoriugs
until the seedlings appear above ground. During their progress
water should bo freely given, tho ground kept free of weeds, and
the soil frequently stli'i^ between tho plants. When the flowers
begin ^ appear, a slight earthing up around tho uodt of the
plauts IB benofieisl. When the stems are well covered with fiowavs
or when about li or 2 feet high, the pnbit of every shoot
should be nipped out. If this is not done they will ooutiuue to
grow and flowor wltliout forming any po<ls. As alrai^ mfntiouod,
tbe^Iosg pod sooUmatizes readily. When seeds for future use are
desired, they should be collected from the pods lowest down on
tho stems, as tliese aro luvariuhly the largest and best developed.
Tlie bean is not subjeot to disease or to the attacks of insects when
cultivated ou tho pkints
On tho Hills—autumn sowings oonio In use in May, and by sue-
oessive spring sowings boaiu oan bo kept in season uiifcUl August
and September, A small sowing should be made in October or
November for the early crop of the following spring. Those for
the main crops should besowu in sucoeesinu from tho beginiilng of
March to tho end of May, at Intervals of about a fortnight between.
The mode of cultivatlou is tbo saiaa as dscribed for the piniue,
and need not amiu be detailed. Tlie plants ace somatiiues at-
taoked by a species of aphis or green fly. The best remedy is
frequent syriugings with soap and tobacco water.—W. G.
—InditM tore-try.
THE GARDEN ANEMONE.
rriHE Garden auoinono may (A. horteujik} be said to comprise early
X summer and autumn varieties, so long s.s may tiiey be had
in flower by adopting the practice of sowing at different times.
The beauty aud almost limitless variety wldch may be obtaiued
from a cheap packet of stsed of the garden anemone is astonish¬
ing. Wo know few iilants that present the same rich variety
of colours which this tine old plant duos. From such high-toned
colours as brilliant crimson, down to puro white, through every
one of the primary colours, in nearly every variety of shude, tiro
transition from one shade to nnuthev is perfoot aud oomplete,
I’hcn the simplicity of their culture renders tliern most desirable
to nil who love their garden, 'yet neither iiavc much time nor
money to spend on it. By sowing a packet of sesds at the
present tiino an excnllout crop may lie rearerl for next year’*
display, in the flower garden, and in fact many years'
becauso the roots aro perennial, and may bn kept for many
years without deterioration of vigour, if well cultivated.
The manner in wliicli they arc nsually done, however, is uot
the best. They arc sown usually too thick, and no thought is
given to the necessity of thinning them out, so as to allow of a
vigorous development of tho small number which may be reqniretl
for the purpose of keeping the garden gay. If only a small bed
is wanted, or n few patches, the seed hod should be thiuueU out
etjually the spio as if tlioiisanrle were required, aud tlio trimmings
may be ntilizod by being transplanted while young to any
spot that wants ligliting up with flowers, each os shrubbery
borders or tho murgius of paths in tho vegetable gurdeu.
The aueniouo likes a noli soil, but the manure used should
not be of a crude uature. It should bo well rotted, aud, if
possible, mixed with old turf from rioli pasture that has heou
stacked for some time to rot. In sowing tlio seeds tbere is some
ditfioully, owing to tho woolly covering tliat envelopes each seed,
ot distributing thorn ovouly. This may be overcome by turning
tbo seeds into a basin, and sprinkling over them some moist
sand and mixing the whole and rubbing thorn together till
the seeds separate; the siind will require to bo about three
times the bulk of the seeds in order to make a oomplote separa.
tiou of the seeds. .Sown at tho prusont time, the plants will
bo strong eiiongU to stand the winter, aud may be transplanted
next spring as soon as they show signs of growing. They
usually do bettor when sowu in lines rather than broadcast, and
they can bo tcausplauted mure easily when so doao, beoause
plauts may bo lifted with less disturbance to their roots. Sowings
may also bo made in spring and oariy sumiuor—say in April,
Juno, and July—which will keop ip a supply during the whole
of the sununor .—Sorih ItriHeh iriAoultHrUt.
ON SOME NEW GAllDEN I’EASE.
T he number of new candidates for public approciatiou that turn
up auuually now-a-days in every department of gardening is
sogreot that it balioves every one who has a garden, and wishes
to make tbs most of it, to examine and criticise every naw-
comer severely before lie aocopts it os worthy tho reputation
with which it is sent out. lu no department reoeutly, perhaM,
has there been more energy displayed than In the vegetal ule
garden, and perhaps no subjeot thereof has received mote at¬
tention than tbo pea. Being one ot the most important of
summer vegetables, certainly the most popular, no wonder it bos
received the large amount of attention it hae done. According
to a report In the Gardenin' GhronMe of last Saturday, wo
find .there are no fewer than seven new varieties ou trial
at Boreaton Pork, wbioh bid well take a first piaw among
the existing sorts already in possession of tho public. They
are—
Duke of Connaughl, a main crop summer pea, a stro^ growing
sort, attMnlng a height of about 5 foot, free bearing, udtn Urge,
long, wcll-l^led pale green pods. Described as well fitted for
384
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
October 1,1883.
the «xbibitlon table. Awarded a llrat-claae oertifleate liy the
Pruit and Vegetable Committoe of the Royal Hortlonltural
Hcoiety of landon.
Proftm ti a dno aample of tbe ne phu ultra type, with large
broad, p^ wbltih fill well, TlgorODi and free bearing.
MaguifietHt ie dcecribed a« one of the verr fioeet main crop peae
in omttvatiou. It hai very large, broad, long, woll illled and
.ingolarly baudsome podi of a pale green colour, et^uare at the
end) which are nnrivnlled for exhibition porpoeei. It growe to the
height of about feet. It belong! to the Telephone type, but
ban none of tbe puffy appearance whioh tliat variety poeaeseai.
/attln^e—which aleo pa«»e» under the name of Jtomt Ruler—
haa large, square-topped pods, having nine to tea fine peas in each.
Viotur U a dwarf pea of about 3 feet growth. It is a very
prollflo bearer, witli fine, well-filled, square topped pods, wbion
stand well.
Perpetual is of the Veitob’s Forfeotion typo. It ts a profuse
bearer, and perpetual, as tbe name implies, carrying its orop late
into the antumu.
DMhe.i! o/" A Banp is described as fine, button near iu character
to the Duke of Connaught to be oocsidered distinct.
The value of these peas, however, must be taken relatively, and
with cantlon, till they are more definitely proven. There never
was a time when pease of a suporior kind more abounded than the
present, aud some of the older kinds, such os Veitch’e Perfection
Champion of England, and many are nnsurpassod for their general
good qualities. While, tboroforo, we should be on the outlook for
the results of careful work on the part of hybridisers aud solectors,
wo must make up our minds to some measure of disappointment in
following up or keeping abreast of the march of progres-s.—fVm JA
Briiuh Agriculturiit.
CHIVES VERSUS SILVER-SKINNED ONION FOR
PICKLING.
I T is not generally known that chives make n very ilelivute and
valuable piokling onion. The way in wliieli clitves are usually
grown, wit., allowed to remain iu the same spot for many yours, is
not likely to lead to the development of roots iu any degree fit for
piokling, because they arc too inueh crowded to admit of auytlii'ig
but the smallest siMcl bulbs being obtained. If, however, they
are planted out in tlio montli of Ootohor singly, instead of in
clumps unbroken up, very tiuo roots for tlie purpose will bo the
result They are milder than the ailvor-skiu onion or tire common
sorts either, and arc more crisp aa well, eating more like nuts than
pickled onions of the usual quality. The ground should ho fairly
well cultivate:! for them, digging woll, and giving a fair amount of
manure. In planting, drills about six inohos apart and about 14
Inches deep should he drawn for them. Iu these drills the roots
may be eown thickly, and covered as if they were poos or any
other Boed.—A'lirih British Agrivuhwut.
MINERALOGY.
THE SINGARENI COAL MINES.
Da, KiMi’."; Lucrcut. at tiiv. Mcskum,
oome, to lay tbe coal down at Madras so cheaply that it will com -
pete very favourably with the fuel now oDtabtod from Great
Britain or Australia.
At this point, and bafors going farther with the snhject, I shall
ask those of my hearers who are up iu the geologr of Indian
coal, to bear with me while I explain a few teAnlaalities whioh
nuiy perhaps make the story of Singarenl clearer and more interest.
lug to tliose not so happily prepared. In describing tbe geology
ofludia, It hoe beeq found convenient to caU tbe oountry lying
to the south of tbe greatalluvial flats of the Gangei and Indus, or
the Indo-Qangetic plain, Peuiusulat India I while ail the country
to the north Is considered pxtra-Feniaaulir India. The present
argument is conficed therefore to certain rocks pr formation of
Foaiuinlar India. A very remarkable and extensive serlons of
sandstones and other rooks, oharaotorized b^ the fossil remains of
plants and hence often oalled the plaut-bsanng series, Is develop¬
ed In the central and north-eastern part of tuli country, and it
stretches down towards the Madras Presidency from the Central
Provinces, by tbe Pranhita and Godavari rivers. This great
series oontoios a sub-division of ooai-bearing rocks, but these arc not
of the same age as the coal-bearing rocks or coal measures of Europe,
Wo do not know of, nor do I think there are, any rocks of oarboni-
feroiu age in Peuiusular India. To put it proudly ; this wonder¬
ful series of plaiit-beariug sandstouos Is a speciality of India ; it is
also met with in South Africa and in Australia, but it is best de¬
veloped in Indis, and—shall I s» it 7—has been best worked out
through the sure Labors of Mr. W. T. Blaufurd, Dr. Feistmautel,
aud others among my oolleagues. It is In fact an Indian, rock sys-
tern, standing on its own lithoiogioai, strategraph ical, and palieou-
tolugioal merits, confined within no limits of European or Ameri¬
can dassifioatloii, but demanding a place for itself iu the great
geological history, and worthy of ite classic name, the Oiniduiina
3j)4rm. A very marked member of the system, or rather of the lower
part of it, is the Duiiiudu /oriiiatioii, cuutaiuing the Indian coal
measures. Such terras, however, as eoal-moosuros aud ooal-beariog
rocks are apt to mislad, if only iu the matter of their being a
difference of age between such rocks iu Great Britain aud in Inala.
Ileneo, when they arc spoken of hero, it is safer and better to
call them Baruinm and stones or the Bai’ukar g\ >up or sub-division
of the Dimndae, and tliua the term stands not merely for rocks
named after the Barakar river, hut fur a Kioiip of rocks in which
the coal proper of India is known to occur.
Tims, wlnm n geologist finds liimsolt on lower Gondwaiias, he
is on the aiert tor Lhvmda strata-j but if ho fools—as I did when
walking over tlie Singaroni country—his foot drag over tlic
poculiarly rough eurfaue of Barakur sandstones ; then, uo India
trapper can beat liim at taking up a trail whicli shall lead in all pro-
bahility to euul. Although it has just beeu stated that the Gondwaiia
systeui issquires a place of ita own iu Geological history, amt
tliat its Dixmidn formation is of a difleruut age to the uarboniferous
fornmtioii of Europe, they cau be placed approximately alongside
the European order of classiticatiou thus
Barirjiean cliis.iijic,atiim. diulian i‘lu3)iJiailion.
Mesusoie. Jurassiu.
, Trioesie.
Paliesoie.
j Permian
i Carboniferous
Kaniguuj 1
ICamthi [
Barakai'
Mahadeva
Kajmahai
Pouchet
Damuda
1
Lower
Talebir
Coal-measures
Mountain Limestone.
1
f
o
&
a
ft>
D uring my aiisonee in England for the last two years, the
opening up of this country l)y a more extended system of
railways has been under the oousideratiun of the Government,
particular attention having been devoted to tbe coal-producing
capabilities of the regions adjacent to some of the proposed linos.
It was therefore with considerable pleasure tliat I saw the
Singaroni ooal-field once more receiving that notice which it de¬
serves. Hidden far away in a little-frequented part of the Ni¬
zam's dominions, and very small, it is yet the only field certainly
known to ooutain seams ot coal of importauoe within rcacli of this
Presidency.
It may indeed be said at once, at tbe outset of this leoture,
that tnere are only two areas of coal-bearing rocks in this Presi¬
dency. Oue of these is at BeJJadaiioi iu the Godavari
District ; but after Ijeiug bored the rosults wore so poor that
discontiuuauoo of the explorations was reluctantly decided upon ;
for any further examination could only Inivo boon carried on
in ground where the plauiug of sites for bore-lioles would have
depenUod very muuh on what was little bettor than gness-
rork as to the probability of their striking any coal oven
at groat depths. The second field in near Bhadrachellnm ou
the British side of tlie Oodarart; its area is unfortunately very
limited, and there appear to he uuly 21,000 tons of coal, of
which little more than ouo-haif can bo properly worked. There
are, however, other areas not far from these which, though small as
compared with the uoal-fields of the Central Provinces, are of suf¬
ficient extent and capability to make them of exceeding interest to
Madras. It is trne they are in what Is at present a very out-of-the-
way region, and—as may be seen on the map—they look infinitely
■mall in the vast area of Southern India: still, the opening up of the
country will come in time, aud the amount of coal iu a field is not
always proportionate with the extent of that field siiperfiolally.
The saying, “ litGo aud good” may be applied to coal-fields. The
f!emaud for cool it now so urgent and far-reaohiug that very extra-
ordinary eff’orte must be made to win it; and I hope, with but few
data at hand, to show that the reiourcee of Singaroni and the
other fieldi to.be mentioned are likely to repay suoh extraordinary
efforts. In fact, that U may be possible, for very many years to
Gooeerniug the groups of tim Damudab, it is only necessary to
state that the Kumthis do not coafniin ooal, and arc not known to
have auy scams worth eouaideratUm. The Barakurt are ooal-
bearing par excdUnce,
The TaleJtir formation need only be referred to here beuause It
occurs at Siugareui associated with the Danudat,
1 trust it will be perfectly understood that the term coal is here
used for the fuel properly so called whioh every European ought
to be able to recognize at once ; tliough, ludeod abseueo from
home and the not having seen nr handled it for yoaiw, or oareless-
uess about noticing a atone which is as typical of Euglind as any¬
thing else, have made some men su bliud that they have mistaken
the hard and grassy black mineral tourmalim for coal, tbe black¬
ness of eoluur generally being the oue main attribute of on
otlierwise easily reoognizablo i-ouk. Otlier snbstancos sueb as
lignite, like that oecurriiig on the Travaucore Coast, or the
eompressod and partially or wholly uarbonized vegetable matter of
the alluvial deposits of Poudioherry and Gnddalore, however use¬
ful tiiey may turn out as fuels hereafter, are not to be thought of as
coal.
There is no doubt about the “ stuff ” (as some people have called
it) of Siugareui being coal ; several tons of it wore brought down
to Madras in the Duke of Buckingham’s time, when it was tried ou
the Madras railway by Mr. Trevethiek, who reported it as ooal
without a question as to whether it was anything else. The only
doubt was as to its beiug good enough for the work requlr^ from
ooal or other fuel ou the Railway, and the Loaomotlve Snperitt-
teudent deoided that it was so fitted, if it oould be lauded at the
railway at a sufficieutly cheap rate.
The coal-fields now under consideration arc situated near the
south-eastern limits of tbe area of Lower Gondwaua rocks
that is on the lower part of the Godavari valley, '^r clASh>
to it, Singareni being tbe only one not absolutely within
the drainage area of this river. They are Tatpaliou on the left
bank of the British side of the Godavari i Singareni, Sivararum and
Madavarum on the NUam’e side, and Bedduol in the Godavari
District. There are otiiers, such aa Lbigala, Kamaram, Band-
ala and Kinarsaui, but these ace not of immediate interest,
OotoW I, 1883.
THE lOTIAN AGRICULTURIST,
385
If one of the more Important of these heldt be only opened up,
and an euy and cheap route be made for getting the ooal carried
BWi^, the reit can be otiliaed in turn. I say this because, as al
ready stated, the fields are small, and in ease of any very cxti'uoi’<
dlnary detnand, it Is as well to know that there are .reserves
which shall prevent failure of supply, those especially oonsider-
Ing the enormous outlay required to win the coal auil distribute
it over the laud. Sliigareni, though it bo of small size, is the most
Important field on account of its having l«3en bust expl ■'■od, and be¬
cause fts ooal is known to be good lu quantity and quality. Ou thu
other baud, Slvawarum, Madavoruiu, and Boddadanoi arc parts
of conueoted area iu which there nuiy be largo oxtensious ot
Borakar strata. There are fair iiuUoatious of good seams at
Siv'swarum ; but so fai-, Beddadaiioi has failed to show anytliiiig
bettor than poor coaly shales. Tlio Siugaroiii field is situated
about ir.15' N. Lat., and SO" 22'E. long., iu the eastern part
of the Kuudikonda tuluq of the Nizam’s uouiinions. It is about
130 miles from Hyderabad, 50 niilvs from IXaunnkonda througli
which town it is proposed to run the Hydcrahad-Oliauda railway,
40 miles from the nearest point on the ttodavori opposite liliadia-
cbeltum, and betwoen 80 and 88 miles from BozwaJu, whvuep
there Is canal nay to Madras. Kuuimamat, thu nearest larg
town, lios about 24 miles to the South. 'J’ho country is very
poorly populated with few small villages iu the midst of Juiigl, ,
but fortunately for railway purposoa in the plains and not
hidden away among hills as is the cose with some of tlio
other fields. It was even difficult to give this field a name ;
but it is called after a once large village which, though not actual.
ly on coal-rocks, is not far from them, 'I'licre .are about 1!) square
miles oooupied by the Damudaa, only 8 of wliioli oau be cuuai.Iered
us Burukars, n oousidorable portion of thorn being covered up oi-
overlaid by Kamthis. When I first found this field, ;iU that
was evident to me was that it was one of I!,ir.al;ar h.andstones.
I soon found that they arc associated not only witliilioirowr.
lying group the Kumthi.s, but that the Taleliii fern ation under
lies them. .Such an association of the lower (loiidwauas was
eminently satisfactory as showing that thi.s huM was not a mei’e
dying out patch of a single group ; and tlierefore my liupcfulne.ss
yt tiuding coal was considerable. My search was eventually re-
Avarded by finding a solitary out-eiop of coal in a pot hole in
tin; lied of the main stream, the waters of wliieli happened to
be unusually low at tlic time. H.aving thus uscerlaiuod the
eviatcuce of ooal, 1 completed tb.e survey of the livid, uud pointed
out where trial borings shoif’d uv made. The borings were siibse-
qiieutly carried out by Ma Heeinuu, the Mining Kiigincor of the
NiramV Dopaitment of I’liblic Works, and 1 had the good lurtuii"
to visit the place ouce iiioro while he was at work. On this occa¬
sion, the Ijoro-liolcs iudicate.l that there were other sr-am.s bcsiilu
the 01)0 I had found ; and nltogother my frieud was iu tlie highest
state of excitement over the quality of the coal and its cMeiil.
Sober calculation was however brought to bear on the data so
obtained ; for, there is no getting ovci the fact that though a
cubic yard of coal weighs aliout a ton, there aic only so many l•uhlc
yards in a square mile,, and Mr. tiveiian had as yet Inn illy bored
over a square mile of gioiind. 1 now come to a part of the ab¬
ject uf my lecture, tlie consideration of whicli is frauglit witli
considerable diitioulty. 1 refer to tUii ascertaining of the unionut
of coal likely to be got out of a field like tills, and 1 must confess
to a eonsiderablv amount of hesitation iu taking it up, bceau.se tin
calculation is beset on all side.s by .sucli pit-falls as failure in C'm
timiity of the seams, doubts as to whether the seams are .ahvayo
the same, and variability not only in the thiokne.Sh of the seams,
but. iu their composition. Karther, in oar examination of the
lower Goudwaua formation as if extends down the (iodavari valley
from the Central Provinces, a teudeney is observable in llm Huia
kara to hold lose and loss ejut as Llcmgli they were tliinuiic.; out ui
dying away to the southward, lienee tlie iihances are that an
outlying pocket of the lower (ioudw.uias such ns thi.s little ,iree
might only hold fitful and oapriciuus seann Uu the other hand, it
is possible enough for such a pocket to be a rich gii.', and 1 am bound
to state that siicii appears to be tlic condition of things here.
Be this as it may, Mr. Hoeuaii completed Ids explorations, niid
in 1870 be prepared a /r-viiwi.' on “ Coal in U. tl the Ni/am's
Uominious,” iu which, among the aceount-s of other fields, Im
gives an extremely unoniiiaging skoteh ot the eapabilities ol
Biugaruui. To this rrxlim: I am imlel.led foi- th.> data and cab iil.v
tioiis which 1 shall now' place before you, and whh h I shall now
take the liberty of diseussiug, s“riaLiin, ascloaeh as pmnble by tlii-
liglit of my knowledge of the behaviour ot the D.cnmda f n iualion
and its groups In the Godavari valley. Kor eimveidence of woi k
and other causes, Mr. Hocnau examine,I the field in tw o parks, a
northern one iu which the uut-erop o.'curs, and a Houtlivrn one.
He put thu horo-liolcs down iu the first portion over an area of one
BUd-a-half square miles, outsiile of whieli lliere .s still a good ileal
of Barakars ;aud in the sontheru part he bon-d over ahont one-
aud three-quarter square miles, leaving a similar selvage of sand
stones all round. In the northern-half of the field tln re are four
seams of coal, the upperinosl having an average thiokncMs of six
feet, the next two have auaveragu lUiekne.rs of three iert each,
and the bottom one, at 151 feet holuvv the snrtnoo, is stiineliiiie.s 54
feet thluk. The bure-liolea appear to have each pici end tlm Iniu
seams, so that the calculated area is the same for e.ieh. Indeed,
Mr. Heonan speolalizes the hottoni soams as having this ai "a :
though ho does not venture to estimate its average tldofcne.s.H vmy
oIoeeTy, as it is on an unoven leutioular hod, thinning out rapidly
at the edges. In tho southern portion, the four seams are
■till extant, but they vary in tldekuess aud depth. I will
now read to you wliat Mr. ileeuaii says oi the eapa-
bUities of the seams,—“ The upper or King’s seam”—as my
frieud oMls it—“ extends over an are.a of one-and-halt square
inlles on auavorngo thickness of six feet throughout, aud allow-
iiifl one-third for pillars, eto,, there will be (3,,500,000) flveand-
half railliou tons of v^orkahlo ooal.” This tonnage Is calculated
a« follows iV cubic yard of ooal being equal tu a ton weight,
14 squaiu miloa, which will give double the uumher of cubic
yards, nr 0,292,800 tons. It is usual lo coal-mining tij have about
one-third of the coal in the form of pillars or blocks for
the support of the roof which ornoiuit being suhstraoted from the
above touuajje leav’es 0,19,5,203 tons, rather ovor ilv, fivenan’s
estinmtn, Tiiero is always an enormous deal of waste iu working
ooal, especially with tndian coal ; while there U sure to he a lot of
poor shaly stutt which will not come up to tho reqniremeute of
I railway fuel ; I would, thorefiiro, .subject the amofiiit qiveu ahoie
to a fiirlliur reduction of-one third when the result would lie
4,130,134, or say 4,000,000 of workable coal. Mr. Hoeuau next
says:—“ The aeoimd aud third seams extend ovor a like urea,
ou an average thickness of three foot each throughout, and will
produce (8,.5O0,000) eight inillious aud half tons of workable coal.”
'I'hcre is soim, mistake here, the aggregate tluekuess of the. two
se.iuns is only (i feet, and tlie .area is tiio same a.s iu the upper seam,
lieuue the prubable out-tuni must be tlie same or 4,090,000 tons.
I will not enter into Mr. Hoenan's aceonnt of tlie bottom seaii
be clearly had not obtained sufiieient data for a fair ostiniate at
the time of publishing his He e3timatc.s, however, that
there may be 8,300,990 tons, winch I very nmeli fear, will be found
above the true quantity'. Wimtever it be, 1 rofrafu from making
any guess about it. .SiiiHee it to say' that the seam is sometimes
very thick, aud it may give siieli tbiokiiess of good ooal, id the
area defined by tho bore-holes as to keep the total tonnage of the
nortlunu part of the field well above eight or nine million
lime. In the eontliocn area, the lower seam thiekeus out
to over .59 feet in some places, but tlm (pialily of the coal is
said to 1)8 variable, The three other seams are slightly reduced
along tile western edge of the field, 'riiey are .somewhat larger, and
Mr. ileeiiau calculates, on a oorrespoudiug increase in the probabh-,
out-turn, which 1 would, however, reduce to about tlie same amount
, in the uortlieru field. On the whole, tho possible oiit-turu ol
good coal may bo ricisouably reckoned us 10 or 17 million tons, loi
till' whole field . which i.s indeed vastly larger than I ever expected
for so small an are*. I am bound to bo as cautious as possible 10 a
ealeutaliou of tins kind ; but 1 must .at the same time give dm;
erndif. to .Mr, Hveuan's stated facts oonocruiug the thiokuusses aud
ureas as shown by Ins boring explorations. All tliat we feel justi¬
fied in doing U to weigh In* opiuioiis on the quality of tb« coal
111 thu seamn and thu likelihood ot their being so permanent in Mmir
Uiiekiioss as ho seems to think they are ; aud 1 think the reduction
I iiavo made on his total estiiiiate ot 4fi mdiion tons will meot the
eontingimeie.i likely tu l>e eiieouiitered.
The quality ot the coal is the next point ot interest. 'J'hnt Wllieli
I myself obtained at the outcrop was toluiably' light and com-
pact,—U'd sli.iky, but charged slightly with jute,lies of powdery
ebuicoal, bioiikoig- into lug lumps, and having the bright lustre ot
diniiiy eo.d. Afv r it li.ul been dried 111 the .sun, it soOh made a
eat blar.mg tiro in front of my tent, which w.is kept up all night
by ill" people a.s lieiiig somotliiug new iu lliat eouiitry. 'I’lie next
mnruing ail that reimyined was a heap ol powdered ashes and some
fragnieuts oi hanier cinder wliieb wvre easily knocked into
powder. An aiialy'si.s, made at the survey klboi.itoi'y in Ualeiitfa
gave the lollowiug results ■ ’
l‘'ixed I'arbou
\'obttile mattm
(.Moi-stiii 0 O'O)
A.sli
I Total 100 0
, 15 oj
TUw vt‘ry fair Htylf’ ot lii-Iiau coal : tlic !."> jicr ccul ot
ash ia, however, juat within Ihe hfoU ot c »al luvink.^ a huIo
iu lu’iifi, wiiUu tlie jirujMU tioii oi lixed e.vrijoii is much Jiigher tiiau
that of u.\eiagc Uauiguuj c-i-il. 'I'liG luiisturo i.-< lower thmi iy
usual \\ith (hnluvan coal. MiihauqueuUy, tlio coal uuderwuut
mon* practical tc-,ts. A 'dulL wa^ »'in duiva ‘JUUtt. away truin (he
.'Utctni, to OOin which )-eaciicd the bottom ol Lhe uppurmost
sf'am. About .‘^00 tons were cxtiacted and «oiit to Hydtfrabad,
wlnut^ it was found to worU vtoy tiitisfacborily, both m tluj Mtatim./
ary eii'MUf. ail I at the work diop tuig'M. O’l tiu; Al vdius Haiiway,
uboiiL tbice ycuru ag's sliowtol ih'it tir; uual is very
bill d, 111 dtt's 111,tie dust, uud b-ave.s vci y litlli' a ili iu lIkj smoke liox ;
Mi'-re v\aM no dilliculty iu makiug steam with il, but it wuh found
to iiirilvG sj, gieat d<*af of asli-;e iu tfic asli-pa'i, for which, of <‘ouray,
.special ai iaug''Ui«utH can bf ma lo. The point about those
«• spci’niix'ut.s i.s, lliaL the coal wu.s nut tiirowji itnitle ai bemg of no
u0''»)unt ; Ml. d'revetliick iu his luport caU.s it u “ good uerviccahle
fuel uud nayn, “ tliaf if Uie faoiUUcB lor carriage are such as will
.idmit ot its being dcliver««l to oonhimiera ut a reaeioiiable rate, it
hiboiild b*' vvell Worth working.” Tile coai of tim upper aeaui lias
only been prnetkally lo 8 ted ; but, by all ucfouiittf, that ot ilm
ot/icr .so.aniH uib l>o found to bn of M/m/Jar t/mvliJy, Mr, llcmiou
Lovc.s the iuilonin;,' anuIyrtiB of coal from fcbe flower «iain, iu which
the pcreoiiUgr of asJi is reuiarkably lo\v ; —
h'lxod cartxm ... ... ... (5G’00
Vulatilo matter ... . . ... ... 23*00
Asli ... . , ... 1100
In cmiaidering, now, the means of getting this coal to Madras,
or indeed _ Uie having it trausportod anywhere, the depth at
whieli it lies, tin; natiive of tlio locality', and the means of approach
.are matters of great importauoe. The lowest seam is only 1.50 feet
from tlie surface in the nortlioru part of the field, and it never
runs beyond ‘250 feet : so that the pit sliaft or shafts will uot
involve any extraordinary sinking. Tbon there will be no great
demand on pumping anpuratus ; tlie locality is a dry one being in
a very small draiuage basin of about 57 square inifes, at the bead
of one of the minor feedsts of tho Miiuicr tributary of tho KLstiia
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
October 1, 1883.
river. The eituatlon, m I have already eaid, is favourable owing
to Ite being la the low country, and thue ea»ily auoeiBible from the
wide open plaint of Kuinmummot. It It, of courtu, a jungly
region, of aeoondary foresc ; but thlt will be of advantage In aupply-
ing timber for the works and railways. So oonveniout la this ileld
In every way, that I need to dream of it thuii If the Niram’t
Government do ever carryout a system of railway—as was then
pruned, between Hyderabad, Chanda, and the Kistiia frontier
vi4 Haninikoiida : why should not a zomludni—say a Kuropoai
—at SIngareui, import hie mining-plant vii Cooonnda and the
Oodavoi'i, sink his pit, lay down a tramway from the oolliory tc
Kummummet, and supply tlie railway at He. Ti a ton ? I leaii,
think still that this might be done at a profit.
This brings us easily to tbo problem how' to got the coal out o
the place and lay it down at Madras at a fair rate. In the Govern
inent enquiry or correspondence of 1879 on the oapabilities of tin
Singereni and Godavari coal, Mr. Trevethiok stateil that tho cos
of the Godavari coal should not exceed Rs. l.')-4ijer ton, stacked ir
the Royapuram yard, to attain tho sanio result as is got by uelaj
potent fuel at Rs. 22-11-9 per ton. I very much fear that siuci
then the prioo of patent fuel has goue down somewhat j in whiol
case .'Singareui must v’iold its fuel at ovoa a lower price thai;
Rji. 15-4.
The first point is as to what the price may be at the pit’s mouth
The ooal already mentioned, as having been sent down to Madras
post Rs. 8-8-2 per ton at the mouth of the siiaft. Of course tho sliafi
is only a temporary affair, with no appliances in the way of machiu
ery and tlie coal was got out lu tlie most primitive mouner, at n
price very considerably above what could be done at proper col¬
liery works. Ooal is sold at pit-mouth, iu Raniguuj and other
places on that side of the country, sometimes for so low a price as
Its. 2-8 or 3 per ton. At Warora iu tlie Central Provinces, ooal is
sold to the public at Rs. 7-8 per ton, uiiscroeued ; scrooiiiugs or
small cool at Rs. 4, the price to Guarantood or State Railways
being lower. Tho Warora prices cannot ho taken as a fair criterion;
the colliery itself w'as an entirely abnormal Govornmont work,
an cnoouragement work, in fact, and it was oonstruoted nt very
enormous expense ; and worst of all tbo Government still works
t. It seems hardly the correct thing for Govornmont to work a
colliery ; it Is a question, indeed, whether Government should
force a commodity on consumers who are not ready for it, or
whether this commodity should be allowed to wait until it is
wanted when private enterprise will most assuredly get it at a
far cheaper rate. It is also a (question wliebher opoiiing up a ooal
country by roads or railways is not a more legitimate province of
Government than colliery work. 'The Intention was admirable ;
Warora is a splendid work ; but it caunot ho expected to pay a
profit on Its coat ; it ought to he given over—even at a loss—to
people who will work it at a profit. Then, the jirice of Its coal
will arrange Itself. I thiuk myself that cousidoring tho working
of SIngareui will be comparatively easy, tho coal ought to bo sold
ut a good profit at the pit-moutli for Rs, 0 n ton, or, lot it be Rs. G
as proposed by the Consulting Rngineer to Government for Rail¬
ways, iu the oorreapoudenep of 18.^>9. Tliis Rs. G per ton coal lias,
however, to be carried to Hczwuda by railway or road. Prom ail
1 can learn, there soonis every prospect of a railway ; and tor this
carriage it is tolerably easy to oalouhite the amount to be addoil to
the prune cost. This Hue of railway will iu all probability oonnoct
Bezvvada with Hauimkondu, which appears to be the place for a
great central junction on the eustorn side of the Nizam's Domi¬
nions, so that it may as well run close .to Siugaroui iustead of there
being a special ooal line- 21 miles long between tbo field and
Kummummet. In this case the line from the coal Hold to Rc/.wiula
will be about 80 miles long. It will bo, comparatively spoaking,
over a very ciuy country. I iiavo walked pretty well over tlie
whole of it going southward.s to Knmmummot, and then south-east
somewhat iu tho direction of the old high road to Mudalora. No
poi'tioular stream comes in tho way for 21 miles, when the Waira, a
strong tributary of tho Miimor, is reached. Then, rather nnre
cast-south-east, over a broken country with another smaller stream
at 11 miles ; nftei which, S-S H. hy the village of Yerrajioliaui, and
so through tho pass between tho Kondapili and Kowtoswar liills
for 25 miles more to Bezwada. There Is no use in trying to shorten
tho distance between the coal field and the latter town to 72 milu.s
in a direct line, as is put down iu tho Government uorrespoudenee.
The line I have iiidioated is the shortest, and I thiuk tho most uim-
veuicut that can be run, and it will be ut least 85 miles long. I pre¬
fer it to tho more obvious route by Partial and the Kistna river,
which would run over a troublesome country iu the alluvial llaUs,
while it would bo 2 or 3 miles longer.
It IS bai’dly necessary to point out bow greatly Hyderabad will
bonefit by such a Hue of railway irrespoetivo of its traversing a eoal
district, 'iliis eastern Hyderabad eoiiutry is the poorest region 1
have beou in iu boiilheru India, as far as population and oiiltivatioa
are couceriied ; though it has resonroos of great value if they could
only bo brouglit under the influences of commerce and industry. A
railway from the Kistna delta will carry produce, and perhaps
poople into it, and it will carry out produce which at present lies
fallow. The Chandra railway, however useful it may he, has to
run a much greater distance over a far wilder and iufimtely more
difficult country. Chanda wants little that Hyderabad can give ;
Madras requires much for which she will give a fair price.
To return, however, to the subject of tho carriage of coal. This
mineralls earned in Bengal and Ooiitral India, hy rail, at about
Ka. 2-5 por ton for 100 miles. The Madras Railway late is imioli
higher than this, and the Nizam’s .State Railway oariios it for
about Rs. 3-2. However, perhaps both railways will carry it at a
lower rate when they have to carry it in any ((inititity. Not to
si»ro things down too finely, let tho 3-2 rate be taken, and this
will raise tho price of coal at Bezwada to Rs. 8-8.
There is then the water carriage for 274 miles by canal. Refer¬
ring again to tho Government correspondence ef 1879, it appears
I that with proper boats and an organised system of transport the
rate should not exceed 2 pies per ton mile, which will make the
charge Be. 2-18-8 Mr ton for tho canal or Rs. ll>S-8 os the prices
of the oaual at Madras ; a father slight charge mast be added for
carrying and stacking at Royapnram yard, which certainly will
not run tbo price b^ond Rs. 11-8 a ton, well within the Rs. 15-4
laid down by Mr. Trevothick, It must not be forgotten that
Rs. 6 is tho proposed prime cost iu this oaloulation ; not Rs. 5 as
I would have it.
The present normal annual oonsun^ttou of coal on tho Madras
Railway is only somewhoro about 12,(^ tons, equivalent to 16,000
tons of Singareni ooal ; honoe, if there were only this railway to
food and its fuel resei'ves held out at their present rate, the
Singareni field might be expected to last for over 1,000 years.
The fuel reserves aro uuoertaiu; the Madras Railway Dompany may
require more coal, the bontb of India Railway is ready to take
a very large amount, the eastern system of Nizam’s railways wiil
require fuel; and altogether it is not improbable that this anuaai
demand fur coal might rnu up to 50,000 tons in a very short time.
With such a drain, this field might hold out for 350 years ;
perhaps under certain views quite long enough for us in India !
On any view, if a greater demand arise, tliere are other fields to
fall back on.
There is one other ooiiaideratiou regarding the transport of
.Singaroui coal, and that is on tho supposition that the Bezwada
railway scheme might fall through, or romaiu iu abeyance fur
years. In this onao better roads or a tramway must be devised,
aud then it will bo bettor for such a route to run os nearly as
possible straight to tho Godavari, when there would be water-
carriage without broak of bulk all tho way to Madras. Tho
tramway would go 40 miles long to a point oppo.sito Bhadraohel-
lam. It would run through a wild country ; but regarding it, I
can also say, from personal exporietioo, that there will be no
engineering diflicultics of any oousoquenoo until near tho river,
when doop alluvial gullies, subject to floods, come iu the way.
The length of waterway would, however, add coiisidorably to the
prioe of the coal, already burdened with tho oharges on tiie
ooal lino of 40 miles ; iudood, the price at Madras would be just
a fraotiou over that which I have calculated for tho railway
route. After all, tho groat advuutigo iu tho proximity of the
river to this ooal field is that, with au ordinary road in tho direc¬
tion indicated, oolliery plant could bo imported and laid down
on the field ut a nmoli less cost than by any other routii. ’J'lie
port for lauding is Coconada, whonoo there is caual and river way
to the Hyderabad country opposite Bhadraoliellum.
I hope I have now shown you that SIngareui is tho iiiimediato
field for opening up ; that 17 mliliou tons of ooal may be reason¬
ably expected to bo got out of it -if not tho 404 niillion tons ok
Mr. Hooiian's estimate j and that a railway botw'ooii it aud
Bezwada will help to lainl coal in Madras at Us. 11-8 por
011 .
Tho other Holds in the ueiglitiourliood are .Sivuwaraiii and
Madaveram. 'They, willi the so tar unfruitful field of Bcddailcmol,
are hatches of Barukars situated ou dill'orciit sides of a large area '
ot ICamtlii strata wliiuli may he called llio Ashwarapett region.
This urea of KamUiis is ahout 210 square miles in extent, and it
lies alongside the zig-zag pmtioii of the Godavari, bolweon
Bhadrachellam niid the ‘ l-lorgi’ of tho river. Tlieueo, it stretches
down towards the Rllorc aud Variiagudcm part of the Godavari
District,
Sivawarani and Madaveram arc situated at the north-east angle
£ this area ou, or close to, the hank of the river ; they both
contain seoms of coal of greater or lessor importance. Away ou
the western edge of the aroa, near Chimdraguuda and Kuuuigiri,
there is another pateh of UarulCars which has not, however, given
any signs of coal as yr-t. Tho .probahility is I’ory strong that,
helwo.-n this and Sivawaram, tliero may bo a continuous and thus
exteiisivo field of the same rocks underlying tho Kanithis, This
lart of the country i.s eutiro.ly iu liie Hyderabad territory, anil Mr.
Heeuau inado a few bore-holes iu the neighbourhood of yivawaram.
lie luiiiid that there hs a seam one foot thick at 240 foot from tho
surfaeu, a four-foot 8 n.am at 272 feet, and a third seam six-foefc
;hiek at .'ii;! feet. Tho coal of the second seam is reported us
.olerahly good. All this shows that tho prospocls of tho .Sivawaram
country are favorable ; the depth is at the same time oouaiderable
"or Indian eoal tneastires.
The Beddadauol Barakars imdoubtndly strotoh away under the
(Valiwarapct country, or into tlio Hyderabad lands : and perhaps
ilso down under British ground towards Hlloro. Tho depth to
ivhich borings would liave had to bo carried hud they been started
n Kamthis, aud tin: incertitude with which I should have had to
mint out sites fm- such opinions, practically frightened mo from
uivisingGovernment to procood furthor in tho work of exploru-
Son 1 am bound to admit this in the face of suoli vastly boldoi
-'Kiiture.s as wore carried out—fruithessly us far as striking coal
onka was coiicorncd-~iu tlie Norbuddtt valley under the direction
if tho Chief of the Geological .Survey. 'There, howevur, the qnea-
lou for or against tho occiirreuee of coal ut a roasouable depth,
u a region advantageously placed for tho railway, was practically
eeidod ; audit would have boeii for tho best had a similar sud
jeon gained ill this part of the Godavari Distriot. This may yet
e called for ; it would be orniiiontly satisfactory for us to have a
coont field of our own within perhaps 29 miles of the Canal, some-
.’horo in tho neiglibcurhood of RllorB ; and on this last view I can
illy now say that hoforc leaving this I’rosidoncy, 1 hope fo prr
laro a notice of the conditions of tho Damudas iu that region ll.'”
aso of more extended boring operations. In the meantime, how-
vor, toi much attcutieu cannot to bo devoted to the developineut
f the Nizam's field ; aud I trust this description of them may lead
0 increased iiitoresl in them, not only with the public and
ho Government iiere, but w'itii theNizumli' Oovorument.— Madras
’fmes,
Octfibor 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
387
COAL IiV THE KH^SIA HILLS.
Noth on tub Csetaoko0s CoAl-ineosuroB nf Boi'sora ia t/ic Kiiasia
NBAB Laoobin Syluet. By Tom D. L.v Tohokk, B. A.,
Geoloqical Stovky OB Inoia,
T HAVE vUited and exwnfnod a aootion of tbc coal-boaring rocks
1. situated at the foot of the Khasio Hills to the north of the
district of Loour.
The Bootion examined occurs in a ravine, at the month of which
stands the Garo village of Borsora, about 5 miles west of the point
where the Fanatibh or Jadukhata river leaves the hills. At the
edge of the plains on either side of this village numinulitio linio-
stono is exposed dipping to south-south-east or towards the plain
at an angle of 33". On proceeding up the ravine along a path on
the west side of the stream no sootions of rook in nitii are seen, but
the path is covered rvitli blocks of a coaraish yellow and brown
sandstone. The path rises fur about half a mile until the mouth
of a small steep ravine on the west is reached, in the sides of
which the coal seams are exposed.
At the junction of lho two ravines carbonaceous shalo is seen in
tho bed of the stream dipping to south-south-east at an angle of
12°. Upon this rests a soaraof good coal 3 feet 10 inches thick ex¬
tending for about 20 yards along tho side of tho ravine. This is
overlaid by 5 feet of shaly sandstone, upon wliich rests a second
seam of ooal 3 feet 4 inches thick. This scam has been disturbed
I)y several small faults or slips, and parts of it have been denuded
to some extent before the deposition of tho overlying saudstone,
so that its thickness is not so ennstant as that of the lower scan).
Proceeding np the ravine about 00 foot of fine yellow
saudstoues are passed over, and a tliird seam of coal is mot with
cropping out on both sides of the ravhio. The thioknoss of this
seam oonld not he dotermlued exactly, as a small landslip has
oconrrod in the rocks above, and has partly covered it, bnt it is at
least 4 foot thick, tliough not quite free from simly partings.
Above this tho ground is covered * .r .10 or 00 feet with the debris
from tlie slip above montiouod*eousiating of duo yellow aandatoiies
and shales with many fragments of ooal, and .ahuvo this, again, at
tho top of tlio section, is a fourth seam, of slialy coal, 2 feet,
thick. In the whole, seotiou, therefore, of about l.)0 feet, tiicro are
about 12 feet of good coal, distributed in throe seams as shown
below, in dosceudiug order : —
• J'l, III
.Shaly coal . about 2
Fim' yellow sandstone and shale ,, HO
Ona! xrrtflt, No. 3 . . .. ,, 4
Fiue yellow sauilslono . KO
Uiiii! ii'ini. No. 2 ... ... ,, 3
Sh.ily saudatoiiu . ,,
dixil Kcaui, No. 1 ,, 3
0
0
0
0
4
0
10
Carbonaceous shale, thickness unknown.
Total ,. ,, 13S ■_>
The coal t.i seams Nos. 1 and 3 i.a miieli disiiil.ei'i-at'-d by
i-x|i(isurt‘, so that it is difficult to got good spi-oine-im for analysis,
hut it appears to ho a very good o nl, with .i linglit fr.actiii-ii a-id
lilock coliiur, containing uamci-<gui spi-.-k^ .m l ii 'st.-i of kiinl of
fossil rosin. 'I'liis resinous .sulwtaiiue, wiin-li is iili.u-actei'i.sllc of
tlie coals of tliis region occurring in cr -t c'c.iiw to'ks, together
with the position of the seams liolow th - iiuimimlit.ic limesl.onc,
shows that the coal is of the same age a-i th.d. of the Garo lulls
and llio small basin at Maobularkar, and is tliureforo, distiiiel
from the ooal of Clierra I’oonjee, wliiuli occur!-- alioro the liiiie-
stones. The ooal of scam No, 2 is more compact and browner
in colour, and is traversed in .all directions by small joints,
it also oontaiiiB specks of the fossil resin. .Samples assayed in the
.Survey laboi-.itory by 3uh.Assistant Ilira Lil gave the following
satisfactory results :—
Snim,
aVo. ;.
A'e. ■/.
Moisture ....
. .
3 02
Other volatile matter
. . 3.31(1
30'.bS
Fixed Carbon
. . .30-41
oO-SO
Ash . .
, . h(i0
o-oo
lOO'OO
lOO-OfJ
No. 1 docH uat cake ;
aiiil pale red.
No. 2 cakes ; ash reil.
The section examined is very similar in s-im - icspccls to mic 1
ilescrilH'd by Captain H, H. GoiKvin-Aiist.jn (./ewr., .1-< .Vta I
Vo). .V A'.V (7/7, I’t. //, No I, l.S(i9) as o -.-iin iiig mi .a
small tributary of the Uuiblay near the village ef Nongkei-asi,
abonA»10 miles to tho north-west of Bot-.-uia ; lint to de,t> rmine j
’^nhetlier the eoal-measiires are, ooiitinuoiis between these points
would I'Bijnirc a nuire detailed cxaiiiiii.itioii of the ilislrict than
1 was able to make. The only means of getting se-ilioiis in siu-ii
a country is to follow lip the hill sire,mis in ulin-Ii tragm-nls of
eoal are found to the outcrop of the seam, aii>l at this season
(.Tuuc) these streams are liable to suddou Hoods ami beeoiiic
(liiite impassable. It it should be found that the coal does
extend betwoeii those points, its amount must bj very Urge.
-c c.. —-
Tho outcrop near Borsora is vary favourably situated for being
worked, it is not more tiran balf-a-milo witliin the hills aniT
at a low elevation above tho plain. The coal ri.ses from the out¬
crops so that mines or qiiarrios oonld bo easily drained. Tho
foot of the hills is only I mile from tho Patlai river, a hraneh
of tho Jadukhata, and during tho rains boats can uomo up to
witliin a few Imudrod yards of tho hills.
Ktcu uow groat numbers go close to tlie spot during the
raius to carry away limestone from the numerous quarrios between
Borsora and Lakiua. •
TEA.
THROUGH THE TEA ‘DISTRICTS OF
NORTH INDIA.
(Bi/ a Cn^/mi Plaiitm'.)
Nowoonw, Aa-sAM.
T he labour for working tea estates in Assam is procured from
two sources—the local villages and the oooly districts of
Bengal. The former labourers are kuowa as Cacharris, a term
which is applied to ail looal labour. Thoy am generally engaged
for short terms only, and receive Its. hand Its. 6 a month, subject to
deductions for uou attoudauce. T'his source of labour is a very
uncortaiu ouo, aud the class of mou uro very untrustworthy. Ou
tho occurrence of siekness in tho linos, they fi'oi|uontly decamp in
I a body, to the serious loss and iiioonvonionoe of their employers,
and any row between one of thorn and tho manager will probably
load to the loss of tho whole force. They are, in fact, a moat
iudcpeiideat race, and it requires great tact to manage them
pro parly.
Tho Bengal ialwnmv i-s genei'allv imporloJ under three years'
agreements, on the expiry of which term, it is tho custom
to offer a bonus os an iiiduuemcut to thorn to re-engage
for a term of years ’I'hia labour-supply is the only depend¬
able one in must lo'jahties, but tlu- dilUeultios iu the way
of procuring it arc considerable. It is tho usual ciistuiu to sand
native recruiters to the villages, hut tho restrictions placed by
(Toveruiiiunt ou thu departure of cmigrauts, thougli well inoaiit,
make the diflioiittics ami expense of rooruUhig very great. In
.some oases European .assistauts are sunt clown to supply tlie
gardens with laliunr, and tlie work they have to do is of .a most
uijpU-a.sauL aaluie. The hrilimy of native officials from the lowest
bo the liigliesl is a necessary pi-L-liminary apparently to socurhig
labour. All proposed iuiinigrauts arc examined by Govorniiioiit
oiiiviaU regarding tliair williiigiioss to go, and their rttuess for
tho journey ; tlii.s, iidmirahte though it no iloubl is in theory, ami
necessary though it m.ay bo, adds greatly to the expense ami
diOieiiltiea of rooiuiting. It is also very geuorally stated that the
local European Govurnmmit oilloiala do not look ou tho dcpartiiro
of their ryots, who contribute to the loe.al roveiiiu;, ami ou wiioiii
tlie prosperity of the district depends, with a favouivahle oyo .-
and it appeal's tliat very little help ami giiidaiiee e.iii bo obtained
from them. Willi tlie police and other native officials, whoso
power ill the ease of native roeruitors is alnoliite, bribery is the
mly possible road to succes,s.
I met one planter in Assam wlio ''ad been engaged in rocriiit-
iiig labour personally, ami wlm lia-i been troat -d in the moat
shameful way in eousequeno-!. It appears that ho visited tho
labour districts, and through ids unlive subordinatos succeeded
in eolleeting and fm-w.irdiiig llio required labour ; in doing tliis
it is to be prosuim.-d that he hurt tho susecptibiiitioa of some
native ollicial ; for a short time after he arrived at the estate a
ivurrant foi Ids arre,-.t, signed by a European m.agistratc at tho
place at wjiieli be liad boon staying, ond granted .at the instance
il tt native headman, nii ivel at the estate, and he was taken
lack all the way to Bengal, 'I’lio charg'3 was one of having
wiongfiilly iudiice'l a ocrtaiii labourer, a woman, whose name was
mentioiiod, to leave tlie ilistriet against her will. A lanyer from
Galvntla was eiig.igud to deluinl .Mr, B-, and witnesses taken
from tlio Assam garden to Beng.al, The case was then proved
to In! an utterly false ami frivolous ouo, without the sniallost
fouiidatioii, aud It was .shown that the, magistrate ii.id granted
a warrant of arrest for a Eniopoaii Jilanlm- at many hiiiidrods of
miles distance, on tlie miii-e statement of a petty native headman,
unsupported liy any trustworthy evidence. Tlic expenses of tho
ease amounted to K«. .3,000, which the estate hail to pay, and
no redress was obtained beyoml a severe reprimand to tbo official
ill ijlICrtlotl froi) I Goveruiivuut. Tiiii. case gi'CaWy axvitsd pilbUs
388
THE INDIAN AGRlCUHTUBISt.
Octdber 1, 1883.
attonfioD at tlw time, aiicl ia eviilenot of tho uttfrlendly spirit
which is said to bo showa by tho local offioial mind to tho
recraitlug of labour.
Thn post of ImportlnK Bangali labour, greatly incresisod m it la
by the looal oaponaca, ia a vory sarlona itoui lu the oatimato for ton
plniitiag and cnitiration. The amount per iiond varies inditfereut
inoalitiea, but rangoa lietwoon Ra, .“iO and Rs. IdO, lu most oases
closidy npproanhiug the latter figure, and tho whole of it mirooovor
able. Even at this coat, liowever, it is impossible, in moat easoa, foi
gardens to keep themselves fullv anppliod with labour, short-hand¬
edness being n froquont cause of loss of crop ami uegloot of proper
cultivation. On tlin oxplry of the term for whioh the labourer has
engaged, generally throe years, it is the custom to give a “ bonus”
of Rs. 20 or so to retain his services for a farther period. This
system has at times led to much lU-feoUng and loss, tho crimping
of time-expired labourers having onoe been oornmon. A proper
understanding on tho subject has now bech oOitio to lu most parts,
and crimping, or *‘ldslaving”ae It is termed in India, is compara
tivcly rare.
The outbreak of an epidemic, on an abnormally unhealthy
season, loading to a largo percentage of deaths amongst the coolies
moans ft vory serious direct poouniary loss to the garden beyond
what arises from neglected cultivation. All these points, the
unreliable charaotcr of local labour, the difficulty and expense of
importing Bengalis, and tho serious loss that nii epi.lemio causes to
.a garden, moke the labour supply, though apparently cheaper, in
really dearer and less satisfoctory than that of Ceylon.
We ore constantly complaining in Ceylon about the forms which
we ai'e required to keep in connection with tho medical cure of
coolies! having seen what the Indian Government require of
Assam planters in this respect, I cannot but think that we arc
comparatively easily treated.
I have before me at the present moment a copy of tlie various
forms which have to bo kept on the estates, and duplicates of
whioh have to bo forwarded to Goveruiuont. They are nineteen
in nnmiier I! A nfparntt voglster of imimrted, looal, and free
labourers. A register of deaths of contract labourers, adult free
labourers, ohildren under 16, adults liviuu in the lines whether on
contraet or not, aud so on, all separate atvd distinct. Then re¬
gisters of sick, of vaooination, and of desertion : a daily attend-
nnue roll. The monthly return of births aud deaths lias 60
columns, and there are also half-yearly returns. In fact, rotarns
of labourers are in their infancy in Ceylon. To appreciate the
high pitch of development to which red-tape can be brought, Assam
must bo visited.
Every garden has to keep a native doctor of .some kind to attend
to tile coolies, nud groups of gardens in small districts support a
Eiiropoou,medical man among tliem ; in fact, the cost of medical
.attcudanee on ooolius U decidedly heavloc in Assam than lu
Ceylon.
One of tho chief gri^vanong which planters have against tho
present labour laws, and the metlioil in winch they are enforced, is
the great amount of Oovcmmnnt iutorfe.rcuoj in all matters
between master and labourer. It is the duty of tho Oommissioiier
to visit all the gardens in his district, muster the coolies, aud make
enquiries as to whether they Ini VO been paid to date, what their
pii> is, what tasks they h.tve to perform, what iimouut of sickuoss
tlioru h.-is been amongst them : in fact, to hoar and enquire into
any eoiiipl.iiuts tlivy may have to make.
Of eourso, when the Cominissiouer is a sousibb' muu he does his
work in Mill'll a way ns to disoonrago frivolou'i complaints on the
p.irt of eonlios but the immenso pow'or with which he is invested
might cause inealeulableharm ill the hands of .an incompetent
crot.'hi'tty man. Amongst other things, the Commi.Msioiier has the
l>owci' to canoe! all eooly agreements, and stop cultivation in a
garden under eertaiu eircnmstiiuues, one of which is a death rate
over seven per cent (epidemios apnrt), another the coolies' pay
ticing in arrears. Wlion I mentioned that in Ceylon it was usual
to haio several months’ psy in hand, and that the coolies preferred
getting two or throe months’ pay at oim time, whilst in some casc.s
financial oansos liave left them unpaid for a year and over, tho
stateiiiont was received almost witli Incredulity, and 1 was told
that ill Assam such a thing was impossible. The system of paying
coolioH, ami of keeping thoir accounts, is quite, different to ours,
aud \ ery much simpler in the case of looal labour. The sirdar’s
name is alone enteuid in tile aeoouuts, and against it tho total
tutmbor of ouoUea who have worked during the month at Rs. 1!, Ra 4,
or lis. r>, os tho ease may ho, and the total sum so arrived at is paid
into his hand for distribution. .Strange to say, the oooUes prefer
this system to any other, and attempts to deal with them ilirect
liave failod. Imported labourers aro differently treated, and more
aeoordiiig to tho Ceylon system.
Extra plucking is always pail for in cash on the sp it, at a very
fair rate, gonsrally one pice (f anna) per lb. of leaf, the task being
ordinavy 16 lb. for men and 14 II). for womon ; some of tho latter
of course making coiisiderahle sums during tho suoaou in this way.
The task is in f.aet very much the same that is usiialiy got in
Ceylon, though, of eoiirse, it Ik always varied in accord inec with
tho al'M and abumlanvo of the flush. The ficM eultiiatiou is
generally carried on iiy the local labourers, it being a style of
woik to which they are. ncviistomcd, anil requiring less skill and
practice than plucking and manufacture, which work-s are mostly
OOBa£D LIVERS.
Bilious conditions, constipation, piles, dyspepsia, headache,
cured by “ vVolls’ May -4pple Pills.’' Ah. 4, p. I, and As. 10,
bg.vcs at diuggisU. U. Madmt A Co., Bombay, Gei>«rat Agant*
fpr IixTU.
psrformed t)y tho more permanent im^ted labonren. The
hoeing of land Is done entirely by taek-work, and good oooliee
will frequently earn double and in some ooees almost treble pay
in a day. Whilst on this subject I cannot refrain from remarkfatg
on the great improvement our decimal system U on the anna add
and pic system in value in India. With oar somewhat elaborate
ehcck-roli, the latter system would be most inoonveniebt. It can
Boarcely he denied that the close supervision oxereised by Gov¬
ernment over tho imported labourers and their treatment has hod
a beneficial effect. It is said that at one time the mortality used
to be very groat. In spite of the large pecuniary interest planters
had in the lives and health of their ooolies: this was dne chiefly no
doubt to tho unhoaltliy state of the country there, bnt there can'
be no doubt that the precautions and care exercised by Govern¬
ment have done good.
Anotlier great difficulty In Assam is transport. At present goods
are carried by cart or boat to the Brahmaputra, and thence trans¬
ported to Calcutta in fiats attached to the steamers. Tho rates
charged by the steamer companies are very high, and make the
transport of tea from the gardens to the shining port from two to
four times ns much as tho average rate In Ceylon. The heaviest
charges, however, are on goods taken up to the dlstriot against
stream; and consequently the cost of lead, nails, boxes, and
machinery, &o., is enormously inoreasad. As an example I was
told of some roofing iron for a faotory whioh cost £50 at home,
and the freight on which from Caloutta to Tezpore amounted to
about Kb. 756.
In transport, therefore, as well os lu labour, Ceylon has great
advantages over Assam at present. At Dehrooghur a railway is
tieing made ; is partially completed lu fact, up through the tea
districts, to where a very fine seani of coal la being worked, and
there is a talk of this railway being oontimied in the direction of
Caicnttn j but tlie difficulties, riversprluoipally, seem very great.
The expense and delay of a journey up the river have been
already rnoutioued : a daily service of very fast little steamers is
now being started ; they carry nriils and passengers only, and du
the journey from Uhiibri to Dehrooghur in a comparatively sliort
time.
T. C. OWEN.
— Oi’i/loii Obsenvr.]
THK UlfKMlSTHY OFjP.ACKlNG.
M e. G. H. WIQNER, F.C.S., P.I.e. (President of tho Society
of Public Analysts), recently read a paper before the London
section of the Seoiety of Chemical Industry, lu which ho pointed
out the importance of proper pocking in tho ease of various sub-
etauces imported aud exported.
Amongst the substances requiring the utmost care in packing ho
specially mentioiiod tea, and his remarks on this subject will be
read with interest by growers in India and Ceylon.
“ Tea,” he said, “ is remarkably prone to • ooquiro ’ any external
odour from the air in which it is placed. It is, of course, well
known that tea Is always pocked in cases which aro lined witli
load. Id tho case of China teas the load is tolerably pure, cost
into sheets by pouring the melted metal on to one stone and drop¬
ping another stone on tho top of it. This primitive method pru-
duoes a sheet of somewhat singular uulformity in thickness,
weighing about 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. to the square foot. Indian teas ai-o
packed almost exclusively ill lead, which is sent out from this
country. It is not pure. It contains an admixture in most oases
of tin, and sometimes a small proportion of antimony. Those are
added to enable tho load to be rolled much tliinnov, and the weight
of it is not more than J lb. to the square foot. Before any injury
can occur to the tea itself, this load must oithar be destroyed or
lerforateJ, or, at any rate, it must not b? in an air-tight oondition.
It Is obvious that, except in oases of nogloot, all such goods would
)e packed in wood which was at any rate fairly well-seasoned.
Until recently only, one kind of wood has been used for packing
tea. Tills is a sijeoios known as ‘ toon’ wood, and every one who
ins over soon a tca-ebost made of it must bo familiar with its
general eliaraoleristies. It is easily worked, does not require to
10 stacked long to season, is free from smell, and not very liable
to absorb water, The oases of Injury with this woo 1 have been
of only occasional oecurreniio, aud appear to have been detonnined
much more by aooidental olroumstaueeB than by oven an occasional
allure in tho oharaeter of the wood itself. But of lute years tho
uipply of ‘ toou ’ wood has run short; the Chinese have h^ resort
to other woods, and in Assam woods are being used at random,”
The rest of Mr. VVignot’s paper was devoted to details of injury
to teas, rohiilting, in ids opinion, from the wood of the cases ahsorb-
ng moisture aud causing tho lead enveloiie to bo attacked, wlllite- '
ead being often fouud in larger or smaller proportion on the wood
next to the lead.
“ BOUGH ON EATS."
lean out rats, mice, ro.iulicM, flies, ants, bed-bugi. b jetlea, insocts
•knuks, ^ipmunks, gomhers. As. 6, p. 1, Dcuggists, B, S,
Modon ft Oo., Bombay, Gcu, Agents,
October 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AOBIOULTURIST.
389
TOBACCO.
TOBACCO CULTUBE IN VIRGINIA.
(BTC. V, DEBKSIiEY, AMELIA 00., VA.)
T he "Old Virgioia Leaf” has probably eeen Ita beet days. What¬
ever were the tneaua by which the staple attaiiiea its great
^ reputation, the planters have not troubled themselves to sustam it.
Formerly, the facility of raising tobacco through tiio double
'advantage of rich soil aud cheap labour, with the pro 8 t
of ready sale, induced all who could to plant os large a
auriaoe of the crop as was poaalble. Complaints, however, as to
quality began to be heard sometimes before the war, but wore
unheeded, and now, wlille the doinand continues steady, the in¬
creased coat of producing the weed, and the decline in prices,
have borne heavily on the farmers, and their favourite crop is fast
losing its place as a paying product.
To secure a crop of tobacco, two thln» must be assured—a full
plant-bed and a full planting. The bed is a spot in the woods,
with a southern exposure, cleared off to the required number of
square yards, which vades from SOO to 2,000. Great care is
uooessaiy in the preparation, the first part of which is burning.
This is done to kill all grass-roots, and seeds of weeds, that they
may not grow with the plants. Paraliol rows of poles (skids) are
laid, four feet apart, extending the length of the bed ; across tliese
is built a good sized ridge of wood, reaching from side to side,
then fired along Its whole extent. After burning until the coals
and ashes have covered the ^uud underneath, the fuel is pulled
over upon a frcsli strip of ground, the process being repeated
untill the bed is burned all over, A powerful breaking-plough is
used to tear up tlio plot, followed by grubbing hoes aud rakes
kept going until the oliai'ged stumpy area is turned into a nice
soft bed of uniform fiuenees, It U ueceseary to put strong manure
on the bed to make good plants. The seed is titon sown, mixed
with dry ashes, at the rate of a gill to the 100 yards, and put in
by a brush, a small tooth-rake, or by stamping. Plenty of brush
must bo put ou the bed to protect the young plants from late
frosts. Having manured bis land, the farmer makes lists (throw¬
ing throe furrows in one), aud cats them into hills. The boat
planting time is from tlio middle of May to July; after this, the
cutworm aud heat destroy all replanting. After a rain, the plants
are drawn from the bod, and .1'oppod by one person, for two
others, who make a hole in the hill, insert the root, and press the
earth close. 'J'he working of the crop is the same as with corn.
When the tobacco is high enough to nave ten leaves, after pruu-
iug, the bud is taken out, to prevent seeding, and the plant grows
broader and heavier, but no taller. With the second week in
August comes the fiy which fastens its white eggs upon the under¬
side of the leaf, from which the worms hatch by hundreds. U u-
ueasiug attention for three or four weeks is imperative, to keep
down worms aud suckers, or they will destroy the crop, Cutting
is begun about the middle of .September. The plants are split
from the top to within six iuehes of the root, severed, and turned
bottom up to "fall,” after wbioli they are oolluvted in pile-s of
about a dozen each, aud liung liy the splits on sticks riven tor
the purpose. .Some farmers cure tobacco on scaffolds in the field,
but the lule is to house and fire at ouce. When the stums are
dry euougli to crack, tlie curing la done, aud some damp day i.s
cliosen, wlieu tile tobacco is "in otulor,” to strike aud bulk it.
Stripping is done during winter. — A;irii~ti(liu‘isl.
British Wkkt Inihan Toua. eo—The price of Ilavuuimh
cigars liiiK advanced mo rmjoli of late years h« to afford
great enoourageiiient to competitors, and there is no valid
reason, .says the PUuHcrs' Ua'^ette^ .so far as wu are awai’e,
why .Jamaica, Trinidad, aud oilier of our We.st Indian
iioasessioim should not grow just as good tolstcco and m.'tnti-
lacture equally good cigare as the iieigUbouriug iS))auiMli
colony, in'ovided always that the .siime care and o.vperiencc
is devoted to the enterprise. Jn.laniaica there are .'d ready
several tobacco plantations, whose produce, both in the raw
and manufactured state, finds a satisfactory market in
Euroiie, and Mr. D. Morris ha.s been energetically urging
an extension of this amongst other industries there. Ibinng
the last few days 'IVinidiMl has also entered the field wilh
a first shipment of cigars, the results of the oxpci-ini.'nt, m e,
wa believe, such us to afford eiieourugement to the ju'o|n'ietor
of the plantation, Mr. Charles Fabian, jiiii,, and to Ids .super-
iiitondent, Mr. Henry Anderson,
NEW PRODUCT SEEDS.
C EAEA Rubber seods, Bs. TO per buebel ; Sappan Uyowood sted
Rs. (10 per bushel ; Celebrated Caraocas Cocoa (quick growing,
early, and heavily bearing variety) Its. To por Wardian case, wilh
GO plants, free, per steamer. Ciuebona Ledgeriaim need from tr. e»
anaWsis over 0 '/. P. S, Q.., guaranteed, Us. IffO per lb. Ledger
Hybrid seed Rs. 70 per lb. Cardamom Itobusta s cd Rs, 30 p. r 1
lb. free per V. P. Parcel Post. All seeds guaiantecd fresh, ami ,
/ ood.'J All orders should aoeomjiany romittauoo. |
■ Seeds and Plants of unmerons New Iboducts forwarded to .all |
parts of the world on most advantageous terms. Price List
iMist-frcc ou application.
JVc have already executed a large uumbor of orders from India,
J, P. 'WILLIAM AND BROTHERS.
New Product Seed Depot,
Ueueratgoda, Ceylon.
GOOBALL’S
EoaseMd Specialities.
TOJUCSHIREI RBIiZSH
The IflOMt llelieioiisi Nniiee in (be World.
TORKSHXB.E XtEUSH
Attiu*iie(l liiijht Prize liedalig.
TORKSHXBE REZ.XSH
5,000.000 UordeN ^oitl Aiitiiinlly.
TORKSHXRE REX.XBB
linrielieiii lloi Joints, Noii|>n, Mtetva, &c,
irORKSKIRi: REUSH
IkelieloHN to ()lio|>M, Mleaksi, PInIi, PoiiKrj, Ate.
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
BleiidM Aduiirnbly with all CrratfeN.
TORKSHXRE REX.XSK
AgreeN tvitb (be Hosl Ilellentt- I*€tri»«nai.
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
ranker Cold, Meat a laixary.
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
PosiMeisMeM a Pleaxlau; Pi(|iiaiie,r,
TORKSHXRE REEXSH
Every l»ia>b is* Improved by it*< Addition.
TORKSHXRE REXJCSH
filiiitalile to the luvalKI”*. ea|> ol* lindb.
TORKSHXRE REI.XSH
Niioald be oa every Sideboard,
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
EpleareN proaoauee it tlie It.-st Sauee.
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
I¥o better .Sauee ean be Made.
TORKSHXRE REEXSH
,1l llouNebold Word,
TORKSHXRE REX.XSH
Kaotva all oter (be W'orbl.
■WurrmitcJ piivi' and free from uuy injurifiu.s ingredient.
Tbir ciie.ip mul ExocUent Hanre m..ke ■ the plainest viands palatable,
id tbu damtie,st dbbe.s most delivhniN.
The UKiil eidtivatcd eutuury cuunoiaseurs have uwardej the palm to
lo J'GRKSlIIHK UEU.Sll, on ttiegnmiid that ireitlier itsslrengtli nor
a piquanev is overixiwerttiK, and tbut. its invigoratiug /.ust by no menus
ipairs tfie uoruial flavour of tile dishes to which it is added.
Employed vilber Uii uiiturel” as a liUip. to chops, staik.s, game, or
>ld iiusits, or UHod in oombinatioii Iiy^a skUful rook in concocting soups,
cws, ragoni's, curries, or gravies for fish and made disnes.
iSold ill liottlvB, (>■’., Is., anil 2.s. each.
I’lvpared hydOODAl.b, HACK(lOI.’RB A f'U., boe ds. Kii glmid. _
Vordalu Barracks, Malta, 2l8t EcVi., IdT
SiR.M,—Having been for the last four yviirs Canteen Presideut of the
fist Fusiliers, T have signed orders lor ut least K.IKHI bottlKs ot your
orkshire lUisb, and can boar toatiiiioiiy to its being tlie C'e' and
leapest ranee extimt.—'Sours truly, W. Swi.vyi'.N jBUVls. tiipl. Wist
UBilierp, IVC.C.
To (fOOiLill. Bjickhousf* & Co., Iieeda.
600DALL, BACKHOUSE & CO.,
LEEDS, ENGLAND.
890
THE INDIAN AGltlCULTURIST.
October 1, 1883.
FIBE BBI0E8.
T) AITS&GUKGE FIBS SBICKS m (applied to Oovenuseat (ud
Xb t)iev«rioue Btulwvi. Iron Worki, Coal, G«i, and Steam
Ilavl^on Companle*. Pnoe—Bi. 9 per 100.
Eioaot from Official Eeport of t^ made at H. M'e Mint,
Calcutta, by Thiouobk W. H. Htobm, Esq., r.o.s., a.B.s.»i,, Offl-
datbiB Deputy Snperintondent, Geologloal Survey, India:—
“ The Fire Brkhi teitnl hy tm viert fiiminheti hu the Firm of
Mtiere, BURN & Co, ' * ' The materials from which they are made
arc I'ery f^ractwy and ca^le cf itsisHny high temperatvre wUh-
out sensibly fusing. * * * Thai empared with Stourbridge Fire
Bricks are somewhai superior."
The ipedmens were subjected to a temperature of over 3,000
d^. Fahr,, the smelting point of Ceet-lion being 2,7S6 degs.
Aroly for the above, and for Eaneegonge Salt-glazed Stoneware
and imperishable Drainage Pipes, to
BURN & CO.,
7, Haatingi-stroet, Calcutta,
or Baneogunge Pottery Works, Baneegunge,
K.I.B., Bengal,
FRANOI.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AOENCY,
(IZOSNSBD),
14, RUB DB CHABROL, PARIS.
Transacts every description of Commission, Merchant, and
Geneial Agency Business. ^
All Indents executed at Manufactarers' most favourable terms.
Condtifons.—Twoand-a-haUper cent Commission when Bankers’
Draft on London or Paris aooompanies order, Special teruu to
regular ooi-respondents. All Disoonuts conceded to purohasers,
Original Invoices sent when required.
Produce taken charge of and roalised to best advantage. Cash
advanced on Consignments,
The Agency Bepreseuta, Buys, and Sells for Firms,
Public Securities, Estates and Properties.bought and sold. Loans,
Mortgages, Mines, and industrial Investments, &o,, negoclated.
Manufacturers and Producers can have suitable ai'tloles Introduced
to the markets on advantageous oondltious,
Paiox Lwt— comprehensive and reitable—on application.
BANKEKS.— Pabis ; George Waters,' Esq., 30, Boulevard des
ItoUeus, Loboon : The London and County Bank,
3, Yictoria-strect, Ss^estminster.
Address: The Manager, Continental and Colonial Apency, 14, Kue
do Chabrol, Paris, France, 447
ZULULANO AND CETEWAYO.
“ ‘I know what it is,’ he answered) ‘this honey is made from
euphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.’ This explanation made
me feel exceedingly uncomfortable; but I elicited from him that there was
not much dongot, as the ‘maoss’ taken with it would neutralise the efiect
of the poison. Directly he mentloneipoison I dived into the packs, and
pulled out a bottle of END'S FRUIT .SALT, and emptying a miautity
into two iiaimlkins, filled tUom up 'with water, and eoveral timcK
repeating the dose, in a few hours wo wore considerably better.’'—
“ Zniviand and Oetneayof {p. ISb), by Captain IT. if. Ludlow, 1st Butt.
if, P. Roml ll'arickkshire Regiment.
" ‘ D'lvat on earth sliall 1 take to 2ululand ?' asked my friend .Tim
Law one day at Aldersliot, when ho had just received orders for Soutli
Africa, to start at forty-eight hours’ notice. 1 replied, ‘ If yon takc
iiiy advice—and it’s that of an old traveller—you’ll not Inidgc without
n few bottles of END, even If you leave half your kit behind. 1
never am without these Salts, ami, please the pigs, never iuteud to be.’
On his rctmii I inquired, ‘Well, how about END’S FRUIT .SAL'l'!’
‘ My dear fellow, it was the best advice you ever gave j they saved
me many an illness: and wheu I left Tuegla, 1 sold the reiuaiuiug bottles
for ten times the original price ! ’ ’'—Lieut,•Col,
JEOPARD.Y OF LIFE. THE GREAT DAKCER OF DELAY.
You can change the trjehUng stream, hut not the raging torrent.
W HAT EVEEYBDDY SHDULD RRAI).—How important it is to every Individual to have at hand some simple, effective, and palat¬
able remedy, such as END’S FRUIT SALT, to ciiock disease at the outset! For this is the time. With very little trouble you
can change the course of the trickling mountain stream, Imt not the rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I feel I cannot euffi-
cicntly impress tins important information upon all Householders, or Sliin Captains, or Europeans generslly, who are visitiog or residing in
ony hot or foreign climate. Whenever a change is coutomplatod, likely to disturb the condition of health, let END’S FRUIT SALT be
your companion ; for, under any circumstances, its use is lienoficial and never can do harm. Wheu you fed out of sorts, yet unable to say
wliy, frequently without any warning you are suddenly seizeil with lassitude, disinclination for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
sickness, pain hi the forehead, dull aching of back ancT limbs, coldness of the surface, and often shivering, Sc., Sc. ; then your whole body
is out of order, tlie spb-it of danger lias been kindled, but you do not know where It may end : it is a real necessity to Itave a simple remedy
at lisnd that will answer the very best end, with a positive assm-anee of doing good in every case and in no case any harm. The pilot can
so steer and direct as to bring the ship into safety, but ho cannot quell the raging storm. 'Pne common idea wheu not feeling well is, "1
wlU wait and see, perhaps I shall be better to-morrow ; ’’ wbercaa, tiad a supply of END’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, and use made of it
at the onset, all calamitous resnits might have been avoided. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many sweet alliances,
blasts so many auspicious enterprises, as uiitiim-ly death ’
E N0',S fruit KAU'.-‘' After s.iiforlug for nearly two and a half years, fTlHE ART OF CONQUEST IS LOST WITHOUT THE ART OF EAT-
from severe heuilaohc and disordered .stoiuaoli, and after trying almost; 1 JND.—DINNER ENCAUEMENTS.—STIMULANTS.—TOO RICH
. ‘--LATfiHOUR8.-lN8UFFIClENT EXERCISE.-EXCITEMENT,
genlleman writes; " When 1 feel out uf sorts, 1 take a dose of
_ _ _ ... ) FRUIT HALT one hour before dinner or first thing in the moroing.
am restored to my usual health ; and otliers 1 know that liavo U-ind it Iwve The effect is all I could wish." How to eajoy good food that would
not enjoyed such good health for yciuw,— Pours most tn:ly, ItOBT. ' otherwise ca-isc biliousness, headache, or disordered stomach—use END'S
lUiBi'aMVB, Post Office, Barrasford.’’ I FRUIT SALT,
QUCOE.SS IN LIFE.—“ A new invention is brought before the public, and oommandi success. A score of abominable imitations arc
15 inunediately introduced by the unscrupulous who, in copying the originol closely enough to deceive the public, and yet not so exactly
us to infringe upcu legal rights, exorcise an ingenuity that, employed in au original tmaunel, conld not fail to secure reputation and
profit.’’—A dam.s.
C AUTIDN.— hegal rights are protected in ecery civilised country. Exandne each BoUle, and see the capsule is marked " END’S I-A,v’lX
SALT." Without it you have been imposed on by tvorihless iirtiinticna. Sold by all Chemists, price Ss. 9d, and 4t, 6d,
DIRE0TI0N8 IN BIATBBN UNOUAQES HOW TO PREVENT OI8EA6E.
I>r«pat94 9&l7 At SKO'S mil SALT WORKS. QAXOIAM. mm. 9£n P7 J. 9. SKQ'fi fAtrat;
October 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN* AGRICULTURIST. 3f)l
T. E. T H O M S O N & C O.,
0, E]SFI,.A TsTW,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MiACHINERY, ENGINEERS’ AND PLANTERS’ TOOLS OF ALL KINDS.
All articles sold at our Establishment are manufactured hi/ Jirsl-class Finns, and are of the best
material and u'orhnanship.
Clayton and Shuttlewortb’s Portable Engines,
6, 8, 10 and 12 H.P.
Punching and Shearing Machines.
Improved Saw-sharpening Machines for
Frame and Circular Sa-Avs.
Seller’s Bolt and Nut-, - Aiwiiiir Mac]iinc,s.
Drilling Machines, \/ith Feed Motion and
Rising Table,
Bench Drills for Hand or Power, 15", 20", 25".
Bench Drills for Hand or Steaili Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, Sci'ow-cutting, ajul
Surfacing.
Foot Lathes,
Lathe Carriers.
Asbofstos Packing.
CirculaV Saw Benches for .3()" and 42" Saw,-*,
and with Patent Self-^tiug Drags.
Circular Saw Spindles,
Crab Winches, with and without break, to lift
4, 6, 10, 12, and 15 tons.
Brick, Tile, and Pipe Machines.
Improved Brick-pressing Machines.
Screw Jacks—Bottle, Tripod, Haley’s Patemt,
and Traversing.
Iron Pulley Blocks for Rope and Chain.
Weston’s Patent Diflereiitial Pulley Block,s.
Blast Fan, Silent, for 16 and 30 Fires.
Fletcher’s Patent Annular Hot-air Furnac-e.
j Soda-water Machines, to make from 30 to 800
dozens a day.
I Soda-water Bottling Machines,
Parallel Vices.
Tube Vices, with and without slide gate.
Boiler Bears.
’ Duplex Punches.
; Indigo Pre.ss Screw.s, with Brass Nuts.
I Ai)pold’s Centrilugal Pumps.
' Chain Pumps.
“ Special ” Steam Pumps.
, Vauxhall Donkey Pumps.
! Rotary Pumps.
: Hand, Lift, and Force Pumps.
Steam Horse Ploughs, Harrows, and Hoc.s.
Fire and Garden Engines.
Watering Carts.
, Water Lifts.
Rice-Shelling Machin c.s,
, Fl»ur Mills, for Hand, Cattle, or ,SteatJi Power,
Flour Dressing Machi))es.
Chalf-cutting Machincs.
Corn Crushers, with flutt'd Rollers.
Prize Corn Crushens, with Stno(»th Rollers for
; Crushing Oat, Linseed, Malt, Barley, Gra\U,
and for Kibbling Beans, Maize, &c.
: Cart and Portable Weighing Machines.
Domestic ditto ditto, with and without weights.
Salter’s S]>ring Balances.
A large stock almai/s on hand if best Sheffield Files (end Patent Wood Screws, Locks, Bolls^
Hmges, JVails, Chain, Iron, Steel, Brass, Copjxr, Zinc, Tin, Lead,
Oil, Paints, Varnishes and Turpentine.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
T. E THOMSON & CO.
S92
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
October Iv l88a.
S.'OWENS & CO.,
W'HITaJB’I^I.A.E’S-STHEIEIT, LOITDOIT,
monAuuo engineers and manufacturers of
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERY DESCRIPTION
FOR STEAM, WATER, WIMJD, CATTLE, AMD MANUAL POWER.
Hydraulic and Screw Presses, Oil Mill Machineiy, Hydraulic Lifts, &c.
SOLE MAKEKS FOR GREAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE'S PATENT DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUIR^.-MORE TNAN 10,000 IN USE.
THE EOLEOWISG ARE SOME OF THE PROMIhBST ADVANTAGES OF THE BLAKE rtJHT:_
It w-ill start at any point
of stroke.
It lias no (load point.
It works (nat or slow
wltli the same certainty oi
action.
It is economical. Has a
lead on the Slide Valve.
It is compact and dur¬
able.
Hsud Poff sr Lever
t>staeh,.A.
It is interchangeable in
all its working parts.
It will deliver more water
than any other Pump.
It Is made of best mate¬
rials in the most Workman¬
like manner.
Can be worked at 200
strokes per hour, or SO
strokes per minute.
Imi-Toveil RtMin Borillll
Alil’S'StW.SlK
Borins Toole «t every dwcritiHon, for Artosinp Wolle,
CoitUig lor Minerals, Fouidstloae, Aa
Oest*iroTi House
or Garden Pump.
Portable Irtlgaiots forllorie
or fitoam Posrar.
DL.4KI'S P.mNT BIIlECT-ACTraG STEAM PUMP AID VERTICAL BOILETwi.
B-OE lEBIO-.A.TION' -pTTEE>OSBlS,
FiLUNO TANKS, WATiSIt-SUPPLY iV PL.LN'TATiOXS, SMALL TJOWNS, OB VILLAGES.
Wluteliiar’s Irouworkfl, Whitefriar's-atreet, Fleet-street, London.
OatalDfffH and EntimaUi JVm o» Appikation,
VMwtm Si Stanumsi) pur tub FmipitiETuikr, ur W. R. Uhaue, at tmk " tlTATitiMAE & Fmjwu vv Anbra ” Oman, Uawu'Fta.
18S.]
THE
II^DIAN AGRIOULTUEIST.
A maamt
mRNAL OF im/m Aomumm, Jim mmms.
VOL^TOX] OALOUWA
.U-;
H\uvsr
AtALAItTA
Fust l^miutU)
Ntw Yoik, 1$6(X
JMCtAlLY auiTM rait MiAMtlMm litMPI* MW ASROilO.
pttixee.
wmmmmmm.
iJ fkl mi y
1878 CutuoiSim
187« ■ KirtrYoait
1879 MxZiBOtttKlS
4,, 1880 { Ptmstmo
]U^ I AtAXAm
Pm‘ 1 BT 7 )RO
. *D/t» I JujuiDovanc j, , rmiuiTHQ
• 1 ^JEALAND ... less, 1 JaI-MOIITH ,t „. 188S, ( TTNBMOrfTK
Firal. Pmu, Svdney, IWO Hunjwuft,
au-ifli, 1870 !.
SloUxniWM', 1S80. 1878 Cmoimiati, .T\uie, 1880.
0 V 2 E 4fio,ooo mr bold Dvama mi, ' ' ^ ^
New He AlAod, 188 B
Jnolttditi^ 3,4177 foot of mniu Driving Ucith, ol widths i «it,m,{ ftom 13 m to
GO in., wo workiuR m over 0,000 Mills .«id Woiks m Kwope .md Amerioa
i 7 k. fdkmmi Tcits {hy KohlhJy, of Lotuhn) «hn« lk< >v!aUvt. vlunith and mine,
, com/Ktred texti T/falho
mmm.
Bc«t Doubli J.oathor 8 in. lilting
Gandy's 6 in x B-ply Cotton
8,57e Ibe
6,811 lbs.
0a 78.
Se. 6d.
1^11
QANDT BELT.
A ay Lin/ih o> Wtdtb
to, Main
It 11 the Is si linit
pv. 1 m i<l< fdi aI! iHiiji IS
( s Alui Ii ( 111 t(H I .lint
SI Mum I til HI lAiitiiii
ThoionjitiJ) W.iWipicKif,
Dili uot afliLlul liy tern
ptMlull, tllllJ'S W(U to
the jmlUys, inns taut,
luid uui 1 h mull any
leti^'lh dSUiiiu) ) imls
'Ibin Suos oC Bil(jn/j
(/tdf iiu/) n IS Slip
])!ii.d in Ihii Oidiii (o
AUssrs .tolin (i./iwley
and Sdiih, Halifax, May
1, t HHO, and continues to
giM cutue satisfactiuu
,, THE “ O-.A.HID'Sr BEXaT. . , . .
/■p^ANDYS Paiont Amujcii ( otlon li Iti i,,., i.qn «Iwx a sii|[K>n uity ovci k icuci biPw in ONorry parUcuut , < 50 st
I V Niinc about half thaltf 1 ath i wiuioit anU jpippin lowci iHabnit doublo that of tho bent loitlior,
oa Bhown u> repo vte 1 Ust-* f ikt n by Ku ill} ' Jbomlm IhoBO to^ts aio ^ wbuU KjKJcm? Htontion \h
diroctod Tboae ‘ Oau 1 } I olU nn i il i 1 an} width up to /2 iiiohirH, aud an> lon4ftb up to J 40 loot without ]oint|
’ thus ohMatuv tho no< 0H«ity < f hiivmr tw bcltH f n Iho aanu i ulh»v, a nyntijii if dnvin*. whi h in n i s ilr^fHctory,
w it i« Imposrtiblo to hn\o bcltM »( oxaLth tho «iino t* U'UtQ Iwuco ouc o» U <. oUior w alwa^** Ju a »toppa|po,
Tlieso Btoppa^t ttfo avoidcMl by utiiu OwilysJ’i^ ni PkK in one \ nth Ih ( uid> T> H au ^ of tUennest
Ainoiunn Cotu 1 DuU <poci lU} 1111 h I it foi Iho puna * 1 d t » t 1 mu^bod by Oandyi
1 itofttad Hi>0(.ia1 Mk-Iiuidiv auJ pi > ^ U) p sunt stiot iiuff, m! i ul i tl niiinoxvim I di ihoiu induetio*,
. PuaMMMll of Hnoh lU these. Iho nmvi r^i^l f>il )nM/in nT rlten K U 111 1 f« ISATI eolv Ix) >V luustl JQ of timo.
n itofttart Mk-iiuidiv auJ pi > ^ w p sent stiot liuff, m! i ul ill niiinoxvim v ui i uoiit mnueiw
CruaMid<l of ftilviiutoj^ Hnob m these, the nm\i r^ftl qd iptf^n of l>t»n 1 ) m Heltf* oan only \>o »v pwsti in of timo.
A StfBSTAHTXAL GCABANTEE GIVEIT ‘WITH E7EBT MAIN BKIVING BELT.
MAURtCE CMOY, laO, liuciu VlcUula Air t, mm. ^ ttu I lialliiuorc. ll«0»A»
394
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. November 1 , 1883 ,
TBQB GREAT REMEBT
FOR PRICKLY HEAT. INDICESTION. HEADACHE. BILIOUSN ESS. A NO FEVERS;
Thft intlmon; of medtoal genUomen bus boon uuquftllflod In prslae <4
UHPLOVfil’S PYRETIC SiLINE,
It is BIEiorvciolng and Taataleis; forming a moit Invigorating, Vitallting, and ^^frealilng Beverage,
flirpn iniunt rolW m HMADAOnB. BBA or UltlOlfg SIOKVKSS, CONSTJIMTloN, lNn|<4KHTU>N. J.ASSiTUDK, HKAlfTHUJIN., nnd PBVfilUSU COLDS; prevents inri
niiJckly niree the woreHorm# of TYl’UUS, 80ABLBT, JUNGLE, auil other rKVUUS. SMALLPOX. MKA8Lii8. and LaUTOVB or feKJN UOXPLAIKTS, sod various other
altered oonditiotiM of iit«' hltKxl.
fnonT.—** Unfolding pnrmi of imtaenie heneflt to mankind.” l>r. aPAIUCS (Uoveniment Mwlient Inepeotor of Bmijmmte from the Port ol Loodob)
L>r KOn G- AK” U fuml anes ih e biw xl lt» lost e ullne c mietitttMits.” I wrltev i—“ 1 have Ktrat plonsuro In boarlnR my oordtaUteitlmony to itsefSeaojr.”
OOVSBinCBSrZ OFFIGIAIA AITO FLAITTEBS oaxu^ for,, t he welfue of their employee ehonld note
its valae at a epeci&o in EHIf oaeee.
Dr. J. w. DOWetlfCR.—" 1 used it tn thstreatroentof fortjr-two oaaos of Yellow Fever, nAWUt?^EroB9. PDKJAXTB, IK0IA—“ Wo firmly belfere that the use of ynnr
atw am nwpny to state 1 itover lost a single ease.” 1 I'rji'tio Saline wIU ftomoi-o to prevent fover thanull Um) Qnfnine ever imported can cure.”
Dt. W. 8T]tVXN8.-~'*BUiM ItB lutroduotion tbe Falal West India Fevers arc deprived Dr. TtXELBY.—” I f««u>fl itnot,naaBie»elrtc. in my eaperleneo and family, in the worst
m t^Bl f terrors.” forms «f Sonr}**t Fever, no ntl)erinedii'tno being reqnlred.”
na XAJMTT*8 BSPBXSXlfTATirB the GOVSENpR OT BIBRBA LBOVX, I X>r. 8. GIBBON (fonm>r}y PhyKioliui to tlio Lotidoii UospltAl).-'* Itt OKlutneil in the
tn aktrerof j^nsst reran adrtitinnal sunply uf the Pyretic Saltne. siato|i~”Ttisof ormi \ troatinent of (ttsoaso liae lung boon coitfirmea by madioalexperleuos."
ro/MS, and 1 sball rsjoiee to bear it is in the honana of all Kiiropesns yiatting the tropics.” '
To be obtained of anjr Obemlst or Drug Store, in Patent O^JaaB-gtoppered Bottles, 2 b. Od., 4 b. 6d., Ub., and 21 b. each.
Flaase not* in oonnaottoa with tho roc ontly obaorvod offooia of the uae of Citrate and other preparationa
of IBagneaia that XJHCFIiOVOK'S FTxtETXC 8AE3CE'£ ia warranted not to contain any anlunanoe
_ which wou ld oan ae calcnloua or other earthy depoaita.
H. LA.I^rLOUC 3 -S:, 113 , SCOLBOE^IT HILL, LOJSTIDOIT, B.O.
City Line of Steamers.
FOE LONDON DIRECT viA SUEZ CANAL,
Tom. CaptaiiiJi.
City <tf Manehetler ... S126 A. Maodonald.
City qf Carthage ... ... 26S1 J. MePhorson.
City qf Canterbury ... ... 3212 J, Marr.
CUy qf Venice . 3207 J. Y. Moffat.
City qf London ... ... 8212 J. Black.
City of Minhurgh ... ... 3212 W. IT. Barham,
CUy qf Khios ... ... 32.30 A. Thoms.
City of Agra ... ... 3412 ,T. Gordon,
City of Calcutta . 3836 E. McNeil.
City qf Oxford .. ... 3059 Win. Miller.
Oily qf Cambridge ... ... 3788 D. Anderson.
The CiV, qf Calcutta (s.) will sail about the 8th November, and
will be followed by the CUy of London in a fortnight.
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE & Co.,
7 Agents.
n^jSTEiaa-TJiTa-E!
FIRE BRICKS
AND
THE
SOUTH OF INDIA OBSERVER,
PCDIMHBD WSBKLT AT OoTACAMUND,
The HeEtd-quarters of the Madras Oovemment for
the greater part of the year.
TEEMS OF SUBSCniPTtON.
(ExCLtrglVB OF POSTAGE,)
Advajioe. Arrears.
Por annum ... Bs. 20 0 0 Ra, 28 0 0
„ half-year,.. „ 10 0 0 „ 14 0 0
„ (iiiarter ... ,,.3 0 0 „ 7 0 0
,, iiionsom ,,2 0 0 ,,2 8 0
Neilgheyrp I’rm Cn., Limited, Proprietors.
Agents in India:
Muwsiw. HIGGINBOTHAM & Co, Madrae.
Agents 4n London:
Me,ssu.m. riEO. STREET i Co. Cornhitl.
F. AU4AR, Eso. . 8, CUnunt't-lanc, London, B.C.
MK.s.mts. BATES, HENDY & Co... Old Jeorry, London,
Messeh. GOBDON a GOTCH ... St, Bridc-sireet, London, E.C.
Mkiwbb, RHODES A Co. ... 84, mehoUu-lane, E.C.
14
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
16
NOW BEADY.
REVISED EEITION.
“ O UBURBAN Vilks, Market Gardens, and Residential Farms,
O in Kathiawar.” 1^ Major H. L. Nutt, Bombay Political
Department. Price, One Rupee por copy. Apply to Siiporin-
Undent, Bombay Edueotion SMiety’s Prose, ByoaUa,
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MONTHLY
Record of Information for Planters
or
OOPFEE, TEA. OOOOA. dHOEOKA, SEOAB, PALUS,
AND
OTHER PRODUCTS,
Suited for cultivation in tJte Tropics.
Publishod on or about the let of each month by A. M. and
S. Ferguson, Ceylon Observer Offioe, Colombo.
Price In advance yearly, Be, 10.
Re, 1 per copy,
10
November 1, 1883, THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
395
For India
Wt publish ihe folloioing papers at this 0,fflce.
THS IKDXAir AaBICraLTUBIST.
(MONTHLY.)
Rattiof Subscription, inchiding portage.
STBIOTtV IN ADVANOK.
{iaU-yeorly
i'or'Baropo.. j aXyaarly
For Europe
(Yearly
' \ EUdf-yoaily
26
14
Fur India
MqfussU.
Re. 42 6
„ 22 0
11 8
4 0
p.
to appear on the foltouiing vwrning.'
PLANTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO
ft
... Be. 12
M 7
13
7
Single copies. So, 1; back copies, Rs, 2.
Advertisements for the “Indian Agriculturist’' should be sent in
not later (Aon the SSrd, to appear on the 1st of the follouipu smnth,
THE FBEBNl) OF INDIA AND BTATESiLlN.
(WEEKLY.)
Sates of Sabsesiption, including postage,
SnUOTLV IN ADVANOI:,
Foum, Mgfustil,
(Yearly ... ... Be. 20 0 Be. 22 0
For India ...-[Half-yearly ... ... „ 11 0 „ 12 0
[Quarterly ... ... „ 6 0 „ 7 0
The reduced rate for Miulonariee ie Be. 16 per annum.
Single copies, ^Is. S; back copies, Re. 1.
A doertUoments for the “ Friend of India " should be sent in net later
than Jiidap, to appear on tlvejbllovilng Tuesday,
THE STATESMAN AND FEIEND OF INDIA.
(DAILY.)
Rates of Subscription, including postage.
8tBltlTI.r IN ADTANOS.
Tom,
{ Yearly ... ... Re. 36 0
Half-yearly ... , ... „ 19 0
Quarterly ... . 10 0
Monthly ... ... ,,3 8
Single eopiei, As, 3; back copies, As. 4, and S,
AdeertisemetUs for the “ Statesman " should bv sent in not later than
* Intending Subscribers trill please address the Manager.
Sidisoribers shoiM slate dislinotlg for wmuu rAruB rcmiltiinevs
an intended.
Agents in Loudon for the above papers :
UEOlUlE STREET, Esy. ... Oornhdl.
E. ALGAR, Esq. ... IId, 13, Clrmenl's-lauf, London, E.C.
B.'V'rES, HKNDV ft CO. ... 37, Walirrook, Loudon, E.U.
D. j. KETMEK ft CO. ... 1, White/riars'.street, Flnl-street,
London, E.O,
SOtj; AGENTS FOB TEE 17NITED STATES:
the INTERNATIONAL fU^WSHAWiK AGENCY,
H. F. HUBBARD, Proprietor,
Nmo Ilamn, ComiecticxU, V.S.A.
MEROEANTS AND GENSBAL AGENTS,
Oalcutta,— 30, STRAND.
«.
Oeneral Manager—V7. E. S. JarrEHSoN.
Manager-
Ageucies for Tea Estatea undertaken on the most
advantagooue terms.
Coolies recruited by our own staff of experienced AgenU, with
Depots throughout Chota Nagpur and at Dhubri.
Indcntors aud Consignees of all merobandizo.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, and Private Agents.
Assam.-" THE EXCHANGE," DIBBUGARH.
W. J. Wheatley, Manager.
A. D. Stuart, Agency Superintendent.
Direct Importers of every requisite for Tea Estatea and Eu¬
ropean Residents.
Price Lists on appUoation.
Agents for India General Steam Navigation Co., Ld.) Agent
a for Commercial Um'on Assurance Co., Fire and
Life ; AgenU for " Star " Line Ocean
Steamers, Calcutta to London |
Agents for Reuter’s
Telegram Co.,
Limited,
London.-GBBAT WINCHEdTBB-STREET, K.C.
E. 0. Rook, Sccretanj.
Agencies at Birmingham, Bordeaux, and Oharante.
GOVERNMENT
oi 3 sraH:onsr-A. b’ebrib’tjo-b.
A n iffirient. suhstitutefor Quinine. Sold by the principal Sttropea/ti
and Nalire Druggists of Calcutta. Obtainable from the
Superiiiiendcnt, Dotankal Gardens, Calcutta. Post free, 40 Z,, (U
Rs, 0 ; i’o;:., Rs. 11 ; 1C ot., Rs. 30-13. Cash with order.
THE AQRA BANK,
" LIMITED.”
Capital ••• £1000,000
Reserve Fund ■ £190,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNTS are kept, and
Interest allowed, when the Credit Balance
does not fall below Re. 1,000.
DEPOSITS received available at luiy tto
for Romittonco to England in the Bank’.
Bills, and Interest allowed thereon at the
rate of 4 per cent per annum.
DEPOSITS are also received for fixed
periods, on terms which may bo learnt on
application.
LrAITS granted at the exchange of the
day on Loudon, Scotland, Ireland, and the
Bank’s Agencies in the East.
CIRCULAR NOTES issued, negotiable
in the principal places in Europe.
GOVERNMENT and other S'lOCK.S,
and Shores bought and sold, and the safe
custody of the same undertaken.
INTElQiST, PAY, aud PENSIONS col¬
lected J and every other description of
Rftnlrhig Business and Money Agency tran-
Hftotods
AU Remlttanow nhouW bo made pay-
able to the Agra Bank, Limited. 36
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to BOBINSON and
CLEAVER, BELFAST, for Samples and fhU range of Price Lists (PGST
FREE) of their
TJielr IiHhIi Linoii Collai-ti, Cufftj,
HliirtH, &(*., iiavi; thu merit of
oxcol Iuuc 0 and
obeApjioss.'— I
Court Circular.
IRISH LIHEH
CO LLARS ,
CUFFS,
Ladioh itud Uhil*
droll’s. 3*foId, b/U
jtov 4oz. Liontu’,
4-fold, 4/11 to t,}\\
► per dok.
For Lirdios, fiontlo-
men, uud ChildiLU,
5/U lol0/9l>«r dole.
Bold Irish Linen
IRISH ^
— Extra Heavy (a most dnr* ^
able article) 3| yiird
wide, 3/.T jwr yard.
Boiler TuwgUiug, 18 luch
wide, 3|(f. per yard*
Liuoti Dob*
Surplice IIUCUO ters, 8/3 por
Liiicu, LintnO doB.jGlftao
Cloth*, 4/8i)er
yard. ■ doj.
■■ Fine LUivni
and Linen
Chlldro&'i
C AMBRIC
QentteoM&'i
perdoi
s. 2/iI
.. 8/8
.. I/LO
ALL
Hiiutitobid
• 8/4
Fish Napkins,
3/0 per dox.
Dinner Napkins,
0/0 per doz,
Tatilo Cioths, 2
ydn iKiuaro. 3/11;
yard* by 4
yards, 13/4 ouuh.
Diaper,
lOd. per yard.
VliAX.
HAHQKERCHIEFS.
'Tho Itifb Cofflbrlos o/ Messrs.
Bolduatm & Clunvsr huvo a world
wido QMen.
&1hirt8^ damasks.
all llnon ficuts itud
cuffH, 36/0 tliohuU
dot. (to mooBurc, 2/ extra).
ijidies’ Under-Clothing, iUliy LIuou, Dross Mutoiials, FLumols, Irisli and Swiss Bmbroiderloii flosiary
OiovoB Uudwi'-VosU, FiUitB ; uUo Ltwu Goods ol every desoriptiou, at iowast whulasolo prices.
ROBINSON & OLEAVER, Manufacturers. ^ Ap-
pointmeut to her slajesty tha Queen and her Imperial u lghnw
the Crown Frlaoess of Germanr.
THE ROYAL IBOH.LIIIEK WARBflJGSE. BELFA8T.
890
THE INDIAN AGBIODLTUEIST.
November 1, 1883.
T. E. THOMSON & CO.,
©, BISFT. W
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MACHINERY, ENGINEERS’ AND PLANTERS’ TOOLS OF ALL KINDS.
All Oirtides sold at our Estahlishment are manufactured by first-class Firms, and are of the best
material and worhimmship.
Clayton and Sliuttlewortli’s Portable Engines, | Soda-water
6, 8, 10 and 12 H.P.
Punching and Shearing Machines.
Improved Saw-sharpening Machines |pr
Frame and Circular Saws.
Seller’s Bolt and Nut-screwing Machines.
Drilling Machines, with Feed Motion and
Rising Table,
Bench Drills for Hand or Power, 15", 20", 25".
Bench Drills for Hand or Steam Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, ScrcM'-cuttiug, and
Surfacing.
Foot Lathes.
Lathe Carriers.
Asbestos Packing.
Circular Saw Benches for 36'^ and 42" Saws,
and with Patent Self-acting Drags.
Circular Saw Spindles.
Crab Winches, with and without break, to lift
4, 6, 10, 12, and 15 tons.
BricTt, Tile, and Pipe Machines.
Improved Brick-pressing Machines.
Screw Jacks—Bottle, Triiwd, Haley’s Patent,
and Traversing.
Iron Pulley Blocks for Rope and Chain.
Weston’s Patent Differential Pulley Blocks.
Blast Fan, Silent, for 16 and 30 Fires.
Fletchier’s Patent Annular Hot-air Furnace.
Machines, to make from 80 to 800
dozens a day.
I Soda-water Bottling Machines,
j Parallel Vices.
Tube Vices, with and without slide gate.
Boiler Bears.
Duplex Punches.
Indigo Press Screws, with Brass Nuts.
Appold's Centrifugal Pumps.
I Chain Pumps.
“ Special ” Steam Pumps.
Vauxhall Donkey Pumps.
Rotary Pumps.
Hand, Lift, and Force Pumps.
Steam Horse Ploughs, Harrows, and Hoes.
Fire and Garden Engines,
I Watering Carts,
Water Lifts.
Rice-Shelling Machmos,
Flour Mills, for Hand, Cattle, or Steam Power.
Flour Dressing Machines.
Chaff-cutting Machines.
Corn Crushers, with ffuted Rollers.
Prize Com Crushers, with Smooth Rollers for
Crushing Oat, Linseed, Malt, Barley, Gram,
and for Kibbling Beans, Maize, &c.
Cart and Portable Weighing Machines,
Domestic ditto ditto, with and witliout weights.
Salter’s Spring Balances.
A larye stock always on hand of best She field Files and Patent Wood Screws, Locks, Bolts,
Hinges, Nails, Chain, Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper, Zinc, Tin, Lead,
Oil, Paints, Varnishes and Turpentine.
PBICFS AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
T. E THOMSON & CO.
Il6^t6r«d No; 182.]
THE
INDIM AaKICULTUKIST,
A MONTHLY
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURF, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. VIIL] CALCUTTA :—THUKSDAY, NOVEMBER 1, 188-3. [No. li.
CONTENTS:
Pass.
r.VQE,
ConnStPONDEKCB—
Agricultural Education for
Tsa Boxes ... .11 a.
367
tho indmn People ... ..
416
The Eeviower Reviewed
31,7
Sheep Hiisbandi-y
416
’Tea Cultivation in (Icylon :
'J'ho nighland Koeioty's Ex¬
Importance of Superior
perimental Farm .
417
Seed.
899
Vegetable Extract-.
417
LKADHSa Abticles—
Cincuosa--
Indian Agi-ieultural Depart-
1
Tho Government f'iiieliona
monls .
309
Plantation in Bengal
418
’Tlie Extornal Trade of Bengal 400
Tho Sikhiin Cinchona Plan hi-
EciTonuL Notk.s .
401
tioiiN.
419
Agricultural and Uorticul-
Tlie ('invhon.a Industry in
tura] Society of India ...
40G
Ren pul ..
480
Ofeicial P-wers—
Foiiestut—
Annual Report of the Royal
Rublier Cullivallon in Cejhin
4’’1
Botanic Garden, Calcutta,
1
Forest Policy in Ceylon
421
for the year l'8'I-83
407 !
[ MiSKli.xtouy
Note on tlie Cultivation of
Coal and Iron Indubtric'. of
Rugareaiif .and the AhimA
Rtiasia ... .
42’J
f/u'iiB'C <'f Suffftr in Ahhuiu 409,
y OT P^’TTrtVh! ^
.Rehici'I.ti'ue
»nl61.«Kv J Jl “
A;rnDuRnrnl IMucalinn
’Turkish .Silk Fanning ..
422
... ...
•111'
T|!V-
A Voterinary Collepf
41.1 i
’Tliioliph till’ Toll District- ol
finUa aH a WhcfiL Utnnpoiitor
41.11
Norih IndM 1., II. .1’i‘J
421
PandanuM ; or, fturow-Pino
I
Jlr. Armstrong on Tea ...
421
Diond ... ...
41.’i'
AllVKU'risKJlKNTS .
120
Our Ciii'irnpiinJi'n/s ami Confrihutors iniU prrallt/ nhlipc
iia if flu'!/ u’iH (ahr the trauhtr, ■iii/ii’iy the riturm of enUira
tiaii art- sidled by them in Indian weights and measuns, lo
(lire iheii Enp/ish equii'idt tils, either in the text, in jtarrn-
ihesis' or ill a foul iwie. The in paiiieidar raras so
much in tlu dilfereiit provinees. ihal it is ahsoluteli/ neivisari/
<• ^ ^ ‘
lo t/iee the Enplish value o f it in all rases. It u'ould be a i/nat
reform if the Guveniimlit itself foUouvd the same coursi in all
the official report.s published by it.
All corresptmdeiire must hear the full name and atldns.s of
till writer, not necessarily for puhlicalion, but as a. iiuaraiiter
of good faith. We shall take no notice of anonymous letter.^.
CORRESPONDENCE.
3'1',A linXE.S. 1
T(l THE El'lT'iK.
Pij,^_'Will yon allow mo a litllo Hpauc in yonv columns to gi'’’’
publication to the redtilt of an c\i.eriin«nl Inc.d by iii« mi « oml
used in tlio manufacture of tea bones. My atlculion wa.s
first drawn to tlio subjoct by an article in tlio linlhm A jru-iiltiiria,
ilatnd Istof March 188.1, fioni wbicli 1 b'anicil that somo piccas of a
ten box wliioli bad corroded the lead lining, ami destroyed the tea,
had been sent to India by I’rofessor Dyer of Kew to bo idoiilifiod
As^lds is a question of groat importance to all intorestod in t..a,
I ilctermined to try an experiment with the different kinds of
wood used by manufacturers in .Silohnr, aud obtained from cieh
workshop two small boards of each kind, one seasoned and the
other green.* Itotweeu Iheie boards I plaocd a piece of tea lend, ^
tied them togotLer aud put them iu an almirali. After two
weeks they were opened aud examiuod, with lUo result that tbe
green board of tbo wild iiiaugo {hfanglfirn Si/htnlic.a) had cor¬
roded the lend, the surluco exposed to it prosuutiug exactly
the appearance, described hy Professor Dye,r— i.e., it was covered
by a white coating of enrhonate of lead. IVhen held to
the light, it presented the appearance of having been ijorfurate 1
with a pin. The surface in contact with tin; seasoned wood was
untonohed. From this, it seems pretly evMoiit th.at tlie green
mango wood contains (dicmie.al properties injnrions to tea lead,
whieli are cither dis.sipat.’d or otherwise rimdcred harmless by
the process of seasoning. The otlier kinds of wood h.ad no eiTnct on
' tile lead.
IT. .1. YOUNO,
Asst. Consorvi'. of F.ireste, Cacliarlfivision.
Silcliar, Oetobor 4, 1881,
THE EEViEWER REVIEWED.
I TO THE ETHTOT?,
.Sit?,—O n the 17t!i of AnghalUst, I learned hir the first time
that my “ Manual of Agrionltnre for India,’' liud boon roviewed
iu the eolnmna of the (bril nml Mililar;/ On-jttr. The Editor
iu his letter of the I.iUi of August informed me that—“ A long
review' of your ‘ Manual of Agriculture ’ has already appeared in
tile Civil nml Milaari/ (lazette. ,Sn far as 1 renientbnr.tho opinions ox-
inessod w.is geiiornlly t.ivonralihi." (Signed), ’• Stei'IIUv Whbku’.u,
Kditor.” This letter was in mply to mine, asking the Editor, if
1 sent him a copy of the Manual, would lie he so good a« to
review it, pointing out d'jfoots, and siiggostiag improvenioiits,
wliieli would appear in the Kceond edition.
On receiving Mr. M'heeler lettor, I wrote for a copy of Hie Cini
mill Militiiry (lir..elti ooiiLaining the review, which did not roach
my hands till tlie il.'illi of .Septomhor.
Tlio date of tliiH paper, tlio .Ird of May 1883, attracted my altou-
tiim, and for the reasons given beneath.
In Fehriiary .Sir .\lfred Lyall eaiisi'd in,., to bo officially iiiformeil
that, when I rocived it, 1 was to forward for his infonuatimi a
(opy of my “ M.iiiiinl ut Agncnlliire,” ami when doing so, to state
111 ,’ imliire of the assist,anco 1 required, to produce a liiiidn traiis-
j l.ition of tile .same,
111 the latt 'r part of Fvlnuary, and during all M irch, and up to
tlie Till .April, iivaily every overland mail brought me one or more
Ibi.'il pioof vhiipters of the M.mual, and on the last date, I rcoched,
wilti the eiinjiters, ,a cover for bimUiig the uninpletnl work. On
the iitli April, the nuhniiinl proof" were in.ulu over to a book bind-r
who delivered the bound volume to me on the evening of the
Dili April. On that date this was the only copy of the Manual
existing in India. On the lOlh April, I du.spatvlied the volume
by Itvgistorcd Uook I’ost, to the address of Mr. \V. Holmes, Frivate
1 Secretary to his Honor the I.iontoiiaiit-Oovernor of the Nortli-
We.sterii Provinces, and in my letter of the same date, I inforei,.,!
him why the book was sent. Mr. Holmes must havn runeiveil (lie
volume at Lucknow on the 1,1th of April, and shortly after, hy
ofiic-r, he must liave iimde it over to Mr, Ileaett to perirse and
pars his opinion thereon. The abusive and liostile revinw wliich
appeared in the CliivV n/n? .Ifi/iY.rjo/(V't-i’/r.' of the Ird May niiist
have been written some time in April for it to have appeared so
curly in May, and us no other copy of the work existed in Iii liu,
between the 13th and 30th of April, it is ruasonalilo for mo to draw
Hie conclusion that if Mr. Bcnett did not writo the review
liiinsclf.the reviewer wss some one who wrot" under liis instriii!.
tion. or inspiration. Mr. Wlieelur loiter, tondi to show that lie
iiiuivuliiully did not writo tlio review, which contains allusionn
to certain matters st.ateil in niy letter To'Ir Ho! it's, for tlm
formation of Sir Alfred LyalL lleuac it follow, t' ft' as .Mr. lijuett
308
THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST, November 1, 1883.
Wfts entruated with this information, ho Is either directly or
iudirootly conuoctcd with the authoraliip of the review In
question.
As It may lie part of the official duty of the Director of Agri*
tnlture, North-Western Provinces, to review iqleotido agricultural
works, and, when oonvenleut, to abuse the author, I trust no objec¬
tion will bt taken to my reviewing onon-sciontifie agricultural work,
which could neither have been printed and publiabod in Eagllab,and
subsequently translated into Urdu (Hludooatanee), without Mr.
Benett's previous sanction and approval. Thus though Mr. J. B.
Fuller, B.C.8., Asaistant to Mr, Benott, ia the reputed author, the
latter offioial la reaponslble for its publication, at the Governirent
Press, and at the publio expense.
To introduoe the reader to this official work,* devised for the
instrnction of the rising generation of ngrioulturista, It is necoea-
sary to make a quotation from the review under notice,
EHraot,
" The regeneration of Indian agriculture should he no difficult
matter, considering the number of teachers who are ready to come
forward and instruct the uneuligUtenod masses. Each, aocording
to his own lights, has adopted a special method for carrying ou t
his object. We have an ultra-scientific Mantml by Mr.
Kobertson, of the Madras Saldapet Farms ; the absurdities of
tho Indian AffricuUuriiit, the easy and useful Primer by Mr. Fuller,
of the North-West Provinces, Agricultural Department; and last,
but not least, we have a Manml of Ajrkultare for India, by the
well-known Lieutenant Pogson.”
The London Press, connected witii India, having o.vpresied
the highest approbation of the co»dr>n>ied Manual, and tlie Lieu¬
tenant-Governor of the Punjab having bespoken five hundred
copies of its translation into Punjabi, is a rebuff which it is to
be hoped will be felt and remembered by tho reviewer, wlio has
•nly to study tho Manual with care to comprehend the diffareuce
between a practical scientifio work on agriculture, aud a depart¬
mental production, whicii would never have beeu printed as it
stands had the copy been submitted to Doctor King or the distin¬
guished Suporiiitendeut of the Saharunporo Botanical Gardens, who
would have pointed out that the cotton flower does not contain
pillar) of different sizes, nor hiiobi of differeut slscs aud forms, nor
small toicet filled with yellow dust, as stated by the author. The
extracts given beneath speak for themselves, and show the value of
the (asy aud uarful Primer,
Exlraeisfrom the " A^rienltural Primer," ef tilt jXorlh-Vfetitrn
Province).
“ There is a very great difference between a plant and an
animal, but perhaps not more than between some animals and
others. Tha differenoe for instance between an elephant, and the
tiuy orcaluves which swim about iu dirty water, is almost as great
as between an elephant and a tree,
" Although, then, there are great difTerences between the com¬
mon sorts of plants and animals, yet it is extremely difficult to
make a rule which sh.-ill exactly distiaguiali between them. Both
are alike in ftriiijf alivt —that is to say, in being born, existing for
a limited time, and dying again ; both grow by taking in food
from the ontsiile, and altering it, till it becomes In snbstauoo like
their own bodies." (From First Lesson.) Remarks. An animal
is born alive, and has a father, ond a mother ; a carrot or cabbage
■eedling is not born and has neither father nor mother, os tho sood
from which it germinates is not allvo. No rule is uocossary to
distinguish between an elephant, and tho I'tepul tree on whose
branches it feeds. Tho ass feeds on thistles, the elephant on
sugarcane, and ite producer tho zemindar does the same, yet
according to Cawnporo doctrine, “ it w ejclrcrndy iliiKcnU to make a
rule tohivh thnll exaelly distinijuieh between them."
" By moans of those magnifying glosses a flea can be made to
look as largo as a mouse, and its eyes and oven teeth be soon as
easily as those of a mouse. When plants were looked at in this
way, it was socn that they wore made up of little bags, just as au
orange is, each bag being filled with liquid. If a piece of plantain
stem be cut across, and looked at, a great number of tiny little
boles will be soon in it. These are the euda of little tubes which
run Up and down the stem, and which are Ijolleved to be merely
rows of bags, with their ends knocked out. The green substance
of which the plantain stem ia composed, is made of little bag.s,
shaped like bricks, and fitted one to another, like a mass of
masonry, through which tliose little tubes ran like water pipes.”
• An Aarieuhural Primer, for use in Indian Elemestary Sohools and
riaasos. N.-W. Proviacas and Oudh Govemnwut Press, Allahabad.—
Second Lesson, p. 4.
Remarks.—Can (uoh twaddle, about bags, bricks, holes, watsr
pipes, and tabes, which run up and down ths plantain stem bs
eallod lustra otion loagrleoltate ?
" Just as the root answers to the maulk of animals, throngli
which nourishment is taken In, so do the leaves answer to the
stomach, in which this noarlsliment is digested."
*' It Is in the leaves that the green coionr peonllar to plante is
chiefly noticeablo. U is caused by a vast number of little g^n
balis Inside the cells of which tbs leaf is composed.”—Third Lssson,
pp. 11 and 12.
Remarks,—Let the reader translate the above into Hiudoostauee,
and thou after reading the translation to a servant, aek him to
explain what Is meant ?
In Lesson IV., pages 13,14 and 16, the cotton flower Is thus
described for the InStmotion of the eeminder’s sons
" Under the cup there are the five yellow leaves, whiob
form the bright yellow flower." " Inside these yellow leaves
again you will see a kind of small pillar, covered with
little yellow knobs, from the top of which protrndee a knob
of different shape and very much larger than the others.
Pull off the five yellow flower leaves and split up the centre
pillar, with your finger nail, you will see that the little
yellow knobs all come off together, being fastened to a strip of
whitish coloured skin. This white skin forms a tube, and round
another tliiimer pillar inside It, and you will see that the large
top knob belongs to this second pillar, and remains in its place,
when all the small knobs have been puUed uff together, with the
skin they are fastened to. The inside pillar leads down to a
roundish mass, which is the unripe cotton pod.” “ The
white skin tulie.li covered with little knobs, each of these
little knobs is a small box filled with yellow dust. They burst
wlieu the flower opens, and the dust is scattered about. If you open
a fresh flower bud, you will see ail the little boxes, os they appear
before bursting.—Lesson IV, pp. 14, 15,
"Plants like animals grow t>y feeding, just as an auimal is only
able to live, and grow by taking in food ; so also williout food,
plants immediately wither and die ; animals can only live ou vegt-
tablea, or animal food, they cannot subsist on minerals such as stone
earth, suipluir or iron. But plants live almost entirely on niin-
orals, The food taken by the plant roots is not so important
as that taken In by the leaves. Of the different substances of which
n plant is composed, the most Important exist in the air, iu the shape
of a gas, or vapour, mixed with another gas,”—Lesson VI, pp. 20, 21.
In Lesson XIV, page 69, the student receives instruction on the
subject of dealing with the sterilizing salt called Ileh, in tlie
N.-W, Provinces, and Kullnr, in the Punjab.
“ In the cold weather, before tho rains begin, shallow trenches
should ho dug, or scooped riglit across tho field at about 2 feet
apart, these should all slops toward.s a pit wUioh should
be dug iu ono corner. It U during the heat of April and
May that tlie Peh chiefly comes to the surface, and
whan tho rain falls, it will dissolve, and run down the trenches
into tho pit. After a mouth, tho pit should he closed with earth,
and by degrees iu this way, tho " Bch ” can bo gradually washed
off Hear land, and the soil be made capable of oultivation. The
reason why, unless this bo done, dear' land can never improve,
U that, each year tho rain water carries tho lick down into tlie
soil with It, and brings it up ag.aiu, when it evaporates just like
the bucket of a well—up and down, up and down."
At page C7i and in Lesion X1V% the young ryot and zemindar
receive instruction eu the subject of irrigation. He is told that
" tho water enables the crops to eat up more food substanoes
than can bo prepared for tliem during tho year, by the aotlon of
the sun, ruin aud air on the soil, and the plants are tlierefore liko
a man who oats up his whole month's allowanoa of food In
fifteen days, and has to starve for the remainder,”
Remarks.—Assuming that tlierc is an ample supply of plant food
substances iu tho soil, f Assc are never named by tha Author, in
any part of his work eitlior from want of knowledge, or studied
retioenco ; it is out of the power of the plant to play the glntton as
duscribed. The zemindar floods Ida laud with canal water, which
being pure spring and snow Water, derived from tha Himalayas,
dissolves for more plant food (namely, Hnmlu acid, and ths
phosphates of so lu, potash, lime, magnesia and iron) than is
ncedod by tlio growing crop, and as this solution sinks dp'vuwards»
by tho mere force of gravity, it in time gets beyond the reach of
the roots and rootlets of the plants, which suffer not from repletion
Ciar, Is Elansorlt for naturally barren Isod. Such land ii
hopelessly barren, and bu not been sterilised by jfth, due to canal irri-
e.lioa--J. r, P,
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGBICULTUEIST.
30Q
but from the food needed being pUood beyond tbeir reach. The
_water of nearly ell veils contains more or less limo, and alkaline
and saline matters in solution which act upon the iron aud phos¬
phate of lime present in the soil, and so form plant-food. Land under
well Irrigation cannot be flooded, whilst fields uudor canal irriga¬
tion are flooded at each watering.
The eaty ai\d wt^vl Pritner under review extends over 84 pages,
72 M which bristle with the wonders, and bluuJors,
corresponding to the extracts quoted, and os these are
no doubt repeated in the Urdu translation (prloed at five annas
per copy) intended for the nso of village schools, it is easy to
understand Mr. Nesfield’s opinion “that vernacular odnoatlon
lathe North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Schools
was utter rubbish, inasmuch as the vast majority of the pupils
never remembered anything that they learned.” The pupils on
their part, may very justly retort, that if the instruction imparted
to them was rubbish, the sooner they forgot it the better, and
Mr. Neefield has only to peruse the Primer, to be satisfied that
it comes under his oondemuatiou, and is not worth remembering.
J. FRED, rOUSON.
TEA CULTIVATION IN CEYLON: IMPORTANCE OF
SUPERIOR SEED.
{To the Edilor 0 /the Ceylon Obeereer.)
Sm,—There can be now little doubt that in the course of a
generation our infant Industry, tea, will have superseded all other
productions in a great degree, aud have become the prluaipal export
from Ceylon, aud it behoves us as the lutroducers or pioneers of its
cultivation, to do all that liesiu our power to ensure the success aud
permanency of the new undertaking Our plauters are proving
tliemselves capable of thorough man^ulatlou iu the manufaoture
of the invigorating leaf, and with the cUmato we possess to Ii(dp
them conjointly with their agricultural attaiumeuts (of no moan
order), its produotion la paying quantities may be taken as an
establisbed fact.
But there Is one poiut connected with the tultivatiou of llic
many vm-iuties of ucouomio plants that liavc been and arc being
gro\fn iu this island, which has never received the attention it
deserves, and on looking closely into the matter, it seems almost
iucomprohensiblo why such an important factor in tho ty[ii«al pur-
petuatiou of tho species under oultivatiou should have bonu so neg¬
lected. I allude to tho utter want of any attempt on our part to
maintain the eoutlnuauoe of roproduetlou of tiu) spouios under
cultivation on seioutiflo grounds, in sueh a manner a.s to oiniiri;
that the xdauts for future eloarings shall be, if not actually auperior
to the parent trues, at any rate their equal, aud to rodiice the
possibility of any deterioration iu sueeceiUng gener.vtions to a
minimum. In fact no pains or trouble’ lliuulil In- spared in endea¬
vouring to lucreaso tho suitability of tho future g(’ueration-s of tlu-
toa plant for tho use they will bo put to.
Now, if we tnrn to tho mothor-oountry, wo will find that the
attention both agrionltorlats aud horticulturists there p ry to this
subject, at onoe shows it to be one of vital importauou, aud it has
by degrees come to bo almost a soiouoo in it-iolf. No farmer 0 r
gardener would for a moment think of obtaining whatever seed he
might require, in the haphazard way wo do, from any parent stock
that appears to be of good quality, for he has found by bitter ex¬
perience that those qualities are transient, and that Ills only way
waa to obtain the seed he required by the combination of c irefally
teUettd varieties of the tame itock. To most, this was am iUerof
great difficulty ; for to be sucoossfiil, an uudivided nttantiou must
bo paid to the subjsot, aud to meet this dilUeuIty tlioso enoemou s
seed establishments aud nursery gardens have sprung up during
the past half-century, and that they were requisite has been proved
by their snooess.
It must not bo inferred from the foregoing that I am advocating
the erection of similar establishments iu Ceylon. If tea huppeued
to have been an annual, I believe they would have baon found
necessary, but what I do feel is required, is that tho quality of
any seed 1 might purchase either for myself or my employers should
be undoubteil, and tlmt there would be no fear of tho plants from
sueh seed being inferior to tho parent. Tliat a large paroantago of
the oinohoua seed sold in Ceylon during the past few years may bo
eharacterized as rubbish, few will gainsay, aud a small proportion
of tea seed may be classified in the same category, I have been
victimbed In both quite unwittingly on the part of tlie seller, and
U for the parpoM of eadmourlug to oommoaee o uovsmeut to .
counteract this tendency of plants to produce inferior seed that I
new write.
Tho manner in which this desired result b to be obtained, I must
leave iu abler hands than mine to determine. All I o»u do at pro-
sent IB to draw attention to the want, aud if this waut be geuerally
admitted, there U little doubt that a satisfactory solution to the
problem will not bo long of coining. In the meantime, 1 would
■nggost that those who are making small plantations for soed-h-iar-
Ing purposes, should not couUuo tlio same to one klud of seed ; for
tnstanoe, if iudigeuous Assam be required, the parent trees should
be from seed from different sources (iudigouous), and planted out
alternately in equal proportions ; if liybrid, tlioy should bo com-
posed of different hybrids of tho beat class, with a few iudiganous
or China plants tli^ough them, according to the idovalioua for
wliioh tho seed will be required i this in any caas cauuot but ba
beneflojal.—Yours faithfully,
SWADDY.
®ii? Hitdiitit ^5i'ii[itititi'i!)f.
CALCUTTA, NOVEMBER 1, ISSJ.
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL DErARTMENTS.
A N English contemporary very veconliy took oceasion to
make a very long and elaborate official paper on bee-
fceo)iing iu India, issuvl by the Government of Madivss, thu
peg on which to hang a smies of criticisms, more or less re«
fleeting on the Govonimcnt of In lia. We arc nut at present
specially conceniud as to liow these criticisms may be met and
disiKwid of by the dejiavtuieut concerned, but it soeins to ua
that Ihui'u is Considerable room for luon of Holcntilie attain-
monts, in sny the Aijricalttu.d Dopartmtnls of the varioua
presidemies. Wo do not for a moment wish to underrate tha
veiy eminent Geoiogi-sU, raheontolugista. Mineralogists, Chombt*
and Botanists, who are iu tho service of the Government of
Indi.i. These emineid men are either absorboil by tho QeoJogi.
cal .Survey or by Government Gardens, maintained for Bciontiflcj
purposes, or otherwise fully occupied, so that little if any of
their time is available fur work outside tho routine of their
several duties. We do heW, however, that there is a wide floM
anda i>ressnig need for tniiued adepts iu tiie physical sciencaij
being .attached to each of the Agricultural Dci>artiuouta of India,
We do not say that the ludi.ui Agi'iimltural Departments are
distinguished for their knuwleilge of agriouiture either of India
or any other country. The method by which appointments ara
made to these deiiartmenta renders such a consummation,
usolesa iu rare instauces, scarcely possible. Apart, Iiowuvar,
from the fact that there are few nicii in the departments who
have had a special agricultural ti-aining to lit thorn fur the
posts they occupy, the usetMiieas of tnese departments to lUa
Empire is seriously impaired by the additional fivrt that, from,
top to bottom of the departments, nuijerial and pi-oviiicial
there is scarcely to be found a man of distinguished scientitii*
attainments. How any Governinont persuades itself that it w
serving the best interests of Indian .agriculture, by attempting to
carry on an Agricultural Department witboutt ha assistance of
the most eninient .scientific oUservera it can procure, is .a problem
Lotully incoinprelionsiblo oiit.side of ofiH-ialdoin. The farmers’
co-operative societies of England are able to secure the
services, as conaultiug chemists and botanists, of some of the
best known scientific men iu England. Thei-e is acai-oely .a
State of the Ameriaxu Union, which has not its scientific man,
raoie or less dietiuguished, attached to its Agricultural Ihireaii,
To say what France, Germany, Italy, and even Australia
have done, and are doing, iu thi.s direction is to repeal what
ought to In) Well known at all events to tho.se who arc snijposed
to be leaders in agricultural mattei'.s in India. Nevertheless, an
we have said, the Government Departments of Agriculture are
distiiignUhed not for the scientific attainments of their officers,
whose reports ami notes on agricultuial matters ought to bear
400
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTURIST.
with them the highest authority, and be final; hut on the contrary,
th<‘y arc i-hariu’terisliu of Iho coiumoiiplaoe and iu some iustancos
of the questionable. It Booms to ns the height of legislative folly
to eatahUsh departments which are aupposed to deal with
teehuical and scieutifie subject*, and then subject the reports
of those dopartmuiitB to the criticism of provincial Seorotavies,
wlio know little or nothing regarding the topics dealt with.
If anything could have been devised better fitted to bring
Indian Agricultural .Dejiartments into contempt, and secure
for their labours the least jiossiblo amount of usefulness, we
ehall bo glad to learn what it is. As it stands, the dep,artment
is oflicered by clever civilians and military men, who, as a
rule,thongUnotalways,are able to write essays qui|p as deftly as
1 he other clever civilians, who iu the oflleial capacity of Secretaries
to Chief Coiumiasioncrs and Governors, and Lieutenaut-Gov-
ei iioj’.s revi.se their woik. W’e venture to think that until meiu
with a training more or teas purely scientific, ollioer, iu large r
numbers, the Agricultural Departments of India, the departments
will scarcely justify tlieir existence. We do not maa u men
who have distinguished themselves at oxaniinationa by exhibi¬
tions of brute-like memory of facts and textbooks ; but men
who have sliowu practically that their powers of observation
and cxpcrimouls have been trained and perfected iu the field
and laboratory. Mon of this sort are not to be had every day ;
wliereiu! men who can cover acres of foolscaps at examinations,
and pour out the contents of text-books airl Jeclure.s, lau be
had common enough; nud the bulk of mvukind accept the
latter as the pure gold, iinstead of the hollow tinsel dummies
that some of them are. Men of the sort wo have indicated as
Huilable for the work of the Indian Agricultural Department
cost money, and money is a consideration of conaideiable
moment. Could there not be fewer of the " writing beggars,”and
ttU increase in working, scientific men, not mere book cr.imtnera ?
THE EXTERNAL TRADE OF BENGAL.
Tub “ Report on tlio Extorual Trade of Bougal with
Nopal, Sikkim, nud liliootan for the year 1832-S.I ” Las
n most imposing apiiearniioo, being too tall and too broad
for most bookshelves, and bound in the most stiff and
imcompromising fashion. It does not, however, eontaiii
ns much matter as an ordinary newspaper, consisting of
thirteen pages only of largo type, and it is just possible
that the information it contains might have been put
into the annual trade report, without much loss except that
of diminishing the returns of the Bougal Secretariat Press.
The subject is one of interest, however, and we should wel¬
come a separate volume on it, if the exoellouco of the
composition at all eorreaponded with the admirable ap-
jioarauco which the book iireseuts, when viewed from the
outside. If we may be allowed to make a suggestion, it
would bo that the ollicial gentlemon who writo these
reports should be required to sign them. Tiioy would theu^
perhaps, take more pains to convey their iiifonuatiou in
n readable shape, whereas it seems that books “ published
by the Governmeut of Bengal,” without farther specifica¬
tion of the author, are intended rathor to show obedience
to tho order that a book should bo written on such and
such a subject, than to interest or instruct any one.
While glaueing at tho figures ui the report, we somo-
tiiuoB feel inclined to ask, “ Is tliat all true, or only a
story ?” 'J'here arc tliirty-lwo reglstoring stations along
tho Himalayan frontier, all at lonely places, and there
is a natural suspioion that the registering clerks may prefer
fishing iu the hill streams or vi.sitiug their frioiidH, to
counting carts, bullocks, and coolies as they pass by.
Considering the love of tho Bengalee for statistios however,
we might not lianard the expression of tho doubt, were
it not for the statement that “ tho Liouteuant-Qoveruor
is unable to accept tho figures of the two years previous to
1882-83 as being finally correct, as the result of tho
ouquiries made through the Deputy Commissioner of Julpi-
gorio, under tho ordurs of the Government of India,
regarding the shelllac trade registered iu thoso years,
showed that the figures of tho trade submitted to Govern¬
ment sinoo 1878-1879 were for the most part fabricated
by tho registering mohurrirs at Busa and Ambari stations.”
We agree that figiu’cs ahould not bo ftoeo[)fod as “ liually
c
correct,” when it has been proved that they arc fabricated,
and we wonder roapeotfnlly at the word “ finally ” having
been used. Is it supposed that a certain oorreotness
should be attributed to all official figures, oven when wo
know them to have been invented by the clerks t Tho
two mohurrirs were found out iu consequence of tho un¬
usual interest taken by the Indian Government iu the sub¬
ject of sholl-lao; and the question arises, were the other
thirty immaculate 1 Had t/iey also a power of imagina¬
tion, a doveloiimout of the inventive faculty, a gift for
dealing, with figures, not only in the way of marshalling
and arranging, but of positive creation ? We notice that
tho Darjeeling Deputy Commissioner is likely to prove,
without knowing it, a patron of this form of original
literature. When the liue that was at first modestly called
the Darjooliag Tramway, aud now more maguifioontly
tho Trans-Himalayau Railway was opened, and n rood made
in connection with it to the Jeylaii Pass, It was reasonably
c,xpected that the facilities thus afforded to trade would
lead to its increase. AVliou none followed, tho Bengal
Government enquired the cause, and the Deputy Com¬
missioner replied, “ I dare say that inattention to orders
on behalf of the registering clerks, may have affected tho
returns iu the past, but I am doing my best to rouse them,
aud have, as reported above, only recently thoroughly
iiispucteJ the statious, Both clerks have been warned
and one temporarily suspended, tuid I hopie that no in-
dolouco on their part will hide tho improvement which 1
believe to linvo really set in, iu the Thibetan trade.” AVe
hope that tho two clerks arc men of discornuiont and
sterling honesty. If they arc ingenious, they will argue
tliat Oovoi-nment having made a road and cnoouraged
a railway, naturally oxpoots au inoreaso in tho traffic ;
failing to show this, wo have boon “ thoroughly inspooted
by” a Deputy Commissionor, in itself a fearful pmiishmcnt,
and we have been “ roused,” v\'a#ned, and one of in “ tem¬
porarily siispouJed.” This we now sec is what happens to
registration clerks who do nol show an iuoroase of trallle,
when Governmeut requires it, to justify its now road towards
Thibet. For the future, wo had bettor send iu returns
indioatiug au iuoroase every mouth, and tlicu our frieiidf at
home will no longer hoar of oiir being inspooted, roused,
aud temporarily suspendod, over these desolate Himalayan '
hoighls. ‘ Perhaps if we can ascertain tho views which the
Lieutenant-Governor is said to h.avo expressed to Lord
itijion, and siqiport them by the right supfdy of figures, wo
may got away from tho hills altogothor, and bo put on
the moro pleasant aud profitable work of rogisieriug traffic
wliovo tlio Nuddoa tolls are eollooted.’ Wo give this as
a po. 33 iblo lino of argument of tho iugonious clorks who in¬
vented tho figures us to tho trade in sliell-lac, nud without
the slightest insiuuStion agaiust their oemrados at Darjeel¬
ing, who, wo sinooroly hope, iiro much above entertaining
such soulimeiits.
As to tho figures produced, no one can object that they
arc not suffieieutly minute, giving in abnudnuco the details
desired by merchants. Tho total value of horses which
crossed the Nopal frontier for British territory was
Rs. 1,200 ; of eanos aud rattans, one rupee : of precious
stones, during tho last year ,whou any came, Rs. 700 ; of
manufactured leather, Its. 262. Tlioso, we can believe it
possililo wore the property of a solitary horseman, on a nag
of the average jirieo now asked for the walors imported
to Calcutta, carrying a riding oaiie, a valuable ring, and
with a most exaggrated idea of tho worth of liis boots,
saddle, aud bridle, as lealiier. ■ Among the e.xports to
Nopal, wo notice Rs. 2o worth of lime and limestone, Rs. 4
worth of bricks, Rs. 11 worth of coal, Rs. 4 of assafoetida,
Rs. 36 worth ofliquors, Rs. 33 worth of firewood, the total
value of the exports under these six heads being Us. 113.
Similarly in the returns of tlio trade to and from Sikkim
and Bhotan, there are a number of items of five rupees
aud under. Any ordinary traveller crossing the frontier
should fill tho return with a vast variety of articles as
important as thoso noted. We felt inclined to remark
that a groat deal of space might have beau gained ‘by tho
judicious grouping of these petty items of trade. But then
there may bo a dift'ereneo of opinion as to what ooastitutes
gain of space. To a book-maker anxious to pad au at¬
tenuated volume, it is vain to recommend condensation.
Tho tables appended to the report show that tho imports
into Bopgttl Rm the Routwe iiUto bf wore valued at
November 1, 1883,
401
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST.
107 lakhs ia 1880-81, and at 82 lakhs iu each of tho two
following years. Our exports to tho State have boon
uniformly valued nt 82 to 87 lakhs. The exports to Bhootan
have fallen from two lakhs to oue, and tlic imports are
represented by nearly the same iigurcs. 'I’lio oxjinrts tc
Sikkim have iuereasod from womothing less than one lakh to
something more, and the imports from that country have
at hwt reached the lignro of two lakhs. The trade with
Nopal only is considerable, and our imports seem to bo
mainly from the country of tho i)lains, tho staple lieing rice.
Au attempt was made to ascertain tho duties levied in
Nepal on trade with Bengal, the ou(iuirio.s not beinjj
addressed to tho Itusident—wlm is supposed to sloop for
eight mouths of tho year at Khatmainl'Ki—but to the
Collectors of the districts iu our teiritorios. It is tho rule
with tho Bengal Goveruinont wlieiiovor it wants to loam
anything, to ask tho Collectors, and they reply to all
questions. Sir George Campbell used to kec]) a stock of
such questions as ;—What is the average weight of a
I’atna sheep t What is the consumption of tobacco per head
of population in this province ? What is the porcoutago of
])olygamous Hindoos iu your district, to those with one
wife ? And it was supposed that he would make an interest¬
ing book out of tho answers given by the Collectors, when
lie had time to reconcile tlicm. Wo observe that tho
Collectors have very readily I'unushod tabular statumouts
of tho duties levied iu Nepal, hut that tliey do not iu the
.sliglitoBt degree aocord. The Collector of Chumiiaruii says,
there is au ad valorem rate; the Collector of .Mnyiulferporo
that the duty is levied on the laud irrespective of its
value; mid his brother of Barjooliug .supports him in this,
but gives double tho rate. This applies to rice, hut in no
one item can any iiossihlo agrei’ineut be found. Berh.aps tlio
duty may bo left to the dim etioii of local officers, but
the Bengal Government seems to iucliue to the belief
that the reports arc ‘ iuaccurVe,’ to put it mildly.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
•
I N acknowledging the auim.il report on the jiroiliielioii of ('ot.
Ion iu the Central Provinces, the otlldaliiig 8ucri‘l iry, ill r.
A. if. L. Fiaser, says : —“ I am also to state tliiil tin- Cldef ('oni-
luUsioiicr is uiiahlc to accept the mtiiiiato of ID )Uis. per a ere
even for tho Wiirdha district. In Berar, wlicr,_> it has lieen
possilile to a.si’ei'laiu the aiuoiiut of the onl turn wiUi almost
mathematical ai'.ouraey, the oiit-turii is mndi leis ; niol jrr,
Joues Joes not think that ill a pro. hia-.' in wliieli e il.ton .so
unequally distributed Very safe rojiilts e m hi' obtained on llie
method adiqited in paragnipli G. It aeeiu-i lo the Glilef Coui.
mLssioiicr probable that the chief .source of the err n- which
you uoliee is to be found in the Wurdha esLiin ite of .'iOlbs. In
lids district tlic acrenige uudor is more than one-third of the total
acreage uuder cotton eoltmi in the iir.ji iiii’.i, .s i tli.it any error
ill tho estimated out-turn of this dislrict piodiicosiuiimuien.se
error ill the estimate of total produetioii. i'hi.s Wurdha esti¬
mate is ]ii-obably, uotwithstandiiig the b.idness of the s Ms.jn, ns
much under tho mark .as tho esliiii.ilo of ludlbi. would be
above it. If we raise Wurdha to SOIbs,, and siiuil.irly raise
some of tho other districts in which the out-turn is obvimi.sly
too low, the facUs of the year will bi explain.!,!. The remark
made by you that a wot year is a bad ye.ir for cotton i.s entirely
in accord with Mr. Jones’s oxjiei'iein-c.
“ The value of tho cotton crojn aee.inling to your re tar iw,
which are certainly too low, is put down at ovei G i.dJis. It
would not perhaps be very unsafe to r.iise it to nearly Gd lakhs,
that is to say, tliat it equ.iks the whole hiiiil revenue of flic
province, lii the Wurdha district the v.dne of thi.-i ero)) fii, j
exceeds the laud revomiu. ]
, lam to inld that in future reji >rU iiifonu.iLion slnmld b'- j
given re;^i'dmg the pre.sse.s and iiijll.i at w.irl. m the pruvinee
aud stutiatius showing the o.xport.s of tin; piiiicipii evjiort iug
stations would abo be of some interesl.,'
Sect! an eminent authority as Sir .1. B. Bawe.* h doubtful as
to the fi'B ling value of ensilage, and he thinks the lo.ss of
nutritive matter m tho silu is so largo as to make it tmpioiitable
as an auxiliary to British farming. Mr. Woods, on tho other
h.and, iu naiTiiting the results of hi.s exqierifuicc, .Iwell on the
value lit enwiJ.agc as u succulent food for milch cows and ewc.s,
.and he illu.str.iteil tlii.-, by giving figiues showing a nurkeil im¬
provement in the quantity of milk and the quality of cream
I yielded by cows fed on the now fodder. Tho analysis ho
obtained of the ensilage also showed it to he a sncculeut, liiglily
iiutritiou.s, and eiisily-dige.stod food. A dili’ereiit Ye .till, has,
however, attended exporiincnls in Canada, conducted by
Professor Brown during tiie ]),ast seasonal tlie Ontario Agrienl-
tura! C.'olloge and Bxperimental Farm, These showed that
ensilaged corn fodder gave l.h per cent less milk, 3<J per cent
less butter, aud a poorer uiaiketiible ImtUu in colour than when
the cows got Swedish turmpH. Although the animals ate tho
ensilage readily to begin with, they gr.adually tired of it and
fell oil' in condition, iinlil otlier food had to he added.
Mr. Wooils' testimony as to the niorh.s of onsilagn, Jiowovcr,
receives strong praeliral corroboration fioiii the otlieial report of
the ITiiited States IH'partmeiit of Agricnlture. I'his reiiort
embodies Uio experience of .itiout lOU agriculturi.st..s iu the.
Gnited States and Canada, and in rojily to a Hchchilc of qiio.s-
lioiis submitted to llieiii they express themselves a.s li,ivin..r no
loubt of the pvolitablciiess of ensilage, Tho condition of the
stock eating the fodder was uniformly good, b.itli ns i-egaid.s
lealth .and gain in weight. Milch cows are mi.ire g,>iierallv fed
with ensilageiii Ameaic.i than any other class of stock, and it i.s
n this oonnoetion tliatit i.s expected to prove of greatest service,
ho uiajority of the con'u,spondeiita stating that there i.s a decid¬
'd inereime iu qu,unity mid iinproveirieiit iu ipialit.y of milk
iiid butler from cow,s fed on onsilag,'. The ipiaiitilv of fodder
'iveli to each euiv in the Slale.s variu.s trmu id to OOlb.s, d lily,
n addition to some dry fodder and grain.
'I'liu common practice in Amurica, niiil we believe it is tin' one
which, miller gener.il eiremnstances, it will he best to adopt, is
0 [il.'icu the ci'Olis ill the silo when their full growth lia.s been
'cached, and befoie npening begins. Tn the United iStale.s
Ki-'t funnel's f.iioiir fine nilfing, a, lialf inch or l(.s,s, u.s it packs
•loser, and e liln-ly to kep better ; but if stored whole, an.I
irmly eompressed, it h.is been ioiiud to keep very well, ’J’he
'ddei should be kejit level during^ the proee,i.s of tilling' the
silo, andbe Well treddun. In nearly all the ainwers tit.t.m-
nikssioiier Loring's qiierie.s, it is slated that the los, by d'e.iy, on
the silo being ojioned, was very slight, and confined to the top
and sides, where tliore w.xs more or le.s.s cx[ioiuib to air ; and
geiier.illy it hud kept perfeelty well for several mouths, luiii
showed no deterioration.
After all, however, the important ])'jiiit i-. how f.ir this new
method of preseiviog fodder is suited lo the pocuh.ir c indi-
lioiis of this country. Am eric,in o.vpcrionee will not .settle
that ijue.stion to the satisfaction of British agriculturists, and,
therefore the re.siiK.s of the (;xpui'inient.s at present being cai'iicd
out will be iinxiou.slyi awaited. Fleiuld they c.inlirm the hope.s
that have been held out—lui l iu the light of ivhat h.is ah'eady
transpired, there is as yet no reason toilouht it---a fresli impetus
wilt be given to agi iciiltiire, and th faninT, will h • forti/i.'d in
no small degree in e.juteiidnig w.lh tlm dtlll.'ulUes ui a uevera
winter.
Exi'ISUIMEKts on the temperatuie of the soil are being
carried on at the Iloiightou Farm, New York. The soil is a grai el.
with a clayey siib-Moil, and iincrojqied. 'J'liermonieters are
fastein.'d in tJie hoJiow ends of wooden roils, ;ind these are
placed at iliU'ereiit depth,s below the surface, in closely iittiiin
zim tubes lillcd " ilh water. The lhermoinutei'.s were placed
at the, following dcidlis : Suriitco, 3 iiiche.s, G ineliea, !) iiiehe.s,
I fool, ;,l feel, fi feet aud Hfeel.iind .ire read hourly from 7 .\.M.
1.0 S r.M., rioni the tii.st of May to the first of Novcinber.
Uourly, daily, and monthly v.iriatums of the teiu[ieiatuic weie
observed. T'he lirst are contiiieil to the iqiiier layer of .soil
and aiu often sudden and lioleiit. 'I'liey may be e.iiisod by (ije
shifting of the wind, clem ing of a clotul v sky, n llinnderstorm
ike. There i.s a great daily range caused by absoi plion of heat
by day and radiation at night. The i.-mge n much rediic 'd
liy elomly or rainy weather, The.se daily laiiatiuus take pl.ie;
to a depth of afe^tormore. ’Ihe inaximuiu teiiiper.ature at
the .slu-fuce i.i about midd.iy .and th'j miuimuiu bhorlly after
402
THE INDIAN AGRICULTimiST.
November 1,18B3.
luidiiight. TLeae otU’emea iiro later at sU(;oe8sive luiti
at 1 foot they are retarded eight to ten hours, prescutinf; the
cui icms feature of tlie one-foot thernionieler riding while the
svuface out* ik falling, and cice rcrsv. There is a conatant rise
in the tempevalnre of the soil, beginning in the «liriug, easily
ol served to a of eight feet. Storms and cold weather
chuck this iidvniice teminrarily. Below three feet there was
an unbroken rise from May 22 to Beptembor 1. The mean
tcujperatin'cH for ai.'i months—May to Oetober, were : Surface,
(5(1 *10 : 3 indies C5'30 : 6 inches, 00*30 ; 9 inches, 65 30 j 1 foot,
t>-l-20 ; 3 feet, 62-80 ; 0 feel, 58-60 ; 8 feet, 55-80. At a depth of
8 feet the mean teinpurature was only 10*60 lower than at the
surface. Dining the autumn there is a zona of siib.soll below one
foot, which is warmer thou the soil above it, and this prolongs
the season.
Bomb trials have, it seems, been recently made by the Yfler-
inary Instructor in British Burmah in view to testing in the case
of rinderpest and anthrax the efficacy of the lymph prep.aved by
M. I’astoui-jWho is experimenting in aiiima 1 iiiwulatioii in Europe.
On the 7th September last two cow* calves, a buffalo calf, two
sheep, a large cleph.ant, a young elephant, a pony and a ])ig were
inoculated with what M. Basteur terms lii-st vaccine for anthrax
fever ; the temporal ure of the animals was, with one exception,
very little affected by the vacoination. The second lymph w'as
infused on the 23rd Beptembor, but again in this citse with
little appiu-eul effect. At no time were any of the animals off
their feed. Tlie prophylactia ('lTecl,s of vaodnalion w-ith M,
I'listeur’s lymph wera tilso ti.sled to see whether it would prove '
effective in rendeiing animals pioof against au attack of riuder-
pe t. Borne cases (if the disiase were fimiitl, and the three
calves, which had previously boon experimented on, were
removed to the spot and again inoctilaled with virus taken from
the body of a true case of rinderpest. The animals were iti-
OL-iilated more Ihnii oiiee, and although they were herded witli
some cows tlnat were j-ccovpi-ing frotii a recent attack of rinder-
po.».l, they escaped without sliouiiig any sign of infeelion. Tli
citlvc.s wore, uftev a few months, taken to anuthur siiot and
placed among a held of e.iltle butVcringfroiu a severe outbic ik
of rinderjjBst, and were inoculated with lluid taken from tin
intestines and with blood from the bodies of aniniab slniuiiii
nnmi.stakable signs of acute rindirpe.st, yet the dise.ase w ii
not eouveyod to the calves. The Veteriimry IiisLriietor, in
reporting the above facts, aaid that it would be preniatni-e as yet
to offer any opinion as to the preventive value of this sy.sLem of
trcalmeut, and lias been unthorised to continue the e.xiieri-
inents. Tlie Deputy t'mumi.ssni-y General intcinl.s having th
mules under his charge vaccinated, and the Bumbay-Biii-niah
'i'rading Oorporalion, are, it is believed, going to resort to
Vaccination exlcn.sively in connection with their cle]ih,-uits at
Mingyan and in tlie Uhiudwin valley fois.sts, where they' have
Biistuincd very heavy los.sos amongst their elephants from what
they consider to be anthrax fever.
A wRlTEit in the Dreedw’s (ja.:citc mentions a cross made on
his father’s farm imuiy years ago, for whicli ho ulaims tlm very
best results in iiroduuiiig good milkers with the Sliort-liorn
form. The foiindation upon which this cross was made, con¬
sisted of Bed Boiled cows, thise being bred to a .lersey bull
exeellcut results were obtained so far as milk was concerned,
blit in form the offspring of this cross partook somewhat of the
hollow form of the Jersey'. To remedy this defect, these
heifers were in their turn bred to a good Bhort-hort
bull. The result was a great impvuvemeiit in form,
while the improvement in the cpnality of milk was
retained. The cows resulting from this double eros,s are thus
described by the writer ; “ All became marked alike, red and
white patdies, with large white shield on the forelie.ad. Tlie
litxly long, with wide hip.s and well arched ribs, he.avy hiud-
quarlers, but light fore-iiu.irters ; very short legged, but very
weighty animals ; large bags, proituoing very rich and creamy
milk. AVlieii reijuired, >a bull was selected from one of the best
cows in nullf and shape, and in this way the stock was kept
lip until my father’s death. ' **•'*■■< “^Tlie cows were
alw.'tys in good condition and ready when dry to put up for
feediiig. They as -well as the steers -were equally ready for
feeding and took on flesh very ropidly.”
We heard a good deal some two years ago of the steps taken
in British Burmah to developo tobacco cultivation there. One
Deputy Oommissioner visited the hills, where the Karens are
said to grow the finest description of the weed, but to fail
miserably in curing it according to Western tastes. Ho smoked
a good deal on his trip, drew his travelling allowances, wo
presume, and wrote a coidaur do rose report on all he had seen.
A plantation was started near Ilaiigoou, and people were to be
induced to bring there all the leaf they could grow, to be cured
on the Americtiu plan. In.structioiia were to be given, moreover,
to ensure the best varieties only being cultivated. It was
thought that 08 the steam rice mills had encouraged the
cultivation of paddy, by purchasing for cash all that
agriculturists or boatmen would bring to llioir mills, so a
factory or phintation prepared to purchase whatever leaf Wios
brought to it for cash, would largely stimulate the jilauting
of tobacco. Has the project failed, that we hear so little about
tobacco in Burniah at jn-escut 1 The local proas is silent on
the subject, and good Burmali cigars lu-c as difficult to get as
they ever were.
The public both in and outside of Burmah would bo glad to
hear something of the results of its experiments in tobacco
cultivation and curing, of w'liich we wore led to expect so
much. What has boeu the result of the experiments, and what
money’ have they cost The wisest and cheapest plan in the
end might be to offer a handsome premium for the first
shipment of really markettible tobacco or cheroots, ns ha.s been
done in AusU-.ilia and Now Zealand with other produce. The
result of such bonuses in the colonies h.as been to establisii
several important new iudu.strieV We are not saying that
the attempt of the Local Government has failed, but we should
like to know something of the results of the exiiorimoiils made.
“ No-rwiTll.sT txmso the fine stores of timber whicli exist, in
many iiarln of tin’ Tiidiau tea districts, but a very small iminbeik
of y,sl;ite.s utilize them for the supply of tea che.s(.s. The iiii-
liortaucc of luiving thorouglily wcll-se.woued wood for thi.s
pnt-po.so is obvious, and has alsv.ays been insisted on ; but it
seuins vciy strange that amongst the numBiou.s Hpecies in tho
Indian forestu, none sitoulil be found suffimently suitable to
come into universal use. I mot ono Assam planter who has
sawmills and who goes in for siipidying estates wifli chests,
but this kind ot enterprise .seems quite the exception. As a
iiilc, tea chests are matlo of teak fi-om Burmah, which must Ixj
very expensive* when the excessive cost of transjiort up to
As.s.'iui is oonaiilercd. Teak makes very good boxes no doubt,
but 1 fee! .siiro that good suitable wood could be found in India
for the purpose. In Ceylon, there has been some discussion on
the subject, but tho difficulty appears to have been overcome,
as all estates use local woods. The treo which I have found
moat suitable is mallcbodde, \f propeol^ treated, and therein
lies the .secret. It is light, inodorous, and holds a nail well.
It is liable to the attacks of insects, hut it seasons very quickly,
and, if used as soon as ready, makes capital boxe,s. Many other
woods arc well-adapted to the purpose, and are used by the
compauiea who siipjily clie8t.s in Colombo ; but nudlebodde is
found in almost every locality whore tea is grown, and hence,
its suitiibilily for the purpose in question is a matter of iiu-
portance. The seasoned hal chests now advertised by the
ccylou company are very cheap, and, for estates situated near
a railway station, preferable to boxes made on the spot, but for
plantations with long road transport the importance of having
a suitable wood near .at hand is great.”
A well known Scotch farmer has lately boon condoSting a
Reric.s of intercNliiig experiments in ensilage, in connection with
the Ifighlaud ami AgrieulWral Society, He has two silos, each
30 feet long by 12 wide, inside measurement, aud 13 feet from
the Horn- to 111*! pilkn-s, which, ag.iiii, are about 6 feet high, and
Biipjiort a light root of wood co\ ered with felt, The silos, which
cost .£70 each, are built into a baiiV; so that “ while tho top of
the solid wall at one end is level with the ground, the floor
November 1, 1883
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
403
fit the other end ia level with tlie ('round there."
allows the green stuff to be shot out of the oarN without
difficulty, while it also facilitates the withdraw.d of eiHilayo from
a door at the lower end. The floor, waU.'i,and pillars are formed of
concrete, the walls being from 12 to U inches thick ; the doors
are formed of boards fitting clo.sHly Uvrclhcr, HO as to ((x.!liidn
the air-and retain the moisture. (Ir.ws that had b.'cu in the
silo for throe weeks had a strong, slightly alooholu; .siuall, .md
was brown in colour, but on being offered to horses, togi'tlior
with sun-dried hay, it was instantly lucferrcil. The ]lro.^^illg
down of the stuff is the nio,st dillicult part, of Uie woik connected
with etisilnge. The process first ailojited was Ui tramph) it
down, and then to cover it with boxes loadc 1 witli stimes and
gravel. The better plan, however, w.as to use Inlf-harrels,
filled with water by a liosu .and onijitie.l, wlioii required, by .a
sipliOB. It was suggested, bowover, that a more .satisfactory
method Htill would be to employ caat-iroa ci.stonis or v.its filled
with water, aa these could bo nnulo to fit clo.scly inti) the silo,
and be raised and lowered at will by means of pnlb'oa. The
object of tho experiments in Scotland ia to dotonnine xvhother
the silos can be relied upon to provide, in all soi-ts of weather,
succulent and palatable feeding for tho owes in spring from
vetches, clover, natural gras.s, and green m’ops, thins reudei’ing
tho farmora independent of turnip fodder, which is both exiiea-
•sive and precarious.
Professor Wiuuiitson, of the College of Agi-ionltnre, Down-
ton, Salisbury, writing on root crop.s or com ciops, .s.ays : —
It has generally bueu eonsiilered that loOlbj. of roots
are required to make lib. of beef or mutton, and according to a
cou.seu.su3 of opinion of good Sooloh agriculturists a bm of mots
will ordinarily be converted by fatting anim d into one stone
of lllbs. of butcher’s meat. When meat w.is worth ~kJ. pel' Ih.,
a ton of loots would, iiceording to theii independent but mulu-
ally confirmatory estimatc.s, b» worth .S<. Od., and a ci'opot so
tons per .acre would be worth X'2 los., or, allowing 10 p..'i c oil
for waste, £7 17.s. Cd. per acre, tf we eoiujiaiv thi^ i'-<l iuiato
with a Oorres[>onding good crop of wheal,* whic'.i wc luiy take
at. -10 bushels, then at the old estimate of 7fi. p.'r bushel, the
Vheat crop was worth ilU per acre, and ilis.->ntiii)ig IhN as "■
tho case of the resit crop by 10 ]ier cent, i’12 12'. per acre.
Tbc relalive values of Lite two ero]).s, therefore, might be sup¬
posed to .stand a,i follows :—20 Ions of roots at H.v. UJ. pei-ton,
less 10 per cent fur waste, £7 I7f. (id. per acre ; 40 Imshels of
xvheat at 7a. per bushel, le.ss 10 per cent, foi waste, £\ J. 12.s. ;
difference in favour of the wheat cioii, I'J lit (iV.
Turning to (he present values of the two oro|M, w.‘ liii.l tint
one ton of roofs according to tlic .ili'.u e sL.iti-.ti.i.s w..i t li 11.,
8cf. per toll, and 20 tons .are Woi+ll X'U 10.''. -Id. I iiscoiintin;' tlii.s
as ill tie'form.a-ea.se by 10 per cent, the v.due of an acre of
good iiMits ttdl he foun.l to be X'10 Os. lOd. Hd the value of
our 10 buslicl.s of svheat has gone down to 'm ji.'r bushel or to
TIO ]>ei acre, an 1 if Itiis is disconiited at 10 ])er Ccuit, for the
sake of comparison, to X’O per acre. Toe relative x’ahios of the
two crops have therefore conqiletely eh uiged. a; will be seen by
the following stalomeiit 20 Lons .if r.jjts at Its. .Hi. per ton,
lass 10 per cent for waste, .£10 Os. 10 1. l>er ;iere ; 10 bustiels of
wheat at 5». per bushel, le.s,s 10 per rent, for waste, £,) ; dilfer-
eiice ill favour of the, root erop, £t Its. lO.f.
Not only i.s this llie'case gauged by lie* orJiiury pri-.'inf
beof and corn, lint farmers who are alive to the superior value
of improved animals for breeding piir|iosL'.s will be able to take
their turnips to a better m.arket tlian the sh..|iuble'’. Kiigland
enjoys a monopoly with regard to iuiproved breed.s of cattle
and sheep, and all conntvie.s send to her to recruit .and improve
their herd.s. It is not likely that t'lis will ce ise to be the c.aso,
as there is something in tho English clini ih* particularly favour¬
able tor the development of liigh-el iss Joinosticated animals,
and the tendency ia over towards depreciation aftoi' they leave
our sh^es. No such relief is to be found for wbeat groweis.
Hero we are beaten in quality, so that miiiy corn dealers xvilf
not buy English grown wheat at all, and in any case rm. to 5.t. Cd
per bushel is tho absolute limit of pi'io.'. If then, we wish to
know the possible value of root and fodder crops as well as o
gims, wo must take iuto account possibilities in tho direction o
breeding ^nln^ .als that will be in demand for breeding purpesea'
It is not for a moment pro])Osc(l that corii-grov i.i.e, should he
given up. It appoara to bo a ueeoHsity of onr Hvstcni of farming,
for if Land is folded with sheep too frei|uently it becomo.'f
‘ stained,’ iiuii the intervening corn crop .serves L.i .sweeten it.
Hut. it would be no sm.all gain if the farming public eould bo
made to .soe thattho.a; crops whiob have hitliPVto been rfigarddl
as supploinenial and ,'is incre pro)iuratioiiH for corn crop.s aro
now re.dly the important crop.s, and that it i.s in reahlv mi're
according to bn t foi n In lok njioii the corn crops .ab tii.* ac.'i".
Horios-an the prepaiall 111 fill imoIs, piiiifiers of Itunl for shepj)
feeding, and sonrees of straw for litter, ('lay lands willpn-
bably be more and more gtiperally laid away lo gras-:, but the
lighter classe.s of land suitable for turnips .ainl fodder ero]i i wilt
ooHtiuuc under the plongb. It is in tho case of such l.ind.s that
the vel.itive o.steem ill which corn and mot crips are held re-
quire.s to Ire re-adju,steil, 'riie point I have at tempted l.o bring
out is simply tluH—that the old iiotinn (hat root ero]i.i are
grown at a dir(‘e,t loss, and chiefly as a prejiaration for grain
crops, is calculated to jirouiote a false .system of agriculture and
ought to bo reversed and abandoned.
On all aides, a.aj'R the Junrnal i>f ihe Soi'liij/ of dr.tf, comjilaiut.s
are hoard of the .serious con.seijuciices of the destruction of the
fore.sts of the W'orhi, and reports arrive of tlie attempts that
arc being made to improvo the [ire,sent, condition of forestry.
Delegate.s from v.arioiis pai'ts of the Uniied State.s were
present at a Fore.stry Congres.s bitcly held in St. I'.uils,
Minnesota. The rresiihnf, in his opening add re s,
■stated th.al. in (thin, Maine, New York, and other States,
the acreage of fote-'ls w.is constantly increasing, fn some
Stales .an “ arb'jr" da) ha.I been in.sHtiiU'd, and in llieselho
iiierca.se was not;ibli‘. The fojcst acrtvige of tin* Diiiled Stales,
however, was le-.s than oiie-fourth of the total surfaee, a
.‘imallcr proportion th.an In the east, wast, and noilli of Europe,
At the jiroseiil r;ito of i...ii,.iimplion the supply of piiiowooil in
the Northern .Stales woul.l he cxlian.sted in a few loarii.
i'oreslry i.s taught in (he State .(gricultnral (,'oUegu .at Luiising
in .Miiliigiin Sf.atc, wliii h ii laid to contaui a good lahcllcd
I arboretum and a largo celleetiou of native and exotic tress
1 niider eullii.ifion. 'i’in* List Legistature of Now 'l’'ork Slate
passed a l.iw'to I'liciinr.i'ge tr-'e plantiiig, by which anv inhah-
j ilant who .shall liansplaut by the .side of a puhlic highway ad-
joiniiig liii premises-any forest .shade trees, fruit frees,
ornamental trees, or any nut lioarin.g ln*cs, shall lie .allowed,
I ill abatement of bis highway tax, one dollar for ci’crv four tree.s
.set out. EIm.s mu,St he placed not less tban seventy feet apart,
I .111 the .same .side of such highw.ay, and no ni.iples oi olhnr
j f..!" I trees, m-n.unent.d, or fruit tree, iic:ucr than fui ty feet
ul ..u the same .side of such hifghw.iy.
Ill Mexico, the (ioverumeiit has contracted with Mr. Oscar
A. lireege to pl.int 2,000,000 tree.s in the Abdloy of Mexico,
wUIan four ycai.: fr.mi Maich I.'i, IhSl, or 1)00,000 tree.s a year
[ in sueli Iiku-I-, as l.lie ('tovcrnmcnt .shall choose. Iflie con tract or
pledcc.s himself to eslahluh a number of nur.serio3, .and to havo
in tboni eucli year at least .S'OO,000 .'ub, .'i.’pOOO willow'ti, 120,000
poplar.s, (ii),000 enc:dyptu,s, Ou.tK)''' iimiintain I'ypreiis, cedars,
(iO,000 .acacias, and I,Sd.OOO of tlier treCH. The trees are to bo
in plantatuiii.s of from ')0,000 lo 100,000 o.acli, and Mr.
I ii inu.-it maintain (bem for two years after the planting.
Three giaduatcs of the Bcliool of Agriculture, are lo be receivod
iuto the miiseries each year, there to study tho scieiico of
forestry. Mr. Droegc is to raise fruit and other usofiil Irocs
for di.slributioii, n..d he i.s to receive anil ii.dly $10,000 (£8,500),
till Lbe .sum reuche'ii total of $200,000 (£-12,500). A Work on
.arboriculllirt*, of reeogiii.sod merit, is to be tranhiated froni tho
I Clerm.au ove.iy )'e<ir in order to dis.seininate souud viow.s on the
subject among the stiulents .and tlie public.
I In Europe the Eurestiy Sebo .is aie now very numerous, and
I the following list of Ukhc in Au.-.uia and (ieriuuuy b is lately
I liecn c.jmpiled ( — Austria he.id.-i the list with nine scho-il.-. -ci.-.,
I the Imperial High Sdioul of Agriculture and Emeslry at
Vienna, with six profi'.sbor.s and 321) student i ; the Euleiibeig
School, with six piofe.s.surs and fifty atiuieiils, the course lasting
two years j the Waisswasser Sehool, with live professors and
eighty sluileiiU ; tho licniberg Sehool, with twelve piofessoi's
[ aud forty stud outs j tUo AgsttbacU tschoob noar ilelk, with two
I
404
November 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
pi-ufesisora and twenty-four atmUnita ; tlio'courtw of forestry
in the technical high school of Orntz ; the.Styria KoroHt (.’ultnrn
School, with three prufcusoce. and twenly-si.'c hUiJciiLii ; the
Cariuthia School ; the V^orarlberg School. IViissia has three
institutioiiB, commencing with the Uoyal Forest Ac.ailemy at
NonshuU-EberHwahle, with a tlirector, fourteen professors, and
other .'issistant.^. Tlie roui-ae is two aud-a-half years, and the
munher of titurtents about fifty-seven. The Manden Uo}’!!!
Forest Academy has a director, ten profeasors, and soveuty-
cight students. The Forestry School at Grosao-Schoucbock
and Iho forestry courses to the Army Forestry Ifattalion are
[or tlio training of lower forestry ofHciala. At the former
school are four professors; at the latter eleven, all of them
practical foresters. Saxony has a Forestry Academy at Tharand
with ten professors and assistants, lii Wurtomburg instruction
is given at the Uoyal Agricultural Academy at lloheiiheim and
at the University of Tubingen, In Badon the forestry dcpait-
ment of the Cardsruhe Polytechnic has forty students, Bavaria
has a forest academy at Aschaffenbiirg, with a director and
seven professors, in addition to which are six chairs of forestry
in the University of Munich ; Hesso-DarrasUidt has .a forestry
institution attached to the Univei-sity of Gie.sson ; and Saxe-
VVeimar has possessed one since 1808, with a director .and four
profossow. No other countries can equal tills extensive list
1ml France has her famous school of forestry at Nancy, and one
of forest guards at Barrc.s, in addition to .several agricultural
schools and agronomic indn.striul schools, in which forestry
is taught. Russia has four schools— id:., the Agricultural and
Forestnal Acsileiny at Pelrovsk, near Moscow ; the Agronomic
Institute at St. Petewburg, with coiiises in sylviculture ; the
Forest School at Lissino, and the Forest Division of the Agri¬
cultural Jnsliluto at New Alexandra. There is an Italian
school of forestry at'Vallorahrosa ; a Danish school, attached
to the Royal Veterinary ami Agricultural Uollogo at (Jopou-
hageu ; and a Swediali forest institute at Stockholm, boside.s
thirteen private elementary sclioois. In Switzerland tlie de¬
partment of forestry forms the fifth division of the Federal
Polytechnic School at Zurich, in which arc thirty students,
A Spanish School of forest engineering exists at San Borenzo
del Escurial, near Madrid. The British Consul at Malaga
reports that the cultivation of the ouoaIy))tus has of late at¬
tracted cousiilerable attention in that province, which has been
deprived of all hut fruit trees in order to, .sujijdy the constant
demand for charcoal, caused by the extensive uso of this fuel
for cooking purposes. Large imnibors of tlic eucalyptu-i, in a
healthy and flourishing stale, may now he .seen along tlie liii c
of railway from Malaga to Bohadilla, and in other places, and
they are reported to have been effective to some extent in de¬
stroying fevers in the low districts, formerly uniuhabitablu.
These trees are also successfully used to form avenues, and
afford protection from the sun on the roads near the city.
Alone, among the great countries of Europe, Great Britain is
without any adequate means for the teaching of forestry, and
in order to remedy this state of things the Council of the
Society of Aits memorialised the Secretary of State for India.
(See Journal, vol. xxx., p. Hla.) It was suggested that by
the addition of special moans of te.achiiig forest caltivatioii and
cognate subjects at certain of the largo educational establish¬
ments of the country, such as tliat at Cooper’s-iull, the existing
system of sending forest studeuts to Continent,a! schools might
be superseded. Ijust month Sir John Lubbock also drew the
attention of the Govenimeut to the subject of forest education
ill Committee of Supply.
Me. W. Cook, of West Chislehurst, writing in PouUrtj,
says I am often asked wluat the cause is of fowls laying shell-
less eggs. There are several causes. I may mention three.
First, from the fowls h.aving haeu kept short of materials to
form or make the shell. If this is allowed to go niinoticed, it
is a great strain upon the fowl’s system, and has a tendency to
weaken the oviduct, or egg pas8.age, where the egg is en¬
cased with shell. Secondly, from laying douhle-yoked eggs.
This also injures the passage very much at times, I have
known fowls, after producing several of those largo eggs, never
lay perfect-shelled ones again, while others are left very weak,
and only lay them with e very thin shell) not eitfl^eienWy thick
for hatching pixrpose,s. In such cases as these, hens ought to be
,'dlowod to sit, so that the whole system has an entire rest;
when this i.s dune, it proves a certain euro to them, and
strengthens the fowls very much. The third cause is v hen
a fowl produces eggs so rapidly that Ihi-ee eggs may he found
in the oviduct at once. The middle one is forced down on the
ono that will bo laid lirst; the third, following again quickly
I after tiie second, forces the middle ono out of the part of the
oviduct whore the sholl is formed on them.
The following are extracts from an article which appears iu
the East Anglian Ilandbooh for the present year, from the
pen of Mr. R, B. Sapwell, describing the system pursued in the
rearing of turkeys iu Norfolk
Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the best age
for the slock iiirds. Undoubtedly a two or threo-yuar-old
gobbler, and hens from two toffour years old, would give the
strongest and best stock ; but 1 find the disadvantages arising
from keeping old birds so great that I almost always fatten
my stock birds and bring up young birds for the next soasou,
laving only especial favourites for a second year. The od-
vautagoa, 1 believe, gained from using young birds are that the
eggs produce a larger number of gobblers than from older
birds, and these are much more vaUiahlo tlian hens, and I find
young hens commence to lay ten days or a fortnight before
older birds. 'The young gobblers are not so savage as the older
onus, and fewer hens arc injured and killed liy them,
Ilcn turkeys generally lay about twenty egg,s. It is
a good plan to set the first i‘gg.s under hens, giving the turkeys
about fifteen of their own eggs to sit upon. It is an unwise,
as well as a icuel, plan to set all the turkeys' eggs under lums,
and make her Iny all the seasim. ’ Lalo-hatchod tnrkcys never
thrive as the early binhs do, and Ih jy never grow to a .si.se to
realize a [iroiltiible price, Tlio turkey’s services are lost to her
own offspring, fur turkeys rear their own young niucli bettor
than hens ilo, and it almo.st invariably happens Umt a turkey
becomes so dehilitaled by laying all the spring that she wastes
away and dies in inoiiUing. 'I'hc lime wlieii turkeys roijiiiro
the greatest care is until they arc six weeks old, when tiic
young cocks begin to show a little red on their hcails. Dryness
is of the first iniiiortance ; large, roomy coops, wiUi covei'ed
runs, are desirable, that the young hirJ,s be not allowed to
ream about iu wet wcatlier, or vvlien lliu dew is ou the
grass.
'The food for the newly-hatched hird.s should he principally
haul-hoiled egg, with dandelion, lettuce, onions, or uotlles
chopped up, with a little breail-crnmhs ; b) this may be added
a little rice boiled iu skim milk (if quite sweet), a little suet or
greaves, and iu wet and culd weather a lillie cayenne pepper,
wdlli grain of all sorts u.s tlie hird.s grow elder. Afresh site for
the coop every morning is a siiw qud non, and a lilllo exorcise
if the mother i.s a turkey—hut not if slie is a fussy old hen—is
also advantageous as the chicks get on. A good sign is to see
the young turkeys catching flies. In order to get fresh, un¬
tainted ground, it is a good plan to hurdle off a part of a field
—a new ley, if handy, for the coops, and the gross should he
kept mown closely to the ground.
Turkeys will take to any young turkeys, whether hatched by
tliemsclves or not ; so when our young birds got fairly strong,
wo generally transfer those liatc.lied under hens to the turkeys.
One has to ho careful that the chicks do not perch on the rails
of the hurdles or the tops of the coojis ; crooked breasts would
be tlie inevitable result; they should be induced to sit on the
ground as long as possible, and then taught to perch in low
bushes and trees, ,aud until they are shut up for fattening they
are better never to have entered the fowl-house. Having
reached the .age of two or three months, .Tuna has arrived, and
tlie birds are perfectly Lardy, requiring little care, hut
;onerous feeding. A more ecoiiomie.al food is now desirable,
and barloy-menl, with, perhaps, a little scrapeako, maize, bailey,
and small wheat, is the usual food.
Turkeys for Ghristmas should bo shut up in a light, dry
roomy house the first week iu November ; troughs with as
amch maize uud good barley as they can oat should be always
by them, with two good meals a day of just as much barley-
ueal, oued iritli iat milk, os they can eat, and milk to drink
THE INDIAIT AGEICULTUBIST,
40.5
Nevembor 1, 1883.
Sliced mangel, tuniij.>a and awedea, and cabbage .are useful and j
neeeasar)', and plenty of sand, lime, n-shos, and brick-dust t
should be ia the corners of their house. Let the troughs be
well cleaned every morning, all surplus food I’emnved ; on a
farm there are plenty of other fowls glad to clean up .after
turkeys. In conclusion, let me strongly advise my reatlars
never to make birds of their own breeding with one another ;
every year let tliem purchase a new bird for stock, unless they
retain the old bird and are not using hens of his breeding.
Thei'e is no economy in buying a cheap bird ; a tew shillings
extra expense about the gobbler will probably bo a matter of
three or four pounds weight in each young turkey next year.
Twsktt-oxk years ago, say.s a writer in the Farniors'
Ti-evki'i, Congress gave each State public lands to the extent of
.30,000 acres for each member of Congress, senators and repre¬
sentatives included, according to tlie coiisns of 1860, for, in the
language of the Act, the “endowment, support and maintenance
of at least one college, where the leading object sKall be, with¬
out excluding other scientific and cl;is,sieal studies, and including
militai-y tactics, to teach such branches of learning ns arc relat¬
ed to agriculture and the mecbaiiie arts.” 'J’his Act originated
with Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Vermont. Before entering
upon public life be w.as a roHrebant and farmer in StrafTonl, tlio
town of bis nativity, wbore he came into cIosh contact and pro¬
found sympathy with the agricultural and working classes of
the people. Being a nimi of native shrewdness and great
common sense, with an aptness for public discourse, he easily
became a leading man in the community, and entcrod Congress
about 1850 , if our memory is not seriously in crroi. His in¬
tensely practical and patriotic turn of mind Hiigge.sted this
emiuently wise use of the nati, ,d public doiuain, tlion and
since .so lavishly, if not recklessly, bestowed upon invjeetc 1
railroads. Many remember tfio various plans adopted by the
different SUtes in disposing of the proceed.s of these grants.
That many mistakes were made is true, and il. could not be .
otherwise, and Ibal some, of these colleges are following more or '
less Icfei'tivc policies to-day is true. But. fvith .all these errors,
our serious thought is one of wonder and gratitude that the
errors are so few and limited in their b.aiieftil iiiflneiice.
There be before the writer the cat.-dogues and connected
reports of three of ’ these eolIege.s -those of jiras-sachiisetts
at Amheist ; New York, the Cornell College at Ithaca, I
and K.tnsas at Manhattan. These colleges may be t.aken
as ri.present.itives of that class of selio.ils in the l.uid.
(toniell, most wealtli.v and ablest luanned of them all, stands
among ottr tigrienllnr.-d colleges verv much as H.-ire.tnl, Yale, |
of the country. Amher.st represi'hls t.ho.s-' which seekt.ieoin
bine the cla.ssics. agvicnltiire, and the niecli.mie arts espeoi,dl\ ,
tlio.se relating *'> maunt.acture.s. This l.d.ter feature la worked
or taught in Boston as a portion of the la.nd .grant was bestowed
on tho'’lnstitute of Technology a school wliose specialty i.s in
this line. The Kansas (tulle,go is .-dm.-.sl wholly “ piraclic.-d,’
agriculture, manufactures, telegraidn , punting, and the allied
seienees ; no Greek or Latin is meiitionetl as belonging to its
cuiTicidiim. AttlonieUtliereaivsome four or five general
courses of study, those of art,of liU-mture, of philosophy and of
seieiiec and these are snb-.livi.led into as many as ten special
cnarscH of four years each, so that the .student who wislies to
pursue a course purely agrioul ter,al, finds a full four years of
such study laid out with classe.s )mr.suing it. t)r, if he wishe.s
the mecliaiiieal arts or arehitee.tnre, or ei^dl ei.gine«rmg^,.r
chemistry, or other spe.-ial eoimses, he finds them. Th.
Mnasiichusctts College, partly from more limited re.sm,i.-es .and
partly from the traditim.H of New England, has a less varie.l
Lurse and one more su oiigly marked by its classical feMures,
though giving thoroiigii instruction in agriculture and tli ■
mechanic arm. The Kansas School fairly reprcsoiits the earm.sf, ^
vigor.^, pushing and “ practicar* spirit o onr western civilisa-
tion That it really represents the popular sen imen of the
people may be soen from ihe fact that on its cat.Uogne Last yoar
wore enrolled 3-17 names. Amlier.st bad 110 students, but
ftmou" them were two sp.s'.ialists. one from Br.a-r.d ami one from
Sgland. Cornell had 110 students, a large mim sw of whom
Wefo pursuing spcci.d ami ixtst-gmduah- stmhes, wbdc Ibo
fiold of iU palrnmigc oiubraeed Brazil and Japan, aa well as
nearly or qnito every Stale in the Hmon.
Thk wild plantain it seems i.s not found in the Kiataiia, Nellore,
Bellary, Anantapnr, C'hinglepiil, North Arcot, South Arcot’
Salem and Tricliinopoly Districts ; it is believed to exist on the
Nallamalni Hills ill Kurnoot; it i.s found in small (^uantiUee
in the forest uplands of Gaiijaiii and on the Anaiuialai Hills
in Coimbatore, and veiy .sparingly in the sliolaiis and by the
rivers and streams of all the forests of the Periy'akulam range
in the Madura district. On the Western Ghfilsof Malabar
it is widely distributed, but is by no means abundiuil ; thorc
are large rjuantitiea in llie Hayagadda and .Teypore tracts of
Vizagapataiu and in the K.uwpa, Kekajialle, and other uplands
of the GotUvari ; the ghats of Sontii (isn.-ira could supply
fj’om 15,000 to 20,000 tree.s a yuiu’ ; it in found on the iiil].s of
Tiiiuevelly, but not abundantly. 'J'hc ropoi'ts from the NiJgiris
are coiiflictiug, they are tliree in number ; iu the first the
Oolloctor, after coiisnltiUion with gaiitlumeii settled iu dillereiit
parts of the liilLs, couclnded that the wild ]iliii)litin " did
not grow iu the Nilgii'i district ill any considerabli. ijiiaiitil.y
f.lie next report forwarded by tlie GollccLor w.as from Uidouel
Jago, the Deputy Goiiservator of Km-ests, who stated that
the wild plantain “ grew abundantly in the vicinity of Devala
and Oherambadi, iu the .soutli-east VVyiiaad, .and on the
slopes below 'riiianrdai and Niiiijappa ft.ao’s estitc on the
Karlary .side ; the Ltiird report, that of the htsid As.sirft.-u»t-
Collecior, coiifiriiicii fh.'i,t of ('.doie'l .fago in .saying that tile
wild plantain “giciein groat .ibuudiinco on all Die slopes of
the ghats between Wyii.ia.l and .Malibav, .ind was fonnil in
gi’eat qiiautity on all the e.slate« lying on the edge of the
Wynaad plateau,'”
'i'liK following letlei from Mr. W. It. J!,oberlsoii. lo the Director
of li,.■venue Settleiin-ni and .-\;;fi''ultiirc, m.Ly be intereBting :—
I have the honor to i.-tily to p.irugrapb A of the Board's
Besulution, No. 1331, of the 11th May. In the X.tiiited BLales
of .America, the d.'-iiriibiliry of c.xtr.ietiiig the oil of e.olt.on-.soed
h.is long been recognized, aii.l experiments in e.ylraeliiig tho
oil were institute.I as early as 1826 ; but it was not until .30
yeiir.s Liter, when e.xpevini 'uts were iindn by first decorticating
the secil and pre.ssiiig the kernels only, that any realfy satis-
fai'tory results were obtamed. Brev imi.sly, f>.x[>eriiiiciits had
been made with the whole seed, and from the lint iidheritig to
the seed absorbing so liiucli of the oil, it w.is found almost
imiio.ssdile to remove onougli ml to in ike the uiiderlaking pro¬
fitable, At the present tim-', the extraction of cotton oil
affoi'il.s employment to in my very extmiaive, fully-eipiipiied
maunfaelories, engaged solely' in the industry. The following
oxtrael.s from a report by Mr. Syiilier, an Aiuoricaii authority
on the ipiestiim, .alfords full information regarding eotton-scBd
uiannfaclorii-s and the proccssc.s followed in the extraction and
preparation of tlie cottou-sced oi! :—
“ A proper mill for the m,inufactoie of oil and oil-cake from
eotton-secd should con-i.st oi ,i .sniistantial budding having
three aiid-a-half stories and basement, one Iitindred feet long
by forty to fifty wi.le. The engine should have power in pro¬
portion to the proposed capacity of tlio factory—twenty horse-
power, if two pairs of five-box hydr.nilie.prea.ses a,ro used. Tliu
hydraulic iiresses n'lrst be placed on a firm feniid.ition, carefully
laid. Healers and rollers are machines made liy the same
inacliiiiists that supply f lie pies-s'-s and [imiipa. ()( hullers—
the machines that, beai the same relation to oil that gins do to
liut—there are two oi liircc patterns tluit will do the work,
though the best, because it i.s li;a,sl liable to get out of order and
lias a much greater capacity' than tlie others, is one invented by
Abram J. Syplicr, for some time an Eiiginoor in llm United
Status Navy. This macliiiio i.s iu its .appearance, in its opera¬
tion. and uiaiincr of ri-cuiving seed, s.jmewiiat similar to &
wheat thresher. The see.l is .lelivered into the liuller by an
endless canvas apr ,.10 ; il passe.s under a eylindcr revolving at
great speed, armed uith steel blades, and snrroimded .ab.ont
two-Uitni’B way by a concave box also armed with corresponding;
i
406
THE INDIAN AGRibuLTURIST. November 1, 1883.
knives. Ah the seed is forced between tliese, tlie pericarp
or hull, is broken and forced from the kernel. The maasi of
crushed seed then falls into a great revolving sieve. The
kernels, tnany of which are broken into fine pieces, pass
through the meshes of the wire sieve, and the pericarp, to
which the lint adheres, is carried away and delivered into the
firo-room, where it is burned under the boilers aud afifords a
full supply of good fuel for the use of tho establishment. The
clean seed is now carried by means of a system of elevatoi-s to
the attic-story, and then passes down into the cruaher.s or
rollers. These consists chiefly of two rollers revolving
towanls each other with unequal velocity so geared as to
produce Iwth a crushing and a tearing eflfect upon the
seed. The meal, as the seed is now called, falls to the
bin on the first floor, and is shovelled into tho boater by the
pressman's attendant. The heater is a short, double cylinder,
so arranged as to heat the meal in the inner cylinder by steam,
which circulates in the space between the inner and tho outer
walls. Here the meal is heated until the water is converted
into steam aud escapes ; the hot meal is then idaceJ in wedge-
shape bags, made of woollen duck ; these are placed in hair
books, which slide into the boxes of the press. As soon as the
jiressmaii has filled all the books, the pump is set working
and the tremendous power of the hydraulic press soon forces
out the liquid oil in warm, gushing streams. Seven minutes
up, and the press returns ; tho books are thrown out, the duck
bags are stripped from tho meal, now pressed into solid cakes,
the cakes are set up in racks to dry, and thus the ojieratiou
is completed.
“ From the seed which was thrown into tlie hullur, two
mei’chantable articles ore produced at the press—crude oottou-
stiod oil and cotton-seed cake. After tho oil has cooled down to
atmospheric temperature, aud the floating impurities have
separated from it and settled to the bottom of the tank,
it is of a deep red color, atid weighs about seven aud-a-liaif
pounds to the gallon. This quality of oil found a market
lunoiig oil refiners, who, usually by very simple procosses,
removed the nieohauical impurities and destro,vod the coloring
matter so as to produce an oil of a rich olive color, sweet and
agreeable to the taste. Much of thi.s found its way to the
Utbles of our fiist-class hotels and private families. As a
substitute for olive oil, it has no equal, aud when flavoured
by the addition of genuine olive, it is much superior to any
other adulteration yet produced. The chief consumers of the
cotton-seed oil, however, are, the soap-makers. The oil was
purchased by manufacturer in its crude state, and from it
was produced almost every grade of soap, from the clieajiest
family to pure white Castile and the finest aud iuf).st highly
perfuinotl toilet soaps.
###•»#
“ The refining process is simple, and, after a little pr.u;tlc(>,
may be successfully conducted by any one jioa.se.ssed of ordiii
ary skill. The agent employed to remove the impurities is a
solution of the soda ash of commerce, liaving a strength ot
about 30 degrees The oil is put into a large metal tank,
supplied with steam pipes for heating, aud witli proper
apiKiratus to keep the oil thoroughly agitated. Tlie caustic
suliitiou and the oil, when mixed, should be at the teuiporaturo
of the atmosphere in the factory, aud about one gallon of the |
solution should bo put into ten gallons ot oil, mixed small
quantities, at intervals of a few miiuites. Tlie mixture should
then be slowly heated uj) to lOD degrees, then allowed to cool.
During tho pouiing in of the solution, aud while the mixtuie ,
is being heated, and until the temiierature has gone down j
neiU’ly to its n.atural state, the stirring apparatus slmiild be i
kept in motion. The oil should then be left in tlie tank
at least 2d hours that the impurities m.ay settle to tin
bottom ; then, by a faucet inserted at a disbiuce of several |
inches from the bottom, tbe refined oil may be drasvn into I
a wooden tank pl;u;eil in tht basement, where it will sink
to a still lower temperature, aud deiiosit a jmrer seilimciit
in the bottom of the tank. If the process has been conducted
with care, the rcBued oil will be perfectly clear, and of a rich
olive color. The jiricc of this quality of oil before the wai !
rated at from sixty to seventy-five cents per gallon.
“ The ground seed, from which the oil has been expressed.
is known to commerce as ‘ cotton-seed cake,’and is consumed
priucipally in feeding oattle. It is classed by general feeders
with linseed cake, though chemists and scientific dairymen
claim for it a superiority. "Wlien fed to milch cows, it
increases the quantity and improves the quality of tho
milk; it is a rapid flesh former, and the manure of the
stock yard whore cotton-seed meal is fed is of a very superior
quality.”
1 thought that a small experiment in the extraction of tho
oil of cottoii-soed might be instituted at the Farm with
advantage, aud I accordingly had an experiment made, the
results of which are shown in the enclosed statement. The
seed used was New Orleans ; it is somewhat larger than tho
seed of indigenous cotton, but is similarly covered by adhering
lint. I forward samples of New Orleans cotton-seed and
indigenous cotton-seed. To get rid of the husk with its ad¬
hering lint, the seed was crushed in an ordinary bean mill and
sifted ; the mill not being adapted to the purpose, the process
was tedious ami .slow ; for docorticiitiug the 170 lb, of cotton¬
seed, the cost amounted to 1.') annas and 8 pies—about 9 annas
and 3 pies per 100 lb. of eottou-seed—a high coat, but it must
be remembered that the work was novel to the workmen,
while tho decorticating arrangements were imperfect. One
huiiilred pounds of oottoii-seeil yielded 34 lb. of decorticatod
seed. All oil mill not being available at the farm, one was
hired, and the hire that had to he jiaid was at least double the
usual rate. One hundred pounds of the decorticated seed
yielded at tho rate of 4 measures aud 7 ollocks or 16 lb. and
15 oz. of oil, aud 71 lb. of oil-cake. Tbe expenses were as
below :—
Rs. A. r.
J70 11). of cotton-sood at jOlh. per nipec 3 6 5
Kxpenses of decortloatiiig tho seed 0 15 8
Hire of the oil mill, with cattle^ labor, Ac. 0 14' 0
5 4 1
Its. A. V.
Deduct v.aIuo of 29 lb. 4 o?.. of oil¬
cake at Its. 10 per candy ... 0 9 4
107i lb, of husk at Ks. 4 per candy 0 13 0
-1 7 1
3 13 0
Thus the net cost of the oil, of which there was two measures—
6 ft), 15 0 /-.—from 170 Hi. of cottoii-seed, was Rs. 1-11-6 por
viss, which is much beyond its value ; however, as I have
already poiiiLod out, it could not have been expected that the
experiment •voiild ho commercially successful. The results,
however, show that tin; extvae.t.vou of the oil is quite feasible,
after the seed lia.s been decorticated, and I have no doubt but
that with suitable niaehiticry mid arrangements, tho oil can bo
extracted at a suflicicntly low price to enable it to compete in
the market with other oils. I forward samples of the oil-cake
and oil ; the former contains much oil which a hydraulic press
would remove. Tlie oil, it will be noticed, is unrefined. In
the United States, 1 ton of cotton-seed is said to produce 35
gallons of oil and 7.50 ft. of oil-cake. In the experiment just
recorded, the outturn iier ton of seed was only 10 gallons of oil
and 395 ft. of cake ; it is evident, therefore, that a consider¬
able proportion of tho kernels of the seed was, in the Farm
experiment, removed with the husks.
AGIilCULTIJRAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF INDIA
uiWfi/ Mnelin^ itnu heU on WcAmtday, tlu StitK Sej/ttmber 1883.
W. H. Cou.swicLL, Ksq., President, in the Chair.
TitK proneoiUiigs of tlio last meeting bold on tho 29th of August
vvoic read and ooulinued. ^
'Phe following gonticniou, proposed at tlio last mooting, were
cloctnd ordinary inonilioiH :—
Mr, M. N. McLeod, Pipra Factory, Churaparun.
Itabno Hadhika Prosad Mookorjec, Distriot Knglnoer, 24-
I'orgunnaliR,
Tho Maimgor, R nigli-Rangliot Tea
Mr. C. B. MauUnuzio, (daiilliduba
Mr, A, Boss, Shabadad,
Company, Darjeelmtf,
Toa Estats,
November 1, 1883,
THE INDIAN AaRIOULTUBIST.
407
The namee of the followiug gentlemen were eubmitted as
deeirons of joining the society :—
General Azimuddin Khan, Kaniporo State, viA MoiatUbad,—
, proposed by K. Ueoy Speddiug, Esq., C.S., seconded by Major
G. G. Pitcher, B.S.C.
The Manager, Bowroah Company Cotton Mills, Limited,—pro¬
posed by the President, seconded by J. C. Murray, Esq.
The Manager, Fort Glostor Jute Manufacturing Company,
Umited,—proposed by the President, seconded by J, C. Murray,
Esq,
^Riyoined.—Mr. F, Faniuharson, Nooumatteo Tea Estate, Assam.
CoNTEiBnrioN.s,
Iiulian ftrttltr, voi. IX., No. 9, Prom tlie Editor.
Reslew of the Forest Administration, 1881-82. From Govern¬
ment of India.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, vol. XIX., part 4, ahd
series XIII. From Government of India.
Becorda of the Geological Survey of India, vol. XVI., part 3.
From Government of India.
Annual Statement of the Sea-borne Trade of the Bengal Prosi-
deuoy, 1882-83, vol. I. From Government of Bengal.
The Implemeia and JIAaohineri/ Heohio, vol. IX., No. 100. From
Proprietors.
The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch, No.
XLI., vol. XV^I., 1882-83. From the Society.
Report on Indian Wheat by Messrs. McDougall Brothers. From
Government of India.
Report of Saharunporo and Mussoorio Botanical Gardena, ending
Slst March 1883. From Suporlutondent, Government Press, N.-W.
Provinces and Oudh.
Aperfu sur ia Thoorio do 1’ Evolution, by l)r. Ladlalau N etts.
Report of the Council of the Acclimatization Society of Queensland
for the year 1882. From the Secretary.
A quantity of Aster Seed, French and China. From C. Nickels,
Esq., Jounpore.
About 20 lbs, of Maize Seed, from the Capo per Kautenbern,
Captaiu Crudaco. From S. R, Eieon, Esq. Tlio thauas of the Society
were voted for the above contributions.
COMMCSICATIONS.
Early Amber Sorghum.
' Mr, Ilelps, of Rangli-Rangliot, vriting on the 17th and 2Dth
September, says that tiie early amber cane, sown in May and June,
is from 5 to 7 feet higli, but uofstliiukor than ids little huger ; it
is in full flower, and has much the appoarauee of the “ jowar”
grown in the Puujal). Mr. Helps goes on to suy ; —
‘ I shall bo very glad to give the “ sorghum” .seed another trial,
aud I think if sown a nioutli earlier will be a greater success than
wliat I put down tins year,
‘ The “ sorghum” seed you sent mu last^lay 1 put out at two
difTei'ciit times, cud of M.ay and begiuuiug of June, tliu success
sof the first sowing inducing me to try tlie second, but, most unfor-
tuimtely, a day or two after the second sowing very heavy rain
came on, and washed nearly all the seed away, besides doing
deal of damage to the youug plants X had up from the first
sowing ; the plants wore only a few iiiohos Idgh aud delicate,
but ijy sowing a mouth earlier 1 tldnk they would to strong
enongli to resist any rain. J, moreover, think that it is tho proper
season of year for sosviug the seed hero, judging from tlio way the
first came up so well. My dittioulty will be in gettijig tlm cane
pressed, for there arc no mills in these jiarts, but 1 will do my
Lost, and if I can manage it, 1 will get a carpenter to make mo a
rough ouo just to try and make “ goor” and '* rab" us you wisli ;
but I should like to liavo a few iustruutiuus sent me as to liow it
is done, as I have no idea myself.* *1 noticed tlie cane contained a
deal of saocharluc matter. Elevation at whicii grown is, 1 think,
about 4,500 to 4,600 feet.
‘ This is a very good elevation for potatoes, ami they grow well
hero : so if you have any good seed 1 would not miud trying a few
mauuds if you could send them up. I wouhl send you part
of tho crop, if successful.’
Herbert Fiuch, Esq., Mownali Estate, Sliajeliaiiporc, in a letter,
dated 17tb Soptomber, say.s
• The early amber sugarcane seed you sent me was sown on 15th
July, and is now seven feet liigli aud in seed The quantity is
too small to admit of any practical experimeut as to its value for j
proriuciug sugar, but the rapidity of its growtli would aionc make \
It of value as an intermediate fodder crop for elephants and
cattle, Kxperiiuonta made witli very small quantities of seed ,
are pmotioolly usoless. It would take some four mauiids of cane
to make a lioiliug, the result of wliich could bo depended on. If
you will send mo four or five pouuds of tho seed, I will sow it iu
March next.’
A few tbs. of seed have been sent to Sir. Fiueb for trial.
From Kouer Jal Naraiu .Singh, Uidwary, Moradnuggor, 23rd ,
or otherwise.' Captain Pogson, writing on tills subject under dale
6th .September, says :—
“ In my letter, I asked you to send me a sample of the “ broom
corn,” iu order ttiat 1 might ascertain what It really was. 1 see
our common “ bajra” is in America oallecl "pearl Millet.” Tlie
“ doora” turns out to be a now or nuknowu variety of “jowar"
IholcnMorghnm), and I strongly BUB^ieut the " early amber sugar
cone” is the “ Iinpec,” or Chinese sugar sorghum improvtid liv
cultivation.
‘ I think it would be a good plan for tiie Council of tho Sooioty
to souetion an iudeiit being made on China for all varieties ot
sugar-producing sorghums.
‘Johnston says “ In China under the name of ‘ sugar-cane
of the north,’a species of sorghum is cultivated for tho extrac¬
tion of sugar. This plant was introduced iuto France by M.
Vilmorin, who states from his experiments that it is capable of
yielding, on an average, from au aorc of land 26,000 pounds of
juice, ooutaiuiug from 10 to 13 per ocut of sugar, and that tUs is
more than tho average yield of tho sugar beet. It is alleged,
however, that tlie plant is adapted to ouly a few parts of tlio south
of Fraiioo.”
' I believe tlie]far-famed sugar-candy of China is made from the
sugar obtained from this variety of sugar sorghum, which may be
a very superior variety of " impee.”
‘ The Cniuese are not given to parting with these best varieties
of seeds at once, and I dare say the " impee,” obtained over 4t
years ago, was a common kind, Tho mere fact of tho true sugar
Horglmm coming from tho North of China, shows tliat it is an
inland plant, grown iu a cool or cold cUiiiatc. Our knowledge on
the subject is very scanty, and sliould bo iuoreaaed, and it would
lie a great point gained if the Chiucso method of makiug sorghum
<ugai' and sugaroaiuly was asoertaiued.
‘ At the Cawnporo Farm, the “ early amber cane ” gave an
" iutousely acid” jiiioe, and pot extract or “ goer” to correspond.’
Tlie Secretary, in reply to Captaiu Pogson, drew liis attention
to the proceedings of the Board of Revenue, Madras, iu whioh
Mr. Robortsoii, tlio Suporintondoiit of Government Farms, says
of the Minnesota early amber sugaroauo " This is a variety
of sorghum which originated iu tlio .State of Indiana iu 1860, from
a plant whioli appeared in a crop of Chinese sorghum. The seed
of this plant was sown, and the produce again sown, which,
liaving been repeated for several years, a large quantity of the
seed has been produeod.”
Captaiu Pogson s suggestion was approved of, and tlie Secretary
ivas instructed to put himself iu uommunieatioii on the subject with
any oorrospoiidont the Sooioty may have in China,
Mkskmurya.vtubmum Cbystalliamdm.
From Major .S. S. Jacob, dated Joypnro, Ist .September i—
“In the Scifiififk' Anwricrin., dated 2Ist July 1833, a notice
appears of the above plant, that M, llerve Maugou liad observed
that it takes up from the soil an extraordinary quantity of alkaline
salts, aud that lie hud jiroposed to oiiipiuy it for renioviug oxesss ot
I salts from laud oii the sea coast, aud iu salty deserts, so as to make
tho land gradually fit for ordinary vogotation,
" I write to ask if you Jiuie information about this plant, and if
it has not been tried iu India, to suggest to tiio Agri-IJortioultural
Society the advisability of getting some of the seed and distribut¬
ing it for trial iu tliis country, especially ui the districts whore reh
lauds occur.
“I .sliall bo happy to give it a trial if I can be suplied with some
seed.”
Ill his rc])Iy to Major Jacob, tho Secretary meutiouod that tlie
Jf. UnjsUiUiaimim ia the * ice plant,’ so called iu couaequouee of
every part ot the plant being covered witli small watery pustules,
which giistou in the sun like fragments of ice. Large quantities
of this plant are collected in the Canaries, and burnt, the ashes
being sunt to Spain for tlio use of glass-uiakors (Liudloy and
Moore). MercnibrgaMheMim Crgstallia/imin in Spain ana i/.
Cojiliciim and Noilijlurnin iu Egypt, are collected for the purpose of
fnriiishing alkali for glass-works : the former is oallod Barilla
Moradeva by tlio Spaniards, wlio import large quantities of its
ashes from the Canaries, where the seed is eaten os a common
food, according to Broussouct (Liudley, Vegetable Kingdom.) il.
A'odiflurum is used at tho Cape iu maaing morocco leathoi
(Simmons). Major Jacob’s attoutiou was drawn to tho saUiila
plant,whieli has some of the same properties as the ileitmbryan-
timnuiii. Tho Secretary was directed to endeavour to procure
some seed of botli plants.
RlCUAEDBliSCUVNnKN, Junior,
Deputy Secretary.
OFFICIAL PAPERS.
September :—
‘The proper season for sowing tlie early amber sugar-cane
appears to be during tho moutliH of May and Jiiuo, for then the
crop would come up along with the country Sugar-cane in
November and Docombor, which is the proper time for pressing the
juice. 1 will, however, sow a small plot of ground just now to see.
If the plants come to maturity iu December or January, in
whiol%oase a second crop can be olitaiiied.
‘ Captaiu J. F. Pogson supplied me witb tho seed I sowed iu j
March last, and tho canes became lit for pressing in June, which '
was done by means of a Be.hea augarcane Mill, but as the weather
was extremely hot, the juice did not crystallize and produce
sacoharliie matter sutfioleut to form into sugar.
“ As you have now been good enough to supply me with a large
quantity of seed, I will try my best to give It tlio fullest trial
{Kjsaiblo, aud eouimuaiuata to you Iu detail the result of uiy lueeeee
ANNUAL KErORT OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC
GARDEN, CALCUTTA, FOR THE YEAR 1882-83.
T he post year has seen the completion of most of the improve-
meuta in the garden grounds whioh were akctclied out by me
tor tho approval aud sanction ot Government in tho year 1874.
It may therefore not be out of place to give liaro a sliort riaumi
of what has been dune, for during the nine years that have elapsed
since those proposals were submitted, tho goiden has been practi¬
cally re-mode. The whole extent of tho grounds has been raised
iu level, the necessary soil having been obtained from large sheets
of orugaoutul wutor whioh have been cut out, Thfg^e artificial
408
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
November 1, 1883,
lakes liavo been oouueoteil with each other by undergroaafl pipes, 1
ai.d a steam pump baa been supplied, by wliioh the water iu the “
wiiulu ^atem cau he kept at a htgli level by means of water
pamped up from the river. Js'mneroua wide roads hare been made
all throUjjh the (fardeii, so that catriagea may now be driven
throngh ovnry p.art of it, 'rhis is an iniprovemeut which is much
uppi'cvdated, as the old restriction to driving acted to a groat ox-
teot as a detorroot to visiters. Numerous foot-paths have also
Ireoa made. Thu liamhoo-atid-nmt ereetioiis, which used to do
duty os uonservaturies, liavo been replaced by three laj’go, liand-
some, and (iJiiciciiit structures of iron, on which a thin thatch of
grass is spread, and ituiler shelter of whioli tropical plants thrive
uilmiral)ly, The valuable oollootion of dried plants has l>eon suit'
nlily housed In a haudsuiuc building designed by Mr. E. .J, Martin,
the Government Architect, tlie internal arraugomouts of wbioh are
to a considerable exteoit adapted from those of the new Uerbarinm
building ut Kew. New propagating houses, tool, and pottiug-sbods
have b^n erected, and good dwelling-houses liave been built for
the members of the garden establishment, both European and
native. A boundary wall and ditch have been partly built round
the garden ; and, dually, attempts at landscape effuuts have been
mnde in the gardens, the collections have been iuoreased by oou-
siderablo accussioiis of plants, both iudigonous and exotic. The
oolloctiuus still, however, rc<(niro streugthonuig in many important
respects, and certain minor improvomouts still remain to be carried
out before the garden is in the condition 1 should like to
see it.
3, The garden still remains comparatively inaccessible to the
public, and there cau he no doubt the number of visitors would bo
largely iuoreased were it connected with the now road recently
mnde by the fort Commissioners along the river bank between the
bridge at Howrali and Shalimar. At present this new road ends
at Shalimar, and the end of it is not even connected witli tlic old
road to tbo garden, through Seebpurc, so tliat tor a visitor to tliis
garden or to Uie Eugineering Collcgo the new road is not only
nselesa, but misleading.
3. Ecommic PUinU .—Attention has been given during the year
to various ooouomlc plants. The Ceara rubber tree has been pro¬
pagated and distributed to a uousidcrablu extent. This species
grows tmickly and thrives well. It is, however, rather easily
blown down or broken by the wind, eapooially dui-iiig wet weatlier.
The seedliugs of tlio Zanzibar rubber plant {Laiiduliihui), for
the Introduction of wiiiuh we are iudobted to Sir Juim Kirk, arc
growing rapidly, and this species appears to have found a cou-
geutal home in bower Beugal. Malm juuy seedliugs coutiime iu
steady deinaud. The paper mulberry {Dronxnonetia paiiyrlfrrn)
grows wonderfully well, and I am trying to obtain liie seed iu
large guautity from Kuropo so us to lie able to spread its cultiva¬
tion in India. A few small plants of the spocios of Ciu •amoii
yielding the Cassia bark of eommerce were roccivod during the
year from Mr, Ford, of the Botanic Liitrden, Hong-Kong. 1 regret
to say that these do not promise to thrive very svcll here. Evory
care IS, however, bniug taken of them. Tlio food-pfaut known as
the Boy beau iias been a good deal written about lately, and iti
cultivation has beeu pressed on people iu tills country. More iu
obedience to the luuduoss of this clamour than from a belief in its
Muaiultieas, I have arranged for a supply of Soy beaus from .lapau,
and I propose to distribute tlieso pretty entensivcly for trial.
4. Filii'uuK Plaiita .—During the year the utilisation of various
fibrous plants lias received my attention. At tlie request of Sir
Walter DoSouza, permission was given to Mons. A. Berthot, ol
Rouen, to erect iu the cardon his patent machine for cleaning
I'hoeu and other fibres. This machine was sot up and worked
under the Bupervisiou ot a French luochanio sent out by Mons,
Berthet, It was driven by the garden engine, and fibre-yioldlnii
plants of every kind available wore tried iu it. The machine if
primarily adapted for rhocn, which fibre, as also Ag-svo, it olc.ans
admirably. For jilantaiu fibre it is loss suitable, Imt witii certain
alterations it migiit be adapted to that fibre. For ftibkem
(i/iuceux, a common Sundci baud plant, whioh I tried iu it, it is
also not exuito suitable. The machine is beautifully siniple, and
I have little doubt its ingouiouH inventor, were he to give his
mind to the sulijeot, would have no difficulty in oontriviug simple
and cheap machines adaiitod to any native lilire whicli on trial may
prove suitahlo as a raw material fur paper, or for cloth, or rupu.
The experience of the past year confirms mo in the belief
plantain fibre will one day come largely into use in India as a raw
material for paper ; and as plantain stems and leaves arc at
present abuolately waste, tbo utilization would be a gain to tlio
euuutry. In several formnr reports I have referred to tile leaves
known by tUe voriiaonlar name bkabur as tlio produce ol Erio/iho-
rum comusum, I liave now satisfied mysell that the bulk of the
hhabur used by natives for rope-making is not derived from
Erioplioriwt ns I had supposed, but from Autlropoi/mi inenlutM.
This gross, I find from enquiry locally made, abounds iu the iiill
parts of Befiar and Chota Nugporo, where it is known as Sahai.
From these regions it can bo obaiiiod iu quite considerable enough
quantity to make (ts utilisation as a paper material a feasible
project. Aud the people who actually collect it soil it at a
roasouable enough rate, But iu order to get it brought t ■ Calcutta
iu Buffioiout quantity for local manufacture, or for shipment to
Europe, midolomeii have to be employed, whose ideas of profit ai'e
pitcliod so high that, until they become modified, the utilisa-
tiou of must remain iu abeyance. This is only iu accord
with the common experience In the mofnssil, that eomiictitiou in
trade is not suliioioutly keen to have much effect iu keeping
down prices, but that, on tlie contrary, traders still form
guilds banded together to eiiliauoe prices, even at tlie risk of
cooking off demand.
5 . JntrodiKiion of Oourami Pink .—Through the kindness of the
llou’ble H. S, ThotnM, «f the Madras Civil Service, one of the
garden tanks hw bccu-CtOoked vyitii fry of this excellent Chinese
fish. Should this species be found to thrive in Bengal, I prt^se,
with the sooctiou of Covemment, to make nse of the various
ornamental lakes in the garden as breeding grouadt, eo that fry
may be raised for distribution to all parts of the country. The
expense of arroiigiug this would be extremely small, and oould
easily be convorod liy making a sm ill oliarge for tlie fry.
(1, TIfrhanutn .—Since my last report the new building for tlio
Herbarium lias boon completed and made over to mo by the
Fublio Works Dcp.irtmeiit, This structure, being built on open
fine arolies 7 foot higli, is well raised above the ground, and onp'it
to be perfectly dry. Internally it contains a single room, llfl feet
long by 44 feet broad. Round the sides and ends of this room
there runs, at 11 feet from the ground, a coutliinoiis gallery 16 feet
wide. The gallery is connected with the floor by throe spiral
staircases, and the two sides of it are connected with each other at
the middle by a bridge, whioh affords a means of oommunicatiou
between the two sides without the necessity of going round by the
ends. Except the fittings of the doors and windows, which are of
wood, tlio building is composed of masonry and iron. It is ther etoro
practically fire-proof. The Herbarium aud Library have been removed
to this building, and the short experisnoe I have had of it leads mo
to believe tliat it is well adapted in evory way for its purpose. The
old huilding iu which the collections were previously aoooramodat-
cd (ill addition to its other faults) was hopelessly small, aud in it
the colleotions wore so crowded that it was difficult to consult them.
Moreover, a oonsiderahle proportion of the oolteotions, which it was
absolutely impossible to find room for within it, had to be accom¬
modated ill my own tioase. In the new building there is ample
space, and by the purchase of 24 now cabinets it has been easy to
arraiiyo tho whole oolloctioiis, so that they may be consulted with
facility and comfort. The additions to the collections therasnlve.-i
during tho year havo been considerable. From the Malayan
Foiiiusula, lloiT Kiinstlor has sent a number of valuable and ex-
collently prepared speoimeus ; from Dr. George Watt, lately on
special duty iu Miiimipore, I havo received a sot of spooimens illus¬
trating the Flora of that most interesting frontier country. M r.
J. S. Gamble has contributed a uaiiiber of dried plants from the
norUieru parts of tho Madras presidonoy, and Mr. W. A. Tulbut,
of the Forest Dopartmnut, has sent a mimber of fine plants from
North Canara. Mr. J. Marshall Woodrow, of the Botaiitv Oiirilcii
at I’ooua, has sunt some iutorestiug speoiiueiis of Deccan plants.
Dr. Schlieli, Inspector-(tenoralof Forests, and Mr. Hope, late of
Dohra Dhoon, havo sent Iutorestiug ooutrihutious from Northi-m
India. To Ur. TToitb, Director of tho Butanie Garden of the Dutch
Government in Java, I am indoiitai? for some speuimeiis of rai e
oaks, laurels, aud figs ; aud I have to thaiiic Dr. J, Anderson,
F. U..S., Superiiiteiidunt of the Indian Musuum, for an interesting
coUcctluii ut Mergui plauts gathered during a visit made by liim to
that pi'ov iiico. A considerable number of speoimeus were also
brought togotlier by native collectors whom 1 despatched to the
higherBikkiui Himalaya.
7. Jnifivkange. of Pluiil.^ and Sntrl.i. —Tlie issues of living plants
were SD.-ldJ, as against 211,1139 last year. I’ackets of saeils to thli
number ot 6,224 were also despatcliod, as against 3,303 last year.
'I'hesc plauts and seeds wore for the m-jst part given to magistrates
for planting in stations ami along ro.ads ; to superiutoudeuts of
hospitals, jails, aud uducatiuuai institutions, and to miinici])nlities.
Oil the other hand, there were received, from various coiitributois
in this and other countries, 9,796 living plants and H.13 packets of
soods. Cliiefamong tho contributors have boon Sir.I. D. Hooker,
K. 0..S.I., C.B., R.P.S., Ac., of tho Royal Garden, Kew ; tho
Directors of tho Botanic Gardens iu Ceylon, l>.jnierara, Jamaica,
TIong-Kuiig, Natal, and Sing.iporo. Beautiful collootlons of
.Malayan plauts have boon sefit from tho Malayan Funinsula by
.Mr. Kuiistler, aud of Andaman plants from Mr, E. H, Man of the
Aiidauiau Commission. Thu garden has been, during tlio past os
ill funner years, iudebtod to tho kiiidnviss of Messrs, Apear and
Company for free fieight on m,my packages of plants and seeds
rueeived from tho Malayan Archi|tolago aud from China.
8 . The Herbarium lias tUi'ougliout tho year boon in charge of
Mr. L. J. K Brace, who has worked with much energy and en¬
thusiasm. The removal of the ooUections from th« old to the new
biiilduig wuB carried through by him without damage to a single
spBcimou. During the year Mr. J. Craig filled the office df
Curator of the garden ; but since the close of tho yoar he has been
dismissed for mwoouduct. The Assistant Cuisvtor, Mr. Q.
Urquhart, conducted his duties tiiroughout the year to my satisfac¬
tion : as also did the native overseer Baboo Frosuiino Coomar Seln,
aud tile head lualccs In the several departments,
0 . The budget allotment for the year was Rs. 70,350, and the
whole of it was spent. TTiu receipts from sale of surplus plants
wore K-s. 1,49-1-10-0, which sum was paid into tho tioasiiry.
10. Lloyd BolaiUc Oitnlrn, Oa'Jnliny. —In my last report 1
stated that this gai’deu was boiug preyed upon by myriads of
oookohafer grubs. During the year now under review these
creatures coiitiniiod their depredations until they killed pretty
nearly evory plant the garden coutaiued. This grub feeds on the
fine rootlets by which plauts absorb their nourishment from the
soil, and only such plauts escape as send their rootlets deeper iuto
the soil than it cares to penetrate. Tlie whole of the grass in the
garden and all horbaoeous plants rapidly auccumbod to usi ravages,
as did many of tlio flowering shrubs, only the deeper rootin g
shrubs and trees being spared, Even the plauts in the omtsorva*
tories did not altogether esespo ; eggs of the insect having got In
cousiderablc numoers iuto the soil-ot the pots. This grub is not
new to the district. It is often found iu soil near the sites of ol d
grazing stations in the forest, and it not uufrequently does damage
to native crops in the neighliourhood of these, Tho cookchaffer, of
which it is tho grub, appears thus to affect manure. Aud there
is little doubt th.it the ahuudunoo of the grub iu the Darjeeling
garden is due to the faot that the whole of the bUl above tho
November 1 , 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
40f)
garden is saturatofl with tbo sweepings and filth of the station,
which the municipality continued, in spite of many protests, to
bury there for long after the garden was formed. Tiio altornlions
on the top of the hill, necessary for the preparation of tho site for
tho Eden Sanitarium, worn also a fruituil oanse of injury to tho
garden. Heaps of loose dciferi* were shot over the sidi of tlis hill
troro the hospital site, and daring the past two years quantities of
this thibi'ii have oecasionally rushed down tho steet) slopes above
the garden, carrying a proportion of the municipal manure with
thorn and spreading themselves over large pieces of the garden,
Mt^Jaflfrey, tho Curator of tho garden, made vigorous efforts to
conquer the grub, and about six millions wore colleoted and des¬
troyed by tho garden lahourors under his supervision. This
plague now shows signs of disappearing ; and os suitable means are
at last being taken to prevent further slips from the hospital hill,
the prospects of tho garden for the year now entered upon arc
therefore deotdedly brighter. The aoelimatizud ICnglisli potatoes
produced in the garden last year wore largely distributofl in the
district for seed, and it is believed that the <)uality of potatoes in
the district generally has, liy these moans, been to some extent
improved. The budget allotment of this garden for tho year was
lls. 8,8.30, the whole of which was spent. The reoeipts, Rs. So.i-d-.S,
were paid in as Government revenue. Mr. ,laffroy has worked
with much energy and pluck under dishoartoniiig oiroumatanoos,
and he is now beginning to re-plant the deuuded flower-beds and
grassy slopes which two years ago looked so pretty.
NOTE ON THE CULTiVATION OF SUfJARCANE
AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR
IN ASSAAI.
(Ay the Dimtor oj AtfrieuHurc.)
A.—This BK-4iiMArimiA. VALbEY.
T he variotlos of sugarcane in tho valley of tlio Brahmaputra
arc not numerous, and may bo ranked as follows in tho order
of their importance :—
1. liriiii (white) or muoi end mafj (amber-coloured).
2. Itaiij/i (rod), kali (black), or ieliya (i,(i., the colour of nowly-
expressed mnstard-oil).
,3. Bengal or Bombay canc.
4. Malnha, aud magara or megaln.
'I'he two first kinds are rcgawled by tho natives as indiKonon.s.
They arc commonly grown together, either intermixed at random,
or with rod oano disj)OSod round the edges of the field as a pro¬
tection of tlio more valuable yellow cane agdfiKt the depredation
of men and animals. A woli-oultivatod field of faw./i .stands about
seven feet in_ height, aud the canes moasnrn a little more than '
an iiicli in diameter at the thiokest. p.ai't ; fllio colour is au amber
yellow, and the texture soft aud .juicy. The ti'lig/r, on tho
athor hand, is hard aud thin, of a deep red colour, often passing
into a darls shade of purple, wlienoo its name kali, or hlaolt :
and the average dimensious of the stalk do not exceed five or six
feet m lojigth by three quarters of an inch in diameter, 'rimse
two vai iel.les of cane are more largely grown than any other, the
m OJ lieing recommended by its superior <jualilies as a sngar-
jirodncei;, while the hardiness aud uuattraotivonoss of the iot'i/a
leiidei it well adapted for the cureless style of cultivation whio.h
is .ilVeeLed by the Assamese ryot.
'j’lie cane culled hangalu appears to have been brniiglit from
Bengal, eitlior at the time of Captain Welsh’s expedition in
1703-94 (as is the tradition in Kowgotig), or by European sugar
growers in Kamrnp some thirty years ago. In the Maugaldai
sub-division, wlicre it is said to 3)c of very recent iiitroduotinn,
and also in North Lakhirapur, this cane is eallcil by the nltcni.i-
tive name of hnitibo or bam, implying a doubtful connection
witli llomhay. This foreign variety of canc greatly excads t)ie
Assamese in size and juiciness ; but as a sngar-prndncor it geie'ial
ly ranks below the indigenous magi. Like tlm country o.inc. if.
is divided into yi'llow [//ura) aud rod (trli), the former, wliiL'li
is imieh the commoner, is n large soft canc, with stalks averag¬
ing eiglit loot in height and an incli and a half in tiiickness,
while tlic latter is said in the IMangaldai sub division to be even
larger and more juicy. Tho Bengal eaiie is grown ehieflv in tho
souLhern part of Kamrup, in the Maugaldai snh-division, ip
Sibsagai-, and, it is said, in North Lakhimpur. Elsewhere it is
cultivated os a garden plant, in tiny patolics of broiii laud close
by the ryot’s dwelling, and is oaten in the raw state after being
slightly licatod to increase its sweetness, or the juice is used as
a liyrup in compounding medicinal pills. Though yielding mnoli
more juice than country cane, the Bengal kind is apt to lirc.Tk ,
into small pieces in crushing, and thus gives moi c trash to the '
mill. A dogonerato variety is known by the minio of ii.iumii/it j
joii'i in Kamrnp, and b'trki puri in Upper Assam.
The mahla or walalia canc of Kamrnp and Durrung, so called
from its rosemhlanco to a kind of reed of the same name, and
thn nuujara or mfgala of Upper Assam, are a hard and thin |
variety of the country miigi, and, where grown at all, they arc p
planted round tho edges of the field, or intermixed with the who//, |
by cliauoo. This cane, like tho h’iign, is so liard and dry ,
that it may safely bo left to protect itself against man and |
beast. % , n I
Two local varieties of cane appear to be jiceiilnu to the ,
MaiigaMai sub-division, namely, the hliahrh, les/niibling mngi,
inil with sliortor intervals between the joints, and tlie kamrnngt, j
a cross lietwoou mugi and tfliga, T'lio former is used for |
modiciiial purposes only (chiefly in disorders of the kidneys), and
thn latter is not intentionally groOTi at .all. , , , >
A light loamy soil, with a slight aplmixLuri of s.aipI, is tnc
most ouiUhlo loi sugarcane, Tho Assamese lumo for this kind
of soil, mobiiliit, denotes at onoo tho waxy oonsiitoiiee of the
loam {mil moaning wax) and tho atldition of sand {hall). The
land must he high-lying (i/»/«) aud beyond the reach of jnunda
tions. Favourite spots are the edges of a marsh, or the baiik.s
of rivers, which in an alluvial country tend to raise themselves
above tho level of the plain. In Nowgong and Kamrnp the
sloping plain at the foot of tho southern hills furiii.shos good
sites tor cane, especially in the neighbourhood of streams, and
It is in such places that the Hpngal cane of Kamrnp U chiefly
grown. Gravelly or sandy soils will not produce sugar-cane,
while rich alluvial laud gives a luxuriant crop, hut with watery
juice. The degree of miuiuring depends entirely upon tbc ryot's
moans and inoHnation. Lands in tho vloinlty of stations are freely
manured with oow-dung and ornshod mastar<i-seod, both before
and after planting; on the other hand, a field in the jungle
often roooivos no manure except the. ashes of the grass and weeds
raked out of tho soil and burnt. On the whole, oano-Unds are
not nearly so well manured in Assam as in Upper India. In
Goalpara it is said that the spot usually selected is the site of
au old oattlo-shed, but this can ho true ouly of sugarcane
cultivation on liatU or homestead land, which ftiruis but a small
proportion of tho whole.
The best cane is gron» .'ithcr on virgin soli or on old
tallow; Init land from which a crop of mnstai-d, pulse, or
summer rice {ahn) has been taken is often profonod as Imlng
of less laborious tillage. The oxhanstiiig uatuie of the oroji is
exjiressod by the proverbial saying thataUu/r (a kind of plantain),
kathia (rice seedlings), aud jathia (tho knotty crop, i.t., cane)
destroy tho productive powers of tho soil. A socnid crop
of oano, unless ratoouen, i.s never grown in the year next
following the first, ami though two or three years*
fallowiug is considered suiriciont in the vicinity of stations
or large villages, where mamirc is aliuudaul. and cultivation more
than ordinarily careful, lands in outlying parts are not considered
to have regained their vigour till they have lain six or seven years
under a wild growth of glass. Hence such lands ore not, as a rule,
rctaiuod by the cultivator, but an- relimpiislied and retaken at
pleasure, whereas the patches near his homestead arc nsiially kept
in Ins own hands, to |)revent llmr iisiirpatioii by oUiurs.
Waste or fallow land is broken U)> in October. A good deep
hoeing i.s the heat trcatiniml, and if the field ho kifhaiii {timber
land) or mwi'/wn/(stump laud), that is to say, u forual oleivring
now for the first time brought under cultivation, tins iiiothod Is tho
only one possible ; but it is not absolutely neceasary in the case
of a. field reclaimed from leoii jungle, wtiile fallow land (kiaran)
can usually be brought under the plough at once. Having thus
lioon turned up, more or less thoroughly, with tho hoe or tho
plough, the hind is then left till .l.innary 1)1 February, when tlio
ryot," having gathered liis ernp of winter rice, is at liberty ti re¬
commence operations : at this time also provioualy-croppod
laud {jiiluili) is taken in baud, and ploughing, varied by
harrowing, goes on with more or less diligciiee and froqueney
until tho middle of .April. The, soil has now boon thoroughly
worked up, the woods and grass rakud out aud burnt, uiid the
clods which have escaped the harrow {mogr) are broken with tlio
mallet {/inliiiuiri). Tlio duration and number of those opaia-
tions vary greatly according to the ryot’s inducomnnt or
iii.'linatiou towar/ls careful tillage. The popular ostiriiate of
twenty ploughings at least is rather ideal than actual ; but tho
ryot uiKlorstands porfeotly well that the value of his crop dcjieiids
ill a great measure upon the depth and tlioroiigliiiess of tillage
preparatory to planting. Then lolloivs the partitiouing iif the field
tkhamira) into strips of eight to twelve feet in width {klianit),
soparntod by drains cominuiiicntiiig with the ditch {k/idwai) which
Buirounds the field on the outside, and wliioli is dug almost waist-
deep. The Hold is now ready for planting as goou as the first
showers fall.
'I'liB layers from which siigai -caoe is propagated in the Assam
V’alluy consist invariably of the t.ipmost joints, and are hence called
Of (tups); they .arc sliciul oil pretty much at random, but are
siipposeil til measure the length of the forearm with the fist closed,
mid usually coinpi'ise three or four joints. During tho interval of
two or three niooifiH lictwcoii eane-iiarvost and planting, the layers
.tro kept ill a cool and moist spot in 111 rvot’.s homestead, jitaced iu
a half-upright position in ground which nas been turned up by the
hoe, covered with rice-straw or plaiit.iiii leaves to protect thorn
fioin the 81111 , and watered oeca.si‘>iially if the weather he dry.
When thus treated, they have alre.xdy begun to tliow out shoolB
{ja-Mi) heloro trauHplanting, but when eunc-harvest has
been prolouged till late, in tho year, the interval between the
eiitling and the planting of the layers is very imicli abridged, ami
a regular nursery is dispensed with, the bundles of layers
being simply kept in a heap iiudcr damp slraw tiiinl they are
wanted ; this i.s called dhidiyii or " dusty ” planting. The
day chosen for jilaiitiiig must be proee.ded by snlTieiuut
min, and if driz/.liiig ruin lasts throughout the day, so much the
better. It is seldom that the date fixed upon is later thau the
miilillo of May, though e.xueptioiml eirciimstane.es may cause
it to he [lOs.polled till the end of that month, or even the
beginning ol .)uue. Tho layers are placed at distaiiees of about
t ,vo feet from each other, in trenelios throe feet ap.irt, which run
right angles to the drains {khaiiil) dividing the field, and are
llius cut up into longth.s of oDht to twelve feet. Thus oaloiilatod
I'le number of Layers re.[iiirciT to plant one. biglui (1-0 Act x 120)
w (mill bo 2,100. A oarcluliy pieparod estimate troiii the Now-
g'liig district shows the luimber as 2,000 to 3,000. It Is less in
good land th.an In poor soil whore losses from failure to gormiuato
b.rvo to he made good. The rate ut wliieh layers are sold is
luible, like ovorythuig clso connected ivitii tho cultivation of
iiigs.i CT.l' U Assam, to great varislioiis tinin vear t* ye.ir. Tho
preuciit sclliujj price iu tlic UitiTimg /li^^tnct is 400 oOO the
410
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. November 1, 1883.
rupee, hut H wua fiOO the rnnee a few years ago. After tlie
layers havo been plantol, n little soil, often mixed with oow-dung,
is lightly soatterod over them, and they ore left to tliemaelvei for
ten day* or a fortnight, 'until they have struck root.
Tho field is then weeded, and the soil around the young shoots
lightly stirred witli the spado {lihtnH) or hoo (kicMi). The latter
proeesa is one of groat importance, and ought to bo repented at
short interv.its on simny days thrnughmtt May and part of .Tune,
the earth Iwdng thoroughly stirred to the depth of six or eight
Inches, both around tho shoots and also butwoon tho lines of oanes.
Manure also may be applied ou these ueeasion*, and one or more
sveediugs are usually giveu. Later on, tho earth from the ridges
Iretween the trenehes {]>iUi orkhnli) is heaped about the roots
of the canes to Itrcngthea their hold on the soil, and this pvooos* is
repeated until tho relative posilaonB of trench and ridge are revers¬
ed, and tho canes now stand on ridges with trenches between.
This goes on'till the middle of August, at intovvals varying aooord-
Ing to the leisure and indnstry of the cultivator ; bnt the popular
estimate is that the cant should he hood unee a fortnight until
jolh {ending on the Ifith of June), and that the weeding and earth¬
ing-up shonll tako pliiuo subsequently at least onco a month.
.Sunny days are always chosen, oml iu the oavlicr stages tho pro-
vuieuee of sunny weatbor is espoeu4|y desired, os tho earth about
the yuuog shoots ounuot be stirred wiile it is wet without injurious
effects.
A prolonged break in the ralua while the cane is yet young will
occasionally compel tho ryot to resort to irrigation to savu his
crop, hut Buoh oases are quite oxeeptioual, lurd seem to hi-
unknown In Upper Assam.
Work in the oaue-fiold is usually at a standstill for about a
month from the middle of August. During this time the juice
of tho cane is svvouteniug, ami tlie ryot is said to feel a supersti¬
tious avorsion from eiitoring the field, lost the jackal should follow
him. A filial woediug and eavtliiiig-up are administered towards
the eiiil of Sejitemlier or tim liegiuuing of October, tim eaims
being at the samo time tied Uigethm in clusters as they grow, by
mcitiis of the luttvc.s stiippod iitr the lower part of tlio stalks, and
baiulioo props are sumctinios added by way of support where tlu-
crop is e.vcoptioually tall iiiid valuable. Tho number of eanos
springing frum a siiiglr layer m.iy vary from tlirco to ten, hut is
usually eitlior four or five, and wlicre more nuracroua, tho canes
faliuif iu sine, The person who uudertakos the tyiug-ui> must h ■
rouipictcly ulotliod, witli Ids hands protected liy a covering of
doth, and ids feet iiy saudala of leather or the hark of tlin lictcl
]>lam, It is a luhorious procoss, and is often omitted. Indued, tliv
wimlu of tim foregoing di-.sL'i iptioii must lie taken as true only of tin'
mme careful style of cultivation practised in the immediate vlididty
111 'ilUgc.i, wldle iu forest eleariugs, or patehos iu the midst of
rm-d iniigle, the cane is left pretty much to shift for itself.
Ndtliiug more has to lie dime now bnt to fence in the field seeiivc-
!y with slips of haml/oo iiilortwinod, so Its to form n ooiitimions
paling ulimit three feet higli, and strong enough to cost some
truuhte iu pnlliiig to plueus. Tliougli ui no itviiil against beais in
wild olepliant.'i, lids docs save tim evop, to some extunt, from ivild
jiigs, ami from a still more misehievnus oiiouiy, the j.ic.kal, who,
iievsrtlielcBS, often contrives to find his way iu, and eat ii largo
space elear in tlie eeiitrc of tho field, The roots of tho growing
eiino, e.speoially it too frciily manured, aro liable to bo attacked by
wldte-ants (wi /ml,'), and, iu imcovcrhig timm to rid tlieni of tins
pest, injiiiy is sometimes inflicted upon the plant. A rainy Octu-
her, followed by a dry November and Iiooenilier, causes the top
joints to wither and die. Apart from those ealamities, however,
Bugarcaue iu the Aasaiii Valley does not appear to lie liahlo to any
speoinl disease. It does not suffer mucli from luimilatiou, as tln-
sitos Boleetod usually lie lieyond tim reach of any ordiiiury flood,
while drougiit is a uoutingeucy tliat hardly comes into the cultiva¬
tor's reckoning.
A small proportion of tho annual cane crop is ratooiied,
i.r., grown from tlio roots of tho last year’s cami, instead
of being propagated by layeis, Tho stripped loaves of the
]iievious crop arc left lying on the Sold till April, when
tlicy arc burnt, and a month lattor, when tho young shoots
liegiii to appear, a hoeing may he adndiiisterod and some manure
addl'd. Such a erup i.s called wiir/ia, or stump caue ; it niccives
, little attention from the cultivator, ripens early, and yields only
alsiut half as much coarse sug.vr as an equal area of cane cultivated
in tlie ordinary way. A peculiarity of Inlii/a caiio, and one of its
i-nminundabioiis to the Assameso ryot, is that it can bo ratouned
With tlio exception of iirnrha cane, wliich is cut early in
.Tanuary, cane liarvest does not begin until tlie vvliiter rice has
boon i-eapod avul stored. Tl.e diitc Is soniewiiat earlier in bvoalpara
and Kamrnp tlian in tlie upper districts,but generally it may be said
that tlie festival of tho liifiii, or harvest-homo of tlie principal
food-orop of tlio year, corresponding in date moiti or leas exactly
to tlie latli of January, is celelirated before tho cultivator truiiblu.s
tiinisolf witli tile laliours of tiiii cauo-preaa. Tho operations uf
cutting, crushing and hoiling arc carried ou simultamously from
this dab- until tho end of Marcii, or eviiii tlie flrat few vlays of
April. Tlie canes arc out off olu.so to the root liy a single stroke of
tlio Assamese or Itili-hviok, the toivs are ioppud off for layvirs, iind
tlio stalks, stripped of tlieir leaves, are, bound iu huiiilltis (/wbi)
weigliiiig about luili-ii urmiid, aud cawii'd to the mill. W’liorc
tho crop is piii-H, or good, miiji oaiic, a small proportion n
nsually reserve,d fur natiiig iu tile raw state, and is worth one or
two plo per stalk in tlie village markets, while iu the station
baxaars a single suvtk i. cat up into sovcral pioc 'S, oaeli of wtiich
is worth a pioo. Tlnn eslhiiated, the v.aluo of a Hold of sugai
caue depends on the niimieo ot stalks j .and these vary gr-ariy,
oceordiug to the oiiltiv'ntnr’s iilnlity to plant the fi dd prop-rly
aud to protoot tlw growing crop. liwi asianio an {iivcrage of
ono caiW to every two square leet, the value ot the eaiics ou
one rood of laud, if sold for eating raw, woald be about Ks. 50 ;
but this is quite an im^nary case, The great bulk of the
cane grown in the Aeeam Valley Is deetined for the mill. Unless
of e.xtraordiuary length, the canes are not divided before orushiug
{in tioatpara, however, they nro said to be oat up into lengths of
feet), hut are passed through outiro ; tho average length of teliya
pgiio, stripped, and topped is less than four feet, of lawgi nearly fivo
feet, and of Bengal parn about six feet. The oulttvator Is well
aware of the importance of proteoting the juloe, while in the cane,
from exposure to tho air, and therefore ho orusliei his cans undivid¬
ed, Olid only outs it by parcels as ho wants it lor the miiry'rvhioh
la always set up in the imincdia'e vicinity of the cane-field.
The sugar mill {oalled kUrhka iu Goalpara, and hU in Upper
Assam) is a rude bat tulerably effective machine, and a qnioker
and less dangorous worker than the heavy beam-and-peatlo arrange¬
ment of Upper India.* It oonsiits of two vortical rollers [hhim)
placed in juxtaposition, with their lower en& resting in a fiat
trough [hhornl) scooped iu a solid and heavy block of wood {toljdi)
rosting on tho ground, while thsir upper ends pass through a
rootangular space out In a liorizoutai beam above {borioli) support¬
ed by uprights (M khtUn) let through tho lower block into the
ground. The rollers are hold iu their places by vertioal clamps
(i/h/im), which grip them at tlie upper and lower ende, and are
driven home liy wedges (kk'i/). The portions of tho rollers which
project above the upper lioam (Jo/'foL) are grooved so as to work
into eacli other ou the prluoiple of au endless screw. Tho driving
power is a horizontal hcani {iiffari), applied to tho head of tho
taller or “ male ” roller {main hkim), upon which the shorter or
“ female ” rollor [nmiki fiAiiii) revolves in tho contrary direotiou. t
Tho “ male ” roller is usually, if not invariably, that ou tlie right
baud as one faces tho mill and the direction ot progress is from left
to riglit, that is to say, tlie men at work walk I'oiiud with the left
slioulder iuwai'ils. Buffaloes nresoldmii yoked to au Assamoso sugar-
mill, aud Imllooks never. Tlie whole uiaohiue is made entirely of
wiioit, svitliout a nail or a piece of iron ill its composition, and its
value v.n-io* sec mliug to tile kind of wood used. A mill can ho
liiiilt ot tamariued-wood for eight rupees, but iu jam wood {hlmeiiia
jiniit/'iliina) it will cost twelve, and if mhoi' [Metua /emu,) is used,
us iiiiicli as fifteen rupee*.
.all heiiig ready for erusliiiig, tim first thing the cultivator docf
is to hind two of tlie lluest ciiiu'-stalk* along tho lioam of tim iniil,
as .an offering to Viswakiirma, Llm god of artifieers. The canes are
llien p.iissd tliroilgii tho mill in liatohes (((uir or/.■,■»» i) of six ui-
I'lglit .it a time, the juice billing into the trough, and thiiiice
through a hole on to a s'oping woii.l-u tray, which triunsinits it by a
lip of plantain leaf to tin- e.irtrie)'u vessel placed to receive it iii a
pit dug Ill-low. In Koiiii'pl.ioci the ti'.iy (AwiM.ir«) is oii'ciilar iu
shape, with a raised wooden edge and a fuiinol-siiaped nseape.
mont tor tho jiiiiie, 1ml usually a simple slab of wood, slightly eon
cave, is cniisiderud sutfieti'ut. Thu working of the mill is aecoiii.
paiiiod liy a loud rnd striibnil imisu wiiieli is woleomud by tho ryot
,is a sign that tho i-oIIim'i are lilting well, and is, moreovor, a
olii-i-i fill and iisofiil ac"’om|mniiiient wiiilo the Wink is cainod on liy
iiiglit, as ia the (Irani,lee tonards tliii end of tin) soasoii, wlicii tim
boat of the d.iy wimlil lie injurious alike to tho men and the oane-
juioe. U-ieii handful of uaims is passed tlirougli tlie mill three or
four time*, until they liegiii to yield mere foam, when they am
thrown aside, and a fresh hatch takes tlioir places, il/iigf and /wi-a
cane squirt out their juico plentifully on tlie first coinprnssiou, aud
give less afterwards, wliilo the lianler aud tougher Iriiya, passes
tlirougli almost'dry, and only begins to yield juiue to the second
sqiu'OZ 1 At Hill thiid and fmirtli ciushiiigs, the flattened cauo* are
usually twialed into a rope, so as to prosent a bulkier body for
Compr siioii, lioy silting in front of the mill draws them out
,.S they pas* tlii-inigli tint rollers, and hands them back to the
m.an who sits IkIiuuI and ft«da the mill. Four or five uieii drivo
the niaeliine, n-.stiug tiieir iminls on the beam, and pushing against
it willi the eliost and sliimiders. The foreo required to put the
mill in motion was ascertained iu one axpoviniont made by Mr.
R, T. Greer, suli-divisioiml offioer of Golaglial, to be !i to fllhs.
without cano, and 40 lbs. witli nuyi cane bolwceii tho rollers, but
00 lbs. witli v.-fiyw. The rate of progress ill oriishing is aixiut two
• Messi-S. Myine and Tlmmsoii claim for their Beliia mill the power of
I'mslnng thrico iH much caue in a given time as tho common tuMn of
Bt'liar (Hill tin- X -\V. i’. Their caleiilations (which are sunportod liy
mdiipeniioiii, e.riioriuKintal evidence make tlio nvorage outturn of tlio
iullni almut lou [ler hour. The Assameso mill works at least half as
i.ipidiy ng'.iin.
+ 'I'lw fnilnwing aro tho diiuousiims of a sugar-mill moiisured in the
.M.ijliiili uiul may l>o tiken as fairly raproseututive of ths maoiiiuo oom-
luuidy used in .-V-sam ; —
roljali ... ^ ..
Trough senoiied in /ii/,uft .
li'HfllU
Uuet'inujiiliir Kpacu u> bv4'j<il<
T"Uii loujilh of ruilci-rt
i Ciivumforunco
‘ jj-''in,-ili of ^roDvetl par*' ...
liro.utUi 0 ^i^rtHivos
' Hcni^ht <»f uprijflitH
I Cu'cujiifwronue ..
Ijcngl li.
Ft, Jn.
HreAdtli.
Ft, IlL
Tiiickuofis or depth
lui'ktu.
4 a
1 2
2 a
0 7i
ll ()
1 'li
6
1 n
0 9
;! s
2 4i
0 2j
0 2
2 11
ti'
2 4
Tim lengih of each arm of tlw Iwain w.as iiiiout iiin • fi'ol.
Tile smonth or imgr aived portion of the rDllers was thiit 2 festS
mi'luintilenglk, hut from till* must be. lodueted lira spaces ooversd by
t'le depth ■ f the treueli below and tho thickuess of the Ixii'mU above, t e
•>J inehos and h inch™ i thus, 2 feet 6 iosbex-Sj iuolies-l foot Si iaohM,
lljo lautfvb uvailabl# for onumng. * *
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGBICULTURIST.
411
(iuit 0 *rrl«a by wind, «o„ eaten the earthen pot along with the
juice i in Jftot after a oouple of hours’ work, mud can be plentifully
Huraped off the ^ntain.lM Up of the tray, but the ryots seldom
trouble tbenumlves to clean it. When the pot Is full it is
changed for another. As the work prooeeds the wedgos
holding the clamps have usually to be driven home from
time to tune to younteraot the tendency of rollers to work
asunder.
Th. juloe Is thrown into a boat {ndori) scooped out of a log.
This stands at the edge of the bolling-housc, a few yards removed
from the mill, ana sometimes oontains leaves of the wild
fig tree (tiiniaru), which are supposed to bo useful in keep¬
ing the juioe sweet. When some twelve or fifteen gallons
have been collected, the boiling begins. The whole api)aratus for
this purpose is worth about two rupees, and consists of four
oartheu cauldrons {thuU), two ladles {Imlcltola) made of half-a-
gourd attached to the end of a stlob, one of which Is usually
perforated Uke a cullender, and a sieve or strainer (jaki or
dudani) of plaited oaue with a long handle. The furnace Is
excavated In the ground, and has four ciroular openings to raoeivo
the cauldrons ) the first of these is set some throe feet back from
the furnace mouth, tho second about os fur beliiud the former,
while the last two, which are placed aide by side at muoli the same
distance in the rear, lie almost beyond the reach of the fire, and are
lued merely as feeders In which the juice is heated before being
transferred to the first or second oauldrou for boiling. The
cauldrons are invariably made of potter’s clay, and in shape are
almost exaot hemispheres, with a diameter of eighteen to twenty-
one inches ; tho first two, being soniewliat larger and of superior
quality, usually cost as mucli os seven or eight annas each, and
must pe procured from certain potteries whore the clay is excep¬
tionally good ; Kokilamukli, fur instance, enjoys this reputation
in Upper Assam, The two feeders cun be purchased for about
four annas a-pieoo. ^foro placiug the cauldrons ou the fire, their
bottoms are smeared with clay tempered with enua juice, while
a charm ' is related to keep them sound and whole ; In this
way they can no made to last for one or two seasons, and though
uommonly cracked in all dirootious, tho ryot continues tu use
them until the bottom falls out, when tho fire is withdrawn and
tho spilt juice carefully scooped up from tho door of thefurnaoo,
and strained through a olotli lutc_ tho now cauldron whioli is
always held in reserve on suoh oocasions, tho whole apparatus
being at the same time protected ggainst the recurrence of suoh
a molloioua mischance by tho sprinkling of water over which
charms have been muttered against the evil eye.
The fuel consists of reeds (khagari or ekra), supplemented by
the crushed oanestalks Uaban) as tho boiling prooeeds. A man
or boy feeds tho fire, while two men mind the oauldrons,_ eklin-
niiug tho feeders with tho sieve, and lifting sthe juice in tho
boilers with tho ladle so ns to prevent it from Dolling over, whlio
they replenish tho soooud oniildron from tho feeders, and theneo
transfer tho hoatocl juioo to tho first cauldron immediately over
tho fire, This latter operation is usually performed by the man
who is entrusted with the duty of determining the exact point
at which the juioe has been boiled enough : ho is always an
experienced porsou, and must be fed well and treated with
deierouue. Linvo-vvator is said to bo occasionally administered
os the boiling goes on, but this is mentioned in the district of
Nowgong nloue, null is probably quite an exceptional precaution.
Ill the Tatter stages of the boiling, care is taken by frequent
lutrroliaugoB pf juice to keep the two boiling-oanldrous as nearly as
nnaulMa iLt tliR saiiie temneraturc. These stages arc throe in uuuiber.
possible at the same temperature. These stages arc throe in uuuiDer,
and are vulgarly kuowu by the names of o-p/niltu, Oaoo>’i-j//ui<uc, uiid
temi-TTluitu, implying that the ebulliout'masses of liquor in the first
•tUBOare as large as the fruit of the 0 tree {OiLlenia itidtcit) that is,
about three indies in diameter ; in the second stage they are more
frequent, and shrink to the size of the flower of the haberi (an
edible species of the Ootuposita) In size about equal to the
madgoldi while in the final stage they present a hollow
in tSe centre, and are thus .I*,?*
(lemi) In which the Assamese peasant carries his stock of lime
for consumption with betel-nut. On the ^
lost sign, the boiling cauldrons arc rapidly emptied . a ’
and replenished agahi from the feeders without delay, while the fire,
which had been slackened at the o-p/miiu stage, ^ “ o1^e^s“ ^
bv feeding it first with two reeds dipped lu the fiosh molawes, M
an offering to tho god Agui. Tho duration of operations depends
of course upon the quantity of juioe, hut the ry ot
noon oonvorting hit jml of cane into sugar in a single day oi night
?hat is, wW. eight to twelve hours' work. Heduced to an average
rata thU moauf that about thirty gallons of ]uicc con bo boiled m
™ve ir slx hours. When the last instalment of;n.ce 1>“? been dis¬
posed of, the boiling cauldrons are rapiiUy rinsed with a littlo
'^'Thl^iSd^sUff Udlfa'ouf'^:^ the cauldrons is ~1 in a
wooden vessel (okolani ) about six feet l«“g. with o"® '
the same manner as the ordinary Assamcise i Jt^umoat
nnA nntsniiare : whore it is etirrod with a Y-sliapoa luairum.ub
condatinj^of a triauglo of bout bamboo fafltonoa to ttie ond ot a
Btick t/idtiari or ff^tanimari). As tho stirring cou
UquW dark brown colour, and assumes th ojin^d^-
* A charm commonly used in tho Newgong chkkat,
••SAtpatAlormhti, Anat kuui^m anito
Cbaru hot Brahmlr phkot. Hori Har dik. Phutu, puiu.i, au ,
kh^Dori. ball iftlai sahar kuna, jora lagi th*‘K. AArth of tho
^t is to s/iy, Anat the poller cut “-'Xc' wheel it hoesL^
seven wwlds, kneaded and wet it, A’"* y ^ (Vishnu) and Her (Siva).
cauldron under Brahme'etolng. Call on Hun (Vi^u>« ^
Breakage and cleavage, chip and potsherd, sunU-ieos uau « ,
joined and whole."
slstenoy of yellow mud. The prooeu lasts half-an-hour. The gur,
or oom^t, is then removed from the gholani with the hand or a
I broad slip of bamboo, and put Into earthen ^te. This concludes
' the prooeedlugs. The manufaotnro of refined sugar is an art
wlilob lias yet to be introduced into the valley of tho
Bmhmaputra.
The word pal is used to ileuoto the quantity of cane which Is
crushed and converted into sugar at asinglu s[>oll of work, wliotlier
by day or by night. The quautlty of cane in a pal depends a good
deal upon wliotb^er tho cultivator is or is not working against timo.
It usually consists of twenty hundlos, which may ho /ouglily
assumod to weigh 10 maunds, or about SOO lbs., hut twice as muon
can he dis|>osed of towards the cud of tho season, when work begins
after the evening meal (9 or 10 r.M.) and coutiuuos withont
intermission through the uiglit and into the forenoon of the
following tiny. The quantity of oauo got through on such oc-
cassiouB is coininonty reckoned as the produce of one coUnh (one.Cftb
of a b'lijha, or 320 square yards). When working by day, tho
cane is cut and brought to the mill as it is wanted, but for night
work it must be out and stacked before dark. Boiling begins when
half the cane has been crushed, and goes on for several hours after
allothor operatious have been concluded. The usual custom is to
boil the juioe yielded by one pfW of oaue iu two iuatalmonts as nearly
equal as can bo guessed, neither of which, however, need fully test
tho capacity of the boiling apparatus, which is capable of dealing
with twenty gallons at once, it tho ryot has so luiioli to put into
it. The relation between the weight and the voUimo of the juice
has been determined by a series of experiments to bo about 11 lbs,*
avoirdupois to a gallon ; as compared witli water, the weight,
volume for volume at. a teniperatiu'o of 73* F., was found in oiio
experimeut to be as 74 to 07.
It will probably have boon perceived from tho foregoing des¬
cription that tlio manufacture of sugar in the Assam Valley
is a purely domestic indu.stry. 'I'he ryot has no relations wliat-
ov’or with any rnomifaotiuvr or monoy-loiulor. He grows liis oaim
entirely ou Ills own account, and converts it into sugar by the
help of bis neighbours, who work for him on the iiuclerstanding
tliat ho will work for them when their turn comes. This systom of
of mutual ussistauco relieves tho ryot of a good deal of labour,
and of almost all expensos ; novertheloss, tho oultivatiou of sugar-
eaiio is regarded os a most laborious uiidortoking, to bo attempted
only, as the pioverb says, by one vvlio has a largo family at his
back:—
Soy po barah nati,
Telio koriba kuhiyar kliotl
with six sous and twelve grandsons a man may cultivate sugar.
'i.ne area piantea uy a single tamiiy rarely exoeoas halt a
higliu (800 square yards), and is often much loss ; and wheiievor
a large field of cane is met with, it will bo found to consist
of several suoh plots liolongiiig to different families, who have
cultivated tho whole, as they will orush and raanufooturo Its
produce, by tbciv united labour applied to each plot In
turn.
Ill reference tu au industry oouducted ou such conditions as
these, tho term “ coat of prodiiotion ’’ is apt to bo mialcadijig ;
and, iu fact, on making tho calculation at tho ordiuuiy rates of
hired labour, the expen.lituro may easily prove to ho grua tor than
tho value of the article obtained, It is dilliouit to form an
estimate of the cost of cultivation and mainifaoturo that can ho
relied ou with any degree of confidence, but the foUowing stato-
niout, compiled from rotunis fiirnishod by district oittoers, may bo
rog.aid»d as not very far from the truth ; —
CiM of niltiiMtinrj, eruthinq, A-c., th) cane on half ti bitjha of
‘land (SOO nqunre yards).
Cultivattoii. Ks, As,
Hoeing in October •• --■ 2 ®
Ploughing and harrowing (8 timos) ... ... 3 B
Hiaiiiiiig and drilling ... -•• 0 12
Prion ot 1,2(X) cauc-tops ... ... --■ 2 8
Planting _ ... -- "no
Weeding (twice) ... --- -■- --- “ “
Hoeing and sartliing-up (four times) ... ... 1 0
Foneiug ... --- - 'in
Watching ... •■- -■- -• ^ «
Kcvomic of land ... -• --• ’
Manvfarlure,
... 0
8
... 3
0
... 0
12
... 2
8
. . (»
4
... 0
8
... 1
0
... 1
0
... 2
0
... 0
4
Total
... 11
12
o
8
3
0
0
8
3
0
2
4
0
12
12
0
Cutting (wagos of ton men)
Crushing (wages)
,, (hire of mill)
Boiling (wages)
„ (fuel)
,, (one-half value oi vessels)
The quantity of sugar manufactured from a given weight of eano
bv the rndo processes kuowu to the As.samese ryot is
Ic^s than the cultivator obtains m other parts of India, and will not
bear romparUon at all with the produce of a West Indian fa^ory.
A largo number of experimouts have boon made bv various offieeta
with a view to asoertalu the actu al prop ortimih weight, of tho
i^ThB Saldapet exporimonts, alluded to further on, give an average of
Bflbe. per gallon.
412
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
November 1, 1883
jnlL'B anil tlie compost obtalueil from 0 given weight of oaiic.
Where ituidu by European or eduoateci native offlosrs, these experi¬
ments may generally ue regarded as aooitrato, or os liable to error
chiefly on account of the ocoasioiml roluotanoo of the ryots to assist
heartily in operations which they seci'etly regarded as the preli-
miuarioe of now taxation. A bciIob of exporiments in a rougher
fashion and mi n liirgor .scale have been oonduoted by subordinate
revenue otfixiors (inanaidurs). Hero tiie recorded weights represent
the results urrivod at by multiplyiiig the average weight of a few
bundles of oaiic, or vosecle full of juioe or compost, by the number
of bundles mushed, and tlm number of vessels filled. Covering,
however, oompBvotivoly so large on area, these experlmonta may be
regaided as giving general results that are fairly trustworthy,
especially when we consider their remarkable correspondonoo with
the results obtained by superior offioers. The two classes of experi¬
ments have been tabuLatod separately, and in detail, at the end of
this Kote (Appendices A and B). Collating them by districts, wc
find results os follow ;—
Expei'tnu'nlf by
Distnei
Number
, WoJgbt
t Weight
Weight
Por 100
bs. pane.
Di-itricl.s.
of oxjicri*
, of liMio
i nf j
ot
its. juice.
crushed.
' juiciO. I
Vur.
Ib«. gut .
lbs.
1 Iha. 1
lbs.
(ieneml rosiUt« ...
r>
10,013
1 4,969 ;
707
40-7
6-0
Isakhimpur
7
7,671
1 3,268
609
42’6
7-4
0
13,607
: 6,722 1
1,116
42-2
8-2
u
7,218
1 2,781 1
307
38-7
6-1
Kamvup
3
2,837
! 1,205
223
42-.6
7-8
Ooalpara ...
32
41,906
; 17,035
2,981
42-8
7-1
Experiments
by ilanzadars.
Kamrup
3
i 3,624
1,420
232
.30-2
0-4
OfUTttUg
9
1-,‘201
8,137
1,442
41-7
7-1
Now*^onff
2,592
1,-320 ■
2.34
.61
8-8
16
63,084
26.48.3 '
3.731
60
7
Lukliimpur
1
1,028
411
82
40
a
General rosultf...
Wo may reasonably conclude from these figures that tho ordi¬
nary oano-orop of the Assam Valley cauuot be ooimted on to
yield more tlian 4.T per cent of its weight in juioe, and 7 per
cent of its weight in ooarse sugar. For an average struck upon
all kinds of oaiio cultivated unilor all circumst'ances, even those
figures are proliably too high. Much hotter results may be
ontnined where special care has boon bestowed upon the crop ;
the list of expenments by district officers at the end of tho note
shows that Ill sevunvl instances QU and even 00 per cunt of
juice, and 10 to 13 per coot ot yar has been got from a givua
M’eight of cane; but those arc exceptional eases, and <U> nut
represent the sngai-yielding capabilities of the cnmnion cane of the
country.
The weight of cane grown on a given area of laud varies much
more than tho proportion lintween a given weiglit of oaue and the
weight of juioe or f/iir obtainable from it. Tho species of the cane
makes a ooiisidorablo difference j j’ura, for instance, is a inne.h
lieavier crop than frlh Speaking generally, a woll-oultivatod liehl
will yield to tho mill aliout one pound of cane to every square foot,
while o fiold carelessly cultivated, or insufficiently planted, or
exposed to the depredations of animals, will liardly give one pound
to every three square feet of its area ; thus the limit.s vary from .six
to niuetecu tons per acre ; while nu arithmoticul moan, which is
probalily somewhat in excess of the actual overage, may bo deduced
from the following stateinoiit, compiled out of the details given in
the appoudioes :—
Ex}xriment« by DiMrict Officers { f.{ in imtnher).
pistriots.
1 Area cut
(square foot.)
Weightof canc.
lbs.
ills, por acre
Golpara
To'.ii)
8,722
1 .34,888
Kamrup
14,5.36 '
6,067
i 18,180
Uarraiig
18,677
13,567
31,814
Blbsaar
12,876
1 7,218
1 22,419
Igikhimpur...
:i,180
1,76!)
1 22,()95
General resuUs
60,069
1 37,343
1 27,08.3
Experiments
by Maut-aihif!
< (,'10 ill number).
Pistrlcts.
Area cut
(square feet)
Weightof oane.j
lbs, 1
lbs. per
area.
Kamrup
” 10,3.32
4,396
18,417
Darrang 1
29,916
18,201 1
20,500
Nowgoug
4,284
2,502 i
20,856
Sibsa^v j
79,920
63,70.3
29,270
Lakhimpur
1,440
1,028
31,097
General results !
126,892
70,920 1
27,429
These figures, though xvilhont ar.y protonsioii to absolute noon,
racy, may be accepted as rcpresuuting the results of measurements
ana weighments mode with ns much care os would be taken in a
wholesale commercial transaction. In using them for the purpose
of educing general averages, it is necessary to remember that the
most promising plots stand the best ohauoe of being selected for
experiment, that fields in the jangle mast be rated far below those,
in the vicinity of vlllMes, and that while the neat majority of tho
experiments were made with mugi oane, It is the less prodactivo
tehya which the district reports would lead us to regu^ os the ’
predomluant species. Bearing these faots In mind, we may perhaps
conolade that the average Assamese oone-field bears 10 to 11 tons
per acre ;* and sueh a weight of oaue will yield about 1,400 lbs. of
yur. Compared with other parts of India, these results are poor.
In tlie North-Westem Provinces the average yield per acre,
irrigated and unirrigated, taking all the districts together, k .esti¬
mated at 2,.300 ll)s. of ffur,f and the y/w of Upper India is uwlor
dried and more durable than that of Assam. Part of this saperlor--
ity in yield of sugar is due to the greater quantity of juice ex¬
pressed, for cane in the FTorth-Western Provinces gives one-half of
its weight lu juioe. If we look to Madras, it appears that
the common country mill of tlie Bellary district, built on much
tho same priuciplc as the Assam mill, but costing Be, 72 for tho
rollers alone, can extract >16 lbs, of juioe out of lOO lbs. of oane,
and this will yield 12 lbs. of sugar.j: or double os much as oonld
be got from tno same weight of eane in tho Assam Valley. The
fault lies less in the Assamese mill than in the oane for the
Bihia mill extracts 67 per cent of juice from Madras oane, while
tho best experiment with it in the Assam valley has not given
more than 66 per cent. In Bohar the average produce ot gur
per acre la estimated at the very high figure of 40 mannds, or
,3,,300 lbs. ; in lower Bengal (the Kajsnahye and Burdwan districts)
at 2,500 to 1,600 lbs. ; § lastly, in tho Boolin cane tract in British
Burmah, the outturn of an acre well cultivated is estimated at
3,5001bB. of yiir.tl
V'o arc now able to complete our calculation of tho ryot's
profits on sugar-uano. Tho cost of growing aud convortlug into
coarse sugar the oano oa half a big ha of land (800 square yards)
was estimated at Hs. 2.3-12. Tho produce will bo some 4,000 lbs.
of oane, whioli may be expeote d to yield about 240 lbs. of tho
compost called gur. Tho ryot will probably keep the greater
part of this for domestic oousu mption ; but on the supposition
that he disposes of the whole of it by retail sale in the petty
markets, it will fetch about 2i an nas per seer, or some ID rupees
altogether, thus failing to cover the coat of oultivation and
mauufaoture.lT The mode of sale is in small earthen pots con¬
taining about 2 lbs. each, and worth from two to three annas,
or even as much as six annas in a dear year ; or else in largo
earthen vessels or I'aiaA) holding some 20 lbs., and priced
according to their weight i or he may sell by the manml, at
the rate of four to five rupoor. Tho conditions of production,
however, are sucli that nothing like a fixed proportion exists
between supply aud demand. The market gets only the overplus
from domestic ueodii, aud tho price rises and falls from year to year
according as this iiappens to bo little or miicli, lii 1879-60, iu tlie
Nowgong district, a ict/i, or small earthen jar, containing about
two seers of gur, so'd for S to 10 annas, or at the rate of about 10
riipecB p«r mauud j the present year, on the other hand, is one of
abundance, and gur wus seUing iu April at Us. 2.) per m.miini iu
Kainrup and Dariang, while tho priee throughout last year in the
vioiiiity of Dlln'iigarh ranged from Rs. 6 to Hs. 9 per mauud.
Assamese i/ur is never sold iu tlm large balls or masses of hard
compost which are so familiar in tlio liaxaars of Upper India. Iu
the winter it barely attains a solid consistency, and shows a sliglit
teuiloney to gmuular crysttvllisatiou, but as the weatlier grows hotter
it liciuinus, and if not speedily oonsumod ofteu boomnes sour and
useless.
* Noth -U is hanlly necos^.-iry to repeat that s single fluitl of ono aero
proladily tioes not cxisi in the vnlluy of tho BrnimiHputra.
.Some .additioniil statistic.! ni.-iy lioro iso quoted, five exporimoni's mado
la-^t year in Sibsjigar,‘on an aroa of 1'1‘J «(;ros nltogotlior, gave an average
outturn of 1,517 ills, of gur por iioro. Tho average assumed in the text is
.I'rlmps corroborated in soniodcgroo )iy tlie rough ostinjato.s ot t.iio ryot,
n the sontiiorn part of tlio Kaninqi ilistrict 20 to ‘2i f a/<i! are ostimilfod
as a fair outturn for a higba of land. Tho la/sia contains about 20 iba. of
gur, so tliat tho outturn o g/tr per aero woulii be 1,200 to 1,600 lbs.
Another ostimato is li /•ui.t/'.t pur ciiUuJi , or l.SOO llis. por aero, os tlio
produce of a good fiold. In some villages where oane-ornslilng w.is going-
on, I nuiastirod up the aroa of cane out for a .singlo pA/, and weighed tho
gitr obtained, witli results as follows :—
Square feet.
11)8. gur.
iba, |)er acre
3,376 ..
• ••
... 62
790
3,033 ...
•••
... 62
770
3,177 ...
... 60
769
7,200 ...
•••
... 131
807
972 ...
... 47
2,100
1,740 ...
...
... 74
1,860
Those very poor rosnlts obtained by ryots when working-by themselves
.sliow tliat tho ostimato in tho text is not too low,
-f- Field ami gurclfu crops of the Noi'lh. Wcstcrn-Proriuccs aud Oudh,
Roorkoe, 1682.
J Haidnpot Kx)«jrimontal Fnnn Report for 1881-82.
S Tho.so ilgure,s are taken from papers imblishod by Messrs. Thomson
and Mylno.
II Cuotod from a Nolo Ijy Mr. I). M. Smoaton, Dirootor of Agrionitnro,
dated tho fitb October 1882.—Those figures, howovor, seem small in
comparison with some statistics of oano cultivation in Australia. 1 flnei
it stuteil in tho Brislmue Courser that the outturn per aore on one Quoens*
l.and jilantation is ostimatoil at 37 to 40 tons of eano, and ono ton of oaue
gives 1,50 gallons (about 1,500 lljs.) of juioe.
H In eonfimiation of this estimate, wliioh I liolievo rather underrates
tlio ioif,s whioli would follow eiiltivation-fiy Aired labour, I may mention
tliat a Eurofiean engaged in forming near llishwonath in the Diirrung
district showed tno a crop of tho pura oano which had already coat him
so uuioli that he doubted whether it would be wortli his while to out and
crush it. It will ho observed, moreover,.that ono of the ryots quoted in
the note above got only 131 lbs. of gur from his half bigha of oano.
November 1, 1883.
THE INDPAN AGRICULTURIST,
418
The area ander oano In the valley of the Brahmaputra lu 1382-83
la stated to be as follows :—
Goalpora
Kamrup
Ourrung
Nowgong ... ,,,
Sibswar ... ... U30
Laklumpur ,,, ^ ^
15,050
These figures must be regarded as only an approxiiaation to facts.
There is reason to believe that for Goalpora (whore we have to
depend on the zemindars for our ststistios), they fall short of the
truth, while lu other dUtriuta some juugle cultivation may have
esoaped record. Again, the area is subject everywhere to great '
fluotuatlouB from year to year. A dear season stimulates prodno-
tiou while a cheap one discourages it ; and thus cultivation is liable I
to coutraot and expand in alternate periods. Thus, in Jlowgong |
the high price of pur In 1879-80 was followed next year by an in- ,
crease of nearly 70 per cent in cultivation, while the low price of i
1881-82 induced a decrease of 30 per cent in the year following. [
Taking the total area under sugarcane in the Assam valley to ho ‘
10,000 acres In round numbers, the average outturu as 1,400 fts. of
ywr per acre, and the price as Ra. 4 8 per inauud of 82 2/7 tt)s., the
whole weight of sugar produced iu a your would bo 10,000 tons,
valued at lbs. 12,25,000.
The whole of this is locally consumed, no portion biiiug o.xportod
either to Bougal or to the frontier tribes. It is not, in tact, siiifl-
oioiit by itselt for the wants of the coiiutry. The import from
Bengal during the last tUroc years has Ijeon a.s I'ollovv.i ; —
1880-81.
1881-8-2.
1882-83.
Mauiids.
Muuilds,
Maiiuds.
Refined
.. 13,217
11,50+
10,974
Unrefined
... 39,473
28,849
34,980
Total
... .52,890
40,413
45,954
are uo trifling obstacle to the dovelupmout of oauo cultivation in
1 this part of India.
It has already been stated that refined sugar is nowhere manu¬
factured lu the Assam valley. Even in the manufacture of" ijuv,
however, uo one who has witnessed tlie rndo processes employed
by the ryot can doubt tiiat very groat room remains for iiii-
provoment. Hcasons have already been givou for bolieviug that
the country inlll work.s more rapidly than the kolhu of Upper India,
and peril,aps it may, therefore bo somewhat loss elToctivu ns a
crusher ; but, on tlie whole, it scums probable that the smaller j>ro
portion of juice obtained in these parts (42 per cent, against 50)
must he iittribntcd mainly to the inferiority of the oaue. Kooent
oxperimeuts, however, with Mr. C-autwcU’s modified form of the
Bihia mill* sliow that Asssamese oaue can ho made to yield as much
os 50 per cent of its weight in juice, It is in the boiling that the
greatest loss occurs, 100 Uis. of cane yieldiug only 5 or 0 lbs. of
f/ar, against 15 to 18 lbs. in the North-Western Provinces and 121hs.
in kladraa. This lUffereneO, while probably arising iu part from
the poorer fiualily of the juico, is also duo iu groat measure to
carclessne.ss In mauufauture. lu the vast majority of cases, no
preventives of acidificutiou arc used iu any stage of the process,
and tiio boiling is often conductod by guess work.
The valley of the Brahmaputra is u country of peasant pro¬
prietors, in comfortable oiruumstauccs indeed, but without in-
tclligenoo, enterprise, or capital, and any improvement, whether
by tlie introduction ol better kinds uf cano or of a better mill, or
by greater care iu tho manufacture of sugar, must bo looked for
from without.
Laud fitted fur siigarcauo can be leased from Government at tho
yearly rout ol 8 auuas a inV/Zin, or He.1-11 per acre (including assess¬
ment to local rate), and there is tho widest po.ssiblo choice of sites.
It is, however, more tlian doubtful whether eauo-growing by
hired labour could bo made to pay ; on tho other baud, tho central
factory system, which has proved so successful iu the West
Indies and in Australia, can scarcely he intrudneed in the present
defective state ut eummuuioatious and means of transport in tho
Assam valley. IVliere the oonimunest vehicle for loads l.s a
bamboo carried on men’s shoulders, tliore is obviously some
ditticiilty ill transporting tho produce of an acre of siigaroane to a
mill situated at a greater distance than a few yards.
llefined sugar is oonsumod almost exclusively by Europeari.s,
well-to-do Bengalees, and Ms. vari traders, or is used at festivals
iu the great ShrUtma. If unrotinod sugar alone be taken into con¬
sideration, we find that tha average annual impurt during tim last
three years has been 2,83.T,42(i lbs., and, the local production ol
sugar being 10,000 tons, tho sum of these two quaiitith's, when
divided by tho population of the Assam valley (2,225,271), gives
a yearly eonsuinptiou of 11 mds per head. This ealoulatioii tends
to show that tho average outturn of sugar per acre has not been
undor-estiinated, In the Buiijali and tlw North-'Westerii Rrovineos
tho estimate of tho oonsnmptioii of sugar made fur llio Kamiiie
Commission iu 1879 was 30 Ih-n per head of the population, and
when wo remember how largely the Biahmaputra valley is p-opled
by races (Meoh, Kaohari, Mikir, Lahmg, &o.) to whom the use ot
sugar is unfamiliar, hosidus the nttor ahsaiiee ot large cities witli
their wealthy classes, it is difiicult to holievo that tiie averag
oousumptioii ill this part of Assam can exceed one-third of tlie
figure estimated iu Upper India.
Tho first condition uceessary to any improvement of the cultiva-
tiou of sHgareuue in tho Brahmaputra valley is a wider market.
There is uo present dymand beyond domestic wants, if we except
twosmall ventures in the .Sihsag.ir and Lakhimpiir districts, whieli
prove, in their limited svny, that jlm prodiiutiou of .sngareano n in
bo stimulated without ditliculty. 'riio,se are two di.stillorii-s estah-
Hshed by enterprising Kuisn*jiliis near Golagliat and Dihrngnili,
where the ;/«r of the country is eonv'orte.l into rum for oimsuin[il ion '
by tea-gardoii coolies. Situated iu tile eontre of tiiicltly-pooplod
tracts, these factories have stimulated tli-- piodiietioii of sugaroaiio
oonsldoralily within the limited area on which tlicy draw for their
supplies. Tho Oilirugarh faetoi-j' uses Bengal yae largely, wliilo that
of Goiaghat depends entirely on loe.il production. Wlieu tlie
latter was first started in 1879, tin- proprietor found some difncnlty
in proouring gMr at all, hut now lie draw.s upon the cane crops with¬
in a radius of five miles, and cultivation in the nr-ighhourliooil has
increased about 28 per cent. Hut neiUiur the oin: etmecru nor tin-
other is on a sufficiently large H,’.ah; to atlect seriously the general
cultivation of cone, or to test the remniiorativenos.s of sueli an
enterprise if conducted wilii a laiger capital.
These enterprises arc by uo means the first oi their kind. A
similar exporimout was tried iu tlio preceding generation by a M r.
Herriot in Ganhati, and a Mr. Wood at Dobapara, iu the Goalpara
district, and ruins of old rum or sugar faclorie.s existed, oi .still
exist, near Joi-hat and at Niimaligurli (now a toa-gardoii) iu the dis¬
trict of Nowgong. The end of all tliese speculations, win-thor
from tho doariiess of laliour in tho Assam valley, or as li.as ]
alleged in Qauhati, from iiiismaiiagemont of the eoneorii, was .i f.-iilut i-
80 complete that no rocoi-d of them can now he obtained, and we do
not knew how far they depended on tlie prodiiee of tho eouiilry, oi ,
sought to supplemeut it by importations oi t/ta- from Bengal. It is
probable that they all started in the hope of finding a new lU-l l h r
sugarcane iu Assam, and theefiorbs madehy Mr. Herriot to iii-to-
duoo a better kind oi oano wore so far successful tliat tho best c-im;
o4the present day iu Kainnip and Um-rnug traocs its origin to them.
The native cano being so small, hard, and dry, one ohviou.s means
of improvement is tlie iutrodnetion of a better stock from Bcng.al or
elsownero j and oxperionoo has proved that the sod and olim.ate are
BUffioieiitly- congenial; lint the ciiUivator will t.*ko no steps in this
direction by himself, an;l in the largo areas of tliintysottlud oonntry
the native canes will always lie preferred, as needing less protection
from wild animals, and eutailing a smaller Ion in their destruction ,
where protection proves iusuffieiciit. The ravages of wild beasts |
! B,—The Sukma Vali.ev.
{'S'yl/irV iiinl Ciu'Adi-,}
j Sugarcane is cultivated in the Surma Valley in much the same
j fashion as in the valley ot the Brahmaputra, but tiie local iiainos of
j the common kiuds of cane are different. In Sylhet, besides tho so-
called Jliimbity eauo we find tiie dhiili, or wliito, and tlie nurartij, or
red, eauo ; in Caeiiui tlie Bonihn>j cuue is liighly esteemed as tho
iuigost and juiciest ami tlie best sugar-prodiicvr, and is sometimes
grown as a gat'd'-ii piodiiel ami eaten in tho raw state, whilo tho
o.niu uppoars to porrospoud to tlie and tho thavithin't or
j 1 1 inrau'ji Ut tho trlt oi the Assam valley. Both districts possess
I also a small hard species, vailed khajui'i, or reed oaue, which may
f he eimi|iaied to the^ t/utluUu oi tin- Assam valley, and in Gaeliar this
and tile otliei inleriur sorts are said to be most in favoiu-, a.s re<jHir¬
ing less care ami being less liable to disease or the attooks of grubs
and wild animals. Tlio site elioseu is high land in the vioiiiily of a
village if possible (cAai’ii), or, fading room there, on the bank of a
river. Oil cake (piii-iai) is used as manure a couple of months aftov
, plautiug, if tho eultivatoi happens to have had a mustard crop of
Ins own, and in -Sylliet it is even hougllt for the purpose.
I he processes ot iiiauufaetnre are praetically the same as those
which have been dcscrihed at such length as prevailing iu the valley
of the lir.»liinapiiti'a. The mdl, liore called it/iniraiiji or gfiaiii, i.s
sometime.s driven by Imllocka, and the Gaetiar ryot is said to eat his
cam- sculks into pieces tiv’enty nielies long iiofore crusliiiig ; in this
district, al *0 ir.m cauldron.s [ktr/i ti) are oecaaioually employed. Ill
some paits oi 8ytbet the cultivator boils the juice imporfoetly, and
sella tlie liipiid product (or so mueli ol it as he does not want) to
men ot the Lmii'iut caste, wlio lioil it down into solid compost
{hjiiillia '/iLf), Tlie lh(iiid or hi/-yar is worth about Ri. 2, and tiui
bardcmiil compost some Its. -I to Ks. 5 per niaiiml. Kofitied sugar
is m-ver made.
The cultivator of sngareano in the Surma v.ailcy is independent
of the money .lender, uiiloss he is hegiiiniiig for tlio first ti|no, and
lias not leady iiiout-y to buy oaiie-cuttings. Iu that case he takes
ail advance, repayable with interest when tho orop is harvostod.
The rate at whieli eaiie tops sell iu Uachar is stated as 200 tha
rupee, hut this seems exeeptionally high. In Sylhet, again, the
i-yet is said to horrow money to buy oileakc [khoil) for manure.
There is no system of village records in the Surma valley, and
the estimates uf the area under augareauu must therefore ho re¬
garded as eoiijectiiral. 'I'lie method employed in Gaehar was to re¬
quire rctiinis tbrougli the ollic-ers in charge of police-stations, from
the village polieemL-n of their oircles ; these latter fnrnished lists of
tlie sug.-u-cane ti--Ids within tludr heat, giving tlie length and
breadth of each in “ reeds ” of 24 feet, and the station otfieers
woikcd out tlie circle ureas and sent them into head-quarters.
This gave a total of 7811 acres, hut it was believed that their ap¬
prehensions uf now taxation had induced the people to uiidorstatu
the facts, and on u comparison with tho results obtained by ac¬
tually measuring up tho area under eauo in three maiizas of each
buhsil, tho total oxtviit of siigaroUDe cultivatiou in the district has
been estiimitod at 900 acres. For Sylhet uo estimate that can he
relied oil with any dngrec- nf confidence is forthcoiiiiiig. but the area
under sugarcane iu this district has for some years past been
sliown iu tlio annual administration reports ns 8,900 oqros.
The subjoined synopsis of tho 8tirma V alloy experiments shows
the area out and the weight of yer obt.aiiiod ; in Coehar, tho
______ of the 2iid Juno 1S83.
414
THE INDIAN AGBICUETURIST.
November 1, 1888,
nrsighti of the oone and of the jtiloe have also been recorded
This meagre tale of experiments has been eked out by appendin,
those which wore made In Sylhet iu the oane harvest of ISSr :—
Number til Area cixl.
©xpeiimtiit'*, S'iU.ai-f'foci.
Syjhot ^
. 2
.. 1
2
>>
»» - “
Cachar ... t
1881
follows
1st experiment...
2nd „
£/(ir obtatuud, C»r per Bem.
lb». Ib^.
.S,003
4,307
l.liVd j
2,3.1!) *
1,804 )
813
1,090
8q.lt. per aero. 100 IIjb. e.uie.
2,304 452 216 8,556 47-8
1,260 555 259 10,173 46-6
4,084
290
TOM
7'l
10,800
28.8
20,14(1
1,083
7,07.8
293
2,304
43
1,200
46
weight
of cane
IbB. canc.
lbs. InloB.
The Sylhet product is evidently IdH gnr. To reduce it to thi
eemi-aoUd yur oommou in the Assam valley, about 12 per cent o;
its weight should be deduoted.
The statistics of import aud oonsumption for the Surma valley
may bo oousidorod apart from those of tlio Bralimapiitra valley,
because the tralfio iu sugar between tlioso two parts of tlie province
of Assam la wl. The returns of river-borne trade collected at
llhairab Bazaar on the Megna show the following dgurua for sugar
In the last three years
Imjairts.
Heftnod auffar. Coarse suffar
mda. irtds.
1880- 81 ... ... 14,140 60,263
1881- 82 ... ... 12,966 79,.354
1882- 83 ... ... 21,306 103,909
Besides the small export towards Bengal, about 1,200 nmunds
of coarse sugar are yoaudy drawn from the Surma valley by th
Kheai and Jalutia hills.
The average consumption of sugar per head of population is
estimated at 4 ohitaeks a month in Cachar, I'.e., Olbs, a year, but
this seems low. Certainly Sylhet, with its largo Mahomedau
population, should not eunsame less pur per head than the A.ssam
Valley. Assuming, therefore, an average of lOIbs., and deuliug
with coarse sugar only, we can make the following calculation
lbs.
Expoi-ts.
nil.
1,420
1,37.)
Population of Sylhet and Cachar ... 2,282,807
One year’s oonsumption of sugar ... 22,828,670
Deduct net imports of 18S2-83 ... 8,338,341
Bemalns to be provided by the produce
of (say) 9,000 acres ... ... 14,400,329
Thus the average produce per aero
ought to bo .. ... 1,600
Whether sugarcane is really more productive in the.Siinna Valley
than in Assam proper, we have no means of judging with
certainty. There is, however, nothing improbable iu the supposi¬
tion, cousideriug the density of the population iu parts of vSylhot,
and the known fact that au acre of land yields more rice in
Sylhet or Cachar than in the Assam valley lUstricts. The custom
of borrowing money to buy manure iu Sylhet, if it prevails
extensively, seems also to point to a more careful stylo of
cuttivatLon,
The value of the sugar produced in 1882-83, as thus estimated
in quantity, and taking the price at Us. 4-8 the inaiiiid, would
appear to be about eight lakhs of rupees ; at the same rate, tlie
sugai'cane crop is worth 80 rupees tlie acre, a snlfioioutly
probable valuation, though evolved from data extensively coloured
by conjecture.
E. STACK,
Director of igrionlturt.
SELECTIONS.
AQllICULTURAL EDUCATION IN CEYLON.
W E append the new scheme for Agricultural liistructiou in
Ceylon drawn up by Mr. Croon, Director of I’libiic Instruc¬
tion. It has now been sanctioned by the E.veoiitive Council, aud
it is well that our readers should know exactly wliat Is officially
sanctioned. Many people already say that fart li of Mr. Green’s
Bcheine will bo a failure, because though the Native Agricultural
Society may agitato, yet no actual support will h'l given to any¬
thing practical, aud no young men will come to the school of agri-
culture for fear of being “ made coolies of.” Wo trust tliis nnkiiid
way of foretelling failure may bo belied, and it is well that Mr.
Croon has endeavoured to dispel this fear by providing for a really
high English education, as well as a more agrionltiiral training in
the school of agriculture, and if lie (the Director) can further induce
tho Government to provide that (after a fow j'oars’warning) no¬
body sliould be made Mttdaliyar nr MuUandr>iii of a Koralu, uiiluss
lie has soms knowledge of agrieuiture, thou we feel sure tin; school
will soon flu. If it Alls ami eucoeeda, tho Director may make it
* One scries of two experiments, which gnve a inaxlnmrii outturn of o,0001bs.,
of yur per ocre, and au average of 4,8dC lbs., has not boon recorded.
part and parcel of the Royal College, though separate tabuildings-
like “ the modern side ” now so oommon in grsat sohoolf at home.
Any way, if it falls the Dlreotor has clearly done his best. And
lot the leaders of the Ceylonese remember that Government can
then say : “ You cried out for Agricultural Eduoation—we have
offered it to you. If you don’t take it, why, don’t complain of Qov-
ornmciit doing notliiug mom." Wo are, however, not without
hope of Buocoae,—and for the followlug among other reasons :—We
learn that the result of Mr. Green’s speech at Kandy at Tciuity
College lias been that 1,5 applicants have come forward for 30
ploughs, and liu is getting some of the light HwedUli ploughs over
from iSftidapet, whore Dr. Hobortsoii has after a long trial reduced
them to a minimum of weight aud cost.
Scheme foe AaEiooLTUBAh Edttcatiok in Ceylon,
Part I.—Preliminary Eduoation iu all Government Sohools.
1 . Preliminary and Theoretloal Agricultural Education shall
be provided in all Government Veruaoular and Anglo-Veroaoular
Buys’ Schools, by moaus of such text-book or text-boolu as shall from
time to time be approved by the Department of Public Instruc¬
tion.
The subject of Agriculture shall be compulsory for boys in the
Standards VU, VIII, VI and V, but any boy iu any other Standard
may take up Agriculture if he pleases.
2. Teachers under trainiug lu the Normal Sohool shall, from the
date upon which these rules ooine into effsot, be required to pass
iu tho text-book or text-books mentioned in clause I; and such
text-book or text-books sliall form one of tho subjects for tho annual
December examinaliou for certificates now required for Government
sciiooi-mastors ; and no Government teacher shall hemafter receive
Uie certificate of tlie Department of Public lustriictiou, unless he
shall have lioun awarded at tho above-mentioned certificate examin¬
ation not less than 25 per cent of marks iu Agriculture.
Part 11.— The Colombo School of AoBiotrLTURE,
3. A special school to be called “ The Colombo School of Agri¬
culture ” sliull be opened iu January 1884.
4. For the jireseut, tho Colombo School of Agrionlture will ho
held at Colombo lu that portion of tho buildings of the Normal
School heretofore assigned to Anglo-Veruaoular Stiulout Teachers.
6 . Tho objeot of the Colombo Sohool of Agriculture will be
to provide a superior aud suitable education for tho sons of native
gentlemen, and more especially land-owners, With this view the
teaching will embrace (1) 'The higher b'rauphes of English, (2)
Mathematics j (3) Agriculture ; (4) Botany ; (5) Chemistry,
3'he study of Agriculture will be divided iuto—
(1) TKeoretieal AgricuUiiro, which will bo taught by moans of
lectures, text-tooks, aud examiuation papers,
(2) Practical Agricnlturt', wliieli will be taught aud illustrated
by practical lessons niid exporimeuts ou a praotisiug farm
to bo connected with the iSoliool.
0. The Seliool of Agrioulture shall bo under tlie management
of the Department of Public Instruction. It will bo imiiieiliatoly
presided over by tlic Principal, who shall bo au English goutlemaii
duly qualified, with the assistance of uudor-masters, native or
otherwise, us occasion may require.
7. As a general rule no boy under sixtoon years of age nor over
ninetceii will be admitted to the School of Agriculture j but ex-
oeptioual cases m.ay be specially considered by the Director of Public
Instruction. Boys will have to be tested by a preliminary examina¬
tion liefore tliey are allowed to outer the Bohool.
8 . Tldrty boys can bo taken as’boardors under the immediate
care and supervision of tho Principal. Out of these thirty students,
fifteen may be boarded and educated at a reduced charge of R6 per
mensem upon the recommendation of the Government Agent of the
Province in which tho student resides. For the remaining boarders
a montlily fee of KIO, which will ineludo all charges of board and
education, will be charged. A limited number of day-scholars will
also 1)0 admitted to the Sohool of Agrioulture ; and for these a foo
of K2 nor mensem will be charged.
6 . The terms and holidays of the School of Agriculture shall bo
the same as those of the Royal College,
iO. Tho course of iustruction at the Sohool of Agriculture shall
extend over three years, and sliall bo divided into three stages.
Staoe I. (First Year.)
DnylUh .—As iustaudaisl VIII of Goverumout English sohools,
Mathcmalif.i .—Arithiiwtio to tho end of decimals, and Book-
keopiug. Algebra to the end of Simple Equations, Euclid I to III.
Tkcorrliml A(jruiull,ure. —Text-books, lectures, Jtc.,
liotiing, —History, Physiology, ami Classification.
Chomsiry .—Chemical Physics aud Inorganic Chemistry.
Staue II. (Skco.vu Year.)
JinylUh .—As for Cambridge Local (.Tunior).
Mnlhrni.<i1ii‘.i.-.h\\ the riile.s of Arithmetic, Book-koopiug, Al-
;obrn, Euclid hooks I to VI.
/l,v)’ic«ft(()V. —Text books aud lootiires, aud practical teaching,
xperimoiits in drainage, inauuros, ploughing, &c., on the prootis-
ug farm,
Botany .—Agricultural and Economic,
Chemiftry ,—luorgamlc aud Organic.
Staok III. (Third Year. )
Engiith .—As for Cambridge Loc.al (Senior.)
Mat/mnatiM. —Algebra, Euclid, Mechanics, aud Trigonometry.
Agricnltare .—practical teaching on the praotisiug fe,rm, oultiva-
iop of a plot of ground by each student os provided iu clause II.—
lectures.
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
415
Botany .— Arborioultural and HnrticnUnr.tl.
ChenxiH.ry, —Organio,
_ 11. Ill the third etogn, n partioiiliir plot of ground on the pr.in-
tning farm will be nasigriod to oiioli Htiidoiit, the tillagn, inatun iiio,
&o., of whieh will bo oonduetcd ontiroly undor tho etuilonts' supin'-
vision and directions. No. stndont will bo obliged to work hiuiBolf,
unless ho wishes to <lo so, hut he will ho allowcil to sniiorvisc and
direct a goyya -working under his orders. Prizes will be givou to
those students who boat conduct the working of thoir plots,
12. In addition to the above prizes, thero will also he, awardeil
prizes after the examinations at tho end of each term to tho student
who obtains the highest marks in each of the subjects taught in tho
school, namely—(1) English; (2) Mathouaatics; (3) Agriculture;
(4) Botany ; (6) Chemistry.
But no prize will be given fnv English, Mathematioa, Botany,
or Chemistry, unloss the student obtaining the highest marks in
those subjects shall have also obtained not loss than 25 per cent of
marks in Agrioulture.—H. W. Qbben, D.P.I.— Ocyloii. OOxermr.
A VETERINARY COLLECE.
A PRO.TECT has been sot on foot in Bombay to eBtaltlish
a V^etsrluary Collogu. The initiative is to bo tiikoii liy
the local Coverumont, At a mnoting of the Boinhay Town
Council held on tho llltli ultimo, tho snl>joot cuino on for discus,
siou, as tho Govonnnoiit wished to know to what extent muni¬
cipal fuuds would be available to forward the sehomo. It was
deuidod that If the Dironhor of Publlo liistruclhm included in tho
niuuioipul budget estimates fur eiliioatiun a sum of monov to¬
wards the coit of providing iu.stt'uctioii in tho now Veterinary
Colloge, tho Town Council would he prepared to con.sider tho
piopriety of rccommeudiog tho florporatioii to sauctimi a grant
on that account, Tho Bombay V'oterinary College will supply
a loug-folt want in tho VVesbuii preaiiluncy, and probably, tho
Bc'lieme will ho worked for the piirpnac of .su|)plying the distiiets
with trained votoriuariaiis .and tlm military hraueh of the sorvii.-o
with iiualilied men for inouiitcl corps. Whil.t tlic sister presi¬
dency is arr.inging to e.irry out a useful pulille project, very
little if anything is h.dng me in tho Mi-lra-i Pre-shlfmey to
train young men for v-i'lerihary work, .‘\hout two or three months
age, we alluded to the great want felt iu all iarg' towns in the
mofussil for trained vPWnnnrians, not only to treat farm stock
which are frefjiiciilly subjoet to disease, hut tho hettnr elassi's of
inlialiitants who own Imrse.s are uualih' to sceiire tho services
of men o.apahle of treating diseases oommon to horsu-liesh and
farm stock Tli-ur laliors will be better appreoialoil than that
of self-eoiistiluti-d voterinarians. •
In the School of AgrieulUire, in e.oiin-elion witli tiio Svd.ip’t
farm, the pmids utt’ilding tlm veterinary class liivo th ' Imii til
of tlie leetui'i's delivered l>y Veterinary-siiirgeon Mills ; who i. also
Jnspuetor ot C iltle-l>ise.isi.s in tliis presidency. S nn ti n * ngj,
t ho iSuporinteiident. of tl.iveiiiiUMnL Karms announe.t.l th ■ ope-nng
of ,a veterinary ohvss at Sydapet, and it w.is th ’ii iiifi'uded to
train men for votcniiary work in counoetioii with tlie treatm-nt
of cattle-disease, wldeh is prevalriit in the districts at all
aessnns of tlie year nud t-i the elTeets of which thousaii'ls of f.arm
stock snucuinli. What has lieeii ('IVeoted in this direetion ivu Ji lu-
yet to learn from official lepnrts. ft w.is iiuende.l to post
veterin.iriaiis to the ditfcrimt dist.iicts athir tlmv h-id p.isseil th >
ueA'Ssary examinations at t.li Seliool of Agriciiltiiie, to sopply
them with medicines to disLi-fliuLe am-ing the owiicr-s of cattle,
to imptess upon thorn the yme.ssity of a l jptiog nmasur'-s imme¬
diately on the appearauee of disease, t.o .s.-giiti- e.tttle. to uwiol
tlie vnde and dangerous pr.tctieo of laige tloeUs of sheep and g labs
guft’ering from liiseasc lieiiig allowed to stand for Iimirs t-igetiiet
in ninnnig sLicatm ne.ii- vitlagos whieli are oft'oi the oniy sourr ...
of water snoply of tin- peoplo, auil ot otherwise doing aw.iy with
old and clleLe system.s tor tri’ut.ing c.ittln disease, if tr.iin.'d
vetoriMaiian.s have lieen sent, to tlie distrieti aii-l if they have been
able to achieve anything, it Is time tli.it that little was made
pnhlic. Tln-ro arc districts in tlm prosiden -y whore oattlo disease-
III some form alway.s exists IVi-maiumt vet-rinari-yis ar ■ re-
iiuired—or if if- is not possible to p-ist one (jiialilied man to a
di.striet, there may i>e one lor every two or three districts. Tin*
e\i.iting praetieo is that when cattle disBasr, in tin- form ot
rin-lcrpuat or foot-and-month diso-ist-, make.s its appe-vraueo, to
order tlie liisp'-ctor of Cattle-llisoasos, or a (|ualitiud oliieer from
the Sydapi-t farm to tlie infeeteil locality : Init liy the tim i the
votorin.ary oirioor arrives at ,tlni scene the diaoise sproids, or
it has done its work of J Jstriu’.tion among cattle ami tini Uh
of the iiispt-etiiig oliioer are direote.l t-i the issuing of iiHtrmili ms
to owiien of f.arm stock to avohl furtimr outlirv.aUs. If ilistriet
voto-iuavians have been appointed t-i th- mofu-sd and arc oa rying
out useful work, it will be of public iiiteroitti mrke th - fact
uuuoti.-ed, thoir occuiiation is going if it has not .already gone.
It is nut nil unusual uiicumstanoo for a mofussil residtmt to
complain that he has lost a vahmblo horse or pony or a good
speoitiien of draught o-ttle owing to tho di-l'eetivc treatment
I'oceivcil at the hands of itinerant viitorinarlans who, like, villago
physicians ami nuacks, ougiit to be gradually improved oil tho
lace of mofussil towns. If a public association or society liko
the one which evlehratcd tho fourth anuivra-sary of its cstabliah-
munl the other day were to induce a feu- Eurasiiui la Is to aoijuiro
a knowledge ot votciinary soieuoo, sninn good work might ho
acoijiuplishod, and a now Kohl of omployuioiit oponed out to
porsovering and steady young inon .—Madrm fltandttrd.
INDIA AS A WHEAT COMPETITOR.
W E have guided onrselvOB upon the supromaey ot our agricul¬
tural intorosts in this country and iu the conviction that
Europe i.s dopeuduiit upon us to supply whatever defloioucy she
may e.xjvorieuco iu bur food jirodiicts, which has usually been fully
oftual to our surplus. But it is useless to sliut our eyes to the fact
that India is rapidly ooiiiing to the front os a wheat-producing
oouiitry, and is already send ing to the British markets a oonsidsr-
aide amount of wheat, with every indicition that in the by-no-
mnans di.stant future the ((uautity grown and exported con ho
almo,st indelinitely inere. ased. Hitherto tlic chief obstacle to wheat
production and export from India has beou tho lack of transporta¬
tion facilities from tlir interior to shipping ports. But this is being
remedied liy tho hiiilding of railroad lines, opening up the interior
provinot.s, not as in this comitiy by private capitalists as a busi-
ncBs enterprise,, hut by the Go. e> mnent as a ueoeasary Qovornmont
measure. The (iuvernniuut ot Gr .it Britain is iu a measura pater-
nal. That of India is still more so, aud of neuejssity siuee the
groat mass of its population is always so close to tho border of
pauperism and starvation tliat the care of the Goveriiiuent must he
constantly exvveisod iu its favor. Hence the Imildiiig of railroail
line.s to open op agricultural districts to the markets of the world
is regarded as entirely lugiUmate, and wUhiii the proper provineu
of the Govuinnieiit. Under this systoin interior proviuens remote
from shipping p-.ints are lining opened solely wHIi the view of bir-
iiishiiig an ontlui lor wheat whieii e.iii he prodiiend for tho Euro¬
pean markets. Tin-first exjiorts ol 1 mlian cheat w-ie nutdo only
lifteeu years ago in IKT-'i the export onlv .amounted to I,.500,000
Imshels. in HSTO it was J,OllO,(KK), and in 1881-32 it was .‘17,WO,000,
or nearly lialt the anmunt which Gie.nt Bi-itaiu requires to siipjdo-
I nifint lioi-own Clop. The cheanuess lit whieli wlica-t can lie pro
j dneed in India, with its elieup lahor, is an importanl elomuut in
the proldcm. According to the British Ti-nde .lourinxl, the ennt of
production does not e.esod from .sixteen to twenty cents per Imsliel,
or less than iialt tlve cost, of production, under tho most favtnu.ddo
eoiulitions, ill till■ eomitry The cpiality ot the wheat grown is
also another important elcm-lit. It is clainio 1 to liave a tliiiinei
hraii ami to make u larger per cent of ti nir tlliin oitliBr the Eiiglisli
or Ameiie.HI wheats, some v.irieii w gi viii' from 77‘5 toStJ'jper
cent of Ihmr, against fi.5'2 fiom English and 72-2 from American
wheat. The ocean freiglit-s from liiiliun to Europe ore greater than
from our AtUiiitie porta, hut not gi ealor (ban from our I’.aciKc ports
I w hich furnish quite a peree ntago of our export wheat The atapl
food of tho great mass of tho population of India is rice, not oee.r
10 per cent lioiug regarded as consumers of wheat. This being the
ease there would, uiiles.s tlie habits ol the. people greatly uhaiige, lie
a miu'h larger per cent of any given crop for export than in this
c-Huiti y, w lioro wlieal furnishes a staple article of food for almost
our entire population.
Is theio anything to eausc alarm to our farmers in thi-s outlook
tor our siirjdus wheat III the futiue? Notos it seems to us. Our
popuialitm IS inci easing at an luipreeodented rate, requiring each
I year l.irger amounts ot whe.it tor Innne consumpLiou. Exeepting
as a crop on newly hrokmi lauila, we do not rcgiinl wheat growing'
a.s by any means tlie licst use to wdiieli tile farmer cun devote his
iaiul.s. Constant Clopping with wheat causes a rapid deterioration
ol the soli as ha.s been demou.strited in overy wheat-growing conn
tiy. As tin-counti y grow 8 ohlci, wheat production instead of
occupying tliu front rank falls to the rear, other nrops, stock or
dairy, taking its place to the greater profit of the farmer. In tlie
piodiiction of iiieat-s and their pioducts wo, with onr ricl^ grazing
and m-adow lands and our mammoth corn Kelda, can compete with
I the woild. Thu siLuio is true of dairy products. Even should
j India with its ten-cents-a day rioo-fed labor finally capture the
' wheat markets of Europe, tliu Amerloan farmer will still find pro¬
fitable use for bis land in other directions. The dovelopmeiit of
soi'ghuiii-sugar production to the supply of our domestic uoiisunip-
I tioo would alone save to the oountry as large or nearly as large an
I amnuot of inoin-y as we now rocoivo from our exports of wheat to
i Europe.— Jhoicio.
widely known. , . , I
Apart from the duties that devolve upon disfiic'. votennariam ,
to look after farm stoek, the demand tor qualid.-d moii to i.rc.ii
horses and cattle lielongnig to private people is gr.iat. lu a'l
1 uge t-iivus tlic muiilier of Eiiropeuo rc.sid.-iits is st.iadily ouii, ■
incni.ise, aud wil-ii the oiioiiing of railway station i, faetoi los, ami
lllli-r imiuitri-'s, the. waits .if tin rcsidentj in this res,).-, .
are gradu'ilh making t'lemn-lv.H foil. B.-to-u tin iiitroda--- > ii
ot the 'I'oH'ii-’ tmpi'ivmii.-ut Act in tlm di-ti lots, timro w-n-c h ir.lly
any taxable draught .-altl-- in larg.i towu.i. With the inoreis-
iii tho nuinbor of liursm iti i want of ipialifi :d voteriiiariain ii
felt, and there is uo question that owners of iiorsos have hecu
eonipelied to send valuable animals to M.ulrai for troatm -iit.
I’hore is a-promising field fn-well tvaiuod vetariuariaus iu molu'i.til
ioiraff "Hifiju llorM dwtorsi,” W tboy ate oalled, lU'o now ftUmwt
PANDANUiS; Oli, SCREW-PINE BREAD.
rplli^ i)v .«.;rc\v piuLM, arc ft nm^jt iutiTcating
1. of eadc»' 4 cu<jui pIivutM, t»omowh,at pahn-iikt* in their hahit.
'Vhv.y juo oithor sliruh.d oi I with numerous advoiitibious rootH»
which iiilcv d wh*»Uy support tlie tree after th<i main or
t-'«o rout h.i8 rottoil .away. Tluiy iuivc imbneuted, am.
leaves, tlm ami baok.'s of which ary usually
spiny. Tho fruits arc oiLher lihrouA ilrupc^, colloctod lu parcels,
or biuTifs; ia lltc drupoa tlu soodK aro aolitai-y, iu the bemes
Dtimoroiu.
Til-'boat kii.Arii Ovamples of thw order avs Oarhcdcvlca PandaniUf
iftusi |bU]K>«i^a, by soino autiiori, <Ji4riud^trka
41G
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
arc taken n« typical genera of natural ordera. (See Dr. Hooker
edition of Lo Mnout and DocaisiieV Botany.)
Tlie genin Oai’litdorir'i is confined to Soutli America, and
ttio so-called Panama hats are made from the loaves of the
f .. prUnmia.
The frn.ficitn« is a common ohjeot in the salt marshes of
the islands and coasts in the Indian Ocean, and is a low
stoinless plant, palm-like in habit. The leaves are most oxten-
sivoly used as a roof thateh, for which, indeed, they arc ad¬
mirably adapted. When burnt the loaves yield salt, the spathe
yields toddy, syrup, sugar, vinegar, yeast, or spirit, at the will
of the operator. The seeds are edible, being somewhat like
cocdamit in taste, the slight insipidity in taste being corrected by
The true PandaiM arc, however, the more interesting. Of the
genus PundamtH, there are several species, coulined to the
Eastern hemUpUero, being very numerous in the Indian Archi¬
pelago. found principally in the vicinity of the sea, and forming
one of the “aspects of vegetation.” To clear ones way through
these almost impenetrable mosses, roiiuiros a strong m'm, a good
bolt-axe, and, above all, a good temper. Some of the Panilant
run from 10 to 15 feet in height. The leaves are long, narrow,
tough, and leathery, with the edges and midrib armed with
sharp recurved spines, which have n most proyokuig way of
intruding in one's clothes or flesh, putting one in mind of the
“ wait-a-bit ” thorn of African travellers. The fruit consists of a
iiuinbor of wedge-shaped drupes, clustered often into largo ooal-
liko heads. The aerial roots, too, with their oup-liko spongioles,
arc vory romorkable, i .
Tho leaveH of the utVU of Mauritius are rnaao into
sugar hags, and often are utilised iu this country as fish baskets.
The fruits of P. fietidm arc extremely fnaid, whilst those of
P, odoratUaimuSf arc, os tho name would imply, the rcverflc. It
Is, however, In the Nicobar Islands where the Pandanus is fully
appreciated, and holds a position almost oqualliug that of tho
coooonut in Ceylon as a source of food. ^ ^ r
In the Nioobars, the Paiulan'iis grows to about thirty feot in
height, and luxuriates on the banks of crooks and inavahy ground,
Bjifl almost equally as well on undulating grassy plama in the
interior. The cone, or head of drupes, attains a length of
fourteen to fifteen inches, and a breadth of nine to ton inches,
being first of a dark green colour, changing to a <IliU red on
npening. The ripe fruit is gathered by the natives, tiio liuor
sorts being aolectod for breadtnaking, tlio interior being given to
tho pigs* The drupes aro then separated from each other, and
placed in a large earthen vessel, which, when about two-thirds
full of nuts, Is set oil to boil for twelve to fourteen hours, the
nuts being kept covered with water during the time, Alter
imiling, the soft dough-Ukn substanoe which tho drupe contains
has next to bo romovod, and is cfTwoted in the following maunor
by women They tako a shell, and drawing the fruil with hoiiio
amount of pressuvo over tho edgo, force out tho auiylacooua
inattor into the shoU, which, in the meantiiu'’, is Imld hniily
botw'oca thoir toes. The conicai-Hke fibrous brush left is
discarded, and fresh fruits treated in tho saino inaniuir, till a
BUtfioioncy of ** dough” has boeu expressed, which is of a palo
brownish colour, and largely mixed with portions of the fibrous
husk of tho fruit. Those fibresi have next to bo nunovod. To do
this, tho woman, selecting a longpico.e of fibre, Hoata beradf on the
ground, and fastens one end of the fibre round her riglu too, and
t.lic other enfi round one of tliu linfiore of the left hand. Taking
the ball of dough in her light hand, ulio passes tho long fibre
tiirougli it, and dexterously romovus all tho frugiuonts of fibre,
svitliout wasting a particle of the dough.
Tills dough is either oaten in its presmit state with lisli, or pork,
or is made into rough oakqs and bakeil on hot aslies. It forms
a very nutritious food, hut its peculiar swootisli taste cloys on
the appetites of Europeans, tliougli, as a substitute for bread or
biscuits, or in the form of a pudding, with the addition of sugar
or jam, it is by no means tone despised, and to tho Nioobaroc.s,
who are not an agricultural race, tho fruit of the Pfintlftiiicy is a
most valuable staple article of food .—Jounud of Hw SocUly of Aids,
September 16.
AUlllCULTURAL EDUCATION FOR THli INDIAN
' PEOPLE.
IVTOT very long ago, wo offered a few observations on tho subject
of Scientific Agrioultnre ; and wo now purpose folb.wiug up
those remarks with some more on what there can he no doubt is a
matter of tho utmost moment to tho national progress aud dovelop-
ment of tho Indian peoples.
As we stated in our former article, wc are, and have long bean,
among those who hold that the country is neither socially nor
pecuniarily fit for tho introduction of any such of the reform-i in its
agricultural system as those we sec Governmout oudeavouriug to
iutroduoe into the • practising’ depirtmonts of thoir Agricultural
Schools and Colleges. Not only this, we go further aud say that
tho way in which the iwwers-tliat-ha have gone to w'ork iu the
direction of teaching their native subjects to improve the husband¬
ry of tho country is hardly ttic best, if it is not oint of the worst,
method of exoouting a peculiarly delicate and dillicnlt pinco of
busincM. Leaving aside the remarkably conservative teudeneios
of tiic avorace Hindu ouitivntor, anil tho close eonsmjncntiio.arncHR
to impOMlbBity in getting him to take to anytliing now (which ir
not on tho face of it profitable), it appears to ni a little too much to
oxpootthat the eendmg Ottt of a more handful of young men, with a
tow yoai's’training, however oxeellout, among Wicir uiwcxontifioany
agrloaltural brethren is likely to produce auy groat or lasting
On tlw fOuti'ftry it i') ns tlis*L tne I iTccUi of ««oh A
system would he just the other way. Vonr first-class B. A., for in-
stanoo, is hardly looked up to with any groat respect outside Ills
own clique or college j and yot look at tho amount of money ho
costs tli« country ; and think, too, of tho high hopes whloh were
hold by the early champions of the higher education system, as
to the graduates of Indian Universities creating a new era, and a
gloriou.s one in the history of this country. VVoU, what guarantee,
wo ask, have wo that tho expensive further out-turn of our Agricul¬
tural Colleges will be a bit bettor, so far, we mean, as regards any
intluence for good on the masses of their fellow-countrymen? \Ve
are particularly anxious that we should not be misunderstood. We
are by no means of Professor Moiiior Williams’ way of thinking
that tho average ‘ educated native ’ Is more or loss of an “ inoar-
uate curse.” On the contrary wo aro distinctly of opinion that the
edueatod classes of the native community form by far tho most
liopuful, import.vut, aud interesting seotion of the entire Native
Indian Common-wealth. All that we do say, and none oould wish
more earnestly than we do ttiat we were mistaken, is that the ‘ edu-
lated native' class has not, as yot, been prodnotive of any palpa¬
ble influonoo for good on the great bulk of his unenlightened com¬
patriots. Holding, as wo have been forced, by exporienoe and
observation, to bold, this painful boliof, wo are most anxious to do
what little may lie in our power to prevent tho oocnrroooe of simi¬
lar mistakes, and the foolish, if not positively useless, ontlsy of
money on (so-called) educational schemes.
To hasten on, liowever, to our subject itself, wo may state that
wo fully admit tho correctness of tho principle that tho agricnltural
condition, interests, and prospects of so almost entirely an agricul¬
tural a country as this is sliouid occupy no small siiare of the most
careful attention of the authorities ; but, knowing that the country
is in a greatly impovorislied condition, it heoomes necessary to
consider in what direction steps should be taken with the least
possible expense, as well as with the greatest possible benefit to
the agriculturalist population.
In tho first place, it seems to us above all things necessary tiiat
any movomont in the direction of agricultural reform in this
oouutry sliould take a tliorouglily practical direction. Instead of
putting tho country to the cost of maintaining expousivo Scliools
and Collogos for agricultural Education—which is not yot a full,
national want—wo certainly think the revenue authorities niiglit,
III the cmirse of tlio constant contact into which tliey arc coming
ivith tho agricnltural classes, very properly and profitably under¬
take tho introduction of new and improved sood grains, impiomcnt.s,
.ml even cattle. .Soinotlung of this kind was tried—witli success,
f we rcmonihcr aright—during tho famine of 1876-77 i and wo
nily wonder why the experiment lias not boon made more largely
and more generally.
Wo should also like to sen snnio of our voterau Anglo-Indians
icttling down to a farmer's life iu such places as Uaugalore or
Joimbatore, where tho ulnnate is not so trying to tho European,
and show their sable ueigiihours how to do farm-work in a hotter
'ashion than that now in vogue. Wo aio sure the example will
iroducc siilistanbially lioniilieial results. I’lactioe, all the world
Ivor, is a far mure imprcB.sivc tuaoher than precept, as is ahnuduntiy
irovod by tho many good (and many had) things our native fellow-
lubjocts have learned or copied from us.
Such aro some of tho ways in wnich, wc venture to think, the
Sovornment could, more easily and oconomio.tlly, as well as inure
iffootivoly, do something worth lining fur the improvement of
S'ativo Indian Agriculture ; aud wo trust they m.ay commend them-
lolvcB to those who have it iu their power to adopt tho same in
practice, as well os to all those interested, like ourselves, iu the
disonssion of a subject most intiuiatclv connected with the p.’ogress
and prosperity of this groatu.sC dfipoiidoney of the British Grown. —
Stadra» Afhenctum,
SHEEP HLISIJ.VNDRY.
P KE-SIDENT (.tIRSON, of the Montana Wool Growers’ Asso d.i-
tion, delivered an excellent address at the late nnnuat meeting
of that organisation. What he said pertaining to tile lapid devel¬
opment of the wool iudnstry in the United States and the
difTcrouoe iu price hotwocn Australian line wools and those of the
groat wool growing regions west of tho Mississippi river may be
read with profit by wooi-groworB generally. It U as follows ;
“The rai'id development id the wool growing industry of thu
United States aud its territories must satisfy any thoughtful
grower that soon more wool will be produced that oaa be used in
tho woollen mills of tho eonntry. Next to Australia, Wc are now
prodiiciug more clothing wool than any other eonntry on tho face
ot the earth. Ill 187(! onr wool product was 115,000,000 poiinils,
while the present year it will not lie far from 350,000,000 pounds.
.Should this ratio ot increase be maintained, you will perooivc that
the olifiof the country will soon reach the enormous qn.iiitity of
500,000,000 pounds, nearly all of which is clothing. When wc
produce mors wool than is required to supply our looms, wu must
e.xport our surplus, aud prices will thou be fixed by the groat
mirket of London, us well as that of Boston. Tiiis may not be
pleasant to coutcmplato, but wo must be re,vly for this jiin'ture
of affairs, for it will surely ooinii soon. Wo are now importing, I
b'llieve, scarcely 50,000,000 pouiida of clothing wool per annum.
How can wo best prepare for the new coiiditicms of ttiiiigi ? Pla'uly
by a more thorough knowledge of our busimisa. Wc mifht, ii
P'l.saihle. gi-ow our wools at less cost. The aU-importaut point to h._
g.iiiicd, however, is the production of wool here iu Montana that
shall, from iu superior condition, take tho load in tho American
ni.arket. Our wool i.s to-day worth 20 to 28 cents in Boston, whit i
Australian nud Now Zealand wools arc tvorth 40 to 46 ooiit.s.
Australia may ba a more favorod spot for growing wool than
Montana, but I doubt It. 1 find here thnaesnbtlolulluonccs —
Whotb*!'Wtey spring from th ■ soil, til • iiMlci oi the uL.n5iph.frc —
Noveraber 1, 1883.
417
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
that produce the eoftost and moat hrilliaut ololliiii({ wooU. I know,
from the fact that our wools load all othnr tHrritorial wools in the
market, although tliia was the last uf the territories to eoiiitneuco
wool growing, that nature has kimlly given us advantages that she
has withheld from other sections of this ooutineut.
Wheuee, then, arise the wide diircnnico between the English
colonial wool referred to and the wool of Montana? Cler.rly from
the ditferuuoe in breeding and in tlio inanuor of preparing the wool
for the market In buying sheep, we are too apt to put them all in
fho same scale of priees -coarse, medintn, and tine. IVitii too
• many of us it U a question of number, iustoail of qunlity. Wo re¬
cognize but little difference between mongrels and tbe purr
desoeudants of tlie importations of Humpbrnys ami .Jarvis. We
commence breeding up and then breed iiack to whore wo started
from, eaoh grower breeding “ on bis own hook,” regardless of what
his neighbours are doiu.'. 'i'ho result is that in tin; same district
ou wUl hardly find tworlip.s of wool at ail alike, and in the samo
oaks are all grades, from the soft, beautiful .K.'C.K woo), down to
a eoarso, frowsy fleooo, fit only for low carpet lining. The avcr.age
Australian wool grower is constantly improving iris liands by the
most careful selootiou. The whole world is raiisackcil for the
ohoioest and hardiest strains of Merino blood. Vermont auiiually
furnishes a large number of the very best stock rams for English
wool breeders, wliosestock ranches arc ton tliousind miles distant.
They have thoroughly tested the difforout types of Merino sheep,
aud they obtain tlie best, regai’dless of cost, (iau we wonder, tlien,
that the Kiiglisb colonial wool growers have built up during tbe
present century such a nmgiuilceut wool industry in Australia ? If
we would bring Montana wool to the very front rank at the
eastern seabord and create a brisk demand at paying prices in
the face of compstition of the best wool growers of foreign countries,
we roust improve its quality by adopting uilos of breeding and of
flock management iiei’etofere unknown among us. We must rveod
out our inferior .sheon as fast as we can, and send them to tlie sbani-
bles. Tile iie.st wn liave must improve by intro liieiiig the ohoioest
blood. Fortunately, we in our own country, in tlie Eastern .States,
a type of Merino sheep that stands sncoiul to none in the world,
from wiiicli we can obtain, at reasonable piices, stock suitable
for tbo highest imiirovoment of our flocks. At tlie Eundon wool
sale tbe shrinkago of every lot offered Is acciii .ifcly given anil
guaranteed, and this method must soon bo ndoplcd in our own
country. Manufacturers are nat' -ally prcjinhced against bear y
wools, and eouseiiueutly they ru.' tlie last to be fiotd. Liali't
sbrinking wools are always attruotive, are sold quickly at full
market values While I ammpposed to the inlroduetion of greasy,
wrinkly Meriuos, I would not be understood ai fiiMiring tin
Saxony or Silesian typo of Merinos ter Montana. 1 would rccom
mend a ulasn uf Murino.s occupying a place between tlm two
oxtremea. For some of the puio bred floek.s of Vermont, Ohio,
or Wisoousiu you can always seleel strong, vigorous rams, eany-
iiig no wrinkles or folds exu'pt upon tNe neck, and rvlios" w lol
bears no oxocss of oil. "When the time comes that the i.biitcil
States produces more wool than onr in iiintaoturcr.s require, i'.
will then become among oin' wool growe.r.s a quostion of the
“ survival of the fittest.” Wool growing, in iny opiiiiou, will
increase and continue to lie a romunoiMtive l>nHiue.ss in the great
pastoral district adjacent to tiie Koeky Mountains, from .Mexico
to tlie British dominions, whil” the M u-iiio sheep industry at
the East will give place to mor ' profli.ible puraiiiU or be supple¬
mented by the mutton races, such in the Soiithdowus and other
Downs. The latter tUoory would seem to bo corre-t wiicn we
oousidor the woudcri'ul grott'th of the oitic.s from the Allaul.io to
the Missouri river, and the rapiiU" increasing d'mi.*iid foi choice
muttou,— Breetli'r aiufr Spui'U't/iUfi. • I
TIIE lIIGHf.AND SCUTETY’S EKEEUl MKV TAL KAUU.
manures m various (luantitieB. The results, in many InitanceB,
were very mirked, partiouUHy iu the difforuuce between tho
dissolved manures. Dr. Aitkin pointed out that the dissolved
phosphatn.'^ siiowod au a<lvaiiUge ovor undiasolv'ad piiospiiates iu
two alrouUojis—uaJueiy, that they produced a larger -ind an earlier
crop than the undUsolv't'd. In regard to tiio potash oxperim-mts,
it \VM fniitid that the uppiieation of the sulphatf^ aitJ of tlie
muriate prihiuced very etpuil results. As reg.ards the nitrogonoua
mauurflH, nitrnto of soda (with bono ash and sulphate of potash
and Mulphi'Lf.e «#i ammonia) wore also found to produce vc»'v» erpial
results, and tin* erups treated with them wore very ^Ofl. In the
plot in whioli ‘ shoddy ' boon applied, Lho crop had evidently
not yot toll the bencht of tiio mauurr. in aii adjoining lot It was
found that drb'd hio<jd had produced a v'ory oxcoilont crop, and
it secuu'd evi<leut that if it had been put on n little earlier, tin;
crop wouldliave boon one of the very best in tho station. 'I’Uero
seomnd to^ bo litth; diirireucc in tho results obtaluod Ironi dsh
and Peruvian gnauos, which produced gooil crops ; but the Tchaboe
^niano h.nl not quite come up to tho mark of tho other two.
Whore no idtrogon had been applied tljoro wa-s found a rip’.*r crop
than whore Jiitrogon had boon applied alojie. Whoro nitrogen hftu
boon upplu‘d, Dr. Aitken remarked, in the form of uitrato of soda,
! the crop was tho latest aud greonc,st in tlie statj<jn, and, altltough
not tlifc) thinniist, would never iiani; to anything like a crop, lu
Houn; of tho plots on<i or two couslituouts itad been withheld,
ami it was ftJiind that whore no pho=?phatos had been us‘*d the crop
was much later, thinner, nnd poorer in o\’t‘ry way \Y)i'tro plios-
phato.s alono iiad boon used, the crop was oarher, but tiila. Where
! there imd boon no pota-<ij usod, the crop suirered ut oaidy period
of tho.season, and had n ‘ segged’ or tulip-root appuarauoo, and
was late in siiooting. Where potash alorko had been applUul, tha
crop was not so <b'Hcleut as it has been in forin'ii’ years, l)ut stllJ it
was voiy green aud very late, and would never ooiuo to much.
Aa regarded Huporplios|)hate.s, Dr. AifcUeu e.xplained that these
were applic'l iu ttii’eo diltbrunt states of solubility, and although
all proflueed h*'Hvy crops, that which wiis inediuuily dissolve*! ha<l
prodiiood the best of the three. Attention wastUrectod to another
important feuluro of the oxpi’riinent.s, A large nujonty of thtt
plots foul thou aitrog' n applieil at twi» diff»‘rcnt times. Ono-half
of eaoh plot liad iiaif of its nitrate of sod t put on at tlin timo of
sowing, and the otiiei half Hi\. wetdes later. It wa< fouml that
, the lialf wliieli hud all tin* -nitrate aitplied at the time uf
sowing had a tniwh lipci and str.iigipiw crop titan the other.
Tile half wliibh was nuuurcd with uitiato Hi'S wroks after sowing
{the lOtli June) h^d a vmv bulky crop—too bulky, in fact, for
Lite land. A oonsidi-rabic part of it was ntucli laid, and was later
tlian tlie other. It w*)tib( have boen better, it was oousMered, if
the second aiiplicatmn liad not bceii so late in being made. In
view of tin-(po'stions raisod )»y the Agnculturil Holdings Act,
von ■iiloraiilo interest w.is taken in two plots in whicli the etfeots of
pluvious years’ iiututring, were still vcjy vUilik*. L)r. Aitkon,
while ooiiduobing tiie paity over the held, read a letter which h«
liad rer»ivfd fiom Mr. V. M'Laggan, M.E., who was preveuted by
aiiollHu '•iigagmnenf from bmng prosuiib. Mr. M’Laggun wrote -
‘ I been o.vuiuiuing tho o.vpf>7’im‘>ntH, and 1 have learnt some¬
thing Irotn thein, and I iniv o intd tny opiuioits eouiirmod on oortuiu
})oiMts. 1 obijorve that wlimv nitrate of soda is applied by itself
Mm crop is l.itor. 'rnis X lutvo always found to bo tlic east;. 1
obsrrvo tiiat this year the eiop is bettor whore there is the largest
tjiiuntity of Holnbit* plio.sphalus ; mid it is earlier whore tho pnos*
pUaius are diss'ilvod. I have no doubt you will ho aide to point
uit more iONulbs worth notujg, and I can only regixjt iiial I shall
iKft bo prowent Lo hear them.’ Tim plot wiiiuii was comsidered to
ha' <• the Im'kI <'iup was oiio whii'hiiad been treated with iltssolved
i»ono dust with niuriato ul potasli aud uifrato of soda, the erop
bt'iug re(!kont‘d at 40 biHlicU per uoro. Docortioated cobtou cake
had pj-oi|u«ed a vm*y good crup, wUioh had ripened quickly, and
was 11 'gai'd'ul as much auporior to tiie proiluee of rape seed dust
with wJiioh another portion of tho samu plot had boon treated.
S EVEHAL members of Uio Higlihind and Agricultural Moeiety
lately visited tbo oKporimental stitian uf the society at
Pumpherstou. Tlio wcabhi-r was favourable lor the excursion.
Among those present worv Sir J.mu’.m fTih.svm Oiaig, Bart, ;M».
Colin Mackenzie, of Portmorc ; Dr. Aitken, Eiliidmrgli ; Mr. Sott
Dudgeon, Longnowtou ; Mr. Win, Dingwall, Raniornio ; Mi. U
Lindsay, Meadow Flat, ami Mr. Todd, tlio manager of the sta
tiou. J)r. Aitken, the coiisultiug chemist of tiie society, eoudueb
ed the party over tho station, explained tho nature of the expcii-
monts, and pointed out the more noteworthy rortiilLs. The Held in
question, which has been under experimental tillage during the
past six years, is, like the other statioufi ainiilarly donlt with,
acres in oxteut, aud ia dlviilcd into 40 plots of I rood each. The
cropping is a rotation of turnips, barley, grass, and oats, au-l the
cliiof object of tlie experiments is to del o-mino tlm crop-pro'liimng
value 01 various forms of the; most important nianuios. Ihe
manures ou each plot contain 10 Ib^. pho'qV.mric acid. 30 Il)s. pot¬
ash, and 10 lbs. nitrogen. 1 1 in iu th-form in wlm-h thcHc Inive
been put on that the dilTeroncc lies. Fur the prc-imit crop of b;u]oy
the ground, which D li thin, cold clay, was ploiighml on tho l.Uh
January and 17th and IDlh Felmuary, and the barley sown ou tho
28rd April. The manure was sown ou the ‘Jyth Apnl, and tlm tnvt
braird was seou outbe 12th May, and nitrate drossiug ou a portion
of ^40 area being applied ou the llio 10th June. the d-i.n oI
■n^ntr to the present tinio tho rainfall has been l.Dlo inches, then;
having fallen from ‘i3rd April to the end of the mmitli, 1*0/ inches ;
during May, DSS inches ; June, 2-44 inchcR ; July, 4*98 iriehes and
durinS August 3-11 inches. The mean temperature of Mav was
57 de^iooH, of Juno 59 degrees, of July 07 degrees, and of August
ti3 deSreos Twelve of the plots had been treated with phoaphatie
manures, six with uitrogeuous manures, four wiHi potash mauares,
four with fiuouos, and three witli superphosphatos, while
the romai^ug plots Uad boeu treated wuth tUeao and other
VEU ETABl.E EXTRACT.^.
W HILST it ia ailinittvil on ail hnnfla tiiat tliu uiiltlvatiou of
enuuomic i)lautn, yiolJiiij' wigar, tibres, and drugs, and
tliuii by in’udncts of oil kinds, ancording to the climates aud soils
suiLalilc to tkeir uultivation, niiglit be protit.Uie, tlie obstacle
tliat tile grower and the capitalist alike have had to face, lias
been the almost insnperablo ditliculty of extracting the sevoral
pioducts at a cost of production that will leave a piollt atoll
coinmensurnto with tha risk incurred. VVhon wo take into accenat
the .i.m<Htut of unprotitahle vegetable matter associated with the
more valuiiblo part of tho plant to bo dealt wiin, the cost of
labour and oacriage of the ci ude material to tlie nearest mill aud
the comimrativcly poor results, the costly and by uu means
p&rtcct macliiues return upon the outlay, we are the loss eurprised
to find how i(uickly tiio entliusiasin ot the must hopeful i.s cooled
after tiio first or second essay in any of those directions.
The efforts made by the Oovernmeut of India to improve
I he condition of the fibre producers, who had expended largo
sums iu cLiItlvutiug ‘china grass,’ affords us a capital illus¬
tration. Their evident desire to promote on ii larger scale the
cnitivation of plants wliich from time iminemoiial had produced
valuable fibres for native textile fabrics, led the Indian llovern-
meiit to offer a prize of some five thousand pounds sterling for
the produotiou oi a suitable macliinc lii remove the fibre from Mie
woody matter associated with It, ia the bfiifum P"*j**' pertiou.
larly. It was in the year 1S70 the offer was mud), 1 he maohuiQ
was to be of such a character that It could he used in the taiuy
seasoUi when tlic plant u'as still green, at a time when tOg
418
THE INDIAN AGEICTCJLTURIST.
November 1, 1883,
diiilcnltios of lieatiog the plants are insuperable except by artificial
means. The first tnal was niaclr at iiiaharunpore la 1872, f'lte
results obtained wore oonsiderod unsatisfactory ; but Mesai-s. U.
and J. (iroig roccivod a piirc of ill,000 for a crushing machine
then shown. The trials worp postponed for some yoars, ami at
the second ooutost, in l.SBO, no less than twenty-three com¬
petitors presonted themselves. The ruling idea was a crusUiug
niacliiue. Exhibits from England, America, France, Denmark,
Hungary, ,Iaro, New Zealand, and India were represented, but
in no oose could a tuaohiuo be fouud that would " extract the
fibre from tke brown exterior pelliole and from the exesss of
agglumeiiative gummy matter whioli holds tliem together iu sncli
a .manner as to produce on article whose value iu f-onduu stuill
not be less than £40, and of which the cost of production shall
not exceed £10 per ton of fibre obtained.” Crushed stems, in
fact, no matter how deftly treated by uieclianical means, refuse
to surrender their more delicate fllumeuts (and those are the
most prized), aud only give up their coarser constituents, in a
more or less mangled form, when subjected to tlie clumsy ordeal
they have undergone. All at once, and that not so very loug
ago, the eheaiists who had been investigating the progressive
action of fermentation iu plauts in cold aud svarm water, obtained
a oluB to the laws which seem to regulate the process of vogotablc
decomposition, and did not fail to observe that as the tompura-
ture was raised tlio adherence of the internal ligneous part
and the oortioal envelope is destroyed, and the separation of each
of the different concentric layers which form tho wrapper is
effected. The fibre-bearing plant is provided with three zones
in tho bork, consisting of the epidermis and a thick layer of
parenchyma, which contalus the chloropliyllnm of the plant, then
a larger layer of sorticai fibres, generally isolated uml iudepeii-
dent of oacii other; tlie last zone is contiguous to tlie cauihiuui
In which are the finer fibres, and associated with these there is au
abundance of small crystals of carbonate of lime ; it was fouud,
that if the steins were subjected to superbeuted steam or some
sncli oalorifio agent, tho moisture could be draw'ii off effectually
iu a few minutes by the addition of some chcniical re-ngeiit and
the fibres extracted free from any kiud of adhesive particles that
would teudor it uusaleahle, there was an cud to alt ohiioxious
or tedious “rottiug" or “stripping” processes, and the object
of their search was attained. During the last four years steady
progress has been made iu rendering the operation perfect and
profitable, and at a cost which will bo liardly felt wlieu tlie
value of the fibre comes to be snlimitfcod to tho mamitactiirer :
similar experiments have been made in England, France, ami
America, Tho work coinmoiicod in Ji'rancc by the well-kuowii
M. A_. Favier has been improved upon by the distiugiiislied
chemist M., Fremy. In England iniinh attention has been bestowed
upon the subject, whilst Atncricnn chemists have contribute 1
their share. iSide by side with those discoveries of such incal¬
culable value to the commerce of the future, chc idsts in the iiurtli
of Europe, iu Anierlca, France, and England, were making ei^ually
rapid progress in perfecting now methods uE extracting siiculiariiie
matter from sugar canc, sorghum and nnd/.e plants. 'I'lie old
aud uiinihrous process of exlructing sugar from canc by elaborate
aud costly inaciiiuery, alsvuys must profitalilo to the inaiiiifac
turer, but which after all gave ouly a poor rotiini to the grower,
had this effect amongst others, of forcing the production of
beet root and other kindred succliariue plauts upon the market in
competition with our colonial trado, was admitted on all hands
to be defective and uiipvufitablo. (jtliur means liavo now been
fouud by which pure sugar and syrup oau bo drawn direct from
tho sugar-producing plants we have indicated. By thus new
departure costly inacliincry is dispensed with, and the land in
gome iiistaiicea, witiiout overtaxing its power of proiiuctioii, can
be made to give a continuous yield of sugar-prodiiciiig plants.
Crushed cane with its poor ruturu iu sugar, iiiulas.scs and treaoblc
will become things of tlic past. The Aiiiciicaii Dop.artmunt of
Agriciiltiiro, ably supported by chemists of known experience
have auporiuteuued for tho last four years tho new method of
oxtractiug sugar by a simple chemical oiieration, and at a cost
which, iacludiug the cultivation of the plants, at first sight
may seem siinnly inoredihlo, until tlie tables of expenditure and
profit are consulted, wlieu all doubts are dispelled by tlie evidoiicc
they contribute. It appears by tho published report of the
United States Department of Agi'icultiire at AVoshingtoii that—
“ Eighty batches of syrup taken by the manager from tlio
fiiiishor iu the consecutive order of production made from c.aiie
and stems of all oonditious, good, bad, and iudifferuiit, show an
average of (i(i per cent of crystallized sugar. Several of tho best
show us high as 80 per cent. All would have shown this iiigli
average if all the cans hud been good." In Kiigluiid like resutts
have been arrived at, os we liavo already sliowii iu the pages
of this journal, aud it is possible when the resoarcbes now under
ubservatlOQ and exhaustive trial liavs beeu perfected, os they
assuredly will bo before loug, tliat a perfect revolutiun in sugar
produetioii will be effected. Nor has the iui esligatioii of methods
for oxtractiug these products by cUeiiiieal means limited the
fioid of operation; these same cliemicai studies liavo led to
others of equally liigh couiiiieroial iniportaiiee. The same or
equally siuiple methods will be applied to tlio extraction of dyo
stuff's aud other alkaloids with apparatus, which, we gather, is of
tile simplest and most uicxpcnsive ofiaracter.
It is not possibie to estimate tlie enormous value of those
discoveriea. Their future effects upon plauters’ prospects is
evident, A now impetus will bo given to tropical and oven
European agriculture. The cuUivutiua ou a large scale of libie
and sugar-bearing plauts, wliieh languished of lulu fur want of
some ready uicaus for thoir ultimate utilizatiuu, is obvious.
Capital which hitherto has boeu ouly too griidgiugly invested
in stioli outerprises will flow into ohauueis which undoubtedly
will yield large retarus, Lauds wliicb have proved capable
of produoing such forms of vegetation without stint, and have
relapsed into tlioir former state of sterility, will again be taken
up, nud employment will be . found for many who are at
I present eagerly looking forward to participate in the frnltion
: of such reniuiierativQ enterprises as these, both at home and
j abroad.— Plaiilen’ Gazette, Sop ember 15,
CINCHONA.
THE GOVERNMENT CINCHONA PLANTATION IN
BENGAL.
rilHE following is the Resolution of the Government of India, on
-A the Annual Report of the Government Cinchona I’lautatio ii
in Bengal for tlie year 1882-83, and the Annual Report of the
Quiiiologist for tho same years. The result of tho planting operations
of the year shows a deoroaso of about .'50,000 oiucliona trees ou tbo
returns of 1881-82, This is due to the uprooting of a large
number of the Oaliaaya aud liybrid varieties wliioli were fouud
to potsoBS bark of poor quality. Soma 100,000 rod-bark trees
wore also uprooted in tbo ordinary rotation, and were replaced
by the yellow hark ami liybri.l varieties. Nearly all the laud
witiiiu the existing ciiioliona reserve ^suitable for cultivation
has now been planted out, aud tho Sup-iriuteudeiit accordingly
appbed, in October last, for permission to plant out with
Leili/erianu and tho liybrid variety a tract of land in
the tran-s-Teesta portion of Darjeeling whicli had beeu re-
sorvecl for Government cinchona cultivation. Both these specie
have been proved by repeated analyses to bo very rich iu quiuirio,
while most of the yellow bark or quiiiiiic-yieldiiig treos ou tlio
existing plantations at Alungpoo arc quite young, and tlie wliole
stock is not sufliaiont to furnish, oven when mature, enough bark to
employ the factory profitably for more than a few weoks iu the
year. There is, in fact, no plantation*, of tlioso trees actually in
existouoe, while the uursorios have a magiiificout stock of nearly
lialf-a-million plants of the best sorts of yollow-burk trees which
would bo lost unless the seedlings were speedily planted out. Tliii
proposal fur foriiiiiig the new plautatioii was readily approved by
Govornmeui, and iiieusiires have since beeu taken for pluutiii^ out
the rosorvo witli a number of tile b.-st kinds of Leitjei-iann" and
bylirid ciiidioiius.
Iu the llesulutioii reeor.led iiiwu the proceedings of lait year, it
was remarked that thore.were several distiiiot forms of the liybrid
variety, and auiilyses were giveu of tlie samples of bark of four of
these forms. Duriug the year under review the y«perintoiidcut
iiad analyses maile of four more of these forms, and the results
obtained from all the eight hyhrids are compared iu the following
table :—
No. I. No, 2. No. 3. I No. 4.
Crystallised sulphate of qiii-
niuo. I 2'S7 Mg ] -88 i 0‘97
Crystallised eulphato of ciu-
eiiouidiuo 2'94 2'S5 2‘93 1’94
Crystallised sulphate of qui-
uifime .; Traoes. Traces. Tiaees. Traces.
Ciiiehouiue (alkaloid) ... | 0'72 C‘07 0'52 0'80
No. 5. No. 6, No. 7. No. 8.
Crystallised sulphate of qiil- j '
Uiue. I 212 j 2-04 eT2 3-99
Crystallised sulphate of eiu-
ohoiiidiiio . j 2'84 2'26 2'4C 3-33
Crystallised sulphate of quin- !
idiuo.I Traces. Traoes. Traoes, Traces.
Ciiiehouiue (alkaloid) 0'33 | 0'08 C'66 0‘67
Dr, Kiug points out that hybrid No. 4 is very poor quiuiuo, aud
it was the trees of this sort that were uprooted duriug the year.
No. 7 appears to be oxoeptioually rich iuqiiiuliie, and the planta-
tious of this variety might witli advantage be oxteuded. f
Tbo total number of uiuohoua trees of all sorts at the close of
tho yeoi' was 4,711,108, namely, rod (CiwAona Sucairitlira)
3,713,200, yellow (Oaheayii//wlyfriaiia) 882,998, hybrid unnamed
variety 304,378, and other kinds 30,592,
It is satisfactory to observe that tlie crop of tho year is the
largest that has yet boon harvested ou the plautatious. It
November I, 1883.
419
THE INDIAN AGRICUI.TURIST,
amounted to 396,980 pounds of dry bark, of which 372,610 pounrh
were of Sucdrubra, 22,120 pounds of Catimya and L^'rffieriniin,
and 2,230 pounds of hybrid bark. By far the largest ijnrtion of
the produce was made over to the bu'.tory for cotivorHioti into
oinohona febrifuge, while about 41,8000 pounds of yellow and
red barks were sent, at tlie request of the Secretary of State, to
London to bo there converted into various forms of febrifuge, ami
rptumed to this country for trial by the Medical Department.
The expenditure ou the plantations amounted to Ra. 80,739 6-2,
against the budget allotment of Rs. 82,223. Of this expenditure
Rs. 17,548-3-0 was incurred on the iiowly-nponod traus-Toosta
plantation, and on the young plantation at Sittong. This sum
is chargeable to capital account. The balance, amounting to
Rs. 63,191-2-5, which was spent ou the old plantation, and includes
charges on account of packing and carriage of bark scut to
England, is chargeable os working expenses.
It is disappointing to notice the contiuuod failure of Carthugma
bark, notwithstanding that the utmost care has been taken of the
plants and every endeavour made to grow them at various
elevations aud with various exposures. Duly three plants were
alive at the close of the year. An attempt has boon made by the
Superintendent to introduce the Remija plant, which is a genus
botanioally allied to oinchoua. It is said to ho less particular tliaii
cinchona os to soil aud olimuto, and produces a quiniue-yiclding
bark uudor the name of Ouprra, This bark forms a very large
proportion of the quantity of quiuiuo bark imported into Europe.
Although the first attempt to grow the plant in the Muugpoo
plantations has not been quite successful, Dr. King entertains
hopes of successfully acclimatixiug it, wlion lie is able to procure
a more adequate supply of seed. The Liimtouaut Governor will
await the result of the experiment with much interest. Thu
surplus seed of tho Cnlkaija LnliiefUma was, as usual, distrilnitcd
during this year gratuitously amongst appUeauts.
Dr. King has eventually succoci,, ’in obtaining an .analysis of
the bark renewed on Uuitch'nl»'u trees that had their ori ginai b irk
removed by tho shaving proees? introdnued by Mr. iMoeiis, the dis-
tiugnished Director of Cinchona Cultivation to the Dutch
Govonimont. It appears tliat this process oousisls in shaving off
the greater part of the hark of a living tree to the height of from
S to 10 foot from the ground, care lining tal^ou to leave everywhere
a surtieieiitly thick layer of bark to cover the woml. 'I'liis method
h.vB had a fair trial ou the Sikkim plautalinns, and tlic result hts,
buyoud doubt, boon favorable as tho b.n'k renews perfeetiy, Whit,
howovor, remained to bo seen, was whotiior the renewed bark wn
as rich iu medicinal alkaloids as the original. It was with th ■
ohjeet of determining this question that the analysis above referrcil
to was undertaken during tho year. Tlio results arc thus ilcscrih-
ed by Dr. King: “Tho bark reilcweil rather slowly, lint the
analysis shows that it is very rich both in quinim) and eiuriinni-
dine : aud there can he no doubt that in countries whoiv red-liark
trees arc perfectly at home, and wlistv tli.hr continuance in good
health and vigour fora long teriqsol yuais cm h i ahsolnl'dy cuniil |
ed on, this shaving process must lie ,a very Ue it o 11 " '
An intorosting feature in tlio operations of tlic vear is th - low
I'ost at which the fchnfugu was tiirno l oit. I'h • pne • of t.h
febrifuge noecssarily lluetiiatos tiv n year 11 yc vr, li it in no h ,
year lias it been so low as Rs, 8-8 0 a pound. Inis sati-slacto* y
result is attributed chintly to the hirgor p ■NMiitag • oi til • alk doids j
(2'73) extracted from the bark used in ni uiiita tii. o Tiic. sues,
however, fell below those of ISSI 8J, tlmiigli they were a
little ill advance of those for 1880 81. The following table
ooiiqiiircfl tlio iliotributiou ill tho past thi'oo
yours :
-
1830-81.
1881-8J
1882
83.
//j, nz.
!/,. IK
III.
oz.
To Medical Dopiit, Calcutta 3,(X)0 0
H,H80
0
2 ,o;»o
0
Do. do. Bombay 2,000 0
l.OIK)
0
1,000
0
Bo. do. Mudioo .">00 0
800
0
3.30
0
To Colouial Uovoi'umoiit,
M.iuritiuH ... .
1,30
0
To Surgcou < icneral for Dio-
li-ict Modicttl Officers of
Bengal .
Oll.j
4
803
12
To Inapoetor-Oeiipral of Jaffa
for .falls and Lock-ujis,
B?fcgal ... .
14
12
20
12
Sold to tlio public ... .3,1.30 11
4,G<SO
0
4,.300
12
Civou as samples ... 3 d
9
10
0
Total ... 8,653 13
10,878
1)
8,901
4
*The iMUOa to tlie public wore 120 pounds below those of 1881 82,
report. Tlit* stock of fehrifugo in ham! on IMst March 1883
Aiuouiitufl tn pouuds, which, though greater than that wi^h
winch the yoaropeiiud, is by no mcana too large a reserve to meet
emergoneios.
Tho revfnue dorivod from the sain of tho febrifuge, seed,
plants, and bark amounted to Rs, 1,52,807 l-O—
Its. A. P.
By sale of febnfugo, seed, plants, and bark to
thopuldie .. SOli'iJ? 9 0
By credits from the Modic.-il Depdt of Calcutta... 33,766 0 0
Do.
do. do. of Bombay...
16,500
0
0
Do,
do. do. of Madras...
5,775
0
0
Do.
from Colouial Government of Mauritina
2,475
0
0
Do.
from the .Surgeon-Gcnoral Bengal
13,271
8
0
1)0.
from tho Inspoctor-Oeneral, Jails
442
0
0
Total ... 1,62,807 1 0
The operations of tiin year reaultod in a prodb of Rs. 66,284-9-6,
wJuch is equal to a dividend of 6^ per cent on tho capital
outlay. Tliia is cxcluaivo of the cost of a coufiiderable ((uantity
of tho balk scut to the Secretary of State which has not boon
taken into uccount,. It imiat, moreover, bo borne in mind that
those profits do not reprcRont tho whole of tho gain of the year.
1’hc cost of an equal quantity of quinine at R^. 96 per pound would
have been llsi. 4,01,32.8. Tiie cost of th(‘ febrifuge used waf
Us. 68,988-8-0. There w'ftn tlins a aavjng of Ra, .3,32,340. The
total saving effected smeo the op ning of tlio factory by the aubsti-
tutiou of tho febrifuge for eulpbuti-.)t qmnino ainoiuit to Hs. 2<3^
laklis, Avhicli is more than twice the amount of the cost of tho
pliiutations
OonHivlerablo attention was given during tho year to the im-
provcnuMit of tho process of manufacture. 'rJie presout system is
admittedly wastiduf, in that it fails to oouvort into fobrifuge
the whole of tiic alkaloitist whi'di the bark uonULins, while there is
no tfouiit that by tin' adnjifioo of a dilKutint and nime costly process
of inanufaoturo a still larger pcrct?ittago of fciie medicinal alkaloids
could lie oxtraetiMl, It iy not, howevoi, equally eertain whether
tiin febdfuge so obtained could bo turned out at a loss cost per
pound, d’ho whole subject of the course to b« adopted in the dis¬
posal of tho I aw produce of the plantations is still under the oonsi-
donition of («oveininent.
Tfn'^SFKIllM CF.VOHOaVA rLlXTATIOXS.
rnO any one \idling the l>arjeeHug district, an expedition to tho
L (lovenniient (hnciioiei riuntitiony is most intorosttug.
Mungpon, wln-i *• Mr. (.laninuH li\ cm, is about 17 miles from Kursoong.
'I’lie lo id ruiH a long the top of a ndgo of tlie nioiint.aiiiM for a consi-
ilem'de di.siaiirie and iM a lieiiutitid ride. It is mostly through
ioie f, abonuthng in foriM and oicbid.soF uiHuito variety, and of
diHouiil fouUM to those commonly found in Ucylon. Tho Gov'oru-
mvnt cmciiona ^dantations occupy a vast stretch of country, aud are
under the charge of Rcveral liuiopnaaM. The noil is in most
pl.tci'M vi-ry rich anti romarUalile freit and porous, wliilatthc geuoral
featurr ; of tho country are steep Hiid hold to a degree. Tlio most
notiric-.ible pluutution in one of hybrids »icar the superiiitendont’s
I)ung-dow. Tiie.sc ti e-es arc about f uir years old, and aro raised
from see<l of tho original hybrid or “ ignoti” trees which appeared
in the pu'Cel of s^vd forinerly sent from Hakgal a to Darjeeliug.
bight loj ms aiu rocoguiz.id amongst ihosc trees as being distinot
aud cliuraeteriMtic, and ropresontatious of ea«ch liave been analyzed
wdtli the ra-juU of figures raugiug from '97 to 6* 12 crystallised qui¬
nine sulphate. The worst of these forms, known as No. 4, has
been cutirvly eliminated from the plantation, so that its flowers
kIiuII not conUi.minu^0 those of tho more valuable kinds. It is
chaiu. lori/ud by largo liglit greou leaves, aud is tho form which
must nearly reaemliles Hiiecirubra in appearance. Tlio richent for.
No. 7, giving 6'12 crystallLied quiniue sulplmU*., is a small broad-
leaveil free-growing tree, with muiuo olIicinaliH cbaractorUtics. At
a considerably lower elevation thin tins is situated the famous
Ledgoriana plantation, 'rhese trees aro not as Urge as one would
"xpoet from their oge, tlioy Uavuig boon raised Ironi cuttings of
the original trees from Ledger’s sood. Their moat remarkable
characteristic is tho great giith of tho stem and tlm extreme tliick-
nesfl and weight of the bai k, which can be taken olT literally in
filaiis. TIk'sc troc?1 v^ cn-all covered with bloMaom when I saw
them, and promise a very abundant crop of .seel Hlmrtly.
In anoibei |>oi'tion of the plant ithni a L- Igeriana clearing, tho
plants in which wore raised fioni sroil. A strange foaturo lu this
planting U the largo number of Calisaya Javaaicas amongst tb#
420
TJIE INDIAN AaRICULTUBIST. November 1, 1883.
riio They arc, althoiigli only about throe yoai'a oM,
bloaaumiiig profusely, and arn easily renognizablo by their l ujje
flotvers and flower branches, ThB^jonoral appearance of the cin¬
chonas is rather disappointing, tho growth not boing otpial to what
we aro uocustomod to in Ceylon, blit the wholosalo dying out to
which waare so liable appears to be little known. I hoar canker is
very common, Imt it i.s purely local in its effect and does not neces¬
sarily kill the tioii, 01 inatcrially affect its growth. Mr. Gaminic
has found a niarkod falling-off in the growth and gonoral health of
the cincliouas, the original trees being superior in every way to
those raised from them, and the successive planting being each
inferior to Us predecessor. This appears to be a very general iin-
prossiou in Ceylou, and it is interesting to note that, in spite of the
extreme care and liberal expenditure bestowed in the Guveruinont
ciuohona gardens, this experlenoa in regard to them has been the
same as in our ease. As with us too, the hybrid oiuehouus arc
markedly superior in growth and general health to the snccirnbras
alongside them, and in oonseqnenoo, tlioir more valuable form i arc
alone being propagated in addition to the Ledgerianas which occupy
the first place. The system of cultivation p trsuc 1 i.s what h.n
been described before except that hoeing is dispensed witli. Tbs
jungle is allowed to grow freely under the trees and is kept within
hounds by periodical “ cuttings.” Terraoiug has been trio I, Imt
w as not found a success, and the terraces are now being lovullud in
cousequenoo. All the plantations hitherto are on wlntl we should
call “ chena" land, but the soil is so rich that the trees do not
appear to suffer in any way from exhaustion of soU. The eohi
tweather of last winter, whioh damaged the branohes of the forest
reee near the Darjeeling station to such a great extent by the weight
of snow on them, appears to have killed baok many of the suooiru-
bra priuiuiies, whioh have a strange appoarouco in cousequonce. It
is striking that In spite of the wonderful tinaucial simccs.s of th is
undertaking, and Of the Darjeeling Ciuohona Company, which ex¬
actly faces Kungbee and Muugpoo across a wide and deep valley,
none of the Darjeeling Companies have embarked in cinchona oiilti
vation to any great extent. A few young trees ora to be soon along
road sides in some places, but anything ressmbliug w hat we should
call a clearing is unseen. It is no doubt fortunate for us in Ccyhm
that this oultivatiou has not been largely extended by private indi¬
viduals in the Darjeeling district, foi' with the large amount of suit
able laud which could no doubt be fuiiiid, ami with tlic cumpar.vtive
immunity they eujoy from prcmatuio dying out, w.i sh mid be
faced with a formidable rival to what is now a Bl.rugglin ; nuterpriso
owing to low prices. Another point in which IJ.n jiieliiig evpori-
ence coincides with ours is regarding the utilisation of land for u
second crop of cinchona, I'liis appears to have been a failure wlioii
tried, and, in oousequeuoe, all such laud is, in th- Government
territory, planted up with tinihii' treos, and, wlicu priv.iti) land,
with tua, I was told that toa phiutud in old chi dioiia land did not
flush as freely ns that in the original oho.la, but probably a more
extended experience will show that wlniii tile to.i nuts p.)uetrate
deep into tile subsoil this inferiority will disappear.
'i'iioru arc tome very Cue I.algeriaua phiiiCs in the various
uiirsories, said to ho nearly half-a-inillioit in uuinbcr, and in order
to dispose of thuso, a now plantation, at ii disiaiim of 41 or,">0
mile* .across the Tcesta river, has heou [uruicd for tlieir rveopliou.
I was shown some plants raised from so-called “ calisiiya ' seed
sent from Jamaica by Mr. Morris, and which it now nppc.irs arc
ordinary oflieinulis. It seems strange that such a inistakv .shoiiM
have occurred, but, apparently, the .laniaica “ c ili.say.i ’ tree.s
which wehave hoard about must be what we know a< “ oliiciiialis.”
Carthugeua bark plants have boon tried at various elovatioiis and
in various localities, but without success. There wai ou ■ specimen
left near the bungalow whioh did not look healtliy, and which it is
to bo feared will soon succumb.— Or.i/lon OhDcrt'ir.
THE CINCHONA INDUSTRY IN BKNU.\L.
A■*7 E have before us the Annual Report on the Govornim n
vT Cinchona riautations in Bengal for the year l.S.Sg 83
I'lom this we gather that the Govonimeut possess tour ntilliiins,
nwon luiudieil and eleven thousand one hundred and si.vLy-right
ehivhona trees of sorts in the sister presidntiey, and that those uro
doing as well as c.an bo exiiuoted, coiisidoriag tlu; oriniparalively
cmhyrostage in which the ciiltivatiou of ttm itubiino link tn e h it
yircscnt in this country. The nlmvo total is oxelu-ivo of sixty-
three thousand sis hundred and ninot.y sev.-n troo.-, uhieh Mere up-
lootcd during the year under ici iow, .a-, the ,tnal>.sis showed that
the bark was of poor quality. Ot tho.o dlwardud Ircci twenty
thousand were hybrid* and forty-three tliou.sand six hiiUilred
n^aoty-tcvan cMitctyat, The removal of these iuferior truest
IS in eont'ormity w ith the policy which has beou followed for eouic
years of raising the standard of tlio produce of these estates by
cultivating only the finest kinds of quiuiue-yieldors. Di conformity
with the same policy, ono Imndred and sixty thousand and eight-
five red bark troes, wliioh liad to be uprooted in the execution of
tlic above system, were rcplaood, not by rod barks, but by yellow
barks and fiyhrids.
Tlie crop for tlie year is the largest that has yet been
harvested on plantations in qnestion. It ouiounts to thrsei
hundred and ninety-six thousand nine hundred and eighty
pounds of dry bark, of which thirty-eight thousand eight
hundred and eighty pounds wore from comparatively young
plants, and the rest from matured trees. Of the total crop,
tliree hundred and seventy-two thousand six hundred and ten
pimiids were SKr.virubrn, twenty two-thousand ono hundred
and tw euty pounds wero Ctduaya and Leagoriaiid, and two
thousand tw'o imndred and fifty pounds woro hybrid bark. The
crop WHS harvested by two methods, one imndred and eighty-two
thousand sewn hundred and twenty pounds having been proonrod
liy uprooting trees llniL Iind begun to mature, while the remaining
two hundroil and fourteen thousand two hundred and sixty
pounda w ere got by tliinning the plantations at spots wliero the
trees Imil In-gun to crowd each other. The bulk of the crop was
made or er to the factory for conversion into cinchona febrifuge,
hut twenty-seven tliinisuiid eight hundred pounds of yellow bark
ami fourteen tlmusand pounds of red bark were sent home to the
.Secretary of State, liy whom tho oonsignment has not yet been
accounted for. it is, we believe, Intondod that these forty-one
tliousand eight hundred pounds of bark sliould be converted in
r.ondoii into various forms of cinchona febrifuge, and that tliese
shall be sent to this country for trial liy tho Medioal Department.
The rvsiiIlB of this experiment alnmld prove a groat suceoss both
financially and otherwise. lucliuliiig tha crop of last year, tho
total outturn from these plantations since their formation, are, wo
arc iiilormed, cousidoraldy over two aud-a-lialf inillious of pounds
III dry hark. Tho Govoriimoiit may therefore be eougratiiUtud on
possessing a very valuable jiropcrty iidoed in the Ciiiciiona I’lauta-
tious <)f Bengal. Tho budget allotment for tlie year was oighty-
tw'o tlioinsaiid two huruired and tu'cuty-ilvo rnjieos, of whioh only
eiglify tliousoud sinen limidicd and tliirty-niuo rupees wero spout,
tliiis leaving a balrinoc of ou.j Uioiisunil four liiiudred and eighty-
Hve rupees on hand of tlic allotment. In return for this outlay,
tlirfe Imndred and uiiiety-six tiionsaud. nine Imndred and eighty
piimids of haik wtun h.ai'veBted, and delivered liver to tlio factory
at cost ]irice. The cost price is calculated at two atinns ami tiinu
pics per pound of bark. The cultivation of the (JaHhiigrim bark
appears to have beou a decided failure, as only tlirec plants
reuiaiuod olive out of a large niimhor at the end of the year.
Nothiugeould well have buou more disappointing than has heeu
the attempt to introduce this bark. Tim plauts wIioii rooeived
from Kovv appoarod to be in line eoudition, and grow at first vigorous¬
ly, so much so as to lead to the belief tlnit the species woulil lie
easy of cultivation, grailually, hti'vei er, all the plants, with tlie
exception ol tlireo, sickened ami died. Every c.u'c w'as taken of
tlmm. ludividiial plants wero ti ie.l at various olcv.itiou.s and with
variousexjiusiiivs, IniL the re^iilL.-i Imve lieon iiiiifonuly disappoint¬
ing. Ciiiifta, a quiuiae-yielding liark, iiiiporlotl into tlie London
inaiket from .South America did not give morn encouraging results
to tlie effort to domesticate it m Bengal. Out of a single pocket
of seeds vvliicli was all the Supiirinteudout could ohtaiij. Duly one
solitary seedling vv-a.H raised. AVe are assured, liovve\-or, that tills
oiiltiv.atirm will he persisted in until the plant is acclimatised.
The .siipplie.s of Cnjircii balk to the liomc inarkwt have so steadily
itiercased, tiiat nuvv tliis deseription of liark coustitutos by fur the
l.irgeML piopoitioii of the total quantity of quinine bark imported
into li’.uiope. For a long time tlie botanical origin of (‘xrprtu was
ttukiioivii, but it I.S now ascertained to bn the produce of a speoios
of Iti'inijii, a genus tiotaiiieally allied to Cinchona Remija is said
lo Ilf le.ss particiilai tiiaii eiiicliona as to soil and climate, tlioiigh
Liie iitiriiircessfiil attempt to iiitioduee it into Bengal do'-s not bear
out tlii-i Inference. Tlio Goveriimciit very wisely and liboially
di.-triimted tim vviiole crop of seed ot ('hichnii /a't/i/crinaa gratui¬
tously to.aiqilicants. We know that tho boon oi this troo distribu¬
tion li.istiooii iniuili appreciated by idantors all over India as well us
ill Ceylon. Tlie poreoiitago of febrifuge extracted from tlio baik
treated in the factory vviia d73. Thi.s is Mtaled to lie a ImtUir ^e.snlt
til til til.it- obtained 1 1 ,t ycir, and i.s atviibute-1 to the superior
quality of the lark iisud in the m.mufacturu. Tlic net remit
of tlie nianufaei.iti'c for tlio year was an outturn of ten ttiousmid
t.hree Imndred and sixty-lhroe poiindi of oi'.'i.i.avy, and tin'cc
hundred pounds of erystalline folirifugc, Tlie cost price of fobrl-
I ftigo, which necessarily fluctuates from year toycar, hoe ia no fMi&es
I
November 1 , 1883 . THE INDIAN AGEICULTTJIHST.
V.
years been so lowasKs. 8-8 a pound, and this is attrihutahlo to the
larger poroeiitage of tlio alkaloids oxtracted from tho baiU nsod in
manufacture. Wo note tliut the year’s working rosultod i,, a
profit of sUty-six thousand, two humired and oighty-four rui>oo.s,
wliich Is equal to a dividend of six aud-a-half per cent on tho
capital, a result which is very satisfactory and doinoustratos the 1
luorativeness of Cinchona planting. Quinine rnlod througliont the 1
year at an average of ton shillings an ounce in London, which, '
qj^ulaling exchange at one shilling, eight pence per rnpoe is equal
to rupees ninety-six per pound In Imlia. Tho quantity of febrifuge
supplied to Govorumont Departments, during the year was four
thousand, one hundred and eighty and-a-half pounds, and the cost
was sixty eight thousand nine hundred and oighty-eight rupees.
An equal quantity of Quinine at rupees ninety-six per pound would
have cost four laos, one thousand, throe Imudrcd and twenty-eight
rupees. Tho saving to tho State offootud by suhstitutiug fobrirngc
of Government monutaotura for English-made (Jniuiuo was tlieru-
toro throe laos, thirty-two tliousoud, throe hundred and forty
lupees. If this be added to similar savings effected by tho suhsti-
tntiou of the febrifuge for Quinine in former years, the total saving
to the State lu the matter of Quinine amounts to above twonty-
throo laos and twenty-five thousand rupees, and as the total cost of
the plantations lias only been ten lacs, the Govorumont have good
reason to be satisfied with tho siiceess of its Ciuehona operations.
Great attention hud heeu given during tho year to the improvement
of tho process of manufacture, and a hotter result was obtained tlmu
from any provious year. There is uo doul)t that Ijy the adoption of
a different and more costly process of inauufaoturo, a still larger
poroontago of febrifuge might he obtained, hut that the febrifuge
BO obtained would cost loss per pound is, wo are informed, djulffful.
With a raw material which is cheap, bulky, and practically nuli-
inited iu supply, processes of maiuifaetiire whieli involve expensive
carriago ami apparatus are of doubtful advantage. The vexed
question regarding tho stripping vaui' tho shaving systems is
given by Dr. King in favour of the latter. However, we do not
think that partial oxporimoi^ts like those inaugurated by Dr.
King will earry much weight. Dr. Jviiig based liis dictum on
the first sliaving of tlic trees, wliivli yielded a very favouralilo
re.sult, but the opponents of tim system declare tliat the luirk
deteriorates in an alarming manner after each harvostiug of crop,
where shaving has been adopted, fie this as it may. the Direct
speaks in unqualified praise of the Dutch ptoeess ot harvesting
•the hark. This was introduced by Dr. iMoeiis, the lUreotoi uf
Ciuehona cultivation, to tho Duteh Government, and euusists in
slriving oil tho greater part of the hark of a living tree to tlie
liiiglit of fioin eight to ten leetfrom the ground, care being taken
to leave ewij « heie a aulfieiently thick layer uf hark to coiur llio
wood. Tliis method is alleged to have had a fair trial, and tlie
result has, it is staled, Ijceu highly lavourahle, as tin- baik renews
perfectly. What, however, remained til 1)0 seen uas wlud.lior tlie
renewed Lark was as rich in medieinaj alk.iluids as tho original. Jl
was with the object of detenniuii^' lliis queitirm that an analysis
was undertaken during the year. This results aio thus deseribed
by Doctor King : “ Thu bark renewed ratlier slowly, Imt the
analysis shows that it is wry rich both in Quinine and Cinelioui-
dino, and thor* can be uo doubt that in euuntrivs wlicrc red bark
trees are perfectly at borne, and ivlicre tlieir eonUnuauco in good
health and vigor for a long series of yeai's can bo alisolutoly eoanted
on, this shaving process is a very excellent one.” In coiiulnsion,
wo must remark on the excellent care and uiaiiagtmiont hestuivod
on tho plantations by Dr. King. They could nut bo in more perfect
order, and tho Doctor well merits the eommeudatioas mid thanks
littered by the Liouteuant-Goveriior.
FORESTRY.
the cry was heard thac Coara Rubliov lives wore no good, and
could not be made to pay, whatever might be the ease with the
other varicUe e The Cvaratroo.s to which the follmvi.ig expoiff-
monts rater are growing on J’eradeuiya Estate from to -1 years
old, 28 to 38 foot iu height, planted 12 foot by 12, and already with
thiir hranehbs so iutsrloeked that there is danse sltado hoiieath,
Mr, (lilliat, tho manager, has n .strong opinion from tho result of
his observations and experiments that shade i.s inimical to tlie
quality of the riiliher got from the stem, and he would .recommend
planting fShy 15 feet or oven20 by 20 as an experiment. Again, ho
lia.s found that the host time to out or tap h immediately after
ralii, aud Dr. Trimon fully agrooa that the ftow of sap will be
groatost just !>oforo the flowering acusoii.
The great dcHderutu hithorto wicli all who have experimented with
rubber trees iu Ceylon have baeti a satistaetory, eeouomieal mode ol
tapping the. tree without injuring it, of oullnetiug the milk, and of
seeuriiig It III a markotahlo form witiimit tIm admixture of foreign
suhstanee.s or impurities of any kind. Mr, Djhroo’s kiiiK was
iiitondod to ho used fortlio removal (anti repla.ie.neiit) of a portion
of the hark—ail operation wbicli eimld aeaively h.i done without
lujunug the camhiimi. Mr. Wall tried skiuuiiig the tree, and then
pnckiug It to induce the How of Uia milk-a tedious aud expoiisive
process wo sin,nld .suppose. Certainly we haw seen uo instrii
mout and heard ofuomoaiisof Upping equal to that wiiicii Mr.
liilliat (tho inventor) hroiiglit under our iiotici- to day. By his
littlo iiistrumoiit, witli tlie aeoompanyiiij: tins and tha proec.ss for
Iheeliiniuationof impuiitios, wc are very liopefiil Ceara Rubber
oultivatiou may he made a very profitaldn hrmioli of new pro¬
ducts'industrio.s in Ceylon, and wo trust Ml. Gilliat’s iugeimity
aud patient ospcninentalixing will meet with tim reward they
doserve, .Sulliee It (,i .s.'iy tkat, a ,.|,,,iy tins little knife can
make the requisite mimber of cut I down the haik ol the rubber
trues wilh ease and lupidity uitbmit any mit-rial iujiiry to
tho .miiiliinm. When made, tho cut is about Jtl. of an inch open
or wide by I Jlitli in. li deoii; tlie cuts hfioiiid not be nearer each
I other Uiaii nine in,die.s-that is. trees on I'oiudeiiiya, four years
old, ,‘M inehoa girth, bike imir Imriroiital nnU ; hut Jlr. Gilliat ia
very liopuftil (and Di. ’I’limon we lieliuvc iigrj. s) that after a
ruoiitn .s interval, four mure cuts in the intervals may he made
wilhont iiijming the tree, .so giving a second harvest of rulihor.
All ordinary oooly can go over 200 tress a day with -t eiits in each,
aud a little podian eaii toUow witli tlu, tiuy tins (spneially m.ide tiy
Mr. (iillial out of omidy kevusiiie Uih) whiidi avo sLu-k iiitu tint
tree to cutuii tin, leaidiug rubber. T/nnu tins can lie mad-, at 5
cunts a piece. Tim iiio.sl important part is bownvor the eliemieal
prooes.s by wliieh all iiii]niriliei aie |,riwipitated ami lumps of pure
whits rill,ber, gradinilly asiiuiiiiiig the pink colour on tin, mlguj so
prised at homo, are seenrod. Mr. Gilliat, being morn or lesi of a
eliomist, laid ex|,erinicnted tor months over tlii.q until lie found tho
spirit, a very littlo of wliii ii dr„iip.d into the day’s giil’noring of
ml,I,Cl, secures tiic above result. 'J’liu (dnnination i,s seeiired .'vvu
if 2-1 iioiiid elapse li,-twi-un tlie tapping and the upplioatnm of tl
spirit. Dr. Triimm i.s highly aatislica with the roaiilt ; and w„
cannot help tluiikiiig that tlie bvantifiilly white clean samples of
rubliiir slniwii to ii.s to-day will he pried as high as any in ih-
home market. Mr, Gilliat is to lay tUom before the I’lanlera
Association. .So far as his exp.eriiueiits have gone, from ^tli.s to J
ounce of rniibor per tree i,s about tin; g-itlioriiig or .say i'th oiiiico
from the two cuttings with a iiiuiitli's iiitiu'v.il. N-j one can yet
say how aooii the tree will bear aiiotlmr iia-vesting, Tin; oxpurim’out
has to be made I but there i.s no reason to doubt a satisfactory
profit fiom rubber oultivatiou, wdien huivestiug aud iircpaiution
are done with the iiistruiueiita and acoordiug to llio plan invented
by Mr. Gilliat of Doradeuiya citato, to whom ali rubber plauter.s
owe, at Uaat, their best thanks.— (Jeylon Observer.
FOREST POLICY 12^ CEYLON',
RUBBER CULTIVATION IN CEYLON.
A nother clever coutrlvanoo has to be added to the long list
of inventions by Ceylou plautrrs for tho more rapid, ocouo-
mioil %id suooessful porformaneo of the work eoimoctod witli the
cultivation aud preparation of now products n hieli, of roeout
years, have excited so mueh atteutiuii, Ihit first of all, it is satis¬
factory aud re-assuring to find Ceara Rubber trees brought for¬
ward again as objects promising fliiaiioial suoeoss for the cultivator.
So muoh was said lately of tlio difiiculty of colleotlng tho milk—
or rAtUer WAtory substAuco— to iimko it pay, that ou niAuy jid«s
l^R. YINCENT iu his report on Forest proteoliou in Ceylou
-1-fX says ;—In the various ruporti reganliiig Ceylon forests, and
iu eouaultiiig Goverumvnt oHioials and others, there arc two oppo-
site opinions as to the future treatment of tho forest question. Due
patty thinks that forest devastation has already gone .so far that
no remedial measures can be ,.f mueh use in saving tli; r,.‘inaiiiing
forests ; that .10 called elvili.; itioii having swallowed up all tlie
forests ia tho vicinity of towns, nud that as timber ii .so difiiealt
and oxpousivo to got from the reiu ito forests siill rnmaiuiug, the
latter should bo loft to the present mauagsiiiont, and that fer our
future timber supply wo should plant up witli teak largo areas con-
tigupus tp puj tpwas, The opposite pai'ty would hAvo the whole
422
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
November 1, 1883.
of the foreat urea deolarcJ a roserve, all woi'ka of improvoaiout—
such a> planting; and thinking—nbandoued, and all ciroids conoon-
tiutod on strict coiiscia'aney, whieh would bo onforcGil by a stria-
gout law profcocthig all Crowu forest lauds, cot only from thu choaa
cultivator, but exoluJiug evou village commanities from the right
of use in the adjaeeut juugles. Neither of those proposals appears
to appreciate the true state of tho case. To ooaliuo our attention
oiitirely to planting would menu that tho forests now left must
gradually be absorbed by chona cultivation. We might thou find
out that tcala would uot grow, and uertainly that its artificial
growth would be most costly. On tho other hand, to nogleokall
works of iinprovemont, planting, thinning, icc,, as at present, would
luoaa that the forests must gradually dotoriorato, and the supply of
timber decrease, fast attempts at strict conservancy over the
whole area have not been reassuring, and to be ofTootivo they would
mean an enormous protootlve staft, costing more than tho forests
uude.r tho most favourable oircumstanoes, oouid ever return, ^‘l^e
true solution of the forest question Is only to be found by combin¬
ing striot conservancy over a limited area—assisted by works of
improvement, planting, &o.—witli general conservancy over thn
remainder of tho Crown lands, Instead of attempting conaorvoucy
over the whole area, it is proposed to limit the sjdiero of our priu-
eipal operations to tho areas best suited tor forming into reserved
forests. Wltli regard to the rest of tho area, we sliall only main¬
tain n general conservancy, provontlug tho cutting of four or flv o
of tho most valuable trees ; stopping also the clearing of forest aud
tho unauthorized sale of forest produeo, but, beyond this, giving
villagers aud other local rosideuta as many privileges as they now
cujoy. Tor their bettor protection it Is also proposed. If necessary,
to form om-taiu areas into village forests for tho benefit of village
communities only.
MINERALOGY.
COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF RUSSIA.
H M. SECRETARY of Legation at St, Petersburg says tha^
• until the year 1830 tho working of ooal was almost
entirely ooufiuod to the basin oi the Dou, aud tho out-put
was only about S,000,000 poods—the pood being oquivalo.it
to thirty-si.v Euglish pouuda—of autliriicito yearly, tho result
of private enterprise. Tho coal-fields in the Ural, tho
Caucasus, aud in the Island of Saglialiou produceil at thu same
time but 3,001),000 poods annually. As regards tlio situation of
the various ooal deposits, that in tho Oovornmout of Moscow is
considered the most useful taking into cunsidoratiou tho gradual
destruction of the forests in Ceiitr.al Kiissla : tliat of tho Don basin,
by the case with which it can bo brought into oonucetiou, hy
mcaus of railways, with the North of Russia, aud cspooully witli
the \’'olgaaud Black Sea, furuishos the railways and stoamors
plying on thu abow mentioned river with a couriderabln supply of
fuel. The coal dc]) 0 sita in the Ural Mouiitaius arc situated iii the
coutro of a country rich in minerals of every sort, aud their
eloHo proximity to tho River Kama will admit of their being
the source from which fuel will bo drawn for the use of
steamers on that river and on tho Volga. lu tho centre of the beet¬
root sugar producing country about Kloff aud Elizabethgrad, is
another vein of coal ; and there is also one in the centre of tho
groat mineral deposits of thoao mountains. With tho iuoroaso aud
improvomout in railway oommuuicatiou, tho output of ooal has
shown a marked incrottse. Tor IHOS, the outpat of Itnasia—Poland
e-xceptod—was 12,000,000 poods ; in 1S70, 22,000,000 poods ; iu
1872, 48,000,000 poods; iu 1874, ii4,000,0'J'J poods; in 1870,
80,000,000 poods, iu 1870, i 12,000,000 poods, and ISSO, 122,000,000
poods. The chief obstaolo to tho more general use of eo.il through¬
out tho empire is the excessive doaruosa of trouaport by rail, whi«h
frequently even surpa-saes the actual price of the ooal. Of 2,700,000
poods of coal worked in tlio southern portion of the b.aiia of tlie
Dou, tho production sudduuly rau up to 0,503,000 poodi lu 1872 ;
but in 187+ It was reduced to 3,000,000 piooJs a year. iSiuco tiio
eoustruotiou of Uic KoursU-KliaikolT-Azof Railway it hai iiiuriasod
to such a degree that iu 1870 It roaohud 47,000,000 poods. As
rcgtti'da anthracite on tiic eastern part of the basin, from 4,500,000
poods iu 1803, it has Increased to 10,500,000 poods in 1877, and iu
1879 tho total production ol lliis basin was 70,500,000 poods, of
which 29 , 500,000 was nnthracito. In the Urol Kasiu, tho output
oi ooal was from 1,500,000 poods in 1878 to 4,000,000 poods iu
1870, Tho priucip^ plhoes wothed at present ore LonoioR and
Korohoau-LazarefL There are also in Asia vast deposits of coal,
at Kouznetsk, iu tho Trovluoe of Tomsk. On tho Kirgiz Steppe,
in the provinces ol Somlplatluak and AkmoHusk, about 1,000,000
poods are annually worked, chiefly at Karagandinsk. In
Turkestan, coal is worked in tho Kara.Tau mountains. In the
province of Kuldja there are coal-mines worked by the Chiueao
with on output of .<>00,000 poods yearly. In Eastern Siliorhi,
in tho Island of Saglialieu, a little ooal is worked for tlie use of
tho fleet. In the province of Primorskoia, on the Glulf of Poss
aud ou the Amoor, near the mouth of tho Souyfouu, thesnnll
amount of ooal worked is for tlio use of tho Siboriau fleet. (Inil
was imported in 1880 to the extent of 83,500,000 poods from
Ureat Britain, 21,500,000 poods from Germany, an 1 8,000,') H)
poods from Austria, besides smaller quantities from o)li r
countries, The iron industry is especially dovolopa 1 iu tlic
Ural mountains, chiefly in the Proviuoos of Perm, Orenburg, Oufa,
Vialka, aud Ksem. In the Ural, the principal mines arc those
of Bligoda), Wyssekaia, aud Magiiituala. The mines of Blagodat
cmit.iiu fi’cii U 7> pjrceut of iron, aud about .57 per cent of
cast iron ii obtained that of WyssokaYa from 00 to (iO percent
of iron, and about 01 to Go par cent of oast Iron. The miues of
Magiiituaia arc tUu richest, coutaiuiug 00 per cent, and above,
of luiro iron ; but they aro situated in a country devoid of fuel.
Acoordiug to official roturus, in 1879, it was estimated that there
wore 1,920 beds of iron ore, 772 of which w'oro worked, aud pro¬
duced 37,000,000 poods of uiia''r,al, IVyssokaia-Gora had the
greatest output, uainely, 5,000,000 poods ; aud tlion (lora Blagodat
with about 2,500,000 ; theu follow tho works of Kyshtym, AlapaiolT,
Kolouultsk, Slataviist, aud Sytorsk, which furnish about 2,000,000
poods each. Throughout tlie whole of Russia, iu 1830, 27,000,000
poods of cast iron were raauufaoturod, of which 16,000,000 poods
wore made iu tho Ural. Of tho total qiiautity of cast iroa made in
Russia, ill 1880, 25,600,000 poods were made hy using wood as
^uol, aud 1,500,000 poods with ooal. Tho province of Poriii heads
tho list as to the quantity of oast iron made, with 1,400,000 poods,
then ooiiios tho province of Oufa with 2,000,000 poods, then
Radomn in Poland witli 1,500,000 'pO'xls- Iu 1880, 19,000,000
poods of stool wore made, of wliioli 2,000,000 ill the Ural. It is a
fact that the places whore most stool Is made are not those whicli
produce tho most iron. Thus the St. Petersburg (4ovutnmout iu
1870 prodiicod 7,000,000,poods of stool, and that of Orel iu Central
Russia 3,500,000 poods, tlioii follow the two Polish I’roviaoos of
W'arsaw and I’lotrkoir, where 4,500,000 poods wore an l.i, Thu
Proviuue of i’orm oomos iu as fifth, witli hardly 1,500,000 poods. -
Joui'iiiU of tho Sociol;/ of Arts.
SERICULTURE.
TURKISH SILK FARMING,
A LATE number of tho British Trade. Journnl contains an article
entitled, “ A filauco at a Turkish Industry,” from which
the following particulars aro extracted Mr. Griflitt h.as for
many years boou more or loss engaged in tho double task of ootn-
batlug tho various diseases to which the silkworm is liablo, and in
tryiug to teach tho peasantry how to regain something of the romu-
nerativo silk harvests which prooodod tho uufortuuatn year 1357.
The loss sulTorod by Turkey when tho various silkworm maladies
first spread so violently is, he says, iuoaloulahlo. Ho romoiiihers
tho time when tho wife of every gardener iu the vicinity of Suiyrna
obtained from her crop of cocoons n suffiilout roturu to oiialilo her
to pay for the clothing of her family for the whole year. In those
days there were iu the ucighbourhood of Smyrna three largo steam
siik-reeliug factories, whore hmidrods of women wore employed,
hut avheu disease became gon.ir.il this industry had to be
nbaudoued from lack of oouim. Fi-i-hori' and Pobriiu swept away
tho valuable iudigouous r.ieoi: hug: ai’e.u of mulborry trees wore
iiproutod as liuiiig uo lougur required, aud ‘-ilk-farmiug oamo to bo
almost outirely relinquished. It is true that attempts wore
made to stem the tide of misfortune by the iutroductiou of
foreign eggs, but tho peasantry, aeeiistoinod to haujlo their/...wu
largo and beautiful cooooua, uumboriug 250 to tho pound weight,
became disboartoued when they had to deal with tho far inferior
Japanese produet of only half thu size aud weight. About
this junoturo Mr, Griflitt obtained poss-essiou of a quantity
of native grain, reprcsoutlng n poouliarly line ruec of silkworms,
but which wore very much diaeasod, Buiug Hwai'e, from export-
November 1,1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
423
onoe. that no batoh of eggaiscvor ontiryly coaLainuiatcd by (Uaoaso.
ami being a fii'in believer iu the »yiti-,m <if rogeiioration liy isolation
introduced some time before Iiy tho I'jeooii pliyiieisl, M.
Pasteur, Mr. Griffitt carried it into practice, liatcliiiig his worms in
separate ceils, and jealously following with the microsuopa every
Bubseijuont stage of their development. With an expeudlture of
infinite patience nud tronblo, he at length suceeoded iu rearing his
jtifcsent entirely hualtliy and vigorous brood, tho eggs from which
yield about 160 lbs, of cocoons for every ouuoo hatcliod ; I'dlbs, of
tho ooooons, as taken frosli from tho bnslies, yielding 1 lb. of silk
of tho finest quality. Ilaviug thus aocoJtipUshed his first and
priuoipal self-imposed task, Mr. GrifUtt set hUiiiclf with crpial
ardour and determination to grapple with tho second. It was
not enough to be able to show tbe peasantry of Bonruabat, near
Smyrma, where liia chief magnauetios are situated, of Nyinpbio, and
of th's island of Mityleue that ho had mastered tho dreaded
Pehrine and Flacherie ; but determined to leave no opening for
misunderstanding or carelessness, ha went among tho people
personally, with supplies of healthy eggs. In this manner
lie taught the fanners and peasantry tho precautions tlioy
should observe, and secured their soli intcrcsted oo-operation
by making them partners iu the season’s venture. Even then ho
was occasionally liafllcd to some extant by tho appoarauco of dis¬
eased moths bred from absolutely healthy pniinr, tho result of
infection caught from diseased worms still in tho neighbourhood. |
Frustrated for tho moinout only, lio still porsovorod, and now, after
years of unremitting striigglos with tho oueniy, ho lias re.storod
to that diatriot of Turkey some of tho prosperity in silk-raUtug
which it eujojod thirty years ago. During tho past season Mr.
Qritlitt has scarcely lost a siiiglo worm through disease, and liis
peasant friends have lioou almost equally fortnuato, althmigb,
Others iu tho same localities, using i^’rouch eggs, hut without tho
advantagi) of a paternal director,, have again hut liciavUy tlirough
tlio ravages oi l‘ehrlne.. AooorJiugly, tho most couviuciiig proof
that could bo ofTorod of tSc happy effuct of Mr. Griffitt’s
labours among tlio TerkisU poasautry iu llie places alliKlcd
to appears in the following speoimeu eases of this year—a few iu-
Rtamms out of many whore ednoations of silkworms ou tho Pastenr
cellular system have! boon attained without, loss from egga pre¬
viously passed iind-r tho mici'osoope F.lluni raised 2174
» coouons, wliicli sold for is. 21 ]icr Ih,, £1-4 S.l. 9d. ; sho o-spciidcd
tornuilbony icavi's and u girl’s help, £2 7a. ; leaving a net profit
ot ,C12 Is. 9d. This peasant woman attcudod to tlio worms without
aid dniiiig llic first throe ugos, and was assisted by a girl through¬
out tlie lost two. Adriana’s crop cousislcd of 151 i lbs, of cocoons,
Iroin wiiioli sho raoiod 15 lt»j, of raw silk, selling the sumo at 1.5s,
per 11),, £ll-5s, - tliv cost of reeling, &o., was £1 2s., leaving a net
profit of £10-3s. I’o.sscssiiig her own mulberry busiics, and Iniviiig
two yoiiftg daughters, who assisted 1, r during the lust age, lior
outlay w'as small. Olicpiiiou and Costoiil.i had u crop of 418 lbs.
of cocoons, which produced-14 lbs.”of raw silk, ainl sold at I5s.
per lb., £33 ; the cost of reeling, &e., was £3-.5.s. ; leaving
u net profit oi £2!l-l,5s. These two sisters wero also tho owiior.s of
a small mulberry gardeu, and svero assisted during tiio last ago by
two daughters aufl a son. “ Hero," as Mr. GiifEtt points out,
“ are poor Turkisli peasant women who liavu acquired, liy a few
days’ labour, what would have taken tlioir husbands threo mouths
to earn.”
TEA.
THllOUGII THE TEA DISTEICTS OF NORTH INDIA.
1 .
IbVIUEKbIKf!.
T he lay of land in the Davjoeliug hill-districfc, aud the stylo oi
plant and of cultivation, is utterly different to that of Assam,
•nni^fforda a more valuable basis for coniparisoii witli the Ceylou
lul^ouutry. Tho soil at the top of tlie hills is mostly a very stifl
clay, similar in appearaiieo to much that wo Itavi in some parts of
Coy ion, and cxecediugly ricli and fertile, Dower duwn, towaids
the valleys, tlie soil becomes quite ditfereiit and consist.s gciievally
of a ricli black niicaceous loam w liieli is very free and porous. ^ So
•tiff is tho soil iu parts near tlio ridges tiiat it is almost impossible
to walk aiong tho roads witligut frequent falls, aud pouios travel
boat if tough-shod.
Gonorally siic.-iking, tho estates are as steep as any plantcil land
we have in Ceylon, but the stylo of cultivation is different to oiirs.
In most eases, tho liill-sido nt the oommciioomout is formed into
small level tonaccs, and a row of plants put along each ;
frequently, however, tin-land is lined in tlio usual way, up and
down bill, is not liraiiicd, and yet the wasii is trifling in tlie most
heavy sliowcrs. The .secret in this case is tile tenacity of the
soil, ainl the fact tliatliooing is only done once or twice early in tlm
season, to open it uii, and that, after that, the woods are ouij kept
down by being cut with siokh's,
Oil teri'iicod land, hoeing can Ijc done more freely, but ovou lioro
tlio weeds are goneraliy cut aud not dug over tlie faces of tbo
terraces being carefully trcatoil, Onr nysfem of draining does not
appear to have been tiie.l. It. would, 1 think, be a Biioe?ss in stiff
land, but in many places there is no tcnaciuuH siibioil to out down
nto, and slips would Ijo the only result of any attompt at draining.
I’eais, however, goueiMlIy onened on lainl wliicli lia.s been picvioiis-
ly ciiltivatdd and abaiulouod by natives, and is coiisoipientlv full
of weed seed. To attompt to eradicate the weeds during tlioir rapid
growth iu tho rains would be nio.st expensive, if not impraotlcabio,
aud hoiioB w.ash is ton groat extent prevented by tho thiok matting
of weeds wliich cover the ground and hold the soil togotlinr. Iu oouse-
rjueiioe of this system ot cultivation, tlie uppcitranco of the estates
’s not pleasing to tlie eye, tlio Inishus liciiig in many cues almost
liddeu by tin! growth of jungle. Strange to suy, in spite of tlio
numerous zigv.ag roads tliat have to lie cat to open up llic gardens,
a road tracer is nukiiowii in tho district, ainl conscquenlty, tho
gradients are very uiiovoii and tlio roa-ls gcnurally steep and bad.
Tho buildings lioro are of a very dilV-nmt cliacactcr to t-lioso in
Assam, boiug //Ui-knua a rule, and more like what we are aceusloin-
ed to in Ceylon, 'i’iiore is a groat doai th of nnichinery iu the
listriot, many large gardens liaviiig rolling iiiaohiiies only, and ar
still tiring over stoves. Dabonr is very clienp, and wlioce a manager
is popular with his coolic.s, very plentiful. Tim labourers are ail
liillmoii, Ncpaulese, Lqichaa (tlie inhabitants of Britisli .8ikkini),
aud Bhooteas. They arcjalI under sirdars wlio rmieive their p,ay
for tlioni, aud aro recruited without any expomo to the ganbm,
siiiall advances recovcrablo from the eonlies' pay being alone given.
The rate of pay varies from Us. to Us. 5 a month, and hcuco
Darjiling !u.s the groat advantage of plentiful and e-lm.qi labour.
Tliero is one drawback, liowoveV. It is tlie oilstom in many loea-
lltiea to give up a largo p.irlioii ot tliu wa-ste laud belonging to tlio
estate to tho ouolie.s for tlm eultii.ition of Indian cnm. In
some valleys liniidrc.ls of acres of fine laii-l arc seen onl-
tivatod in tliis way, ami the loss to tlic gardens is not apparent iu
any system of acconuts, Init none tiie less real and s"i inns, imist
be very great. At tlm present time iaiid fit fur tea cannot be ob
taiued in tlie ueighlmurhood ol Uaiji'oliiig by any moan.', and hmico
tin* waste of good soil in the way just uiviiliunod i.s the iiiori)
deiiloralile,
Coutiiiumis crops oi native pvoduno are taken off the same soil
by the ooolicH ill hundreds ol acres of land witlioiit the paynieut
of any rent or tlio ii,|)pli«ali'iii of any manure ; and the loss l>y
cxiiaustion, w.ash, and introduction of weeds must be enormous.
Not only this, but in a good (grain) year, the manager has irequeiit
ly great ililtbMili,j in in-lucing liis well-fed eoolios to work at all,
tor tliey liavo no indncoinonl to. As legards transport, tiic dis
trict is well served by the r.iilwiiy to iw centre, tlioiigli tliere are
geui'i.al comjilaiuts of delay in tho transport ol goods, which ii ex
cusable in viow of Uiu dilDciiltius under which the line lias Ij-ieii
worked of late.
'I'lio hill labourers are very well ncciislonud to carry very lieavy
loads uphill, and it is wonderful to see the weight tliey can lake up
to tlie station. A maiind-cliest, woigliiug pci'liap.s 130 lbs. gross, is
iiolhiiig to thi-in, and I-saw one in.an earrving a cheat and-a lialf,
isliicb cannot iiavc been iess than 170 nr 180 ib
Tin. nietliod nt earrying i-s tlial wliieli is. I believe, coimnoii to .all
liillinen—a o,lrap is p.a.sscd round tlie bottom of the load and over
the forr-hcad, wliicli, with tlie back, supports tin'entire weight.
Tlie weigiit is thus ibslribntod over tin' wiiob' of tlie upper p.art of
the liody in ;i way whieh enables eu'irm-ms lea 1 1 to b j e.irrie-l up
steep lulls, winch eoulcl not ho tak-jii f-ir any distance on the flat
by themotliod in vogue amongst Tainil.s, In appearance, as in
character, Uic Lcliciia-s, N'epaiilesc .mil Bliootcus are very different
to the Bengalis. When well Iro.atod, they are a most cheerful,
willing race, and make capital garden coolio.s. There is no labour
Uw affecting them in Darjeeling, and tho vexatious rotnrus and es¬
pionage wliicli prevail in Assam are hero unknown. With no
agreciiicnt, the eoolios, if iiiismaiiagcd, nre given to leaving
ill a body, witlioiit ,my notice i but tliis i.s a very r.am
oeoiirrciue, tlioir extensive plantations of Indian corn and
other grain acting as a poworfnl inducement to tlmni to soltio
in one spot. Till! JJi-itisli frontier buiug so very close, it -says
much for their lionc.sty that cases of robbeiq and bolting aro laro
111 the extreme, although it is tho usual thing to send a few
ooolie.s and a siriliir alone to tlio station for cash, which they
might easily make oil with, if so inclined, with very small risk to
tliemsolvcs. The tyiie of couiitcimuce of the Lepchas aud Bhooteas
i.. (ieoidodly Mongolian. Tho men are very ugly, though in iny of
I them have pleasing faces; a few of tho women are nice-looking,
but they aro the exception. Tlio latter lia/o a custom ot vvoai-ing
tlioir savings in r.ipce.s strung togotlior and fustoiicJ round the iioek
which would appear to offer oppartunitie-s for robbeiy, thongii such
rarely if nierocouro. The Nepaulo.se are liy l.n the handsomrit
I'licc of the three. 'I'liey come from independent tcriitoiy to the
gardous, and take full inlvaiilagc of tlie l■oal■c■l.sion.- wliieli
Govcruiiiout make to native settlers here m, cl i-.ivhore.
Both in Assam and ill Daijuellug the use ot “ cooty a-icks for
plucking loaf is unknown, in the tornn'i' ili-strie-t, tlio loaf is eol-
looted ill baskets slung to the warst, and ii weigiiod in twieo a u.i,y
iu tho latter ; tlu baskets are supported on the biick by ferciieaJ
strap;s, aud lhi|lcat thrown into them oi cr tho shoiiluor, weighing-
424
THE INDIAN AGEICTTLTURIST. November 1, 1883,
hi liL'liig goiicrally done Oiico a ilay only. Baskets ar d, undoubted¬
ly. very awkward things to carry, especially among oloaely planted
tea, and, when due onr<i is ex-’ici-sod, Uiat the leaf is not pressed
down and alloweil to heat in any way, the omploymeut of bags is, I
think, best, especially with cuoUc.s who are acustomed to pick cofTce
“cherry” in this nay As we all know, sour tea is the result
whnn loaf is allowed t-j li'-nt in the liold, and, in using bags for its
colhictioH, the greatest care must ho exercised that this does not
occur ami the lU'ivii of loaf he prevented.
'I'hero is one. small matter in which Darjeeling is ahe.ad of us and
of Assam, aiKl'froin wliieli wo might well take a lesson. The road to
every garden is iudicaterl whore it leaves the main road by a sign¬
post giiing the name of tbo estate. The groat convoniouce of
this system and the saving of the vexatious lota of time whieli some¬
times occurs through losing one’s way should bo tried to b-
bo apprecialod. A stranger travoiliug from the station
has only to be put on tlic right road to start with, and ho can
Huarcely fail to find his way with ease and without the loss of time,
which “ a oooly to show the road ” nieaus,
'riie coolies’ lines are invariably situated high up iu the hill-side,
and never hy any' chance near tho bottom of ravines, fu
ejiite of the olovation, it appoars that fever liaiig.s about persist¬
ently whenever there is the bed of a stream, and stagnant air.
Tim same cause makes it dosirable to have tho factory in tho
liill-hide, otherwise tho distuuoe botwoen it and the bungalow
and lines would bo a great drawbaoU, Tbo dirticulty and expense of
olioosing and clearing sites for buildings, with which wo are familiar
in some parts of Ceylon, is therefore reproduced in Darjeeling ;
but tlie most serious diinoulty is that the supply of water-power
can seldom be taken advantage of from tbo distance at which
it is sltuatod. Tho streams here have very little water in them
during tho dry season, at which time they arc not required ;
our chief difficulty iu Ceylon is that the efry season is tho time
when water-power is jnost necessary, .and the minimnin amount
nv.ailable during the diy months has to form the basis of our
oaleulation in orooting tea machinery. ’J'lic small extent to wldoli
water is used ns a motive power iu a hilly district lilto Datji-cl-
ing is indeed strikmg. In some cases, turl>iues are being used
Bucoessfully, and there are a few wator-wlioels, but steam eiiginos
alone aro employed iu tho largo majority of fautorics. At one
garden, I saw tho most perfoot piece of motive maohinory 1 have
SBoii in India : a very lino 30-foet water-whool, perfectly orooted,
with no Very large licad of water, was employed driving
the sovoial rolling, sifting, and liring machines of a large
factory, and it did so with perfect ease ut a trilling cost
compared with that of working tlic uiigino previously used. In
another garden whore a turbinu was umployod groat dilllcully
was caused iu the entrance into the mauliiuo during rainy weather
of sand and grit, too small to bo oollectod in the boxes. The
moat Ingouious trauaiuUsioii of powor is at a garden iu tho nuigli-
boiirUuud whore a turbine at the river drivc-s muchinciy iu a
factory some distance up lUo hill by u Huouesslun of driving bulls
uiid pulleys. There must be great loss of powor by this system,
and the wuar and tear of belting would be considerable. As J
liave inontionod above, the factories are all permanent solid
Htriicturos, and the limited aiva of the sitas nccusailates the
utilization of all spaeu inside thorn. VVithoring space is generally
provided in an upper lloor, and hastened hy tliu boat from the
sUnos and firing machines below, where all maohinory, &o., aie
situated. The remark about untidineas and want of cleanliueas
which, applied to Assam factories, would he out of place lioro, the
Darjocliug buildings being, us a rule, kcxit clean and tidy, though
not, J think, to the samo c.xtcu as is frequently seen iu Gifylou.
11 .
IConsEoxo.
T he tea gardens iu tlie Darjeeling Torai, have not fulfdlod tho
liigli nxpeotations which were formed of thorn at their outset,
With perfoot lay of laud, flat as in Assam, and possessing all tlio
advantages of unexhausted soil and a very forcing olimatr, tlicy
are disappointing iu appoarauoe and iu result. 'The reason of this
is very apparent. Thu la-.ni consists mostly of a rich surface soil,
varying greatly ui depth, Imt seldom axiproaohing that of Assam,
ami below it lies a sub-soil of barreu gravel and sand, exoollciit for
drainage puriioacs, but ill-adapted for the supiporl of a vigorous
deep-feeding plant like tea.
JIuring the early years of growth, tho Terai gardens gavo most
satisfactory results, but when tho plant is iu full bearing, the
yield in many oases foils off greatly, and the vigour of tho bushes
deui'oasoB.
The Dooars, a young and rising district to the civ.st of tho ,
Darjeeling Terni, butsimdarly situated at tho foot of the hills has a
bettor soil and gives greater jiroiiiiso of success. The nuhealthinuss I
(if those districts is pi-ovorhiul, and has boon against them from the
first. On one garden I was at, 100 coolies liad died quite recently
from cholera and 200 had bolted in consequence, Icavuig an avail¬
able force of itOO out of an original total nl TOi). Several instances
have occurred quite rec.intly of every soul leaving tho gardens for
a time, lueludiug mauageia and assiatauta—for their iiresuuoo with¬
out coolies was of little use—in consequeuoc of tho numerous
deaths from oliolora. Fever is too eoinmon a oomplaiiit there to
call for remark, and iiow-oomers inevitably suffer from it in a
greater or less degree for some time. Kuixipoaiia after a time
apfioar to become hardened and acenatomed to it, and throw off
attacks after but a temporary period of suffering ; liul the oonslitu-
tiou must become undermined m time by tlieso attacks, and it is a
siguifieant foot that ill the Terai, iu i>arts of Caoliar too, I believe,
itud iu many other looalitios, managers above SO or So years of ago |
[ a ro a small minority. It is needless to point out the many ways
I iu wliieli thi-s state of affairs affects the cost of produotlou of tea.
J Apart fr om tho risk of ioss of labour during crop time—for the uii-
! Iienltliiodt months coincide with tlie busiest crop season—the
' iuducoments to manager and assistants have to bo made oommeusii-
i . ... .1 • 1 . S.l» 1 » >.• -r - __..
wliluh I came across by oliauee up here, mention was made of the
fact that three plaiitei-s had boon ougagod by a Calcutta firm for a
term of years to work in tea gardens, the salaries wore stated, and I
Uiink a remark was made that they appeared liberal, and that tl o
gentlemen in question wore fortunate in being offered them, IT
cannot but think that tills remark was mado without due xveight
being given to tho eoiid itions oi life iu an Indian up-oonntry district,
it must bo rciiioinberod, first, that in tlio plains water is, as a rule,
tiiidriukable even after tho most careful filtering, whilst tho cost of
aerated waters—an absolute iiocessity—is very great whan they iiava
to be transported from Calcutta, os is usually the case. Servants, too,
are a great tax on on assistant’s income ; “boys’ to do tho cooking
and all the other work of a small bungalow aro unknown and
several sorvaiita must be kept, whoso salaries, though individually
not higlior than wliat is generally paid iu Ceylon, amount iu tlio
aggregate to a large sum. Fairly generous living and good cooking
are essential to tlie jireservation of iiealtii iu a trying climate, ami
how imiiosaible it is for these eouditloiis to bo fulfillod on tho
salaries mentioned I now kuow ivoU. European managers mid
assistants are very highly paid on Indian ton gardens, and they
thoroughly deserve the remunoratiou they receive. A young man
from lioiiie on first joining gets, of course, a small salary of Ka. 160 a
month and several allowances geuernlly, and has to manage ns he
can on it ; but good exporiouced men in charge of good gardens
got from Rs. 500 to Rs. 700 a month and a commission on tho jirofits,
wliiuli somotimes ranges as high os 10 per cent in addition ; iu tho
smaller gardens Rs.SoO and Ka,400 and oomiiiiosiou are very generally
given oil the plains, Tlic reason of this is that in order to livu in
Biieh a w'ay as to liavc a fair prospect of proaorviug his health u nmii
must liave au iuuoino of this kind, and must spend a cousidei-alile
proportion of it. 1 caiiuot therefore agree that tho sums offored
tho gciitloiiicii ill question, eouaidoring that tlioy had cxporieiico of
estate mauagomoiit and wore aoouatoniod to cooly laljoiir, wcr«
spoeially liberal, and tlii.s opinion was oiidoraed by several Indian
plautera who had heard of the ougagomouts. 'J’licre aro, of ooursu,
some parts of tho plains more hoalthy than others, and it is to bo
hoped that they have boon forluuato in the locality to whicli they
wore seat.
As is veiy goiiorally known, most of .in; Darjeeling hill gordoiis,
uiid some portion of those in tho Terai, are plantocl with Chiua
tea. Ill -iVssaiu, ou tlie other liaud, a lew gardens havu China ou
them, but they are the exception. Tho opinion liioutioiiud in u
previous letter as haviug bjeii given by a leading Calcutta tea-taster
tliat a malty liavoured tea^ w'us ouly to bo inaiiu from liigh-class
iiidiguuoii.s plaut, f have found to bo quite erroneous. There is no
question that .at high elevations very choice Qavonry teas are made
trom ('iiiua loaf, many of them fclchiiig the higlioslxiriccsiiillie
maikut ; and iu some situations, where the cold is great, liyhrid
X>lauts do imt yield 111 tlio same way as the hardy Chiua biisli.
Extreme altitude ap,art, liybrid bu 3 lic.s .are found to yield nnu-li
more heavily in tlie liills than China, aud the fact that tlic lattei-
was So very extensively ptaiiteil in the old Jays of tea-piauting is
very generally reg.ardod as a niisfortuuo. Iu appuaiauoo tho tea
from a Clilua liusli is, of course, far superior to any other, 'J'iio
proportion of pekoe is very largo, and tlieio is not iniieli coarse
Hiieveu leaf. 'J'lie fijiior lias a very fine flavour, hut not much
strciigtli. In soiiio cases I was aide to samiilo teas from China aud
liybrid htislius, grown ou the same estate, and tho latter was in¬
variably the butter tea of tlio two. - The very high and cold por¬
tions ot gardens apait, all now cleariugs arc being plauted with a
good hardy liybrid.
Tile opinions expressed by planters as to the cause of ths peoullar
mnlty fiavonr, so iiuieli valued liy brokers, possossed by some teas
aro varicil aud eoiitradietory. Iu Calcutta, liigli-olnss plaut uud flue
soil were givcu as tlie couditious, but many such teas have not got
it, whilst ill one case a tea from the raukost China had it iu a
marked dogroe. Another cause assigiioil was high-firing, but teas
dried in a Gibbs and Barry’s drier at a temperature of 700 had not
got it. BligliU'd leaf, tlio stunted slioots from bushes suffering
From “ greou lly” especially, was said to give a malty liquor by
auutlier, but I tliiuk this is questionable. A foiirtb planter of
experience slated that liy m.niipulatioii hn could always produce
to.is of tlii.s cliaracter ; a refcrenco to tlic public sales of tea from
his garden was conclusive jiroof against this statement. An in¬
stance was given me of a garden In the Teiai, whioli for a few years,
wlion young, xirodueod fine malty teas fetching a high price, but
afterwards tiiey eutircly lost this charautoristic, and it sceiiis most
probaliie that some quality in tlio soil is the cliief cause. There
s all inimonse amount to be learned yet about tea manufacture,
aud tills point is one wliieli is not os yet understood,
III Assam and tlio T<-rai, in all low-lying distiiots in fact, tlie
uccess ol giiidciis is known to depend entirely ou the class of jilaut
put out. Ill tho early days of plautiug anything teas ooiisitlcrod
.{ood enough, imt now the very greatest care is taken in sslectiug
sued, and the liigliost prices arc jiaid for it. In the low onuiitry,
seed from cultivated iiidigenoiis Assam trees is the bsst kind to
daiil. .Seed from the original jungle tioos is T 017 delioato, BUd not
10 siiitublu for ciiltivutiou as the second gouoratiou. 'Tlie lovTust
price at which such seed cau be obtaiued is Ks. 15 J (0110 hundred aud
fifty rupees) par tuauud, aud miicli has botui sold at Rs. 200. It is all
bought locally, uud in opening gardens in Assam aud Caohar the
list coufidei-atiun is “ liow inucli seed cau be afforded !” Then
he acreage to bo cleared is decided ou.
There aro two principal sources from whicli seed is obtained, tlie
Towkok and Sbigloo indigenous gardens, hut all is booked for a
long time to eome U/calty «t such prises its I bare quoted, From
V-
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST,
425
gardens wbioh b&ve not made a retratation aa aeod-prodncers, the
very lowest figure at which higU-ofaas indigenous seed cun be ob¬
tained is E«. 120, and when a man show* you a mii’iery in which ,
Buoli seed ia shown ho doss so apologetically, seed worth Us. 150 per
inaiiud locally being the recognized kind suitable for the plniua.
In sampling tens from the ordinary hybrid and indigenous plant,
tlie differenoo was as marked as that between China utid liybrid in
the hills, the ludlceuous giving a imich strongor and more rasping
liquor than the other. In yield, tlio advantage is even greater (in
one garden tlie China pave two mamuls, tlie hybrid 8 inauuds per
b(|* 5, and one Of the finest sigtits I saw was a live-year old garden
from Siugloo seed with a heavy flush on it. When talking about
seed to men lu Assam, remarks were often made regarding the
planting of cheap inferior seed scut to Ceylon, and eases wore men¬
tioned of seed picked anyhow from low class bushes to supply
orders for seed at absurdly low rates. Plenty of good seed has
gone to Ceylon of course, where fair prices have been paid, but,
with the largo extensions in tea now going on in Iiitlia itself,
Ceylon men cannot expect to got good seed for an inadequate
price, Noacacherry, the place from which Kookwood, New Porest,
and some otlier places in Ceylon got tlieir seed, is known os one of
the best sources for hybrid seed of a higli-eluas in Assam.
Indigenous Assam seed, though undoubtedly tlie right plant for
the Ceylon low-conutry, is by no means snite,n for planting on the
hills ; a vigorous dark-lcaveil hybrid is much belter, and sneli seed
is more easily proourablo, and at mneh lower rates. Almost all
gardens in Assam arc more or loss mixed, a certain proportion of
low*class plants being found everywhere, and in order to eusuro
that the inanagov or assistant shall personally overlook the seed-
pickers and make them take it only from the good trees (a eoiirse
followed in all gardens which go in for selling seed), a fair priee
must be paid. It is very evident, in tact, that good seed grown
locally has in many cases been sobl below its tiuu market value aa
ruled by what such seed would fetch in India itsclt.—CVyiov.
Obsrmr,
MR AHMSTKONf} ON TEA.
A t a meeting of the Dkoya Plantoi-s Association, Mr. Annstron g
read the following paper :—1 have to thank you lor inviting
me to attend to-day, and am glad to ivo you my oNpeiieiioo of Iho
cultivation of tea in Ceylon, mid I trust that tlie faets aud figures,
I shall have the pleasure to liijs before you, will imbue not only
yoursolves in this district, but all of us, who have hitherto doubted
—aud we are now very few—with couiagn, to turn any uiiremuuer.-i
tiro eofToo fislds wo may posse.ss into i>aylug liolde of tea, and in
thus doing, I would still advise good bearing patebes, wliieh are bi
be found in every estate, to be kept as colleS, oven if only aggieg.it
ing CO acres. 200 acres of tea will allow of this being kept in a high ,
state of cultivotiou, without any ineroase in tlni labor foree, ns there j
aie oftentimes when one is glad to ha\ e some otiier product that
would employ one’s labour, nr a portion of it, for a tew days, to the
advantage of the tea. And the rclmn from small patebes of oolteo
worked ia this wny, arc almost nett profit ; or on the other h.aiid,
aeies oven of tea may be worked to advnnt.'ige witb eolt’ie. Donot
let ns, therefore, run into the other evfrenie, but b-t us keep all lliw
coffco vw can, where clot ation and .soil are suitable, aud cultivate
it highly with Uie aid tea will give as. Let our eudeasour be to
have as many products os our si^twaliou oi (leeation will allow ii.s
to grow. Pad fields of coffee we may have, but bad coffee c.states,
as a whole, 1 deny. As, at a meeting like this, time will not peimit '
me to enter thoioughly into every detail conniK ted wilti lea, 1 bavo
cmleavoured to curtail my remarks as mucli us possible. The more
so, os your knowledge of eolbe-plauting will till up any gaps. 1
consider our knowledge of eollcc eiilth ation goi e \ cry far to aid us
in that of U-a, and, with our tiained labor, most nplut pieUing up
anything new, to aid us, wo can place our tea in the nutrUel ebeaper
than any other ten-producing eouutry iu the worbl.
My remarks to-day have, more especial referenep to the culliva- |
tion of tea iu what may ho tunned our cotrec - one, iu fact, to Uie
practicability of tea taking tlia place, iu .some mstauecs, of coiree,
orof its being planted iu forest laud adioiniog our coffee estatc.s,
and w hich we have thongbl too high for eoliee.
Throughout this paper 1 refer to Assam-lfybiid tea only.
At whnt elevations will tea grow at iu Ceylon to pay’ t'Tom
nhnosl sea lev el to over C,000 feet, piovided .soil aud aqwci are
tuitablc.
Should be failly good—the riehor the better—ib-ep and ^
friable loam well mixed with saad ; a shallow rjunrlzy .s-ul is not |
good Tea will not flush readily ill this, although it may grow to a ,
fafc-eized bush. A siil soil, well inix-d with snuu, or grit without '
shying a very good surface soil, will, ulthcugh giving a slovyor
Biowth at first, turn out a better paying soil, tlinu one with a rich
surface and clearly defined clayey subsoil without an admixture of
gaud ; the more we pluck, the deeper the roots must go, ami we
must have room for them. The higher our elcvtvUgu, the richer
sligttld cw BvU boi tc malt® ''P oliiufttei
CUM.VTK.—That that is best for coflee, will, I believe,/wr a j^erma-
tieniy, be bound to be the best for tea. The beau ideal of a tea
climate is Avisawella, Yutlyantota, and the lower portions of
Worawakorale, also portions of Anibogamuwa ; but they have not
our coffee zone subsoil, as a whole ; and our zone will. 1 think, niako
up, iu its deeper soil, for the want of e.xtremo heat, with moisture,
which prevails in these districts, where, howev'cr, tea ivili rapidly
make a foituiie for its lucky proprietors.
The higher the elevation, the less rainfall is required, aud vice
rcrsii; light showers altoriiatbig with sun, if w'o oould .order them
BO, would give us 1,000 Iba, uu nerc at .5,000 foot elevation. At tlio
higher elevations, conliiuied min at the height of the monsoon has
the same effect in cheeking the flush, for the time being, as a long
coutinuaiiee of sun has iu tiie low country. Perhaps a good thing ;
for, with US, the Imsli has no wintering, anil the only rest that ot a
10 lb piuekiiig, instead of a 2-1 lb.
Site and Lay or Land. —Gently undulating land, for choice, U
the best; but I have lc.a on steep land, doing as well as tliat on
fairly fiat undulating laud. In fact, any land tliat is most suitable
for coffee is most suitable for tea. In oui new districts Capeeially,
we find our fields at the higher elevations inakiitg wood freely; but
ev rn .at tlu-beat of tiinCH not giv iiig much fruit, wliero wo have
eofi'ee iiiaKing iiio-st wood, Uiere will our tea do best. Iu my
experieneo 1 have had poor thin coffee pointed out to mo as being
■suitable oniy for b'rt. I say no; if we are to expect tea to pay,
we must not pick out our tbiiiiiest, weakest,—because washed coffee
ns being the most suitable site, but our free growing leafy eofloe,
that from either a bud aspect vvitli good soil piud vve often see this),
or from too liigii an elevation, has always persistciitly' run to wood
wliieh we enll leaf, in tea; w'ltli sacli coffee there need be no
hesitation in at once planting it up with tea. Again, we hav'S ooffoo
I hot in tlio good old days bus borne heavily, hut that has now ceased
to bear Itemponiiily or not, is beyond human ken) If wo except
■ leasiojial patehes. If ihc toll /ms not Auf'enJ from v’a$/i, uo
matter what the coffee may have borne iu tlio past, tea can take its
place and flourisb, as it lia-s that in tlic soil to giv'u it a start, and it
can seek fur iioiiiislinii'Ut fai deeper than the coffee hita ever readied*
To sum up on this mo- t imjioitaut point, do not let us waste time
and money on a eotfee I'datc trying to grow tea, vvliore vve hav'fl
f oiiiid eeth'C will not make wood, though vve may do so vvhero oiir
coffee, although now had, ha-- heen t'ood, in pi.iiit of crop, provided
the soil has not fiulToied from wash Ilidges and vs’ashed faces will
he more piofital.ly planted willi aloes, which wo may grow witl
otlnr prodiicb: willi jirollt, oi niaua grass to keep out tlio weeds,
tliaii with tia, ’Jliese remarks do not apply to lower Aiiibogainuwa,
Yakdes-'u, Ac., where ti.a in Jfooriilitni/, hut whore cofleo coiiltl not
I'xi-it, lint to <mr true eolleu districts.
Laud at l.OOU ieet to foil that lias failed in cinolioiia,
provuteil toil and climate aui .siiitahle, will grow good tea, I have
now tea !U yi'iirs old on land that 1 planted iip four times with
eiuchouii (holli ollieiuali.s aud sueeiruhru),—and that failed eom-
pk tiiy, altliough no e.vpfiiso was spared iu the opiciiing and plant¬
ing of il,—doing as wella.s could lie wished. Again, 1 haV'e tea
doing well on al.amh iied eoliee land tliat was cleared and planted
71 yeait ago with einehoiia—vvldi h died out at .'1 to 4 yeora.
IClevatioii, in hotli iustaueea, 5,000 feet and over. I have tea
also (king will in land that wan under einehoiia for ten
yc.iis
A ltln'Ugh tea d- ci- well, reiiiurkahly well, up to 5,000 feel
my own e.vpciieiiei.—aiid 1 h.a.o had figures shown me—
pioving tliat tea, at over 0.200 feet gave, at 4x4,4001hB. per
acre, at ti yeais old, il docs not follow that all and any land, at
these elevations, will give the same rosults. The liigher we go
the hitter oui .soil niimt be. tVe must be rather diy tbau wet,
not ulu'luttly without lain for any length of time; but this wo
need not f<ar near our mountain tops ; and the more shelter from
tin; m < iisoou w imls do we require. I will treat fin tiler down of
(l)i' y 11 111 i)er lu ii fioin tea at t)io lowest to tlie iiighcst elevatfous,
gild will new cutei on ned, nnreeriee, o/vninff uml flunlilxj of
Ira, Hr cirltiniliuii, iinif maunfurtun',
.St't ti.—'I' he gi eate.st care must be taken to ascortaiu the seed,
you obtain is iiom the liigbeal class hybrid, as with a poor
i'll, neither cnie iu tlie manufacture nor oultivutiou can make a
nod liquoring lea, or give a profitable yield. Waking ollow-
aiiccs for pioor plants, aceidcuts, bad pilants, and the having
ample plants over for supplies, I oaleulato on one niauuJ of 82 lb.
for 0 acres planted 4x4, a maund of locally grown gives from
27,000 to 33,000 seed, according to the time that is allowed to elapse
iu weighing after husking ; the soouci the feed is in the ground
after gathering the bettor,
42G
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST. November 1, 1863.
Kcbsebiss.—C hoose the site as uear a stream U potsibla, {or
the sake o{ water. Let tlie Jaiid he as flat as possible, make
our bods 5 feet X 20 feet with 18-inoh walks (which aot as dialns)
etweeii them. If you arc going to plant out at site months from
seed, sow your seed 2 inch .apiirt orury way, 1 find a very
UBciul lUtlo tool for this ia one I made many years ago
for pricking Out oiiichona—a flat hoard, with handle
on the top and pog.s—50—unduraeath, any required distance apai t,
press the board, the pogn being underneath, on to yonr prepared
lied, and you have it marked out ill filtios to the distances ojiart,
you wish to sow your seed. If you are going to plant them ont at
1 to 2 years, 4iti. by 2in., or, if space wul admit, 4in. by 4in. apart
sow li inuhos deep, if no sliivJe. if your plants are to bo forced
to save a season, manure your bods, sow tu 2 by 2iii. apart and J iu,
deep, shade with flat tats of Jungle sfnff 18in. to 211, aboie the
bed, and water freely twice a day. Von may begin to romuvo the
shade by degrees, as soon as the wood at the oollar of the plant
hardens. Culess it is necessary for you to save the season, do uol
manure, nor pick out too good soil, aa plants grown in better soli,
than it is intemlod to plant thorn out iu, suffer a check from tlmlr
first start in tlio clearing. Uive your nuraerius timo j do not dig
your bods luoro than 6in. to 9in. deep, or the tap root, always un-
ntauageahle, will run deeper than over. Every tea garden must
keep up a uursoiw for supplies, which is u work wo have to attend
to every year. Slumps arc best (or supplies, and should bo at the
least two years old even up to four ; a permanent nursery can bo
kept up iu poor soil sown 3ia. by Siu., and the atiougcst plants
taken out for supplios.
LtNlKO.—In fairly good soil, 4 feet by 4 feet is the best dlstauco,
iu poorer soil 4 feet by 3 feet, on weak soli or exposed faces, .S foot
by 3 feet. It is aa well to bavo 4 fort between the Hues, us oaoh
hue is almost a thoroughfare, from the uuinber of times the pinckurs
have to move along it, as wallua wouditig cuutraotors, iu the course
of the year, and the proper growth of the laterals is In a great
measure stopped, if the pluckers have to fo/ve their way tliruugU
too much ; and in any ordinary fair soil, utu nearer distance than
4 feet between the lines, no light or air c.in get at thu soil or
through the bushes tUomselvus, and they become towards tiie
middle of the season an entangled mass of unhealthy wood, 'f'iioie-
fore, although 4 by 4 does not suit the coffee lines in any way, if the
tea is to be planted through it to eventually the extraction of the
coffee (when tea la one year old), it is bettor to spend a little more
money iu liuiiig, than to try and suit your Uuiug to your coffco
lined, presumably 0 feet by 0 feet.
IIoLlNQ,—If for planla at 0 months or 1 year from aood In coff'o or
in new laud Oiu. by 01u, will do well. If (or stumps iu coffoo or
new laud 18in. by JSlu. If seed or genmuutcd seed is to bo sown
at stake, in eofee, loosen the eoil with tho ordinary fork ; this is
better tlian holing ; as wo are all aware, the ooffou routs soon find
their way into and fill a hole iu which the good surface soil has bicn
serapod, to in this cose the detriment of the seed : tho same holds
good with regard to mauurlng u young soodliiig which I have hoard
advooated in ooffeo,
PlrANTaaffiJ PuAKTINO.—The bait plants are those at 0 mont h i from
seed, aa they do not suffer the same chock that a l-yoar-old plant
does, and equal it iu growth at 12 mouths from pluntiug out : have
not such uumuuageable tap roots, aud stand sun bettor. Will do
with shallower holes, cost los.s to plant, and have a bettor hold of
the ground at 12 months. The beat of all 2 to 4 years old stiimn-
roots of which at this ago arc woody ; will stand heing bioUen ; in
fact cannot bo raised from the luusery (which should bo in poor
soil) without breaking them. They should be stuinpod as with
coffee at 0 inches, and have roots that will comfort-ibly fit into on
18-luoh hole, which they require. In fair soil a stump can bo
topped at 3 foot iu a year, and regularly plucked at 18 mouths
onwards, giving a fine spreading bush,
Seku IN' iSiTiT has its advocates. Its advantages are cheapness in
■owing out, aud tho good hold it gets of the ground, au advautago
in windy sites. Its disadvimtagus are, un any birye scale, greater,
first outlay In seed, as from two to three seeds are required at
each stake, the liability of its beiug smothered ( is a seed) by wash,
luieot enemies, wooders (more ospecially among coffee), scraping
off, unawaies, the young slioot as it ooincs above ground, being
trodden on by workers among coffee ; many (allures, therefore an
extra cost in supplying, showing an uneven field ; or ugaiii three
seeds all coming up at one stake and the cost of remuviug two,
hut whioh of ooui’se coma iu useful for supplier. Also a great
loss of growth (or tho first year in coffee by being shaded by it.
If you have no insect ouemios, notably tho black grub, which
nips off the young shoot just above tho ground, and it is desired
to sow inAif«, germinat'! tho seal firit, and tlini one seal will
■uffloe at each stake, and altliouj^li gre it care must b’l taken in
■owing, I have fonud that even if tfi j root germ U brok-ju or
wounded, it throws out a bunch of rootlets and no harm
htppena.
SlAKiNu.—^This is not generally thought necessary. However
I consider It saosi iniKirlaiU j and wherever wo liavo enough wiii.l
to have made It necessary to stake our coffee, it is ttiero ncccseu-y
to stake our tea, up to 2 years old eertamly, aii amiUimn
even up to 3 years of age—a stake drivoii etr.iight through tlu
middie of the hush without tying will do at 2 to 3 years ;
at 1 or li years. It must be ti >d. Aloe tape is host fur this,
Toppimo. —First topping should hi dona at from l.'i months on
aspeuts affected by tlia S. W. winds to 18 months— 3 feet is tho
best height, oral lower elevations or on oX)Wiiud ridges 2 feet 0
DOK'T Did IN THE HODSB.
“ Rough on Rata" clears oat tats, mice, beetles, roaches, tjed-bttgs,
flies, auto, iuseoU, moles, ohlpmuuks, gophers.
S, 9, jyiadeu & IJombay, Geuerol Agents,
inch to even 2 feet. In topping the ooolle has a stiok of the
desired height Whioh hs shoald place in the middle of the bosh j
the only oare neoeisary is, to see M does not gather up a bnaoh
' of brouabes in his baud, to out at one operation, but outs each
singly as It nows ; the result will be a perfootly flat surface across
the oentra of the bush, with many youttg laterals round, the hush
nutouohed, which will soon reach the level to which we Itava
topped ; when they and the topped part begin to run up, all
shoald be nipped baok to tho souond loaf below the bud to keep
1 as flat a snrfaoa as possible giving, say, at 0 months later, or at
' years of age, ambush with a fairly flat surface whioh will have reach!
nd 3 feet 0 iuotl to 4 foot iu height. This very slight pluoklug
after topping must be carefully done, ouly plucking those shoots
that show au iucliuatlon to climb, so to speak ; the plucking, with
the topping, is necessary to force the lower laterals up, aud keep
your bush down aud so form mr/ace, otherwise, the bash will
grow up somewhat iu the sliape of a poplar, and surface be lost for
years. This plucking comes tu useful lu tcaohlng your labour
plueklng aud tiiauufaeture, aud will eventually pay its cost iu lu<
oreasod diameter of bueli, aud, theroforo, iuoroaseu yield.
Pru.n'ino,—T ills is a moat important work, aud in Ceylou mult
uot be too severe, yearly ; more espoolally if your bushes
are topped early. It should taka place from Juno to August,
in auy part of Ceylou, perhap.a July u tho best month. There
are three ways of pruning 1st, with a flat surface : 2nd,
saucer shape, I.a., hollowing ont the centre; aud 3rd, backing
dowu tho bush. This lost is murder, so I will pass It by without •
further remark, Saucer shape pruning does well for a time, but
luellaes tu too matted a growth iu the oentre of tho bush, which
loads to too heavy a pruning yearly, more costly, and bad even¬
tually for tho bush. 1 have no doulit myself that prnniug with a
flat surface is best, so i will only ti'oat of this mode,
WUeu onr branclias after topping have reached up to say 3 feet
6 liii'h to 4 feet, having been kept down to this by plucking at 2
to 2i years of age, according to whether tho planting was done in
the N. E. or S. W, (lam referring to tea at from 3,000 foot
elevation upwards), they should bo again out to a level surface at
3 feet 3 iuchea, or if topped lower, ns explained above, 3 inches
above the topping. Any thin whippy branches trailing on the
grouml should ho out off close to tho stems with a clean cut j and
this is all for this vear. Next pruning season when our bushes will
bo 3 to years old, they should he first topped to 3 feet or 2 feet
C inches, iiuoerding to elevntiou of garlloa, with a flat surface, all
cross wood (i.r. branches growing throvuh tho hush), and ail white
harked whippy blanches, whororcr growing, should then bo cut
off with u clean cut close to tho main stem or branch,
and all growth encouraged outwards and upwards. laterals
should he cut buck, except those growing into tho bush which,
as 1 have said, are tu be entirely romovod, but every braueh
should be topped or nippejl back whether it has reached up to
thu limit of gron-th nlluwea, etc., 3 feet or 2 feet C iuoh, or not, thus
wo liave given our Inislies their first real pruning, and have got
them into shape, wdiicli, with very little prnniug they will keep
for four years. Our jirocodure yearly for four years is then os follows
always keeping a flat surface 1st year, onr hush being 4 to
44 years old, top at 3 foot 3 inch ; 2ud year, at 3 feet G inch ; 3rd
year, at 3 feet I) inch ; 4th your to lietwoou 3 feet 6 uich and 3 foot
0 inch; or if toppeil at 2 feet ti inch, rising 3 inch yearly, keeping us
much red wood tia w 0 can and removing each year tliiu white
balked wliippy brunches, and cutting out all crows’ feet from
tlie suiface, caused by iiluckiug, leaving uot more than a single
fork on eiicb blanch at the surface ; 0th year, cut dowu to 3 foot
or 2 feet 0 inch at lower elevatious or just below the oiiginul
cut, and proceed us before. 'I.’luis low topping aud lioavy pruning
is best done every 5tli year. At o.ir higher elevations, say from
bifiOO feel up wards, we can top our bushes far higher than at tho
lower olevatioiiB, and so got increased surface; the flush does uot
run up from the bush, in the same iruunor it Joes lower down,
our limit here, however, should bo at the outside 3 feet
9 inch,
I'lxoEPTioNS.—Some bushes sulk, either from ovar-pluoklng or
from bad wood, or from some otlier cause. These should have
the knife applied freely either by beiug cut down to 18 iuali, or
by removing, with thu aid of the same, ouo or two of the main
stems iu the oentre, cutting down the outer growth as well, to
2 feet or 18 inches ; tlie oentro thus opened out will send up a
now growth. These bushes should not be plucked till they are
well nil, say, to 4 foot, when they can bo plucked and then
topped with tho knife to 3 feet.
Rlockino,— This again is a most important work aud requires
close supervision. As a rule, plucking can he b^un at SO to
40 days after light pruning, I am speaking of oofws sma teas,
be it remembered—and should not be begun till the bud with
opened leaf attached, and half tho next leaf, can he plujked at
one operatiun, trad nj on one or somotliuus two fully formed leaves
to carry on tbo young shoot. The sliouhler of the half leaf
pluokeil remains on, aud protoots the eye at its base, whioh in its
turn throws out a snoot. .Shoots, according ti elevation, will
muasiu'B 6 inch to 9 inch long bfore tile first plucking, after
pniuiiig, take, plucc. In after plucking, a good dual depeniU on
the number ot loaves on the shoot. If, with the bud and its
partially opened leaf, we have four full leaves, then I should^
pluck nt thu second leaf down (leaving on the shoulder of thir
I leaf, which protects its bud, and will probably give red leaf If
I removed) at one operation, and again half the 3rd leaf at
uuolliur operation, leaving ouo fully formed young leaf un the
' shout. Towards the end of the season, when the bushes are well
u(>, I would act as above, only pluoking at the 3rd leaf, leaving
its shoulder on the stem, and thus removing at one operation
a half leaf and the shoot consisting of two leaves and the bud,
Uue simple rule iu pluvking is, tg uvgid buviDg u bare shggt
J^orember 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
427
® n V ‘a A* things, a practical
kif th« “«'«W of*fiays\n which
Ln *? ^he (?ar<l<-„, I learn nt a U,w oleva-
lif’ »V»'?"''Mered necessary, according to tho time of year, to
flRv^'^nf t"i ^ longest. At high
elevations, I have fQuu.l in my 6 e,f months, I should get round
in 10 to 1 .-days to keep pace with my flush, and, again, in 15,
v*ry cold weather, December to Jonuacy, 20 days. I do
not tbuik any hard.and-fast rule should be laid doivn, at any
elevation, as to timo. It is for tho manager to watch his flush,
(4'*“ wait on it, jtist long enough, hut no longer, and not to rush
Wolontly round his estate in a given number of daysmvbich mutt
lead to oyer-plucking, wliioh means a reduction in yield sooner or
later, altboo{(h perhaps higher nrioes, for tho time lioing; tlie
_ benefit of tins is also in a way nullified by a smaller outturn.
My average runs this eeason from, in my worst raontli, 10 lb. up
to 29 lb. of leaf per coolio, including children. Some of my best
pluokers havo brought in from 30 to 47 lb. : in ordinary months, I
average from 20 to 26 lb. My plucking last season 1881-82 cost
6 3-8tTis cents per lb. of tea. This season it will cost 6 couts.
Leaf should be weighed in twice, daily, at mid-day and at knocking
off time ; it is best plucked into the ordinary cooty saok, and ompti
ed into cane or bamboo baskets of the following dimousions, to avoid
any chance of tight packing ;—2 feet liigh, 18 Inebes across bottom
by 1 foot across top. Cane boskets cost me 02 cents each, bamboo
26 cents to 37 cents, but oaue are tho ohoapost in tho long rnn, and
uearor the cane country than I am would probably rnn from 37 to
60 rente each. I.eaf must not bo preasod down in eitlier cooty sock
or basket. Kach basket is best kept by its owner in tho lino be is
working in; the cooty sack should bo repeatedly oinptiod into it, to
avoid any risk of formentotion. As soon as weigbing-jii begins,
leaf sbonUl be removed without delay to tlic withering sliehes.
Both baskets and cooty sacks sboubl be taken in after the last
deUveiw, or tho coolio may iiio them to carry bazaar stuft's which
may taint the leaf, and in any case they get smoked in bis lines
ifaimy tips, i.r., a hardening of the bud and stoppage of growth,
should always bo plucked ; if the single leaf of which It consists is
soft, it can bo utilized, if not, it should he thrown away. It Is as
well to take tho oppoitunit.y of any small plucking to rip oil' ail
bangy, the next eye will thou nearly always throw out a fieo
ruuning shoot,
'iViTB*BtN'<i.~The most simple uid best shelves lyr tills aio
formed of a fruiiiework of ryepei,, covered with snel!i’ig,—-(i feet
long and 3 feet 4 iuohcs wide : the reepers forming this should ho
24 iiiolios wide by 1 iiicli tijick ; it takes 1J sacks to covvi this, or
jute-lieasinii forms a good cover, ft is most eoiiveiiicut to iuno
12 of tlieso sholves hanging, at Oiiielies, one ahu\c tlie other. The
roeper forming the front and liaok of the frame slunild jiMjeet 14
inches; thcsii projections arc rounded ofl', and at the hack ai e let
into holes cut in an upright post to fit them : in front the piojvet-
ingeiidi serve to hold up tlie shelves hy,littii)g into lueilte,! luojis
0 inches apart in ropes, suspendt’d from the loof. U'heii it is
desked to empty them, it is lUuie liy simply pulling out tlm lopcs
at each end, wlieii th*' shelves hang flat down 011 theii hinges,
throwing their contents on the floor ; the upjiar slielves are 1 eaelied
by tlie wilies who lay out the leaf to witbei, by .8 legged stools 3
feet liigli. Leaf sliould be .spread as thin as possible and turncil
over ouee. dtiriug withering—a shelf of above dimension.s fi feet X .8
feet 4 iniihos, bolds very tliiiily siiread 2 lb. of leaf, m at n piiicli it
Vill wither safely lip to 4 lb., but not more. Sav we put. on 3 lb.
1 full plucking time, we reipuro alsmt 0 feet per lb. of leaf.
Leaf is properly vvitheied, if, wdieii held tiglrt in the hand it
does not luaekleiind keejis the shape into wlde.li yuu_ have pu
it: proiioriy witherevl loaf is best tj.bi by louidi, whieli cKpei
gives us after a time. Loaf to give a good make, that is, tvvi;
enlnnr of ilvfllsloil— COPPCr CollAlf —sllould be Well VVltllOie.l, S
Leaf IS properly , , ,
does not oi aekle and keejis the shape into wlne.li you Imv 0 pri'RSnd
.. ' - I- which expericiico
viataod
Colour of infusion— copper eohAit-slmubl be well vviliiore.i, soft to
the touch, not dry or orisp ; imder-vvitlieied leaf will not give a
inall.y li.iuvir, and the larger leaves (sourhoiio) break in 1 oiling,
pvolmlily lesboniug tho value of your broken pivkoe, nor Is the malic
to good as with iveU-withereddeaf,
Boi.MS’O.—R ather overdo this tli.an uiuler-roll ; nhon leaf is pro¬
perly rolled, it shows a gooil even twist, is very soft, and gummy
to the touoh ; any liquor that oxudes during tlio procc.ss of rolling
should b« mopped up l.y tho leaf, now culleii roll. In hnuil-rolliug
It saves tip, if, when the rolling is lialf Inushed, the leaf Is sifted
through a No.4, that whioli remains in tho siovo is rolled separately,
that which comes through lightly fiuishod oil. A man can tako
2 1b. ol withered loaf to roll atone time, and it takes him 20
minutes to fiiiish it.
Fkrmentation.—A fter your leaf is .snlUuioutly rolled, bri'.ak
„p the roll well, so ns to have no lumps in it and place it lightly
In sauoer-shapod baskets of bamboo, or caiio IS inches wide by
6 inches deep ; these again to be placed inside a sank to fennent.
liaob basket holds about 12 1b. of roll -no a.-tual time e.au be
laid down for formoiitation, as it all depends upon tho day or
time of year In cold weather at 5,G00 foot, 1 have waited for
B; hours for it to fermeut, although my house has been kept
at 00^ Again, at low elevations, I have seen roll properly
fermented in 20 mitintos from rolling. As far as time is com-orned,
at high elevations ill ordinary woathcr. Hind it takes from IJ to
3 hours Maohiiie-rolled ferments quicker than hand, an advaiit-
tae in favor of machine. Boll is properly formented when it
abows at a fiftl glance a hriglit now copper color. o imist not
ri^makiiig this test, oxamiue the roll too carefully 'f
do we wHl find almost us many green um eoppcr-colorod Icav'cs ;
the fiitt glun™ o» taking up a hand ul must decide us Asa
rZ wo should iorment up to our pekoe-souchong oiid let tho
Jest’take core of itseUjifin doubt, uiidorferment ratbnr than
overierment; overlermontation may cause tlie tea to bo altogetbek
aonr and in any <»»e gty«» * dark-colored flat liquor, with darr
d^-lookiog Inlnilon,
1'or the Ci-st two or three rounds aftor pruning, our leaf will
not give us a very bright infusion, and tliere is no use waiting
on the fcrinentatiou to try and got it; all comes right us the wood
matures.
Having arriviul at a proper state of fonneutation wa should
hand-roll lightly again, even If maolilnery is used. Cooliot
employed in the factory, firing, withering, &o-, &c., aro sufficient
to do this. It is necessary, as it inollnes the roll, opened more
or less by fermentation, to tiiko its twUt agalu as it Is being
fired, and it also orisiires the whole being thoroughly well
separated, before being jdaced iu the firing trays,
I-s' Firiko,—O ver eliBrcoal tlio bottom of the tray which is
covered with 24 to 26 brass mcsli shoulvl be 21 inches from, tha
fire grato whioh is again 9 inches above the level of the floor,
or, the stoves are from the level of tho floor to the top
30 inches higli, 3 feet vvide, nt the top inside measure¬
ment, sloping to 1 foot 2 inche.s at tho grate, which rests on
ledges 1 iiieli wide, making below grate to floor level 1 feet
I wivle. It takes 40 nunutes to coinjdeto tho firing of each tray of
I roll, as thus ;—
Each tiay 3 feet square inside incastircmont will hold 6 lb. of
roll, whieli when lirod equals about 21h. of tea. The tray should
bo constnutly removed from the stove, and the contents Wall
turned (on no aveoimt should any' turning or fingering be
allowed when the tray is over the fire, os dost drops through,
burns, and smokes the tea at once) after about 15 iiilnutea
drying, being eoiistantly turned the while, tlic ivartially fired
j roll should be sifted through a No. 8 sieve ; that, which remains
in the sieve is again placed over tho stoves, being ns before
coiistsntly taken on and turned, and iu 15 minutes is ready to be
again sifted this timo through a No. G. It tlieu takes 10 inhmtes
to linisli off, being eoiistantly turned the while. Tho siftings
are left on tho table till all teas are iinished firing ; these repro
scut broke,n teas, broken pekoe, pekoe No. 2, and rlnst; and
are finished oil' over the hot stoves by the expiring fires—this
takes about 10 minutes. Experieneo alone can toll us when teas
are properly fired, they should feel orisp to the touch, and when
bent resume Un ir .shape. As each tray i,s fired off, the tea should
ho put Into a bin, fur the purpose, aud exposed on the table as
little as possible.
I'AsTiNrj,—'Clin fir-st. tiling tho next inoruing as sort’ng begins,
the “ make ” of the previous day or night shimhl he infused and
tasted c.ircfully ; we then know what to do witli it, as wo should
keep our classes of diflbiHill values (or grades) separately, and a
good tii'cak may be spoiled liy having one or two days inferior
make mixed wllli iU Aocldents sometimes hap]icn also, such os
ovcilciini'iitatioii, if tlicro i.v h.irIi night vvoik, and this can only
be detected liy iiiluniiig tlie leaf ; Imrniiigalso. No tea sliould be
packed away tbeivloiv (mixed witli the liulk) till it is tasted aud
laults, if any, discovered, tvi lie rectified In the future.
.Soiitim;, —'i'liis ih best done by women • one woman to every
100 lb. of tea lied and large fiat leaf is first picked out, and the
tea IS tlicu iiasseil llirough a No. 7 or 8 sieve, aouordiug to tho
size of leaf, t.i., tea 0/ any particular day’, tiiat wliicTi comes
lliiougli IS nest I'ut into a. No. 10 or 12 -the higher the elevation
the iiinUler and iiioi'o wiry' tho make-tfiat that remains in tho
No. 7 or 8 must bt hylitli/ broken threugli Iiy hand ; and what
still ii'iimins ill (very little) is congou ,aiid black fauuiugs ; that
broken thiougli is Inolteii le.a and broken .soucboiig, which is
nu.xcil iitlei I'vinoviiig the dust and hiukcii tea with the pnkoe
souchong puie, reiiiainieg in ]o o,. and tho mixture classed
us pekoe smiehoug. We then hiive left to deal with pekoe, broken
pekvH, liiokeii lea and diist, all of which li'is bocu poeseJ through a
No. 10 Ol 12—to extiaet as sh vvn our jickoo souchong. Tills .,^
iiyii/n gild's in No. 10 or I'J, ii'yAfy sifUiig it, to roniovo broken
pekoe, itrolicu tv a anil dost, leaving tliu [lekoo in the slovo. We
ilicji witli an ordinary rli-c vv iimmvur (“ sliologoo”), remove broken
ten mid dust fiuin the hrokoii pekoe, the biokcn pekoo
rciniitiiiitg in tiie vvhinower ; the bi'okcii tea and iluat wo
then (Hit into No. 21, pa.ssing the dust tliiuugli. To separate toa
vliisL hum (ickoo dust, vvtv can use either muslin or tho wmuowor,
again, IVu have now .sorted our leas into the following olasso.s ;—
1. I’v k'ui'. 2. I'eknc souchong. 3. Congou (and fatinings with largo
uniolicd havcs(. 4. Kiokeii jiekoe. o. I’.rokcn tea ; toa (lust aud
pekoe dust. 1 do not count us a ni.vkc nor yet fanniugs ; the latter
may, iu inofct instances, nnlcss the plucking has got ahead of you,
ho mixed, alter tu caking, with tho hroken tea. Fannings wo
break tlirongh a Keid’s breaking machine, tundiig out a reddish
make about Lwiev. tlio size of our brokoii tea, which, if poor in
liqiiur, we ship separately a.s fanuiiigs ; or if sliovv'iiig a fair liquor
and not too much levl leal, mix with our broken teas. Of congou,
faiiiiings, and tho dust, wo have a very, very small percentage each
day. The iiuiubere ..1 sieves wo requiie are as tollovvs :—No. 4
for sifting gieoii leaf in rolling hy hand, to give more “ ti|is.” No.
5 useful sonietinies, when (ilueking has gut ahead of you ; and
Nus. G, 7, 8, 10, 12 and 24.
I’.vcKi.Mi.—As, aecordiug to the iievv rules bulking on tho garden*
is now accepted in Loudon and oiu tea saved from being all turned
out, piovided tares run piotly equal, I lenoinmcud eneli class of
lea to he paekcvl as soon as sullieieut can be bulked to make 25
half ubosts of 50 fVi. each. These sliould measure 15 x 10 k 10, aud
lure, on an average 18 lb. ineludiiig lead, do not require hooping,
and represent one cuoly load. As soon ai we have (lacked all our
tr.'vs tu eomiilotc that (i.iitieular break 01 shipmeut, (which ought
not to be under ."'.Ifllt) Ih. IK tt I Ihiiik, and the more the better),
wc may add our diu’l, fanuiiigs, uud cougoii which will only
amount to a lialf cheat or go of each. 'These teas will ruu from 6 a,
per R>. to lO^d,, aud aro as well shipped, if a half obest can b«
made np with each break from whioh they hav 0 basn made. I find
» hoU eheek take* 34 lb, of lead and 14 oi m>idot—ov ooft of ImII
428
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Novembfiy 1,1883
oiiest with lead-liiiiug, ic., renJy packoj cents S'OOO per lb. of toa.
Whilst on this subject, 1 think it would bo of great advantage to
US all if we could aiTnugo to use one uniform paokagi!, and iio
package can Iw more oonvonient for tta than the half olioat as above
—the majority of u» have to transport our cliosts to ttio main
rowl on ooolys heads—thi.s Imlf cheat reproaouls jtist a full oouly
load. Whereas a cheat takes two cooUoa to carry it, lin« to bo
hooped—a costly work-and there is all the worry of rope
which is constantly stolen, and polei, to carry it ; therefore,
the saving in draft iu London (under i-a-lb. of tei) and
the slight differonoe iu its favor in cost, iu tho first instance,
is more than connter-balaiiood hy tho cost of hooping and
transport, with the acoeasorios of polos and rope. I trust, therefore,
that those intereatod in tea in Ooylon, will from this year—our
first great start almost,—arraugo to use one uniform package
which shall be peculiar to Ceylon, and become known as the
VeyloM, fhenl. This for tho bulk of onr teas, but wo may also pack
(Kjoasional breaks iu boxes ; these should weigh under 28 lb. gross
and thus save draft, say 10 to 15 lb. nett. And ospocially fine
make could be shipped m these, forming a small break, and will
often fetch fancy prices. Brokers at homo accept both half chests
and boxes, so there is no innovation hero. A coolie can pack oaro-
fully, 13,—shall I call them Ceylon-cbosts ?—in a day.
1 now ooino to yield and cost per lb. f. o. b. at Colombo.
Yikli).—I n my own experience, at 4,700 to 5,601) ft. elevation,
with fair soil, ordinarily featured laud, as our hill country goes,
fairly steep, I find the yield has been as follows, and 1 do not
consider 1 am yet in full bearing ;—
At 2i to years old 163 lb, tea per acre.
to 44 ,, 292 f, ft ,1 *
( pruned heavily in .Inly last
season,—season ouds In Sept.—
to shape bushes which explains
shortness of yield.
fi.ito'i ,, linishoe cud of .Sept,, 700 lb, per aero will bo
exceeded all round.
Bushes from the first have been under-pluckod.
Again, I have yield given mo at an olcvation of 1,800 to 2,500
feot.
Average ago 3 years 224 Ib. per acre.
4 „ 380 lb. „
0 „ 3151b. „
And please note, on this garden of over 200 acres in extent,
thero was a considerable loss of loaf, from allnwing Urge ureas to
grow up during these throe seasons, for see 1, from which little
If any loaf wa.s plucked, bad tho full acreage been plucked the
average would have reached 100 lb. more pur acre.
Again, I have given me figures of an estate, at an avcr ig? of
2,300 feet elevatiun, 400 lb. per acre atll^ to 4^ years nld.
Another estate, at an average ol 500 feet, gives fur the first
.'I’i.r nioiiilu! of this year, Jauu,ary to June, bning in ,lnn<’ 4 yens
old, 400 1b. per acre, tho estimite to Dicoiiihcr is (iJ)lb. p>r
acre s and will prob.sbiy be oxcoodml, Agiin, an estate frnm 100
to 400 feot, showing an nverag.) age all Coan I of 4 y'ars, gives
4.301b. par acre. This estate Is widely planted jk C and 5 m 5, and
had it been 4x4 would have given a largir yield, as hushes do
nut cover the ground ; but 430 lb. at 4 years is good enough, you
will allow.
I liavo again many instanon.s of estates, up ho 3,010 foot, giving
400 to 600 per acre up to 5 years of age ; and at 4,000 to 3,000
foot, from 300 to 420 lb, per aero.
Wo have all beard of Clalleboddc and its 800 lbs. odd ji-n' acre ;
also of the oblor portion of Ounoilin with iU 731 lb. per acre ; a
jiortion of one of my fields 3 acres iu extent has given in‘at
(4 years 1,200 lb. per acre at 5,500 feet elnvati m, well sUcUered
with fine soil—an exceptional field, I will allow. These ligiuo*
are fairly leprosoutalivo of tea in Ceylon at this dale, and not
one of the estates mentioned is iu full bearing. Wh.it n'll/ the
yield bs wdion we arc in full bearing, from 8 years of ago up¬
wards? Wo shall want lots of withering room, gontlonun ; so be
prepared in time.
Young as we are, and in the face of these yields at 6 years of
age aud upivards I feel perfectly safe iu estimating an rnt. cagr
yield of 400 lbs. per acre from tea in the colTco zone and above it,
say from 2,500 to 5,700 ft. in sbolternd sitnations, and in saying
5,700 ft, 1 do not wish it to be understood I draw Ih 1 limit even
here, bub tliw figures 1 have hail given mo above this elevatimi, fi;..,
at 6,300 ft., are only fnmi a very small area under tea, wliich how¬
ever gave at 6 years old 4001b per acre at 4 by 4. b'or low-oonntry
teas, that is,teas at from 2,500 down to sea level, at 6 years old and
upwards, I shall bo very inuob surprised indeed if they do not
show an (I wnyr yield of 600 lb per acre. These estimates, guntle-
iticn, may ssom excessive, looking at the average yields from
Assam and India generally, liuteompare ouv yield in this onr very
infancy with that iu India, and you will find w’e can even now
show an average, from estates at 34 years old up to 6, wliieh will
more than deuWe theirs. Inclemency of weather does not affect
us iu the same way in which It does onr Indian father.'', as we liave
11 mouths in which wc plnck. If due mouth is too wot, we benefit
all the more when the sun shines again, os wo have lots of time
if wo have a spell of dry weather, on the other hand, this again is
sure to be followed by rain, wlieu we at once make up any loss.
Ooit per H>, f. o fc — 1 have to thank many friends for furnish¬
ing me with cost 0 . b, at Colombo, and choose tho follovving
which are representative of all and may be relied on. In all oases,
tho tea was umnufaoturod withont the aid of maohjnery of any
kind.
450 lb. per acre coat 36 ote, /. 0 . h,
700 ..loots./. 0 . 5.
400,, „ 40cts,/.o. 3.
430 ,, ,, ,, 29 oU./. 0 , b.
{
Including cost of up¬
keep of young tea not m
bearing,
If we take the average of the above 4 estates, we hare s^ 495 Ib.
E er acr^ liaud-made, costing 34 oente / o, b, at Co’ ipbo ;
ondon cargos including freight are under 2^(1, ; but iK* all
practical purposes let ns say 24 d., the above teas at an average
price of l.r. 2 j(2., and this is not a high average, leaves ns Is. nett,
or at Is. M. per rupee, 69 oente ; a profit of 26 cents per lb. at
4Q5 lb. per acre, say Rs. 128*70 profit per acre.
Whilst I am on tho subject of yield 1 trust we In Ceylon will talk
of lb. per acre aud not mniimU j our tea is sold by the lb., what
then can we have to do with maunds ?
With regard to plucking aud manufacture, I find Its actual cost is
ns follows without inaohiiiory :—
1‘lucking (including baskets aud cootie sacks) ...cents 7*000
Withering, rolling, fining ... „ 6*300
Sorting, reflring, p.aoking (in half oliests), Includ¬
ing load solder aud chests ... ... „ 4*000
Total ... „ 17*500
The rest of the works depend upon circumstances, and in
many instances can be done cfieaper with regard to some of the
items than I now shew. Take, for example, a garden of 150 acres,
bearing at 4fK) lb. per acre.
Supdt. iucUuliiig Factory Overseer, at R20 per
acre, cost peril), of tea
cents
5*000
Weeding at 87 cunts per acre, R10*44 per acre
per annum
♦ »
2*610
An ordinary pruning at RO per acre
t /
1-310
Nurseries, R*2*25
tt
*.375
Supplying at R4*,')0 per acre
t1
1 1*25
Hoads aud drains at R3 per acre
n
*750
'i'ools nay 11150
It
•250
'I'ransport Tea from estate f.o.b.
>i
2*200
Oeueral Transport
It
*400
llou.se and lappal cooUes, medioines, statiouei-y,
oontiugeiicics, and c.vport duty aud medical
aid
»t
1*510
Upkeep of Imilditigs at 11150 per annum , .
*:.j)
Manuring 30 acres per auuuui at RlOO —
R3.00J ...
»♦
5*00)
T'lUil I'sl'ile c\p Miditiire per lb. ...
21 bl)
Add cost of pinekiiigand mtiiiif icturc as above .
17 511
Total cost 411 Ib. pji* acre f.o.b. at per lb, tea
hti'til made ... ...
t>
30
V.iluc of '110 lb. tea at 00 cents par lb. iirtl Rs. ‘210
Less Cost us above at 30 cents per lt>
151
,Not profit per acre
KiS4
Or if nn manm ing is d im.RIOl p-'i- aero profit. M.inure of cour.si!
cvcntiially (lays for itscll by mrirav’tl yield.
1 believe the above to be a lib ii-al eatim.itJ : it is at all cvcils
me biglicr thin I Hhiiubl allow fur the working of my own garden,
ivliich IH IU perfect ord M’, It liil) pci'acre for 4bJ Ib te.i is liberal
iioiigh, witlioiil niaeliinery. 1 will now show my e.xpcriciice of
be b.mctit machinery gives ns,-—On a coll’ee esUite with letter
rh'vl <i/rriitli/ craitnl a .l.ieksou's nnivorsal roller should be pur-
luwed, lor even only 25 acres of tea, as I think the tollowing
igurus will piovc. I tuke4l)il lb. of tea pot* diem as my slamlard
IS the following maohinery works up to it, and this machinery is
ulliuleut for a garden of 160 acres giving up to 501 lb per acre.
One .lackson's TJiiiversal Roller fixed ready
fin' wurUin'i
Oik.* DiviiiHou's.SiroocO ...
R.
1,*200
>>
1,300
To drive tUo roller a 10 to IH toot water-
whcol Will ilo, or if no wator power a ‘2.^
11 . P. ougiue co' 4 ttuj{ »ay on eRtatu
»»
1,500
A BfOimd .Sirucoo is iu'>Rt usuful and if
{Deans allow of it Rliouid be purchased,
HO 1 will add it, ultiiough not ab»olutoly
liiioosaary ... ...
•1
1,.300
Add a Hortlng luacliiuo at a cont of vay
tt
5,.300
050
K,
6,250
11 tbc garden is to be incroasod iu area it,is b.'ttcr and eboaper In
purebaBe at tlic first Jseksou's larger roller called the “ K^sefsioi]i
exactly the same as his ** Luivorsal ” only working up to 8,000 Ib.
of leaf per dioni, instead of 2,000 lb. and costing at tile garden
SKINNY MEN.
** Wells’ Hsaltli Reiiawcr” I'etlofe* health and vigov^ cures
Dyspeps'ia, Impotcnoc, Uobility, B. 8 , Madon & (Jo,, Bombay,
lieucral Agents,
"WELLS’ EOTIOK 9N OORNS.”
Ask for Wells' " Rough on Corns,” Q-iick relief, complotd
permanent euro. Corns, warts, bunions.
U. !8, MaUuu & Co,, Bombay, Gansnd Agents#
November 1, 1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
429
about B«. 2,200, ThU with 4 Slrocoos will work up to a 300 acre
«<inir «5 6 fl.P. to drive it.
Working, however, with our “ Univonal ” at 400 lb. of loaf per
wdiD| ootts u follows
Plucking per lb. tea ... cent 7-00
Withering, rolling 1,000 lb, leaf = 400 lb.
tea at 6 say... ... ... „ -41
Firing ditto at 3 ooolioa incluUiiifi firewood,
•a-y ... ... ... ... „ '26
Sorting by Artin/, refiring, packing In half
cheeti, iufllading ohestB, &c. &o.. .3'30
Total oott of plnckiug, and manufacture by I
matdilnery ... ... ... „ ij.ig
or a aavl^ per lb. of tea of cents 0%34 as against hand-rolling and
otmrcoal flriug, I have not os yet worked a sorting machine, but
1 believe with two coolies to attend to it (driven by water or
ateam) a Jackson’s or Ansoll’s will sort into four classes nt the rate
of 400 lb, Mr hour. Lot us, for example, take fl coolies per 1,000 ,
Itr, tuoludlng the pioklug out of rod loaf, its cost is exactly half
that of hand-sorting or cents 0'165 as against cents 0'33 per lb,, or
flay VfO bstve a taviny/>/Si ce'itu pci'lb, of fi'a, with all maciiiiiory
oomploto. This at 4001b per acre yield represents a saving of
Be. 20 per acre or brings up profits as per former ostiinato to Ha. 100
per acre, or. If no manuring is done, on a young garden, to Ks, 130
per aora. Prom these figures you can work out the profits at ony
yield per acre i cost of manufacture is always the same, except
whou machinery is used, when the nearer we work up to its full
power, the cheoper are we able to manufacture our tons, as there
[s then no loss in coolie labor at mnchlucry; cost of the other works
IS increosed or lessened in proportion b,s the yield is lower oi’
higher. In further reference to machinery, in making any quiiu-
tlty of tea per diem the inuchiue roller will turn out abetter make
than eau be obtained by haud-rolUug. One or two picked coolies
might roll hotter : but when we liavo from 20 to HO coolies to
attend to, maoliine-roUed tea will carry off the palm. .Sirocco-
fired leas, as I Imve inysolf tested, are brisker and fulloi
tlian charcoal fired teas. 1 find my Sirocco at 27,'!’ will fire oil'
1001b of roll per hour, equal to about 45 lb. of to.a; my
“ Universal ” rolls the equivalent of 200 Ih. of green (uiiwitlierni)
leaf per hour or 150 lb. of witliei-'1 leaf in 7.1 miinites, taking in
37 lb. at a iill, wliicli it rolls n 20 miimtes. and we have to
allow 5 minutes for emptying ninl refilling. If on a coflVe estate
you liavo not sulfiolont power already erceteil to diive the I
‘‘Exeelsior ” roller (0 11*1’,) I van, !w Jim' leaf, recommend
Kininoud’s (.‘entrifugal, one of wliiob rollers I also biiM', 'I'bis
requires only the same power as the “ Universal,” but will toll oil'
4,000 11). of groon loaf per diem, insteod of only 2,000 ; its cost Is
about Ks. 1,700 on the gardon. It will not roll cniirso leaf well, so
vitUonu of those rollors you must l^'i'p up with ymir Hush, its
great advantage is its uheapunes ns compared with the cross aclion
for amount of woik it does, with the small power it takes to woik
it (‘2J H. 1’.) and with good leaf, the large amoiiut of tip it Liinis
out, although, where it can be workeil, 1 prefer the Jaige it. ss
aotioii (.JaAsoi.’s) '* Uxoolsior.” 'I'o eonqiaro labour leqnired to
make 4001b. of tea by baud and charcoal, with tlio number of coolies
required to niako tlio same with tin; “ Univursal ” aud “.Sirocco,” I
find the fullowiug : —
liy hand-withoilng I,COO lb. leaf 2 coolies.
Rolling ditto 40
Firing aud charcoal 10
'I'otal for 4up In. tea .W
Hy machine-witlicrisg 1,000 lb. loaf 2 coolies.
Rolling do.
Firing So.
OOODALL’S
HomehoM Specialities.
A Single Trial solicited from those who have not
yet tried these Splendid Preparations.
TOAKSBXRB REIsXSH
The Iffost IkelioioiiH filmtce tu the World.
This cheap and oxoollont Sauce makes the plainest viands palat.
able, and tho daintiest dishes more delicions. Witli Chops, Steaks,
Fish, &c., it is incomporablo. In bottlos, at 6d., Is., and 28. eaoh.
COODALL’S BAKINC POWDER.
T/ie Sent in tkr. World.
Makes deUoious pnddii^ without eggs, pastry without butter, and
beautiful light bread without yeast. lu Id. pockets, Is., 2s.,
and Os. tins.
GOODALL’S
QUININE WINE.
The Befit find mosi Aijracahlo Tonic yet introduced,
TLe l)OHt I’Qmcdy kiiowai for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite,
(icneral Debility, &o. ttestores doUcato iudividuala to health. At
Itf. lid. mid S.** each bottlt).
COODALL’S CUSTARD POWDER.
Fur miikiHii Di'o-xnui (UtntnnU ivithirul Fijgs, in less time
(utii at half the jotu '.
Tho Proprietors ran rooommeml it to Ilousekeepera generally as
a usoful agent iti the preiiaratioii of a good custard, GlvS IT A
'J'ul.tii. S5UI in boxo.s, fid. and U. each.
GOODALL’S
GINGER BEER POWDER
.fluliitM Tlirco OnllouH of tlie Best Ginger
lleei' ill ibc World thr Tlireepeueo.
TIju most valuahlo proporatiou for the production of a delicious
and invigorating beverage. It is ooeily mode, and is by far thu
clieiiiiest and bc.st Oingcr Boor ever offorod to tho public. Sold in
packets, Sd. and fid. eaoh.
COODALL’S ECC POWDER.
Its action in Oakos, Puddings, &c,, &o., rosomblos that of the egg
in every partieuliu’. One penny packet will go ns fai’ as four eggs 1
<uul one sixpenny tin as far as twenty-eight. Bold evorywUore, in
Id. paekuts ; fid. and Is. tins.
Total
Saving in labour at 400 Ib. of tea 50 cooHea. This really
represents a saving of 7A cents per lb., or the rollor saves 37 coolies
and the “ Sirocoo ’ 13 oouUes at 400 li,>. tea. ’I'o uiil in working the
“ Slroooo,” 1 make any lahorernot carryuig in leal, carry in a log of
firewood every evening, which one coolie can cut up for tho
“Sirocoo.” , .
Thk Faotobv—S hould bo i-oomy aud have as much light as
possible. All green loaf, whether withering or being rolleil should
ueshut off from tho tiring, sorting, packing and atare-room, or it
collects dust, &o. Even with a " Sirocco, ’ we should be provided
with stoves, ready for charcoal firing, in case of aoeidont. Cleanli¬
ness must prevail from rafter to floor. Our coffoo stores, when too
large lor our crop, as at present, cun bo ut a small expense turned
Into a suitable factory, a portion being wullod off for our eoifee
°^Lmd can be opened, not including purchase of courir, at the
following rates per acre for the first year : -Jungle Rs. HO, palauu
fis. Ho, aud coffee Rs. 40 to Bs. 50. Coffee should bo uprooted
when tea Is nt 1 to 14 years old, unless it h.is on it sulliciout crop
to make it worth while leaving it. Tea at thiee years of age 'viU
prevent ooffee giving suffieient crop to pay, and will eventually
kill It out, so the two cannot bo grown aide by side. Coffee, when
%prooted, may be stacked with advantage for Urewwd or charcoal.
Wo con grow among our tea to advantage, aooording to elevation
taking oare not to overcrowd it, C, officinalis (best of all, as it
gives no shade to speak of, and thrives bettor among tea than lu the
open), small-loafed Hobusta and Ledger, the upkeep is nil, hoiwcst-
lug being tho only expense after planting. Wo oaii grow ^oi^A tea
to n large laviiiy o/expemlilurc lu both coffee or cocoa according to
elevation. Aud let us olm, with tea as our mainstay, to grow all
the products tho elevation of our garden will allow of, w ith it.
Sgji^nlia dmt.^Weetily Ceglon Obeerecr.
COODALL'S BLANCMANGE POWDER
Makes delicious Blancmange in a fow rainutos. In boxes at Gd.
and Is. each.
All the above-named Preparations may he had of all Grocers,
Chemists, Patent kedieinc Dealers, and Oilmen.
Proprietors : GOODilL, BACKHOUSE & CO, Leeds, England.
FEEEii’S SYRUP OF PHOSPHORUS.
N.-itnrf’H Cireat, Brain niul Nerve Tonic and tbo most wonderful
Blood I’lirdkT. ’I'lie highest Medical AuLhoritfes say that it is the
only Cmv fur Westing Disuasos, Montal Ueprossion, Boes of Energy,
null Slunnir-h ConiplaintH.
U is plojisant to tho taste, and might be taken by the most
dvlicately consHUited. In iliu most enfeebled it builds up a NE'W
ANU H t'l.VLTIiY CONSTITUTION. One doaa al this Remedy ia
Q,|Ual to Twenty Doses of Cod-Liver Oil.
Tlionsands have been anatchod from tho brink of tho grave by the
timely uso of Pkxemas’h Svkup of Phosmiobos. May be had of all
Chemists and Patent Modicine Vendors, in bottles at 2<. fid., 48, W.,
lie., and 33*'. ___
BPEOIAL AGENTS:
GOODALL, BACKHOUSE & CO.;
White Hor«ie Streel, JLeediHt Bnglwid,
4S0
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
November 1, 1883.
FIRE BRICKS.
E ANEBOUNGB riKE BRICKS w supplied to Qovemment and
the various Railways, Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Steam
Wavi^ation Companies. Rrios—Rs, 8 per 100.
Extract irom OtKcUl Report of tests made at H, M's Mint,
Calcutta, by Thbopokr W. H, Upobbs, Esmj., k.Q.s., a.r.b.m., Ofli-
oiating Deputy Superintendent, Geological Survey, India:—
“ J%t Fire Briekn lrsie,( by vie wire funiinhcd by the Firm of
Me»tfr*, BUHFtb (Jo. * ^ ‘ fhe incUerituM from whicfi they are made
are very refroeXory and capable <j/' refuting high temjferalvre toUh-
oui senmbly fusing, * * * Thai comjiared nrith Stourbridge Fh-e
Bricks arc somewhat eujwrior."
1'be specimens were subjected to a temperatuio of over 3,000
degs, Fahr., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,786 degs.
Ruhr.
Apply for the above, and for Roncegunge Salt-glaied Stoneware
and unperisbable Drainage Pipes, to
BURN & CO„
7, Hastings-strect, Calcutta, I
or Raneeguuga Pottery Works, Haneegunge,
E.I.K., Bengal. ^
FRANOC.
CONTINENTAL & COLONIAL AGENCY,
(LICENSED),
14, BUE DE OBABBOL, PABZS.
T ransacts every description of Commission, Merchant, and
General Agency Business. ,
All ludotits executed at Manufacturers’ most favourable te
Oenditians ,—Two and-a-hatf per cent Commission when
Draft on Loudon or Paris aocompaniei order. Bpeolal t-
regular correspondents. All Oisuonnts oonesded to purci>_k.a.
Original Invoices sent when required.
Produce taken charge of and reoliaed to best advantage. Cosh
advanced on Couaigumeuts.
The Agency Represents, Buys, and Sells for Firms,
Public Securities, Estates and Properties, bought and sold.
Loans, Mortgages, Mines, and Industrial Investments, &o,, nogo-
oiated.
Manufacturers and Producers oan have aultable articles Intro¬
duced to the markets on advantageons conditions.
PsiO£ List —conryrehentive and rtliabk—on application,
BANKERS.— Pabis : George Waters, Esq., 30, Boulevard des
Italiens, Loduon ; The Loudon and County Banks, S,
Victoria-street, Westminster.
Address : The Manager, Continental and Colonial Agetwy, 14, Rue
de Chabrol, Paris, France, 447
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
“ 'I know what It is,’ he answered j ‘this honey is made from
euphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.’ This e.xplanatiou made
me fool exceedingly uncomfortable j but I elicited from him that there waa
not much danger, os the ‘maase’ taken with it would neutralise the effect
of the poison. DirBotly he mentioned poison I dived into the packs, ami
pulled out a bottle of END’S FRUIT SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pannikins, filleil them up with water, and several times
repeating the dose, in a few hours we’wovo considerably bettor.”—
“ Ziihdand and Celnmiju," {/>. 130), by Captain IF. If. Lndlow, 1st Balt.
It. r. Jtoy/il lyurwickshin lieginieut.
“ ‘ WJiat on earth shall J take to Zululand ?’ asked my friend Jim
Law one day at Ahhu'sliot, u’lttm he had just received orders for South
Afric.i, to start at forty-oigjil hours’ notiee. 1 replied, ‘If you take
my uilviee—and it's that of an old ttnvellur—you’ll not budge witliout
a few bottles of ENO, oven if you baive half your kit buidiid. I
never am witliout tliesu .Salts, and, please the pigs, never intend to be.’
Gu Ids leturii I imjuinsd, ‘ D'ell, Imw about ENO’S FRUIT SAL'J'?’
‘ Aly dear follow, it was the best advice you ever gave; tlicy saveil
me many au iliiiess ; ami wlieii I loft 'I'uegbv, I sold the remaining bottles
for leu times the original price ! ’ ”— Lind.-Vol.
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANCER OF DELAY.
Tou can cRange the trickling stream, bnt not the raging torrent.
W HAT EVERYBODY SHOULD RE.A.D,—How important it is to every iudividnal to have at band some simple, effective, and palat¬
able remedy, such a* ENO’S FRUIT .SAI.T, to clieck disease at the outset I For this is the time. With very little trouble you
can change the course of the trickling mountain stream, bnt not the rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I fool I cannot suffi-
cleutly impress this important lufonnation upon all lloii.seholdei's, or .Ship Captains, or Kuropoaua generally, who are visiting or residuu in
any hot or foreign climate. Whenever a change is contemplated, likely to disturb tlio condition of health, let ENG’S FRUIT SALT be
your companion ; for, under any ciroumstances, its use is benetieial and never can do harm. Wlicu yon feel out of sorts, yet unable to say
why, frequently without any warning you are suddenly seized with lassitude, disbicliiiation for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetite,
aicknesB, pain in the forehead, dull aching of back and limbs, eolduoss of the surface, and often shivering, tc., &c. ; then your whole body
is out of order, the spirit of daugor has been kimllud, but you do not know where it may cud : it is a real ueoessity to have a simple remedy
at hand that will answer the very best end, with a positive assmauoe of doing good in every ease aud in no case any harm. The pilot can
so steer and direct os to bring the ship into safety, but he cannot quell the rarfiig storm. Tile common idea when not feeling well is, “ I
will wait and see, perhaps I stiall be better to-morrow' ; ” whereas, had a supply ol ENO’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, aud use made of it
at the onset, all calamitous results might have been avoided. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks so many sweet alliances,
blasts so many auspicious enterprises, as mitiinely death 7
ANO'H FRUIT MAL'J’.—“After suffovnig fur nooi’Iy I we and a half years
_ J from severe hoadaeho and disordered Bti)ni.seh. luitl after ti'ying iilmo.st
ovorything- and spending much money witliout lindiug any benotlt, 1 was
rocoramondeil by a frioncTto ti'y E.N’0’8 FUUIT H.tLT, and Is-foro 1 had
linishod one liottlo I found it doing mo a great doai of good, and now I
lun restoreil to luy usual hoalth ; and otliera 1 know that liave triad it iiavu
not enjoyed sueii good healtli for years,—Yours most truly, Kobt.
IlUMl'HHKTS, post Office, Baimsford.”
E NO’H fruit MAL'J'.—“ After suffonag for nearly two and a half years fltHR ART OF C'ONQtJRS’J' bS LOST WITHOUT THE ART OF EAT-
from sevoro hoadaeho and disordered stonmeh. and after ti'ying olmo.st J, INW.—DINNKIt ENOAGEMENTS.—STIMULANTS.—TOO RJOII
. ■ FOOH.-LATEHOUtlS.—IN.SUFFI01ENTEXERC1SE.-EXCITBMENT,
ill'.—A gentleman writes; “When I feel out of sorts, I take a dose of
END'S FRUIT .SALT one hour before dinuer or first thing in the moramg.
^ 'The effoet is all I could wish.” How to enjoy good food that would
j othorwi.se cause biliousaess, hoadaeho, ordisordorod stomaoh—use ENO'8
1 FRUIT SALT.
S UUGB88 IN LIFE.—“ A new Invention is brought before the public, and commands sncooss. A score of abominable imitations are
immediately introduced by the uuserepulous who, in copying the original closely enough to deceive the public, and yet not so exactly
as to infringe upon legal rights, exercise an ingenuity that, employed in on unginal oliannel, eouid not foil to secure reputation aud
profit.”— A 11 AM.S. ^
C AUTION .—Legal rights are protected in eoery eimlised country. Examine each Bottle, and sea the capside is marked “ ENO’S FI*U1T
SALT,” Without it you have been imposed on by worthless imitations. Sold by all Chemists, price Ss. gd. and 4». Gd,
piREOTtON^ IN SIXTEEN LANaUAQES HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE.
trepared only atJEKO'S FBI71I SALT WOBES, HATOHAU, LONDON, S.E., by J. 0. ENO’S Batent,
November 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN •AGRICULTURIST.
431
PHCENIX IRON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
Civil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders,
Metal Merchants, &c.
Forged and Ca»t Iron Work, Boilrrn, Machinery Jm- Jute, Cotton and Hire Ml/lx, Collicricx, Indo/o Conrernx, Tea Oaidcnx, dc..
Contractors’ and Brick-making IHani, and eivrg ctaxx of Iron and Uraxx Work made to order.
SOLE -A.a-EITTS EOE
llobpy & (Vs celebiuted Portable and Fixed Eiigiuos ainl Maeliiiiory, OwymiB & (Vsfiiviin ililo ” CVii(nfiii.;:il Patripi,, OouIirH
Kotiijy PuwiM, and EobiusoiiH Patent Steam Trajis.
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
Hobey & f'o’s Portable, Horizontal, Fi.\pd, and Patent “ Eolx'y ” Somi-fixed Eugiue.s, Comliinod V 'vtical Engines and Boilers, Liind
and Marino Boilers, Gould’s Potary Power Pumps, J. & II. Gwynne’s “ Invincibio ” Centrifiig,,! Pumps, Hand, Lift and
Force Pum])S, Tangye’s “ Speeiar’ Steam Pumps, “ Vauxhall” Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, Saw Bcndies,
Sponcor’s Hand Drilling Maebinos, Steam Pressure Pe.t;ordur.s, Uii liards’ Engine
Indicator, Gid'ord’s lujee,tor.s, Cooking Stoves,
Fire-Proof Siiloa.
.1. it H. GWynne's “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Punij,
This Pump being arranged to swivel on tlie bod-plate
may be fixed at any angle required, it does not re¬
quire .•( foot-valve, being fitted with small ail 0 -\-
haustcr aujl aback on discliarge, whieb al\vii\s keep it
cliargcd ready for work. .
ItobeCs Combined Viut ical Engine and Boili r
This class of Engine ne.'irlv twice as large as
tlinse of tile .same iiominai iiorsc-powei of some
in.ikers Tile Engine, instead of Isdilg fixed to tlie
Boil,')- us is usual in Engines of tlie H.anie class, is
eiei'ied on 11 massive Cii-si Iron Standard wliicli makes
It quite imlepeiideiit of the itoiler.
Howard's Ryot's Plougli, No. 0, price—Bs. 20.
the use of tin; Ityots ol Imb.i, whose sjieeial needs luivc been
for whieh the native.mmle miplemeiitB have hitherto been
Ransome’s “ Indian ” Plough, price Rs. 1,5
These Ploughs have been expressly designed and inamitaetiired for
cavofullv studied in their construetion. They einhoily nil the qiinlificalioii.^
preferred whilst being ineomparahly stipeiior m strength, diiialdlity, and I'flioinney.
MORAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
the mil to three liiiiCB the di-.pth of a native plough, and leaves the good mould on the top. (lues through the dirtiest land
without getting ehokeil v itli weeds, i’liei'. Ks. 1,’).
INDIGO AND TEA PLANTERS’ IMPLEMENTS AND STORES.
ETSTO-HsTEEHS’ tools -ist-isru STOI^ES (DW -A.LL TSZEnsrpS-
Alway# on hand a lauoe stock or Pi-.vrK, Bar, Anui.i;, 'J’rk axd tioaauoATEn Ii:o.\, ,Stkhl, Bhas-s, (.'orrmi, Pm Ikon,
Foi’kprv Coke, .Siirriir Coal, Fire Biiicks, and Fire Clay.
<3/' Cat(il(iyue» on AppluHtion,
THE INDIAN AGEICULTUItlST,
November 1, 18€3.
S. OWENS & 00.,
'Wri3[ITE3B'^lI^I«‘S-STIi^2aT, 14047330357,
HYDRAULIC ENQINCERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
PUMPING MACHINERY OF EVERT DESCRIPTION
FOU STEAM, WATER, ]Y1FE, CATTLE, AND MANVAl POWER. ^
Hydraulic and.Screw Presses, Oil Mill Machinery, Hydraulic Lifts, 9 k .
SOLE MAKEE8 FOR GREAT BRITAIN OF
BLAKE'S PATEKT DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMP,-MORE THAN 10,000 IN USE.
TtlE FOLLOWING AUK SOITB OF THE mOMIijlIirT ADVAKTAOm OF THB BLAKK FTTHF:—
It will start at any Jioiut
oi stroke.
It has no dead point.
It works fast or slow
with the same oortainty of
action.
It is ooonomloal. Has a
load on the Slide Valve,
It Is oompaot and dnr-
ahle.
Hand Power Leror
DetauUod,
It is intorohanffeablo in
all its working paru.
It will deliver more water
than any other Fampi
It Is made of best mate*
rials in tho most workman¬
like manner.
Can be worked at 200
strokes per hour, or 20
strokes per minute.
• U i
■ill r;
’ 'et-ilE’S PATENT
nirect-Actln^ Steam Pump and BoUer Feeder.
COMPLCTC OIL MILL.
Dotlhle-barrel OotitrActof-’ PumiK,
for MAn<1 or Hteam Power.
Tir))T>-'' d Btofini Boring
A,n'<vrBt.aH,Rljo n tool*.
lu-Tiii,^' VoolE of OTcrjr dotcrlitti‘>ii. for Wt.-Ila,
FIri' Kn^fMK-vjor 'J'wwiia, Hu'iIwh)
hi.
Puini
Barn'vi
WlVit-li..*!--'.')
rsusnt Ckn!r)fn»ol romF«. torCentrsoton
aae, v If ^
OaiUirou Hmiee
crGArden pump.
Portahlo IrHfffttnrs for
or Hteam Power.
BLAKE’S PATENT DIPvECT-AGTlNG STEAM PU.MP AND VERTICAL BOILER
Dimaii XI^--RT.C3-^TX03Sr CJRX=OSES,
FILLINC TAN1C.S, \VATlill-aUi-l’LV TO PLANXATIONSi, SMALL TO-WNS, OR ViLLAGES.
Whiteftiax’s Ironworks, 'Whitefiiar’s-street, Reet-street, London.
Caialonucs and Etiimiet Era on Applaalion,
w, & Uiuw, u *»»'• lUAmiiAS &Stmo w Irwa Oitk», QAusvnA.
Ho, 182:i
THE
mmm
AaRICULTUEIST.
A UOlirTHIiT
JOUmAL OF l/IDIAS AQRICULTURE, MIMRALOQY, AND STATI8TIQS.
VOIil 'ViK.] CALCUTTASATURDAY, DECEMBER 1, 1883. [No. It.
GAirors pffls co3)Tosr agLiwa
*I>B«AU.Y«UITED FOR MHMNkTUITIB litmRM ANO AMtOAO.
■ritf zes.
EUmbosob ... „. - ... Ig78 Cmsmiim ... ... ... .18(80 Pnwaoa,* . ... igSX
- i„ ‘ 1^79 N*wY<ftBC ... ... ... 1880 ATAtJkiWA ... ... 1881
OTfDNKY ... .« ... 1879 MBlBOtTBHB ... ... ... 1880 PlTTSBOKO ... ... ... 1882
Atalanta ... 1883, I Nbw Zkalahu ... 1882, f Fm^wib. ... 1883, | Tynemouth ... 188%,.
first Premium, First Prise, Sydney. 1879. Hamburc. ^ Dinloma.
First Prise,
Sydney, 1879.
Hamburg,
r Diploma,
/ Jr::.-.
New Yorlt, 1880 j
187i>
MSIlwume, 1880. 1878, Cincinnati, Jiine, 1880
avxs 460,000 nsT sou} oueino issi,
'Including 3,877 feet of main Driving Belta, of, widths ranging fi'oni 13 in. to
60 in,, are working in over 6,000 Mills find,"V^forkB in Europe and America.
). d^Mand^iaEllSt
The following Tests {Ig Kivkddyt of London) show the rekdive strength md valm,
compared, wit^ Zeatl^'.
Best Double Leather 6 in. Belting .,
Gandy*s 6 in, X S-ply Cotton
Breaking Strain pejr Square f|yh of Stootioo.
Price par foot.
22
IN
INCH
l/iNCH
••jam--..
TB:Ej:“a--A.;N;i3Y” belt.
Arnnrfnftn (Vittun Beltuifir CAn ulaim u Mtit>ariartK'nvAr
GANDY BELT.
Any Lrit'ilh or
for Main Driving.
It i.s the best belt
ever ..lade for all purjxw-
«s. Much CheaiKw .and
Stronger thau Leather.
.TiiPKooghly ,'Waterproof,
and not affected by tem¬
perature, cliugR well to
the pulleys, lains true,
and can be m.oile any
length without juintu.
This Series of Betting
(sea a>ig/-avtnff) was sup*
nlied m One Order to
Messrs. John Crossley
and Sons, Halifax, May
1, 1880, and continues to
give entire satUfaotiou.
~ 5 jj_y thus obviating the nocoasity of having two belts onthe some puiteyi a sj’stom nf drivtog which is dotoi- satisfactory
\ ns it is ipipoMbJo to Inavo belts of exactly tlie same tension ; hones one or tho other is nlwayn eaiiaiti(f a stoppage.
I lliss* stoppages Ore avCMet^ by nsing Clandy^s Patent Belts In ono width. Theso dandy H.'Jts aro made of tiw mieet
I American Coflon Ihiolc, spfcovmy prepared at Baltimore for the piuipose, and thpn put togothor and finial«K,l by Gaudy's
1 patented spfseial Maohinory anc process to.prevoiit stretching, and render thorn Imporviiiua to almosiihorio inffusace,
Vl'OMosded of advalituges such as those, tho luiiversai ndoplion Of Gandy's Beits can only he a i|iiuati,iD of tin«o. ' '
A SUBfiTANTIAI. aUAEANTBE GIVEN WTCfl EVERY MAIN DRIVING BELT. ^ ^
Patentee and Manufacturer,’ '’''I'M!* WOKK8; Liverpool, England ; ''*'•'.‘'”,,,0 |
THE INDIAN AGRIOtJLTURIST. December 1,1883.
TRG aBGAT REKGBT
FOR PRICKLY
ANO FEVERS.
Tbe tettlnofir ct mMioiU i^BaiUetten Iim bwa unttoaitflAd in jodiie oi
LAMPLODfil’S PTHETIC SALINE
At pMMMtnf «ltai«nt« mott ectentiftl (or tht rettorttlon And mninttiuiDot ot huUtli Trlth ptrfnot vigour ot bodj- And mind.
It is Xffer7««9tac wad TaatelMBi fonxdac a mott Xn-^isbrattnii, 'TitaUaixis. and BafratUng Beverage. T
0.vMtiiit»»t MlKfln nBADAOM, iBA or BIMOUB SICKNESS. CONSTIPATION, TNl)}OgST10N. tASStTUDB. HEABTOUEN, »n4 P?VKEISH DOLESi p^raut. .nd
quloUy OUIM lb« wor»t Iona* «f rh’BDS. SCAELBT, JUNOLB, and other PBVEES. 8MALLTOX, MEASLES, luid EBDPTlVE or SKlB COMPLAINTS, aad veriou. other
altered oondluoni of the blood. ^ .
Dt. EftOTT.—” UtrfoMldi itnai M itBmtnip ‘hMioftt li> lomalrinrt.*' i I>J*. BPAaKB fOOTtrnment Xediaal laapaotor ot BmlJDWnki wm w Iron ta Mtdon)
X)r MOSiQAlfe^*' It tunsut^ the blood #Ith itt ioat ealina ooutitaanti.” I wrltat :»'* 1 hare frreat pleatiire tu baarins TDr oordlaUeetlreon/ to Ita aJEwacor.
CranrsaSKESV OVrnnAJM ASin 2a£AJrXSB« for tho -grtlhae of ibmix g)Mhdd note
its veIm m e spEoifto itt IFevet oebee-
J. W.l>OW«INa.-‘‘Ii»adlttnthatfaatinintof (orty-twooMaeof Yellow Pwar. ran^XB. thirttj* w oCyowr
and am ha par to eta to 1 nerar loot a eiiii^e ctaae." _ Pyratl o 8aH nc_win do more to prevent fever than all the Qiimlne ever imported can oore,'
^Pr. W. BVEVj|u|E->**BiaeaItaiin^KMtaotkm the Fatal Vaat India Farart are deprived &. I fuut'd Knot a« a tpaeula, in cay exyeHaoea asd famity» is iba^worat
of their taifera .*r » \ __ . __ __. ___ forma of 8<n^^ ^et, QoAheymodiEna batnf raQnli^/' '
ifim WAj3B^rr*a narRmtmATXyrw the q^veekee a* Exeim XdOfra, x^r. s. onivojr ifmarty^jramlWita tKiT x«ndo^uoab{tiuW* its BaefuiasH uipia
tn letter of: raoMt far auadSnoDal anmiy qf tbeFy|mr5^&, sw^^^tlapf ffnal treatmentof diaaaae haaiongfaanootSLnudlvKiMtAlexiBrteiM,**
ma49tv, and 1 ah^rejoJba talmfi' iMs in tnVhoBaea of agBn ro pa i ni rleUl^ tfia treploa.^’ ^
To bo obtftlEEd of S &7 pbomiBt or Drug Etoro* in PAtEnt QlMB^Bt^ppond Bot^loi* fi$, Bd.^ 4e 0d*g Ub.^ imd 21e. oaob.
TloaM noto'n eonaoemon' iHtli tlw iroo eMtiy ohMIwoft o B yiAl t of iUa niw of OitMrtw wnd (niter proparationa
of Xagnaaia that ILaiSPIiOXTOX’B FTaUBTiC aULm|OB Js «arrant<^ not to oontain any anhawioe
which would oaiUMi oalonloTUl
aULniaOB M warranted not to oontain any anh
tIoTUi or htnar earthy dapoaita.
n. X4.A.3^p>XiOTJC3-ia:, 113, noLBOK/i^ Loifruo^, BrO.
City Line of Steamers.
rOB LOKBOK DIRECT vid SUEZ CAKAL,
Tons. Captbius. .
City ttf liancheiter ... ... 8126 A. MacdOiutld.
Oily ^ Oearthage ... ... 2661 J, McPherson.
City pf Canterbury ... ... 3212 J, Marr,
City pf Kenice . 3207 J. Y. Moffat.
City of London ,,, ... 3212 J. Black.
CUy pf Edinburgh ... ... 3212 \Y. H. Barham.
aty pf Khios ... ... 3230 A. Thoms.
City pf Agra ... ... 3412 J. Gordon.
City pf CtdeuUa ... ...3636 B. MaNell,
City pf (htford ... ... 4000 Wm, Miller.
CUy pf Cambridge ... ... 4000 D. Anderson,
City of Bombay ... ...4600 (building.)
le City of Anra [(S.) will be dosnatclied about the 11th
JDeoembsr, and followsd by the City of Canterbury (S).
The steamsrs have special compartroents for stowing Indigo.
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE & Co.,
7 Agents.
FIBS BBIOKS
AND
THE
SOUTH OP BTHIA OBSERVER,
Publish*© Wkeklt at Ootacamund,
The Head-quarten of the Madras Oovemment for
the greater part of the year.
TERMS OF SUDBQRtPTlON.
(Exolusive op Pobtaoe.)
c Adyaaoo. Airsars.
Per annum ... ... Es. 20 0 0 Eb. 28 0 0
„ half-year... ... „ 10 0 0 „ 14 D 0
„ quarter ... ... „ 6 0 0 „ 7 0 0
„ mensem ... . 2 0 0 „ 2 8 0
Ndlghcrry Press Co., Limited, Proprietors,
Agents In India;
Msssns. HIGGINBOTHAM & Co, Madras,
Agents is London:
Messbs. geo. street & Co. ... OomAiU
F. ALGAB, Esq. . 8, ClemmU’s-lanc, London, E,C.
Mkssbe. bates, HENDY 4 Co... 4t Old Jewry, London.
Messrs. GORDON 4 GOTCH ... St, Bride-street, London, E.C,
Messbs. RHODES 4 Co. ... S4, Nioholas-Ume, E.C,
14
DRAINAGE PIPES.
APPLY TO
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
16
NOW BEADY.
REVISED EDITION.
OUBURBAN Villas, Market Gardens, and Residential Farms,
O in KatUawar.” liy Major H. L. Nutt, Bombay Politioai
Department. Price, One Rupee per copy. Apply to Snpsrln-
Undent, jgjimbay Education Soolety’s Prow, Byculla.
THE
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST:
A MONTHLY
ffeoof^ of Information for PlanUn
or
COFFEE, tEA, COCOA, OIKOBorA, SVCAB, FALME,
AND
OTHER PRODUOTS. ^
Suited for cultivation in the Tropics, A
Published on ot about the let of each month by A, M, apd
J, Ferguson, Ceylon Observer Office, Colombo.
Price In advance yearly, Bs. 10.
Re. 1 i>er esypy,
10
December 1, 1883. THE imiAN AGRICULTURIST.
435
FV publish- the following papers at this Office
THE INDIAN AGEIOirLTUElST.
(MONTHLY.)
Hates of Subserijftion, inchiding gioslago,
SIKICTLT IN ADVANOK.
For
India
Half-yearly
For-*'i*^po
Ea. 12
.. 7
„ 1.^
7
Half-yearly ... ... ”
Single copies, He, 1; bach copies, Ps, 2.
AdosHisments for the •• Indlttu Agriculturist" should be sent in
not later cAan the SSrd, to appear on the 1st of the/ollowing month.
THE FimSND 07 INDIA AND b¥aT£BUAN.
(WEEKLY.)
Sates of Subsoript lon, including postage,
BTBIOTLT IN ADVANCE.
Jbvin, Mgfussil.
f Yearly .. ... Be. 20 0 Ee. 22 0
For India ...-1 Half-yearly ... ... „ li o „ 12 0
(.Quarterly ... ... „ 0 0 „ 7 0
The reduced rate for Miuionaries u Rs. 15 per annum.
For Europe., ;;; ;;; it I
Single copies, As. 8 ; bach copies, Pe. 1.
A dverlis&ments for the " Friend of India ” should he sent in not later
than tailay, to appear on the following Tuesday.
THE STATESMAN AND 7EIEND OF INDIA
(DAILY.)
Sates of Sulsoription, including postage,
btrictlv in advance.
Ihxiin. MofussU.
/'Yearly ... ... Re. .30 0 Rs, 42 0
I Half-yearly ... •... „ JO 0 „ 22 0
. 10 0 „ U «
... I, 0 8 ,1 4 0
Single copies, As, S ; back copies, As, 4, and S,
Adverlisenienls for the “ Statesman ” should be sent in nut taler than |
5 p,m,, to appear on the following morning. *
* Intending Subscribers will please address the Manager.
Suhsorihers should slate distinctly for which i’AI-jsI! remittances
arc intended.
Agents In London for the above papers ;
GROBGE STREHr, E»q. ... aoniAi«.
F. AL6AK, Krq. ... 11 d-12, ClemoiU's-laiir, London, E.O.
IIATKH, HlilNDy & -30. ... ->7, Wathrook, Loudon, E.tl.
D. J. KEYMER & CO. ... I, Whitefnars’-alrci't, Fleet-street,
London, E.O. \
SOLE AGENTS FOR THE UNITED STATES ;
THE INTERNATIONAL NElfsFAPER AGENCY,
H. r.-HUBDARD, Troprietor,
EiU' Eatvii, Gonnectieut, V.S.A,
For India
J Half-yearly
■■j Quarterly
^Monthly
PLAHTERS’ STORES & AGENCY CO.,
MERCHANTS AND GENERAL AGENTS.
Oalcntta,-30, STRAND.
Ooiicral Managor—'W. E. S. JEFTBRaoN.
Manager-^
Agencies for Tea Estates undertaken on the most
advantageous terms.
Coolies recruited by our owu staff of exponenoed Agents, ■with
Depots throughout Chota Nagpur .siid at Dhubri.
Indentors and Consignees of all merchandize.
Army, Navy, Civil Service, .and Private Agenta.
AH8ain.-“THE EXCHANGE,” DIBRUGARH.
I W. J. WHBATI.BT, Manager.
A. D. Stdaht, Agemy Superintendent.
I Direct Importers of every requisite fur Tea Estates and Eu-
I ropeon Eesidenta.
Price Lists on application.
Agents for India General Steam Navigation Co., Ld.; Agents
for Commercial Union Assurance Co,, Fire and
Life ; Agents for “ Star ’’ Line Ocean
Ste.amer.s, Calcutta to London ;
Agents for Reuter’s
Telegram Co.,
Liiulted.
London.-GREAT tVINt'lIESTER-STREET, E.C.
E. G. Rock, Secretary.
Agencies at Birmingham, Bordeaux, and Oharante.
GOVERNMENT
oi3sroH:o3sr-A. E’’E]BnRiFXja-HJ.
A:
N ej/iricitf substitute for Giimine. Sold by the principal European
SiipeiinlendeiU, BolmkaL Gardens, Calcutta, Post free, 4ot,, at
Ps. a ; 8 o 7.., Rs, 11 ; 16 or., Rd. 20-1.1. Cash with order,
1
THE AGRA BANK,
“ limited:'
Capital -- ... £1(XI0,000
Reserve Fond - -- £19u,000
CALCUTTA BRANCH.
CURRENT ACCOUNTS are kept, ami
Interest allowed, when the Credit Balance
dues not fall below Rs. 1,000,
DEPOSITS received available at any time
for Remittance,to England in tlte Bank’s
Bills, and Interest allowed thereon at the
rate of 4 per cent per annum,
DEPOSITS are also received for fixed
periods, on terms which may be learnt on
application.
DBAFfS granted at tlic exchange of the
day on London, Scotland, Ireland, and the
Bonk's Agenoles in the East.
CIRCULAR NOTES Issued, negotiable
In the principal places in Europe.
GOVERNMENT and other STOCKS,
and Share^bought and sold, and the safe
custody of we same undertaken.
r^EREST, PAY, and PENSIONS col-
; and every other desoription of
Uniting Business sAd Money Agency tran-
All Remittances should be made pa
able to the Agra Bonk, Limited, 35
The Public are invited to send, from any part of the world, to ROBINSON and
OLEAITER, BELFAST, for Samples and fhll range of Prioe LUts (POST
FREE) of their
‘Thoir Irish Linen CollarH, Cuffs, , Beal Irish hiuen'-('t • ■M’u.f,
have the merit ot \ IRISH S yurdn wide, 1/U iior
IRISH LIHEN
oxirol 1 eii
cbu-ipiuisfi.-
Louil (’iri'ulur.
Ladloft’ and Chll*
P n I I A D Q dron'B. 3-fold,» 3/11
0 U L L A n Q, per doB. Gents',
frthl, 4/11 to 5/li ^ per
I iniwit yard,
I ' — Extra Heavy (a most dup-
"■ able article) yards
•wide, 3/3 per yard.
KoUer To'WoUing, 18 inch
wide, 3jd. per yard.
Linen Dus-
LiHEiis
. CLildrsn’i
per dot
.. 3/U
.. 8/3
Gentlemen's .. 4/10
IlnMSmOHBD
’ p«r doB.
yard.
n II r r O For LadioB.GouUo
M U r r Ot men, and Children, Napkins,
' 6/11 to 10 /U per du4.
Best hongclotb SHIRTS.
llodlOH, witn 4-foId - —
all linen front* and .
cu««, ai/e the hell
8/6 per dot.
Dlnuor Napkins,
6/6 per doE.
Tablo Clutlis, 2
yds sqiure. 3/il;
■Ji yards by 4
yards, 13/4 eaoh.
^ Clolhs,4/()por
B rtox. I
“ Fine Linens \
and Linen
Diaper,
IW. per yard,
& DAMASKS.
pomr
per doe.
Ladiee' .. 4/6
a«pt«* .. 8/4
PURE
L \K.
HAHDKERGHIEFS.
^TUe Irish Cambrics of Keeers.
BoUnson CUavor hav« a world
wldo y-f/'Frt.
doe, (to measure* 8/ extra).
Ladies’ Undor-Olothlng, Baby Linen, Dross Matorlals, Fl.mnols, Irish an I Swiss Kmhrouloues, Hosiery.
Gloves Under-V«U, l^nts ; aUo Lace Gvods of nvory doecr^iblou, at lowost wUolosalo prh os.
the Drown Prinoeia of Getnunr.
THE aOYAL 1BI8H LiNEN WAREHOUSE, BELFAST.
456
THE INDIAN AGrRIOULTURIST. December 1,1883.
PHCENIX mON WORKS,
CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT IN INDIA,
JESSOP & CO.,
Civil and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Eonnders,
Metal Merdiants, ftc.
Forged and Catt Iron Fori, Soileri, Machinery for Me, Cotton and Bice MUle, Gollieriet, Indigo Coneemt, Tea Gardens, &c.,
ConirwAvri and Brichmaiing Plant, aid eeery class of Iron and Brass Work made to order.
SOLE .A.a-E3SrTS EOE
Bob«y & Co’s oelebrattd PortaUe imd Fixed Engines and MocliineiT, Gwynne & Co’s “ Invincible " Centrifugal Pumps, Gould’s
Rotary Pumps, and Robinson’s Patent Steam Traps.
IMPOSTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF EVERT DESCRIPTION OF STEAM ENCINES AND MACiNERY.
Robey & Co’s Portable, Horizontal, Fixed, and Patent “ Robey " Scmi-fixed Engines, Combined Vertical Engines and Boilers, Lmd
and Marine Boilers, Gould’s Rotary Power Pumps, .T, & H. Qwj'nne’e “ Invincible ” Centrifugal Pumps, Hand, Lift and
Force Pumps, Tangye's “ Special" Steam Pumps," Vauihall’ Donkey Pumps, Floiu- Mills, Saw Benches,
Spencer’s Hand Drilling Machines, Steam Pressure Recorders, Richards’ Engine
Indicator, Gifford’s Injectors, Cooking Stoves,
Fire-Proof Safes.
Robey’s Combined Vertical Engine and Boiler.
This class of Engine is nearly twice as large as
those of the same nominal' horse-power of some
makers, The Eughio, instead of being fixed to the
Boiler as is usual in Engines of the same class, is
erected on a massive Cast Iron Standard which makes
it quite independent of the Boiler.
Buiome’s “ Indian ’’ Plough, prioo-Bs. IS. Howard’s Bvot’s Plough, Ho. 0, price—Bi 80.
These Ploughs have T>eeu expressly dosigneil and mamdactnred for the use of the Ryots of India, whose special needs have been
earelully studied in their oonstruotioii. They embody all the qualifioatious for which the native-made implements have hitherto Tieen
preferred, whilst being tacomparalrly superior in strength, durability, and efiioioncy.
MCRAE’S PATENT SUB-SOIL AND GENERAL PLOUGH
Stirs up the soil to three times the depth of a native plough, and loaves the good mould on the top. Goes through tlri dirtiest land
without getting cholied with weeds. Pnoe, Rs. 16,
IHDiaO AHD TEA PIAHTEBS’ DIPLEMEHTB AHD STORES. Vh
BJlTCa-rNTHEJIlS’ TOOLS JoJSIJDi STORES OE .AJLL KTaSTLS.
Alwats on BAHO a lauqs stock or Plats, Bah, Akole, Tee aed Corbuoatsu Iron, Steel, Brass, CorysB, Fio Iron,
Fotodet Coke, Smitht Coal, Fire Bwoks, ami Fire Clat.
QtMogm on AppUcatm,
Itogictend Kp, X82<]
THE
imAN AGMCULTTJEIST.
A HONTHLT
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS,
VOL. VIII .3 CALCUTTA :~SATURD AY, DECEMBER l, 1883. [No. 12
CONTENTS; [ CORRESPONDENCE.
Paob.
Acknowledombnts .437
CORIlKm>ONDBNOB—
Kaiag Grass , for Paper
Making .437
What we know and what we
want to know about Ceara
llubber .433
Lbaoihq Articles—
Tbs Assam Agrloulturol De¬
partment .438
Agricultural Implements for
India .439
Agricultural Implements and
Machines fur India ... 441
liDiToiUAL Notes .442
f>’''tTciAL Papers—
Act No. XTX. of 1883 ... 448
Kklbctions—
Voterinary yoienoo in India 449
Dairy mauagemout at Ko-
thnmsted .449
lied Clover .. 460
Noti^ on I’oiillry Keeping... 469
’i'lie Poultry of tlio Farm ... 451
Poultry in India ... . g.*!!
Vcgi-lalile Jixtracts ... , 462
Sugar-making at Clianipolgn,
lUinois ., 4.63
Agri-Horticulturul Societies 403
Page.
The Theory of the Potato
liisease ..454
Wireworm and its K'medies 466
The Cultivation of Tea, ko... 467
Cacao—
The preparation of Cacao
Beans .401
Cocao Cultivation in Ceylon 462
Coffee—
The Decline of Coffee ... 465
Mineralogy—
Tho Production of Siena
Earths .466
TnE.CAR.IEN—
Michaelmas Duisie.466
Seejculturb—
Note .460
Tusaer Silk inChota Nugporo 466
Tea--
Colonel Money on Too Manu¬
facture, and Machinery 407
Toraoco—
Notes on Toliacco Culture
in the Anond, Pitlad, and
Borsad Talukas of the
Khaira CoUoctorate, Ouse-
rat.408
Indian Cheroots .46S i
Advertisements . 469 *
Our CotTespondentg atul Coninl/utora will greatly oblige,
us if they will take the trouble, where’the returns of ciUtioa-
tion are stated by them in Indian weights and measures, to
give their English equivalents, either in the text, in jm ren-
thesis, or in a foot-note. The bigah in particular varies so
much in the different qyrovinces, that it is absolutely necessary
to give the English value of it in all cases. Jt would be a great
refomn if the Government itself followed the same course in all
the official reports published by it.
All correspondence sUvst bear the full name and address of
the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a guarantee
of good faith. We. shall lake no notice of anonymous letters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Annual Report on Labour Immigration into Assam, for the year
1882.
Bkpoet on the Administration of the Mstoorologioal Department,
1882-83.
Report on thUl^tamp Department, Punjab, 1882-83.
REPpRT on the Beglatration Department, Punjab, 1882-83.
iiErs^ils^u Public luatmotion in Aseam, 1882-83.
Hepokt on tlie Ckwupore Experimental Form for the £abi Season,
1882-83.
Report on Popular ^uoation, Punjab, 1882-83.
Report on the Oensns of Bengal, 1861, Vob. I., I1-, & III.
LioiNtB-Tax H«port,;1883-88.
KAING GRASS FOR PAPER-MAKING.
(To the Editor of the Paper llakers' Monthly Journal.)
Sib,— Many of my friend*, knowing that I bold a eonoeetion
from the Indian Government for the ooUeotiou and produolion of
“ paper etook ” from bamboo and other fibre* in British Buruiah,
have asked me how it was I hod allowed Kaing glass to escape
my attention.
Mr. Buckle’s oommnntcatiou, published in the August number of
tho Juumal, shews ample reason for this ussusisd neglect on iny
part.
In 1876 the Indian Government sent me a oousignmeut of this
elephant or tiger gross (os it •« eatled), requesting me to inveetigata
its value for paper, and report tlioreou. This 1 did, stating that,
in my judgment, although possibly it might be utilised in India
locally, for a low class or (juality of paper, tho yield would bs so
small of available fibre, and the cost of reducing it to a carrying
condition so heavy, that it could not possibly be imported into this
country to pay.
A simple analysis of Mr. Buckle's figures fully enilorses this, my
opinion. Thesesliow that *‘ 47,136 iwunds oi the canes as cut
* produced'6,701 pounds of ruK] stuck,” a yield or rceUit of 44 per
cent only after oleaiiing, aud furtlier that the cost of the raw grass
and tho labor in producing the raw stock amounted to 17s. Id. for
100 pounds, or equal to £19 per ton.
The freight alone of such raw stock to Europe, owing to its balky
I oliaracter, would amount to more than the present selling prioe of
esparto gross, but I must assume that Mr. Buokle could never
coutemplatn shipping this raw stock to England ; therefore, that
it would be chemically treated and converted into a tow-like
condition to economise transit, charges, and freight.
This operation would have to be cunduct<?d in the ordinary
inaunor as practised with otlier similar materials, and iu boiling
alono, to say nothing of bleaching, tlie ram stock would lose at
least as mucii ns esparto, say 50 per cent; therefore, the cost of
this prepared stuck would be £19 per ton X 2 — £38 per ton for a
material very little, if any, better than esparto, tho equivalent
selling piicc of wliicli would be say £6 per ton X 2 = £12. I say
nothing of the cost of the chemicals, fuel, labor, interest on plant,
Ac., Ac., nor of freiglit to Europe, and general oharges, all of which
must, of course, be added to tlie above £38. The oouclusion is
obvious.
Kaing grass is a reed full of pith, and with many joints, which
must be got rid of, as only the thin woody exterior shell contains
the fibre ; henoc tho low produce of 14 per cent, for the raw stock.
There arc many other raw grasses In India saporior to Kaiug
gross, bnt iu my Unmble opinion no ram grass, or (he stook pro¬
duced therefrom, can come to compete with esparto.
The paper trade are much indebted to Mr. Buokle for the kindly
interest he has taken in this question. India, and especially
Bnrmsh, abounds in indigenous raw fibres, many of which eon be
cultivatod, and with Mr. Buokle’s co-operation, I believe are long
we may l.ope to see some of the stook prodnoed from snob fibres
introduced into the trade.
I may, perhaps, add that an essential point to be considered Is
that any fibre or fibrous stook introduced most be able to corns into
competition with esparto—that is to say, its cost no more, and ito
quality at least as good if not superior, when the old adage will
hold Its own, “ Good wine needs no bush.”
THOMAS BOUTLSDGE.
Olaxheugb, Sundeilaud
488
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST. Dedeft^Bef % 18f8r
WHAT WE KNOW, AND WHAT WE WANT TO
KNOW. ABOUT GEARA RUBBER.
{To iho Editor of the Oeylon Obterver,)
Sin,—^Wo know o good deal about experiments on a few indivi¬
dual trees, but we want to know something about results on a
larger and more business-Uke soale, Mr. QiUiat is last in
the field, and gives us interesting information, but, like liis prede¬
cessors who have written on rubber, he relates results of a few
trees only, and they do not add much to our previous knowledge.
We know that tbo trees will probably be short-lived. So say
botanists, and its very rapid growth favour the idea. If, there¬
fore, wo are to make any profit out of It, we ought to begin at
onoo to learn how that is to be done.
We know, that whether the tree be young or old, wounds made
fur the purpose of extracting its milk soon stop bleeding ; and
therefore a very little milk can be obtained from auy wound, how¬
ever it may have been made; nor oan wo obtain much milk at
any one time, however many wounds we make. Trees subjected
to the severest treatment, in order to asoertain the utmost yield of
milk proourable, have proved, by their insutfioieut yield, that we
must depend for any remunerative result on frequent tappings.
We know, in foot, that we must be content to take a little at a
time, and to take it often. What we want to know is how much
we may take, and how often.
In the first place, therefore, we mast devise a method of tapping,
which may be often repeated without material injury to the tree
or the bark. Every kind of incision that has hitherto been tried,
whether vertical, horizontal, or arrow-shaped, has proved, sooue r
or later, to seriously injure the bark. It is true tiiat the uuls or
elits sometimes heal pretty quickly, but they arc often a long time
in closing, and produce serious scars. Home slits made several
months ago on trees a year old are gaping yet. Although renewed
bark bos formed, it does not close over the wounds, whieh are now
three times os wide os when they wore first made, owing to the
rapid growth of tbo trees. Perhaps, Mr. GilUat's method may
sneoeed batter, but that remains to the seen. Meantime, it is
satisiootory to know that a row of puuotnres will yield os much
milk as a vertical slit or incision of the same length, whether such
inoision be made down to the cambium or be a mere shaving down
to the laotaols. Punctures heal quickly, without material injury
to tree or bark, and may be repeated at very short intervals. Trees
have been thus tapped da'dy for several weeks without tlieir show¬
ing any difference as compared mth untapped trees in adjacent
lines. Even when incisions heal completely, the renewed bark,
especially in old trees, is very rough and iutraotablo. For some
time it yields very little milk, as compared with original bark,
and is always rough and uneven. The methods of tapping by
Inoisious seem, therefore, to be a ueodless as well at an injurious
mutilation of the trees.
My first prickers wore intended to toar the bark a little, in order
to produce a wound that would not close too quickly, but that is
a mistake. A rough wound bleeds no longer than a smooth one ;
and a deep one, down to the cambium, yields no more milk than a
■hallower one that reaches the lacteals. jThe prickers are now being
made with a guard to prevent the spurs going too deep, and are
mode to produce a clean wound instead of a rough.
The quantity of milk proonrable from different trees of the same
age, at the same day and hour, aud from the same tree ou different
days, varies very much. This has been asoertained, but we ought
to know tbs causa or oautss of this variation, so aa to adapt our
proceeding accordingly. The factors of the variatiou are probably
tbo hour of the day, the state of the weather, the condition of the
tree, whether in flower, fruit, or flush, and the time of the year.
The part which each of these factors plays remains to be osoertuiu-
od, and oan only be found by persevering and systematic experi¬
ment. Oocosloual or casual trials arc of no avail whatever for this
purpoae. Tbo milk drawn In the early morning is generally thin
and watery, and bacomes thicker as the day advanoos. After
10 o’oluuk, it sometimes becomes too viscid, but in the evening it
again flows more freely. As a rule, milk may be drawn at all hours
of ■ the day, but it remains to be seen whether it would be better to
lUsoontiane the extraction during the heat of the day. The
quantity of milk drawn, so far as it depends ou the operator, is
regulated, of oonrse, by the length of the vertloal row of punc¬
tures. Hitherto, a double row of 4 to 6 feet in length, ou one eide
of a tree of about C Inobes in diameter, hae been found to yield
about 1C grains of dry rubber per tree. The daily collection of a
sooiy U about half a pound, and will probably be iuureased by
Wn TPiat to know
more about this, but, should It he found that, trees will bear such *
extraetiou for 240 days iu the year, the oultl^tion would be pro¬
fitable, and there is reason to hope for such a result.
The curing of rubber seems to be a tedious bnainesa. My first
collections were made in tins, and each day’s collection formed a
cake at the bottom of the tin. The milk coagulates so quickly
that the cake, though soft, oan be removed from the tin wti^u t^
oooly returns from the field, but afterwards it dries and ha1%bna
slowly. Pressure causes a quantity of liquid to exude, and even
when the cakes are hard they oontain holes, like those in Parmesan
cheese, ful of liquid. Late experiments have been made with
on apparatus whieh forms the rubber ibto strings, and these, wHhen
wound into a ball, look very pure and business-like, but even these
balls, when cut iu two, disclose some slight remains of liquid im¬
purity. Probably Mr. Ohrlsty’e suggestion <ri tho use oi a ohsap
spirit might assist in eliminating this muoilagtuous matter; but
spirit Is costly, and there does not seem to be muoh room for extra
expenditure in the process. The cake rubber was valued at 2s, 6ii.
per Q>., and tbo balls I think at 4s.
The foregoing is very imporfeot, and shows rather what we want
to know than what we have already learnt. Still, it is as far os
1 have got, aud perhaps some of your correspondents can advance
it a step or two furtlier. W.
[it must not be forgotten that most of the experiments yet made
in Ceylon have been made on Immature trees. As the trees grow
older, it seems reasonable to expect if not more juioo ffm a oortaiu
surface, yet a juioe far loss watery—almost pure gum, In fact,—E d,,
0 . 0 .]
CALCUTTA, DECEMBER 1, 1883.
THE ASSAM AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.
the 20th Deoomher last year, there appeared i. the
. Assam Oacsttd, a notification to the olfuct that the Chief
I Commissioner of Assam ufiered a prize of lls. 250 for the best
essay on rtisfi cultivation in the Assam Valley. The essay
w.as to bo written in plain grammatical English, aud literary
excellency was very properly considered of lessor moment, than
a careful and orderly statement of ascertained facta. The
object of tho essay was to explain the uses which the ryot
makes of his homestead land, and the value which lie attaches to
it, and the following poih'is were set forth as those on which
information was desired :—
1. The average area of the homestead, as compared with
ryots’ riipit and faritighaii lands j how long it takes the ryot to
bring his homestead into the normal condition ; aud whether
the cultivated portion shows any marked difference iu the
nature or productiveness of the soil, due to more careful
I tilling and manuring, as is found to be the case in other parts
of India.
2. The products of the homestead whether for food or other
uses, as bamboos, plantains, castor plants, bstel-iint, palms,
mango, and j.ack trees, vegetables, tobacco, sugarcane, or
sesamiuu («t7), &c.; the mode of cultivation of e.ach sepai’ately
the amount of l.-ibour and expense which it involves ; the times
at which the products are gathered, and the uses to which they
are put ; the mode of preparation for consumption, if the pro¬
duct is intended for that purpose ; and the nature of tho trade,
if it is sold.
3. The return obtained by the ryot for the labour aud
money expended ou Ins homestead ; the extent to which it
supplies him with articles of domestic utility, or petty trade,
and generally contributes to the food and cojjifort of the
family ; what value the ryot sets upon his homestead, what
price it commands, if sold, as compared with rupU aAivand
under permanent cultivation ; whether the resignations of
I homestead laud which annually occur are merely formal, ai-e
due to negligence iu allowing portions of the homestead to be
overgrown with jungle, or occur mainly in coueeqnenoe of the
ryot’s removal to another village ; aud, if so, the rea«ers whieh
a re snfficieut to iuduee tUo ryot to abaadoa his horns.
DdOdmber 1,1888,
THE INraASr-ASHIOUtTORIST. 43»
The above llet ii not an exhaustive one, but merely inte"h^ed
to Indicate what was required. All the information recorded
_on these, and other points connected with the subject, were to
be of as predse and definite a character as possible. The
Chief Oomnxissioner reserved the option of withholding the
whole or part of the prize oflfered, if none of the essays submitted
should come up to a certain standard. Tho essays were to be
submitted to the Director of Agriculture not later than the
of July 1883.
Sgiftppears that only one essay was submitted which was
found unsuitable for reward, although it contained interesting
information regarding the superstitions current among tho
peasantry in oonuectiou with the laying out and planting of a
homestead.
The offer is repeated in the Qaeetta for November 10th,
and thaessay on bcuti cultivation should be received in the
Secretariat by Ist July 1884.
It is possible, the Chief Commissioner believes, that corn*
petitors may be deterred by the extent of the subject. He
will, therefore, be prepared to accept essays on a port of the
subject, as well as those professing to deal with the whole.
Any competitor may submit a monograph upon cultivatiou
and preparation of any one of the article.^ usually produced in
the homestead area, v£i,, tohacco, plantains, castor-oil, betel-nut,
palms, and bamboos, and tho various kinds of vegetable
commonly cultivated by tho ryot. Such monographs will not
bo considered as entitled in any case to tho whole reward, but
will receive a prize corresponding to tho importance of tho
subject, and the ability and thoroughness with which it has
been ti’eated.
As a model for the guidance of competitors the attention is
directed to the memorandum on sugarcane by the Director of
Agriculture which was published in the Assam Gacatte of 22nd
September 1883. It seems to us a matter of very considerable
importance that the indigenous methods of ouUivatioii should
be known and diligently studied by all who wish to see
modern methods grafted on tho primitive iudigenoiia agri¬
culture of every province of India, We venture to think that
not a few failures to influence native agftculturists in the
diyjction of reforms and improvements on primitive imple¬
ments of culture and traditional methods of cultivalion, are duo
in a large measure to attempts at impruvemaut being made be¬
fore tho conditions of labour, climate, race characteristics, aiul
traditional methods of the peasantry have been thoroughly
mastered. Agricultural implements are offered to Indian ryots
which are in souk- cases beyond the limits of their means to
purchase and work profitably, or which are uusuited to the
physical and’race pecularitioa of tho pei)i>le who ai-e expected to
use them. It has, however, become qi^ita apparent from llie class
of improved implements now offeree/to tho ryot, that those points
are receiving a greater share of attention than in previous years,
and no doubt as a knowledge of the whole conditions of the
ryot and his surroundings, his methods of working, his means,
Lis farm lore, his superstitions, and all else that go to make him
what he is, are better and more clearly known and a]ipreeialed,tho
better chance will there bo of devising methods and im[ilemoutg
which ho will readily adopt. But after all, improveinout is a
thing of slow growth especially with races of people liko the
Indian peasantry, who are bound in the fetters of caste and
ignorance, and wedded to the traditional usages of their fore¬
fathers.
In our estimation then, the Chief Commissioner of Assam has
been wisely advised to obtain clear and reliable kno wlodge
regarding the management of homesteads. On this as a
foundation, there is good hope that improvement m.ay gradually
find a new basis. We are not however very sanguine that
an essay quite after the heart’s desire of tho Chief Commissioner
or tlie Director of Agriculture may be forthcoming in July
of next year. The men who can write in English and who
know tl^workiug of the Assam peasant’s] homestead, and the
methods of culture of any of tho ordinary crops, are, we should
idhkglue, very tew. The sons of well-to-do peasants who ore
being educated in English are, wo should fancy, very few, and
yet it is on this class that the best and surest hopes of im¬
proving indigenous agriooituro are founded. Little, very
little, wo fear, will be effected with the present generation of
ryots anywhere in India. They will do as their fathers have
done, and follow the methods and use the implements which
have been followed and used for ages. If there is any hope for
Indian agriculture it lies with the rising generation, and how
tliese ai’e to be reached would lead us beyond the scoj)o of our
present purpose. Tho Agricultural Department of Assam is
wise in laying a good foundation of facts and realities befora
attempting to present tho ryot with any now method, • or any
wonderful implement, which tho lapse of years and the increasa
of knowledge would show even to their official imagination
to be fearfully and wonderfully mndo.
ACRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS FOR INDIA
W ITH the Calcutta Exliibition so closely approaohing ita
opening, it is a matter of considerable interest to consider
what way the Indian farmer can l>e benefited by implements and
machinery, and we therefore welcome a eontrihutiou from
Ml-. Buck, of a list of those which have been reported to him
as being suitable for introduction into this country. The list
before us mentions 83 different implements and machines ; but
of these, 36 are ploughs of various descriptions, and the othera
miscellan eons machines, some of which it appears to us to h«
the height of tolly to recommend to the ryot in his present
conditio n. They may prove useful on large estates under Eu¬
ropean management ; but where are the ryots who will
I purchase bullock gear costing ;£00 to 100 as prime-movers for
driving cotton-gins costing .£30 to 40 ; or sugar-mills at £10 to
100 ; or pumps at £60 to 60 ; or oven winnowers at £20 to 301
VVa imagine that the office of the Agricultural Department ia
specially to aid the ryid, and not the Europe.an yilanter or
merchant, for the latter can well take core of himself, whilst
the former is a veritable child in such matters, and needs
leading with a careful hand. Not that we object to Mr. Buck
assisting the planter by letting the man of Bengal know what
his brother in Madras is doing, but we believe that tho planter
may bo left to take care of himself in such matters, and that ha
does not in any way represent the agriculture of India, but only
a small special branch thereof. Mr, Buck is of course not
responsible for the opiiiioms ho quotes in tho list he publishes j
but the inclusion thoroiii of machines such os wo have noted, in
a manner gives tho imprimatur of the highest agricultural
officer in the country to recommending them for use in India.
This is, no doubt, in a measure duo to the fact that Mr. Buck
has no special knowledge of agriculture himself, and os far os
We know, has no one near him who could assist him in such,
matters ; and as long os tho Government of India persists in
making its Director-General of Agriculture a mere depart¬
mental secretary to indite “ notes ” on matters agricultural, and
at the same time requires him to administer the revenue system
of a vast empire, so long will such absnrdities accrue. Mr,
Buck, it may bo .said, has only comyiiled the opinions of local
officers ; but they are as unfitted, as ho doubtless allows himself
to be, from their previous training to see what can be done in
this matter. No doubt one of the greati t errors in tho intro*
ductiou of implements into India, him been the attempt to
induce the ryot to accept articles which have been designed for
a totally different set of conditions. The ryot does not cara
much for labour-saving machines, us his labour Is to a larga
extent unpaid, consisting of the work of himself and bit
family, whereas in Eui-ope and America labor is scarce and
highly paid, and there are a groat many other openings for it
besides agriculture. It appears to us that for most ryots, tha
implements that can be recommended may be counted on tha
fingers of one hand. Besides a good plough, a winnower, and
in some cases a maize-sheller or a sugar-mill, there is as yet
but little opening, except in the improvement of the cultivator’#
minor tools, which are generally very rude and inefficient.
There is, however, a considerable opening for tho introduction
into some jiarts of tho country of old established native im¬
plements used elsewhere, but unknown there. Tho Exhibition
should teach our agricultural authorities this. Wo believe
that extensive collections have beon'made from all the pror*
inces, and we hope that advantage will be taken of thf
440 THE IHDIAN AGJHOtTLTTJBIST. December 1, 1888.
opportunity, to assemble all the chief agricultoral authorities
of thu differelil Oovenimeiite, so that a full dUcuasiou may be
pronroteil of the subject, and that they may learn from pei-soual
contact what they are each doing, Snch a C.uifei-ence could
not fail to be of great value, and ns we learn that some sort of
conference of the Directors of Agricnltiire in the different pro¬
vinces is to be hedd shortly, wo hope they will bring their
technical advisers with them, and .so turn the gieat ‘show’ to
the liest account to the country. There is no doubt a good
deal of Ignorance existing in the departments of the vai-ious pro¬
vinces of India regarding what has already been done in othera.
This could easily be avoided, if the office of the Suiweme Gov¬
ernment did more to call the attention of the authorities in
each province to the rc.sult«obtaiiieil elsewhere, and so fulfil its
proi>er function. So long, however', as it is the practice to make
use of local and veniaoul.ar terms to such an extent as we see
hi the list before us, which is a step in the right direction, so
long will the authoritiee remain ignorant of what is being done
outside their own particular spheiv. In North India, the
practice is ))evhaps most common, hut thei’e would seldom lie
much diffioulty in a practical agriculturist finding a proper
Bnglish equivalentfor all the implemeute in use, and it would
surely be far better if the use of the luaund, which varies in
different provinces as the unit of weight, were abandoned, and
results stateil in pounds, so as to be clear to every one. Tiie
Madrassee does not know what the “ khurpi ” or “ charpai "
means, nor does the Bengali understand what a “ guntaka ” or
“ papatam ” is. For a list suali as Mr. Buck’s, to be of general
valne throughout India, such words should be avoided, and
their English equivalents given, .as Eiiglieh is the only language
which can be said to be at all universally iiiider.stood in India.
We shomld be vei^j’glad to know what i» the peculimity of a
“ Iwaui” plough, as reported cm by the N -W.B Itepartniciit of
Agriculture. All ploughs have a beam ; but we imngiiie that
what ia meant is that a fixed isde or shaft, af(er the style of
the native plough, replaces the ordinary horizontal huain in such
ploughs. The point, however, ahonld be cleiired np. Absurd
mistakes there are also in the list, as for instance, talking of the
“ loaded wheels ” of a grabber. Are there some new ideas con¬
cealed under this expression, with which we are not aciiuainled,
or is it einijdy that the writer did not know wlint ho was
talking about 1
A good plough is of course the first requisite of the farmer
in all countries, but the manner of it will differ according to
the conditions met with. Thus we find a different general
pattern wlrqiteil in Aineriea to that pietorred iu Kiigland, and
it is Hcai-cely to he expected tlmt in a country so peculiarly
circumsUnced ns India, lliu implement adiqdoil in either of
these countries should be suitable. As yet we do not believe
that the plough for ludiii h.is been designed, nor do we think
that any one pattern will be universally adopted. We kuuw
that this is the opiniou of piaclical men, although wo find so
goodanautliority os Mr. Bun,sun in a recent leport, remarking
that “ for the greater part of India one general form of plough
would suffice. ’ It seems to us that he has lieen misled into
inferriuK from the present general similarity of the native
plough throughout India, that a like similarity iu an improved
plough would be equally acceptable, forgetting that the
acceptance of an improved plough would denote progress, and
that with progress must come divergence in form, to meet the
ipecial wants of the fanner of ditlerent soils, lie we not see
in England, where the general luiuciples to be adopted in the
fdough have been established for 70 or 80 yeius, that tlio
Tarieties are almost innumerolile f Under these circumstances,
it is not surprising tliat the opinions on Mr. Buck’s prot^gd,
the KaUar plough, should be so divergent, nevertheless we
Ijelieve that the opinion of the majority of reporting officers
against it, is in the main correct, for the implement is far too
^itna y and Weak of consti'uction for ordinary farm use. This
is natural wjbon the price—lis. 6—is considered ; for what sort
Ilf an inyilement can be expected for so little money, and
particnlarly when the materials have to a large extent to be
imported ? Many persons have been led altogether astray iu
their fodegvours to devise a plough suitable to the ryot, by
trying t*® eJosely to approximate their designs to the native
ppe, both in cost and manner, sacrificing thereby a large degree
of efficiency and durability, and turning Out a low-priced, but
extremely expensive article. A good plough mnst be, of all *
things, callable of standing hal'd usage, and must invert the
1 soil tlioroughly. These things cannot be done by a plough
j turned out for Bs. 6. It is, however, possible that, by adding
j a few riqiees’ worth of material and labour, a for better and
more serviceable Implement may be constructed. We believe
that Its. 12 would probably be the lowest figure that should be
aimed atl It is a figure well within the means of a very large
projiortion of our ryots, and one which would admit of g^6d
work and material being put into the plough. To go lower is
to sacrifice durability; and is it likely that the ryots will
fully appreciate r plough which needs to be replaced every
year or two, just as their present one dues 1 It is true that
it is far more economical for the farmer, to invest at once in
a thoroughly well oonstracted plough at a cost of Bs. 20 or 30,
but at present it would be far more difficult to persuade the
ryot to invest that sum than half the amount, and to a certain
extent it may be wise to pander to his weakness, though in his
true interests the higher-priced plough should be pressed upon
him, and perhaps a plough might be obtained for less than
Bs. 20 even, if the Government of India would hunt the world
over for them, and their makers. For, we observe in MrTBuok’s
list, a plough of Swedish make reported on by Mr. Bobertson
a.s “ the best and cheapest plough yet introduced into India,”
and costing in Madras Bs. 16 at, we believe, wholesale rates,
BO that our dealers should be able to sell them for Bs. 18, and
make a fair profit. While on this point we may note that iu
our advertisement pages, and published recently in the Madras
papers, we have seen a plough adverlised for Rs. 1.1 and Rs. 11-4,
which we notice Mr. Robertson quotes at Rs. 10 in Madras ;
and we would venture to jioint out to importers that if they
wish to imsh the sale of sucll ploughs by the thousand, they
imisl accept ii lower rate of pi^fit than is onstoinaiy in the iin-
jilement trade in England, us they should remember that
tlieir true interests lie in the sale of uumbow, and ilotiii getting
a large price for a few.
One eonsidaration wliioh the remarks in Mr. Buck’s list brings
up, is that of tail-twisting aud tlie necessity for it. Tho first
(lue.stiou is—Is the practice general or universal'( . Tiie secifnd
_7a it, necessary ? To both of these wo answer decidedly,
“ No !" The practice is chiefly adopted in carts and not iu
ordinary field work, whore the goad is ii.sed, aud in a very
cruel maimer, loo. Mr, Sinealon in Burmah says that iu his
province there is no snch ])ractice- It is true that the ryot
likes to he near his calUo ; but Ls it not iiossible that this is
almost entirely due to custom 'I If so, is it worth .while saai'i-
tieiug the efficiency and coiivciiieiioo of a ])longh to tho
custom? Wo do not think at is, to the extent that m.iuy are
disposed to do, iu adhering us closely as possible to the
upright handle of the native plough. To the ryot, the iiprigtil
handle is, we acknowledge, very taking, hut unless he really
grasps the idea that the benefit to be derived from a plough
does not arise in ita handle, but iu its share aud mould-
board, what good arises from his appreciation ? With an
upright handle, the plougUmau loses control over his plough,
and is therefore unable to do good work unless the soil is very
even iu texture and soft. Another point wiffch is often aimed
at, is to replace the usual hoi'izoutal baaiu of a plough by a
fixed inclined pole or shaft, as in the native plough ; and it
is questionable whether this is a step in the right direction.
One thing is pretty certain, and that is, that by doing so a
native prejudice is met; but in doing so, efficiency is lost. The
cattle are placed iu a very inferior position for the exertion
of their strength, and have to put forth more force to do the
same amount of work, than would be needed with a plough so
constructed that the line of draught were more correctly
disposed. There must be, in the case of the fixed-pole plough,
a great downward preasure on the fore-quarters of ^e cattle
which they have to support in addition to performing work
of ploughing pure aud simple, i.ft, inverting the furrow-sli^
For an animal to exert its full strength in drawing anything,^'
is necessary that a line drawn from the centre of resistance to
the point of attachment should fall very slightly below the
centre of gravity of the animal, and be as nearly as possible in
December 1, 18B3.
THE INDIAN AQIHOULTUEIST.
441
the horizoutal. In the plough, the centre of resistance lies an
inch or two hehind the share on the mould-board, about two
inches above the level of the soil. It seems to us, then, that it
is a grave mistake to shorten the plough too much, and to be
very doubtful whether the advantages of a slanting pole, are
sufficient to compensate for the undoubted strain which such
an arrangement put* on the cattle. We have also the ex¬
perience of varions experienced agriculturista and of Mr.
Sraeaton ,ia Burmah, that the long stilted European ploughs
can bo mant^j^ by native ploughmen with skill, when doing a
good day’s work. Thase considerationB must be borne in mind
by any one trying to make a really good plough ; and we
venture to hope that the Government of India will take this
plough question np seriously, and endeavour, with the agricul¬
tural, engineering, and general knowledge at their disposal,
to work out seme really durable form or forms which can be
placed before the ryot as the best for him at the present
time, and at a price he can be persuaded to give. When this
is done, English manufacturers and local makers will compete
to obtain the hold of the vast market that India must become
in the future. There are signs that a demand will very shortly
spring up, and it will arise the sooner if the steps we suggest
are taken. Beside the vital importance of the plough for India,
all consideration of other machines sinks into insignificance,
and we do not propose therefore to touch any other item of
Mr. Buck’s list.
AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES
FOR INDIA.
A C500D deal Of attention has of late been attracted In this
rresidenoy to the movement which has set in, psrticularly
in the Bollary district, towards the adoption of Buropuau ploughs
hy the ryote, and we welcome therefore a list, which has reoeutly
been published by Mr. Buck, of agrieulRiral implements which
Imvo been found useful in India. Though we cannot think it
cxliaustive or, perhaps, quite fairly compiled, it cannot fail to h?
useful to tliose who are interested in tlie improvement of
husliandry in this country. Every one who has studieij the ques-
tiou at idl, has long ago admitted that the drat and chief want
of the ryot in this respect is a bettor and more efficient plougli,
for the native implemant- has over and over again been shown
to l>c a very expensive and inefficient artiolo for tho porformaucc
oC tho work desired of it. It is, no doubt, procurable at a
very low price, hut it must be evident that the oheapness of any
implement does not lie in its prime cost, hut in tho cost of
doing work with it. The objects of a plough are, first, to stir
an<l looson the soil, and, secondly, to invert it, and time expose
it to the'amoliorat’ug action of the ab; and in every country
whore agriculture has made much progress, tho latter is regarded
as being as, if not more important than, tfifc former oliject. Tlie
native plough is almost iucapablo of inverting tlie soil, and
in simply stirring it is very far from being economical. Wo arc
not surprised, therefore, Biat the greater portion of tho list before
us is filled up with ploughs of various sorts. It is, liowover,
a great pity that a little more trouble and expense liavo not
been directed to its preparation, for there is no possible means
of any one finding out from tho list itself, what sort of a plough
it is tliat is being referred to; a few illustrations of tlie.io
ploughs and other iinpjpments wliioli have boon found most
suitable for nse in difforsnt loealities, or for speoial purposes,
would have inoroosed tiie value of the list tenfold.
Turning now to the implements themselves, we notice tliat
the "Kaisar” plough, brought out by tho department of which
Mr. Buck was not long ago tho head, is placed first; hut it is
curious that, though so prominently indicated as being the
plough for India, out of seven opinious quoted regarding it, only
three are favorable, and one of these is from the dopartmout
which Issuee the plough, and the otlier two are considerably
qualified; whilst the remaining evidence given is adverso.
Strangely' enbngh,. no opiuion from Madras is quoted nt all,
althougli wo find that In the year 1880. the plough was tried .at
Saidapet, and^portod on as follows The plough is roughly
finiahe<b is v^hout a wheel, ondJs unfitted to undergo the
troatnAtH-ploughs nsuaUy .-eoeive in tho field, while it does not
turn over the furrow slice efficiently from the bad form of the
mould board.” ThU opinion agrees with tliat of tlie Superin¬
tendent of the Kaudeish farm who says that the plough is
•‘much too light and Obnsy lor any spU ou this side,”
anS an opinion from the Central Provinces. In the opinions
on this piongh, a remark comes from Burmah to the effect
that there it is not necessary that the ploughman sbonld
lie near enough to Ids cattle to bo able to twist their
tails. A good deal of nousenso has been, and still is, frequently
written on this subject of Uil-twliting, bat a good deal of
experience and close observation in thin part of India satisfies ns
that it is utterly unnecessary, and that in many localities is not
practised on plough-oattle at ail, whilst we have all seen at the
ploughing matches held aonaally at .Saidapet, tho ploughmen of <
I the farm driving their oattlo with a whip and rope-reins. lu
I pursuing the idea that it is nooessary to tho ploughman to bo very
near his cattle, a groat deal of effiotency in and convonienos of con¬
trol over ploughs, has boon sacrifiood iu India, We have shown
that the “ Kaisar ” plough is not the unqualified sneoess that iW
designers wonid have tho world believe it to be, and it is not snt-
prising, for they have gone to work on what we believe to he an
altogether wrong principle in trying to tarn out a very low priced
implement. The first cost of tliese ploughs is Rs. 8, and no rational
being oan expect a really useful article that will stand the wear
and tear of farming operations for tbat sum. Undoubtedly ploughs
for India must be in the present day lower priced articles than
those used at home: hut it is a mistake to rush to the other extreme,
and to try and turn out an implement at a price as nearly as poesibls
the same as that of a obuutry plough, or the result must be, as we
I see in this plough, a light and flimsy article which will not stand
hard work, and is not thoroughly efficient. Although, perhsips,
there are many thousands of ryots who cannot afford Ks. 10 for a
plough, there are as many or more thousands who can well afford
Rs. 10 or 20 for a throughly officieut and durable one ; and it is
tho latter class whom it is most desirable to help and en¬
courage, for tho former are only a drag on tho country, and the
sooner they take thoir proper position as farm laborers tho hotter. Of
course, there will always bo mon who would rather have low.priced
Implements, and for these they may bo mad'*, but it is a mistake to
encourage tho purohaaa of suoli implomouts os Mr, Buck would
appear to wish. In a list of the implements that have bean found
useful in India, wo are surprised to notion the omissicii of what Mr.
Robertson iu Ilia report for 1881 oalls an “ improved country plough,”
and which appears to liavs met with ooii.siderulile favor Iu Tanjore
ami elsewhere, and also the oiiiissiou of .Vlcssrs. Vtoasoy’s ploiighsi
which vve noticed at the time of tlie late ilgricuitural Exhihitiou,
Berhaps it is tliat Mr. Rotiertson did not supply the necessary
information regarding the implemente to Mr. Buck in some Rpeeial
report. The fact of the omission, however, remains, and iasseos
the value of the list.
We hove devoted so mucli time to tho discussion of the general
subject of ploughs for ludia tliat wo must pass rapidly over the
other ploughs enumerated iu the list, 'j'ho most prominont,
besides the “ Kaisar,” among those indioated as having fouud
favor ai'o several patterns of Swedish maunfaoturc, wliicli have
been selected after numorous trials of various ploughs as being, in
the words of Mr. Robertsou, “ the boat and cheapest ploughs yet
introduced into India.” A largo number of ihoin were imported
last year hy (loverumout for illustrative distribution iu the Presi*
deucy ; tho price of tliese ploughs is Rs. 8, and they are very
strongly eonstruotcU, but it is to be feared tliat tliey are too heavy
for general use in a good many of our districts, whore only small
cattle are obtainable. These ploughs are made hy the Ofverums
Bruk Mauufaotiiriug Company in Sweden, and contrast moat fav¬
orably us regards price and material witli those made iu l^nglaud,
They were first bronglit to notice in the report on the Madras
representative at the Vienna Exhihitiuu, on the strength of whioh
a number of different sorts were gut out from Sweden, and under-
went trial at Suidapot, Tliese trials resulted iu the seleotiou of tha
plough referred to. Somo of the larger patterns obtained at the
same time, wliieh were fouud unsuitable for general use, have after
trials made iu the Bellary Oistriot in plooghing up theblauk oottoa
soils, been adopted there iu preference to the clumsy and ineffiol-
nnt large native plough {jjc'lda maiidruj/n,) ami have boen imported
by Mr. Sabapatliy Modelliar iu considerable numbers for sale to
the ryots, at prices ranging, wo butievc, from Rs. 50 to 60. Seeing
liow satisfootory wore the results of the observatious of an amatear,
Colonel Michael, at Vienna, we hope that the Government of India
have taken steps to secure the best qualified opinions on the agriout-
tural imploments that may be exhibited at Calcutta. Advantage
should be taken of tho opportunity .atforded liy the pribubls
preseiioe of the represoiitativos of tlio great miinufaoturiiig (inns of
Euroxieand Australia to assemble a conimittue there, oousisting of
persons of wide goueral experience of the ryots, and speuial
agrioultural and engiueorlng knowledge^ to endeavour to detifpt
ui THE INDIAI/ AGEtCtrLTURIST. Becemter 1, 1883.
H Rtiitable for general introduction into the different parts
ef For it is our belief that the plough for India has not yet
been devised, and that it is worth the expenditure of a great deal
of time and money by Government in trying to put l)e£ore the
ryots a really ohoap and efficient plough. Bottor ploughs will
lead to better and more certain crops, and enable the ryot to
devote a larger portion of his holding to industrial and fodder
crops, thus inorcasing the supplies for export, and benefittlug the
live-stock of the oonntry.
There is a good deal of amusement to be obtained by the initiat¬
ed from Mr. Buck’s list, iu tjie ludicrous jumbling together of
implements of totally diilerent characters, and In the remarks on
these implsmonts. Thus we find the namo “ Farnwriat” for
*' Turn-wrest”given to a plough; and tUo “ broad toheeU” of a grab¬
ber by Messrs, Coleman and '* Mortar” for the “ broadshares” of
an implement by Coleman and Morton, No such mistakes as these
would be msdo by any practical agricnltarist, nor would one mix
up obafT-outtere and winnowers together, or put corn-crushers and
sugar mills in the same category.
Next to the plough, perhaps, the most useful European imple¬
ment to the ryot is the winnower; for though during the season
when most of the threshing is now done, there is seldom mnoh
chiuioe of rain, it is a great pity that the ryot is driven by the
absolute nooessity of having fine dry weather to thresh and winnow
bis com as soon as he harvests it. With a good winnower, he is
independent of the wind, and of the weather also to a great extent,
and oon thresh his corn at the time he finds the market most favor¬
able to him; whilst in the cose of large fanners the machine, if a
good one, will save expenditure, and do the work moro cflloiently
than can be accomplished by tho wind. But though the winnower
is very valuable iu India, and is reported on favorably by most of
the offioers meutiouod in the list under cousidoratiou, the only
evideuoe given regarding threshing machines is advorse, and this
we find agrees with the experience noted iu Hr. Beiisou's Saidapet
Farm Maunal. Machines tor shelling maize from tlie cob have na¬
turally been carried to the greatest perfection iu America, but we
were surprised to sec in a table given by the Director of Agricul¬
ture for the N.-W, Provinoos regarding a machine costing its. 78,
which he recommends for its great simplicity and eillcloucy, that
It was oapable of only shelling 7891b. of grain per diem ; for on
turning to the Saidapet Farm Koports for 1879, we found a record
of an experiinout in which the " Eagle" maize-shellor, coating Its.
40, turned out 7,5821b8, of grain In a day, and it is remarked that
the fignres were not favorable. Tho rospoctivo amounts of grain
which would bo shelled for oue anna at these rates would bo, as far as
wo can make out amongst a confusion of tuauuds by the one used
in the N.-W Provinces, 107ibs., and by tho “Eagle” I,SlGlbs.
Tho fact that in two parts of India two departments exist for the
same general purpose, and one docs not know what has been
already found out by the other years before, does not any much
for the interest of tho officer of tho N.-W. Provinces department iu
their duty. Several chaff-cutters are very favourably reported on,
and iu time should come into use, for ‘they undoubtedly arc most
valtmblo In economising fodder, by enabling cattle to oat and digest
much moro of the straw than they oau when it is in its natural
state. In water-lifts, there is still, we believe, a good deal to be
done, for all those which have heretofore been devised have oon-
sldorable draw-bocks ; thus, the oue recommended by Mr, Bobert-
son, although very useful for lifts of from 15 to 25 feet, is ineffi¬
cient above the latter height, and is also costly to oreut. It is to
be hoped that some of the mechanical ingenuity whicli has develop¬
ed simplo and efficient machines for other purposes in England
and America, may bo directed to this subject. Oue thing tho list
Boufirms, by the evidence given in it, la an opinion we have before
expressed that windmills, though at times they miglit be
useful for water-Uits, can never from their unoertain action
be well suited for general adoption, or where water is required
regularly at certain seasons, Messrs, Thomson and Mylno's
Bebeea Sugar-mills appear to be meeting with a groat sale In
Northern India, and tho reports regarding thorn are almost uni¬
versally favorable. Wa learn that a sale for them is springing up
in the Bellary district, ffom the action taken by out local Agri¬
cultural Department.
In Qonolitsion, we may remark that Mr. Back's list would have
fcMn far more valnable U it had contained remarks on and des-
oriptiona of the native implements whieh are found to be useful
and efficient in dlffiorcnt localities, luvitisa peculiar thing that
tho use of implements is often very local, as, for instance, in this
Presidency, the use of the bamboo seed-drill is almost entirely
confined to Ibe Ganareso anJ Telugu districts, and does not ex-
'.;ukd ovev the wh^iv <)i these districts, Tho collection of native
implements sent to the Calcutta Exhibition should illustrate this,
but there ought to be in Madras a similar aoUeotion for the bene¬
fit of tho people of the Presidency, and to guide our local lights
in the way they shonld endeavour to assist the people of one part
in bringing tho good things of another, to notioe. We have been
trying too mnoh to introduce from abroad thlhgs devised for an
altogether different set of conditions, and do not fully acquaint
ourselves first with what the country itseil contains of value.
The sooner Mr, Wilson and his department set to work, and make
tiiemselves acquainted with the agdcuUnral miteViUks and im¬
plements whieh have been fonnd usefnl and efficient in India ”
by the ryots themselves, the sooner triU real progress in this
d irection set in,
EDITORIAL NOTES.
Stuian Silk. —The CtsniraVJilaAt fUir TuctU h\dwtrU gives
some details as to a vegetable sabatauce somewhat resembling
silk, to which attention lias lately been drawn by its liaving
been exhibited in Greece. It is stated that this substance is
a silky-haired portion of a tree-like slirub which comes ori¬
ginally fi'om America, but is found in Syria and tho South of
Europe (^Aadepias Si/rias), of the family of the Asclopi.'ids.
It is also known as the Syrian silk-plant. The substance in
question is used for stuffing very soft cushions, when mixed
with silk and wool. This Syrian silk is used in diffei'eut
tissues. Tho milky juice of the plant is said to be poisonous,
and the tough stalks can lie used iu the same manner iis
the corresponding portions of the hemp-plant.
It appeal’s from a report recently issued by her Majesty's
Secretary of Legation xit Jiada-Pesth, that tlie progress of the
iron manufactnre iu Hungary has bean greiUtly retarded by
the want of suitable fuel, and, at the present time, though
iuferior kinds of fuel are used witli advantage, yet tlie
absence a better description is still a great drawback
to the production of iron iu this country. Vegetable fuel
is of necessity used by the lai-gest iron works of the country,
and of forty-eight works with fifty-six bloat furnaces, only
four need oitlier coke or coal, the remander using charco.al.
Ironstone deposits are, as regards their quality, variety and
extent, at le.ost not behind those of tho neighbouring countries.
Bp.athie iron is found in several districts, and especially in
Oomor, Szaijes, Abany, Toma, Zolom, Liptai, and Szoreny.
The “ ore mountain ” of Dobschau, with its numerous deposits,
ruiiuing, in some places, to a thickness of thirty-six yards,
yields ores mainly • forked in the open, which contain from
2 to 4 cent of spathic iron of great purity and value. Of
late years much importance has been attached to the spatliic
and brown ore deposits of theZipser districts, especially in tlio
vicinity of Vorospatak, owing to the export trade with Upper
Silesia. Of still greater importance are the mines iu the
Huuyad district, containing extensive deposits of brown ore
merging into red. These deposits extend, with partiiil inter¬
ruptions, over ail area of more than nineteen miles. The
future of the Hungarian iron manufooture depends on the
production of superior iron, as the cost of production is
materially increased by the dally growing necessity of bringing
the iron from greater distances. A very large annual export of
iron ore now takes pliice from Upper Hungary, the amount
averaging over 125,000 tons. Notwithstanding that the forests
iu tlie immediate vicinity of the ironworks are much reduced,
and iu some cases entirely exhausted, yet there is still an
abimdanco of wood and charcoal iu Hungary. It is estimated
that tho extent of forest land considerably exceeds 6,175,000
acres. The annual growth of timber in the forests is
14,000,000 cubic feet, which could produce—if only a third of
this amount were used—over 500,000 tons of ol^ioal pig iron
annually, Tho forest latids are, however, in almost im¬
penetrable mountain districts, an<l i.t a great distauoS ■ from
every means of transport, tlius making them practically un¬
available for manufacturing iiiii’pnses. The management of
the ironworks is now almost entirely In the hands of technic.ally
cducalud and practically skilled men, and tho fesulU wo very
December 1, 1888,
THP INDIAN AC^BIOULTUBIST.
448
gatisfactory ; for example, the works of the Salgo-Tarjan-Bima-
Murany OompaHy produce 2001bs. of pig-iron with not more
than eleven bushels of beech charcoal. The Royal Works of
GoresJia Hunyad use rather more than twelve bushels of
charcoal for every 2001bs, of pig-iron, and the other' works use
about the same proportion. The production of these smelting
works varies per blast furnace from 300 tons to 020 tons per
mouth, according to dimensions of furnace and description of
iron made. At the present time Hungary possesses an aggre¬
gate of foriyi^ie pig-iron works, and fifty-two blast furnaces in
operation. The yearly production of the whole country amounts
to 167,500 tons, of whioh 17,600 tons take the form of castings.
Ix the current number of the Llnnean Society’s journal,
amongst some “ Kotea on New Economic Plante received at
Kew,” by Mr. TJitstleton Dyer, we find the following “ Vari¬
ous species of Myrica yield a wax in diflferent pai’ts of the
world. The bemes are simply boiled, and the wax rising to
the surface is skimmed off and moulded into cakes. Mixed with
tallow, the wax of Myrica Cordifolia, L., is used at the Capo in
c.andle-makiug. if. Corifem, L., yields n similar product in
N. America, and a variety of species are utilised in a similar
way in Central America. The Kew Museum possesses a candle
of Myrian wax from the ‘ W. Indies,’ presented by Professor
Ansted, and a moulded block of what is probably a similar
material from St. Domingo. For the first authentic sample
from these islands we are, however, indebted to D. Morris, Esq.,
F.L.S., Director of the Public . Gardena and Plantations,
Jamaica. The following particulars respecting it wore contained
in a letter, dated March 16, 1883 ‘ I am sanding in a
separate p.avool n small specimen of wax prepared by Mr. Hart
from one of our native trees, which may be of sufficient interest
to have a place in your Museum. It has. been prep.ired from
the seeds of Myrion miofoowpot, Benth., an amentaceous plant,
growing abundantly on the hvils of Jfftnaica at elevations of
about 6,000 feet. The seeds were simply boiled with water
for about half-an-hour, and then allowed to cool, the wax form¬
ing (when cool) a cake on the surface of the water. This was
melted again in an earthen vessel to allow the drosi* to settle
to the bottom, after whioh the wax becomes clean and clear.’
As the tree^s very abundant in Jamaica, and is of no use except
foi firewood, it would be a very desirable thing if any com-
mercial use could be found for the wax, ns it can be prepared
in such an exceedingly simple manner.”
PiioPESSon Bp.F.WEtt, Special Census Ageut appointed by tlie
American Govorument, has issued his report upon cereals,
which embraces many interesting facts. It appears that, for
the census year of 1880 the total production o| the six principal
cereal grains in the TTuiteil States amounted^ in round uuiubexa,
to 2,098,000,000 bushels, an average of 63-8 bushels per head
of the iwpulation, and an increase of upwards of 94 per cent
since 1870. It is an important fact in connection with this
ouorinous increase that it w.as not chiefiy due to the cultiva¬
tion of new lands in the west and north-west, but is more large¬
ly due to grain in farming regions already occupied in 1870.
The chief advance was in regions which have been soma time
in cultivation, and in lands ranging in value from 30 dols.
per acre and upwards. The grain consumption per capita
in the United States is a fraction over 40 bushels, but
in Europe it is less than 18 bushels. It is 13 busliels
only in Austria, 30 in Denmark, 24 in Franco, 23 m
Germany, 30 in Great Britain, 16 in Holland, 9 in Italy, 17 m
Russia and 17 in Spain. The crop of five contiguous States-
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and lowa-amounted to over
50 per cent of the entire American grain production. Moat of
the grain of the Unite<i Sta^ is grown in regions where mixed
farming is primtised, and on farms of moderate size. Professor
Brewer explains that by mixed farming, he means the growing
of green and gr^ crops and the production of animals on the
same farm. Th^pogi'aphical tablesj^^istributiou show that
the pniri^ region produces jj^pr 27 percent, or about three-
eighths of the whole. The central region, whioh comes next,
produces nearly as much as all the other 19 topographical
divisions into which the country is dissected for this investiga¬
tion In every instance the grain has its largest produeUon at
an elevation of between 600 and 1,000 ft. above the level of the
sea, where more tlian 52 per cent of the whole product is
grown. Upwards of 80 par cent of the graui of the country is
grown between the elevation of 100 and 1,500 ft. Bread grains
are gi-own chiefly in the belt, where, owing to winter’s cold,
comforts are secured only by labour. A little less than 70 per
cent of the whole grain productions i.s in regions where the
mean temperature of January is below 30 deg,, and nearly
three-fourths where the average for that month is below the
freezing point. More than 40 per cent is produced where the
annual temperature is between 46 deg. and 60 deg.; 74 per cent
where it is between 46 dog. and 56 deg.; 84 per cent where it
is between 45 deg. and 60 deg.; and over 91 iier cent where it
is between 40 deg. and 60 deg. Tliirty iier cent is grown where
the annual rainfall is between 40 in. and 45 in. ; 60 per cent
where it is between 36 in. and 45 in.; 85 percent where it is
between 30 in. and 60 in.; and 94 per cent where it is between
26 in. and 66 in. Forty-seven per cent is grown where the mean
July temperature is between 76 deg. and 80 deg.; ami 86 per
cent where it is between 70 deg. and 80 deg. With the excep¬
tion of Pennsylvania, in all the large grain-growing States more
than fonr-fiftlis of the farms ai’e farmed by their owners.
Pi'ofessor Brewer calculates that not less tliaii 80, and probably
more than 86, per cent of the total grain proibicod in tbo United
States is gi’owu upon farms which are occupied and managed by
their owners ; and the greater portion of the grain is grown on
farms of over 100 acres. How long this proportion of cultiva¬
tion by owners will last is another question.
The Mnniteur des Fila el Tiaaua calls attention to a description
of vegetable wool called Kapoc. It comes from Java, and a
specimen is on view at the Amsterdam Exhibition- It arrived
at Amsterdam in its leathery covering, being itself enveloped
in the seeds. It is then freed from both, an.d is carded so os to
make a very liglit mattre-sa wool, worth about B^d. par pound
One of the house.s engaged in this operation had made trials in
spinning and dyeing this material, but the filaments are said to
be like strings, and their industrial application is consequently
a matter of uncertainty.
The Tobacco Leaf, published iu the tobacco interest,
estimates the loss on the tobacco cro]) of the cmintry by liail,
and later by the frosts, from the 6th to the 10th of the present
iiiouUi, at fully fifty thousand cases of the seed leaf crop of
this j'ear. 1 t.s telegraphic reports from tlie various tobacco-
growing districts show the frost damage through the entire
New England states, New York, Pennsylvauia, Ohio, and
■Wisconsin, thougli Pennsylvania suffered tlie Ic.-iat of any offho
.shvtes named. It claims that at the best not more tlmn three-
fourths of the crop planted will bo harvested, whioh will
favorably affect stocks now in the hands of dealers, and enhance
the value of such of the crop as has been saved iu good con¬
dition, and thinks holdere of seed loaf will be justified in as¬
suming a firm attitude iu relation to prices.
Califounia raisins oi'e made from the Malaga grapes, and
are large and of excellent quality, and are acknowledged to bo
superior to the foreign. They arc also fresher, as they never
have the ethery taste given to the foreign raisins by the aaa
voyage. The grapes can bo grown so cheaply in California
and tlie raisin product is iucroosing so rapidly that in a few
years, possibly iu 1886, it is oonfidontly expected that the
California raisins can bo laid down iu this market at $1'26 to
i?P30 foz a 24lb. box, at which price the foreign raisins cannot
compete with them. At present the freight on the Califorma
raisins is li cents per pound, which amounts to 25 ceute on 80
}iounds, and it is iirobable that as the shipments East increase,
the freight will lie lowered a little. The foreign roUine pay a
duty of 2 cents pet pound and ^ cent per pound freight, and
this oil a 201b. box would amount to 60 cents, and this
60 cents for freight and duty must bo subtracted from what¬
ever the Spanish raisins soil at against 25 cents to be subtract¬
ed from what 201b. of California raisins sell at. It is
claimed by the Cidiforuiaus that they can produce raisins fully
as cheap as the Spaniards, and that in a few years they will
THE INDIAiT AGRIOULTURIST.
444
December 1, 1888.
control the American market. In addition to their superior
quality, buyers will be attracted to California raisins for
another reason. They are honestly packed, the bottom layer
being fully equal to the top, and the boxes have always full
weiglit .—Botton Commercial,
Thk Brec'ler mid Sporttman says :—“ We do not suppose that
one in a hundred can tell why he eats salt himself or gives it to
his Bt«X!k. It is important that our food and the food of our
stock shall be made palatable, for there is no question at all
that the animal system will do much bettor upon a food that
is relished than upon a food that is not. . . Another, and
move important reason is, that salt is found in every portion of
the system, giving us to understand that nature intends it as
the vital part of the animal structure, and that it must, there¬
fore, be supplied in one way or another. As a usual thing, the
mineral elements of the animal system are abundantly supplied
through the food, without any especial effort to that end. But
it is not so with salt. The food of animals does not naturally
contain a sufficient supply of this element. It therefore must be
added, and unless it is, the animals fall of! in condition. The
structure is wanting in an important element of strength ; just
as a wall would be wanting in strength if there were no lime
in the mortar, and just as the animal structure would be want¬
ing in strength if there was an insufficient supply of salt.
Careful experiment has demonstrated this. It is shown that
salt is a necessary element of complete animal structure, and
that without it the animal will become sleepy and weak,
especially in the extremities, finally dying for want of this
mineral element. Prof. Foster, of the University of Munich,
conducted a series of experiments upon pigeons and dogs, to
see what effect a diet as devoid of mineral as possible would
have. Tlie pigeons were fed with starch and casein, which
were as free from ash as possible, and the dogs with moat
from which all mineral matter was extracted. The result was
always the same—the muscles growing rapidly weak, especially
at the extremities, and finally, cramps and shivering showed
great irritability of the nervous system. . . Indirectly, salt
doubtless is an aid to digestion, fur it certainly has a
tendency to keep the alimentary canal from clogging, and,
that free, the entire machinery of the system is freer to per¬
form its offices.
Salt is a natural absorber of moisture, and in the perform¬
ance of this office it keeps the contents of the canal from be¬
coming too dry and packed. It also operates in a similar way
upon the food while in the stomach, and thus, by enabling the
•olid food to secrete and retain a due amount of moisture, help
the digestive orgaiu in performing their work. !No animal can
remain in a condition of health and vitality without a sufficient
quantity of a combination of foods containing all the elements
or constituencies to properly nourish the animal. The bone,
muscle and tissue must be fed in proportion, and the fuel
furnished ill the carbon, which supplies the heat. The vital
forces abound in the uitrogeuouj or glutinous and pliospliatic
elements, which should be supplied liberally to all animals,
properties which are found in corn in a very small degree.
Bolt, as we stated before, enconragos the absorption of a large
quantity of water, so that the food is oonyeyed in such a consis¬
tency of liquidity that it is easily and readily absorbed as
nourishment. The food of all animals requires a oortaiu degree
of bulkiness, in proportion to its qualities of nutrition, and
the salt aids in this expansiveness, as indicated above. As
exemise or labor developes the muscles, so the grasp of the
digestive organs upon a sufficient quantity of available food
invigorates and increases their power of utility. Wheat, bran,
oaU, and the coarse kind of provender combine the properties of
nutrition suited to the best results of growth aud develop¬
ment and bulkiness of food. Then, again, salt is unquestion¬
ably useful as a means of destroying the numerous parasites
wbiob are found in the animal system. The army of animal-
culse which is ooirstautly preyiiig upon the muscles aud tissues
of the body would soon devour it, if they were not expelled or
killed, and parasites which increase so rapidly and work so
inoMsoutly they sap the foundations of life. As a rule,
h(pfr«ver, natqre enables the sjrstem, with proper care, to hold |
its own against them, and salt is undoubtedly destructive to
the life of these destroyers.
PaoFassoaTHoROLiiItooBaB writes as follows;—“A good many
persons have been making experiments on ensilage during the
past year. But nearly all have tried it with a view to seeing
whether green forage would keep sound in an airtight aud
watertight pit, duly weighted on the surface, in default of being
absolutely closed. That it would keep under conditions
I ought to have gone without asking.
“ What ensilage does is to (1) increase the nutritive powers
of gi'een forage ; (2) to obviate waste ; (3) to save time ; (4) to
increase the productive powers of the soil. It does the first, if
I in no other way, by making the forage more digestible ; the
second, by saving a deterioration by exposure to weather ; the
third, by putting the least possible time between cutting aud
storing ; the fourth, as a sequenos of the third, by enabling the
farmer to cut a double crop yearly, by giving him opportunity
for enlarging his stock of cattle, and by enormously increasing
I tbe amount aud value of manure.
“ I know from the correspondence which I have had (at one
time nearly that of a department in a Government office), th.at
the construction of silos is going on on the new plan practised
in the United States, and sketched in my little book on the
subject, in India aud Australia as well as generally in Europe.
A day or two ago I gave leave to a correspondent to translate
my book on ensilage into Swedish.
“ Most English silos of which I have read are made in too
shallow masonry. It stands to reason that this increases the
expense per cubic yard. They should be from 20 to 20 feet
deep, if they are to be made in the cheapest way, I believe
that my friend, Mr. Samuel Whitbread, has made the beat
hitherto constructed in England.
“The main objects? ensilage is to get two crojw a-year off the
same land. Silos are profitable if they obviate loss ; moat
gainful when they increase produce. I should add, however,
I that cattle need cleanliness and ventilation us much as human
beings d(j, aud I do not wonder at disease being prevalent in
English herds, and for the mitter of that in flock.s, when 1 sec
the dark, filthy dens in which they are generally housed, and
the wasteful way in whkh they are exposed to weatlier. Our
forefathers kept their sheep under cover from November to
April.
Had silos been common in England, millions of pounds
worth of fodder would have been saved last summer, and not
much less worth of aftermath would be saved now. 1 sliouKl
I have thought that this was the time in wluch English agricul¬
ture could not afford to neglect small economies, let alone gie.at
Propbssor Wilbt, the successor of I)r. Collier as Chemist of
the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in a recent
letter to the Rural IVorld, of St. Louis, says : “ At Faria it
was found that the invert sugar was always present in sorghum
juices in greater quantities than sucrose. In Italy the sucrose
was found to be more than ten times as much as the noii-
crystallizable sugar.” May not this be one of the Professor’s
little jokes,” like that you mention^ a short time since about
tlie “ glucose honey,” which rather irritated than amused our
bee-keepers '( 1 see by the report of the National Academy of
Soiences on sorghum sugar, page 03, that in 1834 Vilmoiiin
found in the juice of sorghum grown in the suburbs of Paris
(Verrieres) 11’75 per cent of sucrose and only 4’25 per cent of
glucose j and I also now have before me the report of the direc¬
tor of the experiment station at Avignon, in France, who says
that the sorghum juice grown by him gave 16’3 per cent of
crystallized sugar aud 1*7 per cent only of glucose ; and ho
a<lds that his results are “ fully in accord with those obtained
by Peter Collier at Washington.”
I also learn that at Bjo. Grande, New Jers^i’ their results
this year surpass those of last year, for they report J^lut the
sorghum which on the 26th of August in 1882 gave a juice of
7 J deg. Beaume, aud 8 per cent polMizatlon ; this year upon the
24th of August gave 10 deg. Beaume and 14 per cent by
polarization.
December 1,1883.
THE INDIAN •AGBICULTURIST.
445
Last year the Bio Orande people told me that they used Dr.
Collier’s reports on sorghum as their text-books, and had con¬
firmed his results in their own practice. I sea also that even
Massachusetts has offered a bounty for sorghum sugar. This
seems the " unkindest cut of all” for Doctor Loring, who, while
laboring to prevent any appropriation for sorghum experiments
by Congress, was unable to turn his attention to Massachusetts,
but perhaps they felt justified, since I see by the report of the
Miaissippi Valley Cane Growers’ Association (p. 69) that Henry
B. ^iiSKWell, Director of the Maine Beet Sugar Co., in a letter,
says : " I have recently become convinced by the experimen ts
of Professor Collier, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at
Washington, D. C., that the juice of well-matured sorghum is
equal to that of the sugarcane.” And be reports as follows
concerning some cane (sorghum) of his own raising in Boston :
That “ the juice was analyzed by Prof. S P. Sharpless, State
Assayer, 114, State-st., Broton, with the following results
Cane sugar
Per cent.
.- 18-00
Inverted sugar ...
»»«
... 2-09
Ash
• ••
•89
Gum
•84
Water
...
... 78-18
100-00
Prop. Samcel Johkson, of the Michigan State Agricultural
College, has published his report on experiments with ensilage,
in which he takes strong ground in its favor, but without put¬
ting forth any argument or visionary claims iu its behalf. lie
sjiys
“ I am confirmed in the belief that three tons of the ensilage
is equal iu feeding value to one ton of hay. The yield of en¬
silage corn was eighteen tons per acre, equivalent iu a feeding
value, in a combined ration, to jix tons of liay. Bnailage
means the growing of an equivalent to 6 or 10 tom of hay per
acre. Admit, only, that three pounds of ensilage will take the
place of one pound of hay, in a mixed cattle ration, even then if
animals fed with it thrive, are healthy, and present a general
appearance much like that resulting from grass ‘feeding, coming
out, after four or five mouth’s confinemeiit, with aleak coats with
not much, if any, loss of weight, and with no luore shrinkage sf
milk yield than we ought reasouably to expect as the time from
calving increases, we must conclude thiit there i.s sums virtue iu
fodder prepared in this maimer. Claim only this, and is it not
a profitable and a practical method of soouriug large jfields of
corn, sorghum, and other forage crops, and preiiariug them for
convenient and economical feeding 1
“ It is toberogi'etted that so many extravagant statements
have been made in relation to the value of eiisLlage—the num¬
ber of cattle that could be kept from !he jiroduct of a single
acre, &c. Practical, thinking men have been deterred from
investigatiag this subject aud giving It such attention as it
really deserves, because of the wild statements of unpractical
enthusiasts.
“ I am more than ever convinced that the idea I suggested
two years ago, that ensilage will prove a cheaii substitute for
roots, will be approved by any farmer who will make the trial.
Farmers who have experience iu feeding stock knowhow
desirable it is to have some succulent food os a part ration at
least, during our long, cold winters. Boots are a desirable
cattle food, but an expensive ertp for the average farmer to
raise aud handle. But few farmers have the facilities for stor¬
ing them in any qitantity. They must bo buried in the field ;
and in the winter, with the thermometer below zero, digging
out tlie roots aud getting them to the stock is not a desirable
task. If ensilage will give us the snoculent food at less cost, in
shape to be easily handled aud occupying but a shall space in
storage, it must prove of value. What arc the farmers in
Michigan to do with the coarse fodder raised on our farms, but
to feed tlmm. Tiiey are too bulky to transport to market—they
must heli^ make beef aud.m^JtiBsfbut the farmer needs somo-
thlBf^ to feed iu conuej^srwith them to make them of more
Value, aud the ensilage will help out in this direction.
“ The largo number of silos erected during the last year in all
partsof our country indicates that ensilage has the sanction of
a number of our leading faruers, aud that actual tests coufii-m
reasonable claims as to its value as a cattle food. The farmers
of Great Britain, too, are greatly interested in this subject, aud
it has received the favorable attention of some of the loading
English Bgricultnrista.”
Me. Qbobob Fey, F.L.S., the well-known chemist, who has
'been associated with Mr. Ekman in so many valuabio aud
important discoveries, has addressed himself to the Sfientific
study of ensilage, aud in the following letter to the AgricuHuntt
C/azette he explains why the fermentation which bikes place in
the fodder stored iu the silos not only does not render it rotten
and unfit for food, but positively makes it more digestible ; and
as this problem has doubtless pawled many amongst our readers
who have given atteation to the subject, they will bo glad to
know that it has been solved to the satisfaction of so high an
authority as Mr. Fry :—
I As the nature of tAe fermentation in silos and the cause of the
extraordinary preservation of their contents are littlo under¬
stood, I take the liberty of calling the attention of your readers
to some observations which I made tbts summer on the tem-
p^erature of ensilaga during its first fermentation, with the hope
tliat others who possess silos will make and publish similar
I observations.
In order that the oonditloiis Biay be clearly understood, I may
mention that my silos consists of a range of three, each 12 feet
square aud 15 feet deep, of an estimated capacity of at leaf* 00
tons of ensilage each. They have solid walls, 9 inches tliick, of
Portland cement concrete, and the bottoms are of the same
material ; 9 feet C inches of Uie walls are above ground, and 5
feet 6 inches under ground. On the front side each silo has a
door of red fir 2 inches iu thickness, which is closed and made
secure before the filling of the silo is commenced. The silos are
filled from the top.
The green crop is mown, carried at oifhc from the field, and
pitched from the cart into the silo, where it is spread as evenly
as possible, aud is well trodden, especially round tlm edges.
The silo is not filled up at once, but a fresh layer of fodder
about 2 foot thick is put iu every day (as recommended by
M. Qoffart). When the ensilage begins to reach the top of the
silo, the moss sinks considerably in twenty-four hours, so that
complete filling is a work of some days.
The filling of No. 1 silo was commoneocl on June 7, 1883,
with trifolium inoai-natum, of which about IS tons were put
iu ; then about 3 tons of rough grass, then another ton of
trifolium, filling up with clover and rye-grass. On June 30
the silo was full.
By means of a perforated iron tube with a sharp steel point,
driven into the centre of the moss, I ascertained the tempera¬
ture to be on J uno 30, at 2 feet frem the top surface 31^' C’. ;
at 3 feet, 43i' C. ; at 4 feet, 46'’ C ; at 6 feet, 53° C. ; at G feet,
SB" C.
This silo was then covered with paper, and with 2* inch
planks laid closely together, sand l)eiug thrown on to the
planks to the depth of about 12 inches.
Ou July 11 the mass ha<i sunk about G feet ; it was, thess-
forc, uncovered, and the tempera ture at 0 feet trem the surface
found to be GO” C. The silo was filled up with meadow gi'ass,
covered, and weighted as before.
The operation of uncovering and filling up with raoadow
grass was repeated on July 17, and this silo was finally dosed
and weighted with 2 feet of sand o» July, 21, when I ascer¬
tained tlie temperature at 6 feet from the surface to be still
00'’C.
The flllkig of No. 2 silo was commenced on June 30, with
clover and rye-grass, aud proceeded semewhat more rapidly
than that of No. 1. When the height reached was 0 feet
from tbo bottom, I ascertained the temperature at G feet
from the surface to be 36° C. After this, meadow gross of
good quality was put into this silo. On July 7, the tsmpet-
ature at 6 feet from the surface had risen to G5° C. On July 14,
it was again uncovered (having sunk fully 6 feet), and the
temperature then, at 6 feet from the surface, was 70° C.
From these observations it will bo evident that the tem¬
perature in the interior of these silos was maiutaided for a
very considerable periqd at from QQ’
44<5 THE INDIAN AGflHOULTDRI&T. Deeei^bet* 1, 1888.
140" lr> 16 b‘ t'liiir.) The e»(;a)ic of beat from so dense a ruses
ifj \ eiy slow, 0)1 July 1, the t.eiji|)orHtnre of the Bund covering
Ko. 1 -silo -was 20” C., Mid on July 7, it had risen toao" C. only.
1 may reniitul your ivaJera that Paateor found that if wine,
of « (juality MU'y liitbh' to ac€tou.s and other injurious fer-
nifi)ta(io]i, Avei’i! raiseil (in cask or bottle) to a temperature
exceeding 'M° C., the vitality of the germs of fei'meutiitiou
wan(k-Htroycd, and the Komulnees of the wine (if preserved
from , colit.act with the atmosphere) was in all such cases
maintained. ( Vide “ Etudes sur le Vin, par M. L. Paateur.
Paris ; 186(1.”) It appears to ino that what I have stated
alsivc is snHiciont to account for the preservation of the
t'lisiliige. The oxygen contained in and among the green
herbage is snfliciciit, in the beginning, to excite a brisk
fermentation (probubly of a complex character) ; but the
silos being air-tigbt, and the mass, walls and covering bad
condncloi'S of Iioid, (ho temperature soon rises above 00“ C.,
the oxygen is repla ced by carbonic acid, the fermentation is
arrested, and the ferment destroyed by the high temperature.
Thenceforward, .as long as the silo i.s maintained hermetically
sealed, the ensilage is jireserved.
It will not be Hiirpi'ihdng if green food, which has been
e.xposed for weeks to IV teihperatnre of 00° to 70’ C. (140" to
11)8" Kalii'.) should be rendered inoi'o dige.stible by cattle.
Tub following Sorghum notes are by ,7, N.
Muncuy, Iowa Agricnltiu'al College, September 11, 1883 ;—
Crushed 5,852 pounds green c.ane, from which 201
lionmla of syrup boiled down to 232 dcgi'ces falireii-
heil was made. With the present facilities for crushing
the cane we do not get to exceed 30 jier cent of the
juice, being required to run the crushers too rapidly. Septem-
ler 1.5, from 170 gallons of juice from cane greatly damaged by
the fi'ost, we manufactured 135 pounds of syrup boiled down
to 40 degrees Beaume. The cauo raised in the college grounds
and by farmei-s near Ames is of an inferior quality, and 1ms
been damaged by the frost. The per cent of sucrose or crys-
tallizable sugai'the syrup coutains has not yet been determined.
The State appropriation was not suflicient to purchase all
imvchiuory necessivvy for pTaolh'iil experiiueuts, and conscquonl-
l.y little is to bo cxjjccted from this institution. As Dr. E. L.
.Sturkiv'ant nays, “An appropriation suflicient to insure an
altemijt at experiments, and yet insufficient to make an at¬
tempt successful, is olio of the best ways to kill any interest in
e.xperiment.al station work that 1 can recoramend." More de¬
tails of the work will be given your readers in the fuliiro.
In this connecliiin, let me mention to those anticipating
entering into the sorgluim business, to so arrange their de-
fecalors and evnjvorators tli.at they may bo easily separated
from the condensed steam-pipe in the fall when through u.siiig
them. If the colls are of iron, it will bo almost impos.sible to
have each pipe in tlie pirn so level that in freezing they will
not break.* If the ivaus are disconnected from other pipes and
idlowed to drain perfectly, no trouble will follow, and tlie ap-
p.aratiiB is ready for another year's work. Thi.s is mentioned as
all expensive blunder that every beginner need not make.
A DKsrATCH from Washington, says the Farmer') Review,
announces that the commission already provided for to make a
thorongh iuvcsUgaiion of the extent of the existence of
trichina' in the hugs of thus country, will soon be appointed by
the Commissioner of .\gi iculturo, and will enter actively upon
its work, fts niis.siori will not be so miieh to ascertain the per¬
centage of hog.s infcHtcd with this d.angerous parasite, ns the
di.strlcls from which the diseased hog,s eoiue, and to discover
the cmise.s and remedy, if one can be found.
t'rof. Uitmar, of the dep.-u-tiuent, has already been spending
some time ill tfliiciigii in p reliminury work, in the efl'ort to
deteniiiue tlcj jncporlimi of diseased hogs killed in this city,
and has already mmic Ids first, report based on the exaiuiiiu-
tion of a few hundreds only. (Jn this basis he finds about 4
per cent have triehiu.v, which correspoiulH with the results re¬
ported by Mr. Billiiig.s, of Boston, who made examination of
the flesh of 8,773 hogs, between 1871) aud 1881,
The examiuHtimiB of Aniericaii iiork eouduetovl under the
direction of the Ereuoh Govermuvut and covering more thiui a
DlillioD pieces, showed that bnt 2 per cent contained trichinic,
■which is about the percentage found among the native German
awine, although the German Government has made the charge
that American pork is diseased the pretext for excluding it
from the markets of that country ; while, as a matter of fact,
as shown by official examination, it is os free from the disease
as its own home product. It is believed that, with examina¬
tions conducted in this country on as large a scale as in Europe,
the percentage here would not exceed that sho'wn by^the^'X-
amination of Am erican meats iu Europe, the smaller immtiw of
examinations giving a higher percentage than when doudifcted
on a larger scale.
An important admission is made by Professor Ballinger, one of
the best authorities iu Europe, in a work recently publislvbd,who
says : ‘‘ From numerous exathinatious of American hania, the
trichina! has been found uniformly dead. The entire importa¬
tions of Paris failed to rovCiil one case of infection.” There is
110 doubt that the dise.xse, though still existing, is on the de-
cre.ake. Dr. iSalmou, veterinary of the Department of Agricul-
culture, slates that in former yeats it could bo found iu 8 per
cent of our hogs. But while it exists at all, it is prejudicial to
oni-American |)i>rk iu the markets of Europe, as also to some
extciil lessening consumption iu this country : and the farmers
should be found ready, in tbuir own iiitorosts, to co-operate
heartily with tlie Commission in any measures which rn.ay be
found pr.acticttl to utterly exterminate tUo disoaso iu Ibis
country, if such a thiiig is possible, and thus remove the chief
obstacle to the free movement of our hog products to the
markets of Europe, and at the same time iucrooso their con¬
sumption at home.
Tub following resolution has been coiumnnioatod to all
Collectors iu the Madras Presidency;—“Village officers should
be ordered to report at once tq tahsildars the appearance of any
locusts in the village ; tahkildars will in turn report to divi-
sional officers without delay. The breeding season of the
locust appears to be (at least iu the Bombay Presidency) the
months of May ami June. It is tlierefoi's iu the months of
August and September that the young locusts, hatclied from
the eggs of any locusts that may have alighted iu a villiigc
during the i)recedin,g six months, may bo looked foi', and it is
while they are young, and cannot fly that they should be
destroyed by every means iu the power of the villagers. Ko-
thing appears to be more successful at that stage than the
CyiiniB screen supplemented by pits.”
.An inteiesliiig civtnlogue of Agricultural iiuplomonts and
machines, says the Civil and Military Gazette, which have been
tried in India, has been published by the Agricultural Depart¬
ment of the Govonimont of India. The list is supposed to
give only those that have been found efficient ami usofid ; but
out of the 83 implements or maohin es regarding which reports
have been received—thougli this number can Lordly exhaust
the list—Mr. Buck is compelled to admit that only a few—
about a dozen—Lave found favour with native agriculturists ;
whilst it is only iu regard to the Biheoa sugar-mill that ho is
able to record a “ real success.” Its use is established in Bengal,
and is extending everywhere. It is a remarHable fact tliat of
all the ploughs, winnowei’s, &c,, the introduction of which into
Indian agriculture has boon the aim of Agricultural Depart¬
ments nud model farms, for many years past, only this simple
substitute for the Indian kdlhv, should have been aocepted by
tho I'yot. Cheap jjloughs he does not care for, expensive ploughs
he caimot aflfoid ; whilst labour-sitving machinery is of little
r alue to the cultivator, who carries out his agricultui'al opera¬
tions, throughout the year, with little addition to the labour
lu'ocurable in his own family. It is equally remarkable that
indigo planters—who ai’e the oidy persons who work the laud
on any large scale, and can affoixl to expend capital in so doing
—have done little or nothing to introduce and popula|j?'e agri-
cultui-id implements amongatcli'y* j.so{jr tillers of the si^.
The success, however, of the Biheoa uiiTBihoves that when any
machine is forthcoming, which really supplies a want, the
Indian agriculturist is nut backward iu availing himself of it.
These mills ai-e sold by thousands annually j whilst the Kaisar
plough, to which is given, as is rational, the plage of honour in
December 1, 18S3,
447
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
•
Ml-, Buck's list, miik«s no i-oivl progress in the estimation of tho
)-yot. Tho plough is bought, indeed, but has taken no hold
on the mind (.if the oultivator. The old excuses are still made
for throwing aside it plough which has been bought to
please the Sahib ; and it wjU be many years before
these pr«judico8 are overcome. Tlie same (dwincle.s stand
in way of the more general adoption of tho ywediah
plough, which finds favour with the authoritias of the Saidapot
farni^-adrns j whilst the mpro expousivo ploughs of English
make, by Eausorae, Iloward, Collins and Co., the prices of
which run up to fifty or sixty miteos, if bought at all, are
carefully preserved, to bo brought out at eacli sucoessiyc
Agricultural Exhibition, where they of course receive prLses,
and where their owner is as regularly praised for his eiiterprize
in furthering tho improvement of agricultural knowledge.
Tliere is, perhaps, a future for an improved wator-Iift. Pumps
arc “ eiKpiired for”—to use the cominoroial phraso ; and those
oil tlio McCoruas prinoiide appear likely to sati.sfy a. want, and
replacB tho ordinary rope and basket, where water is fairly noar
the surface, or the basket-lift on canals.
Tun Rangoon Oa:ettesiija :—“In Briti.sh Burraah wo have for¬
tunately but little to feai’ from the dreadful scourge of famine,
but the consetjuenoee of <a fiiihiro of our rice crop would un¬
doubtedly be very serious indeed ;—so mupli »o that tho
reading of tho reports for the past few week.s cannot but li ivo
i.'\cited feelings of grave anxiety. Although we annually
export quantities of otlu>r merohamlise, tlieso are uiaiuly the
lirodiioe of Upper Burmah, and if our paddv ci-o]) faileil mu-
export Innsiness would Ire praetically anuihilated, whilst the,
sale of iuiports would be at a staijdstil!, tlie peojile having no
money to make purchases. Our morohants, therefore, must liavo
felt serious niisgiviiigs at the unexpected eea.sation of the rains
whi(-h appeared evi'i-ywhero to be over for the season. Tlie
matter e.aiinot have been viewed with any h‘a.s anxiety by tho
Ciovernment, for a bad liai-vest would uudnubU'liy have been 1
prodiK-tivo of great trouble for tlie Executive. The eiiltiv.itjrs,
niialrle to repay tlieir loans, and with no money (o m-iko their
ordinary piirclia.ses, would havo become Uii-bulent and uii-
nianageabl* ; crime would Jiavo onoruiously iiicruivsed ; and
revenue would have been dillicult to collect. Fortunately,
refreshing rain fell in the Rangoon district during the past
Week, and it was the hope (.U every one th.af other districts had
been equally favoured. On Friday night we made miqtiiry
fi run the iJii-oetor of Agriculture, but found that no special
iiiean,s wore being taken to ascertain if the miieh urjeded
showi-rs had boon gener.d UirmiglTout the province. The I
iiiattev apl>eaved to u;s to be of so niiK-h imiiortance tin' W' ^
lelegra))hcd to the Ueputy t'ornmissiuners in eharge ol tlio |
piiiiii|.d paddy districts, and we iiave to th.ank these gentlemcMi
f,,r the Jii'oniiiliie.s.s and eonrteMy with whi'-li they have rejilied
I I oiir enqtiirir'r. Their rejioil-.', of wliiet’ (,ni teidcrs Ii.ive the
Penelil to-day, aie ot course a week hatei than those )i'ib!UliBif
Lhe ollicial fAr.rWc ; and a comp irison will show that they
j'epreseiil matter in imnncli more, f.i voiirable light, -so much so,
indeed, that, in coi^unotion will the f.-n't Unit the weather
oontinnes showery, they are calcul.itcd, in great measure, if not
entirely, to remove tho anxieties which have lieeu fe.lt din ing ^
past week or two ; and we may look forward to ,au avei-yge |
harvest if not an abundant one. Mr. Ireland's mess.ige fimn |
ITgu is specially cheering ; the bounly of natiu-e which lirings
prosperity to his district should make it less difficult to manage,
and we may hope the Sittang Railway will be open in timo to
benefit by the traffic in grniu. We telegraphed to his neighbour
ill Slioaygyceii, but have not yet had a reply, no doubt iu con-
sequeuee of tho incomph to .ai-rangmneiits ot tho Telegraph
Dopartme^ Ma-oo-bin, tho head-quarters ef the Thouegwa
JJistrict i^ot yet accoasililojprti*f», so that from these two
impestaut paddy distrijl^^^'e no report ; but from their
p xsitiou wc ma/expect that they also have been favoured with
rain. As to Hanthawaddy, the Deputy Oomralssioiier informs
US by letter that “ the rain that has fallen these past few days
has beou general throughout the district, and it is reported to
have bouelited the crops, wliicli prpDlise well."
I A costTEMPonAiiy aays ;—“The advantageH of dee); jiimiglung,
1 in resisting the otfecU of drought, arc so fully .u-knowledgetl,
' that it is II matter of wonder why the intelligent ,h}i eulti-
I valors of Northern India do not ad'ijit improved plough-; nim-e
i readily. It i.s not alti.igether from the want of infoimatiou ;
for energetic district ollieei i bale i,een known to earry alioul .i
Kaiser plough (made at the Uawiqioro Farm), .on I to hold small
ploughing exhibitions at eacb bait. Tlie matlfi- becomes of
renewed interest in view of a .somewhat ilellcieiit rainfall ; and
it would bo a decided step iu the right diroction, if tiie ad¬
vantages of deep ploughing for tap rooU-d plants wore brought
fully homo to the ryot. Tho cultivators of tho Madriis Frosi-
dency, even, are not so backward as their NovUuu-n brethren ;
and have bought, and used, largo iiunibei-B of improved ploughs,
the lowest price of which is Rs. IG. It cannot be tho (xtse that
tho cattle of North ru India, iiro unable .to drag tiie new
ploughs, for they are certainly Hiipciior Lu limso of Maili-a.- , it
is probably a .strong conservative foi'ling—.is difficult (o stir as
the nuder-slrata of their own soil —whidi Keeps liic ./d;,! to the
use of the luLsealled plonglis, of a design cerduries old. Thcr.;
is, it is true, some doubt, even .yet, as to wliich iiiough i.s the
best of tho many iiiventioiis recently brought before liic ryot at
agrieultural shows: the Kai.sar of Cawiiina-e, the Ryot, the
Nawab, the McGregor, or the hoaviei Sivedisli ploughs so miidi
ill favour in the Madras Haidapet Farm. It i.s not every
plough that will suit every soil ; but the jil.iin fact that crops
in a deepiy-stirrud .soil have l.irger rc,soiu'cu.s of jihiut food, and
Iherofore, greater i-osi,sting powei ag.iinst drmiglil, oiighi, to be
bammercil into the vyol’s mind till he acknowledge.s and iicls
upon it."
TunitP. is really nothing of mitdi nionumt to iiole in 111 ,.
Report on the (!awiipul-c E.s]ier,uniiila! F.iim for tin'
season IHH2-H3. The l)irei.’tor of Agrieulim.' and ('oiiiini'ieiq
N.-W. 1‘. ami Oildh, in .sulmiittiiig Majoi Riiclier's report lo the
Secretary of (lie Oovorniiient of the [’ro'-iinie, has iiotliing
to .say that is not said (piitc as well in i.iui vi'iiort itself.
Tlie ItirooUn- belirves he U-is of “ sti'Uck ilc” iu nitrogen,
only he Bjirnks of it with bi'eoming eaiiu'on and rnserv.ition.
“ For the luoduotioii of e.'real-. nitrogen is the one gi-ea.t
want of soils like that of I he farm," M.ijor Pi teller says :
“it will b^ interesting to note as time goes on how far
potassic nitrate alone, unaided by einei-oal (or minera))
maniii-es, will .suffice to maintain fertility. The use of
nitrons earth a.s a iii.imii-e is freely i-esoi-Led to by n.aliie
cidtivator.s m tho shape of a top dressing (o jiopjiy, tobiirco
wtiaat, jeti.i. saw.am, and .somet.iiues 1 bnlievc to inai/.e." Mi,
Mrarriiiglon writes : “ A.s tho wliole object of artiticiid manur¬
ing is to .siip])lement the detieiencios of tlio soil, it i.s liigldy
di'siv.il'Ii- that a, farmer should ascertain by trial- in the field
w-hat is the actual .amount of ine.reasB W'hich he obtains feuiu
the mainire lie piirehases. A few c.ai-cfnlly made exporiinents
will teach liim u-h.it liis laud and crop; are really in need of.
Should he add .siipcrpho.sphate with tho nitrate f sodium for
Ills wheal 1 VVlial dressing of the niti-ato Is .oost oooiioniieal t
Is stiperiihos]diat« alone sufficient for hi.s turnip crop, or should
gnaiio 01- nitrate be oinployod as wl'U ? AVhat is the smallest
((uantity of snperplio.spliatc sufficient for the crop i Will it pay
to use potassium salts fur his seeds or pasture 1 These and
many other que.stioiis can only be aiiaw'ered by trials on hi.s
own fields, and on the farmin-’.s knowledge of such facts will
depend the economy with which ho i.s able to use puroha.scd
manures."
This extract, Major Pilcher .says, explains in clear language
what wo are attempting to do at the farm, eia., to arrive by
degrees nt .some sort of estimate as to how far the wlieat crops
of these pro-.-iiices may bo benefited by the iipplioatioii of
I manures which will pay tor thi-ir piirclruc, at tho same lime
maintaining f,-\ I ility, and not ui.iidy oxh.iiisling it. Vaiiatimis
will be made .as e.xpurieiico .sng ;--(b. Pm- instance, iv - arc now
able to sec pretty clearly bow mdc.ss the ajiplic.-ition of cahiie
sulphate by itself is for a cereal crop, though the addithm of it
to farmyard manure appeal-s to produce i,.mio ineruiwu iu tho
•ffect of the latter, owing no doubt to iUs converting part of tho
insoluble nitrogeuous Lumui into soluble aiumonia compoum.la.
448
THE INDIAN AGRJCULTUBIST. December 1, 1883.
OFFICIAL PAPERS.
\CT NO. XIX. OF 1883.
T nE following Act of the Oovemor>Qeuei'al of India in
Council received the assent of his Excellency the Gov-
eruoT'Oeneral on the 12th October, 1883
An Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to loans of
money by the Government for agricultural improvements.
WBXBJtas it is expedient to consolidate and amend the law
relating to loans of money by the Government for agricultural
improvement ; It is hereby enacted as follows :—
1. (l) This Act may be called the Land Improvement Ijoans
Act, 1883.
(S) It extends to the whole of British India, but shall not
corns into force in any part of Bidtisli India imtil such date as
the Local Government, with the previous sanction of the
Governor-General in Couucil, may, by notification in the local
official Gazette, appoint in this behalf.
2. (i) The I^d Improvement Act, 187l, and Act XXI
IBIO (an Aet to am$)vi tk$ Laiid Impfov«me)a Aot, 1871,) shall,
except as regards the recovery of advances made before this
Act comes into force and costs incurred by the Government in
respect of such advances, be repealed.
(S) When in any Act, Begutation or notilicatiou, passed or
issued before this Act comes into force, reference is made to
either of those Acts, the reference shdl, eo far as may be
practicable, be read as applying to this Act or the correspond¬
ing part of this Act.
In this Act, “ Collector” means the Collector of land re¬
venue of n district, or the Deputy Commissioner, or any officer
empowered by the Local Government by name or by virtue of
his office to discharge the functions of a Collector under this
Act
4. (1) Subject to such rules as may be made under secti on
ten, loans may be granted under this Act, by such officer as
may, from time to time, be empowered in this behalf by the
Local Government, for the purpose of making any improvement
to any person having a right to make that improvement, or,
with the oonsent of that person, to any other person.
(S) “ Improvement" means any work which odds to the
letting value of land, and includes the following, namely ;—
(a) the construction of wells, tanks and other works for the
storage, supply or distribution of water for the purposes of
agidculture, or for the use of men and cattle employed in agri¬
culture
^8) the preparation of land fur itflgatioii ;
(c) the drainage, reclamation from rivers or other
waters, or
damage by
waste-laud
protection from floods or from erosion or other
water, of land used for agricultural purposes or
which is rsulturable ;
(d) the reclamation, clearance, enclosure or permanent im¬
provement of land for agricultural purposes ;
(«) the renewal or reconstruction of any of the foregoing
works, or alterations therein or additions thereto ; and
(f) such other works as the Local Government, with the pre¬
vious sanction of the Governor-General in Council, may from
time to time, by uotiflcation in the local official Gazette, declare
to be improvements for the purposes of this Act.
C. (1) When an application for a loan is made under this Act,
the officer to whom the application is made may, if it is, in his
his opinion, expedient that public notice be given of the applica¬
tion, publish a notice, in such manner os the Local Government
may, from time to time, direct, calling upon all ^lersons object¬
ing to the loan to appear before him at a time and place fixed
therein and eubmit their objections.
(i) The officer shall consider every objection submitted uuder
suVsection (1), and make an order in writing either admitting
or ovetniUng it ;
Provided that, when the queetion riused by an objection ie,
in the opinion of the officer, one of such a nature that it cannot
be satisfactorily decided except by a Civil Court, he shall post¬
pone his proceedings on the application until the question has
Deen so decided.
6. (I) Every loan granted under this Act shall be mode re¬
payable by instalments (in tbe form of an annuity or otherwise),
within such period from tbe date of the actual advance of the
loan, or, when the loan is Mvauced in instalments, from the
date of the actual advance hf the last instalment, as may, from
time to time, be fixed by the rulee made under tliis Act.
(g) The pmod fixed as aforesaid shall not ordinarily exceed
thir^-five years.
(S) The Local Government and Governor-General in Council
in making Mid nmetiouing the rules fixing the period, shall, in
oousideriug whether the period should extend to thirty-five
years or whether it should extend beyond thirty-five years, have
regard to the durability of tbe work for the purpose of which
the loan te granted, and to the expediency of the coet of the
work being paid by the generation of persons who will imme¬
diately benefit by tbe work.
7. (1) Subject to such rules as may be made under section ten,
all loans granted under this Act, nil interest (if any) chargeable,
thereon, and costa (if any) inourred in making tbe same, shall,
when they become due, be recoverable by the Collector in all or
any of the following modes, namely :—
(a) from the borrower—as if tney were aiTears of land
revenue due by him ; ...
(b) from his surety (if any)—as if they were arrears of land
revenue due by him; , , t v
(c) out of the land for the benefit of which the loan has bren
granted—as if they were arrears of land revenue due in reepoct
of that laud ;
(d) out of the property comprised in the col^teral security
(if any)—according to tbe procedure for the realization of hi“d
revenue by the sale of immoveable property other than the land
on which that revenue is due :
Provided that no proceeding in respect of any laud under
clause (c) shall aflfeot any Interest in that land which ^existed
before the date of the order granting the loan, other than the
interest of the borrower, and of mortgages of, or persons having
charges on, that interest, and, where the loan is granted under
section four with the consent of another person, the interest of
that person, and of mortgagees of, or persons having charges, on
that interest. ^ , , ....
(2) When any sum due on account of any such loan, interest
or costs is paid to the Collector by a surety or an owner of
property comprised in any collateral security, or is recovered
uud^r Bub-section (I) by the Collector from a surety or out of
any such property, the Collector eliall, on the application
surety or the owner of that property (as the case may be),
recover that sum on his behalf from the borrower, or out of
the lanfl for the benefit of which the loan has been granted lu
manner previded by sub-section (1).
(3) It iluill be in the discretion of a Collector acting under
this section to determine the order in which he will resort to
the various modes of recovery permitted by it.
8. A written order under the hand of an officer empowered
to make loans under this Act granting a loan to, or with the
consent of, a person mentioned tlierein, for the purpose
of carrying out a work described therein, for the benefit of
land specified therein, shall, fo-‘ the purposes of this Act, be
conclusive evidence— _
(а) that the work described is an improvement witnm tue
meaning of this Aot ; , ^ .v i
(б) that the person mentioned had at the date of the order
a light to make such an improvement ; and ,
(e) that the improvement is one benefiting the laml
specified. «
0. When a loan is made under this Act to the members oT a
%dllage community or to any other persons on such terms that
all or them are jointly and severally bound to the Government
for the payment of the whole amount payable in respect there¬
of, and a sfiatement showing the portion of that amount which
as among themselves each is bound to contribute is entered
upon the order granting the loan, and is signed by each of
them and by the officer making the order, that statement shall
be conclusive evidence of the portion of that amount which as
among themselves each of those persons is bound to contribute.
10. The Local Government, with the previous sanction of the
Governor-General in Couheil, may, from time to time, by
notification in the local official Gazette, make rules consistent
with this Act to provide for the following matters, namely :—
(а) the manner of making applications for loans ;
(б) the officers by whom loans may be granted ;
(o) the manner of conducting inquiries relative to applications
fur loans, and the powers to be exercised by officers conducting
those inquiries ;
(d) the nature of the security to be taken for the due ap¬
plication and repayment of the money, the rate of interest at
which, and the conditions under which, loans may be granted,
and tbe manner and time of granting loans ;
(fl) tiie insjieotion of woiks for which loans have been
granted; j . t ,
(f) the instalments by which, and the mode In which, loans,
the interest to be charged on them, and costs incurred In the
making thereof, shall be paid ;
(£f) uie manner of keeping and auditing the accounts of the
expenditure of loans and of the payments made in respect of
the same ; and
(h) all other matters pertaining to the working of the Aot.
11. When land is improved with the aid of a loan granted
under this Act, the increass in value derived from the improve¬
ment shall not be taken into account in revising the assessment
of land-revenue on the land :
Provided as follows :— ■
(I) Where the improveinMst^nsiste of the reclaiCnion of
waste-land, or of the irrigation oTltcteilt^ssessod at unirriga^
rates, the increase may be so taken iift&~«eooaBt after (be
expiration of such period as may be fixed by rules to be framed
by the Lu^ Government with the approvu of the Governor-
General in Council.
(fi) Nothing in this section shall entitle nny to, call m ques¬
tion any auessment of land revenue otherwise than as it nngbt
hare been called in quMtloa if tfaia Act had not been passed.
December 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST^
449
IS. (1) In the Indian Rei^tration Act, 1877, section 17, clause
(t)] for the word “ oertincatos ” the words “ orders gianting
loans ” shall be substituted.
' {S) In the same Act, section 68, for the words “ a certificate”
the words “ an order” shall be substituted.
(3) In the same Act, section 89, first clause ;—
(a) for the words “ a certificate” the words “ a loan,” and
S for the words “ such certificate” the words “ his order,”
be substituted.
Mr . X. J. Symonds, V, 8.. 1st Madras Light Cavalry, oontiauea
his paper ou tno grasses of the Morlras Prosldeuoy. He is one of
the most produptlvo of the ooutribntors to the jourual, for besides
the paper mentioned al>ovo, he gives a short paper on the Atorat
Mahal Cattle Breeding Establishment. Otlier papers diaouas veteri¬
nary details, and make up a journal of which too " vote” of India
may well be proud .—Madras Mail.
DAIRY MANAGEMENT AT KOTHAMSTED.
^ SELECTIONS.
VETERINARY SCIENCE IN INDIA
T he October number of the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary
Science in India and Army Animal Managemenl contains,
as its leading artiols, a review of the past year's efforts to obtain
a proper fooUng for the Indian veterinary surgeon, as well as an
epitome of the principal events of the year connected with
VeteiWry science. The editors have “ every reasou to believe
that arrangements arc ponding for relieving usfrom a threatened
decrease in numbers, and a oonset^usnt imposition'of duties which it
would have l^en impossible to perform with oven on approach to
efficiency.” It is also stated that there is “ reason to believe that
some such Civil Veterinary Departniout as wo have persist¬
ently advocated is in course of preparation by the authorities.”
Education, we aj’e told, has much progressed during the
past year, which is remarkable for the graduation of the
first batch of native practitioners educated at Lahore, and now
diplomated as Veterinary Assistants. There is a probablity of a
Veterinary College being osteblishod at Calcutta soon. “ In
Madras also the standard of Veterinary education at Agricultural
Schools has been raised, and Veterinary pupils have been rendered
eligible for certain important appointments under Government,
su^ as the inspectorship of cattle and sanitary posts in the oity. ”
The writer arrives at tlie conolusion that ** it is in the direction of
education that tho greatest advances have been made during the past
year.” He does not forget to record the fact that “ for the first time
in history has a British decoration bobn conferred on a Veterinary
Surgeon.” We concede to our oontemprary all tho credit, and
more which is claimed for Its efforts during the first year of its ex-
istenoo and hope it may long oontinu# to assist in extending a know¬
ledge of veterinary soienoc in this country. In No. 6, now before
S'**!!_•_ ‘(T n A tr wesMyslaan sviwsaet flsa /IftfnSlu rsf
tetanus in maia aremaao oy air. xjrerttiujiix-«««««, ». ««u
Cavalry. After detailing some of tho cases he has had to deal with,
Mr. Fenton says he can “add nothing to the generally accepted
view that nature must praetically bo left to her uiiaidod ciTorts In
toti^ua, except that experiments made by me confirm the view that
the paroxysms of tetanus are oontrollea by ohloroforin, and the
(luostiou naturaUy arises whether, If we could keep a tetanic
patient under auaisthetio iuflueuoe for a prolonged period, the
tetanus would not of its own accord piws away, without fatally
exhausting the patient as it usually does. In the abseuoo of
paroxysms nutritive and oathartio treatont might bo adopted
with some chance of success ” Further on, Mr. Fenton states that
“ the treatment recommended in all but our standar.l professional
works errs ou tho side of fussiness ; the only chance of cure
is to keep thB^iatient qniot.” Speaking of the true r.atureor tetanus
he calls it s symptom ofdisease. rather than a disease, because tetanic
s^m may be due to many path^gical states. "Altogether
n?^tic*l observation seems to oonflrnwt&e view that in traumatic
oases the theory of entanglement of the J'®,.*’'j"*.,*"
the most feasible which has been suggested, although it hardly
s™m“ sufficient to account for the occurrence of tetanus where
r wound Is present.” Some useful hints in connection with
“Shying in Horses,” are oflered by Ml. D. C. ialh“.
A V 1) 14th Hussars. According to liis experieucc this danger¬
ous habit is met with more frequently in India than at home.
“ E^^'^enM toachee us that shying is a ‘ vice’ in very many oases
attrihutablo to sklttishncss, nervousness, or simply habit : and
when aC se which does not generally shy is foiiod to do so, we
when a norse o harness in order to make
sure'tlmruJthtag^roaJ there. Thus the blinkers may be smaller
Ihln thfaShmil U accustomed to, or they may he so arranged on the
titan ttie anii^i .ee Imperfectly over them. Also
thj1lriveJ^ay“Uve sometaing to do w?th shying ; thus if be nor-
isiv prXres to prevent the horse from swerving at a suspicious
isiy prepares rap probably think that he is required
looking objef • ^oo^ing V ^the best treatment for this form of
to shy and does .tiff ‘ peg.’ In cases of skittisli-
shying is to gl''® give the animal plenty of regular work ;
ness, the best ^lan w to Bbown at starting, it will bo
and, however badly y has settled down to work and
found much do than make a fool of himself,
finds he has something it is most often in marcs, winch
When frequently than stallioueor geldings, it is
(I fancy) shy nmoh mo i ^ possible-te spare the
uecessa^ mike mueh of her. Uiffereut horses swerve to or
whip or«pi »*m moat Irv to get as distant
.^.^’J®°i:':‘‘l “uJ!^L ^ierdistarl.auoe being fear. This
f^ltasp^iblOjtb|i|P^I^^ to try in every p.jssi.de way to
^^h the appearauoe^ot obj .ots. to quickly and
familiarize him wun in» app
S IB JOHN B. LAWES oontributM an interesting I»per hil
dairy omttors to an American contemporary, from which w(t
extract the following;—
At Bothamsted tho herd goes into the fields of permanent
pasture about tho middle of May, and remains out about six
months. The cows come in to bn milked twice a day. In
addition to the pasture they receive decorticated ootton cake,
varying in amount from 4lb8. per oow to very mnoh less, the
quantity allotted to each cow being in proportion to the amount
of milk she is giving. AUhongh we have carried oat eo many
experiments at Bothamsted upon oxen, sheep, and pigs, we iiave
never attempted the dairy, and I am inolined to think that
it would be almost impossiblo to arrange a series of experiments
which oould not be open to objection. My dairy, thoroioro,
has never been subjeotod to a rigid sciontifio investigation, and
the Btatistios I shall bring forward are merely those taken in
the ordinary way.
The cows are kept under cover for about six months, and
are tied up in pairs—forty in one house and about tea in another.
The urine runs into a large underground tank, from wliioh,
when full, it is earned on to the pasture by a water cart. The
food of tho cows varies with their condition, and tho more milk
they are giving the higher they are fed ; but when dry, or nearly
so, they have only roots and hay or straw, unless U is decided
not to keep them for tho purposes of the dairy, in which oast
they ore milked and fattened at the same time. When fat they
sell for aliout 160 dols. Tho following is the amount of food
oonsumod by the cows while in the stalls;—
Tons short.
Cotton cake ... ... ... 13
Barley meal ... ... Hi
Bran ... ... ... ... 10^
Chaff (i hay, i straw) . . ... 70
Mangels, pulped ... ... ... 224
lu addition to this, 13 tons of ootton cake are used durhia
the Slimmer. It is somewhat difficult to^pstimate tho Humber ol
aorp.s of pasture used by this herd, an tho cows have the first mu
of the grass, and the coarser and rougher part of the nusture is fed
hy other stock. I’ossihly each oow may oousume the produce hf
^lu the winter montlis the milk sells for aiioiit 22 Cents per galldu,
a price whioli is hardly morn than sufficient to cover the cost of the
food ami attendance, so that tlio daily does not often get back iTiore
than the manure free of cost. The aimuai expense of labour upon a
than the manure free of cost. The aimuai expense of labour upon a
cow amounts to about 13 dots.
It is probable that ensilage as a substitute for roots will bo fairBr
tried iu this country during the winter. Tho experiments whlon
have boon published both iu the States and lii Canada appear tosbotk
that ousilago is inferior to roots ns a food for milkiiig-cowf. Still
in the United States, where a crop like Corn is available for the
purpose, and where great difficulties exist in the produotloo of
roots, ensilage may prove of ranch value, while it may be but of
A dairy cannot be carried on with profit unless a supply of soiUe
succulent food is available for winter consumption. In the prOxi-
mitv of towns, brewers’ grains are largely employed for this pur-
* • . .1 > _p __ nvA IaailIi f.lMB n fdt*
sue is to manure highly, but not to aim at getting U’-ge roots. The
plants are thinned out to stand 1 foot apart from each Other, with
ospaoe of 27 inches between the rows, and, the produce amounts to
from 20 to 30 tons per acre. . .j , ^
Tho BUCOCBS of a dairy depends very much upon indtvldnal at¬
tention to the animals. A cow that is not a good milker should
be fattened or sold. The food should also be regulated by the
milk-producing powers of the oow, and as the milk declines the
more costly food should be reduced. Special oare should
taken that the cows are thorouglilv milked, as a earel^ milker
will sometimes not draw more than half tho milk that the animal
is capable of yielding. ... , i
The diet of a cow when yielding milk sliould contain more
nitrogen than the diet of a fattening aniinal, as milk contains more
nitrogen—in proportion of its other constituents—than the inoreaee
of a tattening animal. A fattening animal also increases with
tolerable .ogularity throughout tho whole period in pr^rtton to
its weight. But with the cow tho proeesB is totally diffareut, as
it may commence by giving from 3 to 4 gallons of milk per day
for some time, and end by giving none. Four gallons of milk per
day would in a week amvnut to 28 gallons, which would contain
35 poumls of dry substance. A fattening oow would not, lu the
same lime, iiioreuse more thau 13 or Ifi pounds, of wliioli amount
not much more than ono-haif would he dry matter. As, further,
the nitrogen oontaluediu the milk would be from six to seven
tiroes os much as the amount of nitrogen o iptained in thp meat, it
is evident that the regulation of the food of a cow to its varying
450
THE INDIAN AORIOULTDHIST.
Ddociul^r 1 , 1688«
oondition in regard to its milk inpply) conitdtutea a most important
item in the economy of n dairy.
The amoant ot nitrogen contained In ootton oako differs but little
from the amount of that snbitance ooutained in dry milk—which
is about 6 per cent, la bran it is about 4 per cent; in barley,
2 per cent ; in dry Mangels also about 2 per cent., and
In hay aud straw, 1 per cent, and | per cunt respeo-
tlvely. It is evident, therefore, that by incrensiug ond
diminishing the three fOrmer fOods, the reqalrements of the animal
lu the. various stagra—rmtging from the time of its yielding an
abundant supply ol milk to when it becomes absolutely dry—oan
bo fuUy mot.
The actual amount ot dry matter consumed dally by the herd,
during the six months of winter, amounts to about 31 pounds per
bead ; but, as I said before, the quality and quantity of food are
regulated by the milking properties of the particular animal.
RED CLOVER.
Sib X B. Lawks bos the following article on red clover in the
Agricultural Oaaettt) i—
Any one who walks ovor a field of red olover soon after it has
been mown, may observe how rapidly fresh growth in the crop
takes place. In twen^-four hours, and probably within even a
shorter period, a leaf of considerable size hae sprang up. This
growth arises from m atter stored up In the root; and it Is in con¬
nection with this atore of matter that I now propose to make a
few observattons.
In onr ordinary fonri-oourso rotation experiments oommenoed in
1848. After taking a olovororop in 18S0, beans were substituted
In their place Until the year 1874, when olover was again grown,
and the crop was repeated in 1^2.
In our rotation crops there are altogether six experiments. On
two the roots are very highly manured ; on two they reoelve super-
phosp^te of lime ; the other two experiments are left wholly
unmanured. On three of the experiments the whole of tbo roots,
as well as all the other crops grown, are carried off, and on the
other throe they are fed on the land. It is evident, therefore, that
when the crop of olover was grown in 1874, the land of the six
experiments was in very different states of fertility. Kromono of
the unmanured plots twenty-six crops had been carried off, and In
1882 this removal had increased to thirty-four crops. Both in
1874and in 1882 the plant of olovor wos good upon all the experi¬
mental plots. In 1874 the olover was mown twice. As the first
crop is cut about fourteen months after the seed is sown, and the
second only about two mouths later, under ordinary ciicumstaiioes
the first crop is very much the larger of tho two. This rule holds
good on all tne highly-manured experiments in both years, and it
also Iiolds good in throe out of the four suporphosphatn expert
inents, but ft fails in the 1882 crop, where the routs wero cartoc
off, and it also fails on all the unmanured experiments of botl:
years.
If we take the highly manured turnips which were fed on tin
land In 1874 os representing tho soil in tho highest condition of thi
series and assume tho first crop of clover hay to be 100, the seennt
crop would be represented by 40. But at the other end of the scab
where no manure bad been applied and all the product had beer
removed for thirty-four years, assuming the first crop to be 100, the
seconAcrop Is represented by 233 I The second crop is in fact con¬
siderably more tnau twice the weight of the first crop, and the
regularity with which the relation notween the two varies in pro
portion to the food at their disposal, precludes tho idea of this large
excess in tho weight of tho second crop being accidental.
I do not propose to offer any explanation of this very curious
property of tho plant, hut merely to point out that many of oui
agrienltural operations are so conducted as to produce an uniia
tural growth. The natural tendonoy of the clover is to produci
seed, and our large cross of olovor are little more than stem unc
loaf. With abundance of manure, succulent growth of some kiiu
is not difficult to obtaiu, os may ho seen in the gigautio roots exhlbi
ted at agricultural shows. But on tho other hand, it is very easy
to overgrow, more ospoeially when tho production of ripe sood is
the object j and with our fluctuating seasons it is by no means
easy to attain the happy medium which on the one side Is bounde '
by too little and on the other l)y too mnoh.
On our unmanured rotation tho first crop of tlie olovor hay only
weighed 7 cwt. per aoro, but the plant was porfeotly good. It h
evident therefore that clover sickness is not altogether duo tf
poverty of soil. No doubt tho mild wintors of 187.1.4 and 0
1881-2 wore favourable to tho underground growth of the plant,
Tliat there is a groat deal still to ho learnt lu regard to the pro
' perries of the leguminous plants will, I think, ho at once evidon
when I mention that at Rothamsted several of these plants—in
oindbig taros, sainfoin, Lucerne, and Bokhara clover—are now
growing luxuriantly in a field wliicli has long ceased to gro^
red olover.
lu a paper read by Dr. Gilbert at Montreal last nntnmn, am
recently published in London by Messrs. Harrison, St, Martin’s
lane, he shows that tho first 9 indies of a ganioii soil, whioh liai
grown clover tor many years, lias lost very large amounts of nitro
aen ; while, on the other hand, the surface soil of a field wliioli
hod grown barley followed by rod clover had gained nitrogen, ai-
oomj^red with a portion of tho field whicli hod grown two cropi
of barley ; and tins notwithstanding tho fact that the clover re
moved irom tho soil muoli more nitrogen than the barley ! Noi
was this all, M :the barley that followed tho olover was far superioi
to that whioh followed barley I How, then, are these two oon
fliotingresultatffhereconoiiod ? If olovor were again sown with
the barfoy it would bo almost sure to foil ; while the olover fo the
gardes toil itOl oonti&nai to floorisfa moat laxnriastly, althongh it
laa boon grown there for nearly thirty years In anooeasion I Are
re to suppose that the clover In the garden soil finding aU. tne
ltrogoi> it required close to tho surface was not compelled to look
or it lower down In tho subsoil t It is possible that such may he
he cose.
A still more remarkable e^rienoe, however, in regard to red
lover has yet to be recorded. Since 1848 we have attempted to
grow continnouijiwm crops, but oomparattvejy with but little auo-
oesa. It is true ihkt the crops have not altogether failed, os
was the ease with the red olover—hut we have not been able to
crow contlnuonsly good agricultural orops by means ot manure ; aud
lor the last two or throe years no crop whatever has been grov/ii,
as though grass seeds were sown last autumn they ontiiely. jailed.
Daring the spring, the soil in various plsees was sampled to a very
great depth, and barley and red olover ware sown. I was prepar¬
ed for an indifferent crop of barley, as the partial analysis of the
soil and subsoil showed that the amount of nitrio acid they con¬
tained was small, bnt—I was going to say I was surprised ; this
would, however, not be oorreot, as nothing with regard to red
olover oould surprise me—I will soy therefore that I have been
much struck by the great luxurianoe of the olover whioh. has just
been out with the barley. Even upon tlie bean laud whioh has re¬
ceived no manure since 1848, and where the beans did not exceed
a few inches in height, the olover is most luxuriant, while the
colour of the leaf is of a rioh dork greon snob as I have hardly evor
teen before.
At tho present moment wo have therefore the following problems
requiring explanation—(1) Red olover growing for thirty years
upon an unmanured garden soil ; (2) Bed olover refnslng to grow
on land where four or five legnminons plants ate fiourisbing with
the greatest luxariauoe ; (3) Red olover growing with great luxuri¬
ance where beaus refuse to grow at all : (4) Red olover removing
large quantities of the nitrogen of the surface soil of the garden.
(5) Red olovor increasing the nitrogen of the surface soil when
grown on the farm land.
There is one very important foot, at all events, that the experi¬
ence of forty years has taught ns, and that is, that plants are en¬
dowed with number of remarkable properties, whiuli are only
brought out when they are placed in olroumstanoes where they can
be observed.
NOTES ON POULTRY KEEPING.
F irst and foremost among the different species of the animal
kingdom submitted to t the caprice and dominion of man,
none have shown thomsclvcs so rich in variety ns the difforent
races of fowls. They have been produced in hundreds of forms
and colours, without any disoredit to either of them, beennso
all these varieties have their relative merits. Naturalists acknow¬
ledge nine sorts or races of fowls, which it will be useless to
enunierntc, ttio object of those notos being to point out to farmers
aud cottagers tliosc most snltoblo for stock, so os to derive a
profit commensurate with the undertaking. <
We know nothing of tho origin of the fowl ; hut we suppose
the parent stock to come from tho jungles of India, and we must
take it that all tho races of birds oreatod by the different oross-
iiigs had their origin from thonco. As stock birds, we should
advise farmers to obtain the following:—Loghoms, Hamburga,
Game, Dorking, Spimish, Iloudaii, Cr^veorour, Brahmas, Cochins,
and Dominiques—tliis last is un American bird.
Many opinions have been expressed by fanciers of poultry as to
ivliat breeds arc oousidered the moat iisefol in a morkotablc
point of view. Doubtless wo have gone throng a ‘ poultry
mania,’ the aim of which lias been to brood for leatlier, and to
produce a perfect animal in all points, and most seductive to tho
eye, the real and valuablo'point being lost, viz., tho roaring of
of poultry as producers, liotli for eggs and as articles of oousump-
tioii. To rear birds exclusively for the show pen is an oxponeiva
pleasure, for it requires a good purse to mamtafo such a fancy.
Poultry bred under such olroamstancos, and treated with the
utmost caro and trouble, like exotic plants, must be kept warm,
without being exposed to the sun’s rays for fear of spoiling their
feather or faces ; they are daintily fed, and at the least sign of
imlispusition ; the ehomist’s shop is rausaokecl to find antidotes to
ail tueir ills ; should they have a delicate plumage, they are at
times wasliod and dried with the greatest oare ; finally, natural
food not being aufficient, oondlments are added to force their
energies, &c., Ac. We maintain that poti.try thus reared are
UBolosa as stock birds on a farm.
Tlie above-named races of birds have been Inoreosed and ninlti-
pliod BO much that wo can only, lu out present notes, speak of a
few pi omiuont aud profitable breeds, advantogoous on nooount of
being good layers aud fiist-oloas table birds. 'This is a great oonsi-
deratiou is selcoting stock.
From experienoe we can say that tho ‘ Brahma’ has been : found a
most u.seful bird indeed, either for pure bred stock or for crossing.
They lay well in winter, arc good sitters and oatefnl motliers and
will bring np enidy chickens with little trotable ; tliey seldom
wander Irom homo aud are too heavy to fiy, but oare must be taken
that tlicy are not fed too exclusively on maize, as it produces much
iusido fat, and, like many otlier breeds, the laying is impeded.
The * Houdon, ’ one of tho Fronoh breeds, cannot be spoken of
loo highly, both for laying and incat-prodnoing qualii^. Their
eggs are large and white. aw wared without difcflity, and
feather easily and early. Tfffl Ss^nmage is usually wlnte, witli
bliiok spanglea They have a fine erSw^jg^ top-knot, particuhtsU-
tlie hens, and the comb of tlie cook is very Bffifsoifih, iiaving wlia.'
is oalled the strawberry leaf shape. Beyond their usetulness, they
are very attractive on a farm, and make a fine show. At four
mouths old the pollel will weigh from 4 lbs. to 44 ibs., and the
eoekeieliromdlba,to71bt. The flsoh to nnMrkMiy wbita utd
December 1,1888.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
451
delloftto, and there l> leia wMte of ofifal. The honet are particular¬
ly light. They have five too$ like the Dorking, the fogs white
^th the exoe^ion of a few black eplaihea. These birds are hardy,
and are more easily raised than any other French breed. They
do not wander, and are muchdess dostruotivo. The greater part of
these crossed with the Bralima make maguldoeut speciiueua, im¬
parting tu the Asiatic breed its delicate flesh and large full breast.
Mr. Lewis Wright, the eminent writer on poultry, particularly
reoummends the cross of the Brahma and Houdan, that is, a
Eoudau cook and Brahma hen.
The Crdveocenr comes next. This is another of the French
b-wds. A large, square-built bird, well set on short. Arm legs,
full titeast, limbs well devrioped, four toes, legs black, oar-
riage upright and proud, is even more proooclous than the Houdan,
and as he is a larmr bird, his flesh is more abundant, so that at the
same age he weighs more than the lust named kiud. His plumage
is eutirely of a lustrons metallic blaok. The cock lias a flue crest,
inclined to fall backwards, with a oomb in the shape of two horns,
—that of the ben much smaller in proportion, but tlio crest is full¬
er, and stands erect. They produce certainly the most exooUout
poultry seen In the Paris market. Their bones w'eigh ovon less
than those of the Houdan ( the flesh is short, flue and white ; and
they fatten easily, Indeed, if well fed in the yard, they do not re¬
quire to be put iu the fattening pen at all,aud at six mouths they are
like young turkeys for size. The pullsts are of an unheard-of pre¬
cocity, us they can be pat up to fatten at two ond-a-haU to three
months old, and at the end of a fortnight arc ready to kill.
This is perhaps the best breed for crossing, and experieuoe has
proved that, crossed with a Brahma hen and Cr^vecceur cook, tho
produce is large, Imrdy, and magnlfloent birds, and as a cross
navoboensoldat?^. Bd. each, and many more could have boon dis¬
posed of could they have been had. Therefore this brood can al¬
ways ho strongly recommended, and will prove remunerative iu a
commercial point of view, as the oosksrels oau be disposed of
at from three to four mouths old, and tho pullets not required for
laying, oven earlier. The eggs are white, and very large.
Tho ‘ La Flhche ’ is another of the French breeds, and a most
wonderful bird it is for size and dolioaoy, often weighing from 8 to
10 lbs., a bird much prized in France : but oa it does not thrive
well in this climate, we wonld not rooommend it to farmora,
espeoially so far north.
The‘.Spanish.’—Wo presume from tho name that the bird is a
native of Spain. Be that as it may, wo are satisliud that tliis breed
is necessary on a farm whore eggs form part of tho staple com¬
modity, and crossing brought to a good issue. Tho Spanish is a
fine loi'ge bird, strong and hardy when fully developed, but delicate
to rear, OB tho chickens feather tardily, and are subject to oroup
througii the inolomenales of our climato; therofore great care is
required that they should bo warmly housed until tliey got their
feathers, lu general, Spanish aro nevor bred too early iu the yoar.
U'beir plumage is deep black, with glossy refleotiuus. Legs blue or
dark lead colour. The oomb iu both sexos inpst he large, but
iu the cock it is perfectly upright, separated, aud oxteuding
ficmi tho base at tho upper mandible to the back of the
how ; that of tho hou, when fully devalopod falls ooraplotoly
over on one side. This bird is remarkable for its white faoe,
which should extend over the eye as far as tho comb, aud reaching
down to tho wattles. To bo perfect, the faue ought to bo of a pure
W'liite, without wrinkles, and soft aud suiooth as chamois loatlier.
The eggs are white and Urge, and the hen of this breed is oousidor-
ad to be very prolifiu. It will bo as well not to give too many
tons to IV Spanish oock ; four are quite as many as ho can
A Brahma, hon and Spanish oock produce a ecpital cross, what
is called ‘ Cuckoo,’some with wliito legs, soino with yellow, and
wo fail to see a diflerenoo between tbis cross and Domiiiiqiies and
Plymouth Kooks. However, these 6ruBse8 thrive wonderfully
well, and at three mouths aro almost double tho size (if their
congeuors of the pure breed. C, W.
THE POULTRY OF THE FARM.
T he next matter to be oonsiderod iu poultry-keeping is tho
housing, and this is a vory simple affair ; still thoi o are
many inoidente to bo noticed, aud for whioh provision must be
made Next to food, tbo housing of poultry is vory importont,
and the two oombiued form tho leoret of poultry farming with
“'^PoutafcJlo'we*. laying honsos, aro made
with veryoheap materials, and oau bo thatched or tiled ; for a
cold country wo should advise thatch, as lisiug warmer m wiute
and cooler in summer. Let ventilators bo made all round tho
buildiug, whioh oau be opened or shut acoordiug to tho ssason.
The roosting house must be so prepared tliat porehos can be
Tilaced In amphitheatre style, so that those breeds whioh psroh
EiSh raaravall thomselvw of the highest positions, whilst tho
H^vy birds BUOU as the Asiatic breeds pereh low, and can be
ewlly accommodated ; besides, the porches tlins made priweut the
fZls from dropping their dirt on one another. To keep the ,
rooatiiiB house M oleau as possible phioo under each peroh a
Jbbi Zuk covered with dust or ashes so that the dreppings
can be oollected witli ease and seonred m a barrel, and wliioh
n,.,, HiflDOBatl of at any time by lue or by sale. In the laying
bouse t^o^small boxes in ti ers for tlie nests, not too high, or
the biSrwould not be abig^ll them. On the upper tiers
'it „ londimi^lip^^iie outranco, so as to prevent tho
► I I II I iri . otherwise they run the risk
of breaking tFie eggs should there bo any in the nest.
o” the top of those boxes a shelf can he fixed from one end
to the other, on which email round baskets can be olaoed, lined
with hay or out etraw, so oe to Induce the fowls to lay in them,
for fowls are such oapriolous creatures that very often they will
not enter a box that has boon made for them to lay In, but
will rather go and soak out a nest for themselves. These
baskets on the shelf are a great inducement, and they often take
to them iu preferouee to auy other. However, It U better to
adopt any plan than to allow your Iieus to stea I their nests, and
thus lose tho oggs.
Wo are just entering upon a season when new laid eggs ore in
great request, and all poultry farmers ought to. adopt the means
to promote their production, and it would amply pay those
persons who give special attcutiou to it.
At this time of the year all puUuts Jiatched In March
aud April should be well ftouied, with u south aspect as much
as possible, and well sheltered from the north and eMt winds.
The floor of the house should be covered with dry leaves,
whioh are easly obtainable at this period of tho year, or with the
hull of corn.
Fowls delight to scratch in this and pick out the corn
that may bo thrown to thiim, for nothing koops poultry la health so
much as moving about and having plenty of oxerclse.
Tbo ventilators during tlie oold weathor sUonld be shut.
A dry soil is indisponsable for ogg produotion, therefore . the
poultry yard sliould uavo from time to time a layer of the soil
taken up and used iu the kitchen garden, and replaoed by a layer
of gravol or ballast, so laid down that the rain water may easily
drain off.
In addition te tho fowl house, it Is very advisable to have au
open shed, for fowls require to live lu the open air as inuoh as
possible, and tho only object of the shed is to replace the large
trees under whioh fowls iu summer take refuge from the rain and
sun. The shed oau bo used in summer as a roosting house, with
the addition of a few porehos. Dry leaves or the Jiull of com
sliould also be thrown into tho shod, and tho base of the shell
bordered up by a plonk, so as to prevout the fowls from scattering
it abroad,
A supper of boiled potatoes, well mashed up, and mixed with
middliugs, will (lo sometimes ; at others, all sorts of vegetables,
boiled up and mixed with scraps of meat and fat. In aootland,
where oamieal is cheap, it woulii form an excellent food. All those
ingrndients must bo given warm.
in the morning, give them wheat, oats, buckwheat, and eome*
times a little honu) sood, but sparingly. Barley and oats, half
boiled, are vory exciting, bucI ffend for the laying. Be particular
aud give them good and oleau waver. Cheng# the hay oi- etraw
of the nests often, and have a earn lio'v the eggs arc handled, for in
winter the shell is vory thin.
With the above precautions, farmers ought to have plenty of
oar^ eggs whioh would find au easy anil reumaerative market,—
C. W,—AortA BrUUtli AgrieallHmt.
POULTRY IN INDIA.
P OULTRY are entitled to a fairly prominent place among our
food supplies. The ludtau muruhi, however, cannot hold a
oandlo to tlie proiluoo of our fowl-yards in England, althongh the
parent stock of all those magnilicant birds came originally from
Asia, it 'VOS only bi 1847 that any keen iuterost was felt iu Eng¬
land and America iu Improving the domostie fowls. Many of our
rouJers will remember the excitement caused by tho introduotioa of
tho Coohin Chinos : they arc justly entitled to bo called “ the
piirouts of poultry fancy." I’rovious to their advent there were
tew who cared for keeping fowls ; indeed it was looked upon as a
harmless mania, much tho same as tho keeping of white mloe.
Within thu last ten or twolveynara, a greater interest has been
devolojiod in improving our Indian poultry-yards. People have
begun to find out that by a small outlay and a little oaro an er;
superior to that laid by the country hen aud a finer bird than i£e
murijh% for the table oau be procured. It Is true that the climate
of the plains is somewhat against us in many part# of India, but it
lias been proved that tho English varistias can be made to succeed
if jiroper preeaiitioua are taken. The Improvements that have so
far been ilovolopod are due to the energies of a few who have taken
the trouble and gone to tbo expense of Importing superior stock :
tiiosc have by degrees bsen spread througliout the country. Ten
or twelve years ago it was a rare tiling to oome across English fowls
but now iu fifty per cent of tho poultry-yards either half-breads or
pure breeds wiU be found. After the first outlay lu purchasing tho
birds the cost is very much the same, whatever kinds aro kept ; the
English ones will, it is true, eat a little more, bat they give a better
return iu larger egge and more meat, Houdaus, Bramas, Coohins,
&c., are now really within tbo reach of alL From two to ten
rupees is the price ordinarily asked for birds according to tholr
size and purity of breed, and it takes a very short time for them
well to repay the purchaser the money he has laid out. Importa¬
tion is a more serious matter. It is no use getting out auy but
birds oi higli class strains ; but these may be got on un average for a
sovoreigu a piece. Carriage by sea or land is an expoualve item.
Allowing for deaths, agency foes, aud remuneration to the ship’s
butcher who looks after them on the way out, half-a-dozen birds
could uot be lauded at a station far from the coast mnoh under two
hundred rupees, Though it appears a large sum, the investor may
with ordinary luck recoup himself in a year, and have a balauoe to
profit and a well stocked yard. Tho only place, we believe, where
poultry-farming lias been carried on on a largo soalii Is at the
Chowkooriti poultry yards near Almora, at an elevation of over
8,000 feet, it lias proved successful. The proprietor has found no
ditfioulty in disposing of as many young fowls as he can produce
from his French Houdans at Ks. 80 a trio. Imported birds da
bdtttir((MiB bub natural) in tho hilU| tho oluuftto boing inoM ,
•oiUd W th 9 i&i Xhoy uro l«aa Uublo tu dogenoiAtOi mi the y oon^s
THE INDIAN AGHIOULTUEIST.
December 1 , 1888.
■took if more robuet. It would almoet p«y reeideute in tho plaine
better to purohnee (owU bred from importM biide in the bUU tb*n
to get them out direct from EogUnd.
UoudM« and Bramae (light aud dark) appear to be the varietlee
very generally eelecled by Importere. The former takes its name
from a district In Frsuoe, and fe of modorn origin, haring been first
deseribed in 180!>. It is, however, a very cTiaraoterlstio breed.
The birds msy bo recognised at once by their triple ooiub, full-crest
whiskers and beard, bTaok-and-whlte-spangled plumage, and five
toes, the two hind ones being one above the other. It is worthy of
note to show iiuw breeds are made up to suit the requirements of
judges at poultry shows, that the original Houdons bad scaroely
any beards or whiskers, and the fifth toe was uncertain. Huudans
are non-sitters, and lay large white eggs ; the ohlokeus ate very
preoooions, and If properly fed are fit for the table at four months.
The origin of the Bnunai is not quite so clear. They first
appeured as a distinot breed in 1846 in America, and were said
to have been brought over by a sailor who obtained them at
Lbkhlmpore, on the banks of the Brahmaputra river. There was a
long and bitter controversy as to where they first came from j
some asserted Chittagong, others Shanghai; indeed for a long
time they wore oallra grey Shanghais. One thing Is certain—
wf cannot now find foi^ answsnng to their description about
the Brahmaputn, or we should not send all tho way to England
for them, xbis breed thrives in India and is more hardy than
the Houdan. Tlielr propensity to sit interferes a great deal
with the production of eggs ; they make exoelleut table birds if
properly fattened. They are magnificent fowls to look at, with
their hMvily-feathered legs and stately carriage. A good Brama
ooek will scale 12 to 14 pounds. An oxoeUeut cross may be
obtained by mating a Brama hen with a Houdan oook. The
progeny are almost invariably black with orests, and are non-
sitters.
The great thing to guard against Is degeneration. Poultry
seem to be more liable to it in India than lu Europe. It is attri¬
butable to three causes: climate, bad feeding, and breeding in
and from limited stook. In Importing fowls it is advisable to
order, tity, three oooks from different yards and three or four
faeas. Mate the hens with one oook ; put tho pullets reared with
No. 2, aud so on with No. 3. lu this way three strains can be
established, aud the breed will be kept up to the mark of the
oririoal stook many years if otherwise properly treated.
Artificial iuoubatioa has made great progrsaa lu tlie last two
or three years, and it mcatlv »impii(ies the production of a large
Dumber of ohiokeui. Hr. Thomaa Christy, of Fcuchurcb-street
may be justly called the pioneer of tho hydro-ianubators in
Eoglaud (though, as is known to most people, the hatching of
wgs by artificial heat dates back to the times of tho ancient
Egyptians). But last year a great advance was made in the
Invention by Mr. C. Hearson of an automatic incubator, which
regulates the beat of the egg-drawer of itself. No changing of
water or oiroulatiug boilers are required. A small lamp (kept
constantly burning) is oonnected with a flue through the tank,
aud arranged so as to heat the water. The following is the
way in wnloh the heat lu the drawer is regulated. On a little
stand over the e^, and near the bottom of the tank, is a
capsule of thin brass, enclosed in wbioh are twenty drops of a
liquid which bolls at the tem^rature at wbioh the egg-drawer
is to be kept. A piece of stiff wire stands in the centre of the
oapsnle, and is oonnected with a light lever at tho top of the
msebiue, at the other end of which hangs a damper over the
lamp chimney. When the drawer is uuderhoatod, tho damper
olosw tlie ohimnoy and all the heat goes into the tank. When
the proper temperature has been arrived at, the oapsule boila,
•wells, aots on the lever, raises the damper, and allows the beat
to escape from the lamp instead of acting upon tho water. If a
greater heat is required, a small weight which is on the lever
u moved forward, when greater pressure will be required to raise
the damper. Tho arrangements also for keeping a current of damp
air over the ^gs are simple and thoroughly emoieut, only necasslta-
S tbo addition of a little lukewarm water about ouoe a fort-
t. Takeu altogether this incubator may be said to give a
mnm of trouble and a maximum result. Like all new pateuts
it bad but a short reign in its entirety. Mr. Christy at first
•ooffsd at it, but soou found that hie old (style of incubators were
being thrown out of sale, and therefore he had to provide some-
thiug like Mr. Hearsou's ubampton inonbator, but auffioiently
different not to infringe the patent. He calls bis “ tbs thermos-
tabic inonbator.None of those have, as far as we know, found
their way to India, bat there are a few of Huarson's working very
■uoceisfaily. Those who may get them out should be provided
also with a “ foster-mother," iu which 50 or 60 chiokens can be
tesred with great ease. The general mistake made in bringing
Dp obiokens is that they ate entirely trusted to the tender mercies
of ths murghl-waUa,” and In oousequeuoe they are not oMy
underfed, but badly fed and grow up stunted aud degeuorate fowls.
good as thoee that corns out from England,
Oonsidsrlug the number of poultry fanciers there are now in
India and tiie difiloultiee that exist iu getting fresh stock, wo would
suggest the formation of a poultry club. By means of this, tho
jMinbers would be enabled to exoiuuge birds and get in fresh
■trains, and to join togstber for parposes of importation. It would
give anlmpstus to poultryfarmluglor pleasure and for profit, and
onable many who do not know now where to get good fowls at a
moderate prlos to supply their wants.
It has been sabisfa^rilyproved that eggs for setting cannot bo
trusted to the poet office. In almost every instauoe parcels oon-
Uining eggs have rendhed their destination with tho yolks broken
and unfit for ^abat^. Taken hy hand with otdlmuy care they
mOy be transported from one end of India to another, and be found
fit lor setting at the end of the jonmev.
Before leaving the subject it is worth noting thnt n great many
eggs might he saved for honsehold purposes which are left to
addle under the hen testing them after they have bden five or
six days incubated. They are quite fit then for eookiug, and will
be found very little infenor to fresh egn. Testing is simple.
Light a lamp or candle ; pat It in a box with a round hole in front
of the light, and one at the top to let off the heated air ; make, in
a piece of black cardboard or tin, a bole the shape
of an egg: in one hand bold tbe egg and in the card¬
board iu front of tbe light the whole of the Interior of
the egg will he visible. If fertile, the vein will be diatiuotlv so.d
looking like a spider; if unfertile, tbe appearance will Millie
same as that of a fresh egg. Remove bU these and send them to
tbe kitchen for us*. If two bent ore set at ths same time and
many unfertile eggs are found, the remainder can go under one
hen, and a fresh lot be started under tbe other ) much waste of
labour being saved. Tbe hen won’t mind the extra six days ; she
oareth not for time. The American saying about an unpuuotoal
man is “ he has no more idea of time than a sitting hen.”—
Pioneer,
VEGETABLE EXTBACTS.
W HILST it is admitted on sll hands that the cultivation of
economic plants, yisldlng sugar, fibres, and drugs, and
their by-products of all kinds, aooordlng to the climates aud soils
BuiUble to their oultivatiou, might be profitable, the obstaole that
tbe grower and the o^ltalist Mike have had to faoe, has been the
almost insuperable dimoulty of extracting the several produota at
a cost of produotlon that will leave a profit at all oommensurato
with the riek incurred. When we take mto aooouut tbe amount of
unprofitable vegetable matter assoolated with the more valuable
part of the plants to be dealt with, the oost of labour and the car
riage of the crude material to the nearest mill and tbe comparative¬
ly poor results, the oostly and by no means perfect msobinea return
upon the outlay, we are the less surprised to find how quickly the
enthusiasm of the moat hopeful is cooled after tbe first or second
essay iu any of those directions.
The efforts made by tho Government of India to Improve the
oondition of the fibre producers, who had expeuded large sums in
cultivating ' ubina grass,’affords us a capital iilnstration. 'rhuir
evideut desire to promote on a larger scale the cultivation of plants
wbioh from time immemorial had produced valuable fibres for
native textile fabrics, led the lutliau Government to offer a prise
of some five thousand pounds eterliug fur the production of a
suitable maohine to remove the fibre from the woody matter
assoolated with it, in tbe Bhamia plant particularly. It woe in
the year 1870 the offer was made. The maohine was to be of such a
character that it oould be used in the rainy seMon, whea the
plant was still greeq, at a time when the difficulties of heating
the plants ars insuperable except by artificial means. Ttie
first trial was mode at Saharaopore lu 1872. 'Ihe results ob¬
tained were oousidered unsiitisFuotory ; but Messrs. V. aud J.
Greig received a prize of £1,600 fora orusUlng machine then shown.
The trials were postponed for some years, and at the second contest
iu 1880, no less than twenty-three competitors presented them¬
selves. The mling idea was a ornsbbig maohine. Exhibitors
from England, Ainerioa, France, Denma^, Hungary, Java, Now
Zealand, and India were represented, but in no case could a
machine be found that would " extract the fibre from the brown
oxtorior pellicle and from the excess of agglunieuative gummy
matter which holds them together iu suoh a manner, as to pro
(luce an article whose value in Loudon shall not be less than
£45, and of wbioli tho oost of production shall not exceed
£15 per ton of fibre obtained." • Crushed stems, in faot, no matter
bow deftly treated by mechanical means, refuse to surreinler
tbeir more delicate lllameuts (and these arc the most prized),
and only give up their coarser constituents, in a more or lose
mangled form, when subjected to the clumsy ordeal they bavo
uudergoue. All at once, aud that not eo very long ago, tho che¬
mists who bad been iuvectlgatlng the progressive action of ferment¬
ation iu plants in cold and warm water, obtained a olue to the
laws which seem to regulate tbe process of vogetable decomposi-
tiou, and did not fail to observe that as the temporature was raised,
tho adhorenoe of the Internal ligneous part and tbe cortical
envelope is destroyed, and the separation of each of tbe different
ouucentric layers which form tbe wrapper,ls efieota^ The fibre-beor-
iug plant is provided with three zones in the bark, consistint'.pf the
epidermis and a thick layer of parenohyma, wbioh oontaius the
cblorophyllum of tbe plant, then a larger layer of cortical fibres,
generally isolated and independent of each other ; the last zone la
contiguous to the cambium lu whioh are the finer fibres and
associated with these there is an abundance of small crystals of
oarbouate of lime ; it was found, that if thestemi were lubjeoted to
superheated steam or some such calorifio agent, the moisture oould
be drawn off effeotually iu a few niiuntes by toe addition of some
cbemloal re-agent, and the fibres extracted free from any kind of
adhesive partioles that would render it unsaleable, there was an
end to all obnoxious or tedious “ retting” or “ stripping" processes
and the object of their searoh was attained. During the hut
four years steady progress has been made in rendering toe opera¬
tion perfect and profitable, and at a oost wbioh will be hard^, fett
when the value of the fibre comes to be submitted to thtt^'iauu-
faoturer ; liinUar experiments made lu England,^ ranee,
and America. Tbe work commencedtmSsiei^m by the weU-kuow|^^
M. A. Favier has beau Improved upon ik-’^jeuisbevv
oliemist M. Fremy. In England much attention has been bestow¬
ed upon the subject, whilst Amsrioan obemists have coutiibuted
took shwe, Side by side with these dlsogveitei of stub inoileulabie
December 1,1883. THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
4d9
vake to th« cotmaroe of tha future, ohamlata fn tha north
0 i isuropa, in Amanoa, France, and Kngland, ware tnakins aoually
parfaotlng new methooa of extracting laoefiarlne
mattor from eogar-caue, lorghum and make plant*. The old and
curabrou* pMoei* of extracting sugar from cane by elaborate and
costly rnwhlnery, always most profitable to the manufaoturer,
1 j Tui ° * P®®*' rotbrn to the grower,
liaa thU effect amongst others, oi forcing the production of
beet-root ^d other kindred saccharine plants upon the market
u ®®®P®*'i^i®“ with our colonial trade, was admitted on all
hands to be defective and unprofitable. Other meaus have
^ now bMn found by which pure sugar and syrup can be drawn
4 direot from the sugar-produoinjg plants wo have indicated. By
this new departure costly machinery U dispensed with, and the
land in some Instances, without overtaxing Its power of pro-
du^on, can be made to give a oontinnous yield of sngar-pro-
duoing plants. Crushed cane with Its poor return in sugar,
molasses, and treacle will become things of the past. The
American Department of Agrioalture, ably supported by chemists
of known exj^rienoe, have superintended for the last four years
the new method of extractmg su»r by a simple chemical opera¬
tion, and at a cost which, including the cultivation of the plants,
at first eight may seem elmply Incredible, until the tables of
expenditure and profit are oonsalted, when all doubts are dispelled
by the dvideuoe they oontrlbuto. It appears by tha published
report of the United States Department of Agriculture at Wash¬
ington that—“ Bl^hty batches of syrup taken by the manager
from tlie finisher in the oonscoutive order of production made
from cane and stems of all oonditiona, good, had, and indifferent,
show an average of 66 per cent of crystalli/.od sugar. Several
of-the best show os high as 80 per cent. All would have shown
this high average if all the cane had lieen good.” In England
like results have been arrived at as we have already showu In
the pages of this iournal, and it is possible when the researches
now under observation and exhaustive trial have been perfected, as
they assuredly will be before long, that a perfect revolution in
sugar prodnotion will be effected. Nor has the investigation
of methods for extracting these products by chemical means
limitsd tile field of operation ; these same chemical studies have
led to others of equally high oonimoroial importance. The same
or equally simple metliods will be applied to the extraction of
dye stuffs and other alkaloids with npparatus, which, we gather,
is of the simplest and most inexpeusive character,
SUGAR MAKUiG AT CHAMPAIGN, ILLINOIS.
T he marked sneoess that lost year attended the production
of sugar from the sorghum oaiies at Ciiamualgu, Ill., and liio
Orande, N. J., awakened a deep and wide spread interest through¬
out the country. It seemed to gi^e promise of such an ulbimato
development of this industry us would free us irom depeiideuoe
upon foreign sources of supply which now furnish nins-teuths of
the swtets consumed in this country, and cost us anunallv in first
cost and duties paid upon the same, nearly $150,000,000. AVhils
for some years the quality of syrupe from sorghum, under improv.
ed methods of manufacture, have steadily improved till many
munufacturers now furnish eyrups of excellent quality, and while
from time to time quautities of sugar liave been produced from
the nnexpeeted and unwished for granulation of eyrups, no dhect
efforts at sugai production can be claimed to have boon successful
and profitable till those of lost year at Champaign and Rio Grande.
While the juices of the sorghum canes, as shown by aualysis, were
kuowu to bs nob in true cane sugar, the practical difficulty has
been toobtaiu it in a orystallizod form, and in paying quantity.
There were liiudraiicos to oi^ttallixation not till recently nnJ
stood, nor tlie metliods for overcoming ttiein. But since the
work was so successfully carried on last year at tiie above
named points, and both companies are now, togetlier
with several new ones in different parts of the country,
engaged in successful sugar production from this season’s crop of
caim, it can, wo think, be safely claimed that sugar production
from sorghum Is now establisheii as a sure, certain and profitable
uiaufacturlng industry, whioli offers as protitablo employment for
capital as any other manufacturing industry in the country. A
recent visit to the works of the Champaign .''ugar Mauufseturiug
Company, snahles tlie writer to give to the readers of the farmfi-’t
JitVKw/mtiay facts of interest in regard to tliis souson's work,
'The ooillpauy ha* this year (515 acres of eaiie, wliiie last year it
*»d hut about 250. Ita quality is better than last year, August and
September furnishing a great deal of sunshine, which is needed to
develop the sugar in the juloes of the growing and ripening cuii.-,
.Some fields of cone have lioen frosted so as to make it unprohlahle
to work for sugar, hut without materially injuring it for syrup. But
the most of theorop is in good couditiou for sugar making. About
1(X) acres of the cane was grown by the company, the balamio by
farmers on ooatraot, the coin|iaiiy paying ?2-h0 per ton for osue
delivered at the mill, topped but not stripped. Tlie average yield
Is about 9 tons per acre. A good deal of impiovemcut has boon
made in the maohiiieiy of the works since last soMon. llien there
was a deficiency in boiler camoity, in charcoal filters, in defeo^
atins capacity, and in centrifugals, so that while the mill could
crrlnd ISOtons of oaue per day and the vaonuiu pan finish the juice
Xo .u”r ThcyXe%nabled to run only about 60 ton. per day,
How they run about IMy^very twenty-four hours, the deficien-
that exUtfliU#ryearl^iug “y ““PPlisJ- »
1 Cuba flexible). The roll*, three to each
in,afs 4 feet in length by 30 inches in diameter. The power k so
ample that with cane fed soUdly from four to six inobe. deep, there
Is no clogging or obeok to the motion, which is 22 feet per minute.
The secemd »t of roll, is about 12 feet beyond tho first, a OMrlor
taking the psttly pteewd cane from the first to the second. On lU
passage It is moistened by jets of hot water from a perforated hJrf-
zontai pipe some two feet smove the oarrler. The second pressure is
Immense. The hagaua mostly comes through entirely separated at
the joints,
What is not so separated is thrown book, to oome through again,
by a h y stationed at tha tall end of the second set of rolls. The
company olaim that by the use of this second set they save at least
fifteen per cent of juice that would be lost if only a single mill was
used. L.ist year the filing under tho boilers was l>y coal aio-'e, and
men and teams were employed to cart tho bagasse away to get rid
of it. Now it is all used os fuel, and supplies tibo-thiriis of ail tho
fuel required, taking the ptaco of fifcacii tons of coal per day. It is
carried by the bagasso carrier over the front end of tho fnrnaacs,
and by an ingenious arrangement of slides, ted dirootly into shafts
running down into oaeh of the four furnaces. No haudllng of it is
required, only the manipulation of tho slides by cords and pulleys
so tliat each of tiie four furnaces shall bo alternately fad. There
is no trouble in keeping tho steam up to any desired pressure, and
tlie saviug in fuel and labor from this u.so of tho bagasse oaunot fall
much short of $80 every twenty-four hours. The juice from the
mills flows into a tank from ivhioh it is pumped into the juice tank
at the extreme top of tho haiitiiug. Here it Is treated to lime to
neutralise the acid and then drawn off to the defecating tanks, a
half story below. Those are of galvauizsd iron in wooden frames
and supplied with steam coils, Tiie juice is brougiit quickly to a
boil aud the scum takeu off. This flows through pipes to a tank ou
the ground outside the building and is taken away for feeding hogs.
The defecated juice next passes to tho evaporator of copper, circu¬
lar, eight feet in diameter and throe feet deep, the bottom covered
with two inch copper coils. Hero it is reduced to 20'* Baumo,
when it is drawu off into settling tanks, Wlioii sufficiently cooled
it posses to tho bone-black filters, up-right eyitiidors of boiler iron,
18 feet in depth and filled with finely pulverized boue oharooal.
From tho bottom of the filters the clear, amber-colored, semi-syrup
flows iuto a tank from wliicli it is pumped to reservoirs above the
vacuum pau, iuto which it is drawn os uaedad. In boillug iu the
vacuum pan a small amount only is first let in and boiled at a tom-
p^erature of 170”, till crystals can be seen to bo formiug freely.
This can be asoertained by drawing out a small amount, spreadiug
it upon glass aud linldiug it between tho observer and the light,
when tha Cl ystals eau he clearly seen. Additional quantities of
the semi-syrup are let in from time-to time until at the end of
about five hours tha pan is full of tho boiling sugar, when the
»(rtkf is made. The contents of the pan are dischorgad into crys-
toUizing wagons -tanks of hollar iron five feet long, three wide aud
two dsep, on iron trucks, These are wheeled itilo the crystallizing
room, which is kept at a temperature of 00 degress, where the
crystallizatiuu Is perfected. When ready for the centrifugals the
wa,;uus are run out aud their contents dumped into the mixer, a
loug horizontal trougli, in which a horizontal shaft with woodon
arms revolves, which thoroughly mixes the innsh sugar. From
this it is drawu directly into the centrifugals uti the fluor below]
'L'hese are perforated brass cylinders suspended at the end of a
prirpondicular shaft, which makes 1,200 rovolntions per minute,
Tha parfuratad brass cylinders revolve inside of stationary iron
ones. As soon as started the acutrifugal force throws the mash
sugar against tile inside of the perforated brass. Tha molasses is
thrown out through the perforations, while tho crystals are retained
inside. The mulasses is retaiued hy tha outside statiouarv oylinder,
and runs off to tanks through a pipe iu the bottom. When suffi¬
ciently purged tho machine is stopped, the sugar adhering to the
inside of tha brass cylinder is scraped off and discharged from the
bottom into a box below, from which it is barrelled, and is then
ready for market. The sugar thus ohtaiiioJ is callod jirUs. The
molassos is afterward rehuiled for sugar, and yields in sooouds
nhont one-quarter tho quantity of the firsts. The sugar grades
from Yellow C to off A, and finds ready sale at an averago of 7 cents
por [loniid wholeealc. The molasses remaining after working for
socoiids IS refilled, making all article of table syrup, which sells .at
40 cents per gallon wholesale, though tins priuo wo* shaded a little
ou some lots last soasou.—/'ai’mei's litoiem.
AGRl-HORTICULTUilAL SOCIETIES.
I N the Resolution of the 17th September 1879, it was decided that
ns grauts-iii-aid to agrl-horticultural societies had been made a
cliargn on provincial funds, the oontiol over such grants should be
transferred to local Governments, At the same time it was suggest¬
ed that doiiatious from the public funds should bo governed by
curtain fixed principles, such as tlie extent, to which the oporatious
of tho eooiotiee promote objects of public beuefit,and the aniouut of
tho income derived by them from independent sources. The
Govoniuiuiit of India also desired to lie furnished once every three
years, with a progress report, showing tliu work acoouipllshod by
each society, and the help nflbrdod from provincial funds.
The first triennial report* have now been received, and afford the
following information. There are, or rather Were, agrl-hortioul-
turai souieties at Calcutta, Madras, Lahore, Nagpore, aud Rangoou ;
tiiuee at Lahore aud Nagpoie iiave, uuder recent arrangements
made by the local Govorumeuta, rcoeivad a new organisation under
wtiich they will uo longer bo kuowu by their former title.
Tlie society at Lahurc had long been on the docluie owing to
a variety o! causes, Tho great ditncuU^ of seouring a permanent
Honorary Secretary, with sufficient leisure to devote to the pro¬
per working of the society, and the greater advantages aud facilities
afforded to contributors of informatiou hy the periodical preie of
late yean, bad with other things oombiuod to create a lack of
interest in its members. The original objects bf tho society were
imperfectly carried out, aud its gardens had gradually' oMumed
the ohAncter oi a mere agency in supplying Hedt and plants,
454
THE INDIAN AGEICUttDRIST.
December 1,1888.
The oondition at which tbe ioaUty had arrived i» clearly set forth
in a joint report submitted in March last by Major Wane, Com-
mlBsioner of Snttiemonts and Affrifulturo, and Mr. Bailftu-Powoll,
the Honorary Seorotary, On the |•eoolnlnendatifm of thoto ofEoara,
the Croveminent of the Punjab ha< decided tlwt the insLitntioti
shall in fiituvo he known aa the (iovorimient Ajjri-hortioiiltural
Oardcus, Lahore, and nianajjod liy ft committee compoaed of
fx-offfiii and nominated imnnbora. The present grant of Its.
0,001) per anmiin is to be continued, hut its expenditure will ho
subjecluil to tlie csntrol of the Oommissiou'er of Agrionlturo.
Hubaoriptimis will bo received as heretofore, but subscribers will
not be oiitillcd to more than the full value of their suhscriptious
in goods ftiid piauts. With tho object of securing scioutiflo super-
adilou and aifvioo, it is fvirlhor Intended that wltii the permission
of the Govornmeut of tho North-W''n8teru Provinces (lud Oudh, tho
Hnperinteudent of the Botanical Gardens at Saharuupore should
inspect the Lahore gardens at stated periods every year. The
school ior the training of gardnuers now attached to the gardens
is to he maintained and improvetl.
Tile Nagpore Society was maintained principally by annual
grants from local and provincial funds. In 1881-81! these amounted
to He. 4,000, against Be. 373 realised from subeoriptions, K». 2,700
from sale of produce, Es. 600 from misocllaneous souroes, and
Ks. 000 paid by tho municipality. The work of tho society lay
fur tho most part in the distribution of plants and seeds,
of which but a small proportion wero new or exotic varieties.
No attempt had been inaae to collect botanical specimens ; no
R record appears to Itave boon kept of tho results attained
oxpcrimeutal cultivation of fruit trees, grasses, Ac,, and
tile effarU made to disseminate iuforniatiou have been very
limited.
Under these dreunutanoes the Chief Commissioner has decided
to formally make the gardens a Government institution, whioli,
proctioally spoaking, tliey liave always been, and to place them
under the Provincial Department of Agriculture. Tho existiue
grants are to be maintained, and the functions of the society will
contiuue to be exeroised by the iustitutiou which will take its
place. It is hoped by this arrangement to seeure continuity of
work, which has hitherto bean impraotioablo owing to ooustaut
changes in the lionorary secretaryship of tho society, and to tiring
the institution tutn closer relation with the district gardens which
exist at every head-quarter station.
Among the remdniug sooietiat at Calcutta, Madras, and
Eangoon, first in order of importance stands the society at Calcutta,
whoso operations extend to tho wlioie of India. This society
receives a grant-iu-aid from Govornment of Bs. 2,400 per onuuiu.
The reinoiuder of ita total iiicoino of Ks. 35,000 consists of
Be. 16,000 received from eubsoribers and Ka. 17,100 from sales nf
produce, lu 1863 the society numbered 595 memhers, some of
whom are residents of fureigu countries. Its work comprises tiie
distribution of plants aud seeds to members and tho public, tlio
trial and distributiou of various ludigouuus aud exutio products,
and tho rearing of useful piauts. Tlie society iutcrciianges plants
and seeds with similar bodies iu the Britisli colonies aud the otfaer
proviuoes of India, and carries on a cousidcrabio corrcspondeiioe
resai'ding the iotroduotion of new staples, field crops, &c. It also
publishes a monthly journal of its prooeeiiings, embodying the
botanical aud ttgricultural information collected from time to time.
Of the subsoriptions received from mumbors, the greater part is
said to be returned to them in tho annual distribution of vegetable
and flower seeds, fruit, grafts, publiuatious, Ac., uml the If eerctnry
represents that an ineroose of the grant-in-a'd from Guvei'nmeiit
would enable it to perform a liu'ger amount of useful woikfor the
public at largo.
The asaistuuoe received from Qoverumout by tho soeiily at Madras
amounts to Rs. 3,000 per annum, besides u special grant cf Rs. 000
for prizes for useful products. Tlie rest of its lucome is made up of
ftxim Rs. 8,000 tu Its. 10,000 realised iroin sale of seeds, piauts,
Ac,, and betiveeu Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 2,500 from subsoriptious.
A proposal is under the consideration of the local Guvcmmeiit Lo
iocreasc the aunual grant of Rs. 3,600 to Rs. 4,000 iu view of
the work dune by the society. This consists iu introducing,
acclimatising, and distributing plants of knowu economic value,
in making known improved agricultural iinploineuts, and in
engaging and trainiug gardeners fur employment in India uml
Burmah. Like the Calcutta .Society, it publi.sUe.s periodical reports
and any iuformatlou coatrihuted l>y Its members. It also main¬
tains valuable aud extensivebotaiuuai gardens, which have recently
been enlarged, and afford much interest and instruction to tho
Bcicutific public aud students ot various botanical classes. An
annual show hold by the suciety is much appreoiatod by the native
public, and servea to biterest them in tho objects which
the association tiae at heart.
Owing to the smallnesa of tho Biiropenn community, and the
difficulty in obtaining native co-operation, the society at Rangoon
hoa hitherto led a precarious existence. It is almost wholly
supported by donations from public fuuds, viz., Ks. 1,20U per
aiiuum from provincial revenues aud a similar contribution from
the municipality. Re. t,(iU0aro obtained from sales of garden
produoe and eoine Es. 700 from members, Tlio objects ol the [
society are the same us ttiose of its contemporaries at C.iloiUU I
and Madrot, though noeessarily conducted on a sma ler Male. ’
Efforts are said to havi- been mads in 1881 to induce s .ms
Burmese gentlemen to join it ns meinhers, aud with some sin-ill
success, lu the same year the first step was taken by tho Proviii-
oial Administration to utilise the society’s agency for the piomo-
tion of agrioultnre, by prevailing on the latter to set apart a
lelected area of the garden for oxperiineiital oiiltivaliun of crops
In which the Agricultural Departineii. is spcoially interested.
It appears to the Govenior-Geueral iu Council that, under
the clreumstanoei referred to above, the Qovornineiits of the
Foojab and Central ProviuoM have acted adviiedly in placing
I the hortioultuml gardens at Lahore and Nagpore under the A|trl-
' ooltiiral Departments in those provlnaei. Experience has ehowh
that the ooimnmiltios at tho.se stations possess neither the leisure
nor the opportunities and faollities for an effective pirformanoe
I of the dutins, whiflh tlio objects of euoti sooieties impose upon their
I working memhers. Whilst, therefore, acknowledging t'le zeal and
levotion with which tho memliers of the associations iu question
have carried out their solf-lmposed task, the Uoiernor-General
agrees with the local Governments tliat the interests of the gar¬
dens will he promotod by the now arraiigements wliioh will furiiisU
that continuity of moimgemont and dlreotioa from the want o(
which they have liitherto suffered.
Of the great utility of the institutions at Caloatta and
Madras there can be no question. At the same time it appears to
the Govornment of India, that the agency afforded by these eocie-
ties might be more largely utilised by local Government! for the
distribution of information, seeds, and plants; (or the experiment¬
al cultivation of crops; and for various other objects. Where
Agrir.ultural Departments exist, the societies might usefully co¬
operate with them, and the Government grant may appropriately
he I'ogiilated iu view of such co-operation. It seems 'desirable
thoreToro tliat in future reports tho opinion of tho officers in charge
of the Agricultural Departinimts, as to the utility of the societies
to the general public, should bo recorded. The Government views
with favor every endeavour made to enlist the interest and osslst-
auoe of natives and of agriculturists geuerally iu this work. In
this way tho value of the societies to the country at large can be
greatly inoroased, and their labors bear permanent fruit. In
Uaiigooii it is olisarvcd that these suggnstioiis have to some extent
boon anticipated, and tlie Government of India hopes that, work¬
ing us it does ill a comparatively new field and in enjoying other
advantages, tlio aocioty at that station will by the end of the next
three years show that it has made full use of its opportunities, and
attained an increased moosiire of usefulness.
THE THEOEY OF THE POTATO DISEASE.
R ecently in connection with theNortii of Scotland Horticul¬
tural Aasiieiation at Aberdeen, Mr. Stephen Wilson, of Kin-
m-.indy, Aberdeenshire, road an able paper outlie above subject. Mr.
Wilson proceeded as follows There are various diseases which
affect Various parts of the potato plant ; but tlie dlsoaso which la
produced by tho fungus called Peronoipora inffftann is more es¬
pecially known as the uutatu disease ; and it is to the theory of this
disease that I am to direct your attention, the word ‘ theory’ has
sometimes .me msaiiiiig and aoinotinios another ; what it moans
here is simply the method or course by which the fungus produces
disease in the potato. It will not be possible to go inuiutcly into
all parts of the subject, but os I assume to have made a discovery
which throws some light iipou the true theory, a word or two must
first bo said on certaiu points oi existing theorius of the disease.
1 scarcely lliiuk it is necessary in this part cf the country to enter
upon any proof that the potato disease is oaused by a fuimus,
Mr, W, G. Rmith says in bis evidence before the Potato Com-
mittoo—'Not one potato grower in a hundred knows anytiiiug about
tlie exact nature of the potato miiriain ; the majority of tanners
do not know whether tile disease is an in.sect, a fungus, or a gas;
whether it is caused by a fog, rain, or a thuuder-storiii ; what it is,
wlionou it como.s, or whore it goes, they liave no idea.’ But
wc shall assnms that u kiiovvludgo is possessed that the disease is
caii.sed by the/’(•roKospoia iitfenuuix. And I think it is of great
importance to a clear nuderstaiiding of our eiihjeot that the disease
ill tlio tissues and subatauoes of the potato plant slionld be cun'-
oeived of quite distinctly from the fungus which produces this
disease. The disease is not the fungus,-t^id the fuugus is not the
disease. If you drive a piece of reu-hot iron into your hand, or if
you swallow arsenic, disease or diaorgouizatiun will arise in cer¬
tain tissues or fluids of your body, hut the poison aud the iron are
not tlie disease, but tho .cause of it. And if the poronospora is
the cause of disease in tlie tissues and fluids of the potato, the
question arises, how does it get into these fiuids and tissues ? A
friend of mine, Mr. Thoms, of AlytU, who has given consider-
able attention to the potato disease, is of opinion that tlie peronos-
pora arises from patliulogiuaily altered cells nf the potato itself.
But whatever nuy eoiiie out of this view, I do not tiiiuk that as
yet there is suffiuiout proof of a theory so startling. The views of
Dc Bary, which ooinmaiid a large amount of acqulesoeuc% may be
moat readily collected from the Potato Blue-hook. Mr, fxjseltou
Dyer explains these views. He says—‘ As long as the potato iia<zx,-r
been In cultivation, 1 do uoL know whetiier there is any evidence
that it has ever been free from the potato disease, It is stated by
Hotssingauit, tho Pieueh chemist, who has lived In South America,
that ill Western South America, which is tho native home of the
potato plant, it always is disoased, more or less. And one of the
most iinpurtriit points i;i Mr. Dyer’s evidence is the assertion that
he lias no doubt that the potato tulies carry on the inyoeliuui of the
fungus fioui one year to uuother. And the way in wnioli he thinki
this mycelinm in tho tuliera reproduees the fungus is, that ii
makes its way up ihe l.aulm, probably iu some oases urowiug with
the shoots. As tlio shoots grow up they are always iliseaseil from
thoir iiifimvy onward-, till at last, whuit the plant is mature, sporui
are produesd and are distributed ; and, lie adds, there are some
facts wliich tend to show that the iiiature follago of the potato
lends itself marc rciidly to the attackse^^he disease tlian tlie
young aud glowing foliage. Theu, w'.sffka;.:! Hs-s spores, ot
conidia, have been produced, it is held that the^wS^^MjCersed by
the wind, aud alighting on other leaves, send tho tunolKfilSt'™
300 spores into them, aud so spread the fungus and the disease
over the wliole crop. But it is also held that the fungus not
only devastates tho foliage, but finds Its way down the haulm
to the tubers, these being only a modificatioa of the haolio, and
.Detfeithfir 1 , 1883 . THE I]Sft)IANi AaBICULTHBIST.
in direct TOmmnnioetion with it. Those seem to he tlio innro
csBontial points in the thuoi’y of Do B.'xry. Yon see that it afforrls
no explanation at nil as to how the fmiuns first or at .any tiiiin
obtains au entrance into tlie host plant. If myeeliuni is lodj^eil
in one seed tuber during winter, and works its waj’ up to the
foliage, and thus produoes disease in a given plant, why dne.s
the samoprinciplo not apply to all the other plants in a field ? One
plant is dtseasCd by the action of hybornating inycelinm, and
another by the action of zoospores. If the first oanse is suffinient
to prodnoe disease, why introdnoo the shuond ? The theory of Mr.
Worthington Q. Smith differs somewhat from th.at of lie Bary.
Tlie fungus in Do Bary's theory can hardly be said to have an
oxistenoe ajjart from the host plant; it is a parasite all the
year round. If it is not producing disease in the plant in
autumn, it is Wing asleep in the tubers, or at least in some of
them. Bfit in Mr. Smith's theory the fungus is not a parasite all
the yeir round; part of its life is nou-parasitic, and may bo
passed within the soil, or upon any substance indlfferontly. The
same mycelium which produces the oonldiophores is also held
tp produce resting spores or OOsporos, whioh fall down upon the
ground with the dead leaves and branohos, and Ho in a resting
condition till next autuinu. * When these eggs at length burst,’
says Mr. Smith, ‘ they generally protrude threads wtiioli carry
aeods or spores, and those seeds are set free W unennntablu
millions. Those seeds sail through the air, and suoh as fall upon
potato plants rapidly gain an entrance to the interior tisanoH of
the host and oanse its oorrosion and destruction. No doubt,’ ho
ooutiuues, ‘living resting spores, together with fungus spawn,
are often planted with potatoes, and when this is the case tlie
disease commenocs with the tuber and works upward ; whilst in
the fonner case, I'.e., when the germination of the resbiiig siku’cs
takes place upon the neighbouring ground, tlie loaves ure the
fliet parts attacked from the air, and the disease works down,
ward to the tuber. It is also a part of Mr. Sinifh's contention
that when the disease is begun by resting spores, it i.s carried
on aud augmented by oouidia. In this theory, as well as in that
of De Bnry, you see that there are two priuuiples on whieh tho
fungus protluues disease in tho potato ; tho action of resting spores
and the action of ennidia. Both theories make use of tho oonidin
when onoo they get them. Now it may bo asked, if the resting
spores, lying as mere non-parasitio fungi upon the giouud, eau
germinate aud produce spores, wluoh are Uie perfect fruit of ftiugl,
what can the poronospora want with the potato ? The potato is
doing it no liarm, and nTpp.areutly cun do it no gooi! ; it has per-
feuted its fruit before reaching the potato, so that its attack on tlie
potato seems a piece df pure mischief. But if the ifpuics or coiiMm
produced on the mycelial tlireuds arisiug directly from .resting
spores bybcniatiiig on the ground, me sullicieut to set up di.sc.pio
in a certain number of loaves, why are they hold to he iasuliieicut
to produce ail the disease y One main defect of these theories
seems to me to he that they want a philosophy. Y.mdunntsec
that any rational purpose is sefved liy the infroductiou of tlio
p .rosito into the host plant. Now, the iinteci.'<lont probability is
certainly very great, that in the case of all paiusitos, the entrance
into a host plant is for souiH important biologicnl purposo. Many
niimito fungi, such us jicnucUliinii, live luid pei'foct tlimnBoIvos liy
producing reproductive spores or fruit on dead material without
entering mto living tissues and becoming parasites. And if the
Pei'oiwuiwra infenlii'tiSy and many others, could perfect themselves
on dead material, there would lie no occasion nliy tliey should be¬
come parasites. But if this Perniumiiora cauiiot produce its .spoi-cs
or ooiudia or fruit except by becoming a parasite and feeding upon
tho substance of a living piaiit, tbeo wo begin to ace tliat tlicro i-<
•a philosophy in tlie potato disease, and that ultliougli mi.schiof iil.iy
result, yet tho esseutial purpose of the parasitism is that tlic
full devolopemciit of tUu parasite may be accomplislicd. Tim
question then oonios to *be—In what form and in wliiit manner
does tho Perommiiora enter into any part of tho potato plant *
In the last papor wdiich 1 read to this society on tlic club root
fungus {Platmodio^hura huimii'n'), I oudcavniired to allow that
tliogermln-sl form in which the fuiigms is ahsorbod by the roots of
turuipfi QtHcr crticifui’ouH pUints inti plasin. Aii<l tho
purpose, so to speak, for which this fungus enters the host plant
is tliat its spores or reproductive olumciits may bo pcifccled. If
it did uot outer the host plant it could not reach its full develop¬
ment Again, ill the case of smut, which in sonic years de..tro,vs
perhaps five per cent of the oats, especially after turnips tlio
fungus does uot attack the ears from the atmosplierc in any form
wfkSiwer. If you will examine the progress of llij.s fungus, aud
iimdiseaso of the ears consequent upon it, you will liiid the fur ;in
Ui its rudimentary stages loug belorc the oars arc out of_ the
sheath or have attained to a length of one-teiith ot an lucli.
And going a little further you may come upon an oat phnil, or a
borley plant, having six or eight stalks on one stool, and if you
find that one oar is smutted, you may predict almost with onr-
taintv that the ears of all the stalks arc smutted. Now, itisim
ncBsibloto suppose that this could he the omic if the elements of
the fungus came through the. atmosphero. Those, elements oomn
in from the soil. The inycoliating spores are lying m the soil,
but they cannot reproduce perfect smut lu the sod ; they must lu
some form enter a host iilaut, and go through a process o gesfa-
timi 1 mav say hero that this fungus dues not cuter the curn
Sts by tlie oars, or by the leaves, or by the roots ; it outers by
tl^Tcot/ledon or sontellum,. winch is he organ that absorbs
to dissolving bodySjtf gram connected with the seed, and t.o
f mirna entersthiiWWTo, mixed up with its proper food, ui the
f moL^^ilulW plasiu- 1 *1^''° fieguently “Oen this pl.asm,
which produces it. in tho early stages of the
mrmlnat^ of the com plants ; and the phenomenon affords the
dSv explanation of the smutting of all the oars upon a stool.
Ikeqaently, however, when the attack of smut U severe, several
STtSa tiUe« on a stool are kUied “d ^ergo
tlw length of produdng ears at aU, Too rusts ontor too strnotnie
; of the, corn plants in exactly the same manner as tiie smut. Bliey
I are iiitrndiicnd into the germinating embryo in the form of aplaam
! by the .absorptive action of the cotyledon as it drawl, in thodls-
Bolviiig food of the young plant. Now, aeoopting these statements
I for facts, it will ho no matter for suiqiriso if wc ohall tliu! that tho
> clcmeuta of the I’oviiot-pora infeatnvK in a rndimentan’ form enter
j some part of tlio potato plant from the soil, and not from tho at-
inosphcni. If the cluh i’oot fungus enters tho turnip, in tho form
of a granular jilasm, and goes througli a process of growth for tho
very purpose of perfecting its spores, why may uot the piotato
fungus act ujion the same princijde ? Well, it was from some
of those ennsiderations that I was led to exaiiiiuu perfectly fresh
potato tubers, purfeotly fresh stalks, and perfectly fresh leaves
In all stages of their growth ; and in all these parts, as well
, as in plums or fruits, I have found certain small organisms whioh
1 are distinotly not of the potato tissues, but easily separable from
tliem liy dissection. I gave the name of solorotiels to tnosu bodies,
implying thereby tliat they are small sclorotia. A fungal selero-
tium is ill geiKiral a solid loatliery or .horny mass of excessively
branching mycelium, all felted together by the fluid which exudes
from it. The ergots on many of the grasses are most familiar
examples of sderutia { but there are many other soterotia besides
ergots. They arc sli tho resting or hj beruatlug states Of certain
fungi, 'rhey lie doriiiniit Uiruiigh the winter, aud germinate at
various periods of the following summer and autumn, producing
their appropriate, fungi, the spores of whioh again produce tho
inyoelia from whioh giow tho soierotia show specimens, and so the
life-circle is coinplotcd. Now, snpposiug timt these sclerotials,
which are in most cases so abundant in the tissues of tlio potato
plant, piwscBs the funotious of soierotia, tho cireumstanoo will be
in pni'fect harmony with that dopartiiieut of fungal life whioh hw
just been alluded to. Tliesii sclerotials, however, are parasitic ;
they exist in the tissuns of the living plant. They arc most
perfectly developed in the leaves, and are situated about
the middle of the leaf, anil over Us whole exleut. Seen
hy reflected light they are quite white, hut they are ipost
eonspittiiou.s by traiisiiiittnd light, and then, as th“y are
opaque, they appear nearly black. lu the leaves they are
about the two Ihousaiultli of au inch iu diaiiiotsi', and am of
various rounded fonns, like long potatoes, or like round potatoos.
They consist of a mass of viiiloiisly-shaped granules, hold together
by some kind of gmn .Sometimus a delioatu bit of inyealiuin may
bo soon ill lliBiii, hue in goucral tiioy consist mortdy of agghitiiiatsd
gniiitiles. Ill till! stalks of the potato they are of mueli larger size,
but are of a loosei text urn aud less definite form, lu the tiibars
Hguiii they are of inauy dillcroiit sizes. .Suinn of them arc rounded
aiid cntiip.iot, noiiio of tlium arc irregular in shape mid
vcis loosely iigurcgaled f.igsHicr, an.l in some casas
litllc (.lusters of these opaqito gt'anulo.s lie alxnit amongst tho
stJiicli evUs, with little oi iio niutu.il oohesiou. They lira situated
iu the greatest nuiiibi'i's round tlni eyes and roiiiid tho insertion
of the stalk on wtiicli the tuber is aUaelied, and from which it
giow. 1 . Now, 1 make no d'miuud upon your faith in rng.ird to Iba
presence of tin* sclerotuiU ; they ar.i startiiiglv visit.bi iu tile
jiroparations put before you, and havo been admitted by all who
have seen tiiem. But I must ask yon on this occasioii to belie vs
that tlio granular plasm from which these bodies are developed,
first outers tho potato by the young tubers from themyoelium of
resting spores iu the soil just in tho same way as tho plasm of the
olub-root fungus eiitors tho turnip bulb. Well, we have thus got
potato tubers infested witli fungal solerotiols and looser nutssea
of tho same granular pai'tiuloa, Thesoaro all visible In tho tubers,
aud must have entered iu some w.ay or other. We see them in
puifeotly fresii tubers, but in such tiihors ws see iiotliiug of Do
Haiy’s liybcruatiiig mycelium ; nc.verlliidoss, those granular bodies
arc exactly equivalent to sucii mycelium. But it does not at all
follow because llioso bodies are present in the tubers that they
should germinate at any time and prodiioo disease j soierotia
gormiualeH only at eortaiii period.s of tho year. Aud so long as
these bodies remain quieseuut in tlie potato tubers, they do no
harni any more than tim crystals found iu the tissues of many other
plants. Well, the infcstc.l tuber is cut into sets aud plautnd. And
as the haulm nud leaves which result from gormiimtion and growth,
aro iiiero dovtdopmeuts of tlio tissues of the tuber, tho granular
fungal matter in the seed tuber is eatriod up and distributed
tbrougli the stums and loaves of the plant ; and in these according¬
ly, at all periods of the boiisoq, it is found developed into the
Bclorolials. It those wliu follow Do Bary ooiitoiid that the hybsr-
natiug inyoeliiim is carried up with the growing slmots, they can
have no ililliciilty iu admitting the traiislooation of tho solcrotio
gianulea. \t'o have only to wait now and see what will lioooine of
the little particles lying within tho loaves and stalks. A leaf may
sometimes bo found containing few or no organisms ; hut in must
lo,avu3 tliey exi.st ’’n great iiiimhors. And certainly it ts uot to bo
dollied that if they goimiiiato and give riao to tho mycelium, which
rnilH through the leaves and produces the cmiidropores of tho
pernnospnra, they aro exactly iu the position which they should
oucupv. Tho upper aide of the loaf consists of olosolv perched
occupy, Tho upper aide of the loaf consists of closely perched
palisade eslls, while the lower side ooiislsts of loose round oelU,
Tlio sclerotials become developed at the ba.sa of the palisade cells.
Tlio autumn is now approaching, and you go out some dewy
morniug, and observe a tow black spots on your potato leaves. You
take one of those leaves for iiis|iQetloD, You discover very soon
that notliiiig is to he made of tho tissue, which is iilroady black ;
everything is too opaque. But round tho black spot you find that
there is a peculiar grocu border, as if that part of the leaf had
been squeezed. Teasing out a part of this border, you find that
it is permeated in all directions with very irregular lines of myce¬
lium, and that those lines aro hero and there sending extensiooi
out at the stomata of the lower side of the leaf. You follow thesa
extensions, and you find that they are the stalks which bear the
oonidia of veronotpora This part is easy, and oompletely
sittiktAttOty, But yon want to And where the- ntyoeUam intiae
i56
THE INDIAN AGHIIODL^^URIST. December-1, 1888.
the leaf taken its rise. Has a zoospore come flying throngh tho
air and entered the leaf, or has one or more of the little lolerotials,
already- inside, simply germinsted ! I don’t wish to make you
more certain than i am myself : this question is excessively diffi¬
cult to answer. The leaf mycelium is of great transparency, and
altiiough it gradually attains a considerable diameter and is easily
seen, yet at its origin it is of extreme fineness, and unless separated
from the tiMue of the leaf, cannot be seen at ail; while the opera¬
tion of eeparating it from the tissue breaks away the threads from
their origin, whatever that may be. Nevertheless, in the course
of the last three yisars 1 have oome upon what I regard as sufficient
evidence that the mycelium in the leaf and other parts resnlts from
the germination of the eolsrotiais. The grannies at the bonndariee
of these bodies become detached, and throw out lines, which at
flrst are only to be seen with a high power in the most favourable
light. Of course you see at once that by this theory every
in a field contains the materials producing its own disease.
In every ideated leaf there are hundreds of mote eclerotlala
that would destroy it. No Sying zoospores are hero
required. The enemy bat been lodged Inside all the leason. And
the philosophy of its germination is, that the parasite may be
bronght to its perfect fnitt-bearlng condition. In the early period
of the dieeoee only one or two epote may ariee on a leaf, showing
that only one or two oentrei have germinated ; but later on, the
Bclorotials germinate in all directions over a leaf, and produce
little black spots, which gradually run into each other. It it a
mistake to say that the disease does not arise till the leaves are
turning yellow; the growth uf the fungus is most rapid in leaves '
perfectly green. By thU theory yuu see that no journey of my¬
celium down the itaiks or up the stalks is necessary for the des¬
truction of the stalks. Any one who has closely observed must
have seen that a part of a stalk is often diseased while tho parts
above and bdow are perfectly fresh and green. This cannot be
explained by itinerant mycelium. But it is easily explained on this
theory ; the lolerotiats have germinated where the disease appears,
and have not yet germinated above and below. If you make a thin
slice of a stalk, and place it daring night in moist air, tho sclerotic
misses will germinate, and in the morning you will have a forest
of peronospora, the plants all standing with their frulte on the
branobes. in &e same way with the tubers, a thin slice laid upon
a slide will throw np a thicket of conidia-bearers, with the denser
growths arising ntar where the sclerotia are situated. The plume
are also liable to bo infected with these parasitic manules. They
appear first, of oourse, in the ovary around the seeds and scattered
through the walls. So that in autumn you have only to place a few
plums in moist sir to get a crop of peronospora bursting through the
surface, or a thin slioe may bo placed on a slide, and the fungus will
in a few hours be in full fruit. Thus, then, you have a brief outline
of the theory or course wltlob the parasite pursues while It is within
the tissues of the host plant. The germinal granules are absorbed
by the underground stalks, and thus enter tho tubers ; and on the
gsrmiuation and expausiou of the tissues of the tubers, they are car¬
ried out with the expanding haulms and foliage. In these they Vis,
possibly undergoing some secret process of preparation or
gestotfoo, till the proper time for gonninatioii, when they
start into activity, and by the ossistanoe of the juices of the host
plant used as food, the purpose of their parasitio life is accomplish¬
ed in the prodnotiou of their oonidial fruit and seed. But you will
naturally ask, what beoomes of the fruit and seed ? Other
theories find a use for the oouidia in the spread of the current
disease. Here the whole oi tho ourrent disease has one source,
namely, the germination of tlio granules witiiln the tissues ; so that
the oouidia are no more required for the current crop of peronospora
than are the seeds shaken out of a crop of wheat for the enrreut
crop of wheat. It would take too much time to go into that part
of the life of the fungus wldoh is passed outside of the potato ;
therefore, I may say, shortly, that when the oouidia fall to tho
ground, they germinate in various ways and give rise to the resting
spores or oospores. These grow at any time through the winter,
and produce a strong, jointed, brown myoellum. And it is from
the granular plasm carried through the soil by this myoelium that
(be elements of the fungus ore again brought into contact with tho
young tubers of the po ato. It is eniy to prove that the oouidia
[Ive rite to tlie resting spores. If you take half-a-dozen potato
leaves on which the disease has began, and place them against the
inside of a bowl, and then invert the bowl on a plate, and pour in
a little wat-r to keep the air moist, in the coarse of six weeks or
two months all the oouidia will have disappeared, while the leaves
which showed no oospores at the beginning will be found swarming
with them iu groat beauty. Thus the life-circle of the Ptronotpor i
infetiant booomes completed. It could not become completed unless
the fuugUS beoame a parasite. .And I will venture to add that
the theory thus imperfeotly submitted to you affords a more satis¬
factory explanation of the phenomenon of the potato disease than
any other which has been proposed.
Mr, Wilson, replying to the remaiks of several speakers, said ;
It has been askeiT why the disease generally first appeared in the
leaf. It teemed to be a characteristic of tho fungus that it germi¬
nated sooner iu the leaves owing to their oonstitution and the
constitution oi tlie fungus partioles. The tiieory he had advanced
regarding the spread oT the disease explained why some of the new
varietiee of potatoes resisted the disease better than the other
theories bo hfid referred to, the explanation being that year after
year the potatoes became more charged with tho solerotials.
Wlien the tubers got a certain amount of this material into their
tissuee cue year, it was carried on in tho young tiibeis and an addi¬
tion was made from the soil at the same time, so that, by and by,
iu the course of years, all the potatoes beoams ohargod with tho
germs of the fungus, and would not grow. It appeared that there
was something in the oonstitution of the champion variety of
potato whioh prevented the gmnisation of the dissase. Its roots
pspeintsd dsepu than «WM «tb«r vtxistiss, gnd it wts» tots
S otato, and did not oome to maturity at the period at which the
iseaas was most liable to appear. It did not ripen until the
season had become colder and more unfavourable for the germina¬
tion of these bodies. That seems to be partly an explanaitlon of
the way the champion had more or less rstlsted the dissase.
Mr, Kobson asked if Mr. Wilson suggested that by planting
diseased tubers they would specially propagate the disease.
Mr. Wilson said the meaning of it was simply that nearly all the
tubers at the present day oontm matter from whioh the fungus is
produosd, so that they found it impossible to plant undiseoaed
potatoes, thoogh the disease was not developed. He did not find
that by raising potatoes from seedlings they would ssoape tho
disease. Speaking of the Jensen system, he did not belfeve it was
a proof against disease. If they earthed up nototoes and put them
further from the light and air, it was perleotly evident that no
seed would germinate—it could not germinate except under proper
atmospherio oonditions. The Jeaten system might be a method of
diminuhiog the disease, althongh his theory might not be oOrreot.
The potatoes were put into the soil under new oonditions, and the
question was, ' Were these new oonditions the cause whioh retarded
the germination of the fungus or not ?' He thought that might be
the real expiaiution.
WIEEWORM AND ITS REMEDIES.
M ISS E. ORMEBOD, Speoial Lecturer on Eoonomlo Ento¬
mology at the College, and Coniulting Entomologist to the
Royal Agrionltural Socioty, recently dsliversd a leoture on wire-
worm to tho stndonti of the Royal Agrioultoral College, Oirsnoee-
tor. The lifetime of the grub, ehe said, extends over as mnoh as
five yean, aud during this time it feeds in winter as well at in
summer, unless the oold is to severe os to cause torpidity, and (with
the exoeption of mustard] it appears to feed on the roots, or under¬
ground portion of the leafage, of almost all kinds of common form
crops whioh may be successively put into the gronnd. After de¬
scribing the ‘oiiok beetles' which lay)the eggs of the wireworm,Miss
Ormerod proceeded:—We ail know the appearanoe of the oommon
wirewunn by its resamblanoe to a short piece of flattened wire,
or of straw, whioh it rosembios In colour, but some kinds found
in deoayod leaves or wood are of a deep pitchy brown. All of them
have three pairs of little olaw iem, and also jaws whioh they Use
only too readily. Where wireworm is numerous in wheat or
any other growing crop, if this crop is in good heart, or as was
often the case lust year (1882), if the weather is favourable, , we
may yery possibly osoapo much damage, o Or sometimes we may
lessen the amount of injury that is going on by various measures,
such as compressing the soil so as to prevent tho wiroworme
travelling through the ground, or using applications which will
attract the worm or drive it away, and so give the plant a tempo¬
rary respite, or which will act os temporary fortilizers. Still,
these special measures require special outlay, aud it is a much
better plan u for as we pOBsihly oau to forost-tU attack; and os
wireworm is generally to be found in land broken up from old
E astures, clover leys, or sainfoin, the treatment of those, both
efero and after breaking up, so as to Irssan the amount of egg-
laying and also to dimiuish the numbers of the wirsworms (whiA
otherwise would have infested each suoosssive orop for years), is
an important item iu prevention. If we look first at the treatment
recommended before breaking up gross or pasture land, or for
reduuiog the ground into proper ooudition for the snooetdiog orop,
we find the points aimed at are to make the surface quite Unat¬
tractive for egg-laying, and to starve out tho wireworms. For this
purpose it is found serviceable to feed sheep or cattle on the
ground with cake, or other feeding stuff, ‘ so that each inch of
ground shall be trodden and eaten Ji^re.’ In one locality this
S ian was oarried out by psuning suoh sheep as were to be fattened
uriug the winter on the land. The sheep Were fed with turnips,
oats, and bay. The pen euclosed as much ground as oould be
thoroughly trodden by the animals in the oourse of a week, and
was then moved forward, going on regularly from one side of the
field to the other, the ploughs following regularly so as not to
retard spring operations. In this way (or with any adaptation
of tlie principle that may bo mors oonveniunt) the snrf loe is so
enmpletely cleared of grass and herbage, aud also sodden and
consolidated, or firmed,’ os it is sometimes phrased, by the drop¬
pings and by the trampling Of the animals, that the beetle eggs are
either not laid on tho nusuitiible gronnd, or are for the mut part
destroyed, and the w reworms are lessened In num^» or
driven away by want ot food and diffiou ty of travelling iu the'hfi&eir
or poisoned ground. Various ohemicel muiurss have been found
useful for top dressing in the seme way. Salt, at tbs rate of five
to six owt. per acre, nos been serviceable in many oases, and applied
in heavier dressings up to too or twelve owt. some weeks Wore
sowing, it has served ubt only to diminish the numbers of the
wireworm, but also to clear out the twitch or couch gross, which
serve for a most favourite heod-q >ai ters of these insect vermin, ()as
lime acts well at the rate of five owt the ocre.or applied fresh and in
largot quantities may be used os a regular kiliing otetsing folrly to
stamp out all surface life, Insect and vegetable ; and ‘ alkali waste’
(where procurable) is a valuable appltcatiou for the same purpose.
In the ueigtibonrhuod of ohemloal werksthis mite ial is to be had for
little if any cost neyond that of carriap, aud its strongly oaustio
properties make it a thoroughly valuable application tor killing ^
everything objectionable ou whioh it oa%^j|^fi^ttght to bear, Tn^
heavy dressing It destroys the deepeseTWWst^^s, suoh uc
thistles or coltsfoot, as well as conoii grass, end iiMwaBqgwip
no better in ooutaot with it, and when its first Irork Isovto’Trnt)''.--
prooeu of oxidation turns it to a manure suitable to laud ou wliieh
gypsum is of use. The general plan followed by many ogrioutturiite
may be shortly eteted to be this—to have the poetarea eaten down
w olowly ae poitihle, to bngk ay the ground euriy in itotiHra, and
457
December 1, 1883. TSE INpIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
to collect and burn all grow, weeda, and roots, which might
give ihelto or food to egga or wireworm ; to thoroughly
oultiyate the land by ploughing, grubbing or otherwise, woi’kiug
well in to it lime (eipeclally in a hot state) or lime and salt, or gas
lime, or other ftppUoatioQ unf^voaroble to iuaect life. Also such
manure and fertilizers should be applied on tlio land, or drilled
with tlie seed, as will put the crop iii nood heart. Heavy rpUlag
to ootnpreas the soil about theyouug plants la another important
Itarn. Everything alive or dead that oan give aholter or food to
the wireworm should be destroyed, and oolleotiug and buruiug it is
the most convenient method ; but the burning should follow as
promptly as possible on the oolleotiug, or else the wireworm whioh
were In the heaps, feeling themselves ill at eaaniu the unnatural
loMlity, will have gone down into the ground out of roach of
injury. The land being kept open by vegetable remains, bears on
the question of wireworms being injurious after crops (like beans or
field cabbage) of which the oil stalks or some portion of the haulm
are ploughed in, and gives an additional reason for prevalonce after
olover; and it leads further (though It appears very diffilcult to carry
this point out praotioally) to whether the opinion may lie porfnetly
correct whioh u held by some of our agriculturists, that tne use of
farmyard manure, in the state k which It le often worked into the
land, enomtragtt wireworm. From the information whioh we have
gained of the common hablti of the wireworm, and also of its
customs when In emergency there appear to be full reasons for its
gsneral prsvalenos, and amougst these one special point is that
we same general conditions whioh suit the growth of most of our
crops suit also this destroyer of them. ‘ The ibiuy day is not
the time for thatobleg* ; and similarly, when the orop-psst'i are
destroying the plant is the right time for beginning to seek in
all dlreotiona for how to destroy them—but to do it. In those
cases the applioatiuus which we usually need are not so much the
common plant food as a conoentrated essence (so to call it) whicli
we can proonre at once, and which, by its rapid solution in rain
or moisture, may bo avilable for tho plant at ohm ; and also if
poslblo, may at once make the locality so unpleasant to the
grub or other insect that the crop may at least have a respite.
These effects are more or lees brought about by tho application of
mitaeral or chemical manures, and as provoutivos or remedies for
wiveworin attack there is a long list of them. Lime in its oaustlc
state is always useful ae a clearing drossiiig, and fresh gas lime, or
alkali-waste, serves if ^loed be to destroy all iusoct and weed life
where it may be laid. Where alkali-waste Is laid on in large
amount, it washes do™ so readily that the drains will run milky
at a depth of throe foot fu heavy laud, and it may bo to servo as
au absolute purifier of all live vprmlusome way down in the laud,
Wo do not often uoed its application to this extent, but It is vary
desirable to bear in mind against tho sudden appearance of same
pest which should be fairly stamped out; and them U a material
whiuh for little if any more outlay thi^ the oust of carriage will
serve for this purpose, and, after a few months' exposure has
neutralised its poisonous propertiea, will leave all land to whioh
sulphate of lime is applicable all the bettor for tho temporary heavy
dressing. Salt given at tlie rate of 5 to 10 owt. tho acre is service.
able os a dressing before breaking of land, both for killing couch
grass and driving out wireworms. Also tho property that salt
E ossesscs of attracting moisture may bo turned to good service on
envy corn laud wUioli is infested. Tlie inoistoued surface beeomes
rightly inornst il (or firmed, as it is termed), and oanae'iiiently
tho wireworms are to some degree prevented from travelling at
will amongst the plants. Nitrate of soda pushes on a rapid
ciowth, and is of groat value os an aiitidoto to wireworm attack
in the straw orops, but little is said regarding the efTect of this
and salt being used together. Looking ut the difficulty of the
nitrate being often to» 'stimulating to the growth of the
straw and leafage, whilst the offoot of the clilorido (tliat is to
gay of the common salt) is to prevent undue luxuriance,
it would appear worth while to try tho odfeot of the mixture.
VVo thus should have a dressing which, without being too stiinn-
latiug, would be a thorough fertilizer, and would also cause a
oonmtiou of surface soil to some extent unauitablo for wireworm
movement. Further, judging bv tho elToot of botli the nitrate and
chloride qv other larvm, it might very likely prove so distasteful
to the wireworm as at least to diminish the amount of attack.
If we know that some common chemical likely to bo trieil has
no r/fect at ail on any given crop post, this knowledge is valu¬
able J^ar as It goes, for it saves tho loss of time and capital
what its effect may be when tho enemy is in the
But we greatly need to understand cloaily and correctly
ill wiiat way many dressings aud applications wliioli are known
to bo serviceable as prevoiitives in cases of attack act on the
cmibs or insects. Most grubs appear rather to die of starvation
than to feed on what is not suitable j if wo can manage to fairly
imbue the soil with anything whioh in solution must iiaeossariiy
be in some degree swallowed by the grub as it feeds on tho roots
in the dressed ground, wo must benefit (also in soiiio degree)
bv the application. VVe find that in some cases tho grub
siuks deeper and deeper in the ground to avoid the uuwliolo-
Bome presence, just os it does in the oaau of increasing frost; but
as vet us fur as I am aware, we have no field experiment on those
imiati’ Every year tlie same loss of time and ot material goes on
asitU said, and whilst the trial is going forward tno
a^lop too often dies. If we^ distinct experiments on the direct
Kffects on .. I lih^rirl"- of soda, kamlt, guauo—wliioli is said
■glPOTiiot I do not know) to destroy some larvm, and
_ ^ lime or alkali-waste, we should then have somu-
to fall back on in the way of iuformatjoh when attack came,
wliioli could not fail to be of service. Wo all know that wireworms
are attracted by rape cake, but what is the special method ot action
of the kind known as Kurraohee, or Indian rape, roally mustard
^ke T When In my own experlmeaU I have limited the wireworms
ennsUtiojf of little but one of the ab9ve two kinds of cake,
I found that although tho larviD in tlie]mii.stard cako feed as greedily
as the others for a time, yet in about a fortnight they diod ; Hiud al¬
though when they began to perish 1 placed other food in their read
they appeared past recovery and did uot touch it. VVe know that
mustanl is a good clearing crop, a good moans of getting rid of
wireworm, aud in oxporiinonts with tho oakel foniid that wireworm
would not enter it until tho pnagenoy whioh follows on mixing this
mustard cake with water was gone off, and I would suggest that
inquiry into tho precise method in wliioh mustard is obnoxious to
wireworm would be very useful. If tills matter was fully in-
yostigatod we miglit fiiul that by a more frequent
introduotiou of mustard into the rotation of orops,
we not only cleared tho land of wireworm, but ou suit¬
able laud secured a paying crop of mustard frts from tlie ravages
of tUe mustard beetle, wliich is too apt to booome a ruinous scourge
to tubs crop in districts where its cultivation is widespread and
coatiauous. Time does not allow me now to enter on full details
of pi-ovontion of tho pest we are especially considering i but I
wish to draw your attention to its absence sometimes following
ou the application of seaweed being a m ittfir worth inquiring into,
as in this case we have the advantage of a manure often procur¬
able at small cost whioh contains tho alkaline aud nitrogenous
aud mineral eonstltuents we have seen are generally serviceable,
joined in some cases to an amount of salt distasteful, to say the
least, to the wireworm. Wo seldom need any teachlug as to how
a crop insect injures us ; that part of its life history is commonly
only too plain. But whore is it at other times? Whore does it
pass tho winter ? How deep does it go down into the ground ?
What special weeds encourage its presence which we, or perhaps
our neiglihours, are apt to grow in uriiaiiiental patches, making,
as it is poetically remarked, the country to glow like a mrden I
But, so surely as you see that golden glow from the onarlook
blossoms, may you expeot a following of turnip fly ; so surely as you
see the blades of couch grass, or water grass, orauy grass or weed in
iiumbor in your crops, may you bo sure there grows a home for wire-
worms. And so it is witli otlior pirls of tho attack. Destroy the wire-
worms (as wo liavq seen can be done) in the laud that is iufostod
before you put iu your now crop, and it will iu groat moasurc es¬
cape. Destroy the rubbisli in which the turnip bootlo shelters In
the winter, and destroy the plants whore it feeds until we provide
more pleasant susbunauce at groat cost, aud wc save much of our
crop .—Vriiish Ayricultui'int.
THE CULTIVATION OF TEA &o,
A t a recent meeting of the Moskeliya Plautor's Assoelatton, Mr.
T, C. Owen read the following paper upon the oultivatloa,
Ac.,,of tea adopted in Assam aud Oarjeeliug, asoompared with that
of Ceylou.
Ties, CoVFEE, ClKOHOHA, CARuaMou, A.sn Alobs,
Mr. Chairman and Oeiitlomoii,—Tho subjects which I proi)o.so to
bring to your notice to-day deal uutire/y with those products which
are suited for Bupplemenliag or replacing the cultivation of coTeo,
more especially at high aud iiiodium elovatioua. I must premise
that I am uot one of those who think that remunerative coffoe c ilti-
vatiou is altogether a thiug of tho past, but this subject lias boou
dealt witli iu siicli an ablo way by others, and X so fully uoiicuc in
all that tliey have said, that any further remarks ou that point are
uuneoossary.
Of tlia various proiIiKM.'S with which it is proposed to replace
uofl'ee, the one which is at present actractiug the greatest attention
Is undoubtedly to.a. Eight yoais’ experience of Its plautiag and
cultivation in Ceylon, with tlio results of an extended trip through
the Assam, Darjeeling, and Torai districts, wliicli I was able to make
recriiUy, have enabled me to form some oonclusious on the subject
whioh may bo of lutorost to others.
The geuoral conditions under whiuh cultivation Is carried on in
Assam aro utterly dlfforout from those wiiich characterize the hills
ill Ceylon ; the nearest approucii to our oiroumstancos being found
in tile Darjeeling bill district, which thcroforo possesses a special
interest for us. The land there is very stoop, os steep as anything
that is generally planted witli coffee, but it is worked in a different
way. fu Assam and tho Terai tlie laud is porfuotly fiat, that which
is suitable for tea consiating of raised banks of dry soli aarrounded
by swampy land unfit (or oultivation. The soil in Darjeeling Is very
variaiilo. The upper portions of the bills are yellow clay with very
little surface soil, but the clay seems to be especially rich, for tho
tea flourishes iu it wonderfully. Lower down towards tho ravines
and rivers, the character of the soil entirely changes, and It becomes
a rich lilauk uicauoous loam ofgioat depth. In the Terai, tbs sur¬
face soil is very rich and furUle, but underlying it at no great depth
is a barren gravelly subsoil ; tile result is that when young the tea
flourishes luxuriantly, but when old the results became disappoiut-
iiig. Assam has a very rich loamy soil in most places, wnich is
oxcccdiiigly deep, 20 feet and more sometimes, and of a remarkably
fertile character. It is evident that the success of tea dopeuda on
tho depth and quality of tho subsoil more than anything else. The
Darjemiug clay is very similar to wlut we are so familiar witli iu
Ceylon, aud the fact that tea semis its roots dow'u into it freely,
and grows healthily, should make us confident as to its future In
our stiff lands.
Now, this subject of soil is a very important one for us ; its im-
E ortaiico oauuot, in fact,, be over-rated, and the chief question we
ave to decide is this Is the Darjoelitighill-suli of such a nature as
to lead us to hope that our Ceylon tea will bo a pe/' oianency f 1 hat
our young tea will bear, and bear well, has been conclusively
proved, asl ehall show later : wUl flm fad ? As I have said, the
DarJeeUng soil is very variable ; some are apparently very inferior to
muehofours (I speak as a practical planter, uot a^ an agricuUural
458
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST- December 1 , 1883.
clicluhtl ; ROint- , superior to onythiiig we liavc. As an illustra-
tration, I will take go tbo Hingtoni estatn, The upper portions
III this giriliiu ttin stiff ami olayuy tiiat a w-alk of lialf-a-mila
liowu-hitl, witliout a fall Is a ujul feat. As wo go lower the clay
lipeomcs oovorwl to a greater depth with a rich black mioaoeoiia
loum. This garden is avoir old cue, and without manure of any
kind the Ira is yielding a better orup this year thoJi it has done for
a long time. Tho estimated yield Is about 320 lb. an note, a largo
yield fur tbo locality iw I slmll show later, Tlio manager tolls mo
that the lower portions boar better than tho upper, but the latter,
in spite of h(tnng,airinferiory'lit of tea in thorn, audio spite of a
Ices favourable climate, bear woll and pay handsomely, I have
also seen lauii very much of the same oharaoter as somo of ours
up country, a light lOam, growing good and permanent tea in the
sairio locality, and I unhesitatlngw say that if you havr. itpth 5 ou
need have no fear of its future. The Torai is a mi»t important
instance of the ueelessnois of riuh soil ii an unfertile sub-stratum
underlies it. We have not, as a rule, rich soil in these districts,
we have nothing as good as tho soil of the but localities in Assam,
but we have bettor soil tbaigyome distrlots even in that favoured
provinoo (and os an lustanoo 1 will name Gowhatty), and we have
plenty of it. Those that huvo a goad depth of suuU soil os I have
dcaorihed on their estates, although it la not apparently very rich
nnd even though it is clayey, may plant tea without fear for the
futnro ; but I would warn you against shallow Bulls over-lying
gravel or rook assure to lead to diaappoiiitmont.
In all the iudion tea districts there are great changos of cUniate
during the year, to wliioli we have no parallel down south. Iii
October the approach of the cold weather begins to be folt, and in
November ami December there is a veritable winter obarnoterized
by auow on the upper Darjeeling gardens, which onuses a universal
stoppage of all growth, In March and April thoro la a unoom-
monocmeut of growth again but this is not fully started till May.
The consequeneo of this is that whereas in Ceylon we have growing
and ooiisequontly pliioking weather all tho year round, in India
they have only five really good crop-months. During these munllm
their growth of loaf, and of weeds too, is of course far more Uixuri
aut than ours. Tho unhealthiness of tho Terai and Assam olimate
in tho rains is proverbial, and I will uot enlarge on it but merely
point out that with expensive imported labour an epidomie moans
ruinous loss In every way, that with local labour it means wholesale
dosertiun, and that it also means high aud oostly remuneration to
Enropeaua and other employes.
In the matter of Jal wo are behind India. Thu ialul error of
planting Cliiua and low-class hybrid was originally made iu all tho
indiiiii districts : but uow publio opinion has run in the other
extrcnio, and iu the plains none but indigenous seed, at Us. ISi) per
]nu' nnuiud, is bouglit, aud ou tho hills a good high-class hardy
hybrid is gone lu for. Aud hero I would warn every cue aguiust
being ludueed to plant Ciiiua or low-class tea at any elevation lu
Ceylon, Hybrid of the right kind will grow well, aud inferior
nwaus a decreased yield aud a comparatively weak tea. Ou
Onuonagalla this year I luanuioeturod the two separately, and sent
them to tho Lnndiui njurbet; at a reucut sale the hybrid tea was
well reported on aud avenged Is 4id all round, whilst the CInua
averaged J«. 2J(f. and was spokou of as a poor tea. Tory liuo tea is
made from Chinaplant in Dai'jeeling no doubt, but that from hybrid
bnslies is iu every cose finer wbeu the tsvo are grown together.
Aud uot only this, amongat hybrid plants, tho nearer tho jat
approaohoB tbo iudigonous typo, tbo stronger and more telling is
the liquor and the better the tea. 1 have proved by exporloneo that
this rule bolds good for both Ceylon ami India. Plant, thorufore,
the beet class of liybrid you cau got hold of in those districts, even
though it entails an estuv eiwt, w'liioh, after all, spread over your
ueroiigo, amountB to a very trifling additieiial exponso iu opening,
nnd yon will never regret it. Coming frosh as 1 do from a country
where 1 have icon old low-class tea being rooted out to give place
to a bolter kind, I ompliasiza this statoincnt.
As rogarils labour taeilities, Ceylon li.oa a deoidod .advaiitige.
Tho rate of pay in India is ugusiderubly iess,Ks. 3 to Its ti a mouth for
women mul men ; but then iu Assam every imported labourer costa
upwards of Us. 100 for a tiiree-years’agreomout, at tho end of which
a bonus has to bo given for Its renewal, whilst thoro are uumerons
cuatly and vexatious Uuvorument restrlctious, (Refer to copy of
forate). In Darjeeling and the Torai. all the work is done by local
labour which is very cheup, but here it is ncoessary in many cases
to give oyer large areas of valuable land to tho coolies for Indian
oorn cultivation (in one place 1 saw as inuoli as 100 acres or more so,
treated); aud tide item, oue which doos uot appear iu any accounts,
is a matter oi some mouieut.
In transport, the many advantages possessed by Ceylon ovor
Assam are evident, but Darjseliug lu this respect, as in tho matter of
labour, ismoroou tsrinsof equality with us. At present, tho only
means of oommuuioatiou with Assam is Ijy a steamor-servioe ou the
Brahmapootra, which ehargea the most exurhitant rates for freight
up, nud which is loatooly more equitalile iu its charges for tea
down, to Calcutta, About three cents per Ib. sooms to be the
lowest average oost for tea down from Upper Assam to Calcutta,
and this would be liighor when much land-transpurt is necessary.
The freight upon tea lead, nails and all factory requirements is how¬
ever the most serious item, and the one which mak ;3 all these
neecsBurius so expensive when landed on tho gardens. Darjeeling,
witli its railway up iuto the ilistriet, is much bettor off in tliis res¬
pect, and were it not for its small yield would bo a dangornus
rival to Oejlou. The Dooars, a district sitnatod at the foot of tho
hills, similar to the Terai but to tiio east of it, noisesses almost the
same advantages of traosport aud labour as Daijeeliyi, and is bettor
oireumatauoediu the matter of soil than tho Tor.ii. This is nudoubt-
odly the rising district of India, and the one which will run us the
closest in the luliiro.
The Indian methods of planting and cultivation are very different
tiom sun, Nucseriea cover a much larger extent of grouud, the
seed being generally pub,in five inohes apart to allow of ball plant¬
ing wliioh is niiiversally practised, It was the general opinion
that plants pnt out In the Ceylon way, without any earth about
the roots which are sometimes lightly pntued, would not stand a
chaiioo owing to tho oxoessiva power of the sun when It docs show
duriug tile rains. The general planting distance for hybrid bushes
is 4 by 4, indigenous plants in the best land iu Assam being put
.’i by 5'and sometimes even 6 by 6. The (first distance mentioned
is )>y far tho moat general, and the one auitable for adoption in
j Ceylon, though very poor land of course might be planted oloscr.
As regards planting, Mr Armstro^ boa anticipated all that I
had purposed saying on the subject. I have found by exporiohoe
that attempts tosult liniug-distanoas to that of the ooffoe is a great
mistako. It is far better to line the field de novo, without any re¬
gard to the coffee trees, the Hniog rope being slaretciied alpng the
ground. As to holing, I would always make the holes 11! la. deep,
aud have found that a deep hole doei beat, breadth Is of little ooUse-
quenoe jnine inches, about sufflolent for the oooly to work in, is
enough. A goodlluing-dlstanoe through coffee is Si ft. np the lines
and 4 ft. between them, and this latter distance sheuld not be
deoreasoJ exoopt in very poor land.
Various scheaies have been suggested at to the best way of com¬
bining coffee and ton oultlvatlon ifntil the latter begins to yield.
Now I would strongly dissuade any one from attempting to raise
e.'i't.iiu lines of t('a before others 08 sure to lend to trouble. For
iiistiiii -e, Boiiie jiuiiple plant liues of tea up between tho rows with a
plant between each pair of ooffeo trees up them, Intending in two
years'time to uproot the coffee, and put a tea plant in instead.
This or any aiiniliir method will Infallibly give groat tronblo, and
probably result iu a patchy garden. When supplies abound, the
difficulty and trouble of keeping pruners and pluokers from touch¬
ing them is iiieonocivablo to those who have not experieueed it,
.Steep land in India is very commonly terraced. The linos of
plants arc made across the face of the hill aud not up and down it,
and the terraces are formed by a suooessimi of boeings along the
lines. On stiff land terracing is dUpoiisod with, and though no
drains are cut there is remarkably little wash, Tlio ground is
always kept covered with a thick growth of weeds, which in the
flats are kept down by constant hoeings, on the hills by siokliiig.
Tho land is so thoroughly impregnated with weed seed and the
growth of all vegetation is so rapid during the rains, that clean
wooding is an impossibility, and those methods of cultivation arc
the only ones possible. Draining, too, is impraotloabla in many
places when there is not a stiff sub-soil tc out iuto. The result of
uhservation is to coiiviiica me that, whilst ow presout system of
oultivatiou is the right and proper one, and incapable ot improvo-
ment as far as India Is ooiioerued, that adopted there is the ouly
praotioablo oue under tholr eiroumstanoos. Their sy,stom is of
course a much more expensive one than ours, and, in spite of the
fact that no cultivation wliatevor is required during the cold wea¬
ther, the rainsbobigthe only time when liooitig is nooessary, Its cost
is upwards of three times as mucli os that of oToan weeding from the
first. The growth ot plants under the most favourable oiroumstauces
ill Assam is abuut on a par with that in the Ceylon low-comitry,
but niidur ordinary eonditlous I thiuk it is hardly us satisfactory.
This method of compadsoii is, however, a very unsatisfactory oue,
and ill view of the facts and figures new at our cctnmaiid, it is
iinnnoossary. Suffice it that, hroauly speaking, a two yoar old-plaiit
will be much the same size on a good Assam garden as on a Coylon
low-country plantation, whilst on tho hills it is impoislblo to make
any oomparisuu holwooii India and Ceylon, the advantage in favour
of tho latter being so astoiiiahiugly great.
Tho great point is, of course, yield. How does the Indian yield
couiparo with tliat ot Ceylon gardens ? Ainungst the uuiiieruus Ass-
sam gardoiisl visited,the boat iu every way,, oultvatiou, j'U and soil,
was the Itorolli Company’s, and it is known as one of the best in
Assam. The yield last year was 7} rnaunds or 5S0 U). per acre. 'This
aud a few other gardens of specially fine eharaet ir apart, 3,4 aud 5
mtiuiids per aero represent the yield of the bulk of the good Assam
plantations, say from 240 to 400 1b. (p. 297, A) From my
Bxperiimce of tho Ceylon low-country, I fool couviuoed that a ^iold,
as high if nut higher tliau tho exceptional one previously mentioned,
will bo very generally got on good gardens, tho average being
much liiglier than that of Assam. But our more immediate subject
is a comparison of hill-tca in the two coiiutries, and on this
point tliero cun by no possibility be a difforoaoe of opinion. The
ordinary yield In Darjeeling is between 2 aud 4 mauuda per fore,
the latter amount being cuusidarod remarkably good.
can be 110 question, from the results already obtained, that this '
Will be very considerably exOBodod iu Ceylon, and wo are all
aware ot namorous iustanoss to show this. 1 need here merely
refer you to the figures brought forward by Mr, Armatroug in
support of tills statement, which show conclusively that his
estimate of 4001b. per acre for bill gardens is by no m laus an over-
sauguine oue. I thiuk this estimate of yield, judging from your
soil aud olimate and iu respect of the results aotuaUy obtained
elsewhere, is a very reasonable oue, and uot likely to prove mis¬
leading. Actual figures and results apart, a visit to tho Indian tea
gardens Is quite sulnoieiit to show plainly their inferiority to ours ;
tlio period of growtii duriug tne year is very short, aud at a high
oluvatiou iusufficieut to force out a ly cousMerablo quantity of
leaf.
Kegardiug quality of tea, tliere is little to be said in
view oi the very fine pricai now IWgil^^tained ^ all
properly managed estates. To any oiiu Cfeylon
hill aud low country teas with those from
Indian dUtriots, it is evident that ours possess a charaotor oF"
their own, and that they are not altogetlicr comparable io ludiau,
Our low-ooniitry teas have uot the rasping puuge ioy of Assams,
aud this differenoe is more marked in the coarser mialULos than In
the filter. Our hilt-teas alsp have none of them the Daijealing flavor,
hut ora characlectecfl hy a distinct blll-fi 'Vor peouHar to tliem, It
December 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
450
Is s peoul^lty of Ceylon teas tlmt Uiose in the Imv-c-ountry
possess a flavor combined with tlieir sireugtK which Assam's lack,
Thereis oue fact very generally lost sight of in omnpariug the
prioos of Indian and Ceylon teas, and that is, that most of the beat
marks aro sold locally in Calcutta, and do not of necessity appear
at publio auction in the I^ndou market at all, Tliouah, theremro,
the position already taken by Ceylon tea must Ee a source of
satisfaction to all iutereited, wo must not suppose that wo have
attained perfootlon by any moans, nor must wo imagine tlmt
India is alreOily behind us m the race for quality (/. J'. <?,, p. 303.)
That there is in reality not much we have to learn is the oouohision
forced on mo by visits to numerous factories, in various looalities,
but yet there la something ; and there were fow gardens where
something to improve prspmotUing to avoid was not noticeable.
And here I must put on record and mention the evcesslvo kindnose
and hospitality which is to be met with everywhere in India ; no'
one single garden did I visit where everything was not thowi
open to roy ihppectlon, and wbere every iniormation was no'
given.
I will now aay a , fe'w words on manufacture, os far as Mr
Annstroug’s paper leaves mo the opportunity. The system o
manufacture as described by him and practised by us agrees very
closely with that In India. Falling trays for witliering aro not
generally in use. In Assam large temporary Irou.roofed a hods an
erected, consisting of 2 or 3 atones, and in them the loaf is thrown
In Cariooliug more purmanont buildings are erected, and the leaf
spread on flat round bamboo baskets, whioli are roughly made and
mnged in tiers on racks to support them, I think our system
is preferable, as being an eoouomy of space, but I would advise that
a portion of the withering-house bo left froo, and tliat hero a
number of loose bamboo trays be stocked, in which suu-witliering
wlicii neoesaary oau be arranged. lu our damp climate it frequent¬
ly liap'pcus that by tlio inoruljug the leaf is stiU unwithored, oiid
lialf-au liour’s exposure to sun or light will finish it oflf and save
time. Hiind-rolnng is unknown in India, as far as my experience
goes, and even for the second rolling after formontotioii a
mauliiue is employed. Kogarding so-oalTod fermantatioii—for I
believe this to be a rolsnomor and that o.xidation would he a
more correct torih—it is a good plan to mix the roll several times
durUig the process, as this makes the colour much more oven. In
fact, in a liot oUinato, I would employ boys in turning the roll
over coustantlyt nnd ihavo seen some of the liest rauaufactnrud
teas in Assam and tile Ter^i made this way. It is not a had plan,
after inaohiue-rolling, to sift the roll through a No. 4 sieve and
ferment tlie small aud bjg leaf separately ; tliis will enable you to
eoiuur your coarse souchong leaf without overdoing the pekoo and
broken. Mahore roll is ooustautly turned liowover (and it is quite
practicable where colour is obtained in an hour or so), this sitting
is nniioccssary, an uvou colour beiug obtained without it.
As to firing. A maohiue dryer, being generally pnrcliascd after the
roller, the mothod of performing this Kork by hand is of some im¬
portance. The stoves reoommoiided by Mr. Armstrong are better
than tho long open troughs sometimes used. But the eystem of
firing in India is better than that tliat rcoominended by him.
Tho slmpe and dimensions of the stove are similar, but tho opening
at tho bottom is bigger, about 16-in. square. Xbo ftir-hqlo, not
alluded to by him, is iv most important point, and on its siso tho
ellioiont oniianmption of tho chnrooal depends. It should be about
H-in. high and 0-iu. broad, and no grate whatever should bo used.
The whole bottom of the stove should bo filled with charcoal and
kindled until the mass is in a glow ; thou—and hero oomes tho
secret—the fire is masked by a thick layer of oshos, a stock of
which is always kept on hand. In using a grate, the charcoal has to
be lighted outside and brouglit to tho stove glowing, to prevent the
possibility of smoke from il)-])urnt fuel, and a great lose of boat is
entailed by tills. 1 lb. of cSiarcoal does 1 lb. tea by the Indian me-
tliod, as against a bushel of charcoal to from 8 to 10 Ih. liy tho
latter system. Again, 24 and 20 mssh-firing sieves as recommend-
od by Mr. Arastrong have been given up in favour of 12 to 10
meshes. Tlie larger meshes allow the toa to fire quicker, and very
commonly the broken pekoe is sieved out througti tliom pennanent-
ly, thus saving subsequent labour and the use of sieves during
iu’ing, at all tinios a troublosomo method. 1 was told also, but
oaimot vouch for the fact, that burning was less common with a
large than with a small mesli sieve, scorching being line to the
wire getthig too hot in tho case of tho latter. One map to six trays
is the usual allowance, ond each flroi's tea is kept separate till the
next da^knd weighed and even tasted separately some time. An
" rfilB^a-hoase aasistaut can always iioint out his boat firors.
Sorting is very oommouly done by hand. Witli a China sieve
(made of fine bamboo), I have seen a good man sift a whole bulk
of teas through with a No. 10 ouly, all done by altoriug tlie anglo
of inclination of the sieve. In fact, much depends on tho degree
to which sieving io done, and work done with tiie same sieve by
different coolies is not always similar. Much variety oau bo intro¬
duced into this work, but the groat principle is to sift into as fow i
qualities as possible. , . ,
Regarding Packing.—In chests, split oanes are an admirable sub¬
stitute for hoop-iron, or small clips which just orabraoe tho ooruors.
AVith this substitute for hoop-iron, I certainly tliink factories near
a cart-road ought to use chests, and sooffoct the saving in load, cost
of tiaokiuu amf draft which this means. As to wood for tea boxes,
in India, Burniah teak U geuoially used, and out of alt the
lumorous species growiuiJjipilly, none is yet in oominon use. In
lylon, 1 liav^
rialiubodds, tliat despised tree which
__ If seasoned properly and used soon, it is
livery way, being liglit, free from amoll, and holding a
nail woU. it must not bo kept too long, however, or insocts will
The wrangomont of the factory may well fie left to the ingeuui-
tv of tlie manager, si it is generally a ooiiverted coffoe store. Ihe
irrcat points to be borne in mind are, that tlie withering-room
" be immediately under the roof, aud above all beat-creatiog
macliiuery and stoves ; that tho oiigiue-rooni or water whi^ol
shouUl he out off as muuii as jiussihlc from tho rest of
bunding, also tliat ample Zip/it should bo piovidod for evorj'Avlinro.
In tasting, all dof'-olH in miiiuifactnre become apparuut, and by
means of samples tlio work in-ing done in any factory oan lie oheok-
od. 1 have here tbn A wisawelhi estate satnploa which gained tho
silvor modal in Colomiio, and of ahioh the bulk tivoraged is. Tjd.
at tho last sales, tlie liroken pekoo fetching 2s. 7id, , tlile
was made nndor the same immediate siiperviHion of a g' utlo-
man who knew nothing of tea manufacture uiue months ago.
In regard to machinery, I have a few words to* say. In a small
garden that will not give bigger, Bocnmnlations than 1,600 lb. leaf
per diem to bo worked off, a “ Uiiivorsal” roller ond a •* Sirooeo"
are most auitablu niacidues. It is, bowevor, an axiom lu India that
rolling and firing power must always be providod for about ilonbhi
the quantity of loaf that has to bo exjiootod under ordinary oirciim-
stancHS, and I tlihik there are fow Coyloii ostatos whuro tlio
machincB in qiiostiou would be found suffloiunt during a rush of
crop or a oontiuuauoo of Uuiavcuvablo weather. Presuming there¬
fore, that quantities of leaf up to 5,000 lb. will have t) be dealt
with, an “ Excelsior'' roller is tho host maohino to erect, but I do
notagreo that a multiplioatiou of “ iiiroauoa ” is cither oooimmieal
or aifvisablo as suggested hy Mr. Armstroug. Kiiimond’s No. 2
Dryer costs £220 and docs the work of exactly four Siroooos
costing in tho aggregate £340, the oosb of oroction of one niaoliiuo
esagain.st four would make tho divergonoe still greater. Teas from
Sirocoosaro charaetorized hy a very brisk full liquor, undoubtedly
Buporior to those fired over charcoal ; but having hail opportunities
of -ampling thorn against teas from Kinmoud’s maohino, I am
strongly of opinion that tho latter carries off tho palm. A
Kinmaiid’s machine requires flvo coolies to work it; four .Sirouortg
ivoiild require twelro coolies to keep them gohig. So that, in
original cost, working ex pe.iisos aud oflloierioy of work, the policy
of orooting oiio good maoliinc is proforablo to that of maiutaiuing
aoveral iuolficiout ones, however satisfactory the quality of thoir
work.
And now as to tho maohinery ; for gardoiis working off upwards
of 10,000 lb. loaf per diem : two •' Excelsiors,” may bo areoted,
or ono “ Haworth's ” roller. This latter machine is very popular
in Assam, and will roll 1,100 lb. loaf an hour. I boliovo the cost
is about tho same as an “ Exuelsjnc,” but am not quite sure. Tlio
iiiachinu consists of three paiallel rollors vovolving very rapidly in
the same dirootion. Botwcou tiiem tho loaf, enolosod' in a bag, is
placed. This maohiin’ doos exoollont work. Of dryers to work on
n largo scale, there is nons to equal Olbb’s and Barry’s, This
machino consists of a long iron cylinder, mado to revolve in Its
axis, and with a slight slope towards one ond Hot air is driven in¬
to it hy fans along a shaft which travorsos it from ond to end.
Tho roll is put in at the upper cud, aud comes out at tho bottom |
fired. The temperature of tlio hot air is from 660’ to 700’, as
against 762° for the Sirocoe. I'o fliilsh the toa off. It is put through
again from time to tunn as the J fired tea aounmniatos, oa a rn
duoed tuniperaturo. 'I'lioso who have samplod teas from theso
mauhiues would bu able to rocognizo tho high-fired flavor and tho
peculiar twist of tlio tea any whore, and they like it bettor than
teas from any other machine yet inveutoJ. The higher tho
teiiiparaturo at whioli toa is fired the bettor tho liquor, provided
alwaya that thure is no buniiiig ; and undcr-flriug arising from
ovoi-oautioii in manufacture is a very common fault wltli us. The
coat of this dryor would ho about Rs. 4,000 ornotod, and it requires
about i H.-r. to drive tho fan, as docs Kiumoud’e, lint it
is unquestionably tlio maoiiins of tlio future. I would add
tliat for tliis ouoriuuiis quantity of tea, three coolies ouly aro
rocmirod.
As to sifters. I believe ns cdloioiit mi apparatus as any one re¬
quires oau bo mado and orootuii on the estate, without largo outlays
:ii patent machines, and I saw many of the former lu India. The
no.it favourite patent machine is Ausoll's, and the saving it effoots
ill tho cost of sieving is vury groat ; in tho Borolll garden ouo such
uachino saved Rs. 750 expondituro duritia last year alone. It doos
lot howovor, do very otfootuai work, os tho pekoe is not properly
tikuu out i and I have soon tea put through it threo limes before
t could be said to bo thoroughly done.
To dosei ibo tile numerous othor forir^i of maohinery and smali
appliaiioos would take uqr too much time, but I hope to publish my
lOtos on them shortly.
To sum up this subject, macliinery as applied to tea manufacture
s universal in Assam, and, in forming our estimates in Coylou, wo
might as well draw up the figures for ooffeo witliout pulpors,
in tho supposition that oooiios would troad out tho ohorry with
heir feet, as against the advantages in every respect, inclndiug
lost, efiloicncy, saving of labour for othor works, economy of
ipaoe, 4,0., &c., when eoiiipiling figures in counoctlou with tea.
.Zoiopaiisous of cost witli Iiidfa, where machinery is almost iini
rorsally employed, are misloadiug uulosa wo oredit Coylou with the
tame lul vantages.
And now regarding the cost of putting teas in tho London
market. AVhat has goiiu bufore will have shown that, in respect
}{ labour, transqiort and field cultivation, wo have a great advan¬
tage over Assam, a slight one ouly over Darjeeling, 'i’liere is yet
mother Oil vantage in oiir favour. During the protracted cold
•vcatlior in India, there is great ditfionlty In fliichng employment
or tho coolies. All crop work is at an ond, lioHiiig is impossiblo,
and the only work thoie is pruning. If, thoinfnro, there is no new
extoiision in whioli to employ tho labour, much ol it has to lie put
to uuremuuorativa winks. In Assam with iinpoi tud labour, tlio
lifiiculty is espucially groat, Thu Govcriiim'iif insist on the pay-
mout of coolies whotlicr employcil or not, wimther sick or well ;
the fuur-days-a-wueU system is impo>i.silile Now, in Coylou, with
oiir oontinunus growtii whicii alloo s ns to chose our own time for.
pi'uniug, matters can lie so arranged that no inotraoted slack aoii.son
occurs, plucking lu tho first pruned iiortious ooramcnolug before
prpnlHiji IS ended. What a great ftdvautage this is will bo appro-
460
THE INDIAN AGBIOULTUEIST.
Ddcember 1,1888.
c4ted by all who have in yean gone by bad to support large orop
labwr-forou with no work to give tbein, With tne dUadvantiges
onamerated, the «oat of A^uam tea delivered in London ranges
S 'ty between lOd. and 1«., tbou^ often over the latter amonat.
the lower rate at which the Borrelll garden is quoted, and
Sid. for freight and London charges, Wc have a cost of
7id. f. 0 . b, in CUoutta. The average coet of the whole of the
Land Mortgage Bank's Darjeeling gardens is 6id, per lb. in Calcutta,
ehewing the advantage the Utter dlitrict has as regards eoonooiy
of working, for, in spite of a very much smaller yield, the cost
of production U 1^ hy Id. per lb. Kow wHh proper appliances
in tl>e way of maohittery, and with the various economies in the
matter of working which come with ezperienoe, there it little
donbk t^t ^dens favourablv citcumstanoed can pnt teas in
Colombo for W ceoM or M, sterling per lb., ayield of 400 to MO per
acre being given, In thU oase we have an imvantage of id. per lb
over li^eming, due to our superior ^teld, and of lid. per Ih. over
one of the exwtptlottaUy good estates in Assam, the majoritv being
at fat greater ffisadvantsis. It will perhaps be thonght that 30
cents per lb. is a low eiMmate, but judging from the cost of the
various field works uid of macafactnte in the Jam Indian factories,
I feel oonvlooed that we shall be able to work for this when oiir
estates are in foil hearing, and when we have provided onrseivet
with roomy factories and the proper iabour-saving applianoes. At
proseut, with only a rolling machine and with much young tea, 36
oenti per lb. U wuatitl produotion is costing me, and it is easy to
see how the 6 eeuts can be laved in the future.
It bad been my intention at this point to enter into detalU re¬
garding the oost of produotion, and to show how the figures quoted
above were arrived at; but In view of Mr. Armstrong’s recent
paper on ^e subject, and of the very close approximation between
my fignres and w, I wBl not do so. Mr. Armstrong gives the cost
of prwiuotlOB by hand-toUlng as 89 cents per lb., with machinery
81 f cents: both these estimates include the manuring of 50 acres
and a yield of 400 lb. A slightly inorsasod yield, or suporiur
situation as regards transport, water-power, or timber supply
would at once bring the cost to the figure I have quoted, 80 cents,
or even below It. In praotloe, the ooet will be fonnd to lie between
t^e figures 30 and 3'2 cents, aocordiug to ciroumstanoes, with an
additional 7 cents whore maoUnery has not liesn erected.
The average of the four estates enumerated by Mr. Armstrong is
84 omits LeX vithout maohitury. With the proper applianoes the
o<wt would therefore be well below the figure I have indicated,
but probably tiie estatee in question have done no manur¬
ing, which, if dqno on the scale Indicated, would about cover the
diffowooft.
And now 1 amgoing to say a few words on the lubjeot of pruning
and plucking. Tne object ef pruning it to secure as Ur« a surface
oa pmlble for subfsqueut pluoklng, and it therefore follows from
the growth of a hybrid bush, which generally has s oloan stem for
some foohes above ground, and, above that, lateral branohes grow,
tag in au up right direotiou, the higher the level at which the both
U out. the grsater the surface will be. Again, wWlet all trtiling
aide-branohe< should of course be out off, It is evident that any
sliorteningof healthy laterals Is acnrtallmeut of the sice of the bush,
that Is ofiU pluoking surface. For some years In Ceylon we were in
the habit Of ootting our hybrid bush at 2' 8" aud over, never under
(ezoeptional oiroumstauoes apart), we are thus enabled to get a
large Woking eurface at this height, and this system, graphically
desotibed by Mr. Armstrong, is the one I most strongly advocate,
uid hAVe prfcotlidd. When the late Mr. Cameron took up
his work here, he changed this method In all the estates under hu
management, aud Inlr^uoed a severe cutting down system. Now
the effectol cutting down young bushes, and at present I nm con¬
fining my remarks to these, is to immediately induce a bush of
wWfsnpported by all the youthful vigour of the tree ; if this is
allowed to grow up, a new tree will be formed, and will be support¬
ed by the "■««« of foliage on the new growth. If however this is
Dluokod and kept at a low level, suflicieut foliage is not maintained
to nourish the free and promote a healthy growth of root and stem.
The only oiroumstanoes under which low prunlM—stick pruning as
U is eallei is resorted to, Is to remedy the effeots of injudicious
nlnoklag and pruning on old worn-out bushes. In one oase only
did I tee this plan retorted to in India. An old pieoe of tea, the
nimet btanohee of which had got gnarled and hard, was out down to
mSta one foot of the ground ! the growth which suooeeded was
however allowed to attain a height of 2 feet, to mature in fact,
before it It wu tonobed. This remedy would of oourse never have
bW neoeteary i the trees oould never hai e got into this condition
a proper system of sdeoting wood and cutting out all that had
got bard and Unprofitable, been followed out at the yearly pruning.
With young lea, however, toe great point Is easy treatment, If a
BenwiMnW profitable bush U required ; and In suooeeding years,
btonef swentfflo pruning, cutting down should never be neoes-
sirv Armstrong has laid down a fsw oonolse rules on the
sttMeet. which ail Bhonid study carefully and follow oonsistently,
and Twin not attempt to confuse matters by giving a repetition of
bh advice in other words, China tea has, of oourii, to be prunsd
lu a very dMferent way to Assam hybrid, the fosmer is a bush, the
latier a tree, and as such they have to be treated. _
The Style of pluoking depends greatly on the pruning which has
it plftDt| on tho ollniAtOi &Qd io on. In
tois work again, Mr. Cameron inlrodnoed a new system, very
different to that wWoh we had always followed previously. It is
aenerally considered that the point of his system was the pluoking
of the whole estate in eight days, hut this is scarcely oorreot. The
nerfootion of work theoretieally would he to round of the estate at
even shorter iiitorvaU j the point Is, what Is the dosoripHon of
shoot allowed to bo plucked at eaOh round T We might go round
the estate every week taking shoots with flvs leaves and not ktt, or
we Wight, at similar Intervals, take a leaf and a bud« our
miuifflom, and both wqttld he weekly plagkbjii- ^ ladUthe
system of severe pruning aud olose pluoking in question has been
wed, and was disoarded years ago as being fatal to the well-being of
the tree. The matter was made a subjeot of dlieuulon by me with
several of the leading Indian planters, and In every case the lysteui
wasooudemned in the most unqualified way as being a very seductive
one giving flue strong teas and a good Immediate yield, but as
bsing absolutely fatal to the future of the plant. Now, the
fast of the system having been tuoh a fatal one in India has been
stated by many—and I believe Mr. Cameron did not deny this
I himself—hot it is maintained that in Ceylon oiroumstauoes are
I different, and that the system, though 4 failure there, will suooecd
; here. I uphold that in Ceylon an easlsr style of workitu the tree,
one whio'i draws less upon Its energies, is essential for its well¬
being, and for this there are good and fooud reasons, With a very
vigorous growth, oonoentrated so to speak into a few months, snoh
as they have in India, severe pluoking will, it is reasonable to
iuppoee,be answered iby determined efforts on the part of the tree to
form wood : this is the oase, but the result of the treatment is tiiat
the tree wears it itself out in few years, sulks, and has to be allowed
a reat before it can be made to yield again, whilst liberal applica¬
tions of mannrs are required (in one oase, and I here allude to the
Chittagong estate wblob Mr, Cameron wee in oharge), of a years'
rest was necessa ry after two or three years ,of this treatment. If
this Is the oase in India, is It not reasonable to suppose that the
same system, extended over the long flushing period of Ceylon
bashes, with the less vigorous mowth whloh aooompanles them,
should have an even more fatal effect ? I oannot think there oau
be two opinions on the point, and from what I have seen of the
results 01 tbs system in the low oountry and in the hills too, I feel
convinced that disappointment is in store in the fnture for thoee
who oontinne to toko too much eat of their bushes by hard pluck¬
ing following the severe pruning, I have seen stretches of tea In the
Covlon low-country, after a few weeks’ dry weather, looking as if
a nro had run over them where Mr. Cameron’s system of pTuoking
has been strictly adhered to. It is obvions that unless sufficient
leaf surface is left on eaoh shoot, the cironlation of sap oanwt bo
maintained, and hence on the occurrence of the first trying weather,
the whole shoot, on whloh depends the crop, and on the vigour of
which depends the quality of our prauing wood for the suooeeding
year, is irremediably ruined. Just as we must treat our young trees
easily, by topping them at first at 3ft. to 3ft, 6in.,witb a mew of pre-
serving the toliage on which their vigour depends and until the last
few pluckings wlien less care is required, systematically Isavoa luffi-
oiency of leM-snrface on the shoots that are‘yielding us our flushes.
In plucking, as in pruning, Mr, Armstrong and 1 are advocating no
new system : wc are sim^y maintaining the one whloh we, with
Mr, Ikylor and others, have always consistently followed, and on
which nave atteuled results which,or aptnianency, will be yielded
by no other in India or Ceylon.
There is another point in which some difference of opinion
appears to exist. I refer to theplucking of the lidtt of the bushes
In view of the priuciule prsvioully euauciited, that yield depends
on plucking surface, It is evident that this practice is a bod cue,
and injurious to the growth of young trees. Under certain oir-
oumstauccs, it may be indulged in, but I have seen it practised and
advocated in Ceylon where its effects could «ot but be injarlcus in
the extreme, ThOIe are places where young tea so treated is sesn
dotted at intervals over the ground, InatMd of oovering the hill¬
side with trees, visible as such even after pruning, and I have even
seeu an endeavour made to ousa the defective yield ^ mpidyimj
what ought to be a sufficiently closely planted field. The effects of
this treatment, justly ilecmed murderous by Mr. Armstrong, are
so obvious that it is strauge they are not apparent to every oue.
Coming frum Indian tea, thoy strike me forcibly.
In respect of manuring there is notljing of importanoe to be
learnt iu India, and we shall have to gain our own experienoo.
In some oases no doubt manure la applied, but these seem very
exceptional, Tlioie is one more important point to be mentioned,
the extensiou of tea cultivatiou iu India as affecting our future
prospects. An influential firm in Calontta is now engaged in the
most extensive opening operations iu Caebar and the Dooara.
1 iorget at the momsut how many thousand acres are to be put
into tea within a few years, bat the extent is oousidsrable. In
Lower Assam and iu Darjeeling, it la dlffioult if not Impossible
to get laud, all that is available having bean taken np long ago ;
but in other districts the opeiiings are very exteoaire. 1 do not
think however we need be afraid of this competition. At present
prices, it is only by severe economy that good dividenffbi^re
paid by Indian Companies, whilst we can well afford to prodn^
tea and gain a fair profit, even should a fall of 2d. per lb. on
the present market rate have to he faced.
In this ease, I do not wish to make a statement without
ample proof in the form of faots and figures to support
it. Mr.' Armstrong has here again foreatallsd me by shotmg
that at his fignres a nett priee of a. in Colombo, or say 80 cents,
is oqnivaleut to a profit of Be. 120 per acre, or, without manure
expenditure, Bs. 132 per acre. Now, our preient sMe prioee are
showing averages of from 1«. 3(1. to Is. 8(2. and over, well made
teas rarslv averaging under Is. id. A fall of id. per lb. there¬
fore woulu atiil leave a margin of profit which shonld ^ sufficient
for any proprietor. Now let us see how such a fall would affect
Inditm Companies. The Boreili Oon^ny gavo 8 per oeut last
year with a profit of 8^(2. par lb.; Jorehaut 8 per cent at Itdl
per lb.; Doom-Ooomea, 8 per cent at lldHwyfo The Darjeeling
Companiee at aa average price of is. Hd. gavcif^fm^t, whilst
the average price of 18 million lbs., tea as givemn^ssw^mueha
Thompson A Co., is Is, I|(2, 1 will not multiply iuitanoea, those
I have fixed upon Inoludiug some of the most fiourbbing couaeras,
and what the effeot of a considerable fall of prise in their
dividends would be is evident. " Low prioee ” is even now the
burden of moit reporti, I have here ilia reporte and itatiitisa
December 1, 1883. • THE INDIAN AGRICULTUEIST.
■ '461
t >>““1 *>« “PPy to grow, wd that 1* »B important point ^»d. I mnat,* however,
Knlvil . Siffar from Mr. Chri.«e In one point. Ido think there ha. been a
*1,^* T ^itlmony to that of other., and very eerioui deterioration in the vitality of the .took, and I may
*’'®“ diatriot. judging from my Ceylon ; .tate that Mr. Oammie, from hi. long experience of oinohona oulti-
tim experlenoe, to be Well adapted to the oultiva- | vation at Uarjeellng, is of the aame opinion. On the Bungbeo plan-
* mL 1 _ , 1 1 . j , . I *“tlon which Include, periodloal plantlug. lince the original old
Ihe lay of land is perfeot for a hill district. The soil Is in trees were put out, there is a most markod falling off InthovlgOttr
iTOts p^r, and not likelyto grow good tea, but the large bulk of the trees iu suooessive years. In this case, nloee-planting le
Of what I haim seen has depth and Is eminently suitable, whilst oertolnij not the oanse nor is clean weeding, the trsee growing
the trsee growing
latiu influences are
01 wnai 1 nave seen hns aeptn and is eminently suitable, whilst oertoJnlJr not the oanse nor is clean weeding, the trsee growing
the lower portions of the district, judging from what I am told I very wide apart in a wilderness of jangle, cilmatiu Influences are
of tnelr general character, oould scarcely be bettor. That there not a satisfactory explanattoii, the perted during which cultivation
can be 110 few as regards flevntion Mr. Armstrong’s figures have has been carried on being so extensive. From my experience in
oonoluslvoly shown, and the elevation of much of the Uarjeeling Ceylon, 1 feel oenvinoed that the trees wo ore now oultlvatiog from
tea Mas weight to_ the testimony. The white clay which is seed grown iu the island have not the same vigour os the original
found in the Mts in somh loooUtios should not, in my opinion, parents first planted, and that the second generation is even
be pitted, the free soil of the hill-sidea being much more more enfeebled. It also seems to me that, as a rule, the parent
be planted, tiio free soil of the hill-sidei being much more
lultable, ...... . trsss do not now produce progeny with tho eame vitality as In;
1 should like to eay more on tine subject and many others years past. The remedy for this would appear to bo fresh;
In oonneotion with too, but time will not perurit, and I must pass blood. Eegardiug the hybrids, a class of plant originating
on to other matters. locally, the case seems different, and it would almost appear Of
Cabdamoms, if nature were pointing the means by which th^radual eitlnc-
I will now make a few remarke on the subject of cardamom tlon of the local oinebonas is to be avoided., Tme eubjeot aa^
cultivation. This product, when planted in proper situations U many kindred oues connected With the cultivation of clnchom^
abont the most profitable that we have in Ceylon at present; in and the harvesting of its bark, are of great interest, and I should
iinsnitablo sites, however, it is usually an unmitigated failure, like to enlarge upon thorn ; but time is short, and I must brln^
Shelter is essential to it, and It grows best iu hollows, protected this paper to a close.
from the monsoon winds, and where there is generally an accumiila- Speaking generally, it would appear that the moat profitable
tion of rich soil. It does not bear well i'u poor gravelly soil, but way of oiiltivating our land in the mturo is to keep op the very
like to enlarge upon thorn; but time is short, and I must brln^
best iu hollows, protected this paper to a close.
ire is generally an accumiila- Speaking generally, it would appear that the moat profitable
i'u poor gravelly soil, but way of oiiltivatiug our land in the mturo is to keep np the very
prefere a rich loam. An important point regarding it is the nuos- best portions only of our estates in ooffee, and to eultivate
tion of shade This should not be too thick, so as to exclude light those highly, spendiiig what we can afford tyion them. The
aud air, but should be partial only, aud in such places cardamoms bulk of the coffee might then with advantage bo Uasd and plauted
thrive best. Whether or not any extent of it can be plauted iu the with tea, suitable portions of tho land being kept hi oinohona,
open is as yet an undecided ijuestion with many. My personal To cardamoms, any available forest of the right charaotor might
experlenoe is against it, as I have found that the growth of the plant ho devoted. On many estates thers is unfortunately no forest,
is slow and the racemes very short when iiiucli exposed. In some and tho fact mnit be faoed that for tea cultivation oonelder-
oases individual plants iu the open are found bearing fairly well;
lu other cases they dc not bear at all In such situations, but it
would seem as if a partial exposure only to the sun is not much
able forest reserves are desirable. 'When no wood is obtainable,
tho use of coke or fuel brought up by railway will be neosseary,
and this difficulty and the usoessary sxpense must be faoed from
against them. As to thslr cultivation amongst the coffee, there oau the first, and siionld on no account be ignored or forgotten. It
be little doubt that it would be a success where the latter is thick, may be of iuterest here for me to state that tea dryers require
affording effectual shelter to the young plants : but in such situa 21bs. wood to each Hbs. tea, as a rule j therefore, a 2S0-aarfl
tions the ooffee ae a rule repays cultivation, and does not require to estate, yielding 100,000 lbs. tea, roquries 200,000 lbs. of 90 tone
be superseded by anything else. Iu a few words plant cardamoms wood per annum at practically more: where water Is not
under forest-shade on any suitable land, but regard Its oultivatlou available, a calculation must also be made regarding the fuel
iu the open anri amongst coffee as an experiment only. There need required for the engine. For the planting of bare rldgee and stiff
be no fear as to its bearing .owsrs at this elevation, as I have unfruitful grnutid where oiitohoiia does ooi thrive, a produol
oardaraoiiis bearing freely above the elevation at which ooffee ceases is required. I would suggest aloes, for the omtivaMon of fibre
to crop. T would also mentinn that in the low-oonutry, at a few plants is undoubtedly an industry to which we shall have to turn
hundred feet only, they are bearing well. In a recent letter to tho our attention in the future. The aloe onoe in the gromtd, all ex-
Obacner, on the subject of oardamoms, published during my ponditure ceases, save perhaps a few woedinge round the plants
absence from tho island, uud couched in somewhat vague and until they are established. Advantage has neeo taken, by thoee
incoherent phrasoology, the writer states that the villagers nave not whose cue it appeal's to be to run down all preeeirt and future
the best variety o! card.amcms, and that the eomnwbat olwourc but enterprise, of the somewhat enthusiastic way In which tbs whole-
ever valuable so-oiiUed “ Mysore” species should bo rooted out. I sale planting of new products is advocated by many j and, now
mcroly alludi %o th# matter to re*ftiiur(3 thoio who may have been that their euooesa w eatabliehed beyond doubt) it ra atated that
misled by this rasb statement, for, in the Kotniale, Peradeniya and they are being _pla,nted wholesale, in suitable and unsuitable jeoali-
Kandy villages, Malabi
rrocmiinmBi
who'knowirow to’diatilifiiiUh thorn run no riak in purolusing bulba Now fai- be it from ma to advocate the planting of any product In
from tbeflO sources, whilst i» hfgh elevations the Myiore beaiH an injudioioualy wholeaalo manner j toa, hardy plant though ft is,
much more freely than tho Malabar spooios. fii ^ood soil, carda- will not pay on wa.shod ejchanstcd floil, nor on our poor ettallow
moms should not be plauted too close, 7 by 7 iu inoet case^, nnd land, aud such looalitioa had better be allowed to grow up in jangle
.. f .. . / ft 1 e V • ■ . .tk... It.. ..A.. L I.nis/liT iilAn4> ssts/sK a.k_
8 by 8 when the soil is eS' 'iitioiially rich will be found right.
HoloslSiii. wide and 1 .'ill. deep should be cut. and tln> plani; put
ill shallow, tile earth not iibovotlie collar. This latter point is vsry
iftcr the establisnment ofsoine hardy plant, such as the aloe,
vliioh is able to bold its own against all other growths. The
lelectioii of the portions of estates which are to be mainteined as
important, as desp,planting is fiital. In purehosing bulbs, the eofleo, or planted with ten, ciuolioaa and oardamoms, Is a matter
closest supervisio!; should be oxorciiid, and all that are cut about re.iuiring judgment and experlenoe, and on the dtgebe of these
aud injured (and the'Hinghalese arc very careless in tills matter) qua'ities that is brought to bear on the subject Will depend inuoh
should hi unhesitatingly rejected ; double bulbs also ihoiild always of the future siioces-s Of the estate. It is, of oouroe, a matter to
be insisted on, and two single miss instead, such us the contractor wliieh no rules are npplieablo, and one to call forth all the power*
will sonietinies offer, lie refused. The phiiits will begin to throw
out raeenies in 18 mouths at low elevation, but in those districts it
will probably bo 24 or 3 years before they begin ; to do so.
Till cultivation of cardamoms is a very simple aud cheap matter
the stools must be kept clean and free from Mria of all kinds.
of proprietors or their advisers,
Ueiitlomoii, f liave done. In view of the too reoeot publloatioo
of Mr. Armstruug's able aud oompreheniive eaeay, my hamble
effort appears at the greatest disadvantage ; but I trait you will
make every allowance for th fact that, at a few honre’ notloo and
especially when the plant begins to throw out raecmes. Weeding m ‘be brief space of a portion of a day without any not«S aod other
after the ground is covered will be founil unpecessary, for nothing means of reference, I have had to re-write the greater part of thU
crowi under their shade ; it is, however, desirable to send a few papm', so as not to oome before you wito a mere rtpolitxOn of any-
Ffooliei oooasionallv to olear up open spots .and corners which some- thing said by that gentleman, and with a view to make «iy state-
tln)«B set dirty inento Bupplemeafcary to Uii, and henoo of valua and Intwwt to
In order to make tho moit of the crop to get tho bigliest value you. If vou oonsidCT that I liave been. In however emajl a measure,
poieible for the yield of the small acreaagos wo generally possess, successful in this task, the difficulty, of which I only appreoiated
the loniewhat expensive method of cutting off tlie capsules with yesterday wheu I entered upon It, I shall feel amply rewarded,
loissors muit bo undertaken, aud they must be picked when first T, C. OWEN,
turuiiig colour, before they are fully ripe. Kipe fruit invariably Oononagala, Madu ikelee,
splits, ai also a very large proportion of what is taken off without •^Oej/hn Obtervei\]
its stalk. Tho difference of value between split oardamoms and ....j i i i - . i l . l ! ■-■ !... ! . l l ! ■ ..ii.jl_uiiii ! ii um ii i
those which are alone fit for the horns market is very great, as PAPAri
uuoh as Ke. 1 for the former and 9». for the latter hi some cases.
As regards yield, I have got crops vai-ying from 120 to .800 lbs. per —----
acre.* The cost of putting cardamoms in Colomlw ii 40 cents per THE PREPARATION OF CACAO BEANS.
lb., tho average price from 6 r. to fir., a oaleulatioii of Hs. 2 per lb, - . , j,. .
nrtt is therifore. very safe. Tho profit which these figures leave is__ . . .
au ample one, and is shown in the appended estimate drawn from i,’’! Oorarnmeat Botanist of
““ .V . ’ .. ,_ _1 ...J •_i.:...i ii_W Tiintilad. for a oonv Of a eammunteatinn whfnh h*
CACAO.
THE PREPARATION OF CACAO BEANS.
au am*ple one, and is shown iu the apponded estimate drawn from if? Indebted to Mr* Prertoe, Government BoteUt of
actunlreiuUii.—J^ Owen here introduced and ’explained the psti- jV w*‘Ioh he ha*
S anaili&mui manual.] addressed to the Tnmdad Ohvomck ou the subjeot of the our ug
his manual.]
Cinchona.
of cacao he.aiis. Mr. Prestos is good enough to beat valuablo
testimony to the merits of the TVqjiical Agricvituriit, while ha
I will now lay a few words on cinchona, though I feel that after pays the Ceylon planters the high ccmplimeiit of showing that in
Mr. Christie's recent admirable little essay, there ti not very much to the new pursuit of cacao oulturo and preparation, they hate
belaid. The advance iu practical experience regarding this product imjjrovcd ujjqn tho methods in use'iu the _ West India Colony
has been very great, and iii many oases I fear very Bitter, during whicb is specially associated with cacao,—Trinldarl. We reprint
the last year or two. We have learned whore oinohona will not the coiamunicatlon, which sets forth with clearnMe and emphasU
462
THE INDIAN AGRI0ULTUEI8T.
December 1, ISiiS.
.ebenefll of following up the fermentation of oac&o beans in their
mneilage,’ by oleaa washing and snn-iirylng, lu oaeao, as in tea
culture onr planters loom likely to take a foremost) if not the dret
place iu the world,
{To the Director of the Trlnuiai Ghi'oiHclt.)
Door Sir,—I cnunot tell to wlmt extent the Trnjiital Agrkul-
turitt is read here iu Trinidad, 1 fancy however ouly to a very
limited extent—probably not more than half a dozen copies being
I'uoeived in the island. This umiortaiuty ou my part must bo my
excuse in a measure for troubling yon for ttie favour of space for
a few words anoiit onn of the many subjects that go to make up its
aontuuts, and ineAnwIiile allow me, in view ol promoting the agri-
ottlturai interests iu Trinidad, to offer my testimony to the really
valuable characturof this mouthly, and which Is perfectly uuicjue.
The paper is published by the Messrs. Feiguson of Colombo,
Ceylou, who are best known os Editors of tho f/eyioa Otfemr and
Directory. J t is a book of about 50 leaves, full to overflowing
with most Interesting and iuitmetive mutter, culled from publiea-
tlous in all parts of the world, besides its own oririuol articles and
correspondenoe, and which treat on every possible subject with
which a tropical agrioulturist, espeolally a resldeut proprietor, is
Skoly to bo iuterested in ; a striking feature of the oorrespondonoe
being narratives of the writers' expericnoes with these subieots or
what they know of the exporienoe of others—all with tho object of
iffectiug improvement in tho agricultare and aiding iu the general
wealth of their colony.
The special value of this monthly, more particularly as relates
X) Ceylon, lies in its olmractcr as a means—and a powerful one—by
;bo goneral information It affords for initiating and promoting the
sultlvation of new or little known produots ion toe principle of
dealing with as great a variety of subjects as the oonduious pre-
leuted in the colony may permit, in preference to conecutratiug all
tffort and attention to the development of one or two produots, for
wbloh the eondltioni of the oountry may be beH suited.
So for and so sucoessfully has its iuflueuoe operated In Ceylon
as well os India), that to-day we see—not, as here, tho principal,
uenorts oonsist of only one or two subjeots, but of a dozen or more.
Some of these besides the leading ones, are on such elastio bases
hat a leading export showing signs of falling, off one year, some
rroduut of lesser importonoe Is made to double Its output in a
Ingle year—as seen at present lu respeot of Cinchona bark, Tea
md Cacao—three striking examples which a persual of this ex-
lellent '* Troplool Agriculture "will afford ample informatlou of.
The first two we cannot of course do here—for wont of elevation,
0 that notice of their cultivation would be waste of time—but
rhat of Caooo t With this subjeot there Is an extraordinary
noreose of output—iu the course of three yean the export having
levelopod from a few pounds obtained from a few neglected trees
in the jungle, and which a happy thought had brought to light by
oleariiig and pruning, to the present oonsiderable export of 101,800
thi., and whioh, besTdes, iu tlio London market—by the beauty of
its oomple, is the envy of both buyers aud sellers, and has accord-
ingly settled down to a leadiug posltiou in the market at lOSs—
abreast of the belt from Trtntdad.
Of oourse there is no reason why the very beat Trinidad Cacao
should not be batter than it now is: or that the present Trinidad
seconds and thirds, and even fourths (if such can still be cacao)
should not be equal or very nearly erjual to the present Trinidad
best, and thus leave the Ceylon cacao at least a shade behind.
In order to obtain this desirable position it will be neoessary—
simultaueously with the adoption of a mothodical pbati for samp¬
ling our cacao Into about five sets (of varieties )—to follow the
system of Ceylon growers : what this is I venture to subjoin an
extract from the Trvpkal AyriciUlurisl to sliow.
From this it will be seen that—as I have previously advocated
as Indispensable, under a rational method of preparing oaeao for
the market aud for realising the full value of the produce—the
Ceylon plaMen •math llu'ir Cacao. Hero, however, and elsewhere
in the West, it is affirmed that to wash oaeao is to spoil it both in
the operation whioh breaks the skin, and in its after state ; or that
it costs too mueh to be praetioable even when the sample is
impnoed.
But these objeotioua arise ouly from a want of appreciation of the
requirements iu the oporatlou aud—probably—carelessness in oou-
duotiog It, If eveu such had been tried. Previous Impressiou of
the eiteote on the beaus of the common practice of amassing,
Bweatiug, robbing, drying (which is simply encasing tho beaus iu
their muoilaginoas covering deoomposed and dried with a consider¬
able addition of foreign matter) must fora long time stand as an
obstacle in the way of the Creole planter understanding a perfectly
oleau iwle olnnamou brown light beau with easy fracture, as the
right sort of sample.
It may be qaestloned what led the Ceylon planters to wash
their uaoao—for we may oouulude they got no advice from their
friends in the West to wash it.
For the answer we may reflect that the Coylon cacao has been
dealt with uudor the immediate anpervlsiou and mauipulation,
guided by tlm high iutelligoDce of—for the most part—Englisli ami
Scotch goiitlemeu Tosideiit proprietors or managers. Tlioy wore
suddenly aroused to the nuueaslty of appropriatiug to the iitingat
auythiug iu the way of oaeao, and a few old trees neglected
for years were at all ouoe made recipients of tlieir most
tender regard and attention. The trees were bearing profusely,
so that oaeao had to be “cured” at onoe. Old iiapers and
notus on the sulijeot were hunted up, and cacao was found to
be owed by being either “ sun-dried” or “Bw-;atod” and dried, so
the suu-dryilig process being the simplest was started ; but then,
there was so much mucilage, and after the first day, had become so
uninviting in ap|)earauoe that with their feeling of respeot for every¬
thing clean, they conoluded that their oaooO was not going to be
the right sort of thing for the English market—(thou A this was
the flint, oew they had ever leea)—even if it oould be dried,
so they decided to wash It—tor os oae told me they oould do nothlog
else with it—but the addition of water so greatly ioqnand the
raucLlage ns to leave it impraotloable and besides the shin at the
beans broke in the washing and thus the whole thing was thrown
away—as actually happened in more than one initauoe, Further
ou it was desired to ti 7 what “ sweating” would do, aooardlngly
beaus were put to sweat uuder the disoomtort of wide diversity of
opinion as to tlie period neoessary for the “ eweating.” But being
put to sweat, iu the course of a few days tbs mass presented a die.
gusting appearance of rottenness that washing was again tried as
oue way of getting out of the fright: this time with very differ¬
ent results. The iweatlng had decomposed the raaeuaginous
covering of the beans, and light washing loft them oieau and
as pleasing in appearanoe as news copper ooios. Put at onoe in the
sun, they dried in a snrprhtiagly short time, and soon the result
of tile prized Ceylon Caosn ofsweet mild flavour, oinnamon oolonr
and free ‘ break,' woe attained.
Before all this however a oivlKssd practise in respeot of fruit
gathering was followed, eiz. i—
Only the ripe pods were gathered, and thus tbs beans were
uniformly affected in the sweating and drying k»<i oame oat a
uniform sample.
The process heroin followed sucpesifully was, therefore, briefly
this
Only ripe pods dealt with ; the beans amassed to sweat (being
taruod once or twice) then oarefnlly washed and put In the suu l.o
dry.
It may here be remarked that the beans being sufflolently
sweated to admit of being washed readily, and yet not sulfleiently
sweated to have fully expanded their ootvlidons—i.c,, the parts
wliiuh beeunie nibs—or to have reduced tneir aorldlty—oan be
returned fur further sweating after the washing.
The drying being effootod immediately alter the washing or
second sweating, mildewing aud disootoratiou therefrom would
never occur, aud of oourse the labour of “ rubbing" would bo avoid¬
ed. Necessity for prompt drying readers woshlag iudispeniable, for
washed lieaus dry m one-third the time of beaus covered with the
! decomposed mucilage; and as during the wet mouths artiflcial
I means for drying cacao, as employed with tea, is a great desider¬
atum of the time—a point which it is mv chief object In addressing
you now to draw attention to—it should not be overlooked that dry-
ing by artiflcial mcaoi will not be praetioable for unwashed beans—
except for re-drying damp oaeao, oared in tho old manner.
It would be well for the oaoao interest generally if, in view of the
November and Deoember ralus, a praotloal oonsideratloa were to be
given to this point at onoe,
It should never be lost sight of that cocao beaffs in bulk—not
larger than the usual quantity of a " crook''basket or sack and If
kept from the air by such a covering as an ordinary sack—will keep
fresh and sound for 3 to 6 days, except as to the mucilage which
will waste somewhat, as is desirable. Beans might therefore be
brought in from all but the moat remote porta to be oarefully
washed and dried at central towns or vlHages, with great peouui-
acy advantage botli to grower and dealer. I am, Ac,,
H. Pbrstob,
Government Botanist.
“ CoRi-vo THE Brass" {Cacao).
A oooly piuks two bushels of cocoa beans per diem, and as five
bushels wet's-! cwt,, the cost is only about 87o. a owt for ploking, os
compared with Ks, 2 to ids. 3 for Liberian cofl'ce. The pods are first
cut frum tile tree, a small piece of stem beiug left on the tree, and
the coaly takes one iu eauu hand and with a knock breaks them
both iu halves, aud thou with one draw of his fiugers dexterously
strips alt the beaus off the ceutre pulp. The pods are then thrown
round the trees aud act os mauure, while the beaus are removed
to the fermontiug clsterus. It takes from 5 to 9 days to properly
fermout the cocoa, and it is ttieu ready for washing. It is trampled
first, as iu coffee, with the feet, aud theu is removed iu b ;skets aud
carefnily handwashed, as wastiiug with the “ matapalagei"
damages tlte beans. I have no doubt that ere long some means
less oxpeusive will be found for washiug, aud the olerihew will bo
much improved on too.
After washiug, the cocoa is laid on mats to dry as ooffeo is, If
the weather is suitable ; aud at times it is advisable to give it a
rub over with small piocos of sack or oloth, whioh improves the
appearanoe of the beans, and facilitates drying in this showery
weather.
The dlffcrenoe in well cured and badly cured ooooa amounts tn
at least lis. 20 per cent, and the prices obtained for it os in tea, will
depend iu a much greater moasuru ou the careful attention of the
superiutoudent to we eurlug, thau in the ease of Coffee Arabloa,
aud the good m tu will iiave a better obanoe of ootning to the
fore, thau in days of old witli eoffee.
CACAO CULTIVATION IN CEVLON.
Estihate.s and Reuarks.
(By a 1‘ractkal Planter.)
Enliimte for opening and bringing a Cocoa E»tat» of 200 aaru
■into bearing, inehtding coal of land.
Probable cost of 200 acres of land at R25 ... S5,000
1st Year, from January to 30th June of foilowing year.
Felling and eieoriug 290 acres at B15
Nurseries : clearing sites ...
80,000 baskets at Ko'oO
5,000 coooa pods, at K5.?
Fiiliag baskets aud towing seed
Erecting paudals for shade
Watering and attending
K3,0I)0
4gi
275
250
120
125
l.SfiO
December 1,1883. . THE.INDIAJf At^lRlCUDTUEIST.
463
Lining at R1 per acre
Holing ; 300 holea per acre 12 by 12 feet apart, 2
feet deep by IB inoliot wide (20 per man)
Filling in 7fi nolee per man
Planting, eupplying, and iliading at R3'26
Weeding for 16 montlis at Rl
Roads: 10 miles with inside drain at Rl'50
Drains i every half-ebaiu apart, ElO par acre ...
Tool«
Buildings t temporary lines
Permanent lines
Bungalow, oat-houees and furniture
CobtingencioB: inedioines and hospital charges
Survey
Statiouory, postage, etc,
Chetty’s commieuon on cash
Snperiniendenue and allowanoes
Conduotor for 6 months ... ^ ...
200
1,200
300
650
200
300
600
400
200
60
760
3,000
250
2,3o0
3,200
1,600
2,000
500
3,26!)
R18,800
0.VD Year from let July to 30th June.
Knrserics and supplying
Weeding at Rl
Roads : npiceep and culverts
Drains, upkeep
Pruning and singling
iStaklng at R4
Buildings : bungalow and furnitnre
OontingenciSB
Superintendence and allowances
2nd Year, from 1st July to 30th June.
Nursoties and supplying ...
Weeding at Rl
Roads; upkeep and widening out 3 miles luto
cart road width 10 foot...
Drains upkeep
Pruning and suckHving
Staking, retting, &u,
Building: temporary curing-house with stores
aud fan
Permanent set ef luios
flatlioriug, oui'lng aud deepatuh*of 200 cwt. at R6
Contingencies, including watchers
Superintendence aud allowances
R;}50
2,400
400
200
100
800
3,000
600
3,000
Rl 0,750
R160
2,400
800
200
300
100
500
700
1,200
1,200
000
3,0(K)
Rl(',2.‘i0
4TU Yeas, from 1st July to 30th June,
AVeeding at Rl...
Pruning and snekoring
Roads upkeep ...
Drains upkeep ...
Buildings, permanent, cleriliow, eugUie, Jto
Oatheriug, curing and deapatoli of 000 uivt. cocoa
at ^
Coutiugenoies... * '
Buperintfludenoe and allowances ... ... 3,.jOO
Conductor ... ... ... ••• 500
112,400
400
400
200
5,0(W
:,400
WO
4,000
Rl,5,700
5tk Year, from let July to 30tU June,
AVoodingat Rl
Pruuiug and suoketlng
Hoads upkeep ...
Drains upkeep
^herlug, curing and despatch of 1,000 cwt,
^oooaatE3’50
Building upkeep
Contifigeuoios ...
Superlnteudeuco and allowances ... ... 3,.>00
Conductor ... ... 500
R2,400
400
4tH)
2,-)0
3,500
200
000
Interest ou Expenditure.
fi years’ interest ou cost of land at K8 per ceut
6 years’ intorost on let year’s expeudituro at
R8 per cent on ... ■■■
4 years’ Intorost ou 2nd year’s expenditure at K8
peroouton ... ^ ... , •••.
3 years’ inttfas44rinrd year s expeudituro at R8
liitorest on 4th year's expeudituro at R»
per cent eu ...
year’s interest on 6th year’s expeudituro at R8
per cent ou ... ...
R5,000 H2,000
18,800
10,730
10,250
15,700
12,060
Expenditure for 5yours ...
Loss 1,800 cwt. cocoa sold at R45
... R01,4t6
81,000
Debt on estate at oud of 5th year
•Add for purchase of other 50 aores at K25
... Rl0,446
... 1,250
RU,6fi6
1,000
:,.'.20
3,440
2,460
2,612
004 I
H72.iW10 H18,8U0
i]J5 18,806——.
The expenditure each year after this, allowing
K3,(XK) fur manuring, would he about ... 16,500
Against which put procoeds of sale of 1,000 cwt.
cocoa at R45 ... ... ... 45,000
Year’s profit ... ... ... R28,500
Yaluo of estate at five years old with only 5 cwt
per acre—this is at tho rate of 5 years'
purchase ... ,,, ... ...R140,000
As a few remarks ou each hoading of expeudituro iti the above
estimate will make it more iutclUgible, I (diall cndeavpnv to give
this with the aid of infonuatiou reoeived from friends of larger
exporiouw than myself, on many puints oemnoeted wftli the.
cultivation of coona. Tins product being still in its InfaBoy in'
tlnylnn, no authuritativo statomciit can bn made as to tho best way
of ouitivnting it; but lucli kuowlodgs as we have has boon gained
bo experience, and ciui, thoreforo, bo relied on.
The cocoa plant has Imcn in the island for many years (perhaps
over 30 years), but till within the last six it was not systematioally
cultivatoil, ii’lu'U i):u' attontiou was drawn to this on a pro¬
fitable cultivation, wu weromost fortunate in having at our doors
u variety—pei'hup.s the very best ivu could possibly have liad—
that has pioveJ, by tho vigor of its growth, Its fruitfulnos, and tho
r.auge of elevation—from sea level to over 2,000 foot—at whioh
it will grow aud yield probably, that ills well adapted to our
climate j and tho prices realized iii the European markets leave
nothing to be desired. There are over a dozen other varieties of
oouoa in the country, but, till we hear more about them, I would
advise our .sticking to what we know to be a prime favourite
with buyers.
New estates ojwiied wore, until reconfly, plautml under the
shade of tlic f'lrest, all Ilia smalloi timlior being %t out aud tho
larger tveos left, Tliis w'as foun.l hi about tho seoond year of
growth to be hurtful In the plants, tending to draw tUum up
lanky and weakl). The jungle had, therefore, to be cut down
carefully at couHnlerablu expuuso, ami where shade lias boon loft,
it has beeu and is slill huiug gradually thinned out. I beliovo
flic gniu'ial npiuiiiii now is that direct shade is not good for
nni’oa, thougli it. romains to bo provoil wliethor light and chequered
shade is not lieneii..'i.:l,
AaHi!..-The vuiy host land that can be got should be secured
for cocoa; tho plant is a deep fcodar, aim to thrive well must
haven good suKsoU. Ihinbara, parts of Matnto, and KurunsgaU
have the iiest soils in Cvylon for its growth—dark friable
chncolnto ol great depth : tho vigor of the trues in sneli solia
sliowa how they revel in it. Hut, alas ! where are we to got soil
of Ibis lifscriptioii in any of the forests that are still remaining ?
Many id the ehciia lands in the low-country have very Hue soil
yet (the surface only has 1)0011 skiniiiiej), but the native titles are
very dofcotiie; and if cue does venture, and purchases small lot
after small lot lib ho gets a fair sized block, tho difficulties and
delays in the way of gutting a “ title of quiet posse.saion ” from
tile (iovormnout are most vexatious and almost Insunnountabie.
\A'e must therefore bo onuteiited with what we can got, aud tlukt
generally inferior soil. Light soil with a good deep subsoil li
to be preferred to one with a rich surfaoo soil, hut hard Impene¬
trable subsoil. Very stoop laud is to be avoided, but
innderattdy steep suits very well; rich fiats are tho beat. I have
only estimated H2,') pur uei-o for purohaso of land, hut, in a
fuH' years, when capital returns to the country, aud thera is a
demand for laud for cocoa, I fancy it will not be got for double
that figure, 1 bare made iiu error in oponiug tho whole of the
200 acres in the block ; to admit of opening 200 acres, the block
should liave otlicr 50 as ii reserve. Even supposing tliat every acre
was avoilalilc Ih.at is suited for planting, it would be still nooessary
to leave tielta as protuotion against wiuil, as, however well eoooa
will do without shade, it will not tolerate wind, Ou no account
should trees be felleil in n Inoality known to ho windy ; and after
tho estate is opened, lielts of suitable trees for slieltor should be
thickly planted in all exposed situations.
iVxrjrcriM,—For making those, flat laud near water should be
bo eboseu, aud they should bo in 3 or 4 different spots if possible, as
this makes tho carriage easier when planting out, Rundala of light
jungle slicks and oovui'cd with small leafy branches must be put
up, high onnugli toadmitof amau walking underneath without
stooping. Tho Burfaao soil should then be soraped into heaps, and,
the ooskuts filled with tins, well pressed down with the kuuoklos,
but not patted as the. coolie is so fond of doing ; tho baskets being
filled place them 0 deep iu a row, and to auy distauoe the spaoo wifi
allow iu length ; they must bo placed perfectly upright, and to
keep them iu that jiositiou a " varaohohi” tied to a few pegs driven
into the ground ou eilhursido of the bods will do. If earth is filled
into tho spaces botween the boskets, at about every 10 or 12 rows
across the beds, it a ill bo au advantage. This must be oatefnlly
soon to, for, if the coolie is left to hiinself (and kangaifles and oon-
dnetora are olleunotouo whit be.ttoi), tho baskets are sure to
be placed at every couceivahio angle but^ the rigbt oua. The
basliets being ill jiositiou, just put one soc<l in each about ono iuoll
below tho sinface, the hii’Hil cud downwards—Some prefer to
germinate the seed befurc sowing —after >«wiug water well. Any
sec'd that, does not grow in a fortnight should bo replaced by a
frosh one, aud this should be doug till there is not a vaoancy.
Owin’ to till’ gicatoraivi niore|^l cOiporatlort, the outside vowf
of trees iruflor i to urevent thisfltar) euth itr’irinit the bna.lrfi"iit
iidd iufisrest
464
THE INDINA AGRICULTURIST. December 1, 1883,
The plauta should be watered onoe daily, oud iu very dry weather
twine. I have allowed for enough plant to plant the clearing, and
do the first lapplying. 1 have never tried planting at stake, but
believe it is sometimes very successful. Should the soasun, how.
ever, bo a dry one, the clearing is sure to he very patchy, and I
hardly think the risk worth the money saved. Some planters aver
that they dare not use baskets, as the white-auts would bo eure to
attack them and deetroy the plants : this is not my experience,
except oil a very small ssale, hut, where it is unfortunately so,
planting mast bo done i^t stake, or plants raised in beds, the seed
being sown 4 inches apart each way, and removed by Scowen’s
trausplautor and Davidson's envelopes. This work should be
very oarefuUy done, the plants not allowed to remain over 3 months
in the nurseries, else the taproots will grow too long, and, in with¬
drawing the transplanter, the plant, instead of coming out with the
soil, will be drawn through it, and all its roots disturbed ; such a
plant will stand a poor chance in any weather. The transplanter
should be frequently dipped in a bucket of water, as It makes the
work easier, and the envelopes should be wetted and drawn
through ashes ; if this is not done the earth adheres to the envelope,
and the labor of transplanting iu many instannes is lost. The shade
over plants, whether iu baskets or in beds, should after two
months be g^uiUly removed to harden the plants. At three
mouths from sowing the seed, the plants are ready for planting out
in the clearing. Baskets for raising plants can be got at Kalntam,
delivered at the railway station, for from Kd to Il4'o0 per 1,000,
and another rnpee should land them ou the estate,
r Lining —All distances from 0 by 9 to 13 by 13 feet have been
tried, and I believe that most are now agreed that 12 by 12 is the
best ; this is, of coarse, for our ordinary red variety : the pale
green, white, and purple kinds would want 18 by 18 at least.
doling,—tiome prefer wide and deep holes—wider and dsepor
than I have estimated for—others prefer narrow and deep. The
large holes are more expensive and possibly for the first two years
the plants thrive better ; with large holes staking is a necessity,
whereas with narrow ones it may not be needed. It is well-known
that for two years cocoa plants make hardly any lateral roots,
sending down only a long tap ; during heavy rains, the soil iu a
wide hole gets very sappy, and the plant having no hold is blown
over by the IsMt puff of wind. On the other band, in the narrow
hole, the few laterals the plant does make have holding ground at
once, and they are thus stayed.
Planting. —This work should be done in the rains, and the earlier
in the monsoon the hotter One coolie will carry out and plant
from 100 to 160 plants either in baskets or transplanter envelopes,
according to the distance from the nursery and steepness of land.
Ou hill-sides, the baskets should be buried 2 inches below the lower
lip of the iiolo, so that, iu the event of any soil being washed away,
the roots of the plants will not be exposed ; the earth should be
well trampled, and the hole filled flush with the surface, to prevent
water lodging and rotting the plant,
JSkoding should be done the same day as the planting, or the
following morning, and tTUe-VcacLotiee the laavoe of which will stick
on for 3 or 4 mouths should only he used •, the best for this purpnae
are "Mora” aud " Kobella." The cost of shadfiig will depend
greatly on the facility there Is for procuring the proper shade
stuffs, aud, unless abundant near at hand, euough trees should bo
left when felling to give branches for shading, and cut down after¬
wards. In some parts of the low countiy, the leaves of the "Madu”
]>3lm are used ; they are like fronds of the tree-fern, and answer
admirably. I do not think it is necessary to cover the plant up
entirely as is usually done ; in my opinion, it is iujurtous, shuts
out sun and light, and kuops hot air enuHned ; aud if the shade is
attacked by white-ants the plant is bound to go, it cannot escape.
The plan 1 prefer is as follows £ihop your shade stuff into about
20 inch lengths, stick it upright at about 9 inches from the plant,
so that no leavfi of the plant touch it ; jmn them along north and
south for about 16 inohes thus :—
B This will protect the ][(Iant from both morifing
2J - ' I' ' • S and oveuing sun, whioU is really all tiiat is
<J needed, aud will also prevent the too rapid
if . . . " " iS drying up of the soil ; should white-onts attack
W it, the plant escapes.
Supplying. —The first supplying should be done in the early
north-east rains, aud twice more in the following year, by which
time nothing further should be ueoded.
Weeding. —This is a very imxKirtant work, aud it is very desirnble
that the clearing should be kept clean from the coinmeucemeut. If
the growth of weeds is great, weed once iu three weeks till they
are got under. It is quite possible that after a year or more the
work can be done for 75 oents per acre, but do not resort to this till
you are quite certain the rupee is excessive. 1 need hardly say,
permit no scraper or mamoty weeding 1
flooding and Draining. —These works should, if possible, be
dona before a lining psgis put iu ora bole cut—work is facilitated
and after-dun^e preveuteil, as well as a good deal of voxatiuu and
bad temper, 'Ine gradients of both roads aud drains iu the low
country should never bo steeper than 1 in 15, and for roods
Intended to bo afterwards converted into cart-roads 1 in 25, and
less if piacticable. Uoads should be cut 4 feet iu the solid, with a
foot deep and wide drain at the back of it; drains should be
18 X 18 inches. The cost of those works will depend much ou the
nature and lie of the loud ; if at all steep, what has boon estimated
will be spent; if flat, a largo saving may be expected.
I'ouh. —As a large force of labour will have to bo employed to
get through the work in proper tints, the estimate for these will
not bo too much. See that you buy nothing but gooii articles 1
Dnildtiti LiiitJi .—20 rooms, roof aud walls of cadjaus or talipots,
cau be erected at a cost nf RIO a room, site included—which will
bo water-tight and uomfortitblo and last for all the time they are
wanted ; they can be run np iu *r^w days—a groat oonsldsration, ,
i,ud there is no risk of the cooli^ij|^tohlug illness from wet mud- |
100 laborers. A good deep drain should be out oS rountf the line
to keep the floors drv. A permanent ist of rooms oan be built At
leisu re, to servo for tnose coolies who will remain after the planting
is finished. It may seem that the accommodation provided U In¬
sufficient for the large force that would have to be employed ; but
if it bo borne in mind, that, in the low country, much of the work
would be done by Sinhalese, on oontraot or day-work, and
who would live iu the neighbouring villages, it will, I think, be
found ample.
Pruning and Suchering. —In the first year, all double* must be
out away, leaving only one stem. At two veare the plant divide*
usually into three branehes or forks, and tuen begins to make a
bead. Alt cross-wood within the centre, and all shoots on the
main branehes, within one foot of the stem, should be out out
clean ; this tends to strsngthon the main branehes, and prevent*
crowding when the tree* grow older. Twice a year, a month be¬
fore blossoming seasons, say in May and December, all cross and
useless wood should be cut out, to as to let in tide light ; the crown
above should not be touched, as 1 am inoltned to think strong
sun, direct upon the young blossom, is lajarious. Some planter*
prune away ail drooping branohe* ; this no doubt improve* the
appearance of the trees, and, wh^ grown nnder snSolent shade,
I quite approve of the practioo, ra the open, however, they should
not be touched ae they serve to protect the trank from the sun,
and thus encourage the setting of blossoin along it. All suckers
should be cut away once a mouth, and on no aooonnt should they
he palled off.
dathering and Curing. —The pods when ripe assume a slightly
yellowish hue. They should be out off with a knife close to th
pod, leaving the stalk by which It was attached adher
mg to the tree. If out off close to the branch, the eyes, Ot
wbioh the future blossoms depend, would be destroyed. Tne podi
are heaped on the nearest road, and, os the busk is very brittle,
a slight blow with a light wooden mallet splits it, when the teedi
are extracted and put luto baskets aud curried to the store to bs
cured. This is dene by layiug the seeds in a heap, on a platform
of reopors and coir matting, aud covering it with bags or a tw-
Paulin. The heap is well turned every two days to eusare eqnal
fermentation, aud, ou the eighth or ninth day,aooording to ferment'
atiou, it is washed in several waters, till quite clean and free from
all mucilage. If the weather is fine, it is then spread on mats tc
dry ; if not, it is at once put into the clerihew ; three days’ sun, and
less I believe in the drying-houses, will dry it thoroughly, and it ii
then fit to despatch. Should the moisture not be dried off thi
beans the day they are washed, they will, during the night,
contract mould, which depreciates them iu value:'
Permanent SttUdinge. —A bnngahm should be begun and fimishec
iu the second your i the rooms shoaid be wide and lofty and well-
ventilated, with a verandah comiug lew down all round, anc
in malarious districts it should liave one upstair-room ns a aleep-
iug apartmoiit. The atore. site should bs chosen on a flat, opat
to the suu all day, and near wllteT, It is built on Clerihew’i
plan, and should have a steam-engine to work the fan; when
there is water, a wheel can bo employed, but in the low oountrj
few estates have sulfieiont for this. Opinious differ as to whei
the atore should be ready. One gentleman says :—" I should havi
my store aud machinery up by the time the cocoa Is 3^ yean
old," Another saysI would begin to erect permanent stores
at the end of the 4th year." I am Inollnsd to agree with thi
latter.
Superintendence. —This in the first season is allowed for 15
months, os by far the heaviest part of his work will be in the
first 8 months, from January to June ; he must be on the spot,
to give out and supervise felli"g ooutrauts, aud, immediately
after the burn, which should uot bs later than end of February,
begin nurseries, ereet lines, Ac. A couduu^or is allowed for six
mouths; after that, till the estate begins to orop, no condnotoi
is ueoded.
Yield of Crop : Estate when in full hearing. —I Iiavo ostimated
I cwt. per acre {o'- the third year, 3 cwt. for the fourth, and
5 cwt. for the fifth, and they are roasouable. I have figures
before me showing that over the ainouuta quoted have neen
icked. With trees planted 12 by 12 feet, 10 peds per tree yields
owt., and, as there are two crops in a year, only 23 pods iu
oaoh season per tree is required to give 5 cwt. per acre. I oanuot
aseertaiu when cocoa is supposed to be in full bearing; bat
opinions seem to point to 10 years, and a yield of 6 owt.
Manuring. —With our poor soils, cocoa must be manured- if
we wish to gel good crops and keep our trees in good vlgo..
I'he fifth year is uot too soon to begin this. A gentleman wntes
me 1 —“ I have manured some four years old Cocoa with great
advantage, and, when it can be done cheaply, I do not wink
that age too young, it put 2 cwt, an acre on my cocoa at an
exponcUturs of £s, 22 per acre." If resnlts as good as this were
always to follow, I should say four years old was not too yonug to
begin.
Fencing. —This is an item I have not allowed for, but It is one
that should appear in every low country estimate. A belt of
supan ten feet wide, the seeds planted 18 inches apart, will, in four
years, make an impenetrable fence. At three years old the stems
should hiilf-cnt through at three feet high and bent horizontally :
thus laid, they will coutiaue to grow and send up numbers of
suckers. A feuoe made from sticks of the burnt-off oleariug eau be
put up at the rats of about K2'50 per aero, which will keep out
cattle, aud, with a few repairs, will last iS’TUt.utf}*- Wheu the
fence is eoinpleted, sow tUiokly along it on the inslilB-*! *^ -en ds of
the troe-coltiiu, aud, as they grow, thin them out t(>lS*Tnimsei
apart. In 18 mouths you will have a live feiicu that, wltli two rows
of “ varachohis ” tied across at a very small expenditure, will keep
out all cattle, especially if you give notice iu the villages tliat the
owners of all oatclo oanghl in the estate ■without a cross pole round
their nocke will ho fined heavily. I am sure from my experience
. .7 ■, '.-,7 p,.,, -leellnn bred between sstatej
December 1, 1883.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
465
runagin and villagers through oattle-troapais, than from all other
oautei combined, and, if{tliis could be avoided, there would be very
little itealing from eatatei. This ii my experience.
Enemitt y the Ooooa Tree .—Of these, there are only two that
we know at present, and neither is very serious. On individual
trees scattered over the estate, tlie pods are seen to be spotted black,
and according to tiie virulence of the attack the pods are either
stunted in growth or killed—trees attackea one year may lie quite
free of it the next. Tliose most competent to judge say it is due to
an insect, I am watching it carefully, liut have not yet susceedud
in discovering this insect, and 1 have my doubts about it ; yet the
way that only a tree here and there is attacked, looks very much
if it were. The other enemy 1 believe to bo a /tmyu/i, thougli
this has also to bo established ; it attacks the young tips of the
branches, destroying them, and often the branch itself for a foot or
two back. The tree, however, almost immediately throws out
fresh shoots, and, in a montli's time, it would not be known that
anything had been wrong, I have occasionally seen a second
attack follow. This disease is more common when the trees ar
young, and rare 1 believe as they grow older.
, —Oeylon Obttrver.] W. J.
the first. After the third quality oomos the terra quilla. The
yellow earths, after excavation, are exposed to the open air for
about a year, by tlio pit side, without olassifloatlou. The bole,
on the contrary, is placed in well ventilated storehouses to dry
for about six months. Tins diversity of treatment it owing to
tho fact that exposure to the oloments brightens the colour of
ellow earths, and raises their value, while It would damage tho
ole by luuiiii^ its darker tint first into an orange vollow, and
if ooutiuuod, into an ordinary yeiiow eortli. It also iosos in
compaetuess and crumbles up under exposure. In addition to
the jAtnto lit oolon\ the siao of tho piece iufiucnoes tho ectu*
mereial value of tho bole, which increases with their volume.
Thus the classilicatiou is Huiu przzo. Boh yrapolino, and Boio
polrere. Tho yellfjw earths .are classed as Uiallti in petzi, Qkdlo
eommuite, and Giidtu impnlpabiie, tho impalpable being worth
more than tho common yeiiow. Tho production of tho Siena
earths is estimated at about six huudrod tons per annum of which
amount about fifty tons aro calcined, end the rest sold in their
natural eondition. Tho value of tiio trade is estimated at from
S4,000 to £6.000.
COFFEE.
THE DECLINE OF COFFEE,
I N the Wynaad Distriot, we may Infer, gold has had a hand in
extinguishing coffee, for on those estates whioh have bean sold
to gold uoinpanios, the coffee baa been entirely neglected. Cinchona,
where it has been planted, may thrive, tliough it is liable to the
depredations of similar pests as attack coffee, hut, on the otiier
hand, it does not require the annual picking, weeding, pruning,
&o., that me needed for coiVeo. The trees will grow if left alone,
but wo do not bear of fresh plantings of oiuehoua where iniuiug is
being carried on. It is bad enough for coffee to liave nearly died
out in the \Wnaad, but we read also that in Ceylon the same thing
Is going on. It appears that tliuro the coffee planter is in a very hard
way indeed. Theleaf diaease first made its appearance in the island
in 1870, and for some time oonflnod its visitations to every otlior
year, allowing an interval fur the planter to pick up hope again with
alternate good and bod seasons. Latterly, hnwevei, the blight has
appeared every year, and lias resisted ail scientific attempts to
expel it, and the result oyour years’ successive leaf-disease is tita'
a grout many planters have left the island tu seek their fortunes
elsewhere, not being in a position any longer to fight against a foe
which it appears hopeless to overoomo. 'J'hose who remain iu Cey¬
lon are turning their attention to oultivatiuu other than ouffee. Tea
and ciuohoua are tlie prime favourites, though plants from whieli
sugar and jaggery are pruduoud anile oiuuamou likewise engage
atteution. These, witli pepper, rubber and tobacco, would, there
is every reason to believe, thrive in the Wynaad. Coffee, thova is
reason to believe, thrives in the Wynaad. Coffee iioe oertaiiiiy
had a loug trial iu ludiu, some estates being now nearly half a
century oKl. Time was, when colossal fortunes were reared
from the bean. The diseases and pests which now decimate the
trees have changed all this. Meanwhile Brazil ooutiuuus tu
supply tho market with coffee, wbieli is a very fortunate circum¬
stance fur consumers of ilie bevenigo. Lcaf-diacasu is still un¬
known there, uudueweoU'co districts are opened up every yen,
Humatra aud Java already piodiicu ! irge vioiw of coffee, and in
Brifl.sli Burmah, the Commissionur is omleavDiiriiig tu luiike fiivoy
a coffee- producing district. It is by such means as theac that the
.supply will >*1’- It '‘v‘y
ouires fresh laud after a oeAaiii imuilicr of years, mi.l perliupa in
Jyule of years tlw time may oome round wl.en Ceylon and
Wynaad will again be lluuiisliing prodacers ot tlw l.erry, winch
now sneli a sourco of vexation and dtsappoiutmeut tu tho
plttiitars thei’D.— Miidi’ua I (Wiex.
mineralogy.
PEODIICTION OF SIENA. EAUTHS.
■fflTiN^L COLNAGHI, in ilia report on tlie mineral products of
I ; tlie province of Siena, says tliat Siena earths, known also
■ tlie names of oohre, bole, umber, Ac , are oonsidurod by
mineralogists to be ferruginous clays ; by others, minerals
ITiey arc cliiefly found in lorge qiiautitiua iu tlie com-
Costel del Piano and Aroidosao. 'J'lio yellow earths and
wlirfouud on tlie .western slopes of Moutu Ainiata i-.ro t.ue
, e deposits found umid the tmcl.yt.c rocks, of winch it is |
laoustni 0 q.gBy iiu under, and aro entirely covered
^rihe vegetable soil. Varying iu compactness and colour, tliey
r,,,od yellow eartlis wlieii of a clear oclireous tiul, ami
“wur* or bole, wliau of a dark chostuut colour. Ifiuch ,
eunsists for the greater part of yellow earth wliicli bole is j
f'l”? iu ““ata or small veins. The mineral being very friable,
excavation is easy, and is generally conducted in open pits, |
k different qualities arioJBparated during tbs process, tho bole
has the 'commercial value being tho more oaruinliy
first separation tho bole Is further olassoil
first aucoud, third, aud intermediate qualities—Weita. /usi iu,
.nto * > iiuportaut characteristic is termed, in
cercawm . uu^u, punlo ii colore, or tint. The value of the
u°'i"'"riaes as Ita tint deepens. Thus, bole of tho third quality
^Bghter than that of the second, and tho second than that of
THE GARDEN.
MICHAELMAS DAISIES.
A ster (not the BO-oalle<l German aster) is the scientific name
of tho very umnerous genus commonly known as Miohaelmas
daisy. In form and colour they are very various, but not very
distinct. T'licy are poreuiiials of more or less robust habit and
great bai'dincis of coustitutiou. Their chief value lies iu their late
flowering qualities. Some there are whioh flower early, such as
Alter alpitiHn aud A, Umgtfiurm /primtiu, the former appearing in
May and June, and tho latter in July aud August; but the groat
bulk of them are September, October, aud, iu some oases wliere
the uliiiiate is favourable, November flowers. They are amoug tho
last of gay hardy plants to yield their flowers in the open air.
Aud although many speak disparagingly of their leggy, ungainly
habit, aud of the difficulty of keeping them tidy even with mnoli
labour aud trouble, yet J,ll who kuow anything of them must admit
that they are tho most brilliant among the few hardy things wo can
rely upon to produce a good effeut iu the shrubbery border long
after tender things hav<- become seedy and unsightly. A very
limited selection is ail that, is wanted to supply the distinctive
features of the genus, ami yield the best of its dscoratlvs
qualities,
There aro other species of hardy lierbaoeous plants wlilch are
coming to be called Michaelmas daisies besides asters, and although
therearethe best of ail grounds fur disputing the ri^ht of any
other flower tu tlie name (tiiat of priority), yet there is no need
for us to go out of our way to dispute that which tlie public has sot
tiieir heart upon, for the publio have deolded that botanical mmee
are a bure,.and that there arosuflioieut points of reesmblanoe bstwesn
tlie memliers of aevsral autumu flowering plants beiougiug to the
same natural order, hut bearing different geueriu names, tu justify
them iu giving them one uommoii, popular name, whioh they have
decided shall be Michaelmas daisy. The aster, however, is the
best of them all, heoausu it uSers a inuuii larger number of forms
and colours than any other genus.
'i'he following is a select list of Michaelmas daisies, or true
asters, which will give satisfavtiun iu most parts of tho country ;—
.■luta'iilpinm. -Amiatdwaif plant, about 0 inches high. Tho
Ihnvnis Ill'll pah) purplish blue, ami appear iu May, lasting till July
or Aiqjust. There is a while-flow ored variety, wliieb iiiukei ii
charming contrast to the hluo ; both arc well adapted to the rock-
wui k 01 tho front lines of herbaceous borders.
AnUr rtmeUim.aud its varieties named /jnsaraiicaraiid GuaeiiUciti
are attractivi-, the two first being tho lio.st. They are alt tall forms,
with lilac or sluty-bliie flowers, prudneod in great profusion iu
iSoplonibar and October.
Adit longifiiliuifoimoiui ,—One of the very best of the spooles,
Imviug uumerouB largo flowers of pale roey lilac, which open iu
July and August.
Asia)-diH/iwui.—A tall, muoli-brancUing sort, with rather small
but very luimerons flowers of a slaty-blue colour ; flowers in Sep¬
tember aud October.
Alter turhintUus.—h. very elegant eurt, with graoefully-btanchod
eteiiLs aud tall growth, aud an immense profusion of fioweri of pais
lilac, appearing iu September aud Uotoher.
Alter ilisai or,-~K (reely-brauehed sort of moderate growth,
with very numerous flower heads, with white and violet rays.
Amoug other diatiuct and useful autumn flowering eiieoies be¬
longing to oMiur genera, and tiiat are now being uaJled Miuhacliuas
daisies, may bo montionod tho foiiowing, aa very offoutivc
Oillnrdui orMtafu.—This grows u foot or a foot aud-a-balf high.
The flower heads are lorge, aud freely produced from July till the
end of October. 'J’lioy are very sliowy, orange colour.
JJfleitiam auiumiuilo .—This is a striking nlant wliicb grows about
three feet high, produeiug largo spreading flower heads of bright
jf-llow in August, .September, aud October.
i’gi rth> urn idiginusum.- •( Inc of the most showy and statoly of all
these so-called Michaelmas daisies It grows three, four aud some-
timiiB even five feet iu height, terminating in largo trusses of large
pure white flower heads, resembling those of tho ‘ ox-oyo daisy.'
Tliey are produced iu Sopleniber and Octohor, and la some parts
of the country last till November.
titokesia cyatten .—A very beautiful wherever it may be,
quite hardy, but it is not so iu very cold parts. It grows about 18
inches high. The flower hearla are largo, deep sky blue, and
appear in September and October.—AftwjtA Urilish Agr Wttjfurwt.
m
THE INDIAN AGRICTTLTUHIST.
December 1888.
SERICULTURE.
M il. JONES, in hU report on the fttiminiutration of the Cen¬
tral Provinces for the year- 1882-83, iloscribea tiissor silk
as “the moat characteriatio.’' of the manufactures of the promnce.
The production of thiesilk is largewt in tho districts of Seoni,
Biiasjjore, Sumbulpoi’e.and Ohnnda. The rearing of the worms
being entirely in tins hands of a low, sluggish caste, called Dhi-
mars, no effort of the Goveranieut to stimulate tho industry has
proved effective. In the forest Lands of the administration,
where the industry is specially exempted from fixation, there
ih a regular system of rearing tho worms which is explained in
the report. The tree on which the worms are princi])ally fed is
the saj, ataiii, or in {ierminedia tomentoaa) ; but they feed on
other hinds of vegetation as well No special rearing sheds are
oonstructed, and all that the farmers do is to pollard the trees,
and bend their branches so ns to make them accessible to the
worms from the ground. They are permitted to wander about
at will ; but constant watching is necessary to protect them from
birds and animals. Tho rearing commences with the setting-in
of the rainy season, and is begun with wihl cocoons gathered in
tho Jungles, and not with those saved from the last crop ; aiiil
during the period occupied thus, the Dhimars, in observance of
some supemtitious custom, refrain fi-om spirit-drinking and tho
company of the softer sex. The report then goes on to explain
the process of roaring :—
The male and female moths which emerge from these cocoons are
allowed to pair, and from the eggs which result, a orop of worms is
raised during July and August. The coooons wliieh are thu.s pro-
duoed are merely used for reariug a eecou I crop in August and
September, the produce of which is the commercial result of tlio
venture. About 80 worms are, under favourable circumstances,
reared from the eggs laid by a single female moth, and about 44 pnr
cent of the mothattore females. Assuming tUerufure that u Dhiinar
commenced operations in Jmie with 25 female moths, and devoted
his first crop entirely to reproduction, his second crop would yield
over 70,000 ooooona. It may be noted that on the omerging of the
moths which result from the first orop of worms, the males fly off
at ouoe, and do not as a rule pair with the females of the same
orop. The female moths remain clinging to their empty coooous,
and are fertilized by other males from the outside, who are often,
It Is believed, attraotod from very long distances.
The ordinary tuaaer ooooous sell at from Be. 3 to 5 per 1000.
and are purchased directly by the weavers, who, having killed
the chryaolides by steaming them, wind off the silk after the
OocooDS have been steeped m an alkaline solution, which acts as
a solvent on the glutinous matter that binds the cocoon threads
together. The value of spun tusser silk in the Central Provinces
is from Rs. 6 to 10 per Slbs., which is a higher price than tho
article cummanda In the Burupeau markets,
TUSSER SILK IN CHOTA NAGPORE.
M r. HEWITT, the Commissioner, roports:—About Rs. 89,000
worth of tusser ooooous, manufactured into silk, wore
exported from Hazarihagh to Moorshedabad and other
places, while from Mauhhoom and .Singhhoom 2,500 and 10,600
kahons retiieotively of the ooooous wore exported during
the past year against the same quantity exported from
Slngbhoom and 7,500 kalians exported from Maubhoom in 1881'82.
The Deputy Oommissioners of Slngbhoom and Manbhoom are
both of opinion that tho yield of coooons in tho past year in
both diatriota was very large, though the Singhhoom ryots, to
whom 1 spoke on the subjeot, complained of the small orop tbay
bad got i while the Deputy Commisaionor of Singhhoom says
that the low rate at which they wero sold in the market
prevented a large quantity from being exported.
1 have for several years past been engaged in making eiKmu ios
about the tusser industry, whieh might possibly, under eSicient
and intelligent management, become a sauroo of great wealth to
the Division.
Tusser ooooons at present are grown either in tho juuglo tracts
of Singhhoom and the Tributary States, or iu Maubhoom and
the villages in tiie east of tlie Lohardugga and Hazuribagh
districts. Iu the juiiglo tracts they are grown chiefly in the
jungle surrounding viUages in wbtoh there is little cleared laud,
and the yield from theeo villages ii yearly deoraaiing, as the
extension of elearanoes moves tho jungles further from the
village site. More than once I have asked the psople why they
had given up growing tusser in these villages. They have said,
“Why, sahib, when we grew tneser, the jangle was close to our
houses, but now look how far off it is,” As native snpersitutiou
reqnires the tnssor grower and all liis family to submit to a
number of ascetic observances, without wiiich a good crop cannot
be expeoted, the people naturally give up growing a crop which
entails so iiiueh trouble and long jouriiBy to the jungles, when
they can get very nearly if not quite as largo profits from crops
grown close to their iloors without half tlie labour and annoyance
required by the rules of tns.ser cnitivatiou.
In the more oultiviil.'1 villages of .8iughhoom, Lohardugga,
Manbhoom, and -East Hazariliagli the tusser worms are fed on
pollarded asnu trees, some of which have been planted for
the purpoee, but the gi^ter number are remnants of tlie
jungle which ouoe surrounaed the village. Tlie usual number
of treei'tondsd by each man is from 10 to 20. The average yield,
os to W I conld a»aeVt(y|g||rom aaquirlM made from a number
c
of tusser cultivators In Slngbhoom, !s about 80 ooooons per tree,
though in a good year a tree ough t to yield about 100 ooeoons,
so that the average number of ooooons yielded by an average of
15 trees is abont 450 ; and if the price paid be 8 annas per 80
cocoons, all that he and bis family get for their watch of abont
a month, ooutinued day and night, is a little more than Rs. 5-8.
If this were all that could be looked for, the number of people
who would go through the drudgery of watohiog, and tho minute
observances as to oleaiilinoss ana food necessary, would be very
small. It is only tho chance of a bumper orop of 100 coooons or
more per tree that Induces cultivators to try their luck in the
trade. Tho number who cultivate tusser is yearly decreasing
and will deoluie very considerably in a series of years if hanvf
raiu and wind should make the yield as bad as it was last year
iu Eastern Lohardugga.
On tho other hand, a largely inoreaslng demand for tusser is
springing up in England, and during my stay there last year,
1 visited Maclosfieltl, and spent some days with Mr. Brookie-
burat, who owns the largest silk mills in that oity, and discussed
the subject with him, and Mr. Wardle who superintended the
reparation of the dyed silk sent by tho India Office to tho Paris
Exhibltiou, is the head of a large dyeing firm at Lech, and has
boon for years engaged in making exporimenta In dyeing
tusser.
From what I learnt from them, and from some oorrespondenon
1 have had with Mr. Wardle, it appears that tho Engliali
silk firms arc prepared to take any quantity of tusser w.aste at
at from is. to In. M. a pound, but that higher prices for unieolod
silk would not now pay in England, while at anything like present
rates fur ooooons hero this price would bo utterly unremunarative.
Now they can get largo supplie.s from Olilua at these rates, but
tliey have no inforiiiation wUothor those supplies will keep pace
with tlio inoreasiug demands of the trade, or whether the Cliina
worm which feeds on the oak-tree is domesticated or foods iu tho
jungles. In tlie latter ease tho supply is not likely to be largely
increased, and a rise in priaea, if the demand still continues,
may, if tlio work of production could be reduced, make tho
export of Indian tusser waste pay.
The Ohina tusser silk is naturally white, and doc.s not require
bleautiiug, whereas it is a very difficult matter to bloaoli the
Indian tusser. The latter is, therefore, much more expensive than
the Cliiiiese for all white silks, and eau only compate with it at
present prices in dyad goods and those of its natural colour ; but
Mr. Wardle writes to mo on the 10th March this year—“ I should
be much delighted if ludiau tusser could raptaoa Chinese ; 1 find it
is proferred by the spinners.” But except when used as waste, he
says—" It must bo reeled where labour is cheap,” as it will not
pay fur reuliug in England.
The price of reuluJ China tusser given by him in tho letter above
quoted is from 5s. to 5>. 9d. per pound ; but to make a pound of
silk according to Major Cousinafccr’s experiraoiits requires
average of 436 cocoons ; am} though the cocoous of Chota Nagpoi-a
are larger than those of Bombay, where Major Cousmakur's experi-
meats were uiaile, yet, as far as 1 learn from enquiries among the
natives, his estimate must be considered to represent very fairly
the outturn from cocoons in this uuuutry. At the rate of eight
annas for eighty cocoons, the cost of obtaining a pound of silk
would be mure than Rs. 2 8, or about the prioo of tlio best rculud
Cliina silk at home without tho cost of reeling. Therefore, before
even reeled tusser can pay exporters well, the prioo at home must
ho inoraasod, or tlie cost of production must be materially reduced.
Feeding tusser worms on asiiii trass will never pay, us tho tree.s
oovor n largo sp.ico, and tiic yield of the number of trees winch
one or one famdy eau look after is very small ; but if ryots ooald
bo induced to plant hedges of Lariei'almma /itfftca (a shrub on
which Major Cousmakei suooessfuliy reared cocoous iu Bombay)
in the gardens close to their hansel as Htby now plant opium and
Vegetables, the yield of ooooons oould be very largely increased.
On an acre of wide spreading asuii trees only about 440 trei'S,
yi-dding an average crop of about 13,000 cocoons, oould bo grown ;
whereas Major Cousinaker has reatod an average of 20,205 coooons
to tho acre on and probably more oould be reared
on hedges close to a ryot’s liouse, and constantly looked after
by hiinsclf and his family. But of oourse the ryots will not do
this witlioiit tho hopes of a large profit, and they must, tliereforo,
iio able to get from tiie small patches of Layersfive'ftw tiiey can
plant in their gardens more than they now gat from the few
osun trees they can look after. If a man now gats au average
only of about Rs. 6-8 and the industry is dooUning, it will "squire
at least an average receipt of Rs. 8 to make tho oultlvatiou ti » - ’ ■>—
popular ; while, if it could bo increased to Rs. 10, tho number
of tusser onltivators would be very largely increased, but only
If a family can look alter about an aero oT hedge planted about
two feet apart, and it is only by experiment that an area a family
cau look after can bo asoertalued. In order to make a profit on
reeled silk at present prices, it would, oousideriug the expenses
of setting up and maintaining filatures with reeling machines,
added to those of supervision and transport, be necessary to be
able to buy tho ooeoons at not more than 2s. or lie. I for the quan¬
tity required to make a pound of silk. This would be about in
round nambers 440 cocoous or 110 for 4 annas—a price much less
than that now given; but if, on tho other hand, the average
yield could be raised to 20,000 cocoons au aure by substituting
Loysnsfrismia hedges forasun trues, a ryot could on oii-'-fifth of
an aore procure cocoons which ho w.euld soil for nearly Rs. 10 r
the filature.
Here, however, another question would ariay^i‘“ '’bj » vot
and bus family look after more than one-fifth of an acre T—aba',
they could not, 1 very muoh Uonbt whether the prospiot of get¬
ting only Rs. iO would be held by the more euterprismg ryots,
sacli a« Kooicies and KoormU, who would alone undertake the
oultivatioa of a L»smtr»mv>, pLoti to bt lufilcient to oottpeuate
December 1,188 S,
T-HE INDIAN AGRIOULTTJRIST.
467
them for thdr trouble, espsoially as the coooons must be lirougtit
to the filature before tills prioe could be got, I am ofraH tliis
would detract greatly from the attractions which the rcccipl, of
Es. 50 for the crop grown on aa acre would present if tusser only
ruipiired the care roqusite for ordinary oropa. Therefore, even
supposing that a pioneer of the trade did appear possessed of the
very sure nualitics necessary to overcome prejudices of the ryots,
the capital necessary to make a profit after many failures, and a
patience not easily discouraged, the success of his endeavours
birjmld^ bo doubtful; but jf he did succeed, I believe tlist, owing
to the increasing demand for tusser, ho would make a largo fortune
provided the facilities for incroasiug production iu China arc uot
greater than those in India; and as one successful experimentalist
•would find his example followed by many others, tlio wealtli of
the country would be enormously increased by a large and pros¬
perous trade, which would, owiug to the cheapness and abnud-
nuoo of labour which the country will probably always furnish,
and tho probable absence of oompetitfuu from other countries if
Chinese tusser is once beaten out of the market, be likely to bo
permanent ,—Oalculta Oaxettt,
TEA.
COLONEL MONEY ON TEA MANUFACTURE,
tradition of a good tea for mixing purposos, still retains tba
following pariigrapli
Till’ Lxij'ior .— III taste tliis should be strong, rasping, * and
pungent, wilti, in tile case of Pokoca, a ‘ Pekoe flavour.’ Tiier*
arc other words used in the trade to partionlariso certain tastes,
Imt UiK words tiiemsiilvoH would toacli nothing. Tea tasting
cannot lie Inamt from books, tj tho liquor is well flavoured,
as a rule, the darker it is iu the cup tho hotter. But to
judge of tuns by tlie colour of the liquor alone is impos-
sihlc, for some high class teas have naturally a very pole
liquor.”
In India largely, in Ccyloii wholly, teas are now made to be
usod on tlicir own morits and not as fortifiers of weak China stuff.
Wo do not suppose that the taldc described in the following para*
grapli has yot reached Ceylon : —
“An iugemous planter, a Mr. McMeekin, in Cachar, invented
a roiling table with the object of separating the said leaves. It
is constructnj of hattoiis, ami while rolling the leaf on it, many
of the small leaves fall through. The said tabic is now well
known in Cachar, and is in use in several gardens. 1 have tried
it, and find that iu a groat m«a.sura answers its olijeot, but
the objection to it hs that tlie loaf bo rolled lightly,
and lightly-rolled leaf, as observed, docs not make strong
tea.
“ Tlio Pekoo tips may he, iu a great measure, preserved by
rolling a/l tho loaf lightly mi a common table. But then again the
tea is woak, and the plan will not give so many Pekoe tips as
AND MACHINERY.
T he preface to the first edition of Col. Money’s Prize Essay
on Tea Cultivation was dated Jiovonibcr 1870, .aud stated
that tlio Essay embodied the results of eleven years’ previous
cxperiiiuco. The fourth edition, published in July this year,
eontains, tlierefore, tho mature cuHclusions of a full quarter
of a contnry of experience of tho eulr.ivatiou and iiianufaoturo of
tea, in such widely separated and ditt'eriug portions of India as
Darjeeling, Chittagong, the Nilgiris, and the Dooars. Had Col.
Money paid a visit to Ceylon beioro tliis latest edition of his wcik
w.is isHiicd (and it is strange Im lid imt, considering the ties
wliich bind him to tills island), he would have received inform¬
ation and seen for hirtisulf a skate of things which might
have led him to reverse some of his opinions, and deal mure fully
th.an he has done wiHi one of the youngest but not the least
promising of the to,a countries of the world. When Cd. Money
eommoiiced hi.s earner as a tea planter, the idea that Cej Ion,
already tho third coffee country in the, world, slnmld threaten
oecii the supremacy of Darjeotiug, Assam, and Cachar as a prodne
of tea, would have seemed as propostorou.s as the assertion, that
ere long tea would bo tolled, fifed, and largely sifted by
machinery, and without llin use of chiiroo.al as a fuel. To
Col. Mouey Indian ten planters are largely indebted ior the
simplifioatton of the manufacturing iirocBssea, huiI tho discovery
that the ooppor pans which the Cliinese Jiad usod for many
contnrios, and to which they still adhere as tcnaoionsly as
they do to ancestral traditions generally, are iu leality super
fluouB, But time and experience were necessary to convince him
and other ea.ly planters, that liand-rolliiig couhl be compli'tuly
superseded by macliiuory, and that tho detergent fumes as well
as the clear, intense heat of charcoal was not necessary to the
anttiirn of tho best tea. Writing ^f the final firing before pack¬
ing, Col. Money states
Though I know many planters think the fumes of cliurcoal
necessary and beneficial for the last drying, I do not. 1 have
tried botli sun and charooal, and no difference was pcre.oplilde.
The former coats notliing, is more commodioua, and I always
apply it when possible. Tlie sun cannot burn the te.is ; the
onarcoat, if the heat is too great, may.
** Whether you use sun or oliarconl, pnt the tea hot into the
boxes. The only object of the final drying is to diiie off tlie
moisture, which tlie tea will certainly, m a more or leas dugr-e,
have imbibed siiieB its nianufactnie. Even the large ziucdiimd
bins’ which should bo fitted up in all tea store.s, and in which
tho‘tea is placed after manufacture, will uot prevent ontiidy
damp, BO ill all oases a finnt drying is necessary.” .
•Wis believe that few lea niamifactiirers now resort to smi,
excepting perhaps tlie makers of green tea in the uortli-
^^t Himalayan districts. Wo siiould like to know, however,
the extent to which, if at all, sun-heat is utilized by tea manufac¬
turers in Ceylon. Col. Mouey states ; —
<• Sunning between tho fermenting and firing processes has no
effect whatever on the liquor or the out-tnru, but it makes the
tea rather blacker, as it drives oft' much of the moisture in th«
roll tho firing process after it is shorter and docs uot cousnmo
BO mnoh charcoal. What little ufl'eot therefore it has i.s good (for
if uot continued too long, it does not make tlie tea too
black) and it is economical. 1 therefore decided on retain¬
ing it.
“ At tho and of the season, however, sunning has more tliau
the above effect. It then makes the tea ‘chubby’ in fmm,
of a reddish ooionr, and improves tlio strength of tlie
liquor.”
Col. Money, jn the tiflW edition of his book, after “ Maimhae-
^ txire.’ ’ Mechanical Centrivauees.'’ He leans to excess
TjBWWvfinn dofloioncy iu withering process; and as to rolling,
the result of his experience is that “ in nil but the point ol
pekoe tips, hand-rolling is better,” No doubt tlio tliorough
breaking up of the leaf oells brings out tho strength of the tea,
pekoe tips, hand-rolling is better,” No doubt tlio thorough
breaking up of the leaf oells brings out tho strength of the tea,
provided the juioos bo re-absorboil and the process of " forincutu-
tion” well-performed so as to avoid equally “rasping” pungency
v-d •flostonlsM” liquor, Col, Money, adheiiug to the Indiwi
McMeekiu's loble.
“ In sliort, in the present state of our knowledge, except by the
hand piocess (a teifious and expensive one for soparatiug tha
leaf), strong teas inul I’okoc- Ups arc inoompatihle.
“ Tho dilficulty is just where it was, and will so remain nnti!
dealers give up asking for I’ckoe tips (uot a likely thing), or till
a muehiue is inventi’d to separate quickly and cheaply the two
said small leaves from tlie others q/fer they have been all picked
togotliei’. Tlnit sueh n machius is possible I am eortain, and tha
iuventnr would cenfci e humi on the tea interest far beyond tha
inventor nf any ether niarluiic, for all the otiicr processes
can be done by hand ivUInnit inneli expeus.i : tliis nininot.”
Col. Money then goe^ mi lu notice sueh machines and ooiitrivancss
as he kiinivs of for viieapeuiiig tlie uiauufai'ture Of tea. Kin-
mend's rulliiig-inaemin' Iw originally considered the liest, although
he did not bolifive in ani' luauliine entirely superseding baud-
loliing iiiiUI he had seen .laokson’s whioli Imishos the TOlling.
The (lifivruiit eoiiditimis in India and Ceylon are strikingly
appci'ent in tlie fact tint Ciil Money, while speaking of manual,
animal, wiinl and steam power applied to machinery, _ does
nut nn-ntioii waters wlucli is availalde for tin' vast maj'ority
of our Cuyhni teiiestiit.es, Oul. .Money mention.s, without having
seen it, a roiling michine invented by a Mr. (libbou, and a good
deal used iu C.ioliar. Col. Money wrote :—
“ lonly know (if nno other leu rnUiiig-macUino, which isNelson's.
ft (lot's not proic.s.s to do more th.aii iiremre tbs gresii leaf for
rolling, which, as staled iiliovo, is, I thiiiii, all that any machins
will ever do. I Irave never soon it working, but it appears
simple, being iioliiiug more Ihnii a mangle. The leaf is p'a4«d
ill b'igs, ami tie'll eomprnssod under ruilar.s attiioho-i to a box,
weigbted with stones. Tho prospectus states, it will prepare-8011).
griiou loaf ill filteoii minutes, and that one man can then finish as
inuoh ol such prepared leaf in throe minutes as would occupy him
twelve minutes if tiie same had imt lieim prep.arad. I see nothing
unlikely in tliis. The inaeliiiie, though interior to Kinmond's in its
iirniugomoiit, oiii/K' to bo ciieap enough to bring it within the
rcueii of all.”
Unfortunately it is not. It is advertised at B300, .with a
yearly royalty of KiO the first year, and 20 after. The royalty
ihould bo dioppod, and tlio machine sold for B160, which wonla
Jive the inventor a good profit.”
We quote again :—
“ 1 liavu ulioa'iy sp ikeu of one of McMeekiu’s iiiventioall, His
'to'st-of-drawers for liring tea is, I think, superior to his batten
table. It is now so well known, ami in such general use, that
I simtl doscribe it very shortly. Hi.s nothing more than a low
eliest-of-drawers, or trays fittotl in a frame one iihnve the other,
tlio bottom of each tray being tiiic Iron wire, so that the heat
of tile charcoal, iu the m.asom'y receptacle over wiiioh it is
placed, osoouds througli ail the drawers and tlins dusk or fire*
a largo quantity of ‘ roll ’ at the same time. By tlw' bid plan,
a single wicker sieve was inserted inside a bamboo frltme oalloil
a ‘ ilbolo ’ wliich was placed over a oharooal fire made in a
hole iu tlie ground. On the sieve the roll was placed, «nri all tlia
heat, after passing througli this niv sieve, was wasted. Mr.
MoMcekiu’s idea was to economise this heat by glassing H tiirOugb
several drawers.
“ Moat planters uao those drawers, and there is no doubt in the
space saveii, and tho •oouomy of heat: it is a great step in
advance over the old liarhaioiis metliod, where not only was ths
heat wasted after passing thiough o«e sieve, but a grimt deal wai
lost through the basket-work of the * dholo’ itself.
“ titUl 1 do uot advocate four, still less five drawers one above
tlie otlier. I think the stream ascending from tho lower drawers
must, more or less, injure tlu' roll lu the iijipcr on s. I conftno
luyseif to two, and even then in tin; top tray leave a small
circular space vacant iiy which tho steam fiom the lower drawer
can eseapo. 1 utilize ttic lioat that e,scapes, partially, by plaoiog
‘ dhallas^ iu tiers above, with i-'iU in them. These are supported
by iron rods let into the wail,, and are useful not only for
partly drying the roll, but also for withering leaf wheu there
Li no «uu. ’
, It would thus appeal-that -MuMeskln btA Mkttoipated the
i main principles of the siroem »ud drine now ia uw. CeU
468
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST> December 1,1883.
Money finally notlood An atU’ertiaement respecting Jaakeou's
eifliug machine, and said its larger size than those previously
In use might bo in its favour. A machine for sifting and fanning
tea at the same tim ■, Col. Money had used, but it did not enrt
the teas with any nicety, and, although it fanned tlio tea well,
that process might lie done by muoli cheaper appliances. A
daoksou’e elfter is doing very good work on Abottsford. Spaoe
and light. Col, Money truly says, are the groat wants for wither¬
ing leaf in wet weather. Col. Money believed in tea-houses made
of iron and glass, and, when the third edition of his book
was passing through the press he was sending out glass for a
tea-finnsB. Ho has not, in the fourth edition, related the result,
but we oan have no doubt it wai good. Colonel Money correctly
states
“ One and the prlnolpal raason why Indian Tea is stronger
than Chinese is tnat in India the sap or jnloe is generally
retained, while In China it is, strange to say, purposely
svastedl”
But Mr, Siller in England, Mr. Everard in Melbourne, and
others whose interests were ipeotally wrapped up ia China tea,
indulged in the most vehement and senseless denunciations of
Indian tea, oi awfully unwholesome, lust because the juice eon-
taining the strength of the tea was not thrown away! After
dosoribiug the varloos operations in tea manufacture, Colonel
Money wrote
“ All the above operation,s should be carefully oonduotod, but
I bellovo the seoret of good Ton consists simply in—stop¬
ping the fermentation at the right moment; and, aeoond, In
commenoing to drive off tht moisture immodiatojy after.”
“ In this artiole wo have dealt only with Col. Money’s iuoldontal
allusions to tea machinery in his chapter on the " Cultivation
and Manufacture of Tea," hut In the fourth edition tliore is
a chapter of no fewer than 47 pages devoted to " Tea Machinery,”
to which we shall advert in a farther article. Meantime, we may
say that Col. Money pronoutioos as strongly Iti favour of
Kinmond’s drier, as he previously did for Jackson’s roller.
Kinmond’s drier wo have not seen, hut our experieaoe of Jackson’s
Is very favourable, although we are not yet able to say what
the ooneumption of fuel in tlie proportion to work done is, as
compared with Davidson’s siroooo and Kinmond's drier.—OeyJoit
Obiei-ver.
TOBACCO.
NOTES ON TOBACCO CULTURE IN TUR ANAND,
PITLAD AND BORSAD TALUKAS OF THE KHAIRA
COLLECTORATE, OUZERAT.
M10BACC0 is planted In th« *• OoravuVaYstat " lands, wliiuh
,L must ha well manared to receive ft. The land must be
ploughed 8, 10, or 12.times and one blgha* requires 20, 2,o, or 30
oartdoads of manure. The more manure ts applied, and the more
the land is stirred by the plough, the more plontiful will bo the
crop, apd bettor the tohaooo. In one blgha about 8,000 plants
are set,Vhon the tohaooo ie out, a fow of the stalke arc loft etand-
Ing, an4 these tend out ihoota, which flower and produce the seed.
But it is not necessary to water these stalks or to take any trouble
about them, and usually only about 20 are left for seed in each
bigha. This seed is sown after the first fall of rain iu July,
on a .small piece of ground, well ploughed aud manurod
to reoMve it, and made up into little beds like garden
groundj and If rain does not fall in duo time, it must bo
watered. The youug plante are ready to be traniplauted into
the fields in a month, or a month aud half. If thoy are
good and plentiful, one blgha of them will servo to plant
So bighai, ,or if inferior 20 biglias ; when those plants are sold by
one oulnvator to another, they bring Rs. 1, 2 aud sometiinea 3
aooordiug to their demand for as many as will euffioe for one bigha
of land. When the land is q^uite pulverized, and ready to receive the
plants, a large rake (jesli) having 3 or 4 teeth at a dlstanoc of 1
and .3 tuaui (nearly two feet) from each other, is dragged over
the field lengthwaye and oroesways, eo as to divide it iuto squares
and wherever tliese Hues iuterseot each other, there the plants are
set in, 1^' instrument also ensures to eradicate weeds nut of the
soil. The plauting takes place during the Intervals of fair weather
within the uut fitteen days oi August, aud the first fifteen days of
Septembei;,, and it requires the land to be moist. If no rain faUs for
a montb 0 ?sofurrows must bo made with the plough, and water iot
Into them, The young plants,, when sot, must bo watered two or
three times, aud if the sun be powerful, must be shaded until
they take root. Should tain fall every iS or 20 daye afterwards
water is not required, bat if a whole month intervenes without
a shower, the tobaoco must be irrigated. After the monsoou.
It requires watering every 10 or 12 days, and if the watsr
be a little salt, it is preferable to the perfeotly sweet water. There
are four kinds of tobacco, “Talapdi” “Khandeshi,” “ Ilaichi,”
and ‘‘Gandis,” but only two of these ars produced hero, namely,
" Talapdi ” “ aud ” " KUandoshi,” of which the " Khandeshi ”
has a large thick leaf, and that of the " Talapdi,” thin and
•mall. ThebMlaud worst sorts of tohaooo are not the produce
* One bigha is equal to ^.fiOO^uarc feet or a square of 100' by 100'.
> fiOUa]^N BATS.
Oleari oat rats, mioe,' roaches, Sius, ants, bed-bugs, beetles,
loieots, akunkA uhipaiankt, togigt*’ Urogglsts, B, ». Uadou k
On., ‘FliiBtoi’r.. Om.: '’mt
of particular fields, but depend on the labonr, care, and skill
of the oul jvator, a id in some degree, on the quality of the water.
The ” Khandeshi” tobaoco also weighs more than the “ Talapdi,”
The tobacco takes 6 and 6} months to ripen. It is particularly liable
to two misfortunes, one of thoio is the “ him” or frost in the “shialu”
or oold season, and the other is the rain wMoh sometimes falls
about the " holi ” when it is out and lying out in the fields to dry.
The tobaoco is ent during ths last 15 days of February and during the
first 15 days of March. After the "Divall” and end of October, it is
necessary to go throngh the fields from time to time to out out th'^
sprouts whioh the plant throws out for flowers, as unless these ar'r
removed, the leaves lose the sap neosssary to give them their proper
fiavour, liVhen the tobaooo is ripe. It is classed into ” kalla” and
"gardo.” That which is thought good enough for "kalia” is cut down
stalks and all, and placed in the field in rows to dry. It remains thus
10 or 12 days, and is then tied up in the early morning, while moiat
with dew, and carried horns and mads np there into bundles, with
as much axpedltion as possible; it is the labonr of 5 or 6 days to tie
np the produce of one bigha, and that of 10 days more to have ths
bundles, properly turnsd, dried, and made fit for sale. If the sale
does not take plqpe by thie time, the bundles are turned every 7 or
8 days till they are disposed. It is an object to sell tobacco, as soon
as possible, as It loses weight by keeping, and requires much
looking after. The leaves of the piante that are looked upon as
"javdo” are removed from the stalke with the bark, and allowed
to dry on the ground for 12 or 15 daye upside down, and are, then,
brought homo little by little. The large leaves are then separated
from the smaller ones, and the whole is made up into bundles,
having layers of large aud small leaves alternately. The “ kalin”
tobacco Is used for the “ hooka” and for snuff. The “ jardo” is
used for chewing end for " biris,” The tobaooo grown here is
considered to he the finest, aud a sample cured under European
agency and forwarded to Bnglaud fetched a higher price than the
American tobaoco, but the process of curlug is not known, and
heuoe the tobacco as made ready for ealo by the cultivators and
forwarded, to Etig'and did not even pay its own freight. I shall
tliorofore foel obliged by you or any of your readers giving the
entire method of curing tobacco ae practised in America or at Manilla,
BO as to enable the growers here to compete in the market ol
Loudon,
V. S. VYAVAHARKAE.
INDIAN CHEROOTS.
I NDIA supplies herself with cheroots as well as with tea, but no
one will venture to say that her churuote are at all equal to het
tea, though the latter is just a»maah a manufactured article ae ths
former, aud much more dilUouIt to produce iu approved merchaut-
aliia {uTtii. Ths tea industry is much more recent in this country
than tlio oheroot luclustry, aud we would naturally oxpeot to bo
able to get better ohoroote than tea. But the fact is othorwiee.
Aud strangely enough, while the price of teas of every quality is
being lowered, the price of cheroots is steadily increasing. Again,
while the quality of all teas is itnproviug, the quality of all che¬
roots is, if not dogQuoratiug, certainly not improving. The only
oonolueion wo canoome to from tlioso facts is, that the tea indus¬
try is in the haiuls of a morn iutolligeut class thau the charoot in¬
dustry. The cheroot' manufacturer seems to understand howto,,
fix the price of his produce on the political economy law of supply
aud demand, but ho falls to appreciate the pecuuiary advan¬
tages to be derived from an improved quality of production. In
this respect he appears to bo la tho last degree oonservative, and
to take for the rule of his life tho motto, “ As it was In tho begin-
nig, is now, aud ever shall be; ” and eo the quality of the Indian
ohoroota of 1883 is no hotter than those of 18.13. While Manilla
competed with India in cheroots of the higher qualities, it was
not to bs expected that the mautifacturs of cheroots iu this coun¬
try would improve very much, if at all. Up to the middle of the
present century, aud for ten or tifleou years thereafter, Manilla
supplied the Indian market to a cousidarable extent with oberooti
of the higher qualities, and Southern India, of whioh Tciuliinopoly
was ths chief mnufactiiring town, was oontunt to supply the
cheaper and lower quality of artiolo. Tho prloe of the ^iMt
quality of the Miuilla manufaitura was about six tii^^
grater than that of the Trichitfopoly mauufaoturo, This
being the case, it seemed hopeless to expect auy part of Southern
India, Lower Beugal, or even Triohinopoly itself to make an at¬
tempt to oompete with Manilla, It wae said that the best quality
of Indian tobaoco wae far liiftrior to the medium quality of the
best Manilla tobaooo, and that the best quality of Maullla tobaooo
lonld not be grown in India at all. Under this view of tho indus-
,ry we oan well understand why no efforts were mads to improve
ihe beet qualitiee of Indian tobaooo. But for the last fifteen or twen-
.y years the Maullla chsroot supply has been lost to India, and the
quality of tho present importations from that oouiitry are probably
'uferior to that of the best Indian obercots. Fractioally, the Man¬
ila supply has goue, and the Indian cheroot manufacturer has
rlrtuallp a mouopoly of the trade in thie country. But as we
have said, he has uoue nothing to improve the manufacture, while
he baa advanced the price of hia produce at Ikast 105^ per cent. At
first sight, this oonditiou of a rapidly-growing anu >>.a sil;Pay Ing
iudustry appears dif&oult to undarstaud. It seems eltliW IkM*
'‘ BUOHU PAlj^
Quick, complete cure, ail annoying Kidney, Bladder and Urinary
Diseases, DroggUts, B. S, Uadoa k Oo„ Bomlny, Gmeml
A'isota.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
469
December 1, 1883.
---■■=
tho whole cUbb of cheroot tnanufooturcrs in this 'country are in
capable of discerning their own pecuniary interests, or tliat it is
impoBsiblo to improve the quality of tho Indian tobacco or quality
of the cheroot offered for sale in the Indian markets. When wo
consider the variety of climate and tho various qualities of the eoi
in this country, there appears to',bo no good reason why the bes'
qualities of tobacco at least cannot be improved. The qualities o
tea, coffee, cotton and wheat have been vastly improved, and to-
booeo, we think, Is capable of some, if not of equal, Improvement.
Tea growing and manufacture have been atudiod in China by Indian
planters ; why should not tobacco plantersand cheroot manufactur¬
ers go and study the growth of tobacco and the manufacture of
oheroota'^in Manilla ? The result would pay, we feel assured.
Whatever may be the difficulties in the way oi improving the qual¬
ity of tho oheroota supplied by India to her own markets, if tliere
are any rcai diffioulties at all, the fact stands out clearly and la¬
mentably that the Indian cheroot manufacture is not a thriving,
but prorably a declining, industry—certainly for the higher quail-
ties. It may be said uat the manufacturer is quite satisfied so
long as he can sell the whole of his produce at a paying rate, and
that he has no induoement to Improve the manufacture. This view
is both oommecoially unsound and dangerous, and is calculated to
raise competition ones more from without, or to make the con
Burner seek tobacco of other qualities, suoh os are used in thi
cigarette and the pipe.
Apart from the question of Improving the present quality of
Indian tobacco, there is sufficient cause of complaint in regard to
Indian cheroots as now manufactured, Tho chief object wliich
the manufacturer seeks to accomplish is apparently to produce
quantity, especially in the high-priced cheroots. Thus we find
ourselves provided with cheroots of Inoonveuieut length and
thickness, dimensions such os smokers do not want. These
dimensions are wrouglit out by tlie unpardonable sin of packing
the interior of the cheroot with tobacco stalks. This packing
with stalks should be made a felony at the least, and be punish¬
able under tho Penal Code. The smoker does not want tho stalks
in ills cheroot ; nay, he totally objects to tliein, inasmuch as they
destroy tho fiavonr of tho tobacco anil cause many a elicrnot, w hiuli
might otherwise be smoked, to bo thrown away uucousumed. If
stuffing cheroots with tobacco stalks is little less than a swindle,
what shall be said for the other vexatious proceeding of tlio manu¬
facturer, sis., that of mixing tobaccos of various qualities lu oiio
cheroot, and cheroots made of different qualities of tobacco m tho
saino box ! Tliis diversity of produce is a sore evil. 'The pur¬
chaser is first deluded iu the purchase of his cheroots, and after¬
wards disappointed whigi using them. It is tho wide experience
of tho users of Indian cheroots that the qualities even of the best
and most highly-priced cliorouts aro seldom or never similar,
Various qualities are to bo found even iu small boxes of 100 and
iu bundles of 20, while it is dtlfioiilt to procuro the same quality
of tobacoo twiue over wlieu similar boxes are pur'based from tho
same dealer. How often it the Slacker coustraiuod to throw
away about half-a-box of oberoots because of the difl'ercuco in the
quality of the tohaoco. This waste doubles the price u! the
oherunt to the oousumer. Years go on, and tfioso villaincua
practices of paokiug cheroots with tobaoeo stalks, of mixing to¬
baccos of difioreut qualities in single cheroots, of paokiug oberoots
iiianufactured of illlTurout qualifies of tobacco iu the same box,
and supplying cheroots of differout qualitios of tobacco under the
same name ami brand, continue with unabating regularity, cousing
tho user to believe that tho mauufaeturer docs not distress himself
iu the least about tho claims of oonscieuco. The u.sor of the luiiiau
cheroot, who pays Es. 2.5 per 1,(X)0 for his puroliaso, really ex¬
pands Rs. 50 per 1,000 in the article, hceuuse of the variety fa the
cheroots ho buys. It was never so with tho higher brands of
Manilla cheroots, for all weje equal iu quality, and uoiio wore
thrown away uncoaaumcd.* For many years some of tho long
established iJombay European firms imported the higher-priced
oberoots from Manills for tlioir friends. The quality was always
good, ami tlie price fair. Subsequently John Treaelirr engaged in
the business, and the supply was always reliable and satisfactory.
The price for Ko, 1 cheroots ranged from Rs. 80 to Rs. 100 per
1,000, which may bo considered high in comparison to the price of
trichys ’’ and other similar manufactures, but the Manillas wore
always of equal quality, and practically tho purchaser of 1,000
obWned that number of useable cheroots. The manufacturer
supplied what the moi'k on tho box declared the coptcuts to be,
aud the purchaser was never disappointed. Now that there is no
hqn^*l a supply of tho quality of cheroots from Manilla, tho
<IBnm manufacturer should wake up to ids own interest, and im¬
prove his produce iu the way we have iudieatod. Tlie public have
borne the existing impoaition long and patiently enough ; it is now
time we should have a little reform. Bombay has a large number
of cheroot deMers t many of these dealers seem to be able to se¬
cure a living 1^ dealing In cheroots alone. Surely, some of these
dealers oau lomienoe the mauufaeturer suffioiontly to put a stop
to the unreasonable practices which cheek the growth of what
ought to he a great Indian mauufactcro. Let the Indian
cheroot manufacture bo brought up to the improving level
of the tea manufacture, and tho public will bo satisfied.
It Is sod to see a thriving industry degoueriitiiig iu the days of its I
prosperity, at the risk of oommeroial suicide .—Bombay OaztUe,
~ " THAT HUSBAND^F MINE ” ~
^ Is tliroe times the man he was before he began using “ Wells’
■palth Rouewer.” Druggists, R. S, Madou & Co,, Bombay,
WANTED
P BICKLY COMFREY ROOTS, State weight In pounds per
rupee Babbits for breeding, of pare ogtiw oolOT,— Address
S, B.i Fwt Office NftlaM-IkL
GOODALL’S
Household Specialities.
TO&KSHIRE REUSB
The IMost Delicious filauee in the World.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Awarded Klg;ht Prize Dedals.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
5,000,000 Hollies tiolsi Auniially.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Kitrlelies Hot Joints. Moiips, MIews, SiC,
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Delicious to f hops, Mtenks, PIsli, Poultry, Jtc.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Blends .Admlrnhly with all Gravies.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Agrees with the Most Delicate Persons.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Makes t.'uUI Meal a l.n\ury,
TOBKSHIBE B.EX.ZSK
Possesses a l*leasliig Piquancy.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Every Dish is Improved h,v Its Addition.
YORKSHIRE RELISH
Siultable to the Invalid's enp of Broth.
.mtonlil- he on ever.v filideboard.
YORKSHIRE RELIfiK
Epicures pronoiiiicc it tlie Best MirR||.
YORKSHIRE RELlgH
IVo better Sniiee ran he Made.’llg:^,
YORKSHIRE REL:
A Houseiiolil Word.
YORKSHIRE
Ktio«%n Mil o\ev tlie World.
WarmuteJ pure aud free from any iniurkma iugredieut.
This Cheap and KxcGllenf. Saiu-e mai 'H the plainest viands pal^Ue,
anti tho daiiitiost. dishes most delicious.
The most cultivated culinary couuoi«5iourfj have awarded the pain to
tlio YOIlKSHIllE KKiJSH, ou tho i^'ouDil that neitbor its strength nor
its piguancy is oTorpoweruig, and that its bvigoratlng ]||^-neaiui
imptiirs tho normal flavour of the dishoa to which it is addeti^^ ''
Employed either *‘au naturor’ as a tillip, to chops, 8td4iL.j||Eaind, or
cold ntpats, or used in combination by a skilful cook in coacocu&g K>up«p
ftewB, ragouts, ourries, or gravios for fish and made dishes.
Bold is bottles, 6d , Is., and 2b. each,
rropnred by GOODALL, BACKHOUSE A CO.,
Vordala Barracks,
JiES —Having been for the last four years CiiSII^H||||i(leut of tha
lOliit Fusiliers, I have signed orders for at least 8lHMKtIss of your
Yorkshire Relish, and can bear tostiraony to its bomg the best end
cheapest nance extant,—Yours truly, W.^MKrEN JxRVIS, Capt. lOlSt
Fusiliers, P.0.0.
To Goodall, Backhouse A Co™
GOODALL, BACKPSE & C0„
LEEDS, EliSLAND.
470
THE INDIAN AG5JICU£TTJRIST.
December 1,1888.
ms BRICKS.
FRANCE.
S ANEEGUNCffi EIRE BRICKS as auppUed to Government and
the variolas lUtiiwivs, Iron Works, Coal, Gas, and Steam
i.'&vigatiyn (JompomoB, Vrite—Es. 0 per 100.
Extract iroin Official Eoport of tests nude at H, M's hliait,
Calcutta, by iHSOiionii W. H. Hitohes, Esq., e.g.b., A.a.s.M., Offi¬
ciating Sejputy Superintendout, Geological Survey, India i—
“ i'ke J^re ^rich tfiUd by me were fyntiehed bv the Firm uf
Mesiri, JSVFN * Co, * ' * The materials from which they are made
are, rtry r^fnicuay and castable qf resistiitg high temperature mth-
eut leumbty fusing. * * * Thai compared with Sltmrbridgt Fire
£rihit sut eomewAat superior,"
The apeoimew vm subjected to atemperatuM of over 8,000
d^ fahr., the smelting point of Cast-iron being 2,780 degt.
for the above, and for Banetgunge Salt-glazed Stoneware
and jfmperislukble Drainage Pipes, to
BUBN & CO.,
7, Hastings-street, Calcutta,
or Baneegongo Pottery Works, Raneegnnge,
EJ.R., Bengal.
COmENTAL & COLONIAL AGENCY,
(LIOESSED),
14, BUi: DE (mABBOL, FABIS.
BANSACTS every description of Commission, Merohaut, and
General Agency Bosinoss.
All Indents exeeutsd at Manufacturers' most favourable terms.
Onditieni.—^fwo and-a-haU per oent Commission, when Bankers
Draft on London or Paris aooompanies order. Speetal tenustc
regular correspondents. All Dlioounts oonoeded to purchasers.
Original Invoioea sent when required.
Produce taken charge of and realUed to beat advantage. Cast
advanced on Coneignments,
The Agenoy Represents, Buys, and Sella for Firms.
Paklio SeonriUes, Estates and Properties, bon^ht and sold,
Loans, Mortgages, Mines, andlndnstnal luvratmenta, &o,, nego-
elated,
ManHfnotnrers and Produoere can bars aoltable articles intro-
ducsd to the markets on advautageoai ooudltlons.
Price Lun—coatpreheiuive and reliable—an application,
BAKSEKS.— Pauis: George Waters, Esq., 30, Boulevard dei
Italions. London : The London and CsAinty Banka, 8,
Viutoria-slreot, Westminster.
Address : The Manauer, Ooniinental and Colonial Agency, U, Rne
de Chabrol, Paris, France. 447
ZULULAND AND CETEWAYO.
•< < I know what it is,' be answered; '* this honey U made from
enphorbia flowers, which are very poisonous.' This explanation made
me feel exoeedingly uncomfortable; but I elloited from him that there wsa
not much danger, as the 'maass' taken with it would neutralise the effeot
of the poison. Direotly he mentioned poison I dived into the packs, and
pulled out a bottle of ENG'S FRUIT SALT, and emptying a quantity
into two pannikins, flllcd them up with water, and several times
roneuting the dose, in a few hours we were iionsiderably better,”—
"Zaluland and QeUwayo," (p. 189), by Captain W. B, Ludlow, 1st Bail,
B, P. Boi/al Warwickshire Bmiment.
“ ‘ What on earth shall I take to Zululand ?’ asked my friend Jim
Law one day at Aldershot, when he had just received orders for South
Africa, to start at forty-eight hours’ notice, I renlied, 'If yon take
my advice—aud it’s that of an old tiavoller—you’ll net budge without
a few bottles of KNO, even If you leave half your kit behind. I
nevet' Mt wlthont these Salts, and, nleeee the pigs, never intend to be, ’
On his return I Inquired, ‘ Well, how about ENG’S FHIUIT sALTP
' My deer follow, it was the best advice •yon ever gave; they saved
me many an illness; and when I left Tuegla, 1 sold the remainfng bottles
for ten times the original priue 1 ’ "—Lieut,’Col,
JEOPARDY OF LIFE. THE GREAT DANGER OF DELAY.
Yon oan ebasge the trickling atream, hut not the raging torrent.
can ohi
.'^EVERYBODY SHOULD READ.—How important it is to every Individuol to have at hand some simple, effective, and palat-
? ' We remedy, snoh as END’S FRUIT SALT, to obeok disease at the outset I For this is the time. With very little trouble you
the course of the trickling mountain stream, but not the rolling river. It will defy all your tiny efforts. I feel I oaunot suffl-
'Hjieutly impress this important information upon all Householders, or Ship Captains, or Europeans generally, whp ars visiting or residing in
any hot or foreign climate. Whenever a ehange is oontomplated, likely to disturb the condition of healtn, let ENO’S FRUIT SAL*]; be
your &i1^ian; for, under any oiroumstances, its use is beiieflcial aud never can do harm. When you feel out of sorts, yet unable to say
why ^quwtly without any warning you are suddenly seized with lassitude, dislnoUnation for bodily or mental exertion, loss of appetUie,
slclmii pain hr the forehead, dull aching of back and limbs, coldness of the surface, aud often shivering, &o., Ao, ) then your whole body
is out oi Older, the spirit of danger has been kindled, but you do not know where it may end : it is a real neceseity to have a simple remedy
at'haftOHMlIwill mlswer the very best end, with a positive sAsuranoe of doing good in every case and in no case any harm. The Wlpt can
80 stasi^M^treet as to bring the ship into safety, but he cannot quell the raging storm. Tne common idea when not feeling well
wUiwdfwinee, perhapa I shall bsbetter to-morrow ; ” wbereas,7iad a supply of ENO’S FRUIT SALT been at hand, aud use mads of it
at’the Ol^t, all oklainitous results might have been avoided. What dashes to the earth so many hopes, breaks sc many sweet alliances,
r aospfoiouf enterprises, as untimely death!
7 salt.-” After sufteriug for nearly two and a half years i mHE AST OP CONQUEST IS LOST WITildUT THE AST OF EAT-
IX « hiuulai’.hs and disordered stomach, and after trrinir almost I 1 INQ.—DINNER ENGAGEMENTS.—STIMULANTS.—TOO RICH
«verv^S-«nd spending much money without finding any ben^t, I was FOOD.-LATEHOIIBS.-INSUPPICIENTEXEBCISE.-EXCITEMENT,
recosmmdlitjjFy a £rig^ to try ENO’S FRUIT SALT, and before I had' Ac.—A gentleman writes: “ When I feel out of sorts, I take a dose of
fining cinaw|ji|HB|pnd It doing me a great deal of good, and now I j ENO’S FRUIT SALT one hour before dinner or first thing in the morning,
aih restored to'^HBP^slth; and others 1 knew that have tried it have i The effect la all I could wish." Hew to enjoy good food that would
not' hnioved dHHmd health for years.—Yours most truly, Robt. ' otherwise oatis* biUousueiw, headache, or diserdered stomach—uw END'S
Ftrt^lco, Barrosford, ’ [ FRUIT SALT.
LIFE.—M'Afe new invention is brought before the public, and commands suoeess. A soore of abominable imitatioiu are
immodiAMy k^odnoed by the utuorupulous wire, in copying tbe original closely enough to deceive the public, and yet not so exactly
as to Infringe righ^^xcrctse an ingenuity that, employed in an original channel, could not fail to secure reputation and
righls ar^^teeted in everu civilised country, Meamlne each Battle, and see the capsule is marked “ ENO’S FRUIT '
.SALT," . ^ifhout itflou haoe beenimposedon by worthless imitations. Sold by all Chemists, price ts, 9d, and A>. 6d.
blasts aoj
jgNO’S
!QN8 IN ftXTCBN LANQUAiQES HOW TO PREVENT DiWASE.
471
P^cqmbei* 1,1883. THE INMAN AGRICULTUBIST.
T. E. THOMSON & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MACHIHERy, EHC1NEER8’ AND PLANTERS’ T80LS OF All KINDj
All articles sold at our Establishment are manufactured by first-class Firms, and are of the best
matenal and worhmanshiix
Clayton and Shuttleworth’a Portable Engines,
6, 8, 10 and 12 H.P.
Punching and Shearing Machines.
Improved Saw-sharpening Machines for
Frame and Circular Saws.
Seller’s Bolt and Nut-screwing Machines.
Drilling Machfnes, with Feed Motion and
Rising Table.
Bench Drills for Hand or Power, 15", 20", 25".
Bench Drills for Hand ol* Steam Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, Screw-cutting, and
Surfachig.
Foot Lathes.
Lathe Carriers.
Asbestos Packing.
Circular Saw Benches for 36" and 42" Saws,
and with Pateht Self-acting Drags,
Circular Saw Spindles.
Crab Winches, with and without break, to lift
4, 6, 10, 12, and 15 tons.
Brick, Tile, and Pipe Machines,
Improved Brick-pressing Machines,
Screw Jacks— -Bottle, Tripod, Haley’s Patent,
•^^nd Traversing.
Iron Pulley Blocks for Rope and Chain.
Weston’s Patent Diflferential Pulley Blocks,
Blast Fan, Silent, for 16 and 30 Fires.
Fletcher’s Patent Annular Hot-air Furnace.
A large stock always
Soda-water Machines, to make from 30 to 800
dozens a day.
Soda-water Bottling Machines,
Parallel V ices.
Tube Vices, w’ith and without slide gate.
Boiler Bears.
Duplex Punches.
Indigo Press Screws, with Brass Nuts,
Appold’s Centrifugal Pumps.
Chain Pumps,
Vauxiiall Donkejr Pumps.
Kotary Pumps.
Hand, Lift, and Force Pumps. .
Steam Horse Ploughs, Harrows, anc
Firo and Garden Engines,
Watering Carts.
Water Lifts.
Rice-Shelling Machines,
Flour Mills, for Hand, Cattle, or SteaeSWower.
Flour Dressing Machines.
Chaff-cutting Machines.
Corn Crushers, with fluted Rollers,
Prize Com Crushers, with Smooth
Crushing Oat, Linseed, Malt,
and for Kibbling Beans, Maize,
Caft and Portable Weighing
Domestic ditto ditto, with and withOu^p'S^lits.
Salter’s Spring Balances.
071 hand of best Sf)>effield Files a^id Patent Wogf^^
nges. Nails, Chain, Iron, Steel, Brass, Coiner, Ziiu
Oil, Paints, Varnishes and Turpentine’ ^
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLIC
& oo.
-pr»pKjKB33B^ijA:»’S~ST3asaT, .xoasrx^afr,
KVOiMujuo A»m or
f IA Ct IN E E t 0 F E V E RY D E S C RIP T 10 S
ll^iIrfHilic and teow Presfifla^ Oil ttOB K^iiddoery, Iiifto, Aia
SOLE MAKI®S 5 «)Jt oaEAT fifijTAIN OF ,
lUKi
ACTMfi mAM
lO^wra ^4^ Jtoxft tit
vi& jSn .lAXM
2t^ «M»oii>i(^. 1s»»i
. (MAca.tlioSQd^C^a^I
Bltd dtif''
kbK
' tfu»lF«wg»l4T«(
,<-IIOK TiUll If,MO II JiSL
Uj^iAss Ol'kas aLAKs pukp:—
It te taterohftngwMe b>
It te tBtarohaaffMble b>
j. It -iril} delker 'Wfkl^ ^ •
• ■ tlute*aH#otlitrPttmtl.'
It is made of best ntato*
rials in the most workman*
like manner.
Can be worthed At, 800
strokes per hour, or 80
strokes per minute.